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diff --git a/28413-h/28413-h.htm b/28413-h/28413-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f4f0b3c --- /dev/null +++ b/28413-h/28413-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,23940 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> + <meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> + <title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Student's Companion to Latin Authors, by George Middleton and Thomas R. Mills.</title> + +<style type="text/css" title="text/css"> +/* <![CDATA[ */ + body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } + p {line-height: 1.33em; text-align:justify; } + h2 { margin-top: 2em; text-align: center; } + h3 { margin-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + h4 { text-align: center; } + hr { width: 40%; } + ul { list-style-type: none; } + + .ctr { text-align: center; } + .right { text-align: right; } + .small { font-size: smaller; } + .bcad { font-size: 80%; } + .big { font-size: larger; } + ins.correction { + text-decoration:none; + border-bottom: thin dotted gray; + } + cite.greek { font-style: normal;} + .gap {margin-top: 2em; } + .sc { font-variant: small-caps; } + .notes {background-color: #eeeeee; color: #000; padding-top: .5em; padding-bottom: .5em; + padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 1em; border: 1px solid black; + margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;} +/* ]]> */ +</style> + +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Student's Companion to Latin Authors, by +George Middleton and Thomas R. Mills + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Student's Companion to Latin Authors + +Author: George Middleton + Thomas R. Mills + +Release Date: March 25, 2009 [EBook #28413] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDENT'S COMPANION LATIN AUTHORS *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Stefan Cramme and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<div class="ctr"> +<h1>The Student’s Companion<br /> +to Latin Authors</h1> + +<p class="ctr"> +by +</p> + +<p class="big ctr">GEORGE MIDDLETON, M.A.</p> + +<p class="small ctr"> +LECTURER IN LATIN, ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY; LATE SCHOLAR OF<br /> +EMMANUEL COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE +</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +AND +</p> + +<p class="big ctr">THOMAS R. MILLS, M.A.</p> + +<p class="small ctr"> +LATE LECTURER IN GREEK, ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY, AND CLASSICAL LECTURER,<br /> +OWENS COLLEGE, MANCHESTER; FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF WADHAM COLLEGE, OXFORD +</p> + +<p class="gap ctr"><i>WITH AN INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY</i> +</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +PROF. W. M. RAMSAY, D.C.L., LL.D. +</p> + +<p class="small ctr"> +ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY +</p> + +<p class="gap ctr">London<br /> +Macmillan and Co., Ltd.<br /> +New York: The Macmillan Co.<br /> +1896 +</p> +<p class="small ctr gap"> +<i>All rights reserved</i> +</p> +<p class="small ctr gap"> +GLASGOW: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY<br /> +ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO. +</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="gap" /> + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<p> +The object of this book is to give in a convenient form +all the facts of importance relating to the lives and works +of the principal Latin Authors, with full quotation of original +authorities on all the chief points. It appears to us that +these facts are not at present readily accessible; for the +ordinary histories of literature are compelled to sacrifice +much exact information to the demand for a critical appreciation +of the authors. The latter aspect does not enter +into the plan of this book, which may therefore, with +advantage, be used side by side with any work of the kind +indicated, the two supplementing one another. The authors +have been, as far as possible, illustrated from their own +works. Special attention has been paid to the great writers, +as the book is meant for use in the upper forms of +schools and by students at the Universities. We had collected +a considerable amount of matter upon the minor +authors, most of which it was thought advisable to omit, +so as not to extend the book unduly. An attempt, however, +has been made to retain the most important facts +about these, whenever they illustrated one of the great +authors, or whenever it was thought that they ought +to be in the hands of a student. We have attempted no +treatment of early Latin as seen in inscriptions and the +like, but have started with the first literary author, Livius +Andronicus, and have gone down to Tacitus and the +younger Pliny, dealing with each author by himself. A +section has been added on Suetonius. A sketch of the +chief ancient authorities on Roman writers is given at +the end of the book, as well as a selected list of editions, +which, without being exhaustive, will, we hope, be of service +to the average student. +</p> + +<p> +Apart from our own study of the authors, our principal +authority has, of course, been the <i>History of Roman Literature</i> +by Teuffel and Schwabe (translated by Prof. G. C. W. +Warr), and we have made an extensive use of editions +and monographs both English and foreign, which are +mentioned where necessary. Ennius has been quoted from +Vahlen’s edition, Plautus from the new edition of Ritschl, +the fragments of the tragedians and comedians from Ribbeck, +of Lucilius from L. Müller, and of the minor poets from +Bährens, the minor historians from Peter’s <i>Fragmenta</i>, and +Suetonius’ fragmentary works from Reifferscheid. +</p> + +<p> +Some of our materials were originally prepared for the +Humanity classes in Aberdeen University, and the Latin +Literary Club in connexion with the Honours class. We +have to thank some of our pupils for help and criticism, +particularly Mr. A. Souter, of Gonville and Caius College, +Cambridge, and Mr. A. G. Wright, of St. John’s College, +Cambridge, the latter of whom prepared the materials for +the article on Tibullus, and gave us some useful suggestions. +We are specially indebted to Professor W. M. +Ramsay, without whom the book would not have been +written. Professor Ramsay has read nearly the whole of +the work as it has passed through the press, and has +all along given us invaluable assistance and advice. For +any errors in the following pages we are, of course, solely +responsible. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="sc">Aberdeen</span>, September, 1896. +</p> + +<hr class="gap" /> + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<p> +<span class="sc">Chapter I.—Early Poets and Prose Writers</span>, <a href="#p001">1</a> +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +Livius Andronicus, <a href="#p001">1</a>; Naevius, <a href="#p004">4</a>; Plautus, <a href="#p007">7</a>; Ennius, <a href="#p026">26</a>; +Pacuvius, <a href="#p034">34</a>; Caecilius Statius, <a href="#p037">37</a>; Terence, <a href="#p039">39</a>; Early +Minor Authors, <a href="#p052">52</a>; Cato, <a href="#p053">53</a>; Accius, <a href="#p055">55</a>; Lucilius, <a href="#p058">58</a>; +Atta and Afranius, <a href="#p064">64</a>; Minor Poets after Afranius, <a href="#p065">65</a>; +Authors contemporary with Cicero’s youth, <a href="#p067">67</a>. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<span class="sc">Chapter II.—The Ciceronian Age</span>, <a href="#p069">69</a> +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +Cicero, <a href="#p069">69</a>; Q. Cicero, <a href="#p089">89</a>; Tiro, <a href="#p090">90</a>; Atticus, <a href="#p090">90</a>; Varro, <a href="#p091">91</a>; +Laberius, <a href="#p097">97</a>; Bibaculus, <a href="#p099">99</a>; Caesar and the Corpus Caesarianum, +<a href="#p100">100</a>; Pollio, <a href="#p112">112</a>; Nepos, <a href="#p112">112</a>; Lucretius, <a href="#p119">119</a>; +Sallust, <a href="#p125">125</a>; Catullus, <a href="#p132">132</a>; Contemporary Poets (Cinna, +Calvus, Varro Atacinus, Publilius Syrus, etc.), <a href="#p140">140</a>. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<span class="sc">Chapter III.—The Augustan Age</span>, <a href="#p147">147</a> +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +Virgil, <a href="#p147">147</a>; Horace, <a href="#p163">163</a>; Contemporary Poets, <a href="#p180">180</a>; Tibullus, +<a href="#p185">185</a>; Propertius, <a href="#p191">191</a>; Ovid, <a href="#p200">200</a>; Manilius, <a href="#p213">213</a>; Livy, <a href="#p215">215</a>; +Contemporaries of Livy, <a href="#p223">223</a>; Vitruvius, <a href="#p224">224</a>; Seneca the +Elder, <a href="#p226">226</a>. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<span class="sc">Chapter IV.—Post-Augustan Writers</span>, <a href="#p231">231</a> +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +Velleius Paterculus, <a href="#p231">231</a>; Valerius Maximus, <a href="#p234">234</a>; Celsus, <a href="#p235">235</a>; +Phaedrus, <a href="#p237">237</a>; Seneca the Younger, <a href="#p240">240</a>; Curtius Rufus, +<a href="#p256">256</a>; Columella, <a href="#p258">258</a>; Pomponius Mela, <a href="#p259">259</a>; Persius, <a href="#p260">260</a>; +Lucan, <a href="#p264">264</a>; Petronius, <a href="#p272">272</a>; Calpurnius Siculus, <a href="#p275">275</a>; Aetna +(Lucilius Iunior), <a href="#p277">277</a>; Pliny the Elder, <a href="#p281">281</a>; Valerius +Flaccus, <a href="#p286">286</a>; Silius Italicus, <a href="#p289">289</a>; Statius, <a href="#p291">291</a>; Martial, +<a href="#p295">295</a>; Quintilian, <a href="#p302">302</a>; Frontinus, <a href="#p310">310</a>; Juvenal, <a href="#p312">312</a>; Pliny +the Younger, <a href="#p326">326</a>; Tacitus, <a href="#p336">336</a>; Suetonius, <a href="#p348">348</a>. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<span class="sc">Appendix A.</span>, <a href="#p351">351</a> +</p> + +<p> +<span class="sc">Appendix B.</span>, <a href="#p356">356</a> +</p> + +<p> +<span class="sc">Index of Subjects</span>, <a href="#p368">368</a> +</p> + +<p> +<span class="sc">Index of Titles</span>, <a href="#p378">378</a> +</p> + +<hr class="gap" /> + +<h2>INTRODUCTORY NOTE</h2> + +<p> +The authors ask me to write a word of introduction to +their book; but an introduction is not needed when the +book supplies a want and is trustworthy in what it says. As +to the second point, the text will speak for itself. On the +first, a word may be permitted about my own experience in +lecturing. The young student of Latin Literature requires +help in two ways. In the first place, he needs guidance in +learning to recognize and appreciate the literary merit of +the authors. Mr. Cruttwell’s, and, still better, Mr. Mackail’s +book, will serve his purpose well. They are interesting to +read, and they tempt him on to study for himself. Mr. +Mackail’s book, especially, shows delicate literary feeling, +and a remarkably catholic and true sense of literary merit. +But, secondly, the student wants a clear statement of the +facts, certain or probable, about the life of each author, the +chronology of his works, and their relation to the circumstances +and personages of the time. Neither of the books +which I have named is satisfactory in this respect. Both +of them omit a large number of facts and theories which the +student ought to have before him: Mr. Cruttwell occasionally +even sinks to inaccuracy. +</p> + +<p> +About three years ago I suggested to Mr. Middleton that +he should try to fill up this gap with a book, in which he +should bring together all the information that a student +should have ready to his hand in reading the more familiar +classical authors, that he should keep down the size of his +book by omitting all that the student does not want, and +that he should set before his readers the evidence on which +each fact rests, so that they might be led to form opinions +and judgments of their own. Teuffel-Schwabe’s great work +contains a vast deal that the ordinary student does not +want; and it does not contain a certain amount which will, +I believe, be found in the present book, the materials for +which have been gathered from a wide range of reading. +</p> + +<p> +I am convinced that much can be done to stimulate and +invigorate the young student’s feeling for Latin literature by +helping him to feel for himself how each author’s words +spring from his life, and conversely how facts and circumstances +of his life can be elicited from his words. There +will always remain doubts as to the facts and dates, <i>e.g.</i>, in +Horace’s or in Catullus’ life; but any reasoned theory has +its interest, and is better for the pupil than no theory. The +present book will, as I hope, be found useful as an aid to +that method of teaching and of study, provided that both +teacher and pupil bear in mind that it is a companion to +other books—not a book complete in itself. +</p> + +<p class="right"> +W. M. RAMSAY. +</p> + +<hr class="gap" /> + +<p class="ctr gap"> +COMPANION TO LATIN AUTHORS +</p> + +<hr class="gap" /> + +<h2 id="p001">CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<h2>EARLY POETS AND PROSE WRITERS.</h2> + +<h3>LIVIUS ANDRONICUS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +L. Livius Andronicus, according to the poet Accius, was +taken prisoner at the capture of Tarentum by Q. Fabius +Maximus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 209, and exhibited his first play in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 197. +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 72-3, ‘Accius a Q. Maximo quintum consule +captum Tarenti scripsit Livium annis xxx. postquam eum +fabulam docuisse et Atticus scribit et nos in antiquis +commentariis invenimus: docuisse autem fabulam annis +post xi., C. Cornelio Q. Minucio coss. ludis Iuventatis, +quos Salinator Senensi proelio voverat.’ +</p> + +<p> +But ancient evidence is unanimous that he was the +first literary writer of Rome, and this is confirmed by his +archaic language. Hence the statement of Cicero <i>ibid.</i>, +that Livius produced his first play in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 240, must be +accepted. +</p> + +<p> +‘Atque hic Livius, qui primus fabulam, C. Claudio +Caeci filio et M. Tuditano coss., docuit anno ipso antequam +natus est Ennius; post Romam conditam autem +quarto decimo et quingentesimo ... In quo tantus error +Acci fuit, ut his consulibus xl. annos natus Ennius fuerit: +cui si aequalis fuerit Livius, minor fuit aliquanto is, qui +primus fabulam dedit, quam ei, qui multas docuerant ante +hos consules, et Plautus et Naevius.’ +</p> + +<p id="p002"> +Cf. Cic. <i>Tusc.</i> i. 3, and Gell. xvii. 21, 42. +</p> + +<p> +Probably Accius, finding in his authorities that Livius +was taken prisoner at the capture of Tarentum (<i>i.e.</i> in +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 272), wrongly thought of the second capture by Fabius. +In spite of Cicero’s correction, the error of Accius was, +we may infer, reproduced by Suetonius, and thus penetrated +into Jerome, who says, yr. Abr. 1830 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 187, +‘T. [an error] Livius tragoediarum scriptor clarus habetur, +qui ob ingenii meritum a Livio Salinatore, cuius liberos +erudiebat, libertate donatus est.’ +</p> + +<p> +It is probable that Livius was the slave of C. Livius +Salinator, the father of the victor of Sena (M. Livius +Salinator), and taught the latter; for he must have been +set free before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 240, and the victor of Sena could +hardly have been born earlier than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 258. This connexion +made M. Livius Salinator when consul, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 207, +select Livius Andronicus to prepare a hymn of expiation +to the Aventine Juno, and, probably in the same year, +to compose a hymn of thanksgiving for the success of +Rome in the Hannibalic War. For his services the privileges +of a guild were assigned to writers and actors. +</p> + +<p> +Livy xxvii. 37, ‘Decrevere pontifices ut virgines ter +novenae per urbem euntes carmen canerent ... conditum +ab Livio poeta ... Carmen in Iunonem reginam canentes +ibant illa tempestate forsitan laudabile rudibus ingeniis, +nunc abhorrens et inconditum, si referatur.’ +</p> + +<p> +Fest. p. 333, ‘Cum Livius Andronicus bello Punico secundo +scripsisset carmen quod a virginibus est cantatum, quia +prosperius res publica populi Romani geri coepta est, publice +attributa est ei in Aventino aedis Minervae, in qua +liceret scribis histrionibusque consistere ac dona ponere, +in honorem Livi, quia is et scribebat fabulas et agebat.’ +</p> + +<p id="p003"> +Livius had a twofold reason for writing, (<i>a</i>) To assist +him in his profession as a schoolmaster he published a +translation of the <i>Odyssey</i>; (<i>b</i>) as an actor, he wrote the +plays he acted, and afterwards published them. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 1, ‘Livium et Ennium ... quos utraque +lingua domi forisque docuisse adnotatum est.’ +</p> + +<p> +Livy vii. 2, 8, ‘Livius ... qui ab saturis ausus est primus +argumento fabulam serere, idem scilicet, id quod omnes +tum erant, suorum carminum actor.’ +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. <i>Tragedies.</i>—From the scanty fragments extant and +from the titles (<i>Achilles</i>, <i>Aegisthus</i>, and six others are +known) we see that these were close imitations of Greek +plays. Thus l. 38 (Ribbeck), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quem ego nefrendem alui lacteam immulgens opem,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +is, according to Conington, a rendering of Aesch. <i>Choeph.</i> +883-4, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p class="greek"> +μαστὸν πρὸς ᾧ σὺ πολλὰ δὴ βρίζων ἅμα<br /> +οὔλοισιν ἐξήμελξας εὐτραφὲς γάλα. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +2. <i>Comedies.</i>—Slight fragments of three of these are +extant. +</p> + +<p> +3. A translation of the <i>Odyssey</i> in Saturnians.<a href="#fn001" id="ref001">[1]</a> This, +though rough and incorrect, long remained a school-book. +So Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. I, 69 <i>sqq.</i>, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p004"> +<p> +‘Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi<br /> +esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo<br /> +Orbilium dictare: sed emendata videri<br /> +pulchraque et exactis minimum distantia miror.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +For examples of translation, of. Gell, xviii. 9, 5, +‘Offendi ... librum ... Livi Andronici, qui inscriptus est +Odyssea, in quo erat versus primus ..., +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Virúm mihí Caména | ínsecé versútum,” +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +factus ex illo Homeri versu, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p class="greek"> +Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε, Μοῦσα, πολύτροπον.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Fragments 2 and 3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Meá puer, quid vérbi | éx tuo óre súpera<br /> +fugít?<br /> + neque ením te oblítus | Lértié, sum, nóster,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +represent <i>Od.</i> i. 64, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p class="greek"> +τέκνον ἐμὸν, ποῖόν σε ἔπος φύγεν ἕρκος ὀδόντων;<br /> +πῶς ἂν ἔπειτ’ Ὀδυσῆος ἐγὼ θείοιο λαθοίμην; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<h3>NAEVIUS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +Cn. Naevius’ dates can only be given approximately as +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 269-199. As he served in the First Punic War, +he cannot in any case have been born later than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 257. +He was a Campanian by birth. +</p> + +<p> +Gell. i. 24, 2, ‘Epigramma Naevi plenum superbiae +Campanae, quod testimonium esse iustum potuisset, nisi +ab ipso dictum esset, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Inmortales mortales si foret fas flere,<br /> +flerent divae Camenae Naevium poetam.<br /> +Itaque postquam est Orci traditus thesauro,<br /> +obliti sunt Romae loquier lingua Latina.”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p005"> +Naevius’ first play was produced <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 235; the fact that +he served as a soldier shows that he was not an actor. +</p> + +<p> +Gell. xvii. 21, 45, ‘Eodem anno (<span class="bcad">A.U.C.</span> +<span class="bcad">D</span>xix.) Cn. Naevius +poeta fabulas apud populum dedit, quem M. Varro in +libris de poetis primo stipendia fecisse ait bello Poenico +primo, idque ipsum Naevium dicere in eo carmine, quod +de eodem bello scripsit.’ +</p> + +<p> +In his plays he attacked the senatorial party, particularly +the Metelli, and was imprisoned, but afterwards released. +</p> + +<p> +Gell. iii. 3, 15, ‘Sicuti de Naevio quoque accepimus, +fabulas eum in carcere duas scripsisse, Hariolum et +Leontem, cum ob assiduam maledicentiam et probra in +principes civitatis de Graecorum poetarum more dicta in +vincula Romae a triumviris coniectus esset. Unde post a +tribunis plebis exemptus est, cum in his, quas supra dixi, +fabulis delicta sua et petulantias dictorum, quibus multos +ante laeserat, diluisset.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pseud.-Asconius on Cic. <i>in Verr. act. prior</i>, 29. ‘Dictum +facete et contumeliose in Metellos antiquum Naevii est, +“Fato Metelli Romai fiunt consules,” cui tunc Metellus +consul (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 206) iratus versu responderat ..., “Dabunt +malum Metelli Naevio poetae.”’ +</p> + +<p> +Cf. the contemporary reference in Plaut. <i>Mil.</i> 212, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nam os columnatum poetae esse indaudivi barbaro,<a href="#fn002" id="ref002">[2]</a><br /> +quoi bini custodes semper totis horis occubant.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +For Naevius’ freedom of speech cf. his comedies, l. 113 +(Ribbeck), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Libera lingua loquemur ludis Liberalibus’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p006"> +l. 108 (on Scipio), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Etiam qui res magnas manu saepe gessit gloriose,<br /> + cuius facta viva nunc vigent, qui apud gentes solus praestat,<br /> + eum suus pater cum palliod unod ab amica abduxit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Naevius was banished and went to Utica, where he +died, probably about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 199. It must have been after +peace was concluded (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 202), as otherwise he could have +reached Utica only by deserting to the enemy.<a href="#fn003" id="ref003">[3]</a> Jerome +gives <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 201, Cicero <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 204, although he says Varro +put the date later. The verses on Scipio quoted above +could hardly have been written before the battle of Zama. +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 1816 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 201, ‘Naevius comicus Uticae +moritur, pulsus Roma factione nobilium, ac praecipue +Metelli.’ +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 60, ‘His consulibus (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 204), ut in veteribus +commentariis scriptum est, Naevius est mortuus; quamquam +Varro noster, diligentissimus investigator antiquitatis, +putat in hoc erratum vitamque Naevi producit longius.’ +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. <i>Tragedies</i>.—There are extant seven titles and a very +few fragments. +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Comedies</i>.—There are titles of about thirty-four +<i>palliatae</i>,<a href="#fn004" id="ref004">[4]</a> and upwards of one hundred and thirty lines extant. +</p> + +<p> +Naevius seems to have adopted <i>contaminatio</i><a href="#fn005" id="ref005">[5]</a> in his +plays. Ter. <i>Andr.</i> prol. 15, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p007"> +<p> + ‘Id isti vituperant factum atque in eo disputant<br /> + contaminari non decere fabulas ...<br /> + qui quom hunc accusant, Naevium Plautum Ennium<br /> + accusant.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +3. <i>Praetextae</i>.—Tragedies on Roman subjects, ‘Clastidium’ +and ‘Romulus.’ The <i>praetexta</i> was invented by +Naevius. +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Bellum Punicum</i>, an epic poem in Saturnians, divided +later into seven Books. About seventy-four lines are +extant. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 2, ‘C. Octavius Lampadio Naevii Punicum +bellum, uno volumine et continenti scriptura expositum, +divisit in septem libros.’ +</p> + +<p> +Books i. and ii. contained the mythical origin of Rome +and Carthage, Aeneas’ flight from Troy and his sojourn at +the court of Dido in Carthage. In Book iii. the history +of the First Punic War commenced. The work was imitated +by Ennius and Virgil, sometimes closely by the latter. Cf. +Servius on <i>Aen.</i> i. 198-207, ‘O socii,’ etc. ‘Et totus hic +locus de Naevio belli Punici libro translatus est.’ <i>Ibid.</i> +i. 273, ‘Naevius et Ennius Aeneae ex filia nepotem Romulum +conditorem urbis tradunt.’ +</p> + +<p> +Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> vi. 2, 31, ‘In principio Aeneidos tempestas +describitur et Venus apud Iovem queritur.... Hic +locus totus sumptus a Naevio est ex primo libro belli +Punici.’ +</p> + +<h3>PLAUTUS</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +Plautus’ full name, T. Maccius Plautus, was discovered +by Ritschl in the Ambrosian (Milan) palimpsest, which +gives, <i>e.g.</i> after the two plays named: ‘T. Macci Plauti +Casina explicit’: ‘Macci Plauti Epidicus explicit.’ In +Plaut. <i>Merc.</i> l. 6, the <span class="bcad">MS.</span> reading <i>Mactici</i> was emended by +Ritschl to <i>Macci Titi</i>; and in <i>Asin.</i> prol. l. 11, <i>Maccius</i> is +the right reading. The <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> read <i>Maccus</i>, which Bücheler +(<i>Rhein. Mus.</i> 41, 12) takes to mean ‘buffoon,’ or ‘writer +of comedies,’ from which Plautus took his family name, +Maccius, on becoming a Roman citizen. ‘M. Accius,’ +formerly supposed to be the name, is found in no <span class="bcad">MS.</span>, +but ‘Accius’ is found in <i>Epitome Festi</i>, p. 239, which gives +us the poet’s birthplace, Sarsina in Umbria, and suggests +another derivation for his name: ‘Ploti appellantur, qui +sunt planis pedibus, unde et poeta Accius, quia Umber +Sarsinas erat, a pedum planitie initio Plotus, postea +Plautus est dictus.’ +</p> + +<p id="p008"> +In the corresponding passage of Festus, we have only +‘...us poeta, quia Umber,’ etc. The name of the poet +is lost, and the epitomizer has doubtless made a mistake. +</p> + +<p> +Sarsina is mentioned once by Plautus, <i>Mostell.</i> 770, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Quid? Sarsinatis ecquast, si Umbram non habes?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The year of his birth can only be conjectured; he +died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 184. +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 60, ‘Plautus P. Claudio L. Porcio coss. +mortuus est.’ +</p> + +<p> +Jerome erroneously assigns Plautus’ death to yr. Abr. +1817 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 200, ‘Plautus ex Umbria Sarsinas Romae +moritur, qui propter annonae difficultatem ad molas manuarias +pistori se locaverat; ibi quotiens ab opere vacaret, +scribere fabulas et vendere sollicitius consueverat.’ +</p> + +<p> +From this notice, and from the passage of Gellius below, +we learn that Plautus lost in foreign trade the money he +had made as an assistant to scenic artists, and had to +work for his living in a flour mill at Rome, during +which time he wrote plays, and continued to do so +afterwards. +</p> + +<p> +Gell. iii. 3, 14, ‘Saturionem et Addictum et tertiam +quamdam, cuius nunc mihi nomen non subpetit, in pistrino +eum scripsisse, Varro et plerique alii memoriae tradiderunt +cum, pecunia omni, quam in operis artificum scaenicorum +pepererat, in mercatibus perdita inops Romam redisset et +ob quaerendum victum ad circumagendas molas, quae +“trusatiles” appellantur, operam pistori locasset.’ +</p> + +<p id="p009"> +We conclude from these varied employments that +Plautus can hardly have been less than thirty years old +when he began to write plays. His intimacy with the +Scipios (Cic. <i>de Rep.</i> iv., apud Augustin. <i>Civ. D.</i> ii. 9), who +fell in Spain <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 212, leads to the conclusion that he must +have been well established as an author by that date, +though none of his plays can be proved to have been +written so early. If we suppose that his career as a +playwright commenced at thirty, and that his acquaintance +with the Scipios lasted ten years, the year of his birth +must have been about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 254. This view is supported +(1) by the notice in Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 73, that Plautus had +produced many plays by <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 197; (2) by Cic. <i>Cato maior</i>, +50, ‘quam gaudebat ... Truculento Plautus, quam Pseudolo,’ +where Plautus is said to have written these plays as <i>senex</i>. +Now the <i>Pseudolus</i> was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 191; and therefore, as +a man could not be called <i>senex</i> till he was at least sixty, +his birth must have been not later than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 251. +</p> + +<p> +Plautus is said to have written his own epitaph. +</p> + +<p> +Gell. i. 24, 3, ‘Epigramma Plauti, quod dubitassemus +an Plauti foret, nisi a M. Varrone positum esset in libro +de poetis primo: +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, Comoedia luget,<br /> +Scaena est deserta, ac dein Risus, Ludus Iocusque,<br /> +et Numeri innumeri simul omnes conlacrimarunt.”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<h4 id="p010">(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +Plautus’ plays were early criticized as to their genuineness. +Gell. iii. 3, 1-3, after mentioning the canons of Aelius Stilo, +Sedigitus, etc., says that Varro admitted twenty-one plays +which were given by all the canons, and added some more. +‘Nam praeter illas unam et viginti, quae Varronianae +vocantur, quas idcirco a ceteris segregavit, quoniam dubiosae +non erant, set consensu omnium Plauti esse censebantur, +quasdam item alias probavit adductus filo atque facetia +sermonis Plauto congruentis easque iam nominibus aliorum +occupatas Plauto vindicavit.’ +</p> + +<p> +About one hundred and thirty plays were current under +the name of Plautus; the theory of Varro (Gell. iii. 3, 10) +that these were written by a certain Plautius is improbable. +</p> + +<p> +Gell. iii. 3, 11, ‘Feruntur sub Plauti nomine comoediae +circiter centum atque triginta.’ +</p> + +<p> +There is little doubt that the ‘fabulae Varronianae’ are +those which have come down to us with the addition of +the <i>Vidularia</i>, which was lost between the sixth and the +eleventh centuries. The number of Varro’s second class, +consisting of those pieces that stood in most of the indices +and exhibited Plautine features, Ritschl has fixed at nineteen, +from citations in Varro <i>de lingua Latina</i>. Besides +the genuine plays the names of thirty-two others are known. +</p> + +<p> +The extant plays<a href="#fn006" id="ref006">[6]</a> are as follows: +</p> + +<p> +1. <i>Amphitruo</i>, a <i>tragicomoedia</i>, the only play of Plautus +of the kind. Prol. 59, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Faciam ut conmixta sit haec tragicomoedia.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p011"> +The original and the date are unknown. The play shows +the features of the Sicilian <i>Rhinthonica</i>.<a href="#fn007" id="ref007">[7]</a> About three +hundred lines have been lost after Act. iv., Scene 2. +The scene is Thebes, which, with Roman carelessness or +ignorance, is made a harbour; cf. ll. 629 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Asinaria</i> (sc. <i>fabula</i>), from the <cite class="greek">᾽Οναγός</cite> of Demophilus, +supposed to have been a writer of the New Comedy. +Prol. 10-12, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Huic nomen Graece Onagost fabulae;<br /> +Demophilus scripsit, Maccius vortit barbare.<br /> +Asinariam volt esse, si per vos licet.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Authorities assign the play to about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 194. The scene +is Athens. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Aulularia</i> (from <i>aulula</i>, ‘a little pot.’)—Neither the +original nor the exact time of composition is known. From +Megadorus’ tirade against the luxury of women, ll. 478 +<i>sqq.</i>, it has been inferred that the play was written after the +repeal of the Oppian Law in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 195. The end of the +play is lost. The scene is Athens. +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Captivi</i>, a piece without active interest (<i>stataria</i>), +without female characters, and claiming a moral purpose; +l. 1029, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Spectatores, ad pudicos mores facta haec fabulast.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Some authorities think that the parasite (Ergasilus) is an +addition to the original play, which may have belonged to +the New Comedy. The scene is in Aetolia. +</p> + +<p> +5. <i>Curculio</i>, so called from the name of the parasite. +The Greek original is unknown; but ll. 462-86 contain a +speech from the Choragus, in the style of the <span class="greek">παράβασις</span> +of the Old Comedy. In l. 509, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p012"> +<p> +‘Rogitationes plurumas propter vos populus scivit<br /> +quas vos rogatas rumpitis,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +there is probably an allusion to the Lex Sempronia de +pecunia credita, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 193. The scene is Epidaurus. +</p> + +<p> +6. <i>Casina</i>, so called from a slave-girl introduced. The +original was the <cite class="greek">Κληρούμενοι</cite> of Diphilus. Prol. 31, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Clerumenoe vocatur haec comoedia<br /> +Graece, Latine Sortientes. Deiphilus<br /> +hanc Graece scripsit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The inference from l. 979, ‘Nam ecastor nunc Bacchae +nullae ludunt,’ that the play was written after the S.C. de +Bacchanalibus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 186, is improbable; the words rather +show, as Mommsen<a href="#fn008" id="ref008">[8]</a> believes, an anterior date, when it +was not yet dangerous to speak of the Bacchanalia. Some +authorities find support for the latter date in the words +of the prologue, ll. 9-20 (written after the poet’s death). +The text of the play has suffered greatly. The scene is +Athens. +</p> + +<p> +7. <i>Cistellaria</i>.—This play contains a reference to the +war against Hannibal then going on; ll. 197 <i>sqq.</i>, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Bene valete, et vincite<br /> +virtute vera, quod fecistis antidhac, ...<br /> +ut vobis victi Poeni poenas sufferant.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +According to Ritschl, about 600 verses have been lost. +The scene is Sicyon. +</p> + +<p> +8. <i>Epidicus</i>.—This play is referred to in the <i>Bacchides</i>, +ll. 213-5 (spoken by Chrysalus), where the unpopularity of +the play is attributed to the acting of Pellio. +</p> + +<blockquote id="p013"> +<p> +‘Non res, sed actor mihi cor odio sauciat.<br /> +Etiam Epidicum, quam ego fabulam aeque ac me ipsum amo,<br /> +nullam aeque invitus specto, si agit Pellio.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Epid.</i> 222, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sed vestita, aurata, ornata ut lepide! ut concinne! ut nove!’ etc., +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +shows that the piece was written after the repeal of the +Lex Oppia Sumptuaria, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 195. The plot is complicated, +and <i>contaminatio</i> is assumed by some authorities. The +play contains only seven hundred and thirty-three lines, +and some believe it to be a stage edition. The scene is +Athens. +</p> + +<p> +9. <i>Bacchides</i>.—The first part of this play, along with the +last part of the <i>Aulularia</i>,<a href="#fn009" id="ref009">[9]</a> has been lost, as also the prefaces +of the grammarians, so that we do not know what was in +the first part. The original was probably Menander’s <cite class="greek">Δὶς ἐξαπατῶν</cite>. +Plautus appears to refer to this twice, l. 1090, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Perii: pudet. Hocine me aetatis <i>ludos bis factum</i> esse indigne’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +l. 1128, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Pol hodie altera iam <i>bis detonsa</i> certost.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The line, <span class="greek">ὃν οἱ θεοὶ φιλοῦσιν, ἀποθνῄσκει νέος</span>, which belongs +to the same play (Stobaeus, <i>Serm</i>. 120, 8) is translated in +ll. 816-7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘quem di diligunt<br /> +adulescens moritur.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The date is pretty well fixed by l. 1073, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quod non triumpho: pervolgatumst, nil moror.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p014"> +Now, triumphs were not frequent till after the Second Punic +War, and were especially frequent from <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 197 to 187. +The play probably refers to the four triumphs of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 189, +and may have been brought out in that or the following +year. The scene is Athens. +</p> + +<p> +10. <i>Mostellaria</i> (sc. <i>fabula</i>, ‘a play dealing with a ghost,’ +from <i>mostellum</i>, dim. of <i>monstrum</i>).—The play is quoted by +Festus, p. 166, as ‘Mostellaria’; pp. 162 and 305, as +‘Phasma.’ According to Ritschl, the <cite class="greek">Φάσμα</cite> of Philemon +was Plautus’ model. The reference to <i>unguenta exotica</i> +(l. 42) points to a late date, when Asiatic luxury was +growing common. The play is imitated in Ben Jonson’s +<i>Alchemist</i>. The scene is Athens. +</p> + +<p> +11. <i>Menaechmi</i>.—If ll. 409 <i>sqq.</i>, ‘Syracusis ... ubi rex ... +nunc Hierost,’ were written independently by Plautus, the +date must be before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 215; but the reference may only +mean that the Greek original was composed between 275 +and 215 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> It has been conjectured that a comedy by +Posidippus (possibly called <cite class="greek">Δίδυμοι</cite>) was the original, from +Athenaeus, xiv. p. 658, <span class="greek">οὐδὲ γὰρ ἂν εὕροι τις ὑμῶν δοῦλόν τινα +μάγειρον ἐν κωμῳδίᾳ πλὴν παρὰ Ποσειδίππῳ μόνῳ</span>. Now, the +<i>Menaechmi</i> is the only play of Plautus where a cook is a +house-slave, Cylindrus being the slave of Erotium; in his +other plays cooks are hired from the Forum. The scene +is Epidamnus. +</p> + +<p> +12. <i>Miles Gloriosus</i>.—In ll. 211-2 (the only personal +allusion in Plautus), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nam os columnatum poetae esse indaudivi barbaro,<br /> +quoi bini custodes semper totis horis occubant,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +we have a reference to the imprisonment of Naevius, which +shows that the play was written before his banishment, +probably <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 206-5 (<a href="#p005">see under ‘Naevius’</a>). Line 1016, +‘Cedo signum, si harum Baccharum es,’ shows that the +play is anterior to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 186. +</p> + +<p id="p015"> +The original is the <cite class="greek">Ἀλαζών</cite> of some Greek poet. Cf. +ll. 86-7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Alazon Graece huic nomen est comoediae:<br /> +id nos Latine gloriosum dicimus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The play, however, exhibits <i>contaminatio</i>. Two distinct +actions, the cheating of Sceledrus (Act i.) and the cheating +of the Miles (Acts ii. and iii.), are united rather loosely; +and it has been conjectured that Menander’s <cite class="greek">Κόλαξ</cite>, or +(according to Ritschl) Diphilus’ <cite class="greek">Αἱρησιτείχης</cite>, was the play +used. Ritschl’s view is perhaps supported by the word +<i>urbicape</i> in l. 1055. The play is the longest <i>palliata</i> preserved. +The scene is Ephesus. +</p> + +<p> +13. <i>Mercator</i>.—The original is Philemon’s <cite class="greek">Ἔμπορος</cite>; +ll. 5-6, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Graece haec vocatur Emporos Philemonis;<br /> +eadem Latine Mercator Macci Titi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Some light is thrown on the date by ll. 524-6. +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘<i>L.</i> Ovem tibi eccillam dabo, natam annos sexaginta,<br /> +peculiarem. <i>P.</i> Mei senex, tam vetulam? <i>L.</i> Generis Graeci est.<br /> +Eam sei curabeis, perbonast; tondetur nimium scite.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +This could not have been written before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 196, the date +of the settlement of Greece. The play shows traces of +two distinct editions. The scene is Athens. +</p> + +<p> +14. <i>Pseudolus</i>.—The Greek original is unknown. The +date of production (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 191) is got from the didascalia, +as restored by Ritschl, ‘M. Iunio M. fil. pr. urb. acta +Megalesiis.’ The Megalesian games were held in that +year in honour of the dedication of the temple which +had been vowed to Cybele, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 204 (Livy, xxxvi. 36). +‘Pseudolus’ = <cite class="greek">Ψευδύλος</cite>, but is connected by popular etymology +with <i>dolus</i>. Cf. the puns in l. 1205, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p016"> +<p> +‘Edepol hominem verberonem Pseudolum, ut docte dolum<br /> +commentust’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +l. 1244, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Superavit dolum Troianum atque Ulixem Pseudolus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Several references to the play are found in Cicero: <i>Cato +Maior</i>, 50 (quoted <a href="#p009">p. 9</a>); <i>Phil.</i> ii. 15; <i>pro Rosc. Com.</i> +20. The scene is Athens. +</p> + +<p> +15. <i>Poenulus</i>.—The original was a Greek play, <cite class="greek">Καρχηδόνιος</cite>, +the author of which is unknown, as the fragments of Menander’s +<cite class="greek">Καρχηδόνιος</cite> do not fit in with Plautus’ play. The +play was called by Plautus ‘Patruus,’ but posterity went +back to the older name ‘Poenulus.’ Prol. 53, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Carchedonius vocatur haec comoedia<br /> +Graece, Latine Patruus Pultiphagonidae.’<a href="#fn010" id="ref010">[10]</a> +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Authorities assign the play to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 189. The play is considerably +interpolated, one ending being at l. 1371, another +at l. 1422, whence some authorities have considered ll. 1372-1422 as spurious. Ritschl thinks that the two endings are +about the same age, and compares the double ending of +the <i>Andria</i> of Terence. The play is noted for the two +Carthaginian renderings of the soliloquy of Hanno, ll. 930-9, +and ll. 940-9. The scene is Calydon in Aetolia. +</p> + +<p> +16. <i>Persa</i>.—This play, the original of which is unknown, +has been variously assigned to 197 and 186 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> The play +shows traces of two distinct editions. The scene is Athens. +</p> + +<p> +17. <i>Rudens</i>.—This play has been assigned to about +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 192. The original is by Diphilus; and the scene is +Cyrene. Prol., 1. 32, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p017"> +<p> +‘Primumdum huic esse nomen urbi Diphilus<br /> +Cyrenas voluit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +18. <i>Stichus</i>, performed <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 200 <i>ludis plebeis</i>, as we learn +from the didascalia, ‘Graeca Adelphoe Menandru acta +ludis plebeis Cn. Baebio C. Terentio aed. pl. ... C. Sulpicio +C. Aurelio coss.’ This cannot be the <i>Adelphi</i> imitated by +Terence, the fragments of which do not bear the least +resemblance to the <i>Stichus</i>. It may be a second <i>Adelphi</i> +by Menander. Others read ‘Philadelphoe’ in the above +didascalia. Part of the play has been lost, and it shows +traces of two distinct editions. The scene is Athens. +</p> + +<p> +19. <i>Trinummus</i>.—The original was Philemon’s <cite class="greek">Θησαυρός</cite>, +as seen from the didascalia, ‘Graeca Thensaurus Philemonis +acta ludis Megalensibus.’ Some indication of the date is +got from l. 990, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Vapulabis meo arbitratud et novorum aedilium.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The only festival that would suit the term <i>novi aediles</i> is +the <i>ludi Megalenses</i><a href="#fn011" id="ref011">[11]</a> as from <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 266 to 153 the new +magistrates entered on office on the Ides of March. This +festival was not of a scenic character till <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 194, consequently +the <i>Trinummus</i> must be after that date. The +mention of Syrian slaves in l. 542 also makes it probable +that this is one of the latest works of Plautus. The scene +is Athens. +</p> + +<p> +20. <i>Truculentus</i>.—The original is unknown. The play +was written in Plautus’ old age, probably about +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 189. The text has suffered greatly. The scene is +Athens. +</p> + +<p id="p018"> +21. <i>Vidularia</i>.—Only fragments are extant. It is thought +to have been modelled on a play called <cite class="greek">Σχεδία</cite> by Menander. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Argumenta.</i>—These are in <i>senarii</i>, and give a summary +of each play. Two sets are found. The first set are +acrostic, and are extant for all the plays except the <i>Vidularia</i> +and the <i>Bacchides</i>. The second series was probably +written by Sulpicius Apollinaris in the second century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +There are only five of them extant in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, and +fragments of other two. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Prologues.</i>—These (which were usual in the Old and the +New Comedy) gave the name of the piece and the author, +the original and its author, the scene of the play, and a +partial list of characters. In the Prologue also the poet +often asked the favour of the audience. Prologues to +fourteen plays are extant. The part of the prologue Plautus +(like the New Comedy) assigned either to a god, as in +the <i>Rudens</i> to Arcturus, or to one of the characters, as +in the <i>Mercator</i> to a youth (cf. <i>Mil.</i> and <i>Amph.</i>), or to +an actor addressing the audience in the name of the poet, +as in the <i>Truculentus</i>. All the prologues have suffered +from interpolation, but those of <i>Amph.</i>, <i>Merc.</i>, <i>Rud.</i>, and +<i>Trin.</i>, and the second parts of those of <i>Mil.</i> and <i>Aul.</i>, +are founded on what Plautus wrote. The prologues in +<i>Cas.</i>, <i>Poen.</i>, and <i>Capt.</i>, are due to later hands. That the +prologues are interpolated is shown by their diction; the +wit is often poor, and the language un-Plautine, or imitated +closely from Plautus’ genuine works. The prologues in +their present form probably date from a period shortly +after that in which Terence flourished, when there was a +want of new plays, and people went back to Plautus. +This is shown by the references to fixed seats for the +spectators (<i>Poen.</i> 15, <i>Amph.</i> 65, and <i>Capt.</i> 11), which were +forbidden by a S.C. passed in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 154, when Cassius +Longinus began to build a theatre of stone—a law that +was not repealed till some years later. Cf. <i>Capt.</i> 11, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p019"> +<p> +‘Negat hercle ille ultimis accensus. Cedito:<br /> +si non ubi sedeas locus est, est ubi ambules.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>The Acts.</i>—The plays of Plautus probably went on with +few breaks, during which the audience were entertained +with music. Cf. <i>Pseud.</i> 573, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Tibicen vos interea hic delectaverit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Diverbium and Canticum.</i>—There was no chorus in +Roman comedy, but part of the play was set to music and +sung to the flute. Some <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> denote this by C (Canticum); +while DV (usually placed only over iambic senarii) denotes +dialogue or soliloquy (Diverbium). Iambic senarii were +spoken; other metres were sung; but the scenes in septenarii +stood midway between the dialogue and the <i>canticum</i>. +Only about a fourth of Plautus’ verses are in iambic +senarii, while in Terence, who followed Menander in this +respect, about half of the verses are in this form. +</p> + +<p> +<i>The Characters.</i>—These, with the occasional exception of +slaves, are un-Roman, and exhibit Greek traits belonging +to Athens of the time of the New Comedy. Plautus, +unlike Terence, usually alters the names used in the +original Greek plays, and substitutes ‘tell-tale names’; so +Parmeno (<span class="greek">παραμένων</span>), ‘the faithful slave’; Polemo, ‘the +soldier’; Misargyrides, playfully for the <i>tarpessita</i> (banker). +The names are often of Latin derivation; thus Saturio, in +<i>Pers.</i>; Peniculus, in <i>Menaech.</i>; Curculio, in <i>Curc.</i> +</p> + +<p id="p020"> +<i>The Language of Plautus</i>, in spite of the Greek dress +his plays assume, represents essentially the conversational +language of his time. Many Greek features in language +are, however, retained. For words kept in the original +Greek cf. <span class="greek">παῦσαι</span>, <span class="greek">οἴχεται</span>, <span class="greek">εὖγε</span>, <span class="greek">πάλιν</span>, <span class="greek">ἐπιθήκην</span> (all in the +<i>Trin.</i>); for Greek words Latinized cf. <i>gynaeceum</i>, <i>parasitus</i>, +<i>opsonium</i>, <i>dapsilis</i> (= <span class="greek">δαψιλής</span>); for hybrid new formations +based on Greek cf. <i>thensaurarius</i>, <i>plagipatidae</i>, <i>opsonari</i>, +<i>pultiphagus</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<i>References to manners and customs.</i>—(<i>a</i>) Many references +to Greek life are retained from the original, especially in +matters relating to dress, art, and money (Plautus has no +reference to Roman money). Such are <i>chlamys</i>, <i>petasus</i>, +<i>pallium</i>, <i>cyathus</i>, <i>cantharus</i>, <i>thermopolium</i>, <i>cerussa</i>, <i>melinum</i> +(<i>pigmentum</i>), <i>gynaeceum</i>, <i>balineae</i>, <i>ambulacrum</i>, <i>porticus</i>, +<i>fores Samiae</i> (<i>Menaech.</i> 178), <i>nummus</i> (= drachma or +didrachma), <i>nummi Philippei</i>, <i>mina</i>, <i>tarpessita</i>, <i>symbolus</i>, +<i>epistula</i>. Cf. also <i>Pseud.</i> 146-7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ut ne peristromata quidem aeque picta sint Campanica,<br /> +neque Alexandrina beluata tonsilia tappetia.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) There are, however, innumerable references to Roman +public life and manners and customs, even in passages +manifestly close to the original, although references to +public events are rare. +</p> + +<p> +1. <i>Military expressions.</i>—These, many of which are +used metaphorically, were well adapted for an audience +most of whom had seen service. The following are from +the <i>Miles</i>: <i>legiones</i>, <i>imperator</i>, <i>peditastelli</i>, <i>rogare</i>, <i>latrocinari</i>, +<i>stipendium</i>, <i>conscribere</i>, <i>contubernales</i>, <i>eques</i>, <i>pedes</i>, <i>machinas +parare</i>. Cf. also <i>Pseud.</i> 148, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Dederamque suas provincias’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p021"> +<i>Pseud.</i> 572, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Dum concenturio in corde sycophantias’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Bacch.</i> 709, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘De ducentis nummis primum intendam ballistam in senem:<br /> +ea ballista si pervortam turrim et propugnacula,<br /> +recta porta invadam extemplo in oppidum antiquom et vetus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +All references, however, to the enrolment of mercenaries +(<i>latrones</i>) are probably Greek and belong to the original +play. +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Political expressions.</i>—(<i>a</i>) Names of officials, etc. +So <i>tresviri</i>, <i>quaestor</i>, <i>aedilis</i>, <i>praetor</i>, <i>senatus</i>. Cf. <i>Trin.</i> 879, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Census quom sum iuratori recte rationem dedi’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Pseud.</i> 1232, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Centuriata habuit capitis comitia.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) Law. So <i>advocatus</i> (<i>Mil.</i> 663), <i>festuca</i> (<i>Mil.</i> 961), +<i>lege agito</i> (<i>Mil.</i> 453). Cf. <i>Menaech.</i> 571-95 (on patrons +and clients); <i>Trin.</i> 500-4, where Roman terms of <i>stipulatio</i> +are used. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Festivals and localities.</i>—References to these are rarer. +Examples are: <i>Mil.</i> 691, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Da, mi vir, Calendis meam qui matrem moenerem’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Trin.</i> 545, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Campans genus’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Trin.</i> 609, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Tam modo, inquit Praenestinus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Mil.</i> 359, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Credo ego istoc exemplo tibi esse pereundum extra portam’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +a reference to the Esquiline gate, outside which slaves +were executed. +</p> + +<p id="p022"> +4. <i>Private life.</i>—These references are mostly to the +lower classes, especially slaves, with whom Plautus was +very familiar. Hence words referring to household duties, +as <i>promus</i>, <i>suppromus</i>, <i>cella</i>, <i>cellarius</i>, <i>verna</i>, <i>pulmentum</i> +(from <i>Mil.</i>) To their patois also belong phrases for +cheating, like <i>emungere</i>, <i>intervortere</i>, <i>sarcinam imponere</i>, +<i>ducere</i>, <i>ductare</i>, <i>circumducere</i>, and the very large number of +words relating to punishment, as: <i>furcifer</i>, <i>verbero</i>, <i>supplicium +virgarum</i>, <i>varius virgis</i>, <i>talos frangere</i>, <i>crux</i>, <i>verberea +statua</i> (<i>Pseud.</i> 911); <i>gymnasium flagri</i> (<i>Asin.</i> 297). Cf. also +<i>Epid.</i> 17, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quid ais? perpetuen valuisti?—Varie.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +From slave life come also terms of abuse like <i>volturius</i>, +<i>scelus</i>, <i>odium populi</i>, <i>mers mala</i>, <i>lapis</i>, <i>saxum</i>. Note that +cruelty in the treatment of slaves is peculiarly Roman; +but their familiarity with their masters and their general +situation are from Greek life. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Prosody.</i><a href="#fn012" id="ref012">[12]</a>—Plautine prosody, which reflected the variation +of quantity found in the popular speech, was not properly +understood even in Cicero’s time. +</p> + +<p> +Cf. Cic. <i>Or.</i> 184, ‘Comicorum senarii propter similitudinem +sermonis sic saepe sunt abiecti ut non numquam +vix in eis numerus et versus intellegi possit.’ +</p> + +<p> +The chief points are as follows: +</p> + +<p> +1. Final -s is often lost. <i>Rud.</i> 103, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Patér, salveto, ambóque adeo. Et tu sálvŏs sis’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Most.</i> 1124, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quóque modo dominum ádvenientem sérvos ludificátŭs sit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p023"> +2. A mute followed by a liquid does not make the preceding +vowel long. Thus <i>agris</i>, <i>libros</i>, <i>duplex</i>, are iambi. +</p> + +<p> +3. Iambic words may become pyrrhics, on account of +the stress accent on the first syllable. So <i>dŏmī</i> and <i>căvē</i> +have the last syllable short.<a href="#fn013" id="ref013">[13]</a> <i>Trin.</i> 868, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Fórĭs pultabo. Ad nóstras aedis híc quidem habet rectám viam’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Stich.</i> 99, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Bónăs ut aequomst fácere facitis, quóm tamen absentís viros.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +4. The stress accent sometimes causes final syllables to +be dropped, and so to have no effect on quantity, as in +<i>enim</i>, <i>apud</i>, <i>quidem</i>, <i>parum</i>, <i>soror</i>, <i>caput</i>, <i>amant</i>, <i>habent</i>, +etc. <i>Trin.</i> 77, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Qui in méntem venĭt tibi ístaec dicta dícere?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Stich.</i> 18 (anapaestic), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Haec rés vitae me, sórŏr, saturant.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +No shortening, however, takes place when the accent goes +back to the antepenult (cf. <i>continē</i>), nor in words like <i>aetas</i>, +<i>mores</i>, where the first syllable is long, nor even in <i>abi</i>, <i>tene</i>, +<i>tace</i>, and the like, when the chief accent is weakened, +i.e., where these words are pronounced slowly and emphatically +(especially before a pause). <i>Asin.</i> 543, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Intro abī: nam té quidem edepol níhil est inpudéntius.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +5. This influence of the chief accent affects also combinations +of two monosyllabic words which make an iambus, +and combinations like <i>ego illi</i>, <i>age ergo</i>, in which the second +syllable of the second word is elided. <i>Trin.</i> 354, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Is ĕst inmunis, quoí nihil est qui múnus fungatúr suom’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p024"> +<i>Trin.</i> 133, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Non égo ĭlli argentum rédderem? Non rédderes’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Stich.</i> 237, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Adíbo ad hominem. Quís haĕc est quae advorsúm venit?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +6. The chief accent could also affect a preceding syllable. +In polysyllables or polysyllabic combinations, when the +chief accent was on the third syllable, the second syllable, +if long, could be shortened, provided the first syllable were +short. <i>Trin.</i> 456, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ferĕntárium esse amícum inventum intéllego’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Stich.</i> 59, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Néc volŭntate id fácere meminit,’ etc.; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Stich.</i> 179, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Per ănnónam caram díxit me natúm pater.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +7. The following common words have to be separately +considered, <i>ille</i>, <i>iste</i>, <i>unde</i>, <i>inde</i>, <i>nempe</i>. In the last three +the liquid was practically dropped; <i>iste</i> was pronounced +as <i>ste</i>; and in <i>ille</i> only one <i>l</i> was heard, cf. <i>ellum</i>, <i>ellam</i> +(<i>en-illum</i> = <i>en-ilum</i> = <i>en-lum</i> = <i>ellum</i>). <i>Frustra</i> is a trochee, +as in <i>Menaech.</i> 692 (at the end of a line), <i>frústră sis</i>; and +the first <i>i</i> of <i>fieri</i> is long. Cf. <i>Trin.</i> 532, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +’Si in ópserendo possint interfīeri.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +8. An original long vowel is sometimes kept when later +authors have it short. Examples are, <i>es</i> (from <i>esse</i>), final +<i>-or</i>, as <i>exertitor</i>, <i>fateor</i>, <i>ecastor</i>; verbal endings, as <i>eris</i>, +<i>eget</i>, <i>sit</i>, <i>det</i>, <i>fuat</i>, <i>velit</i>. +</p> + +<p> +9. <i>Synizesis.</i> <i>Deus</i>, <i>meus</i>, <i>tuos</i>, <i>suos</i> (nom.), <i>eius</i>, <i>ei</i>, <i>eum</i>, +<i>quoius</i>, <i>quoi</i>, <i>huius</i>, <i>huic</i>, <i>rei</i>, etc., may be monosyllables; +<i>deorum</i>, <i>meorum</i>, <i>duorum</i>, <i>fuisti</i>, etc., may be dissyllables; +<i>diutius</i>, <i>exeundum</i>, etc., may be trisyllables. Other examples +are <i>proin</i>, <i>proinde</i>, <i>praeoptare</i>, <i>dehortor</i>, <i>aibam</i>, <i>quator</i>. +</p> + +<p id="p025"> +10. <i>Hiatus.</i> This occurs, though not frequently, (<i>a</i>) at +the natural division of the metre. <i>Menaech.</i> 219, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Spórtulam cape átque argentum. | éccos treis nummós habes.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) At the natural break in the sense, especially with +change of speakers. <i>Trin.</i> 432, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +<i>PH.</i> ‘Tempúst adeundi.’ <i>LE.</i> ‘Éstne hic Philto qui ádvenit?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The hiatus is commonest in monosyllabic words, or words +ending in a short syllable followed by <i>m</i>, making the first +syllable of an arsis resolved into two shorts. <i>Trin.</i> 433, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Is hérclest ipsus. Édepol <i>ne ego</i> istúm velim’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Trin.</i> 305, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quí homo cum animo inde áb ineunte aetáte depugnát suo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Views on Plautus.</i>—For Cicero’s high opinion of Plautus +cf. <i>de Off.</i> i. 104, ‘Duplex omnino est iocandi genus: unum +inliberale petulans, flagitiosum obscaenum, alterum elegans +urbanum, ingeniosum facetum. Quo genere non modo +Plautus noster et Atticorum antiqua comoedia, sed etiam +philosophorum Socraticorum libri referti sunt.’ +</p> + +<p> +Horace’s unfavourable judgment is well known. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> ii, 1, 170, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Adspice Plautus<br /> +quo pacto partis tutetur amantis ephebi,<br /> +ut patris attenti, lenonis ut insidiosi,<br /> +quantus sit Dossenus edacibus in parasitis,<br /> +quam non adstricto percurrat pulpita socco.<br /> +Gestit enim nummum in loculos demittere, post hoc<br /> +securus cadat an recto stet fabula talo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. <i>A.P.</i> 270-4. Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 99, ‘In comoedia +maxime claudicamus, licet Varro Musas, Aelii Stilonis +sententia, Plautino dicat sermone locuturas fuisse, si Latine +loqui vellent.’ +</p> + +<h3 id="p026">ENNIUS.<a href="#fn014" id="ref014">[14]</a></h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +Q. Ennius was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 239 at Rudiae in Calabria +(about nineteen miles south of Brundisium). +</p> + +<p> +Gell. xvii. 21, 43, ‘Consoles secuntur Q. Valerius et +C. Mamilius, quibus natum esse Q. Ennium poetam M. +Varro in primo de poetis libro scripsit eumque, cum septimum +et sexagesimum annum haberet, duodecimum annalem +scripsisse, idque ipsum Ennium in eodem libro dicere.’ +(Cf. Cic. <i>Tusc.</i> i. 3.) Enn. <i>Ann.</i> l. 440, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nos sumus Romani qui fuimus ante Rudini.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Servius, <i>in Aen.</i> vii. 691, ‘(At Messapus equom domitor): +Ab hoc Ennius dicit se originem ducere.’ (Enn. <i>Ann.</i> xviii. +fr. 6.) +</p> + +<p> +Ennius knew Greek, Latin, and Oscan. Latin he may +have known as a boy, since the colony of Brundisium was +founded <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 244; the use of Greek had been widely spread +in South Italy through the influence of the Greek colonies.<a href="#fn015" id="ref015">[15]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Gell. xvii. 17, 1, ‘Q. Ennius tria corda habere sese dicebat, +quod loqui Graece et Osce et Latine sciret.’ +</p> + +<p> +Ennius came to Sardinia during the Second Punic War, +probably with other Calabrian auxiliaries, but in what year +is doubtful. Silius Italicus xii. 387 <i>sqq.</i>, says he was +centurion <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 215, and distinguished himself greatly; but +his account is quite untrustworthy. In Sardinia he made +the acquaintance of M. Porcius Cato, then quaestor, who +induced him to come to Rome <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 204. +</p> + +<p id="p027"> +Nep. <i>Cato</i>, i. 4, ‘Praetor (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 198) provinciam obtinuit +Sardiniam, ex qua, quaestor superiore tempore ex Africa +decedens, Q. Ennium poetam deduxerat.’ +</p> + +<p> +The poet’s Graecizing influence seems to have led afterwards +to hostility between him and his patron, but in spite +of this, Ennius appears to have cherished warm feelings +towards Cato, and praised his exploits in the <i>Annals</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>Tusc.</i> i. 3, ‘Oratio Catonis, in qua obiecit ut probrum +M. Nobiliori quod is in provinciam poetas duxisset. Duxerat +autem consul ille in Aetoliam, ut scimus, Ennium.’ +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>pro Arch.</i> 22, ‘In caelum huius proavus Cato +tollitur: magnus honos populi Romani rebus adiungitur.’ +</p> + +<p> +So far as is known, Ennius was at Rome <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 204-189. +He lived plainly, and supported himself by teaching Latin +and Greek. +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 1777 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 240, ‘Q. Ennius poeta Tarenti +[an error] nascitur, qui a Catone quaestore Romam translatus +habitavit in monte Aventino, parco admodum sumptu +contentus, et unius ancillae ministerio.’ +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 1, ‘Livium et Ennium, quos utraque +lingua domi forisque docuisse adnotatum est.’ +</p> + +<p> +At Rome he was on familiar terms with the elder Scipio +Africanus and his brother Cornelius Nasica, and their +circle. +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>pro Arch.</i> 22, ‘Carus fuit Africano superiori noster +Ennius; itaque etiam in sepulchro Scipionum putatur is +esse constitutus ex marmore.’ +</p> + +<p> +A pleasant story of his relations with Nasica is given +by Cic. <i>de Or.</i> ii. 276. Two epigrams on Scipio (Nos. 2 +and 3) are extant. +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 189 Ennius accepted an invitation from M. +Fulvius Nobilior to accompany him in his campaign +against the Aetolians, and be a witness of his exploits. +Fulvius’ victory gave the poet materials for the praetexta +<i>Ambracia</i>, and Book xv. of the <i>Annals</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>pro Arch.</i> 27, ‘Ille qui cum Aetolis Ennio comite +bellavit Fulvius.’ Cf. Cic. <i>Tusc.</i> i. 3 (above). +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 184 the poet received the Roman citizenship +through the son of Fulvius, Q. Nobilior. Hence ‘nos +sumus Romani, qui fuimus ante Rudini’ (above). He +also received a grant of land at Potentia or Pisaurum +from Fulvius, who was then <i>triumvir coloniae deducendae</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 79, ‘Q. Nobiliorem M. f. ..., qui etiam Q. +Ennium, qui cum patre eius in Aetolia militaverat, civitate +donavit, cum triumvir coloniam deduxisset.’ +</p> + +<p> +Ennius probably spent the greater part of his days, after +returning from the Aetolian war, at Rome; and during this +period he was on intimate terms with the comic poet +Caecilius Statius (see <a href="#p037">p. 37</a>). He was often in indifferent +circumstances, in spite of the grant of land he had received. +Ennius died of gout <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 169. +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>Cato Maior</i>, 14, ‘Annos septuaginta natus—tot enim +vixit Ennius—ita ferebat duo quae maxima putantur onera, +paupertatem et senectutem, ut eis paene delectari videretur.’ +</p> + +<p id="p028"> +Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 78, ‘Hoc [C. Sulpicio Gallo] praetore ludos +Apollini faciente, cum Thyesten fabulam docuisset, Q. +Marcio Cn. Servilio coss. (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 169) mortem obiit Ennius.’ +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 1849 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 168, ‘Ennius poeta septuagenario +maior articulari morbo periit, sepultusque est in +Scipionis monumento via Appia intra primum ab urbe +miliarium. Quidam ossa eius Rudiam ex Ianiculo translata +affirmant.’ +</p> + +<p id="p029"> +For his gout cf. Enn. <i>Sat.</i> 1. 8, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Numquam poetor nisi si podager’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 19, 7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ennius ipse pater numquam nisi potus ad arma<br /> +prosiluit dicenda.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +‘Ennius “equi fortis et victoris senectuti comparat +suam”’ (Cic. <i>Cato Maior</i>, 14). +</p> + +<p> +The lines are <i>Ann.</i> xviii. fr. 7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sic ut fortis <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'equs'" id="corr1">equus</ins>, spatio qui saepe supremo<br /> +vicit Olimpia, nunc senio confectus quiescit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +His epitaph (<i>Epigr.</i> i) is quoted by Cic. <i>Tusc.</i> i. 34 and +117, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Aspicite, o cives, senis Enni imaginis formam!<br /> + hic vestrum panxit maxima facta patrum;<br /> +Nemo me dacrumis decoret nec funera fletu<br /> + faxit. Cur? Volito vivus per ora virum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +According to Aelius Stilo, Ennius has depicted his own +character in <i>Ann.</i> vii. fr. 10, wherein he portrays Servilius +Geminus, the trusty companion of a man of position +(Gell. xii. 4). For Ennius’ self-appreciation cf. also his +epitaph (if by himself) quoted above, and <i>Ann.</i> i. fr. 4, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Latos per populos terrasque poemata nostra<br /> +clara cluebunt.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In philosophy Ennius was an eclectic. Cf. <i>Trag.</i> 1. 417, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Philosophari est mihi necesse, at paucis: nam omnino haut placet.<br /> +Degustandum ex ea, non in eam ingurgitandum censeo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +His rationalism is seen in <i>Telamo</i>, fr. 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ego deum genus esse semper dixi et dicam caelitum,<br /> +sed eos non curare opinor, quid agat humanum genus:<br /> +nam si curent, bene bonis sit, male malis, quod nunc abest’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p030"> +<i>ibid.</i>, fr. 2, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sed superstitiosi vates inpudentesque arioli,<br /> +aut inertes aut insani aut quibus egestas imperat,<br /> +qui sibi semitam non sapiunt, alteri monstrant viam,<br /> +quibus divitias pollicentur, ab eis drachumam ipsi petunt.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Traces of Epicureanism are seen in <i>Ann.</i> i. fr. 13, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Terraque corpus<br /> +quae dedit ipsa capit neque dispendi facit hilum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Ennius also believed in the Pythagorean theory of +metempsychosis, and considered that his soul had animated +the body of a peacock. <i>Ann.</i> i. fr. 14, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Memini me fiere pavom.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Persius 6, 10, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cor iubet hoc Enni postquam destertuit esse<br /> +Maeonides Quintus pavone e Pythagoreo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. also Lucr. i. 120-6. +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. <i>Tragedies.</i>—Of those founded on mythology we have +fragments of twenty-two, eight at least of which were +borrowed from Euripides. The <i>Auct. ad Herenn.</i> ii. 34, +quotes nine lines which are a literal translation of the +beginning of the <i>Medea</i>. The date of the <i>Thyestes</i>, +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 169, is the only one known (Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 78, quoted +<a href="#p028">p. 28</a>). Besides these, Ennius probably wrote a praetexta +on ‘the Rape of the Sabines’; and his <i>Ambracia</i> is probably +a praetexta on the capture of the town by M. Fulvius +Nobilior in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 189 (L. Müller includes it in the <i>Saturae</i>). +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Comedies.</i>—There are very slight fragments of the +<i>Cupuncula</i> and the <i>Pancratiastes</i>. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Saturae.</i>—A miscellaneous collection of poems. +</p> + +<p id="p031"> +Porphyr. ad Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 47, ‘Ennius quattuor libros +saturarum reliquit.’ +</p> + +<p> +The reference in Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 66, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quam rudis et Graecis intacti carminis auctor,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +is not to Ennius, as some have supposed, but to the +inventor of <i>satura</i>, whoever he may have been. +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Saturae</i> include (<i>a</i>) <i>Scipio</i>, probably a short epic. +It was mostly written in trochaic septenarii. (<i>b</i>) <i>Epicharmus</i> +(in trochaic tetrameters), dealing with Pythagoreanism in +the department of physics. (<i>c</i>) <i>Euhemerus</i> or <i>Sacra Historia</i>, +modelled on Euhemerus’ <cite class="greek">ἱερὰ ἀναγραφή</cite>,<a href="#fn016" id="ref016">[16]</a> the doctrines of +which were applied to the religion of Rome. +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>N.D.</i> i. 119, ‘Euhemerus, quem noster et interpretatus +et secutus est praeter ceteros Ennius.’ +</p> + +<p> +(<i>d</i>) <i>Protreptica</i> or <i>Praecepta</i>, containing moral maxims. +(<i>e</i>) <i>Hedyphagetica</i>, ‘On Gastronomy,’ modelled on a hexameter +poem by Archestratus (about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 310). (<i>f</i>) <i>Sota</i>, +so called from <span class="greek">Σωτάδης</span>, after whom the Sotadean metre +has been named. The book was probably of a lascivious +nature. (<i>g</i>) Epigrams; the chief of which are mentioned +above. +</p> + +<p> +4. The <i>Annales</i>, an epic poem in hexameters, which +dealt with the history of Rome down to the beginning +of the Third Macedonian War. It contained eighteen +Books; there are about six hundred lines extant. The +following is a sketch of the contents: +</p> + +<p> +Book i., from Aeneas to the death of Romulus; ii., reigns +of Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martius; +iii., the last three kings; iv.-v., the republic down to the +war with Pyrrhus; vi., the war with Pyrrhus; vii., First +Punic War, etc.; viii.-ix., Second Punic War; x.-xii., +Second Macedonian War, Cato’s consulship; xiii.-xv., War +with Antiochus, subjugation of the Aetolians; xvi.-xviii., +from Istrian War to beginning of Third Macedonian War. +</p> + +<p id="p032"> +<i>Ennius’ services</i> to Latin literature lay partly in +introducing the use of the hexameter and other metres from +Greek in place of the old Saturnian metre. His versification +is, of course, rough in comparison with that of +later writers, the principal points being +</p> + +<p> +(1) Harsh elisions. <i>Ann.</i> l. 199, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Hos et ego in pugna vici victusque sum ab isdem.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(2) Quadrisyllable endings; l. 23, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Est locus Hesperiam quam mortales perhibebant.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(3) Absence of caesura, or abrupt break, l. 188, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Bellipotentes sunt magis quam sapientipotentes’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +l. 511, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cui par imber et ignis, spiritus et gravis terra.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(4) Omission of <i>-s</i> in scansion, as in the last two +examples. +</p> + +<p> +(5) Short vowels sometimes lengthened; l. 86, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Omnibus cura viris uter esset induperator.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(6) Prosaic lines (often spondaic); l. 34, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Olli respondit rex Albai longai’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +l. 174, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cives Romani tunc facti sunt Campani.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(7) Harsh instances of tmesis; l. 586, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Saxo cere comminuit brum’: +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p033"> +l. 605, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Massili portabant iuvenes ad litora tanas.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(8) Apocope; l. 451 +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘replet te laetificum <i>gau</i>’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +l. 561, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘divom domus altisonum <i>cael</i>’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +l. 563, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘endo suam <i>do</i>’ (= in suam domum). +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(9) Alliteration used freely; l. 113, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘O Tite tute Tati tibi tanta tiranne tulisti’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +l. 452, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘At tuba terribili sonitu taratantara dixit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(10) Non-elision; l. 275, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Miscent inter sese inimicitiam agitantes.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Influence of Ennius.</i>—This is seen in Lucretius, and to +a very great extent in Virgil. For Lucretius’ appreciation +of Ennius see Lucr. i. 117-9. Cf. also <i>Ann.</i> l. 150, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Postquam lumina sis oculis bonus Ancus reliquit,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +and Lucr. iii. 1025, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Lumina sis oculis etiam bonus Ancus reliquit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Servius on Verg. <i>Aen.</i> viii. 630-4, says ‘Sane totus hic +locus Ennianus est.’ Cf. Servius also on <i>Aen.</i> i. 20; +xi. 608, etc. A large number of imitations are quoted +by Macrobius, especially in <i>Saturn.</i> Book vi. Virgil +modified and refined many of Ennius’ rough expressions. Thus +<i>Ann.</i> l. 452 (above quoted), becomes, in Verg. <i>Aen.</i> ix. 503, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘At tuba terribilem sonitum procul aere sonoro<br /> +increpuit’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Ann.</i> l. 464, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘irarumque effunde quadrigas’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +becomes in Verg. <i>Aen.</i> xii. 499, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p034"> +<p> +‘irarumque omnes effundit habenas.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Views on Ennius.</i>—A very few of these may be quoted. +Lucr. i. 117-9, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ennius ut noster cecinit qui primus amoeno<br /> +detulit ex Helicone perenni fronde coronam,<br /> +per gentes Italas hominum quae clara <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: quote mark added" id="corrp34">clueret.’</ins> +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cic. <i>Opt. Gen. Or.</i> 2, ‘Licet dicere Ennium summum epicum +poetam, si cui ita videtur.’ Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 50, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ennius et sapiens et fortis et alter Homerus,<br /> +ut critici dicunt, leviter curare videtur<br /> +quo promissa cadant et somnia Pythagorea.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Propert. v. 1, 61, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ennius hirsuta cingat sua dicta corona.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Quint. x. 1, 88, ‘Ennium sicut sacros vetustate lucos +adoremus, in quibus grandia et antiqua robora iam non +tantam habent speciem quantam religionem.’ +</p> + +<h3>PACUVIUS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +M. Pacuvius, the son (not grandson as Jerome states) of +Ennius’ sister, was born at Brundisium, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 220, spent +most of his life at Rome, and died at Tarentum shortly +before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 130. He was a painter as well as a poet. +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 1863 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 154, ‘Pacuvius Brundusinus +tragoediarum scriptor clarus habetur, Ennii poetae ex filia +nepos, vixitque Romae quoad picturam exercuit ac fabulas +venditavit, deinde Tarentum transgressus prope nonagenarius +diem obiit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> xxxv. 19, ‘Celebrata est in foro boario, aede +Herculis, Pacuvii poetae pictura. Ennii sorore genitus hic +fuit, clarioremque eam artem Romae fecit gloria scaenae.’ +</p> + +<p id="p035"> +Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 229, ‘Accius isdem aedilibus ait se et Pacuvium +docuisse fabulam, cum ille octoginta, ipse triginta annos +natus esset.’ +</p> + +<p> +As Accius was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 170, Cicero’s words imply that +Pacuvius was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 220, and produced plays as late +as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 140, while from Jerome we may conclude that he +died shortly before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 130. That Pacuvius was taught by +his uncle Ennius is shown by Varro, <i>Sat. Menipp.</i> 356 +(Bücheler), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Pacvi<a href="#fn017" id="ref017">[17]</a> discipulus dicor, porro is fuit Enni,<br /> + Ennius Musarum: Pompilius clueor.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He was a member of the literary circle of Laelius. Cf. +Laelius’ words in Cic. <i>Lael.</i> 24, ‘In hospitis et amici mei +M. Pacuvi nova fabula.’ In his last years he was intimate +with Accius: cf. Gell. xiii. 2, ‘Cum Pacuvius, inquiunt, +grandi iam aetate et morbo corporis diutino adfectus, +Tarentum ex urbe Roma concessisset, Accius tunc, haut parvo +iunior, proficiscens in Asiam, cum in oppidum venisset, +devertit ad Pacuvium comiterque invitatus plusculisque ab +eo diebus retentus, tragoediam suam, cui Atreus nomen +est, desideranti legit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Gell. i. 24, 4, gives Pacuvius’ epitaph, as written by +himself, ‘Epigramma Pacuvii verecundissimum et purissimum, +dignumque eius elegantissima gravitate: +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + “Adulescens, tam etsi properas, te hoc saxum rogat,<br /> + ut sese aspicias, deinde quod scriptum est legas.<br /> + Hic sunt poetae Pacuvi Marci sita<br /> + ossa. Hoc volebam nescius ne esses. Vale.”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<h4 id="p036">(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. <i>Tragedies.</i>—Titles of twelve are known, and over +four hundred lines of fragments are extant. The <i>Antiopa</i>, +which is the best known, was from Euripides. +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>de Fin.</i> i. 4, ‘Quis enim tam inimicus paene nomini +Romano est, qui Enni Medeam aut Antiopam Pacuvi +spernat aut reiciat quod se eisdem Euripidis fabulis delectari +dicat?’ +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Niptra</i> is from Sophocles. Cic. <i>T.D.</i> ii. 49, +speaking of ll. 256-8 (Ribbeck), says, ‘Pacuvius melius +quam Sophocles.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pacuvius also wrote one praetexta, <i>Paulus</i>, doubtless on +L. Aemilius Paulus, the victor of Pydna. +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Saturae</i> (lost). +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. p. 20 <span class="sc">R.</span>, ‘Carmen quod ex variis poematibus +constabat satura vocabatur, quale scripserunt Pacuvius et +Ennius.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pacuvius, like Ennius, shows interest in philosophy, and +attacks superstition; l. 93, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Mater est terra: ea parit corpus, animam aeter adiugat’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +ll. 366-75; cf. l. 372, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Sunt autem alii philosophi, qui contra fortunam negant<br /> + esse ullam, sed temeritate res regi omnis autumant’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +ll. 83-5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Nam isti qui linguam avium intellegunt<br /> + plusque ex alieno iecore sapiunt quam ex suo,<br /> + magis audiendum quam auscultandum censeo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +For Pacuvius’ stilted expressions, cf. Quint. i. 5, 67, +‘Ceterum etiam ex praepositione et duobus vocabulis dure +videtur struxisse Pacuvius +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + “Nerei repandirostrum, incurvicervicum pecus”’ (l. 408); +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p037"> +<i>Paulus</i>, l. 5 +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Qua vix caprigeno generi gradilis gressio est.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Some views on Pacuvius may be referred to: +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>de Opt. Gen. Or.</i> 1, ‘Itaque licet dicere et Ennium +summum epicum poetam et Pacuvium tragicum et Caecilium +fortasse comicum.’ +</p> + +<p id="p037b"> +Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 55, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ambigitur quotiens uter utro sit prior, aufert<br /> +Pacuvius docti<a href="#fn018" id="ref018">[18]</a> famam senis, Accius alti’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Mart. xi. 90, 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Attonitusque legis “terrai frugiferai,”<br /> + Accius et quidquid Pacuviusque vomunt.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. also Gell. vi. 14, 6; Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 258; <i>Or.</i> 36; Quint. +x. 1, 97; Persius, 1. 76-8; Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 20. +</p> + +<h3>CAECILIUS STATIUS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 1838 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 179, ‘Statius Caecilius +comoediarum scriptor clarus habetur, natione Insuber +Gallus et Ennii primum contubernalis. Quidam Mediolanensem +ferunt. Mortuus est anno post mortem Ennii +[iii.] et iuxta eum in Ianiculo sepultus.’ +</p> + +<p> +iii. is an addition by Ritschl, as we know Caecilius to +have been alive in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166, when Terence’s <i>Andria</i> was +performed. Some read iv. The date of his death will +then be <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166 or 165. Caecilius probably came to Rome +among the Insubrian prisoners of war at some time between +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 200 and 194. The year of his birth is unknown; he +is never mentioned, like other old writers, such as Plautus +and Ennius, as having lived to a great age. If he died +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166, we might suppose that he was born about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> +219, as that would make him of military age when the +Insubrian war began in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 200. His name as a slave +was Statius. His patron is unknown. +</p> + +<p id="p038"> +Gell. iv. 20, 13, ‘Statius servile nomen fuit ... Caecilius +quoque ille comoediarum poeta inclutus servus fuit; et +propterea nomen habuit “Statius.” Sed postea versum +est quasi in cognomentum: appellatusque est Caecilius +Statius.’ +</p> + +<p> +Elsewhere he is sometimes called merely Caecilius (as +Cic. <i>de Or.</i> ii. 40), but never Statius alone. +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +Caecilius’ works were at first unsuccessful; cf. the actor +Ambivius’ words in Ter. <i>Hec.</i> prol. ii. 6-7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘In eis quas primum Caecili didici novas,<br /> +partim sum earum exactus, partim vix steti.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Later he examined plays before they were acted, as, <i>e.g.</i> +Terence’s <i>Andria</i> in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166 (see under ‘Terence,’ <a href="#p042">p. 42</a>). +This implies that he occupied a responsible and leading +position in the guild of poets. +</p> + +<p> +We have two hundred and ninety lines of fragments, and +titles of forty-two comedies, sixteen of which correspond +with those of plays by Menander. For Caecilius’ +imitation of Menander see Gell. ii. 23. Cf., <i>e.g.</i>, +‘Caecilii Plocium legebamus; hautquaquam mihi et +qui aderant displicebat... Sed enim postquam in manus +Menander venit, a principio statim, di boni, quantum +stupere atque frigere quantumque mutare a Menandro +Caecilius visus est!’ +</p> + +<p id="p039"> +Among the views on Caecilius are: +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> vii. 3, 10, ‘(Caecilius) malus auctor +Latinitatis est’ (probably because he was an Insubrian). +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>de Opt. Gen. Or.</i> 1, ‘fortasse summus comicus.’ +Sedigitus ap. Gell. xv. 24, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Caecilio palmam Statio do mimico.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 59, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘(dicitur) vincere Caecilius gravitate.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The contemporaries of Caecilius include <i>Trabea</i>, <i>Atilius</i> +(‘poeta durissimus,’ Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> xiv. 20, 3), <i>Aquilius</i> +(possibly the author of the <i>Boeotia</i>, attributed by Varro to +Plautus, Gell. iii. 3, 4), <i>Licinius Imbrex</i>, <i>Luscius Lanuvinus</i>, +all writers of <i>palliatae</i>. Our chief information about +Luscius Lanuvinus is got from the prologues to Terence’s +plays (in all of which, except that of the <i>Hecyra</i>, he is +attacked), and from Donatus’ commentary on these passages. +From Ter. <i>Eun.</i> prol. 9-13, we see that he did +not tone down his originals to suit a Roman audience, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Idem Menandri Phasma nuper perdidit<br /> +atque in Thensauro scripsit, causam dicere<br /> +prius unde petitur, aurum qua re sit suom,<br /> +quam illic qui petit, unde is sit thensaurus sibi<br /> +aut unde in patrium monumentum pervenerit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Donatus <i>ad loc.</i>, ‘Arguit Terentius quod Luscius contra +consuetudinem litigantium defensionem ante accusationem +induxerit.’ +</p> + +<h3>TERENCE.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +Our chief source of information is Suetonius’ life of +Terence, preserved by Donatus, who also makes a slight +addition of his own. Jerome’s notice is also based on +Suetonius. +</p> + +<p id="p040"> +P. Terentius Afer was born in Africa, and was brought in +early life to Rome, where he was a slave of P. Terentius +Lucanus, by whom he was educated and subsequently +manumitted. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>vit. Ter.</i> p. 26 <span class="sc">R.</span>, ‘P. Terentius Afer, Karthagine +natus, serviit Romae Terentio Lucano senatori, a quo ob +ingenium et formam non institutus modo liberaliter, sed +et mature manu missus est. Quidam captum esse existumant: +quod fieri nullo modo potuisse Fenestella docet, +cum inter finem secundi Punici belli et initium tertii et +natus sit et mortuus.’ +</p> + +<p> +Terence’s cognomen probably shows that he belonged to +one of the African peoples subdued by Carthage. It may +be taken as certain that he was not of Punic birth, and that +he was brought to Rome in the ordinary course of the +slave trade. +</p> + +<p> +The date of Terence’s birth is not accurately known. +Sueton. <i>ibid.</i> p. 32, ‘Nondum quintum atque vicesimum +ingressus annum ... egressus urbe est neque amplius rediit,’ +which refers to his voyage to Greece in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 160, would +make the year of his birth to be <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 185. This, however, +is an improbable assumption, which rests on the fact that +Roman scholars attributed to him the age of his intimate +friend, P. Scipio Africanus the younger. Thus Sueton. +<i>ibid.</i> p. 27 (of Terence, Scipio, Laelius), says, ‘quamvis et +Nepos aequales omnes fuisse tradat’; with which contrast +<i>ibid.</i> ‘Fenestella ... contendens utroque maiorem natu +fuisse.’ Terence must have been some years older, as +his first piece, the <i>Andria</i>, was produced <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166. A +successful piece like it makes it probable that he had +then passed his boyhood, and it is likely that he was +born about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 190. The reproach of his adversary in +<i>Heaut. Tim.</i> prol. 23, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p041"> +<p> +‘<i>repente</i> ad studium hunc se adplicasse <i>musicum</i>,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +means only that he had not made himself prominent by +previous exercises in play-writing. Further in <i>H.T.</i> prol. +51-2, he describes his opponents as <i>adulescentuli</i>, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Exemplum statuite in me, ut adulescentuli<br /> +vobis placere studeant potius quam sibi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Terence was on intimate terms with P. Scipio Africanus +and C. Laelius, who were supposed to have helped him +in the composition of his plays. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>ibid.</i> p. 30, ‘Non obscura fama est adiutum +Terentium in scriptis a Laelio et Scipione: eamque ipse +auxit, numquam nisi leviter se tutari conatus, ut in prologo +Adelphorum (ll. 15-21), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Nam quod isti dicunt malivoli, homines nobiles<br /> +hunc adiutare adsidueque una scribere,<br /> +quod illi maledictum vehemens esse existumant:<br /> +eam laudem hic ducit maxumam, quom illis placet<br /> +qui vobis univorsis et populo placent,<br /> +quorum opera in bello, in otio, in negotio<br /> +suo quisque tempore usust sine superbia.” +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +... Sciebat Laelio et Scipioni non ingratam esse hanc +opinionem, quae tum magis et usque ad posteriora tempora valuit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. p. 31, also repeats a story that C. Laelius was +the author of the lines <i>H.T.</i> 723 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +Cf. also Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> vii. 3, 10, ‘Terentium, cuius fabellae +propter elegantiam sermonis putabantur a C. Laelio scribi.’ +</p> + +<p> +Quint. x. 1, 99, ‘Licet Terentii scripta ad Scipionem +Africanum referantur.’ +</p> + +<p> +The remark that ll. 20-1 of the above extract from the +<i>Adelph.</i> could not refer to young men like Scipio and +Laelius was made even in antiquity. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>ibid.</i> p. 31, ‘Santra (a grammarian of the time +of Augustus) Terentium existimat, si modo in scribendo +adiutoribus indiguerit, non tam Scipione et Laelio uti +potuisse, qui tunc adulescentuli fuerint, quam C. Sulpicio +Gallo, homine docto, quo console Megalensibus ludis +initium fabularum dandarum fecerit, vel Q. Fabio Labeone +et M. Popillio, consulari utroque ac poeta. Ideo ipsum +non iuvenes designare qui se adiuvare dicantur, sed viros +quorum operam et in bello et in otio et in negotio populus +sit expertus.’ +</p> + +<p> +In K. Dziatzko’s opinion (second edition of <i>Phormio</i>, +p. 10, Leipzig, 1885), the expression ‘homines nobiles’ +points to the literary circle of Terence, including old as +well as young men, while in what follows he touches upon +the general reputation of those noble families among the +Roman people. There is nothing to show that Terence +got more than general support and advice from his friends. +That his diction reflects the conversational language of +the better classes is recognized. +</p> + +<p id="p042"> +In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166, Terence submitted to Caecilius Statius, the +examiner of plays, his first work, the <i>Andria</i>, which was +accepted, and performed in that year. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>ibid.</i> pp. 28-9, ‘Scripsit comoedias sex. Ex +quibus primam Andriam cum aedilibus daret, iussus ante +Caecilio recitare ad cenantem cum venisset, dicitur initium +quidem fabulae, quod erat contemptiore vestitu, in subsellio +iuxta lectulum residens legisse, post paucos vero +versus invitatus ut accumberet cenasse una, dein cetera +percucurrisse non sine magna Caecilii admiratione.’ +</p> + +<p id="p043"> +From the fact of Caecilius’ not recognizing him we may +conclude that Terence had as yet no connexion with the +guild of poets. This fits in with <i>H.T.</i> prol. 23-4, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Repente ad studium hunc se adplicasse musicum,<br /> + amicum ingenio fretum, haud natura sua.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Hence probably arose the hatred of other writers, referred +to as <i>isti</i> (<i>Andr.</i> 15; 21); <i>iniqui</i> (<i>H.T.</i> 27); cf. also <i>Hec.</i> +prol. ii. 38, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Nolite sinere per vos artem musicam<br /> + recidere ad paucos.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +As to further connexion between Caecilius and Terence, +note (1) that they had a common actor Ambivius; (2) that +Terence sometimes imitates Caecilius. Thus, according to +Donatus, <i>Andr.</i> 805, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘ut quimus, aiunt, quando ut volumus non licet’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +is from Caecilius (l. 177 R.), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘vivas ut possis quando nec quis ut velis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. also <i>Adelph.</i> 985, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Quod prolubium? quae istaec subitast largitas?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +and Caecilius (l. 91 R.), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Quod prolubium, quae voluptas, quae te lactat largitas?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Terence died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 159, on his way home from Greece, +where he had probably gone the year before. The place +of his death is uncertain. Whatever plays he may have +written while in Greece are lost. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>ibid.</i> p. 32, ‘Post editas comoedias, nondum +quintum atque vicesimum ingressus annum, causa vitandae +opinionis qua videbatur aliena pro suis edere, seu percipiendi +Graecorum instituta moresque quos non perinde +exprimeret in scriptis, egressus urbe est neque amplius +rediit.... Q. Cosconius redeuntem e Graecia perisse in +mari dicit cum fabulis conversis a Menandro: ceteri mortuum +esse in Arcadia sive Leucadiae tradunt, Cn. Cornelio +Dolabella M. Fulvio Nobiliore coss., morbo implicatum +ex dolore ac taedio amissarum sarcinarum quas in nave +praemiserat, ac simul fabularum quas novas fecerat.’ +</p> + +<p id="p044"> +Terence’s personal appearance is mentioned by Sueton. +p. 33, who also states that he had property, and left +a daughter who afterwards married a Roman knight. +‘Fuisse dicitur mediocri statura, gracili corpore, colore +fusco. Reliquit filiam, quae post equiti Romano nupsit: +item hortulos xx. iugerum via Appia ad Martis.’ +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. <i>Andria</i>.—The particulars of its production are given +above. Of its success, Donatus in his commentary says, +‘Successu adspecta prospero hortamento poetae fuit ad +alias conscribendas.’ The didascalia to the <i>Andria</i> is +lost, but we can restore it as follows from Donatus’ information, +‘Incipit Andria Terenti. Acta ludis Megalensib. +M. Fulvio M’ Glabrione aedil. curul. Egit L. Ambivius +Turpio.<a href="#fn019" id="ref019">[19]</a> Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis paribus tota. +Graeca Menandru. Facta i. M. Marcello C. Sulpicio cos.’ +</p> + +<p> +The meaning of the didascalia is as follows: The piece +was produced at the Megalesian games (held at the beginning +of April) under the curule aediles mentioned; +L. Ambivius Turpio undertook the representation; the +music was composed (as in all Terence’s comedies) by +Flaccus, slave of Claudius, and given throughout <i>tibiis +paribus</i>.<a href="#fn020" id="ref020">[20]</a> The Greek original was by Menander; it was +the first work of Terence, and the year of production +was <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166. +</p> + +<p id="p045"> +The play is adapted from Menander’s <cite class="greek">Ἀνδρία</cite> with +additions from his <cite class="greek">Περινθία</cite>. <i>Andr.</i> prol. 13, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quae convenere in Andriam ex Perinthia<br /> +fatetur transtulisse atque usum pro suis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The prologue dates from the first performance, though +Wagner and Ribbeck have inferred from l. 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nam in prologis scribundis operam abutitur,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +that it was written for a second representation, possibly +in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 164. There are two endings to the play; the +shorter one is genuine, the longer spurious, and omitted +in the best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Heauton Timorumenos</i> is from Menander’s <cite class="greek">Ἡαυτὸν τιμωρούμενος</cite>, +‘self tormentor.’ The title is referred to in +l. 146, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘hic me exerceo,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +l. 81, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘An quoiquamst usus homini, se ut cruciet?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +and prol. 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ex integra Graeca integram comoediam<br /> +hodie sum acturus Heauton timorumenon.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The play was produced at the Ludi Megalenses in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> +163, as is seen from the didascalia, ‘Incipit Heauton +Timorumenos Terenti. Acta ludis Megalensib. L. Cornelio +Lentulo L. Valerio Flacco aedilib. curulib. Egit Ambivius +Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Acta primum +tibis inparib., deinde duabus dextris. Graeca Menandru. +Facta ii. M’ Iuventio Ti. Sempronio cos.’ +</p> + +<p id="p046"> +The play is called ‘stataria’ in prol. 36, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Date potestatem mihi<br /> + statariam agere ut liceat per silentium.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +3. <i>Eunuchus</i>, ‘contaminated’ from Menander’s <cite class="greek">Εὐνοῦχος</cite> +and his <cite class="greek">Κόλαξ</cite>. <i>Eun.</i> prol. 19, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Nunc acturi sumus<br /> + Menandri Eunuchum’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>ibid.</i> 30, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Colax Menandrist: in east parasitus colax<br /> + et miles gloriosus: eas se non negat<br /> + personas transtulisse in Eunuchum suam<br /> + ex Graeca: sed eas ab aliis factas prius<br /> + Latinas scisse sese, id vero pernegat.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The didascalia shows that the piece was produced at the +Ludi Megalenses in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 161, and from the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> we may +conclude that it was also acted in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 146. The didascalia +is, ‘Incipit Eunuchus Terenti. Acta ludis Megalensib. +L. Postumio Albino L. Cornelio Merula aedilib. curulib. +Egit Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis +duabus dextris <i>tota</i>. Graeca Menandru. Facta <i>iii.</i> M. +Valerio C. Fannio cos.’ +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>vit. Ter.</i> p. 29, speaks of the success of the +play, ‘Eunuchus quidem his deinceps acta est meruitque +pretium quantum nulla antea cuiusquam comoedia, octo +milia nummum.’ +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Phormio</i>, the fifth comedy Terence composed, and +the fourth completely represented. It was first performed +at the Ludi Romani, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 161. The Greek original was +the <cite class="greek">Ἐπιδικαζόμενος</cite> of Apollodorus of Carystus. <i>Phorm.</i> +prol. 24, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p047"> +<p> + ‘Adporto novam<br /> + Epidicazomenon quam vocant comoediam<br /> + Graeci, Latini Phormionem nominant,<br /> + quia primas partis qui aget, is erit Phormio<br /> + parasitus, per quem res geretur maxume,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The didascalia is, ‘Incipit Terenti Phormio. Acta ludis +Romanis. L. Postumio Albino L. Cornelio Merula aedilib. +curulib. Egit L. Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus +Claudi. Tibis imparib. tota. Graeca Apollodoru Epidicazomenos. +Facta iiii. C. Fannio M. Valerio cos. +</p> + +<p> +From notices in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> it is probable that a second +representation took place in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 141 at the Megalesian +games. +</p> + +<p> +5. <i>Hecyra</i> is founded on a play by Apollodorus of +Carystus, doubtless called <cite class="greek">Ἡκυρά</cite>; cf. Donatus’ preface, +‘fabula Apollodori dicitur esse Graeca.’ The first attempted +representation was in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 165, at the Ludi Megalenses. +<i>Hec.</i> prol. i. 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Hecyra quom datast<br /> + nova, ei novom intervenit vitium et calamitas,<br /> + ut neque spectari neque cognosci potuerit:<br /> + ita populus studio stupidus in funambulo<br /> + animum occuparat.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The second (unsuccessful) representation was at the ludi +funerales of Aemilius Paulus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 160. <i>Hec.</i> prol. ii. 38, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Refero denuo.<br /> + Primo actu placeo. Quom interea rumor venit<br /> + datum iri gladiatores, populus convolat,<br /> + tumultuantur clamant pugnant de loco:<br /> + ego interea meum non potui tutari locum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. <i>Phorm.</i> prol. 31, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Ne simili utamur fortuna, atque usi sumus<br /> + quom per tumultum noster grex motus locost.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p048"> +The first prologue was written for the second performance; +the second (spoken by the actor Ambivius) for the third +performance, also in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 160. The didascalia is, ‘Incipit +Terenti Hecyra. Acta ludis Megalensib. S. Iulio Caesare +Cn. Cornelio Dolabella aedilib. curulib. Egit L. Ambivius +Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis paribus tota. +Graeca <i>Apollodoru</i>. Facta v. Cn. Octavio T. Manlio cos. +Relata est L. Aemelio Paulo ludis funeralib. Non est +placita. Tertio relata est Q. Fulvio L. Marcio aedilib. +curulib.’ +</p> + +<p> +6. <i>Adelphoe</i> is founded on Menander’s <cite class="greek">Ἀδελφοί</cite> with a +scene added from Diphilus’ <cite class="greek">Συναποθνῄσκοντες</cite>. <i>Adelph.</i> +prol. 6, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +Synapothnescontes Diphili comoediast;<br /> +eam Commorientis Plautus fecit fabulam.<br /> +In Graeca adulescens est, qui lenoni eripit<br /> +meretricem in prima fabula: eum Plautus locum<br /> +reliquit integrum; eum hic locum sumpsit sibi<br /> +in Adelphos, verbum de verbo expressum extulit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +That this was the first performance is shown by <i>novam</i> in +l. 12. The part from Diphilus is Act ii., Scene 1. The +play was produced in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 160 at the ludi funerales of L. +Aemilius Paulus, as shown by the didascalia, ‘Incipit +Terenti Adelphoe. Acta ludis funeralib. L. Aemelio +Paulo. Fecere Q. Fabius Maxumus P. Cornelius Africanus. +Egit L. Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. +Tibis Sarranis tota. Graeca Menandru. Facta vi. M. +Cornelio Cethego L. Anicio Gallo cos.’ +</p> + +<p> +The order given above agrees essentially with the numbers +denoting the order of production, as given in the +didascaliae. We must, however, assume that the first +representation of the <i>Hecyra</i> remained unnoticed, and must +give the second place (instead of the third) to the <i>H.T.</i>, +with a section of the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, and the third place to the +<i>Eun.</i> with Donatus against the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> +</p> + +<p id="p049"> +<i>Prologues.</i>—Terence uses these as weapons against his +enemies, the chief of whom was Luscius Lanuvinus (<a href="#p039">see +under his name</a>), who attacked Terence for ‘contaminatio’ +and for want of spirit in his plays. Cf. <i>H.T.</i> prol. 17, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit<br /> +paucas Latinas’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Phorm.</i> prol. 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘tenui esse oratione et scriptura levi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Terence justifies repeatedly his use of ‘contaminatio.’ +<i>H.T.</i> prol. 16, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nam quod rumores distulerunt malivoli,<br /> +multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit<br /> +paucas Latinas: id esse factum hic non negat,<br /> +neque se pigere et deinde facturum autumat.<br /> +Habet bonorum exemplum, quo exemplo sibi<br /> +licere id facere quod illi fecerunt putat.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. <i>Andria</i>, prol. 15-21; <i>Adelph.</i> prol. 1-14; <i>Eun.</i> prol. +31-3. Luscius also attacked him for not adhering more +closely to his Greek originals, in spite of the fact that, +generally speaking, Terence translated closely from these. +Cf. <i>Adelph.</i> prol. 10-11, quoted above. A piece was +considered to be new if it had not previously been presented +to a Roman audience. So Terence justifies his +originality in <i>Adelph.</i> prol. 6-14, or excuses himself on +the ground that he did not know that a piece had been +previously used: <i>Eun.</i> prol. 19-34. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Representation of the plays.</i>—Ambivius was the chief +actor in all the plays. He is the speaker of the prologue +of <i>H.T.</i> and of the second prologue of <i>Hec.</i> He calls +himself <i>senex</i>, cf. <i>H.T.</i> prol. 1. For his popularity cf. +<i>Hec.</i> prol. ii. 55, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p050"> +<p> +‘Mea causa causam accipite et date silentium.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The music was provided by Flaccus, slave of Claudius. +The composer himself was probably the instrumentalist. +Four kinds of flutes are mentioned as used by him: +<i>tibiae pares</i>, <i>impares</i>, <i>sarranae</i>, and <i>duae dextrae</i> (see <a href="#fn020">note +p. 45</a>). The scene of all the plays is at Athens. There +is no chorus. The form of the plays is modelled closely +on Greek. More than half of the verses are iambic +senarii, the next commonest being troch. septen. and +iamb. octon. These are used in dialogue. Trochaic +octonarii are used in lyrical parts, other lyrical metres +being rare, and the anapaestic metre not being used. +Short lines are also found in the middle of lyrical pieces, +or at the end of pieces of dialogue. <i>Andr.</i> 605, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sed eccum video ipsum: occidi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Single words sometimes stand at the head of a lyrical +piece, as <i>Phorm.</i> 485 ‘Dorio,’ which makes a line. +</p> + +<p> +The different kinds of scenes are under the same conditions +as in Plautus. We have (1) scenes provided +with music, probably represented in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> by C (Canticum). +(2) Scenes sung as recitative, with musical accompaniment, +in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> denoted by M.M.C. (perhaps for +‘Modi Mutati Cantici’). (3) Scenes in senarii, without +music, in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> denoted by DV (Diverbium). The division +into scenes is very ancient; but the division into +acts, though existing in the time of Terence (cf. <i>Hec.</i> +prol. 39, ‘primo actu placeo,’), is not marked in the +<span class="bcad">MSS.</span> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Names of characters.</i>—Terence uses only Greek names, +which often suit the characters of the persons, and many +of which are repeated in the different plays. Cf. Pamphilus +and Glycerium, of the lovers in the <i>Andr.</i>; Chremes +(<span class="greek">χρέμπτομαι</span>, ‘cough’), for an old man, in <i>Andr.</i>, +<i>H.T.</i>, +<i>Phorm.</i>; Crito (<span class="greek">κρνίω</span>, ‘judge’), for an old man, +in <i>Andr.</i>, +<i>Phorm.</i>; Sosia (<span class="greek">σῴζειν</span>), for a freedman, in +<i>Andr.</i>, <i>Hec.</i> +So names of slaves as Davus (<span class="greek">Δᾶος</span>, ‘Dacian’), Dromo, +Geta, Syrus, all in several plays. +</p> + +<p> +<i>The arguments</i>, consisting of twelve senarii each, were +composed by C. Sulpicius Apollinaris in the second +century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Prosody.</i>—For the variations from later usage, <a href="#p039">see under +‘Plautus.’</a> Terence is, of course, more regular in this +respect than Plautus. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Views on Terence.</i>—To those given above the following +may be added: +</p> + +<p id="p051"> +Gell. vi. 14, 6, ‘Exempla in Latina lingua M. Varro +esse dicit ubertatis Pacuvium, gracilitatis Lucilium, mediocritatis +Terentium.’<a href="#fn021" id="ref021">[21]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>vit. Ter.</i> p. 34, ‘Cicero in Limone hactenus +laudat, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Tu quoque, qui solus lecto sermone, Terenti,<br /> +conversum expressumque Latina voce Menandrum<br /> +in medium nobis sedatis motibus effers,<br /> +quiddam come loquens atque omnia dulcia miscens”; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +item C. Caesar, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Tu quoque, tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander,<br /> +poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator.<br /> +Lenibus atque utinam scriptis adiuncta foret vis,<br /> +comica ut aequato virtus polleret honore<br /> +cum Graecis, neve hac despectus parte iaceres.<br /> +Unum hoc maceror ac doleo tibi desse, Terenti.”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<h3 id="p052">EARLY MINOR AUTHORS.</h3> + +<h4>(<i>a</i>) POETS:</h4> + +<p> +The poetical contemporaries of Terence were: +</p> + +<p> +1. <i>Titinius</i>, the first writer of <i>togatae</i>; fifteen titles and +about one hundred and eighty lines of fragments are +extant. He probably began to write after Terence’s death. +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Sextus Turpilius.</i>—We have titles of thirteen of his +<i>palliatae</i>, six of which are probably from Menander. He +died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 103, probably about eighty. +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 1914 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 103, ‘Turpilius comicus senex +admodum Sinuessae moritur.’ +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Iuventius</i>, <i>Valerius</i>, and <i>Vatronius</i> wrote <i>palliatae</i>; +<i>P. Licinius Tegula</i> a hymn to Juno, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 200 (Livy xxxi. +12); <i>Q. Fabius Labeo</i> (cos. <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 183) and <i>M. Popillius +Laenas</i> (cos. 173) were poets. +</p> + +<h4>(<i>b</i>) PROSE WRITERS:</h4> + +<p> +<i>Fabius Pictor</i> was the earliest Roman historian: Liv. +i. 44, 2, ‘scriptorum antiquissimus Fabius Pictor.’ A +relative of Q. Fabius Maximus Cunctator (Plut. <i>Fab. Max.</i> +18), he took part in the war with the Cisalpine Gauls, +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 225 (Eutropius, iii. 5), and after the battle of Cannae +was sent by the Senate on a mission to the oracle of +Delphi (Liv. xxii. 57, 5). +</p> + +<p> +Fabius wrote in Greek an account of the Second Punic +War, prefixed to which was a sketch of the history of Rome +from its foundation: Liv. xxii. 7, 4, ‘Fabium aequalem +temporibus huiusce belli potissimum auctorem habui.’ +There was also a Latin version, made either by Fabius +Pictor or by a namesake (Gell. v. 4, 3). +</p> + +<p id="p053"> +The same subject was treated by <i>L. Cincius Alimentus</i>, +who was praetor <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 210 (Liv. xxvi. 23, i), and took an +active part in the war in Sicily during the next two years +(Liv. xxvii. 7, 12, and throughout that Book). He was +taken prisoner by Hannibal, and conversed with him: +Liv. xxi. 38, 3, ‘L. Cincius Alimentus, qui captum se ab +Hannibale scribit, maxime auctor moveret ...’ +</p> + +<p> +Both Fabius and Cincius wrote in Greek, and both +gave a cursory view of the earlier history: Dion. Hal. i. 6, +<span class="greek">῾Ρωμαίων ὅσοι τὰ παλαιὰ ἔργα τῆς πόλεως Ἑλληνικῇ διαλέκτῳ +συνέγραψαν, ὧν εἰσι πρεσβύτατοι Κόϊντός τε Φάβιος +καὶ Λεύκιος Κίγκιος ... τούτων δὲ τῶν ἀνδρῶν ἑκατέρος οἷς +μὲν αὐτὸς ἕργοις παρεγένετο, διὰ τὴν ἐμπειρίαν ἀκριβῶς +ἀνέγραψε, τὰ δὲ ἀρχαῖα τὰ μετὰ τὴν κτίσιν τῆς πόλεως +γενόμενα κεφαλαιωδῶς ἐπέδραμεν.</span> +</p> + +<h3>CATO.</h3> + +<p> +M. Porcius Cato, the Censor (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 234-149), born at +Tusculum, of a yeoman stock, was one of the most prominent +figures of his time. For the best account of his +military and political career, including his advancement to +the Consulship (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 195) and Censorship (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 184), and +his economic and social reforms, the reader may be referred +to Mommsen, <i>R.H.</i>, vol. ii. <i>passim</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Cato was the founder of Latin prose, and the chief +opponent of the exaggerated Hellenism that was finding +its way into Roman life and literature (cf. his own words +quoted by Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> xxix. 14, ‘Quandoque ista gens +suas litteras dabit, omnia corrumpet’); but even he shows +traces of Greek influence. Cato is represented now only +by (1) his treatise <i>De Agri Cultura</i>, the earliest extant +work in Latin prose, which, besides giving instruction for +the husbandman, deals with housekeeping, cookery, and +medicine. +</p> + +<p id="p054"> +(2) His great work was the <i>Origines</i>, the earliest history +in Latin prose, the contents of which are enumerated by +Nepos, <i>Cato</i>, 3, 3, ‘Senex historias scribere instituit. Earum +sunt libri vii. Primus continet res gestas regum populi +Romani, secundus et tertius unde quaeque civitas orta sit +Italica (ob quam rem omnes Origines videtur appellasse); +in quarto autem bellum Poenicum est primum, in quinto +secundum. Atque haec omnia capitulatim sunt dicta. +Reliqua quoque bella pari modo persecutus est usque ad +praeturam Ser. Galbae, qui diripuit Lusitanos (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 151). +Atque horum bellorum duces non nominavit, sed sine +nominibus res notavit.<a href="#fn022" id="ref022">[22]</a> In eisdem exposuit quae in Italia +Hispaniisque aut fierent aut viderentur admiranda: in +quibus multa industria et diligentia comparet, nulla doctrina.’ +</p> + +<p> +An attempt has been made by A. Bormann (<i>M. Porcii +Catonis Originum Libri vii.</i>, Brandenburg 1858, p. 38) to +prove that the principle of division was geographical, and +that history only came in incidentally in connexion with +the reduction of provinces; but as Nepos was writing to +an eminent authority on antiquities, his account is likely +to be right. The period between the kings and the Punic +Wars was probably omitted by Cato through want of +authorities. +</p> + +<p> +The title <i>Origines</i> fails to indicate the scope of the work, +which was chiefly occupied with general history; it was +probably taken, as Nepos suggests, from the contents of +Books ii. and iii., which seem to have been the most +novel and valuable part of the undertaking. (Jordan, however, +takes ‘Origines’ as equivalent, not to the Greek <span class="greek">κτίσεις</span>, +but to ‘res Romanae ab origine repetitae.’) +</p> + +<p id="p055"> +(3) <i>Praecepta ad Filium</i> was the general title of a didactic +work containing rules for medicine, husbandry, and rhetoric +(<i>e.g.</i> ‘Rem tene, verba sequentur’). Cf. Quint. iii. 1, 19, +‘Romanorum primus, quantum ego quidem sciam, condidit +aliqua in hanc materiam (rhetoric) M. Cato ille Censorius.’ +</p> + +<p> +(4) <i>Speeches.</i>—Fragments of eighty speeches, out of about +two hundred and thirty, are collected by Jordan. They are +almost equally divided between forensic and deliberative +speeches: none is known of earlier date than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 195. +Cato incorporated some of them in the <i>Origines</i>, <i>e.g.</i> For +the Rhodians (Gell. vi. 3, 7), and Against Galba (Cic. +<i>Brut.</i> 89). +</p> + +<p> +Works on civil law are attributed to Cato, and we hear +also of <span class="greek">ἀποφθέγματα</span> (Cic. <i>de Off.</i> i. 104), <i>Liber de re militari</i> +(Gell. vi. 4, 5), and <i>Carmen de moribus</i> (Gell. xi. 2, 2). +</p> + +<h3>ACCIUS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +The forms Accius and Attius are both found on inscriptions, +<i>e.g.</i> from Pisaurum; but in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> of Nonius +Marcellus, who often quotes Accius, and who is careful +about his forms, ‘Accius’ is always found, and generally +in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> of other authors. +</p> + +<p> +L. Accius was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 170 at Pisaurum (of. Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> +vii. 128, ‘Attio Pisaurense’). +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 1878 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 139, ‘L. Accius tragoediarum +scriptor clarus habetur, natus Mancino et Serrano +coss. (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 170) parentibus libertinis et seni iam Pacuvio +Tarenti sua scripta recitavit. A quo et fundus Accianus +iuxta Pisaurum dicitur, quia illuc inter colonos fuerat ex +urbe deductus.’ +</p> + +<p> +This last statement must refer to Accius’ father, as the +colony of Pisaurum was founded <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 184. Jerome’s +chronology is corroborated by +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 229, ‘Accius isdem aedilibus (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 140) ait +se et Pacuvium docuisse fabulam, cum ille lxxx., ipse xxx. +annos natus esset.’ +</p> + +<p id="p056"> +Accius’ friendship and influence with leading men is +shown by Cic. <i>pro Arch.</i> 27, ‘D. Brutus, summus vir et +imperator (cons. <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 138) Acci amicissimi sui carminibus +templorum ac monumentorum aditus exornavit suorum.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Auct. ad Herenn.</i> i. 24, ‘Mimus quidam nominatim +Accium poetam compellavit in scaena. Cum eo Accius +iniuriarum egit’; ii. 19, ‘P. Mucius eum qui L. Accium +poetam nominaverat condemnavit.’ +</p> + +<p> +The above shows his self-consciousness; cf. also Pliny +<i>N.H.</i> xxxiv. 19, ‘Notatum ab auctoribus et L. Accium +poetam in Camenarum aede maxima forma statuam sibi +posuisse, cum brevis admodum fuisset.’ +</p> + +<p> +For Accius’ friendship with Pacuvius, see <a href="#p035">p. 35</a>. Accius +must have lived to about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 86, as Cicero (born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 106) +talked with him on literary subjects. +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 107, ‘D. Brutus M. filius, ut ex familiari eius +L. Accio poeta sum audire solitus.’ +</p> + +<p> +His <i>Tereus</i> was produced in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 104, as is seen from +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>Phil.</i> i. 36 (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44), ‘Nisi forte Accio tum plaudi +et sexagesimo post anno palmam dari, non Bruto, putabatis.’ +</p> + +<h4 id="p057">(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. <i>Tragedies.</i>—Titles of about forty-five plays, and about +seven hundred lines of fragments are extant. The fragments +show imitation of Aeschylus as well as of Sophocles and +Euripides. +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Praetextae.</i>—<i>Aeneadae</i> or <i>Decius</i>, and <i>Brutus</i>. <i>Decius</i> +treated of the self-sacrifice of P. Decius Mus at Sentinum, +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 295. Cf. l. 15, ‘Patrio exemplo et me dicabo atque +animam devoro (= devovero) hostibus.’ <i>Brutus</i> treated +of the overthrow of Tarquinius Superbus and the establishment +of the consulship. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Didascalica</i>, in at least nine books, a history of Greek +and Latin poetry, with special attention to the drama. The +few fragments are mostly in Sotadean metre. Cf. Gell. vi. +9, 16, ‘L. Accius in Sotadicorum libro I.’ +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Pragmaticon libri</i> (in trochaic tetrameters) on literary +subjects. +</p> + +<p> +5. <i>Praxidica</i>, on agriculture. Two lines on ploughing +are quoted from ‘liber parergon,’ i., but it is not certain +whether this is an independent work. +</p> + +<p> +6. <i>Annales</i>, in hexameters. +</p> + +<p> +7. A work in Saturnians. +</p> + +<p> +Accius gave attention to points of language. Cf. Quint. +i. 7, 14, ‘Semivocales geminare diu non fuit usitatissimi +moris, atque e contrario usque ad Accium et ultra porrectas +syllabas geminis, ut dixi, vocalibus scripserunt.’ +</p> + +<p> +Accius, like Ennius and Pacuvius, attacks superstition. +Cf. ll. 169-70, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Nil credo auguribus, qui auris verbis divitant<br /> + alienas, suas ut auro locupletent domos.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p058"> +That Virgil imitated Accius is mentioned by Macrob. +vi. 1, 58, who compares, <i>e.g.</i>, l. 156, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Virtuti sis par, dispar fortunis patris,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +and <i>Aen.</i> xii. 435-6, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Disce, puer, virtutem ex me verumque laborem,<br /> + fortunam ex aliis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Views on Accius.</i>—A few of these may be referred to. +Cic. <i>pro Sest.</i> 120, ‘Summi poetae ingenium.’ +Ovid. <i>Am.</i> i. 15, 19, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Animosi Accius oris.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 97; Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 20; and Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. +1, 55 (see ‘Pacuvius,’ <a href="#p037b">p. 37</a>). +</p> + +<p> +Of the prose writers contemporary with Accius, the most +important were the annalists <i>L. Cassius Hemina</i> and <i>L. +Calpurnius Piso Frugi</i>; the orators <i>Ti.</i> and <i>C. Graccus</i>, +and their opponent <i>C. Fannius</i>, and <i>M. Aemilius Scaurus</i>, +the <i>princeps senatus</i>, who also wrote an autobiography (Cic. +<i>Brut.</i> 112). <i>L. Coelius Antipater</i> wrote a history of the +Second Punic War in seven Books, making use of Silenus, +whose account was favourable to the Carthaginians (Cic. +<i>de Div.</i> i. 49). His strength lay in style (Cic. <i>de Or.</i> ii. 53); +though painstaking, he was apt to exaggerate (Liv. xxvii. +27, 12; xxix, 25, 3). +</p> + +<h3>LUCILIUS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +C. Lucilius’ dates are given by Jerome as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 148-103. +</p> + +<p> +yr. Abr. 1869 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 148, ‘Lucilius poeta nascitur.’ +</p> + +<p> +yr. Abr. 1914 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 103, ‘C. Lucilius satirarum scriptor +Neapoli moritur, ac publico funere effertur anno aetatis xlvi.’ +</p> + +<p> +If Jerome’s notice were correct, Lucilius would have been +only thirteen years old at the time of the Numantine War +(<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 134) in which he served. +</p> + +<p id="p059"> +Velleius ii. 9, 4, ‘Celebre et Lucili nomen fuit qui sub +P. Africano Numantino bello eques militaverat.’ +</p> + +<p> +It is probable that Jerome has confused the consuls of +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 180, A. Postumius Albinus and C. Calpurnius Piso, +with those of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 148, Sp. Postumius Albinus and L. +Calpurnius Piso, and that Lucilius was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 180. No +reference is found in Lucilius to any event after <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 103, +so that Jerome may be right in giving that as the year of +his death. In Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 34, Lucilius is called <i>senex</i>, +which shows that he lived a long life. +</p> + +<p> +Lucilius was born at Suessa in Campania. He was an +<i>eques</i>, and was the great-uncle of Pompey. Juv. 1, 19, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo,<br /> +per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus,<br /> +si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Porphyr. ad Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 75, ‘“infra Lucili censum”: +Constat enim Lucilium avonculum maiorem Pompei fuisse: +etenim avia Pompei Lucilii soror fuerat.’ +</p> + +<p> +Velleius ii. 29, 2, ‘Fuit [Cn. Pompeius] genitus matre +Lucilia, stirpis senatoriae.’ This Lucilia was Lucilius’ niece, +and her father, Lucilius’ brother, was a senator. +</p> + +<p> +Lucilius was very intimate with Africanus the younger +and Laelius, and celebrated them in his works. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> +ii. 1, 71, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quin ubi se a volgo et scaena in secreta remorant<br /> +virtus Scipiadae et mitis sapientia Laeli,<br /> +nugari cum illo et discincti ludere, donec<br /> +decoqueretur olus, soliti.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Schol. Cruq. <i>ad loc.</i>, ‘Scipio Africanus et Laelius feruntur +tam fuisse familiares et amici Lucilio, ut quodam tempore +Laelio circum lectos triclinii fugienti Lucilius superveniens +eum obtorta mappa quasi feriturus sequeretur.’ +</p> + +<p id="p060"> +Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 16, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Attamen et iustum poteras et scribere fortem,<br /> +Scipiadam ut sapiens Lucilius.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Lucil. <i>Sat.</i> xxx. 5 (of Scipio), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Sicubi ad auris<br /> +fama tuam pugnam clarans adlata dicasset.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Such intimate association could not have existed if +Lucilius had been, as Jerome implies, only nineteen at +Scipio’s death in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 129. +</p> + +<p> +There are many references to Lucilius’ attacks on public +men. Cf. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 62, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Quid? cum est Lucilius ausus<br /> +primus in hunc operis componere carmina morem,<br /> +detrahere et pellem, nitidus qua quisque per ora<br /> +cederet, introrsum turpis, num Laelius et qui<br /> +duxit ab oppressa meritum Carthagine nomen<br /> +ingenio offensi aut laeso doluere Metello<br /> +famosisque Lupo cooperto versibus? atqui<br /> +primores populi arripuit populumque tributim,<br /> +scilicet uni aequus virtuti atque eius amicis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Lucil. lib. incert., ll. 63-4, quoted by Cic. <i>N.D.</i> i. 64, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘“Tubulus si Lucius umquam,<br /> +si Lupus aut Carbo, Neptuni filius,” +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +ut ait Lucilius, putasset esse deos, tam periurus aut tam +impurus fuisset?’ +</p> + +<p> +Pers. 1, 114, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Secuit Lucilius urbem,<br /> +te Lupe, te Muci, et genuinum fregit in illis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Juv. 1, 165, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ense velut stricto quotiens Lucilius ardens<br /> +infremuit, rubet auditor cui frigida mens est<br /> +criminibus, tacita sudant praecordia culpa.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p061"> +<i>The Saturae.</i>—There were thirty Books altogether, by +whom arranged is unknown. Fragments are extant from +all the Books, except xxi. and xxiv. (and possibly xxiii. and +xxv.). Books i.-xx. and xxx. were in hexameters; xxii. in +elegiacs; xxvi.-xxvii. in trochaic septenarii; and the next +two in trochaic septenarii, iambic senarii, and hexameters. +Books xxvi.-xxix. were published first, then Book xxx. In +Book xxvi. Lucilius states his views of life, his poetic +principles, what led him to write satire, etc. Cf. l. 3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nunc itidem populum aucupamur istis cum scriptoribus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Lines 7-20 contain a conversation between Lucilius and a +friend who wishes him to engage in public life. Cf. ll. 16-7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Publicanu’ vero ut Asiae fiam scripturarius<br /> +pro Lucilio, id ego nolo, et uno hoc non muto omnia.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Two divisions of the work may be recognized—(i) Books +i.-xxi. (to which xxii.-xxv. may be an addition) in hexameters; +these Books are referred to as one collection by Varro, <i>L.L.</i> +v. 17. (2) Books xxvi.-xxx. in various metres. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Dates of Composition.</i>—Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 62-70 (quoted +above), shows that Lucilius attacked Lupus and Metellus +while Scipio and Laelius were still alive, <i>i.e.</i> not after +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 129; xxvi., ll. 88-9, in which Lucilius sneers at marriage, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Homines ipsi hanc sibi molestiam ultro atque aerumnam offerunt.<br /> +Ducunt uxores, producunt, quibus haec faveant, liberos,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +may have special reference to the attempts of Metellus in +his censorship (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 131) to encourage it. If this is so, Books +xxvi.-xxx. were composed about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 131-129. Book i. was +composed after the death of Carneades in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 129 (cf. l. 12, +‘nec si Carneaden ipsum Orcu’ remittat’), and probably soon +after the death of Lupus, on whom the gods are represented +as sitting in judgment. +</p> + +<p id="p062"> +Serv. ad <i>Aen.</i> x. 104, ‘Totus hic locus de primo Lucili +translatus est libro; ubi inducuntur di habere concilium et +agere primo de interitu Lupi cuiusdam ducis in re publica, +postea sententias dicere.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 126 Lucilius was probably, along with other +<i>peregrini</i>, banished under the law of M. Iunius Pennus, +trib. pl. in that year. He probably returned in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 124, +when the law was repealed by C. Graccus. Bk. xi. was +composed after the condemnation of L. Opimius in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> +110. Cf. ll. 19-21, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quintus Opimius ille, Iugurtini pater huius,<br /> +et formosus homo fuit et famosus, utrumque<br /> +primo adulescens, posterius dat rectiu’ sese.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Subjects of the Satires.</i>—These were very varied. Besides +personal satire, we have (1) ethical criticism, as ridicule +of philosophers and attacks on luxury. +</p> + +<p> +Lib. incert. ll. 134-5 (imitated by Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 3, 132 +<i>sqq.</i>; <i>Ep.</i> i. 1, 106-8), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nondum etiam, qui haec omnia habebit,<br /> +formonsus, dives, liber, rex solu’ feretur?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +iv. 4-6 (cf. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 2, 46-8), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘O Publi, o gurges, Galloni: es homo miser, inquit,<br /> +cenasti in vita numquam bene, cum omnia in ista<br /> +consumis squilla atque acupensere cum in decimano.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(2) Travels, as the account of the journey to the Sicilian +Strait, imitated by Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 5. +</p> + +<p> +(3) Literary criticism. Lucilius jeers at Ennius’ line, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +according to Servius ad <i>Aen.</i> xi. 601, ‘Est versus Ennianus +vituperatus a Lucilio dicente per irrisionem eum debuisse +dicere “horret et alget.”’ Euripides is criticised in xxix., +frag. 9. Points of orthography and the like are also treated +of, cf. ix. 11, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p063"> +<p> +‘Iam puerei venere. E postremum facito atque i,<br /> +ut pueri plures fiant. I si faci’ solum,<br /> +pupilli, pueri, Lucili hoc uniu’ fiet.’<a href="#fn023" id="ref023">[23]</a> +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Some other points may be noted: +</p> + +<p> +(1) He addresses a large circle of readers, xxix. 99, +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Persium non curo legere: Laelium Decumum volo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> +<p> +Cf. Cic. <i>de Or.</i> ii. 25, ‘Hic [Persius] fuit enim, ut noramus,<br /> +omnium fere nostrorum hominum doctissimus: “Laelium<br /> +Decimum volo,” quem cognovimus virum bonum et non<br /> +inlitteratum sed nihil ad Persium.’ +</p> + +<p> +(2) For his self-esteem of. xxvi. 16, (quoted above). +So xxx. 1, +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quoi sua conmittunt mortali claustra Camenae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(3) He often mixes Greek words with Latin. Cf. v. 12, +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Hoc nolueris et debueris te<br /> +si minu’ delectat, quod <span class="greek">τεχνίον</span> Eisocratiumst<br /> +<span class="greek">ληρῶδες</span>que totum ac <span class="greek">συμμειρακιῶδες</span>,<br /> +non operam perdo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(4) For his carelessness as to style of. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 4, 9, +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘In hora saepe ducentos,<br /> +ut magnum, versus dictabat, stans pede in uno:<br /> +cum flueret lutulentus, erat quod tollere velles;<br /> +garrulus atque piger scribendi ferre laborem,<br /> +scribendi recte; nam ut multum, nil moror.’ +</p> +</blockquote> +<p> +For Lucilius’ influence on other poets, see above; also +under ‘Persius,’ <a href="#p262">p. 262</a>. For Horace’s views on Lucilius, see +above; also <i>Sat.</i> i. 4; i. 10; ii. 1. +</p> + +<p id="p064"> +Cf. Quint. x. 1, 93, ‘Satira quidem tota nostra est, in +qua primus insignem laudem adeptus Lucilius quosdam ita +deditos sibi adhuc habet amatores, ut eum non eiusdem +modo operis auctoribus sed omnibus poetis praeferre non +dubitent. Ego quantum ab illis tantum ab Horatio dissentio, +qui Lucilium “fluere lutulentum” et “esse aliquid, +quod tollere possis” putat. Nam eruditio in eo mira et +libertas atque inde acerbitas et abundantia salis.’ +</p> + +<h3>ATTA AND AFRANIUS.</h3> + +<p> +Writers of <i>togatae</i> were Atta and Afranius. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. p. 15 <span class="sc">R.</span>, ‘Togatas tabernarias in scaenam dataverunt +praecipue duo, L. Afranius et T. Quintius.’ +</p> + +<p> +T. Quintius Atta died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 77, according to Jerome yr. +Abr. 1940, ‘T. Quintius Atta, scriptor togatarum, Romae +moritur.’ +</p> + +<p> +Eleven titles and about twenty lines of fragments are +extant. Horace refers to Atta in <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 79 <i>sqq.</i>, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Recte necne crocum floresque perambulet Attae<br /> +fabula si dubitem, clament periisse pudorem<br /> +cuncti paene patres, ea cum reprendere coner<br /> +quae gravis Aesopus, quae doctus Roscius egit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +L. Afranius was probably born between <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 154 and 144. +He was the chief writer of <i>togatae</i> (Quint. x. 1, 100, ‘Togatis +excellit Afranius’), and also an orator. +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 167, ‘L. Afranius poeta, homo perargutus, in +fabulis quidem etiam ut scitis disertus.’ +</p> + +<p> +There are extant forty-two titles (with Latin names) and +more than four hundred lines of fragments. The plays +exhibit Roman surroundings, and describe low life, especially +of the provincial towns. Cf. the title <i>Brundusinae</i>, +also l. 136, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ubi hice Moschis, quaeso, habet, meretrix Neapolitis?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p065"> +Afranius imitated Menander, and probably Terence. +</p> + +<p> +Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 57, +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Dicitur Afrani toga convenisse Menandro.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> vi. 1, 4, ‘Afranius togatarum scriptor in +ea togata, quae Compitalia inscribitur, non inverecunde +respondens arguentibus, quod plura sumpsisset a Menandro, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Fateor” inquit “sumpsi non ab illo modo,<br /> +sed ut quisque habuit conveniret quod mihi,<br /> +quod me non posse melius facere credidi<br /> +etiam a Latino”’ (ll. 25-8). +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>vit. Ter.</i> p. 33 <span class="sc">R.</span>, ‘Terentium Afranius omnibus +comicis praefert.’ +</p> + +<h3>MINOR POETS:</h3> + +<p> +(<i>a</i>) The poets immediately after Afranius include +</p> + +<p> +(1) Hostius.—He was perhaps the grandfather of Cynthia +(Hostia), Propertius’ mistress. Prop. iv. 20, 7, +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Est tibi forma potens; sunt castae Palladis artes,<br /> +splendidaque a docto fama refulget avo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> +<p> +There are nine lines extant from his epic poem <i>Bellum +Histricum</i>, which was probably on the war of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 125. +Frag. 5 (Bährens), +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Non si mihi linguae<br /> +centum atque ora sient totidem vocesque liquatae,’ +</p> +</blockquote> +<p> +is from <i>Il.</i> ii. 489, and is imitated by Verg. <i>Aen.</i> vi. 625 +(as noticed by Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> vi. 3, 6). +</p> + +<p> +(2) Writers of epigrams—Pompilius, Valerius Aedituus, +Porcius Licinus, and Q. Lutatius Catulus (cons. <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 102). +</p> + +<p> +(3) Q. Valerius Soranus wrote verse on philology and +archaeology. +</p> + +<p id="p066"> +(4) Volcacius Sedigitus wrote verse on literary history +up to the time of the <i>fabula palliata</i>. He wrote <i>indices</i> +of Plautus (Gell. iii. 3, 1), and a work <i>De Poetis</i>, which +included his canon on the comic poets (Gell. xv. 24). +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Caecilio palmam Statio do mimico.<br /> +Plautus secundus facile exuperat ceteros.<br /> +Dein Naevius, qui fervet, pretio in tertiost.<br /> +Si erit, quod quarto detur, dabitur Licinio.<br /> +Post insequi Licinium facio Atilium.<br /> +In sexto consequetur hos Terentius,<br /> +Turpilius septimum, Trabea octavum optinet,<br /> +nono loco esse facile facio Luscium.<br /> +Decimum addo causa antiquitatis Ennium.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) The following poets wrote during Cicero’s youth, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> +106-84: +</p> + +<p> +(1) Cn. Matius, author of <i>Mimiambi</i>, and a translation +of the <i>Iliad</i>. An example of the last is Frag. I (Bährens) = +<i>Il.</i> i. 56, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Corpora Graiorum maerebat mandier igni.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(2) Laevius, author of <i>Erotopaegnia</i>, of a lyrical character. +Porphyr. ad Hor. <i>Od.</i> iii. 1, 2, ‘Romanis utique +non prius audita, quamvis Laevius lyrica ante Horatium +scripserit; sed videntur illa non Graecorum lege ad lyricum +characterem exacta.’ +</p> + +<p> +About sixty lines are extant. Gell. xix. 7 speaks of +Laevius’ curious vocabulary, and instances <i>oblittera</i> for +<i>oblitterata</i>; <i>trisaeclisenex</i>, <i>dulciorelocus</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p> +(3) A. Furius of Antium. Only six lines are extant. +</p> + +<p> +(4) C. Iulius Caesar Strabo, a tragic writer and orator. +</p> + +<p> +(5) Sueius. His works are (<i>a</i>) <i>Moretum</i>, an idyll; (<i>b</i>) +<i>Pulli</i>, on the breeding of fowls; (<i>c</i>) <i>Nidus</i>; (<i>d</i>) an epic +poem, <i>Annales</i>. +</p> + +<p id="p067"> +(6) Writers of <i>fabula Atellana</i>;<a href="#fn024" id="ref024">[24]</a> Novius and L. Pomponius +(Bononiensis). Fronto p. 62 (ed. Naber), ‘Elegantis +Novium et Pomponium et id genus in verbis rusticanis et +iocularibus ac ridiculariis.’ +</p> + +<p> +Of Novius forty-three titles and over one hundred lines +are preserved, and of Pomponius about seventy titles and +two hundred lines. The well-known characters of the <i>fabula +Atellana</i> are retained, as is seen from the titles. Cf. <i>Duo +Dosseni</i>, <i>Maccus Copa</i> of Novius; <i>Bucco Adoptatus</i>, <i>Maccus +Miles</i>, <i>Maccus Sequester</i>, <i>Maccus Virgo</i> of Pomponius. +</p> + +<h3>PROSE WRITERS OF THE SAME PERIOD:</h3> + +<p> +<i>L. Cornelius Sisenna</i> (praetor <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 78), author of <i>Historiae</i> +of the Social and Civil Wars (Vell. Pat. ii. 9). Cicero +thought him superior to his predecessors, but childish +(<i>Brut.</i> 228, <i>De Leg.</i> i. 7), and Sallust remarks his want +of frankness in speaking of Sulla’s career (<i>Iug.</i> 95). He +avoided a piecemeal and desultory treatment of events; +cf. his own words quoted by Gell. xii. 15, 2, ‘Nos una +aestate in Asia et Graecia gesta litteris idcirco continentia +mandavimus, ne vellicatim aut saltuatim scribendo lectorum +animos impediremus.’ His translation of the <cite class="greek">Μιλησιακά</cite> +of Aristides is mentioned by Ovid, <i>Tr.</i> ii. 443. +</p> + +<p> +Contemporary with Sisenna were <i>Q. Claudius Quadrigarius</i>, +and <i>Valerius Antias</i>, whose narrative was coloured +by partiality for the Valerii and for Scipio Africanus (<a href="#p220">see +under ‘Livy’</a>). +</p> + +<p> +<i>C. Licinius Macer</i>, father of the poet Calvus, was one +of Livy’s sources for the early history. Dion. Hal. (vi. 11 +and vii. 1) complains of his carelessness and the weakness +of his chronology. He claimed that he used original +authorities, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>libri lintei</i>, lists of magistrates written +on linen. He was a strong democrat, and is looked upon +by Mommsen (<i>R.H.</i> iv., p. 602) as manufacturing authorities +in support of his political views. +</p> + +<p id="p068"> +<i>Sulla</i> wrote memoirs of his own life (Plut. <i>Lucull.</i> 1), +and <i>Lucullus</i> composed in Greek a history of the Marsian +War (<i>ibid.</i>). +</p> + +<h2 id="p069">CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h2>THE CICERONIAN AGE.</h2> + +<h3>CICERO.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +M. Tullius Cicero, the son of a Roman knight, was born +at Arpinum on 3rd January, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 106. Jerome yr. Abr. +1911, ‘M. Tullius Cicero Arpini nascitur matre Helvia, +patre equestris ordinis ex regio Volscorum genere.’ Cic. +<i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 42, 3, ‘Diem meum scis esse iii. Non. Ian.’ +</p> + +<p> +He gives an account of his education in <i>Brut.</i> 306 <i>sqq.</i> +In civil law he was a pupil, in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 89, of Q. Scaevola +the Augur, and afterwards of the pontifex of the same +name (<i>de Am.</i> 1). In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 88 he studied philosophy under +Philo the Academic, and rhetoric under Molo of Rhodes. +Dialectic he practised with the Stoic Diodotus, who lived +and died in Cicero’s house (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 87-5). Other teachers of +Cicero were the poet Archias (<i>pro Arch.</i> 1), the orator +Antonius (<i>de Or.</i> ii. 3), the actors Roscius and Aesopus +(Plut. <i>Cic.</i> 5), the rhetorician M. Antonius Gnipho (Sueton. +<i>Gramm.</i> 7), and the philosophers Phaedrus and Zeno. +</p> + +<p> +After establishing a reputation at the bar by his defence +of Quinctius and of Roscius of Ameria, he visited Asia +to recruit his health and improve his oratorical style. +On his way to the East he stayed six months at Athens, +where he renewed his philosophical studies under Antiochus +the Academic. In Asia he attended the leading rhetoricians, +especially his old teacher Molo at Rhodes, who +endeavoured to chasten the exuberance of his manner. +At Rhodes he also made the acquaintance of the famous +Stoic Posidonius (<i>de Fin.</i> i. 6). After an absence of two +years he returned to Rome <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 77, and shortly afterwards +married Terentia. +</p> + +<p id="p070"> +Cicero, who had served in the Social War, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 89 +(<i>Phil.</i> xii. 27), began his official career in 75 as quaestor +of the district of Lilybaeum in Sicily, where he won +golden opinions from all classes (<i>pro Planc.</i> 64). He +headed the poll at the election of aediles for 69, and of +praetors for 66 (<i>in Pis.</i> 2); as praetor he presided over +the court for the trial of cases of <i>repetundae</i> (<i>pro Clu.</i> 147). +His canvass for the consulship of 63 began as +early as July 65 (<i>ad Att.</i> i. 1, 1); he was returned with +C. Antonius as his colleague (<i>in Pis.</i> 3). His services to +the State in 63 in the crushing of the Catilinarian conspiracy +need not be dwelt on here: his activity as an +orator in that year was great, and he passed a law against +undue influence by candidates, ‘Lex Tullia de ambitu’ +(<i>in Vat.</i> 37). He waived his right to a province, allowing +Metellus Celer to take Gaul. +</p> + +<p> +In 58 the hostility of P. Clodius effected Cicero’s banishment, +on the ground that he had put the Catilinarian +conspirators to death without trial. Retiring at first +to Vibo, in Lucania, he moved successively to Sicily, +Thurii, Tarentum, Brundisium, Dyrrhachium, Thessalonica, +and Athens. At Dyrrhachium he resided from November +58 to August 57, when, after several unsuccessful efforts +by his friends, a law was passed for his recall. +</p> + +<p id="p071"> +In 53 he was chosen augur in succession to the younger +Crassus (Plut. <i>Cic.</i> 36), and two years later was appointed +proconsul of Cilicia, under the new arrangement providing +for an interval of five years between office in Rome and +the government of a province. There he carried on a +petty warfare with the mountaineers, and captured the fort +of Pindenissus (a success for which the Senate decreed +a <i>supplicatio</i>), occupying the winter with judicial business +in the towns. His absence from the centre of affairs, +though it lasted only a year, was most distasteful to him; +cf. <i>ad Att.</i> v. 11, 1, ‘Ne provincia nobis prorogetur, per +fortunas! dum ades, quidquid provideri potest, provide: +non dici potest quam flagrem desiderio urbis, quam vix +harum rerum insulsitatem feram.’ For his just dealing +with the provincials, cf. <i>ad Att.</i> v. 21, 5. +</p> + +<p> +In November, 50, Cicero returned to Italy, to find a +crisis imminent, and finally cast in his lot with the senatorial +party. He left Rome with the consuls and the +leading <i>optimates</i>, and for some time had charge of the +district of Capua (<i>ad Fam.</i> xvi. 11, 3, ‘nos Capuam +sumpsimus’). On 7th June, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 49, he embarked to +join Pompey in Epirus, though far from enthusiastic for +his leadership (<i>ad Fam.</i> vii. 3, 2, ‘mei facti poenituit... +Nihil boni praeter causam.’) The chiefs of the party +looked upon him with suspicion, and he was not present +at the battle of Pharsalus. After Pompey’s overthrow he +returned to Brundisium, and in 47 was allowed by Caesar +to return to Rome (<i>ad Fam.</i> xiv. 23). His mode of life +at this time he thus describes (<i>ad Fam.</i> ix. 20, 3), ‘Ubi +salutatio defluxit, litteris me involvo, aut scribo aut lego. +Veniunt etiam qui me audiant quasi doctum hominem, +quia paullo sum quam ipsi doctior.’ +</p> + +<p id="p072"> +In 46 he divorced his wife Terentia, of whose neglect +he complains, <i>ad Fam.</i> iv. 14, 3; and married Publilia, +with whom he parted in the following year. In 45 he +lost his only daughter Tullia, who had been thrice married; +he tried to drown his grief by close application to literary +work, moving about from villa to villa, and it is to this +period that most of his philosophical works belong. In +44 he appeared once more in Rome, and took a prominent +part in the proceedings which followed upon Caesar’s death. +April to July he spent at his various villas (<i>ad Att.</i> xiv. +<i>passim</i>), and then decided to visit Athens, where his son +(born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 65) was studying. On 1st August he reached +Syracuse, but hearing at Leucopetra that his presence was +required at Rome, he gave up his plan of travel and +returned to the city. With the series of <i>Philippics</i> against +Antony (44-3) Cicero’s career closes. In the proscription +agreed on by the triumvirs he was marked out as one +of the chief victims. A fragment of Livy, quoted by +Seneca, <i>Suas.</i> 6, 17, states that he fled first to Tusculum, +then to Formiae, and took ship from Caieta, but returned +to land, exclaiming, ‘Moriar in patria saepe servata.’ On +his way from the shore to his villa he was slain by a +party of Antony’s soldiers, and his head was carried to +Rome and exposed on the Rostra. The date of the +assassination was 7th December, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43 (Tiro quoted by +Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 17). +</p> + +<h4 id="p073">(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<h5>(a) Speeches.</h5> + +<p> +1. The earliest extant speech is that <i>Pro Quinctio</i>, +delivered <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 81 (Gell. xv. 28, 3) in an action before a +iudex for restitution of property. This was not Cicero’s +first appearance as an advocate: § 4, ‘quod mihi consuevit +in ceteris causis esse adiumento.’ +</p> + +<p> +2. Next year (cf. Gell. <i>ibid.</i>) Cicero made his first speech +in a criminal case, defending Sex. Roscius of Ameria on a +charge of parricide. By so doing he incurred the risk of +Sulla’s enmity, but at the same time established his own +position. <i>De Off.</i> ii. 51, ‘contra L. Sullae dominantis opes +pro S. Roscio Amerino’; <i>Brut.</i> 312, ‘prima causa publica, +pro Sex. Roscio dicta, tantum commendationis habuit, ut +non ulla esset quae non digna nostro patrocinio videretur.’ +In later years he criticized the ‘iuvenilis redundantia’ of +this speech (<i>Orat.</i> 108). +</p> + +<p> +3. The speech <i>Pro Roscio Comoedo</i>, usually assigned to +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 76, was a defence of the famous actor in a civil case. +</p> + +<p> +4. The year 70 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> is memorable for the group of +speeches (‘accusationis vii. libri,’ <i>Orat.</i> 103), against Verres, +accused of <i>repetundae</i> by the Sicilians, at whose urgent +entreaty Cicero undertook the prosecution. The preliminary +question, who should conduct the prosecution, is +argued in the <i>Divinatio in Caecilium</i>. Q. Caecilius Niger, +Verres’ quaestor, claimed the right to prosecute, but this +manoeuvre failed. Of the six speeches <i>in Verrem</i> only +one, the <i>Actio Prima</i>, was delivered: Cicero, seeing that +the other side were anxious to carry the trial over into +the next year, confined himself to this short introductory +speech (on 5th August, cf. § 31), after which he called his +witnesses. Their evidence was so damaging that Hortensius<a href="#fn025" id="ref025">[25]</a> +threw up the defence, and Verres was sentenced +to banishment and his property confiscated. The five +Books of the <i>Actio Secunda</i> were published afterwards +in order that the facts might be thoroughly known. +</p> + +<p id="p074"> +5. <i>Pro M. Fonteio</i> (incomplete), for Fonteius, propraetor +of Gallia Narbonensis <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 75-3, on a charge of <i>repetundae</i>. +This trial perhaps took place <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 69, certainly after the +equites had been placed on the <i>iudicia</i> by the Lex Aurelia +of 70 (cf. § 26). +</p> + +<p> +6. To the same year probably belongs the speech <i>Pro +Caecina</i> in a civil case. +</p> + +<p> +7. In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 66 Cicero made his first political speech, +<i>Pro Lege Manilia</i>, or <i>De Imperio Cn. Pompei</i>, in support +of the bill of the tribune Manilius for conferring on Pompey +the command against Mithradates. +</p> + +<p> +8. In the same year he defended Cluentius, charged +with murder, in the speech <i>Pro A. Cluentio Habito</i>. The +date is fixed as the year of Cicero’s praetorship by § 147, +‘mea quaestio de pecuniis repetundis.’ +</p> + +<p> +9. The three speeches <i>De Lege Agraria</i> are concerned +with the bill of P. Servilius Rullus for the appointment of +<i>decemviri</i> with full power to buy and sell land and to +establish colonies. The first speech (incomplete) was made +in the Senate on 1st January, the second and third before +<i>contiones</i>. +</p> + +<p> +10. The speech <i>Pro C. Rabirio perduellionis reo</i> was +delivered on behalf of Rabirius, charged before the <i>comitia</i> +with the murder of the tribune Saturninus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 100. The +prosecution had been instituted by the democratic party +to vindicate the old right of <i>provocatio ad populum</i>, and to +establish the inviolability of the tribunes. +</p> + +<p id="p075"> +11. Of the four speeches <i>In Catilinam</i>, i. was delivered +in the Senate on 8th November, and followed by Catiline’s +flight from Rome; ii. to the people on 9th November; +iii. to the people on 3rd December, when the Allobroges +gave their evidence about the conspiracy; iv. in the Senate, +on 5th December, calling for the capital punishment of the +conspirators.<a href="#fn026" id="ref026">[26]</a> +</p> + +<p> +12. In this crisis Cicero made one of his most graceful +and witty speeches, the <i>Pro Murena</i>. The defendant was +charged with bribery in his candidature for the consulship, +and among the prosecutors was Cato. +</p> + +<p> +13-14. In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 62 Cicero defended P. Sulla, who was +accused of complicity with Catiline (<i>Pro Sulla</i>), and +delivered the speech <i>Pro Archia</i> in support of his friend’s +title to the Roman citizenship. +</p> + +<p> +15. In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59 L. Flaccus was accused of <i>repetundae</i> as +propraetor of Asia 62-60, and defended by Cicero in the +speech <i>Pro Flacco</i>. +</p> + +<p> +16-19. After Cicero’s return from exile he returned thanks +to the Senate in the speech <i>Cum Senatui gratias egit</i>, 5th September +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 57 (<i>ad Att.</i> iv. 1, 5), delivered from manuscript +(‘propter rei magnitudinem dicta de scripto,’ <i>Pro Planc.</i> +74). The genuineness of the corresponding speech to +the people, <i>Cum populo gratias egit</i>, is suspected; it is +mentioned by Dio. xxxix. 9, 1, but not by Cicero himself. +On 30th September (<i>ad Att.</i> iv. 2, 2) the speech <i>De Domo +Sua</i> was delivered before the <i>pontifices</i>, who decided that +the site of Cicero’s house, which Clodius had consecrated, +should be restored to its owner. Connected with this is +the speech <i>De Haruspicum Responsis</i>, of the year 56, rebutting +the argument of Clodius that the declaration of the +<i>haruspices</i>, ‘loca sacra et religiosa profana haberi’ (§ 9) +referred to the restitution of Cicero’s house. +</p> + +<p id="p076"> +20. The speech <i>Pro Sestio</i> is in defence of one of Cicero’s +friends who, as tribune, had worked energetically for his +recall from exile, and was now accused <i>de vi</i> at the instigation +of Clodius. Sestius was acquitted in March, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> +56 (<i>ad Q.F.</i> ii. 4, 1). +</p> + +<p> +21. The <i>Interrogatio in P. Vatinium testem</i> was a successful +attack on the credibility of Vatinius, who had been one +of the chief witnesses against Sestius. +</p> + +<p> +22. <i>Pro M. Caelio</i>.—The prosecution of Caelius on a +charge of poisoning was instigated by his former mistress, +Clodia; it took place in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 56, for Cn. Domitius, who +tried the case (§ 32), was praetor in that year (<i>ad Q.F.</i> ii. 3, 6). +</p> + +<p> +23. The speech <i>De Provinciis Consularibus</i>, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 56, argues +that Caesar should be allowed to continue as proconsul +of Gaul, and that Syria and Macedonia should be taken +away from Gabinius and Piso. Mommsen<a href="#fn027" id="ref027">[27]</a> regards it as +the <span class="greek">παλινῳδία</span> of <i>ad Att.</i> iv. 5, 1, and contrasts Cicero’s +tone to Caesar in this speech with his attitude in the <i>Pro +Sestio</i>, <i>In Vatinium</i>, and <i>De Haruspicum Responsis</i>. +</p> + +<p> +24. The speech <i>Pro Balbo</i> deals with a case similar to +that of Archias. L. Cornelius Balbus, a native of Gades, +and the trusted friend of Caesar, had received the <i>civitas</i> +from Pompey, and this speech is in defence of his right +thereto (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 56). +</p> + +<p id="p077"> +25. <i>In Pisonem</i>, an attack on Cicero’s enemy (consul +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58), delivered in the Senate <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55. +</p> + +<p> +26. <i>Pro Plancio</i>, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54, on behalf of Cn. Plancius, +accused of organizing clubs to secure by bribery his election +to the aedileship. +</p> + +<p> +27. <i>Pro Rabirio Postumo</i>, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54. Rabirius was charged +with extortion in Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +28. <i>Pro Milone</i>.—At the trial of Milo <i>de vi</i> in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 52 +Cicero was so intimidated by the uproar of the rabble +that his speech was a failure, and Milo was condemned. +The speech now extant was written by Cicero at his leisure. +Both were known to Asconius,<a href="#fn028" id="ref028">[28]</a> who supplies a valuable +introduction. +</p> + +<p> +29. For six years we have no speech; but in 46 Cicero +broke his rule of silence (‘in perpetuum tacere,’ <i>ad Fam.</i> +iv. 4, 4), and in the speech <i>Pro Marcello</i> thanked Caesar +for allowing Marcellus, the consul of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 51, to return to +Rome. +</p> + +<p> +30. On 26th November <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46 he pleaded before Caesar +the cause of Q. Ligarius (<i>Pro Ligario</i>). +</p> + +<p> +31. In the latter part of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45 he delivered in Caesar’s +house the speech <i>Pro Rege Deiotaro</i> on behalf of his +‘hospes vetus et amicus,’ the tetrarch of Galatia, accused +of treachery to Caesar. +</p> + +<p id="p078"> +32. Cicero’s oratorical career closes with the fourteen +speeches against Antony, called <i>Philippics</i>, after the +speeches of Demosthenes. This title was suggested by +the author himself; cf. the letter of Brutus (<i>ad Brut.</i> ii. 5, 4), +‘iam concedo ut vel Philippicae vocentur, quod tu quadam +epistula iocans scripsisti.’ It was the usual title in +antiquity, though Gellius (xiii. 1, 1) uses the alternative +<i>Antonianae</i>. The <i>Philippics</i> cover the period from 2nd +September 44 to 22nd April 43. They were all delivered +in the Senate, except iv. and vi., which are <i>contiones</i>, and +ii., which was never spoken, but published as a political +pamphlet after Antony had left Rome: for its fame cf. +Juv. 10, 125, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Te conspicuae, divina Philippica, famae,<br /> + volveris a prima quae proxima.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +There are fragments of about twenty speeches, and the +titles of thirty others are known. The invective <i>in Sallustium</i>, +and the speech <i>Pridie quam in exilium iret</i>, are +undoubtedly spurious. +</p> + +<p> +Many of the speeches were to a large extent extempore, +the heads only being committed to writing. These notes +were afterwards collected by Tiro (Quint. x. 7, 30-1). In +publishing, Cicero occasionally omitted some passages of +the spoken oration, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Pro Mur.</i> 57 only the headings +appear, ‘De Postumi criminibus.’ ‘De Servi adulescentis’: +cf. Plin. <i>Ep.</i> i. 20, 7, ‘ex his apparet illum permulta dixisse, +cum ederet omisisse.’ For the practice of reporting his +speeches in shorthand cf. Ascon. <i>in Mil.</i> ‘manet illa quoque +excepta eius oratio’ (his speech at Milo’s trial). The only +case in which Cicero appeared for the prosecution was that +of Verres: the part of an accuser was generally distasteful +to him; cf. <i>De Off.</i> ii. 50, ‘duri hominis vel potius vix +hominis videtur, periculum capitis inferre multis.’ +</p> + +<h5 id="p079">(b) Philosophical Works.</h5> + +<p> +1. <i>De Re Publica</i>, a discussion of the ideal state and the +ideal citizen, was published before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 51, for Caelius +writes to Cicero in Cilicia, ‘tui politici libri omnibus vigent’ +(<i>ad Fam.</i> viii. 1, 4). In this treatise Cicero made use of +Plato, and of Aristotle, Theophrastus, and other Peripatetics +(<i>de Div.</i> ii. 3). There were six Books; but until 1822 the +<i>Somnium Scipionis</i>, extracted by Macrobius from Book vi., +was the only portion of the work known to exist, with the +exception of a few fragments. In that year Mai published +at Rome, from a Vatican palimpsest, remains which make +up about one-third of the whole. +</p> + +<p> +2. The <i>De Legibus</i> succeeded the <i>De Re Publica</i>, as +Plato’s <i>Laws</i> came after the <i>Republic</i>. The speakers in +this dialogue are Atticus, Cicero, and his brother Quintus. +Book i. expounds the Stoic position that the laws of the +ideal state are made by the wise man in accordance with +the mind of God; this position is worked out in Book ii. +in the regulations for religion, and in iii. on the duties of +magistrates. The treatise was never completed, and was +perhaps a posthumous publication: it is not mentioned in +the list in <i>De Divinatione</i> ii. 1-3, and there is no preface, +though Cicero says (<i>ad Att.</i> iv. 16, 2) ‘in singulis libris +utor prooemiis.’ Certainly it had not appeared in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46, +the year of the <i>Brutus</i> (<i>Brut.</i> 19). It was composed after +the murder of Clodius in January, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 52 (ii. 42), and in +Pompey’s lifetime (iii. 22): probably in 52, as the government +of Cilicia and the civil war left Cicero no time for +literature during the years 51-48. +</p> + +<p id="p080"> +3. In the spring of 46 was written the short tract +<i>Paradoxa</i>, a discussion of six Stoic paradoxes (<i>e.g.</i> that +the wise man alone is free). It was addressed to Brutus, +and was later than the dialogue which bears his name; +cf. the preface, ‘accipies hoc parvum opusculum, lucubratum +his iam contractioribus noctibus, quoniam illud +maiorum vigiliarum munus in tuo nomine apparuit.’ +</p> + +<p> +4. The death of Tullia in February, 45, led Cicero to +write, at Astura, a <i>Consolatio</i>, of which only fragments +survive. Plin. <i>N.H.</i> praef. 22, quotes Cicero as saying +that he here followed the Greek philosopher, Crantor, <cite class="greek">περὶ πένθους</cite>. +It contained notices of the deaths of great men, +<i>De Div.</i> ii. 22, ‘clarissimorum hominum nostrae civitatis +gravissimos exitus in Consolatione collegimus.’ +</p> + +<p> +5. In the <i>Hortensius</i> Cicero appeared as the champion +of philosophy: <i>De Fin.</i> i. 2, ‘philosophiae vituperatoribus +satis responsum est eo libro, quo a nobis philosophia defensa +et collaudata est, cum esset accusata et vituperata +ab Hortensio.’ It cannot be traced beyond the seventh +century, and is now represented by a few fragments. In +the Middle Ages it was confounded with the <i>Prior +Academics</i>, the speakers in both dialogues being the same. +The <i>Hortensius</i> seems to have been written before Cicero +went to Astura in March, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45: there is no allusion to +it in his letters. +</p> + +<p> +6. The treatise <i>De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum</i> discusses +various theories of the <i>summum bonum</i>—the Epicurean +in Books i.-ii., the Stoic in iii.-iv., the Peripatetic +in v. The scene of the dialogue changes from Cumae to +Tusculum and then to the Academy at Athens. The work +was dedicated to Brutus in June, 45 (<i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 12, 3). +</p> + +<p> +7. The <i>Academics</i> appeared in two editions. Of the +original edition Book ii., entitled <i>Lucullus</i>, has survived; +the speakers in it are Lucullus, Catulus, Hortensius, and +Cicero, and the scene, Hortensius’ villa. Cicero was not +satisfied with this arrangement (<i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 12, 3, ‘homines +nobiles illi quidem, sed nullo modo philologi, nimis acute +locuntur’), and after provisionally transferring the parts +of Lucullus, Catulus, and Hortensius, to Cato and Brutus, +he finally adopted the suggestion of Atticus to gratify +Varro by giving him a share in the dialogue together +with Atticus and himself (<i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 13, 1, ‘commotus +tuis litteris, quod ad me de Varrone scripseras, totam +Academiam ab hominibus nobilissimis abstuli transtulique +ad nostrum sodalem et ex duobus libris contuli +in quattuor’). Of this second edition in four Books we +possess only Book i. (incomplete), and fragments of the +others; the scene is at Cumae. The dedicatory epistle +to Varro is still preserved (<i>ad Fam.</i> ix. 8). +</p> + +<p id="p081"> +8. In the five Books of <i>Tusculanae Disputationes</i>, conversations +between Cicero and a friend at his Tusculan +villa, the subject is the chief essentials for happiness. +Book i. inculcates the proper attitude towards death, ii. to +grief, iii. to pain, iv. to other trials, v. asserts the sufficiency of virtue for happiness. The treatise is dedicated +to Brutus, and was finished by <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44, in which year +(<i>ad Att.</i> xv. 2, 4) the first Book is known to Atticus. +</p> + +<p> +9. <i>De Natura Deorum</i>, in three Books, is also addressed +to Brutus. The Epicurean, Stoic, and Peripatetic doctrines +are represented by C. Velleius, Q. Lucilius Balbus, and +C. Aurelius Cotta, respectively. This treatise was written +after the <i>Tusculans</i> (<i>de Div.</i> ii. 3): in July 45 (<i>ad Att.</i> +xiii. 39, 2) Atticus is asked for the loan of <cite class="greek">Φαίδρου περὶ θεῶν</cite> and <cite class="greek">περὶ Παλλάδος</cite>. +</p> + +<p id="p082"> +10. The essay <i>De Senectute</i>, called also <i>Cato Maior</i> after +the principal speaker in the dialogue, was addressed to +Atticus at the end of 45 or early in 44 (<i>de Div.</i> ii. 3; +<i>ad Att.</i> xiv. 21, 3). +</p> + +<p> +11. To a later date in the same year belongs the <i>Laelius</i>, +or <i>De Amicitia</i> (<i>de Am.</i> 4 mentions the <i>de Sen.</i>), in which +Laelius discourses on friendship. In this book, according +to Gell. i. 3, 10-11, Cicero was under obligations to +Theophrastus <cite class="greek">περὶ φιλίας</cite>. +</p> + +<p> +12. <i>De Divinatione</i>, in two Books, forms a supplement +to the <i>De Natura Deorum</i>. Cicero and his brother discuss, +at Tusculum, the nature and validity of ‘divinatio,’ +which is defined (i. 9) as ‘earum rerum quae fortuitae +putantur praedictio atque praesensio.’ The date is 44. +</p> + +<p> +13. The incomplete essay <i>De Fato</i> was written in 44, +after Caesar’s death (cf. § 2). The conversation takes place +at Puteoli, between Cicero and the consul-designate Hirtius. +</p> + +<p> +14. On 11th July of the same year Cicero sent to +Atticus his treatise <i>De Gloria</i>, in two Books, now lost +(<i>ad Att.</i> xvi. 2, 6; <i>de Off.</i> ii. 31). +</p> + +<p> +15. The latest of the extant philosophical works is the +<i>De Officiis</i>, written for the instruction of the author’s son. +Cicero had completed two Books by November, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44 +(xvi. 11, 4), following the treatment of Panaetius, and +discussing in Book i. the issue between vice and virtue, +in Book ii. the expediency of a given action. In Book iii. +he was indebted to Posidonius, for the discussion of +apparent conflict between virtue and expediency. +</p> + +<p> +There are traces of two other treatises, <i>De Virtutibus</i> +and <i>De Auguriis</i>; and we possess fragments of a translation +of Plato’s <i>Protagoras</i> and <i>Timaeus</i>, which cannot +be earlier than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45 (<i>de Fin.</i> i. 7). +</p> + +<p id="p083"> +Cicero propounds no original scheme of philosophy, +claiming only that he renders the conclusions of Greek +thinkers accessible to his own countrymen. This sort of +work cost him little trouble: <i>ad Att.</i> xii. 52, 3, ‘<span class="greek">ἀπόγραφα</span> +sunt; minore labore fiunt: verba tantum affero, quibus +abundo.’ At the same time he is not a mere translator: +<i>de Fin.</i> i. 6, ‘nos non interpretum fungimur munere, sed +tuemur ea quae dicta sunt ab eis quos probamus, eisque +nostrum iudicium et nostrum scribendi ordinem adiungimus.’ +His motives for entering upon this task are explained +in <i>De Nat. Deor.</i> i. 7-9: (1) he desired to do a +service to his country: ‘ipsius rei publicae causa philosophiam nostris hominibus explicandam putavi’; (2) he +sought relief for his own mind: ‘hortata etiam est ut me +ad haec conferrem animi aegritudo, fortunae magna et +gravi conmota iniuria.’ Cicero is an eclectic, with a +leaning to the New Academy: <i>Tusc.</i> iv. 7, ‘nullis unius +disciplinae legibus adstricti, quibus in philosophia necessario +pareamus.’ Probability is all that he expects to reach: +<i>ibid.</i>, ‘quid sit in quaque re maxime probabile semper +requiremus.’ The philosophy most attractive to him is +that which best called forth the oratorical faculty: <i>Tusc.</i> +ii. 9, ‘mihi semper Peripateticorum Academiaeque consuetudo +de omnibus rebus in contrarias partes differendi +... placuit ... quod esset ea maxima dicendi exercitatio.’<a href="#fn029" id="ref029">[29]</a> +</p> + +<h5>(c) Rhetorical Treatises.</h5> + +<p> +I. The earliest of these is <i>De Inventione</i>, or <i>Rhetorica</i>, +in two Books, written probably for the author’s own use +during Sulla’s absence in Asia <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 87-83. In his mature +years Cicero looked back with contempt on this youthful +effort: <i>de Or.</i> i. 5, ‘quae pueris aut adulescentulis nobis ex +commentariolis nostris incohata ac rudia exciderunt.’ He +borrows much from the <i>Rhet. ad Herenn.</i>, and frequently +mentions and criticises the views of Hermagoras; but all +the best writers on rhetoric were laid under contribution: +ii. 4, ‘omnibus unum in locum coactis scriptoribus, +quod quisque commodissime praecipere videbatur, excerpsimus.’ +</p> + +<p id="p084"> +2. The three Books <i>De Oratore</i> were finished in 55: +<i>ad Att.</i> iv. 13, 2, ‘de libris oratoriis factum est a me +diligenter: diu multumque in manibus fuerunt: describas +licet.’ They were written at a time when Cicero’s voice +was seldom heard: <i>ad Fam.</i> i. 9, 23, ‘ab orationibus +diiungo me fere referoque ad mansuetiores Musas.’ The +dialogue takes place in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 91, at the Tusculan villa of +L. Licinius Crassus; he and the rival orator, M. Antonius, +are the chief speakers. +</p> + +<p> +3. The dialogue <i>Brutus</i>, or <i>De Claris Oratoribus</i>, after +a brief survey of Greek oratory, criticises the Roman +orators from L. Brutus to Cicero’s own time. In spite of +his intention to omit living persons (§ 231), he discusses +Caesar, M. Marcellus, and himself. The speakers are +Brutus, Atticus, and Cicero; and the date is probably 46, +for the <i>Brutus</i> is earlier than the <i>Orator</i>, which refers +to it (§ 23). +</p> + +<p> +4. The <i>Orator</i> or <i>De Optimo Genere Dicendi</i> is a sequel +to the <i>De Oratore</i> and the <i>Brutus</i>, adding practical rules +to the exposition of theory (<i>de Div.</i> ii. 4). It was written +at the request of Brutus, to whom it is addressed, in the +year 46 (<i>ad Fam.</i> xii. 17, 2). +</p> + +<p id="p085"> +5. <i>Partitiones Oratoriae</i> is a catechism on rhetoric, in +which the questions are put to Cicero by his son. +</p> + +<p> +6. The <i>Topica</i> was written in response to repeated requests +from Trebatius for explanation of Aristotle’s <i>Topics</i>. +It was done by Cicero, without the aid of books, on his +voyage from Velia to Rhegium in July, 44 (<i>Top.</i> 5; <i>ad +Fam.</i> vii. 19). +</p> + +<p> +7. The short treatise <i>De Optimo Genere Oratorum</i> was +introductory to a version of the speeches of Demosthenes +and Aeschines ‘on the Crown,’ designed to show the +Romans what the best Attic oratory was like. +</p> + +<h5>(d) Letters.</h5> + +<p> +Cicero’s correspondence begins <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 68 with <i>ad Att.</i> i. 5, +and ends 28th July, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43. Besides seven hundred and +seventy-four letters written by Cicero, we have ninety addressed +to him by friends. The collection was made by +friends like Tiro and Atticus: cf. <i>ad Att.</i> xvi. 5, 5 (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44), +‘Mearum epistularum nulla est <span class="greek">συναγωγή</span>, sed habet Tiro +instar septuaginta, et quidem sunt a te quaedam sumendae: +eas ego oportet perspiciam, corrigam; tum denique edentur.’ +</p> + +<p> +The letters now extant fall into four groups. +</p> + +<p> +i. <i>Epistulae ad Atticum</i>, in sixteen Books, belonging to +the years <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 68-43, and valuable for their thorough frankness +(<i>ad Att.</i> viii. 14, 2, ‘ego tecum tamquam mecum +loquor’). Nepos appreciates their supreme importance +for the history of Cicero’s time, although he dates the +commencement of the correspondence wrongly: <i>Att.</i> 16, +‘xvi. volumina epistularum ab consulatu eius usque ad extremum +tempus ad Atticum missarum; quae qui legat, non +multum desideret historiam contextam eorum temporum.’ +Atticus’ own letters were not published, though Cicero +preserved them: <i>ad Att.</i> ix. 10, 4, ‘Evolvi volumen epistularum, +quod ego sub signo habeo servoque +diligentissime.’ +</p> + +<p id="p086"> +2. <i>Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem</i>, in three Books, of +the years <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60-54. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Epistulae ad Brutum</i>, originally in nine Books, of +which only two remain. The present Book i. was really +Book ix., and Book ii., which contains letters earlier than +those in Book i., may have formed part of the original +Book viii. +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Epistulae ad Familiares</i>, in sixteen Books, letters to +and from friends, written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 62-43. This title is not found +in any <span class="bcad">MS.</span> Late <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> and old editions have ‘Epistulae +Familiares’: for the title ‘Ad Diversos’ there is no +authority. In the best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> the Books are titled separately +by the name of the person to whom the first letter in each +is written, <i>e.g.</i> ‘M. Tulli Ciceronis epistularum ad P. Lentulum +liber i.’ +</p> + +<p> +For the colloquial style of the letters cf. <i>ad Fam.</i> ix. 21, 1 +(to Paetus), ‘Quid tibi ego in epistulis videor? nonne +plebeio sermone agere tecum? nec enim semper eodem +modo: quid enim simile habet epistula aut iudicio aut +contioni? ... epistulas vero cottidianis verbis texere solemus.’ +</p> + +<p> +The following works are now lost: (<i>a</i>) <i>Miscellaneous +prose writings.</i>—1. Panegyrics on Porcia (<i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 37, 3) +and Cato, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45; and funeral orations written for other +people to deliver (<i>ad Q.F.</i> iii. 8, 5, ‘laudavit pater scripto +meo’). +</p> + +<p> +2. Memoirs of Cicero’s consulship, written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60, in +both Greek and Latin (<i>ad. Att.</i> i. 19, 10). He took great +pains with this book, and was anxious that it should be +well circulated (<i>ad Att.</i> ii. 1, 1). +</p> + +<p id="p087"> +3. A secret history, <i>Anekdota</i>, mentioned in letters of +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59 and 44 (<i>ad Att.</i> ii. 6, 2; xiv. 17, 6). +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Admiranda</i>, a collection of wonders (Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> +xxxi. 51). +</p> + +<p> +5. <i>Chorographia</i>, a book on geography, mentioned by +Priscian. The letters to Atticus show that Cicero was +studying the subject in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59. +</p> + +<p> +6. A work on law, <i>De iure civili in artem redigendo</i> +(Gell. i. 22, 7). +</p> + +<p> +7. A translation of Xenophon’s <i>Oeconomicus</i>, made when +Cicero was about the age of twenty (<i>de Off.</i> ii. 87). +</p> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) <i>Poems.</i>—1. Cicero’s earliest effort in verse was a poem +in tetrameters, entitled <i>Pontius Glaucus</i>: Plut. <i>Cic.</i> 2, +<span class="greek">καὶ τι ποιημάτιον ἔτι παιδὸς αὐτοῦ διασῴζεται Πόντιος Γλαῦκος ἐν τετραμέτρῳ +πεποιημένον</span>. +</p> + +<p> +2. In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60 he made a verse translation of the astronomical +poems of Aratus, <i>ad Att.</i> ii. 1, 2, ‘Prognostica +mea ... propediem exspecta.’ Quotations are given in <i>De +Nat. Deor.</i> ii. 104 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +3. In the same year he wrote a poem <i>De Suo Consulatu</i>, +in three Books: <i>ad Att.</i> i. 19, 10, ‘poema exspectato, ne +quod genus a me ipso laudis meae praetermittatur.’ A +long passage from Book ii., spoken by the Muse Urania, +is recited by Q. Cicero in <i>De Div.</i> i. 17 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +4. Another poem in three Books, <i>De Temporibus Suis</i>, +belonged probably to the year 55. Cicero writes to Lentulus +in 54 (<i>ad Fam.</i> i. 9, 23), ‘scripsi versibus tres libros +de temporibus meis, quos iam pridem ad te misissem, si +esse edendos putassem.’ +</p> + +<p> +5. In the letters to Quintus from June to December, +54, there is frequent mention of a poem <i>Ad Caesarem</i>. +Quintus is consulted for information about Britain: <i>ad +Q.F.</i> ii. 15, 2, ‘mihi date Britanniam, quam pingam +coloribus tuis, penicillo meo.’ +</p> + +<p id="p088"> +6. A poem on Cicero’s great townsman Marius is quoted, +<i>De Div.</i> i. 106. +</p> + +<p> +Among others quoted are <i>Limon</i>, in which Terence was +praised (see <a href="#p051">p. 51</a>), and <i>iocularis libellus</i> (Quint. viii. 6, +73). Translations from Greek poets occur in the philosophical +works, e.g. <i>de Fin.</i> v. 49, from Homer, <i>Odys.</i> xii. +184-191; <i>Tusc.</i> ii. 23, from various parts of Aeschylus, +<i>Prom. Vinct.</i> +</p> + +<p> +The ancient criticisms on Cicero’s poetry are all unfavourable: +</p> + +<p> +<i>De Off.</i> i. 77, ‘Illud optimum est, in quo invadi solere ab +improbis et invidis audio: +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Cedant arma togae, concedat laurea laudi.”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Juv. 10, 122, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘“O fortunatam natam me consule Romam!”<br /> +Antoni gladios potuit contemnere, si sic<br /> +omnia dixisset.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 21 (quoted <a href="#p111">p. 111</a>). +</p> + +<p> +Quint. xi. 1, 24, ‘In carminibus utinam pepercisset, quae +non desierunt carpere maligni.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Rhetorica ad Herennium</i>.—This treatise on rhetoric in +four Books, addressed to the author’s relative C. Herennius, +is usually printed among Cicero’s works, and is attributed +to him by the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> and by Jerome and Priscian. But it +is clearly not by Cicero, for (<i>a</i>) it does not agree with his +own description of his early rhetorical writings as ‘incohata +ac rudia’; (<i>b</i>) the author’s position, as described by himself, +is not Cicero’s. It is generally held that one Cornificius +was the author; Quintilian (<i>e.g.</i> v. 10, 2) attributes to a person +of that name several expressions found in the <i>ad Herennium</i>. +He may have been the Q. Cornificius who opposed +Cicero for the consulship in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 64. The date of the +treatise is probably <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 86-84. +</p> + +<h3 id="p089">QUINTUS CICERO.</h3> + +<p> +Q. Tullius Cicero, the brother of the orator, was born +probably <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 102. He was aedile in 65 (<i>ad Att.</i> i. 4, 1); +praetor in 62, when he tried the case of Archias; propraetor +of Asia 61-58 (<i>ad Q.F.</i> i. 1, 2). He acted as +<i>legatus</i> of Pompey in Sardinia <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 56 (<i>pro Scauro</i>, 39); of +Caesar in Gaul, taking part in the second invasion of +Britain (Caes. <i>B.G.</i> v.); and of his brother in Cilicia +(<i>ad Fam.</i> xv. 4, 8). At the outbreak of the civil war he +was with Marcus at Formiae and Capua; but after the +death of Pompey there was a breach between them. Being +proscribed by the triumvirs he took flight, but was betrayed +by his slaves and put to death, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43 (Plut. <i>Cic.</i> 47). +His wife was Pomponia, the sister of Atticus. +</p> + +<p> +For the benefit of M. Cicero in his candidature for the +consulship, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 64, Quintus wrote the <i>Commentariolum +Petitionis</i> (the title in § 58) or <i>De Petitione Consulatus</i>. It +is in the form of a letter, and is headed in the best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> +‘Q. M. Fratri S. D.’ Quintus writes with special reference +to his brother’s circumstances, but most of the rules which +he lays down are of general application. The authenticity +of this treatise has been called in question by Eussner, +who ascribes it to a clever imitator, partly on the ground +of coincidences of expression with Cicero’s speech <i>in Toga +Candida</i>; but his arguments are refuted by Prof. Tyrrell +(<i>Cicero’s Correspondence</i>, i. pp. 110-121). +</p> + +<p> +There are also extant three letters to Tiro and one to M. +Cicero. Quintus’ poetry is now represented only by twenty +hexameters on the signs of the zodiac; but he wrote an +epic poem, <i>Annales</i> (<i>ad Att.</i> ii. 16, 4 [Quintus] ‘ita remittit +ut me roget ut annales suos emendem et edam’), and +composed tragedies with great rapidity (<i>ad Q.F.</i> iii. 6, 7, +‘quattuor tragoedias xvi. diebus absolvisse cum scribas, +tu quidquam ab alio mutuaris?’). His admiration for +Sophocles and Euripides appears in <i>De Fin.</i> v. 3; +<i>ad Fam.</i> xvi. 8, 2. +</p> + +<h3 id="p090">TIRO.</h3> + +<p> +M. Tullius Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, who had a +high opinion of his worth and ability (<i>ad Fam.</i> xvi. 4, 3; +<i>ad Att.</i> vii. 5, 2), wrote (1) a biography of his patron: +Ascon. p. 49, ‘ut legimus apud Tironem libertum Ciceronis +in libro iiii. de vita eius.’ +</p> + +<p> +(2) Editions of Cicero’s speeches and letters: Gell. i. 7, 1, +‘in oratione Ciceronis v. in Verrem, libro spectatae fidei, +Tironiana cura atque disciplina facto.’ (See also <a href="#p085">p. 85</a>.) +</p> + +<p> +(3) A collection of Cicero’s witticisms: Quint. vi. 3, 5, +‘utinam libertus eius Tiro aut alius, quisquis fuit, qui +iii. hac de re libros edidit, parcius dictorum numero indulsissent.’ +</p> + +<p> +(4) Grammatical works, as <span class="greek">πανδέκται</span>, mentioned by +Gell. xiii. 9, 2. +</p> + +<p> +For his system of shorthand, cf. Sueton. p. 136 <span class="sc">R.</span>, +‘Romae primus Tullius Tiro, Ciceronis libertus, commentatus +est notas, sed tantum praepositionum.’ +</p> + +<h3>T. POMPONIUS ATTICUS (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 109-32).</h3> + +<p> +Author of (1) <i>Annalis</i>, a chronological table of the chief +events in Roman and foreign history, accompanied by +genealogies (Nepos, <i>Att.</i> 18, 1). As it was Cicero’s <i>De Re +Publica</i> that suggested its composition (Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 19), its +date cannot be earlier than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54. (2) Family histories, +<i>e.g.</i> of the Iunii (Nepos, <i>Att.</i> 18, 3), published separately. +(3) <i>De Imaginibus</i>, a collection of inscriptions in verse +for the busts of celebrated men (Nepos, <i>Att.</i> 18, 5). (4) <i>De +Consulatu Ciceronis</i>, in Greek (Nepos, <i>Att.</i> 18, 6), written +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60 (Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> ii. 1, 1). +</p> + +<p id="p091"> +Atticus is an interesting figure on account of the large +publishing business which he conducted (Nepos, <i>Att.</i> 13, 3); +and the great care with which he sought out good <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> +to reproduce in his establishment makes him important +in the history of the preservation of ancient literature. +</p> + +<h3>M. TERENTIUS VARRO.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +M. Terentius Varro was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 116 at Reate in the +Sabine country. +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 1901, ‘M. Terentius Varro philosophus et +poeta nascitur.’ Symmachus, <i>Ep.</i> i. 2, calls him ‘Terentius +Reatinus’; and he owned property in that district: <i>R.R.</i> ii. +praef. 6, ‘ipse pecuarias habui grandes, in Apulia oviarias, +et in Reatino equarias.’ +</p> + +<p> +Of his family nothing is known except that he had an +uncle belonging to the equestrian order (Plin. <i>N.H.</i> vii. 176). +His philosophical education was received at Athens, where +he was a disciple of Antiochus of Ascalon: Cic. <i>Ac. Post.</i> +12, ‘Aristum Athenis [Brutus] audivit aliquamdiu, cuius tu +[Varro] fratrem Antiochum.’ +</p> + +<p> +He took part in the war with Sertorius in Spain, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 76 +(Sall. <i>Hist.</i> ii. fr. 69). In the war with the pirates, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 67, +he was one of Pompeius’ lieutenants, and received a <i>corona +navalis</i> for his services. Varro <i>R.R.</i> ii. praef. 7, ‘cum +piratico bello inter Delum et Ciliciam Graeciae classibus +praeessem.’ Plin. <i>N.H.</i> vii. 115, ‘[Varroni] Magnus Pompeius piratico ex bello navalem [coronam] dedit.’ Probably +he was also with Pompeius in the war with Mithradates +(Plin. <i>N.H.</i> xxxiii. 136, xxxvii. 11; knowledge of the Caspian, +vi. 38). To the coalition of Pompeius, Caesar, and Crassus +he was originally hostile, going so far as to write one of his +satires, <cite class="greek">Τρικάρανος</cite>, against them (Appian <i><span class="bcad">B.C.</span></i> ii. 9); but +in 59 he was a member of the commission appointed to +establish Caesar’s veterans in Campania: Plin. <i>N.H.</i> vii. 176, +‘Varro auctor est xx. viro se agros dividente Capuae,’ etc. +He also held the office of tribune (Gell. xiii. 12, 6), and +was aedile with Murena (Plin. xxxv. 173). +</p> + +<p id="p092"> +When the civil war broke out he was one of Pompeius’ +lieutenants in Farther Spain, and resisted Caesar without +success (Caes. <i><span class="bcad">B.C.</span></i> ii. 17-20). From Spain he withdrew to +Epirus, where he was coldly received by the Pompeians +(Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> ix. 6, 3, ‘crudeliter otiosis minabantur, eratque +eis et tua invisa voluntas et mea oratio’). We hear of +him at Corcyra (<i>R.R.</i> i. 4), and at Dyrrhachium a few +days before the battle of Pharsalus (Cic. <i>de Div.</i> i. 68). +After Caesar’s victory he lived quietly at his Tusculan villa +(Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> ix. 6, 4, ‘his tempestatibus es prope solus in +portu ... equidem hos tuos Tusculanenses dies instar esse +vitae puto’). He was more easily reconciled than Cicero +to the new government, and was made librarian by Caesar: +Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 44, ‘Destinabat bibliothecas Graecas Latinasque +quas maximas posset publicare, data M. Varroni cura comparandarum +ac digerendarum.’ This, however, did not +prevent him writing a funeral oration on Cato’s sister Porcia +(Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 48, 2). +</p> + +<p id="p093"> +After Caesar’s death Varro was exposed to the persecution +of Antonius, whose raid on his villa at Casinum is vividly +described by Cicero (<i>Phil.</i> ii. 103 <i>sqq.</i>). He was proscribed, +but the devotion of his friends secured his escape (Appian +<i><span class="bcad">B.C.</span></i> iv. 47). +</p> + +<p> +His old age was spent in peace, the literary activity for +which his whole life was remarkable being maintained to the +end. At the age of eighty-three he was still writing: Plin. +<i>N.H.</i> xxix. 65, ‘Cunctarer in proferendo ex his remedio, +ni M. Varro lxxxiii vitae anno prodidisset,’ etc. +</p> + +<p> +Varro’s death took place in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27, in his ninetieth year. +Jerome yr. Abr. 1990, ‘M. Terentius Varro philosophus +prope nonagenarius moritur.’ +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +Cicero (<i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 18) calls Varro ‘homo <span class="greek">πολυγραφώτατος</span>,’ +and Varro himself said that he had written four +hundred and ninety Books by the end of his seventy-seventh +year: Gell. iii. 10, 17, ‘Addit se quoque iam duodecimam +annorum hebdomadam ingressum esse et ad eum diem +septuaginta hebdomadas librorum conscripsisse.’ A letter +of Jerome<a href="#fn030" id="ref030">[30]</a> gives a list of thirty-nine works in four hundred +and ninety Books, admitting at the same time that these +were only half of the total number (‘vix medium descripsi +indicem’). The titles of twenty-one other works are known +from various sources. +</p> + +<p> +1. <i>Agriculture.</i>—Of this enormous number only one has +survived in a complete form, the treatise <i>De Re Rustica</i> in +three Books, in the form of a dialogue. Book i. treats of +agriculture; ii. of stock-raising; iii. of poultry, game, and +fish. It was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 37-6: <i>R.R.</i> i. 1, 1, ‘Annus +octogesimus admonet me ut sarcinas colligam ante quam +proficiscar e vita.’ +</p> + +<p id="p094"> +2. <i>Grammar.</i>—Of the twenty-five books <i>De Lingua +Latina</i>, only v.-x. have been preserved, but the scope of +the whole is known from Varro’s own words. Book i. was +introductory; ii.-vii. dealt with etymology; viii.-xiii. with +inflexions; xiv.-xxv. with syntax. Varro’s derivations are +ridiculed by Quintilian i. 6, 37, ‘Sed cui non post Varronem +sit venia, qui <i>agrum</i> quia in eo <i>agatur</i> aliquid, et <i>graculos</i> +quia <i>gregatim</i> volent dictos voluit persuadere Ciceroni?’ +From Book v. onwards the work was dedicated to Cicero, +in return for his <i>Academics</i>; it is announced in Cic. <i>Ac.</i> +i. 2, where Varro says, ‘Habeo opus magnum in manibus, +idque iam pridem: ad hunc enim ipsum (me autem dicebat) +quaedam institui, quae et sunt magna sane et limantur a +me politius.’ The date of publication was probably <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> +45-3. +</p> + +<p> +Of the minor works on grammar, some at least were prior +to the <i>De Lingua Latina</i>: Cic. <i>Ac.</i> i. 9, ‘Plurimum poetis +nostris omninoque Latinis et litteris luminis et verbis attulisti.’ +The titles known are, <i>De sermone Latino</i>, <i>De origine +linguae Latinae</i>, <i>De similitudine verborum</i>, <i>De utilitate sermonis</i>, +<i>De antiquitate litterarum</i>, <cite class="greek">Περὶ χαρακτήρων</cite>. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Roman History and Antiquities.</i> Varro’s great work +in this department was the <i>Antiquitates rerum divinarum +humanarumque</i>, in forty-one Books. The arrangement, +according to Augustine <i>De Civ. Dei</i>, vi. 3, was as follows: +(<i>a</i>) i.-xxv. <i>res humanae</i>; i. introductory, ii.-vii. history of +Rome down to its capture by the Gauls, viii.-xiii. geography +of Italy, xiv.-xix. Roman Calendar, with dates of the chief +historical events, xx.-xxv. Roman institutions, (<i>b</i>) xxvi.-xli. +<i>res divinae</i>; the persons who sacrifice, the places, the times, +the rites, and the gods were discussed in three Books each, +xxvi. being introductory. The second part, at least, was +addressed to Caesar as <i>pontifex maximus</i>. As it is mentioned by Cic. <i>Ac.</i> i. 9, it must have been published before +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45. +</p> + +<p id="p095"> +Minor works under this head were <i>Annales</i>, <i>Res urbanae</i>, +<i>De gente populi Romani</i>, <i>De vita populi Romani</i>, <i>De familiis +Troianis</i>, <i>Tribuum Liber</i>; <i>Aetia</i> (<span class="greek">αἴτια</span>), explaining Roman +usages, in the form of a catechism; <cite class="greek">Εἰσαγωγικός</cite> to Pompey +on the duties of a consul (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 71), Gell. xiv. 7, 1; <i>De +Pompeio</i>, <i>Legationum Libri</i>, <i>De sua vita</i>. +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Geography.</i>—(<i>a</i>) <i>Ephemeris navalis</i>, addressed to Pompey +before his departure for Spain about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 77, a weather +almanack for sailors; <i>Ephemeris rustica</i> or <i>agrestis</i>, for +farmers. (<i>b</i>) <i>Libri navales</i>, perhaps identical with the +above, (<i>c</i>) <i>De ora maritima</i>. +</p> + +<p> +5. <i>Law.</i>—<i>De iure civili</i> in fifteen Books. +</p> + +<p> +6. <i>Rhetoric.</i>—<i>Rhetorica</i>. +</p> + +<p> +7. <i>Philosophy.</i>—<i>De Forma Philosophiae</i>, <i>De Philosophia</i>. +</p> + +<p> +8. <i>Mathematics</i>, etc.—<i>De mensuris</i>, <i>Mensuralia</i>, <i>De principiis +numerorum</i>, <i>Libri numerorum</i>, <i>De geometria</i>, <i>De +astrologia</i>. +</p> + +<p> +9. <i>Disciplinae</i> in nine Books, forming a complete course +of education in the liberal arts. +</p> + +<p> +10. <i>History of Literature and the Drama.</i>—<i>De poetis</i>, <i>De +poematis</i>, <i>De lectionibus</i>, <i>De bibliothecis</i>, <i>De proprietate scriptorum</i>, +<i>De personis</i>, <i>De descriptionibus</i>, <i>De actis scenicis</i>, +<i>De scenicis actionibus</i>, <i>De originibus scenicis</i>, <i>Quaestiones +Plautinae.</i> In the <i>Hebdomades</i> or <i>Imaginum Libri</i> xv. +Varro gave short accounts in prose and verse of seven +hundred famous Greeks and Romans, with their portraits +(Plin. <i>N.H.</i> xxxv. 11), the title being derived from the +arrangement in groups of seven. Aristotle’s <cite class="greek">Πέπλος</cite> had +dealt similarly with the heroes of the Trojan War, and +the ‘<span class="greek">Πεπλογραφία</span> Varronis’ of Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> xvi. 11, 3 is +usually identified with the <i>Hebdomades</i>. +</p> + +<p> +11. <cite class="greek">Λογιστορικοί</cite>, in seventy-six Books, were probably not +a mixture of fable and history, but essays enlivened by +historical examples. The titles were double, the chief +speaker being named as well as the subject of the essay, +<i>e.g.</i> <i>Catus de liberis educandis</i>. To this work Cicero probably +refers, <i>Ac.</i> i. 9, ‘Philosophiam multis locis incohasti, +ad impellendum satis, ad edocendum parum.’ +</p> + +<p id="p096"> +12. Varro’s poetical works are now represented only by +fragments of the <i>Saturae Menippeae</i>, a medley of prose +and verse in one hundred and fifty books (Cic. <i>Ac.</i> i. 9, +‘Varium et elegans omni fere numero poema fecisti’). +They were so called by Varro himself (Gell. ii. 18, 7, ‘In +satiris quas alii Cynicas, ipse appellat Menippeas’), being +founded on the dialogues of Menippus, the Cynic of Gadara, +of the third century <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> Their object was to present philosophy +in a popular dress: Cic. <i>Ac.</i> i. 8, ‘Quae cum facilius +minus docti intellegerent, iucunditate quadam ad legendum +invitati.’ From the way in which they are spoken of in the +same passage (‘in illis veteribus nostris’), most of them +must have been among Varro’s earliest writings. The titles +are extremely curious, <i>e.g.</i> ‘<cite class="greek">Δὶς παῖδες οἱ γέροντες</cite>,’ ‘Longe +fugit qui suos fugit.’ Quintilian considers Varro as the +founder of a type of satire distinct from that of Lucilius, +Horace, and Persius: x. 1, 95, ‘Alterum illud etiam prius +satirae genus sed non sola carminum varietate mixtum +condidit Terentius Varro, vir Romanorum eruditissimus.’ +His other poetical works were ten books of <i>Poemata</i>, four +of <i>Satires</i>, and six of <i>Pseudotragoediae</i> (tragi-comedy). +</p> + +<p> +13. <i>Oratory.</i>—Varro left twenty-two Books of <i>Orationes</i> +and three of <i>Suasiones</i>, but he had no fame as an orator: +Quint. x. 1, 95, ‘Plus scientiae collaturus quam eloquentiae.’ +</p> + +<p> +14. <i>Letters.</i>—Of these there seem to have been two +collections: (<i>a</i>) <i>Epistulae Latinae</i>, real letters to acquaintances; +(<i>b</i>) <i>Epistolicae Quaestiones</i>, discussing in epistolary +form points of history, grammar, etc. +</p> + +<p> +The collection of maxims which passes under the name +<i>Sententiae Varronis</i> is of uncertain authenticity. +</p> + +<h3 id="p097">LABERIUS.</h3> + +<p> +The date of D. Laberius’ birth is got from Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> +39, ‘Ludis D. Laberius eques Romanus mimum suum +egit.’ This event took place in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45, and in the prologue +to the piece (quoted below), l. 109, Laberius says he is +sixty years old; hence he was born about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 105. He +died in January, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43. +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 1974 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43, ‘Laberius mimorum +scriptor decimo mense post C. Caesaris interitum Puteolis +moritur.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45 Laberius, although an <i>eques</i>, was, as a punishment +for his political opinions, compelled by Caesar to +perform in one of his own mimes, and was beaten by +Publilius Syrus. +</p> + +<p> +Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> ii. 7, 2 <i>sqq.</i>, ‘Laberium asperae libertatis +equitem Romanum Caesar quingentis milibus invitavit, ut +prodiret in scaenam et ipse ageret mimos, quos scriptitabat. +Sed potestas non solum si invitet sed etiam si supplicet +cogit, unde se et Laberius a Caesare coactum in prologo +testatur his versibus: +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Necessitas, cuius cursus transversi impetum<br /> +voluerunt multi effugere, pauci potuerunt,<br /> +quo me detrusit paene extremis sensibus!<br /> +Quem nulla ambitio, nulla umquam largitio,<br /> +nullus timor, vis nulla, nulla auctoritas<br /> +movere potuit in iuventa de statu:<br /> +ecce in senecta ut facile labefecit loco<br /> +viri excellentis mente clemente edita<br /> +summissa placide blandiloquens oratio!<br /> +Etenim ipsi di negare cui nil potuerunt,<br /> +hominem me denegare quis posset pati?<br /> +Ego bis tricenis annis actis sine nota<br /> +eques Romanus e Lare egressus meo<br /> +domum revertar mimus,” etc. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p098"> +In ipsa quoque actione subinde se, qua poterat, ulciscebatur +inducto habitu Syri, qui velut flagris caesus praeripientique +similis exclamabat +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Porro Quirites libertatem perdimus” +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +et paulo post adiecit +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Necesse est multos timeat quem multi timent.” +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Quo dicto universitas populi ad solum Caesarem oculos +et ora convertit, notantes inpotentiam eius hac dicacitate +lapidatam. Ob haec in Publilium vertit favorem ... [Publilius +Syrus] cum mimos componeret ingentique adsensu +in Italiae oppidis agere coepisset, productus Romae per +Caesaris ludos, omnes qui tunc scripta et operas suas in +scaenam locaverant provocavit ut singuli secum posita in +vicem materia pro tempore contenderent. Nec ullo recusante +superavit omnes, in quis et Laberium. Unde Caesar +adridens hoc modo pronuntiavit +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Favente tibi me victus es, Laberi, a Syro” +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +statimque Publilio palmam et Laberio anulum aureum cum +quingentis sestertiis dedit.’ +</p> + +<p> +We have forty-three titles of mimes by Laberius, and +about one hundred and fifty lines of fragments. From +the above we see that Laberius criticized contemporary +society with great vigour. Other features are +</p> + +<p id="p099"> +(<i>a</i>) His invention of words. +</p> + +<p> +Gell. xvi. 7, 1, ‘Laberius in mimis, quos scriptitavit, +oppido quam verba finxit praelicenter.’ Examples are +<i>manuatus est</i> for <i>furatus est</i>; <i>abluvium</i> for <i>diluvium</i>. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) His use of plebeian expressions. +</p> + +<p> +Gell. xix. 13, 3, ‘quae a Laberio ignobilia nimis et sordentia +in usum linguae Latinae intromissa sunt.’ +</p> + +<p> +(<i>c</i>) His references to philosophy. +</p> + +<p> +Cf. l. 17, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘nec Pythagoream dogmam doctus’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +l. 72, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Democritus Abderites physicus philosophus,’ etc. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +For views on Laberius cf. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i, 10, 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Nam sic +et Laberi mimos ut pulchra poemata mirer.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> xii. 18, 2 (written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46), ‘Equidem sic +iam obdurui ut ludis Caesaris nostri animo aequissimo +viderem T. Plancum, audirem Laberi et Publili poemata.’ +</p> + +<p> +Contemporaries of Laberius were the satirist Abuccius, +and Egnatius, who wrote a didactic poem <i>de rerum natura</i>. +</p> + +<h3>M. FURIUS BIBACULUS.</h3> + +<p> +According to Jerome, Bibaculus was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 103, but, +as he laughs at the old age of the grammarian Orbilius +(114-c. 17 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>), authorities put the date twenty years later. +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 1914, ‘M. Furius poeta cognomento +Bibaculus Cremonae nascitur.’ +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 9, ‘[Orbilius] vixit prope ad centesimum +aetatis annum, amissa iam pridem memoria, ut versus +Bibaculi docet, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p100"> +<p> +“Orbilius ubinam est, litterarum oblivio?”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Bibaculus wrote poems against the monarchical party; +these are referred to as <i>iambi</i> by Quintilian, x. 1, 96. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 34, ‘Carmina Bibaculi et Catulli referta +contumeliis Caesarum leguntur: sed ipse divus Iulius, ipse +divus Augustus et tulere ista et reliquere.’ +</p> + +<p> +Two epics, <i>Aethiopis</i> and <i>Bellum Gallicum</i> (on Iulius +Caesar’s exploits), are probably referred to by Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. +10, 36, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Turgidus Alpinus iugulat dum Memnona, dumque<br /> +diffingit Rheni luteum caput.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Acron <i>ad loc.</i>, ‘Bibaculum quemdam poetam Gallum +tangit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Cf. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 5, 40, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Seu pingui tentus omaso<br /> +Furius hibernas cana nive conspuet Alpes.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Acron <i>ad loc.</i>, ‘Furius Bibaculus in pragmatia belli +Gallici: Iuppiter hibernas,’ etc. +</p> + +<p> +It is probably from this epic that Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> vi. 1, +31-4, quotes passages imitated by Virgil. So, ‘Furius in +primo annali “Interea Oceani linquens Aurora cubile.”’ +(Cf. Virg. <i>Aen.</i> iv. 585.) +</p> + +<p> +Bibaculus also wrote a prose work <i>Lucubrationes</i>. (Pliny +<i>N.H.</i> xxiv. praef.) +</p> + +<h3>CAESAR.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +The main facts of C. Iulius Caesar’s life are found in a +compendious form in the Life by Suetonius. The ancient +authorities, who are unanimous in stating that at the time of +his death (15th March, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44) Caesar was in his fifty-sixth +year (Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 88, Appian <i><span class="bcad">B.C.</span></i> ii. 149, Plut. <i>Caes.</i> 69), +must have placed his birth in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 100. But if this date +were correct Caesar must have held the various magistracies +two years before the legal time—a fact nowhere mentioned, +and in itself improbable; it is therefore natural to hold +that he was born in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 102 (Mommsen, <i>R.H.</i> iv., p. 15, +note). His birthday was 12th July (Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> i, +12, 34). +</p> + +<p id="p101"> +His father, C. Iulius Caesar, was praetor in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 84, +and died in the same year; Aurelia, his mother, took +great interest in his education (Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 28). +From the first Caesar was connected with the leaders +of the democratic party in the State. Marius, who had +married his father’s sister Julia, conferred on him the office +of <i>flamen Dialis</i> before he was sixteen years of age; and +his first wife was Cornelia, daughter of Cinna. His refusal +to divorce her at the bidding of Sulla drew down upon +him the enmity of the dictator; and he fled in disguise +to the Sabine mountains, where he remained until Sulla +reluctantly consented to spare his life. +</p> + +<p> +Caesar obtained his first experience of military service +as a member of the staff of M. Thermus, propraetor of +Asia, who conferred on him the <i>civica corona</i> for saving +the life of a fellow-soldier at the siege of Mytilene. After +serving for a short time under Servilius Isauricus against +the pirates in Cilicia, he returned to Rome on the news +of Sulla’s death in 78, and in the following year commenced +his career as an orator with the prosecution of Cn. Cornelius +Dolabella, proconsul of Macedonia, for extortion. +</p> + +<p> +Towards the end of that year Caesar left Rome for +Rhodes—on his way thither being captured by pirates near +Miletus—and studied for a year under the famous rhetorician +Molo, taking part also in some operations on the mainland +against one of the officials of Mithradates. Having been +elected one of the <i>pontifices</i> in the room of his uncle, C. +Aurelius Cotta, he returned to Rome in 74, and soon +became a <i>tribunus militum</i>. In the agitation for the restoration +of the powers of the tribunes of the <i>plebs</i>, Caesar +took a prominent part; he also supported the <i>Lex Aurelia</i> +of 70, which gave the <i>equites</i> a share in the <i>iudicia</i>, and +the <i>Lex Plautia</i>, granting an amnesty to the adherents of +Lepidus and Sertorius. +</p> + +<p id="p102"> +The year 68 he spent as quaestor in Farther Spain, and +on his return to Rome strenuously advocated the claims +of the Transpadane Gauls to the Roman franchise. His +first wife having died, he married Pompeia, daughter of +Q. Pompeius Rufus, and granddaughter of Sulla, whom +he divorced five years later on account of her alleged +adultery with P. Clodius. In 67 and 66 the bills of +Gabinius and Manilius, conferring extensive military powers +upon Pompey, were supported by Caesar and the other +leading democrats. +</p> + +<p id="p103"> +Whether Caesar was concerned in the abortive attempt +of Catiline at revolution in 65, is a moot point. He was +now aedile, and acquired great popularity by the splendid +shows which he gave to the people, and by his restoration of +the statue and trophies of Marius. In 64, as president of the +<i>quaestio de sicariis</i>, he condemned some of the most active +agents in Sulla’s proscriptions. In 63 he supported the +<i>lex agraria</i> of P. Servilius Rullus, and brought about the +prosecution of C. Rabirius for the murder of the tribune +Saturninus. On the re-enactment of the <i>Lex Domitia de +sacerdotiis</i>, Caesar was elected <i>pontifex maximus</i>. He was +again suspected, probably with good ground, of complicity +with Catiline’s designs; he certainly proposed in the Senate +that the conspirators should be punished with imprisonment +instead of death. Praetor in 62, he worked in Pompey’s +cause by proposing that the charge of rebuilding the +Capitoline temple should be transferred to him from the +aristocratic champion Catulus, and by supporting the bill +of the tribune Metellus Nepos for electing Pompey consul +in absence. Next year Caesar was propraetor of Farther +Spain, where he conquered the Lusitanians and Gallaecians, +and amassed considerable wealth. His coalition +with Pompey and Crassus procured for him the consulship +of 59, rendered notable by the <i>Leges Iuliae</i>; and before +he went out of office his position was secured by the +<i>Lex Vatinia</i>, conferring on him the government of Cisalpine +Gaul and Illyricum for five years, with the command of +three legions; Transalpine Gaul and another legion were +added by the Senate. The following nine years (58-50) +were occupied with the subjugation of Gaul and the two +invasions of Britain (55 and 54). At the conference at +Luca, in the winter of 57-56, it was agreed that Caesar +should be continued in office for a second period of five +years, and be allowed to increase the number of his legions +to ten. In 50, realizing the danger of his position if he +returned to Rome as a private person, he was anxious +to be a candidate for the consulship <i>in absentia</i>; but +Pompey thwarted his plan. Caesar refused to disband +his army at the bidding of the Senate, and crossed the +Rubicon early in 49. Italy soon submitted; he defeated +the Pompeians in Spain, captured Massilia, and secured +Sicily and Sardinia. Landing in Epirus in 48, he was +defeated at Dyrrhachium, and retreated to Thessaly, where +he overthrew Pompey at Pharsalus. Then followed his +victories over the king of Egypt in the Alexandrian war +(48), Pharnaces in Asia Minor (47), the Pompeians and +Juba at Thapsus (46), and C. and Sex. Pompeius at +Munda (45). +</p> + +<p id="p104"> +He had been created dictator in 49 and 48, with the +tribunician power in perpetuity; and on his return to +Rome in 45 he was made consul for ten years, dictator, +and <i>praefectus morum</i>, with the title of <i>imperator</i> for life. +In the intervals between his campaigns he carried out +numerous reforms, including the rectification of the calendar, +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46 (see <a href="#p110">p. 110</a>). His assassination by Brutus and +Cassius and the other conspirators took place on 15th +March, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44. +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. <i>De Bello Gallico</i>, in seven Books. The title used +by Caesar himself was probably <i>Commentarii rerum suarum</i> +(as in Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 262, and Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56; cf. Strabo, +iv. 1, 1 <span class="greek">ὑπομνήματα</span>), although this does not appear in the +best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, which give variously <i>libri</i>, <i>historiae</i>, or <i>ephemeris +rerum gestarum belli Gallici</i>. +</p> + +<p> +The work describes Caesar’s operations in Gaul, Germany, +and Britain during the years <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58-52, the events +of each year occupying a separate Book. It was written +and published as a whole, not in parts at the end of each +year’s campaign. Otherwise it is difficult to see why Cicero +should not have heard of it from his brother Quintus or +his friend Trebatius, both of whom were with Caesar; or +why Hirtius should have spoken of the rapidity with which +the work was composed (<i>B.G.</i> viii. praef. 6, ‘Ceteri quam +bene atque emendate, nos etiam quam facile atque celeriter +eos perfecerit, scimus’). This view is corroborated by the +statement of Asinius Pollio, that there were mistakes in +the work due to defective memory (Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56, ‘quae ... +memoria lapsus perperam ediderit’); and by some expressions +in the earlier Books pointing forward to events mentioned +later (i. 28 compared with vii. 9, and iv. 21 with +vii. 76). +</p> + +<p id="p105"> +The time of composition was probably the winter after +the last campaign narrated in the Book (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 52-51). It +was certainly published before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46, the date of Cicero’s +<i>Brutus</i>, and probably before the rupture with Pompey, of +whom Caesar speaks with approbation (vii. 6, ‘Cum iam +ille urbanas res virtute Cn. Pompei commodiorem in +statum pervenisse intellegeret’). +</p> + +<p> +The aim of the book was twofold: (1) to provide +material for professed historians: Hirt. <i>B.G.</i> viii. praef. 5, +‘qui sunt editi, ne scientia tantarum rerum scriptoribus +deesset’; (2) to furnish a defence of the author’s own conduct—an object carefully kept in the background. It has +been proved that Caesar suppressed facts which would have +told against him at Rome (<i>e.g.</i> his rapacity, Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 54), +and the plausible motives which he assigns for some of +his actions cannot be accepted as genuine. Cf. the criticism +of Asinius Pollio, Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56, ‘Pollio Asinius +parum diligenter parumque integra veritate compositos +putat, cum Caesar pleraque et quae per alios erant gesta +temere crediderit, et quae per se vel consulto vel etiam +memoria lapsus perperam ediderit, existimatque rescripturum +et correcturum fuisse.’ The style is remarkable +for its brevity, directness, and the absence of ornament +and emotion (Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 262, ‘Nudi sunt, recti et venusti, +omni ornatu orationis, tamquam veste, detracto’). +</p> + +<p id="p106"> +Among the materials used by Caesar in writing the +<i>Commentarii</i> were his own despatches to the Senate (ii. 35, +iv. 38, vii. 90) and the reports of his <i>legati</i>. Late writers +speak of his <span class="greek">ἐφημερίδες</span> (<i>e.g.</i> Plut. <i>Caes.</i> 22), but there is +no ground for supposing that he kept a regular diary. +He depended to a great extent on his own memory (cf. +Pollio’s criticism, above). +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>De Bello Civili</i>, in three Books, similar in plan to +the <i>Bell. Gall.</i> Book iii. ends abruptly with an event +of no great importance, and, as the death of Pompey +would have formed a natural ending, we must suppose +that Caesar had intended to continue the narrative with +the Alexandrian, Spanish, and African wars, but was prevented +from carrying out his plan. The work was published +after his death, without undergoing revision (Sueton. +<i>Iul.</i> 56, ‘Pollio existimat rescripturum et correcturum +fuisse’). +</p> + +<p> +<i>Other works in the Corpus Caesarianum</i>.—Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> +56 says, ‘Alexandrini Africique et Hispaniensis [belli] +incertus auctor est. Alii Oppium putant, alii Hirtium, +qui etiam Gallici belli novissimum imperfectumque librum +suppleverit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Suetonius evidently believed that Hirtius was the author +of <i>B.G.</i> viii., for he introduces a quotation from the preface +to that Book with the words, ‘Hirtius ita praedicat’ (<i>ibid.</i>). +Hirtius is also mentioned in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> as the author of +<i>B.G.</i> viii., and there is no reason to doubt that this is +the case. That he is the author of any of the others is +rendered doubtful by the fact that his bad health (which +lasted to November, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44) and his position as consul +would leave him little time for literature between the death +of Caesar (15th March, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44) and his own death at +Mutina (27th April, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43). Hirtius was thus able to +carry out only the first part of the plan sketched in <i>B.G.</i> +viii. praef. 2, ‘Caesaris nostri commentarios rerum gestarum, +non cohaerentibus superioribus atque insequentibus +eius scriptis, contexui, novissimumque imperfectum ab +rebus gestis Alexandriae confeci usque ad exitum non +quidem civilis dissensionis, cuius finem nullum videmus, +sed vitae Caesaris.’ +</p> + +<p id="p107"> +G. Landgraf, <i>Untersuchungen zu Caesar und seinen +Fortsetzern</i> (Erlangen, 1888), arrives at the following conclusions: +</p> + +<p> +1. In the <i>Bellum Africum</i> we possess the notes of +Asinius Pollio, who took part in the war. That the +work partook of the nature of a journal is shown by the +style; <i>e.g.</i> <i>interim</i> is used about eighty times as a connecting +link, and dates and hours of the day are given +carefully. Landgraf supports his position by instancing +similarities of expression in the <i>Bell. Afr.</i> and in three +letters from Pollio to Cicero (<i>ad Fam.</i> x. 31; 32; 33). +</p> + +<p> +2. Ch. 48-64 of the <i>Bell. Alex.</i> on events in Spain in +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 48-7 were sent to Hirtius by Pollio, who was governor +of Hispania Ulterior in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45, and as such was best +acquainted with these incidents. +</p> + +<p> +3. On the death of Hirtius, Pollio, on searching for +his own papers (which he had lent Hirtius to help him +in his work), found Hirtius’ <i>Bell. Gall.</i> viii., and made +some additions. +</p> + +<p> +4. The <i>Bell. Civ.</i> was in Hirtius’ possession unedited +at his death. Hirtius evidently intended to publish it +along with <i>B.G.</i> viii. The third Book had been left +unfinished by Caesar, whose notes, some of which were +very brief, Hirtius had extended, and filled up the gaps +in the narrative. There were also some notes on the +<i>Bell. Alex.</i> The <i>Bell. Alex.</i> in the narrower sense (cc. +1-33) Hirtius began with, and in the early chapters contented +himself with making small additions. In the later +parts are found considerable additions both by Hirtius +and by Pollio. Landgraf attempts to distinguish the work +of the two: cc. 34-41, on the Bellum Ponticum, being +mostly by Pollio, and cc. 65-76, on the wars in Illyria +and against Pharnaces, mostly by Hirtius. +</p> + +<p id="p108"> +5. The authorship of the <i>Bellum Hispaniense</i>, which in +style is far below the <i>Bellum Africum</i>, Landgraf leaves +an open question. +</p> + +<p> +E. Wölfflin (<i>Sitzungsberichte der k. b. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu München</i>, 1889, pp. 323 <i>sqq.</i>, and ed. of the +<i>Bell. Afr.</i>, 1889) holds the same views as Landgraf, and +gives many instances of difference in diction between <i>Bell. +Afr.</i> on the one hand, and <i>Gall.</i> viii. and <i>Alex.</i> on the +other; <i>e.g.</i> +</p> + +<pre> + <i>Bell. Afr. Bell. Gall.</i> viii.; <i>Bell. Alex.</i> +<i>suppetiae</i>, - 7 times - never. +<i>convallis</i>, - 5 " - <i>vallis</i>, 10 times. +<i>convulnero</i>, - 9 " - <i>vulnero</i> (as in Caesar). +<i>contendo</i> + infin., 20 " - never. +<i>adorior</i>, - 14 " - only in <i>Gall.</i> viii. 34. +<i>adgredior</i>, - never - 14 times. +<i>grandis</i>, - 7 times - <i>magnus</i>. +<i>subito</i>, - 22 " - never. +<i>repente</i>, - never - 16 times. +<i>postquam</i>, - 34 " - not in <i>Gall.</i> viii. +hist. infin., - 24 " - never. +</pre> + +<p> +On the other hand, Widmann, <i>Philologus</i>, L. (1891), +p. 565, proves that the author of the note-book worked +up in the <i>Bell. Afr.</i> was an officer of the 5th legion, +that Pollio was not connected with the 5th legion, and +probably did not go through the whole African war, as +the author clearly must have done. This, of course, also +proves that Hirtius cannot have been the author. +</p> + +<p id="p109"> +On the whole, we think it proved that the <i>Bell. Afr.</i> +was not written by the author of <i>B. Gall.</i> viii. and <i>B. Alex.</i>, +and that the author was not in any case Pollio. The +<i>B. Alex.</i> is probably worked up from note-books written +by several hands. The attempt to distinguish the work +of Hirtius and another hand in <i>B. Gall.</i> viii. is against +the evidence of Suetonius; and though several hands have +co-operated in <i>B. Alex.</i>, it is hardly possible to distinguish +them precisely. +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Bell. Hisp.</i> is evidently the work of an eye-witness, +cf. c. 29, ‘nostri ad dimicandum procedunt, id quod +adversarios existimabamus esse facturos.’ He is apt to +be bombastic (c. 5, ‘hic alternis non solum morti mortem +exaggerabant, sed tumulos tumulis exaequabant’), and +makes a ridiculous show of learning (quoting the combat +of Achilles and Memnon, c. 25, and Ennius, c. 23, +‘nostri cessere parumper’; c. 31, ‘pes pede premitur, +armis teruntur arma.’) +</p> + +<h4>(3) CAESAR’S LOST WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. <i>De Analogia</i>, a treatise on grammar in two Books, +dedicated to Cicero (Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 253) and composed in +the interval between two of the campaigns in Gaul. +Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56, ‘Reliquit et de Analogia duos libros ... +In transitu Alpium, cum ex citeriore Gallia conventibus +peractis ad exercitum rediret ... fecit.’ It supported the +view that <i>analogia</i>, not <i>anomalia</i>, should be the governing +principle in grammar, <i>i.e.</i> that order should be introduced +into the chaos of varying usages. Gellius i. 10, 4 has a +notable quotation from the first Book, ‘Habe semper in +memoria atque in pectore, ut tamquam scopulum sic fugias +inauditum atque insolens verbum.’ +</p> + +<p id="p110"> +2. <i>De Astris</i>, a book on astronomy, written apparently +in connexion with the rectification of the calendar, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46, +perhaps in Greek. Suetonius says nothing about it, but +it was known to Macrobius, <i>Saturn.</i>, i. 16, 39, ‘Iulius +Caesar ... siderum motus, de quibus non indoctos libros +reliquit, ab Aegyptiis disciplinis hausit.’ The <i>liber de computatione</i> +and <i>liber fastorum</i>, attributed to Caesar by the +Scholiast on Lucan, x. 185, 187, may have formed part +of the <i>De Astris</i>. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Anticatones</i>, written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45, in reply to Cicero’s panegyric +on Cato, with flattering references to Cicero himself. +Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56, ‘Reliquit et de Analogia duos libros et +Anticatones totidem. ... Sub tempus Mundensis proelii +fecit.’ Cicero expresses himself as highly pleased with +the book, <i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 51, ‘bene existimo de illis libris, +ut tibi coram’; but his tone is different in <i>Topica</i>, 94, +‘quibus omnibus generibus usus est nimis impudenter +Caesar contra Catonem meum.’ +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Apophthegmata</i>, a collection of notable sayings, probably +growing out of the <i>Dicta Collectanea</i> of Sueton. +<i>Iul.</i> 56, and completed <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46-5. Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> ix. 16, 4, +‘audio Caesarem, cum volumina iam confecerit <span class="greek">ἀποφθεγμάτων</span>, +si quod afferatur ad eum pro meo, quod meum non +sit, reicere solere.’ +</p> + +<p> +5. <i>Letters.</i>—In the time of Suetonius, Caesar’s official +despatches to the Senate were extant, and also private +letters to Cicero and other friends, <i>e.g.</i> his confidants +Balbus and Oppius. In these a cypher was, where +necessary, employed. Cf. Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56, and Gell. +xvii. 9, 1. +</p> + +<p id="p111"> +6. <i>Speeches.</i>—About a dozen titles of speeches are known, +but only a few detached words and phrases survive. As +an orator, Caesar stood in the front rank (Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 55). +For encomiums on his style see Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 252, and +Quintilian, x. 1, 114, who considered him second only to +Cicero, and remarkable for <i>vis</i>, <i>acumen</i>, <i>concitatio</i>, and +<i>elegantia</i>. The language of Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 21 is less complimentary, +‘Nisi forte quisquam aut Caesaris pro Decio +Samnite aut Bruti pro Deiotaro rege ceterosque eiusdem +lentitudinis ac teporis libros legit, nisi qui et carmina +eorumdem miratur.’ +</p> + +<p> +7. <i>Poems.</i>—Caesar in his youth composed a poem in +praise of Hercules, and a tragedy, <i>Oedipus</i>. Plutarch +(<i>Caes.</i> 2) speaks of him as reciting poems of his own +composition to the pirates who took him prisoner. On +his journey from Rome to Spain, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46, he wrote a +descriptive poem with the title of <i>Iter</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56, ‘Reliquit ... poema quod inscribitur +Iter ... [fecit] dum ab urbe in Hispaniam ulteriorem quarto +et vicensimo die pervenit ... Feruntur et a puero et ab +adulescentulo quaedam scripta, ut Laudes Herculis, tragoedia +Oedipus, item Dicta Collectanea: quos omnes +libellos vetuit Augustus publicari, in epistula quam brevem +admodum ac simplicem ad Pompeium Macrum, cui ordinandas +bibliothecas delegaverat, misit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pliny the younger mentions Caesar as a love poet (<i>Ep.</i> +v. 3, 5). His poetry is spoken of by Tacitus in no +flattering terms, <i>Dial.</i> 21, ‘fecerunt enim [Caesar et Brutus] +et carmina et in bibliothecas rettulerunt, non melius quam +Cicero, sed felicius, quia illos fecisse pauciores sciunt.’ +</p> + +<p id="p112"> +The only extant lines are those on Terence (<i>q.v.</i>). +</p> + +<h3>C. ASINIUS POLLIO.</h3> + +<p> +C. Asinius Pollio (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 76-<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 5), governor of Farther +Spain <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44, consul <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 40, retired from public life after his +Dalmatian triumph, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 39. He was famous as an orator, +and was the author of (1) A history of the civil wars from +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60 (Hor. <i>Od.</i> ii. 1, 1 <i>sqq.</i>). (2) Tragedies (Verg. +<i>Ecl.</i> 8, 10; Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 42; <i>Od.</i> ii. 1, 9 <i>sqq.</i>) and +love poems (Plin. <i>Ep.</i> v. 3, 5). (3) A work in which +the style of Sallust was criticized (Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 10). +His remarks on Caesar, Cicero, and Livy may be from +the same book (Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56; Quint. xii. 1, 22; i. 5, 56). +</p> + +<p> +For Pollio’s style, cf. Quint. x. 1, 113, ‘A nitore et iucunditate +Ciceronis ita longe abest ut videri possit saeculo +prior.’ Pollio founded the first public library at Rome, in +the <i>Atrium Libertatis</i>, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 38 (Plin. <i>N.H.</i> xxxv. 10), For +his intimacy with the poet Cinna, who wrote the <i>Propempticon +Pollionis</i> in his honour, see <a href="#p142">p. 142</a>; and for his +patronage of Virgil and Horace, see Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> 3, 84; +8, 6-13; Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 42. Pollio, of course, belongs +to the Augustan Age, but is mentioned here because of +his connexion with the <i>Corpus Caesarianum</i>. +</p> + +<h3>CORNELIUS NEPOS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +The praenomen of Cornelius Nepos is unknown. In +Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> iii. 127, he is called ‘Padi adcola,’ and in +Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> iv. 28, 1 (to Vibius Severus), he is mentioned as +a townsman of T. Catius, ‘Imagines municipum tuorum, +Cornelii Nepotis et T. Cati.’ Now T. Catius was an Insubrian +(Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> xv. 16, 1), and as the only Insubrian +town on the Padus was Ticinum, Nepos was probably born +there. +</p> + +<p id="p113"> +There is no direct evidence as to the date of his birth +but we may infer from the following facts that he was +born not long before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 100. +</p> + +<p> +1. Jerome puts his literary activity under <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 40 = yr. +Abr. 1977, ‘Cornelius Nepos scriptor historicus clarus +habetur.’ +</p> + +<p> +2. A son of his died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44 while a boy, and unknown +to Cicero. +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> xvi. 14, 4, ‘Male narras de Nepotis filio: +valde mehercule moveor et moleste fero; nescieram omnino +esse istum puerum.’ +</p> + +<p> +3. The respect with which he looks up to Atticus, who +was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 109. +</p> + +<p> +4. A fragment of his <i>Exempla</i> quoted by Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> +ix. 136, regarding the changes of fashion in purple robes: +‘Nepos Cornelius, qui divi Augusti principatu obiit, “Me,” +inquit, “iuvene violacea purpura vigebat, ... nec multo +post rubra Tarentina. Huic successit dibapha Tyria... Hac +P. Lentulus Spinther aedilis curulis (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 63) primus in +praetexta usus improbabatur. Qua purpura quis non iam,” +inquit, “triclinaria facit?”’ +</p> + +<p> +Nepos held no public office, but confined himself to +literature, in which he was associated with Atticus. Their +intimacy must have begun after <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 65, when Atticus +returned to Rome from Athens, where he had lived more +than twenty years. +</p> + +<p> +Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> v. 3, 6, ‘P. Vergilius, Cornelius Nepos ... Non +quidem hi senatores.’ +</p> + +<p> +Nep. <i>Att.</i> 13, 7, ‘Atque hoc non auditum, sed cognitum +praedicamus: saepe enim propter familiaritatem domesticis +rebus interfuimus.’ +</p> + +<p id="p114"> +Nepos knew Cicero, doubtless, through Atticus, but there +is no evidence that they were intimate, except Gell. xv. 28, 1, +who is probably mistaken, ‘Cornelius Nepos ... M. Ciceronis +ut qui maxime amicus familiaris fuit.’ A fragment +of a letter from Cicero to Nepos is quoted by Sueton. +<i>Iul.</i> 55; from Nepos to Cicero by Lactant. <i>inst. div.</i> +iii. 15, 10; and Fronto (p. 20, ed. Naber) speaks of a +collection of Cicero’s works revised by Nepos and Atticus. +</p> + +<p> +Nepos was on intimate terms with Catullus, whom, as +coming from Verona, he may have known in early life. +Catullus, who is mentioned by Nepos (<i>Att.</i> 12, 4), dedicated +a collection of poems to him (Catull. 1). Nepos was alive +in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29, in which, or the following year, he completed the +life of Atticus. +</p> + +<p> +As regards Nepos’ character and views, Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> v. 3, 6, +attributes to him <i>sanctitas morum</i>. The words of Cicero, +<i>ad Att.</i> xvi. 5, 5, imply only a playful compliment, ‘Et +ais, “<span class="greek">μετ’ ἀμύμονα</span>.” Tu vero <span class="greek">ἀμύμων</span>, ille [Nepos] quidem +<span class="greek">ἄμβροτος</span>.’ +</p> + +<p> +Nepos’ slight regard for philosophy is shown by a letter +to Cicero quoted by Lactant. <i>inst. div.</i> iii. 15, 10, ‘Tantum +abest, ut ego magistram esse putem vitae philosophiam +beataeque vitae perfectricem, ut nullis magis existimem +opus esse magistris vivendi quam plerisque, qui in ea +disputanda versantur.’ +</p> + +<p> +Cf. also Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> xvi. 5, 5, ‘Nepotis epistulam +exspecto. Cupidus ille meorum? qui ea, quibus maxime +<span class="greek">γαυριῶ</span>, legenda non putet.’ +</p> + +<p> +Philosophy, according to Nepos, ought to be practical.</p> + +<p> +Nep. <i>Att.</i> 17, 3, ‘Nam principum philosophorum ita +percepta habuit praecepta, ut his ad vitam agendam, non +ad ostentationem uteretur.’ +</p> + +<p id="p115"> +Nepos, as is shown by his works, supported government +by the Senate. +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. Erotic poems; mentioned by Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> v. 3, 6. +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Chronica</i>, in three books, embracing universal history. +Catull. 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quoi dono lepidum novom libellum<br /> +arida modo pumice expolitum?<br /> +Corneli, tibi; namque tu solebas<br /> +meas esse aliquid putare nugas<br /> +iam tum, cum ausus es unus Italorum<br /> +omne aevom tribus explicare chartis,<br /> +doctis, Iuppiter, et laboriosis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +It is clear, from the above, that Nepos had mentioned +Catullus in the work. That the mythical period was treated +of is shown by Ausonius, <i>Ep.</i> 16, ‘Apologos Titiani et +Nepotis chronica quasi alios apologos (nam et ipsa instar +sunt fabularum) ... misi ... ad institutionem tuorum.’ +</p> + +<p> +From Catullus we may possibly infer that the <i>Chronica</i> +were written before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 63<a href="#fn031" id="ref031">[31]</a>; <i>unus Italorum</i> would imply +that they were written before the similar works of Varro +and Atticus. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Exempla</i>, in at least five Books, treating of the history +of Roman manners. +</p> + +<p> +Gell. vi. 18, 11, ‘Cornelius Nepos in libro exemplorum +quinto.’ +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Life of the elder Cato.</i> +</p> + +<p id="p116"> +Nep. <i>Cat.</i> 3, 5, ‘Huius de vita et moribus plura in eo +libro persecuti sumus, quem separatim de eo fecimus rogatu +T. Pomponii Attici. Quare studiosos Catonis ad illud +volumen delegamus.’ +</p> + +<p> +5. <i>Life of Cicero</i>, written after his death (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43). +Gell. xv. 28, 2, ‘in primo librorum, quos de vita illius +composuit.’ +</p> + +<p> +6. <i>A geographical work</i>, referred to by Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> v. 4, +etc. All the above works are lost. +</p> + +<p> +7. <i>De Viris Illustribus</i>, his last work, was dedicated to +Atticus (praef. i); an addition to the life of Atticus was +made after his death. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Att.</i> 19, 1, ‘Hactenus Attico vivo edita a nobis sunt. +Nunc, quoniam fortuna nos superstites ei esse voluit, +reliqua persequemur.’ +</p> + +<p> +From <i>Att.</i> 12, 1-2, we may conclude that the publication +took place between <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35 and 33. The addition to the +life of Atticus was written at some time between <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 31 +and 27, as in <i>Att.</i> 19, 2, Octavian is called <i>imperator</i>, +but not <i>Augustus</i>, a title which he received in the last-mentioned +year. +</p> + +<p> +The work contained at least sixteen Books: cf. Charis. +<i>G.L.</i> i. 141 (ed. Keil), ‘Cornelius Nepos illustrium virorum +libro xvi.’; and was divided into sections of two Books each, +the first on distinguished foreigners, the second on distinguished +Romans of the same class. We possess the book +<i>de excellentibus ducibus exterarum gentium</i>; from <i>de historicis +Latinis</i> the lives of Cato the Censor and Atticus, and fragments +of the letters of Cornelia, mother of the Gracci. +There are also mentioned the books <i>de regibus</i> (Nep. <i>de reg.</i> +1, 1; 3, 5); <i>de excellentibus ducibus Romanorum</i> (Nep. <i>Hann.</i> +13, 4); <i>de historicis Graecis</i> (Nep. <i>Dion,</i> 3, 2); <i>de poetis</i> +(Sueton. p. 31 <span class="sc">R.</span>); <i>de grammaticis</i> (Sueton. p. 103 <span class="sc">R.</span>). The +work probably dealt also with <i>iurisconsulti</i>, <i>oratores</i>, and +<i>philosophi</i>. The book is biographical rather than historical, +and is designed to compare foreigners with Romans, and to +please, as well as instruct, those ignorant of Greek culture. +</p> + +<p id="p117"> +<i>Pel.</i> 1, 1, ‘Vereor ... ne non vitam eius enarrare, sed +historiam videar scribere.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Hann.</i> 13, 4, ‘Tempus est ... Romanorum explicare imperatores, +quo facilius collatis utrorumque factis, qui viri +praeferendi sint, possit iudicari.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Pel.</i> 1, 1, ‘Medebor cum satietati tum ignorantiae lectorum.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Praef.</i> 2, ‘Hi erunt fere, qui expertes litterarum Graecarum,’ +etc. +</p> + +<p> +Besides tradition and his own recollection, Nepos mentions +the following sources: Thucydides (<i>Them.</i> 1, 4, etc.); +Xenophon (<i>Ag.</i> 1, 1); Plato’s <i>Symposium</i> (<i>Alc.</i> 2, 2); +Theopompus (<i>Alc.</i> 11, 1); Dinon (<i>Con.</i> 5, 4); Timaeus +(<i>Alc.</i> 11, 1); Silenus, Sosilus, Polybius, Sulpicius Blitho, +Atticus (<i>Hann.</i> 13, 1 and 3); the writings of Hannibal +(<i>Hann.</i> 13, 2); Speeches and <i>Origines</i> of Cato (<i>Cat.</i> 3, 2); +Cicero’s works, especially <i>Epp. ad Att.</i> (<i>Att.</i> 16, 3). The +book contains lives of twenty Greek generals from the +Persian wars to the time of Alexander’s successors; a short +article on Persian and Macedonian kings who were also +generals; and the lives of Hamilcar and Hannibal, Cato +and Atticus. The work possesses little independent value, +and the following are the chief faults: +</p> + +<p> +1. There are many mistakes in history and geography. +</p> + +<p> +2. The biographies, and the events recorded in them, +are badly arranged; eulogy is employed indiscriminately, +and petty anecdotes are too frequent. +</p> + +<p id="p118"> +3. Important names, as Cimon and Lysander, are dismissed +too briefly; others, as Atticus and Datames, are +treated too fully. Many are left out altogether, as some +of the leaders in the Peloponnesian war. +</p> + +<p> +4. Important authorities are not used: so Herodotus, +for Miltiades, Themistocles, and Pausanias. No use is +made of the <i>Hellenica</i> of Xenophon. +</p> + +<p> +For views on Nepos, cf. Gell. xv. 28, 1, ‘Cornelius +Nepos rerum memoriae non indiligens.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> v. 4, ‘Portentosa Graeciae mendacia ... quaeque alia Cornelius Nepos avidissime credidit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Nepos is not mentioned by Quintilian in his list of +Roman historians. +</p> + +<p> +In the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> only the <i>Atticus</i> and the <i>Cato</i> are ascribed to +Nepos, the rest being entitled <i>Liber Aemilii Probi de +excellentibus ducibus exterarum gentium</i>. It has been suggested +that this arose from a misapprehension of <i>em</i>(<i>endavi</i>) +<i>Probus</i>. There is an epigram by this Probus in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, +referring to poems of his and standing after the Life of +Hannibal, which informs us that he was a contemporary +of Theodosius (probably Theodosius I., <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 379-395). +That the work cannot be by him is shown by the political +references, which suit only the beginning of the empire, +by the mention of Atticus in the preface, and by the +correspondence in style between the book and the lives +of Atticus and Cato, admittedly the work of Nepos; also +by the fact that L. Ampelius, who probably wrote before +the time of Diocletian, used the work in his <i>Liber Memorialis</i>. +</p> + +<h3 id="p119">LUCRETIUS.</h3> + +<p> +Our information about Lucretius’ life is very scanty. +Jerome yr. Abr. 1922 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 95, ‘T. Lucretius poeta +nascitur, qui postea amatorio poculo in furorem versus, +cum aliquot libros per intervalla insaniae conscripsisset, +quos postea Cicero emendavit, propria se manu interfecit +anno aetatis xliiii.’ (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 52 or 51). +</p> + +<p> +Donatus, <i>vit. Verg.</i> 2, ‘Initia aetatis Cremonae egit +[Vergilius] usque ad virilem togam, quam xv. anno natali +suo accepit isdem illis consulibus iterum duobus quibus +erat natus, evenitque ut eo ipso die Lucretius poeta +decederet’ (October 15). +</p> + +<p> +Teuffel thinks xliiii. is wrong, and would read xlii., thus +giving the dates as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 96-55, as he thinks that Jerome +has fixed the date of birth one year too late. Munro (vol. +ii. p. 1) accepts xliiii., but thinks that Jerome (as elsewhere) +is a few years wrong in the date of Lucretius’ +birth, and gives the dates as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 99-55. It is impossible +to decide as to the date of birth, but most authorities agree +on <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55 as the date of death, a view which is supported +by the only contemporary reference to the poet: Cic. <i>ad +Q.F.</i> ii. 11, 4 (written in February, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54), ‘Lucreti +poemata, ut scribis, ita sunt: multis luminibus ingeni, +multae tamen artis; sed cum veneris. Virum te putabo, +si Sallusti Empedoclea legeris, hominem non putabo.’ +</p> + +<p> +The above extract is given in the reading of the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> +Some editors read <i>non</i> before <i>multis</i>, others <i>non</i> before +<i>multae</i>, but it is best to follow the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> (with Tyrrell), +translating “But when you come (we shall talk about it). +I shall consider you a hero, if you read Sallust’s <i>Empedoclea</i>; +I shall not consider you a human being.” +</p> + +<p id="p120"> +As regards Lucretius’ madness, there is no absolute +impossibility in the story. Munro (vol. ii. pp. 2, 3) +accepts Jerome’s account of Cicero’s editorship; others, +less probably, believe that Q. Cicero was editor. The first +view is rendered probable by the high opinion Lucretius +had of Cicero, as seen from the frequency with which he +imitates his <i>Aratea</i> (Munro on Lucr. v. 619), and from +the knowledge Cicero shows of Lucretius’ work, as in +<i>Tusc.</i> i. 48. +</p> + +<p> +The poet’s full name is given in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> as T. Lucretius +Carus. +</p> + +<p> +This is all the direct evidence regarding Lucretius’ +life.<a href="#fn032" id="ref032">[32]</a> The <i>de rerum natura</i> is addressed to C. Memmius.<a href="#fn033" id="ref033">[33]</a> +From Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> xiii. 1 (where Cicero tells us he +employed his good offices with Memmius on behalf of +Patro for the preservation of the gardens of Epicurus), it +appears that he was not an Epicurean. Memmius is the +only contemporary mentioned by Lucretius; i. 24, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Te sociam studeo scribendis versibus esse<br /> +quos ego de rerum natura pangere conor<br /> +Memmiadae nostro, quem tu, dea, tempore in omni<br /> +omnibus ornatum voluisti excellere rebus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p121"> +Many, arguing from the fact that Carus is not known +elsewhere as a cognomen of the gens Lucretia, think that +the poet was a freedman or a freedman’s son, but from +the tone of equality in which he addresses Memmius, it +is more probable that he was a patrician; cf. i. 140, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sed tua me virtus tamen et sperata voluptas<br /> +suavis amicitiae quemvis sufferre laborem<br /> +suadet.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Several personal characteristics may be inferred from the +poem: +</p> + +<p> +1. His earnestness and sincerity; iii. 28, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘His ibi me rebus quaedam divina voluptas<br /> +percipit atque horror,’ etc. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. the importance he attaches to his subject, i. 926, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Avia Pieridum peragro loca nullius ante<br /> +trita solo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +2. His admiration for the great men of the past. Cf. +iii. 1024-52, where Ancus, the Scipios, Homer, Democritus, +and Epicurus are praised; the introductions to Books i., +iii., v., vi., on Epicurus; i. 716-33 on Empedocles; i. 117-9 +on Ennius. +</p> + +<p> +3. His powers of observation and love of nature. Cf. +i. 716-25; ii. 29 <i>sqq.</i>, 40 <i>sqq.</i>; 323-32; iv. 572 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +4. His experience of women. Book iv. 1037-the end. +</p> + +<p> +5. His wide reading. The poem shows knowledge of +Epicurus, Empedocles, Democritus, Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, +Plato, the Stoic writers, Thucydides, Hippocrates, Homer, +Euripides. Among Latin writers Ennius, Naevius, Pacuvius, +Lucilius, and Accius are all imitated. +</p> + +<p id="p122"> +There is a reference to contemporary history in i. 41-3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nam neque nos agere hoc patriai tempore iniquo<br /> +possumus aequo animo nec Memmi clara propago<br /> +talibus in rebus communi desse saluti.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Munro thinks that these lines were written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59, when +Memmius was <i>praetor designatus</i>, in fierce opposition to +Caesar, and on the side of the Senate. If this is so, the +poem was probably written between <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60 and 55. The +lines on ambition and its attendant evils (as iii. 931 <i>sqq.</i>, +v. 1117-35, etc.) may have been written with a special +view to the facts of Memmius’ life. Lucretius may refer +to his recollection of the civil wars in v. 999, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘At non multa virum sub signis milia ducta<br /> +una dies dabat exitio.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In ii. 40 <i>sqq.</i> there is perhaps a reference to Caesar’s +army in the Campus Martius at the beginning of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58. +</p> + +<p> +The <i>de rerum natura</i> is an exposition of Epicureanism, +especially on its physical side; i. 54, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nam tibi de summa caeli ratione deumque<br /> +disserere incipiam et rerum primordia pandam,’ etc. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The title is taken from Epicurus’ <cite class="greek">περὶ φύσεως</cite>, which +Lucretius followed closely, as is evident from the account +of the Epicurean philosophy in Diogenes Laertius, x., and +from the fragments of Epicurean writers discovered at +Herculaneum in 1752. He probably used as his model +Empedocles’ poem <cite class="greek">περὶ φύσεως</cite>. +</p> + +<p> +The object of the poem is to deliver men from the fear +of death and of the gods; iii. 37, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Et metus ille foras praeceps Acheruntis agendus’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +i. 62-101; cf. l. 101, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p123"> +Note that the invocation to Venus at the beginning of +the poem is not inconsistent, but is an address to the +universal principle of generation; cf. i. 21, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quae quoniam rerum naturam sola gubernas.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The scope of the Books is as follows: Books i. and ii. +state the physical theories of Democritus and Epicurus. +Book i. states the Atomic Theory of Democritus, held +by Epicurus, that the world consists of atoms and void. +The theories of Heraclitus, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, etc. +are refuted; i. 740, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Principiis tamen in rerum fecere ruinas<br /> +et graviter magni magno cecidere ibi casu.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Book ii. treats of the combinations of atoms, and the +principle of the swerve introduced to explain free-will. The +varieties of atoms are shown to be limited. In Book iii. +the nature of the mind and life is shown to be material. +<i>Religio</i> and the fear of death (cf. ll. 978 <i>sqq.</i>) are attacked +principally in this Book; iii. 830, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nil igitur mors est ad nos neque pertinet hilum,<br /> +quandoquidem natura animi mortalis habetur.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Book iv. treats of the theory of <i>simulacra</i> or images, of +the senses, and particularly of love. Book v. treats of the +formation of the earth and the heavenly bodies, the origin +of life, and the progress of civilization. It is shown that +nothing has been created, and that everything must perish. +Book vi. treats of abnormal phenomena, such as thunder +and lightning, tempests, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc. The +plague at Athens is described (from Thucydides). Books +v. and vi. are unfinished. +</p> + +<p> +Ethical views are given only by the way, the poem being +primarily on physics. Pleasure is the end of action: ii. +172, ‘dux vitae dia voluptas.’ This pleasure is the absence +of disturbance (<span class="greek">ἀταραξία</span>), hence all passion (as of love, +iv. 1121-40) is deprecated; ii. 14, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘O miseras hominum mentes, o pectora caeca!<br /> +qualibus in tenebris vitae quantisque periclis<br /> +degitur hoc aevi quodcumque est! nonne videre<br /> +nil aliud sibi naturam latrare, nisi utqui<br /> +corpore seiunctus dolor absit, mente fruatur<br /> +iucundo sensu cura semota metuque?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Lucretius, as Epicurus, is often weak in physics. Cf. +v. 564 <i>sqq.</i>, of the sun’s size, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nec nimio solis maior rota nec minor ardor<br /> +esse potest, nostris quam sensibus esse videtur.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In i. 1052 <i>sqq.</i> he states well the theory of the antipodes +but his dependence on Epicurus will not allow him to +accept it. Reasons are sometimes given for a thing that +never existed, as in iv. 710-21 for the fear that a lion has +for a cock. Some passages come near the results of modern +science, cf. v. 837 <i>sqq.</i> on extinct species; v. 855 <i>sqq.</i> on +the struggle for existence; v. 610-3, on the invisible rays +of the sun. +</p> + +<p id="p124"> +The references to Lucretius by name are few. +</p> + +<p> +Nep. <i>Att.</i> 12, 4, ‘L. Iulium Calidum, quem post Lucreti +Catullique mortem multo elegantissimum poetam nostram +tulisse aetatem vere videor posse contendere.’ +</p> + +<p> +Ovid, <i>Am.</i> i. 15, 23, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Carmina sublimis tunc sunt peritura Lucreti,<br /> +exitio terras cum dabit una dies.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Trist.</i> ii. 425, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Explicat ut causas rapidi Lucretius ignis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Stat. <i>Silv.</i> ii. 7, 76, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘docti furor arduus Lucreti.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p125"> +Quint. x. 1, 87, ‘Macer et Lucretius legendi quidem, sed +non ut phrasin, id est, corpus eloquentiae faciant; elegantes +in sua quisque materia, sed alter humilis alter difficilis.’ +</p> + +<p> +Cf. Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 23. +</p> + +<p> +His influence on Virgil is seen <i>passim</i>. Cf. Gell. i. 21, 7, +‘Non verba sola sed versus prope totos et locos quoque +Lucreti plurimos sectatum esse Vergilium videmus.’ +</p> + +<p> +Verg. <i>Georg.</i> ii. 490 <i>sqq.</i> and <i>Ecl.</i> 6, 31 <i>sqq.</i> refer to +Lucretius. <i>Georg.</i> ii. 490, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas<br /> +atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum<br /> +subiecit pedibus strepitumque Acherontis avari.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Horace has also imitated him in several places: so <i>Sat.</i> i. +3, 99-110 (on primitive man) = Lucr. v. 1028 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>Sat.</i> i. 5, +101 <i>sqq.</i> = Lucr. v. 82 <i>sqq.</i> Most of the poets after him, +particularly Manilius, came under his influence. +</p> + +<h3>SALLUST.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +C. Sallustius Crispus was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 86 at Amiternum, +in the country of the Sabines, and died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35. +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 1931 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 86, ‘Sallustius Crispus, +scriptor historicus, in Sabinis Amiterni nascitur.’ <i>Ibid.</i> +1982 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35, ‘Sallustius diem obiit, quadriennio ante +Actiacum bellum.’ +</p> + +<p> +Sallust was of plebeian family, as is seen from the fact +that he was afterwards <i>tribunus plebis</i>. According to the +Pseud.-Cic. <i>in Sallustium declamatio</i>, 13-14, he led an +evil life in youth, and brought his father with sorrow to +the grave. +</p> + +<p> +Cf. § 14, ‘Cuiquam dubium potest esse, quin mori +coegerit eum [patrem]?’ +</p> + +<p id="p126"> +There is a story that Milo punished him for an amour +with his wife. +</p> + +<p> +Gell. xvii. 18, ‘M. Varro ... in libro quem scripsit “Pius +aut de pace,” C. Sallustium scriptorem seriae illius et +severae orationis, in cuius historia notiones censorias fieri +atque exerceri videmus, in adulterio deprehensum ab Annio +Milone loris bene caesum dicit et, cum dedisset pecuniam, +dimissum.’ +</p> + +<p> +The story is corroborated by Pseud.-Cic. <i>in Sall.</i> 15; +by Macrob. iii. 13, 9, ‘<i>alienae</i> luxuriae obiurgator et +censor,’ and others; and Sallust himself appears to admit +that there was something wrong; <i>Cat.</i> 4, ‘a quo incepto +studioque me ambitio mala detinuerat.’<a href="#fn034" id="ref034">[34]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Sallust speaks of the political offices he filled, and of +the class of men who were unsuccessful candidates about +the same time—a supposed reference to M. Cato’s candidature +for the praetorship, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Iug.</i> 4, ‘Qui si reputaverint, et quibus ego temporibus +magistratus adeptus sim et quales viri idem adsequi +nequiverint,’ etc. +</p> + +<p> +After being quaestor (Pseud.-Cic. <i>in Sall.</i> 15), he was, +in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 52, <i>tribunus plebis</i>, when he and other two tribunes +opposed Cicero in his defence of Milo. +</p> + +<p> +Ascon. <i>in Cic. pro Mil.</i> p. 33 (Kiessl. and Schöll), ‘C. +Sallustius et T. Munatius Plancus tr. pleb. inimicissimas +contiones de Milone habebant.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 50, Sallust was <i>legatus pro quaestore</i> to Bibulus +in Syria, according to Mommsen (<i>Hermes</i>, i. 171), who +thinks that the Sallust to whom Cicero writes <i>ad Fam.</i> ii. 17 +is the historian. In the same year he was expelled from +the Senate by the censors, Appius Claudius and L. Piso. +</p> + +<p id="p127"> +Pseud.-Cic. <i>in Sall.</i> 16, ‘neque post illum delectum +senatus vidimus te.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 49, Caesar reappointed him quaestor, and he +resumed his place in the Senate. +</p> + +<p> +Pseud.-Cic. <i>in Sall.</i> 17, ‘in senatum post quaesturam est +reductus.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 48, he commanded a legion in Illyria without +distinction (Orosius vi, 15, 8), and next year he was +Caesar’s agent with the insurgent legions in Campania +(Appian, <i><span class="bcad">B.C.</span></i> ii. 92). In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46 he was praetor, and as +such commanded successfully an expedition to seize the +enemy’s stores in Cercina. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Bell. Afr.</i> 8, ‘Item C. Sallustium Crispum praetorem ad +Cercinam insulam versus, quam adversarii tenebant, cum +parte navium ire iubet.’ (See also c. 34.) +</p> + +<p> +At the end of the year he was appointed proconsul of +Numidia. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ibid.</i> 97, ‘Ibi Sallustio pro consule cum imperio relicto +ipse Zama egressus Uticam se recepit.’ +</p> + +<p> +As proconsul, he plundered the province, and bought, +probably with the spoils, the <i>horti Sallustiani</i>, which afterwards +belonged to the Roman emperors (see Tac. <i>Ann.</i> +xiii. 47; <i>Hist.</i> iii. 82). +</p> + +<p> +Pseud.-Cic. <i>in Sall.</i> 19, ‘Nonne ita provinciam vastavit, +ut nihil neque passi sint neque exspectaverint gravius in +bello socii nostri, quam experti sint in pace hoc Africam +interiorem obtinente?’ +</p> + +<p> +Sallust is said to have married Terentia, whom Cicero +had divorced (Jerome <i>adv. Iov.</i> 1). Probably he had no +son, as he adopted a grandson of his sister. +</p> + +<p id="p128"> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iii. 30, ‘Crispum equestri ortum loco C. +Sallustius, rerum Romanarum florentissimus auctor, sororis +nepotem in nomen adscivit.’ +</p> + +<p> +After Caesar’s death, Sallust retired from public life, +and, having no taste for sport or agriculture, spent his +leisure in writing history. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Cat.</i> 4, ‘Ubi ... mihi reliquam aetatem a re publica procul +habendam decrevi, non fuit consilium socordia atque +desidia bonum otium conterere, neque vero agrum colundo +aut venando servilibus officiis intentum aetatem agere; +sed ... statui res gestas populi Romani carptim, ut quaeque +memoria digna videbantur, perscribere.’ +</p> + +<p> +Sallust, as above stated, died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35. +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. <i>De Catilinae Coniuratione</i> (so <i>Cat.</i> 4). The book is +called <i>bellum Catilinae</i> by Quint. iii. 8, 9, and in some +<span class="bcad">MSS.</span>; in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> also <i>bellum Catilinarium</i>. The work was +written after Caesar’s death (<i>Cat.</i> 53-4). It is, as Mommsen +(<i>R.H.</i> iv. 184, note) states, a political pamphlet in the +interests of the democratic party (on which the monarchy +was based), and tries to clear Caesar from the charge of +being implicated in the Catilinarian conspiracy, and collaterally +performing the same service for C. Antonius, the +uncle of the triumvir. +</p> + +<p> +Cf. <i>Cat.</i> 49, ‘Sed isdem temporibus Q. Catulus et C. +Piso neque pretio neque gratia Ciceronem inpellere potuere, +uti per Allobroges aut alium indicem C. Caesar falso +nominaretur. Nam uterque cum illo gravis inimicitias +exercebant ... Sed ubi consulem ad tantum facinus inpellere +nequeunt,’ etc. (Cf. also Caesar’s speech in +<i>Cat.</i> 51.) +</p> + +<p id="p129"> +<i>Cat.</i> 59, ‘At ex altera parte C. Antonius pedibus aeger, +quod proelio adesse nequibat, M. Petreio legato exercitum +permittit.’ Dion Cassius, xxxvii. 39, on the other hand, +says that this was a pretence, Antonius being unwilling +to fight against his old confederate. +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Bellum Iugurthinum</i>. (So in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> and Quint. iii. 8, 9.) +</p> + +<p> +<i>Iug.</i> 5, ‘Bellum scripturus sum, quod populus Romanus +cum Iugurtha rege Numidarum gessit, primum quia +magnum et atrox variaque victoria fuit, dehinc quia tunc +primum superbiae nobilitatis obviam itum est.’ +</p> + +<p> +The object of the book is to give a picture of the low +state of the oligarchical government (cf. <i>Iug.</i> 8, ‘Romae +omnia venalia esse’), and to glorify Marius, the chief of +the democratic party. +</p> + +<p> +Of his sources, Sallust mentions Sisenna (<i>Iug.</i> 95) for +information about Sulla, and native authorities for African +ethnography. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Iug.</i> 17, ‘Sed qui mortales initio Africam habuerint, +quique postea adcesserint, aut quo modo inter se permixti +sint ... uti ex libris Punicis, qui regis Hiempsalis dicebantur, +interpretatum nobis est ... dicam.’ +</p> + +<p> +Sallust probably also used the memoirs of Scaurus, Sulla, +and Catulus. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Historiae</i>.—This work dealt with the events from +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 78 to 67. Cf. Ausonius, p. 264 (ed. Peiper), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ab Lepido et Catulo iam res et tempora Romae<br /> +orsus his senos seriem conecto per annos.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +There is no reference in the fragments to any event +after <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 67. The book took up the history where Sisenna +had left off, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 78. Cf. i. <i>frag.</i> 1 (ed. Maurenbrecher), +‘Res populi Romani M. Lepido Q. Catulo coss. ac deinde +militiae et domi gestas composui.’ +</p> + +<p id="p130"> +Four speeches and two letters from the <i>Histories</i> have +been preserved in a collection of Sallustian speeches and +letters made for rhetorical purposes, probably in the second +century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> Besides these there are considerable fragments, +chiefly from Books ii. and iii. We may conclude +from <i>Iug.</i> 95, ‘neque enim alio loco de Sullae rebus +dicturi sumus,’ that the career of Sulla was not treated +of in the <i>Histories</i>. He is, however, repeatedly mentioned. +</p> + +<p> +Two works are falsely attributed to Sallust: +</p> + +<p> +1. <i>Oratio invectiva in Tullium</i>, composed, along with +an <i>Oratio invectiva in Sallustium</i> falsely ascribed to Cicero, +by the same ancient rhetorician. The <i>Or. in Tull.</i> is +quoted by Quintilian, if the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> are right, <i>e.g.</i> iv. 1, 68. +</p> + +<p> +2. An oration and an epistle <i>ad Caesarem senem de re +publica</i>, both probably belonging to the imperial period. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Sallust as a historian.</i>—1. He departed from the +annalistic arrangement, and took a broader view of his +subject, endeavouring to connect events together, and to +trace the motives of actions. +</p> + +<p> +2. He shows a want of precision in his facts. Instead +of giving dates, he often says vaguely <i>interea</i>; <i>isdem +temporibus</i>; <i>dum haec aguntur</i>. One year in the Jugurthine +war is left unaccounted for, and Marius is represented as +consul in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 105. So in geography and ethnography (as in +the <i>Iugurtha</i>) he is not to be trusted. In <i>Iug.</i> 21 he +forgets that Cirta is fifty miles from the sea, and that +city is besieged in the usual way, though surrounded on +three sides by gorges. +</p> + +<p> +He prides himself on his impartiality. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Cat.</i> 4, ‘Mihi a spe, metu, partibus rei publicae animus +liber erat.’ So <i>Hist.</i> i. fr. 6. +</p> + +<p id="p131"> +His leaning to the popular party, however, has been +shown above. +</p> + +<p> +3. His speeches do not always suit the speaker or his +audience, and are not historical. Thus the speech of Catiline +(<i>Cat.</i> 20) does not suit his audience and is not authentic, +and that of Marius (<i>Iug.</i> 85) is too learned for the speaker. +</p> + +<p> +4. His prefaces have little to do with what follows. Cf. +Quint. iii. 8, 9, ‘C. Sallustius in bello Iugurthino et Catilinae +nihil ad historiam pertinentibus principiis orsus est.’ +</p> + +<p> +5. He is too fond of hackneyed moral maxims and trite +sayings. Thus: +</p> + +<p> +<i>Cat.</i> i, ‘Sed nostra omnis vis in animo et corpore sita +est,’ etc. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Iug.</i> 2, ‘Nam uti genus hominum compositum ex corpore +et anima est, ita res cunctae studiaque omnia nostra corporis +alia, alia animi naturam secuntur.’ +</p> + +<p> +His tone is that of a severe moralist. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Cat.</i> 3, ‘Sed ego adulescentulus initio sicuti plerique +studio ad rem publicam latus sum, ibique mihi multa advorsa +fuere. Nam pro pudore, pro abstinentia, pro virtute audacia, +largitio, avaritia vigebant,’ etc. +</p> + +<p> +As this moralizing did not fit in with the facts of his life +he was censured for it, as shown above. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Sallust’s authorities and models.</i>—Besides the authorities +mentioned above, he used a <i>breviarium rerum omnium +Romanarum</i> prepared for him by the grammarian Ateius +(Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 10). He is said to have borrowed phrases +from Cato. +</p> + +<p> +Quint. viii. 3, 29, ‘Nec minus noto Sallustius epigrammate +incessitur: +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Et verba antiqui multum furate Catonis,<br /> +Crispe, Iugurthinae conditor historiae.”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p132"> +The similarity of Sallust’s style to that of Thucydides, whom +he tried to emulate, was remarked by the ancients. +</p> + +<p> +Quint. ix. 3, 17, ‘Ex Graeco vero translata vel Sallustii +plurima, quale est “volgus amat fieri”’ [<i>Iug.</i> 34, a poor +instance, and wrongly quoted]. Cf. <i>Cat.</i> 6, ‘magisque +dandis quam accipiundis beneficiis amicitias parabant,’ and +Thuc. ii. 40, 4, <span class="greek">οὐ γὰρ πάσχοντες εὖ ἀλλὰ δρῶντες κτώμεθα τοὺς φίλους</span>: +<i>Iug.</i> 73, ‘in maius celebrare,’ and Thuc. +i. 10, 3, <span class="greek">ἐπὶ τὸ μεῖζον κοσμῆσαι</span>. +</p> + +<p> +Sallust’s popularity is shown by the numerous references +to him, particularly in Quintilian. Cf. Quint. x. 1, 101, +‘At non historia cesserit Graecis, nec opponere Thucydidi +Sallustium verear’; § 102, ‘immortalem illam Sallustii velocitatem.’ +Cf. also Martial, xiv. 191, ‘primus Romana Crispus +in historia.’ Tacitus is the most important writer influenced +by Sallust. For imitations cf. Tac. <i>Agr.</i> 37, where part of +the description of a battle is modelled on <i>Iug.</i> 101. Cf. +also <i>Cat.</i> 43, ‘facto non consulto in tali periculo opus esse,’ +and Tac. <i>Hist.</i> i. 62, ‘ubi facto magis quam consulto opus +esset.’ +</p> + +<h3>CATULLUS.</h3> + +<p> +The poet’s full name, C.<a href="#fn035" id="ref035">[35]</a> Valerius Catullus, is got from +Jerome and other authorities quoted below, as also his +birthplace, Verona, to which Catullus himself refers +(c. 67, 34, ‘Veronae meae’; 68, 27; 100, 2). The dates +of his birth and death are uncertain. Jerome gives them +as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 87-58. +</p> + +<p> +Yr. Abr. 1930 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 87, ‘Gaius Valerius Catullus scriptor +lyricus Veronae nascitur.’ +</p> + +<p id="p133"> +Yr. Abr. 1959 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58, ‘Catullus xxx. aetatis anno +Romae moritur.’ His early death is referred to by Ovid, +<i>Am.</i> iii. 9, 61, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Obvius huic [Tibullo] venias hedera iuvenilia cinctus<br /> +tempora, cum Calvo, docte Catulle, tuo’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +but it is quite certain that the year of his death given by +Jerome as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58 is wrong. In c. 113, 2, the second consulship +of Pompeius in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55 is referred to, and cc. 11 +and 29 were written after Caesar’s expedition to Britain +in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55. C. 52 used to be taken as referring to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 47, +from l. 3, ‘per consulatum perierat Vatinius,’ but, as shown +below, was written in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55 or 54. As no clear reference +is found to any event after <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54 (a highly important time, +which would have been likely to produce some sarcastic +poetry from Catullus), it is best to accept the view that +Catullus lived from 87 to 54 or 53 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> B. Schmidt (ed. +mai. 1887, prolegomena), on the other hand, fixes the dates +as 82-52 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> (accepting Jerome’s account of Catullus’ age), +and attributes c. 38 (to Cornificius) to the latter year. +</p> + +<p> +Catullus’ family was wealthy and of good position, as is +seen from his having estates at Sirmio (c. 31) and Tibur +(c. 44), and from the fact that his father was a friend of +Julius Caesar. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 73, ‘Hospitioque patris eius [Catulli], sicut +consueverat, uti perseveravit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Catullus went to Rome early, and there, as Schmidt +thinks, was taught by the grammarian Valerius Cato, to +whom c. 56 is probably addressed. From c. 68, 34-5, we +see that he was settled at Rome. +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Romae vivimus: illa domus,<br /> +illa mihi sedes, illic mea carpitur aetas.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p134"> +Catullus wrote love-poetry soon after taking the <i>toga +virilis</i>; c. 68, 15, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Tempore quo primum vestis mihi tradita purast,<br /> + iucundum cum aetas florida ver ageret,<br /> +multa satis lusi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Catullus’ love for Lesbia is the outstanding fact of his life. +Her real name was Clodia, the sister of P. Clodius, nicknamed +for her immorality ‘quadrantaria.’ +</p> + +<p> +Apuleius, <i>Apol.</i> 10, ‘Accusent C. Catullum quod Lesbiam +pro Clodia nominarit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Ovid, <i>Trist.</i> ii. 427, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sic sua lascivo cantata est saepe Catullo<br /> + femina, cui falsum Lesbia nomen erat.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The name Lesbia (which scans like Clodia) may be got +from Sappho, the Lesbian poetess, on whom c. 51 (probably +the first addressed to Clodia) is modelled. The facts known +about Clodia all fit in with what Catullus tells us of Lesbia. +For Lesbia’s beauty, cf. cc. 43 and 86; Clodia was called +<span class="greek">βοῶπις</span> from her large and lustrous eyes (Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> +ii. 9, 1; 12, 2, etc.). For her relations with her husband, +cf. Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> ii. 1, 5 (written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60), ‘Est enim seditiosa: +cum viro bellum gerit.’ A hint of the real name is got from +c. 79, where the Lesbius mentioned is Clodius, just as +Lesbia is Clodia, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Lesbius est pulcer: quid ni? quem Lesbia malit<br /> + quam te cum tota gente, Catulle, tua.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +It is probable that the acquaintance began in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 61. +In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 62 Clodia was the wife of Q. Caecilius Metellus +Celer (Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> v. 2, 6), and in that year Metellus was +governor of Gallia Cisalpina. Now from c. 83 it is evident +that Lesbia’s husband was in Rome when she began to be +annoyed by Catullus’ attentions. We may conclude from +c. 30 that P. Alfenus Varus introduced Catullus to Lesbia. +In that poem Catullus blames Varus for leading him on +and then leaving him in the lurch. M’. Allius is next mentioned +(c. 68) as a friend in whose house Catullus met +Lesbia; and cc. 2, 3, 5, and 7 probably belong to this +fortunate period of the poet’s love. C. 8 speaks of Lesbia’s +leaving him (cf. c. 92), probably on account of her husband’s +suspicions. Cf. c. 5, 1, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p135"> +<p> +‘Vivamus, mea Lesbia, atque amemus,<br /> +rumoresque senum severiorum<br /> +omnes unius aestimemus assis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +C. 107 speaks of an unexpected reconciliation (celebrated +in c. 36). C. 107, 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Restituis cupido atque insperanti, ipsa refers te<br /> + nobis. O lucem candidiore nota!’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +When Catullus, on account of his brother’s death, left +Rome for Verona, he already knew that Lesbia had other +lovers (c. 68, ll. 27 <i>sqq.</i>, 135 <i>sqq.</i>). There are many poems +against his rivals: c. 82, against Quintius; c. 40, against +Ravidus; cc. 74, 80, 88-91, 116, against Gellius; c. 77, +against Rufus, who is attacked also in cc. 59 and 69 (this is +M. Caelius Rufus, the orator, who intrigued with Clodia: +Cic. <i>pro Cael.</i> 17, etc.); c. 79, against Lesbius (see above). +After Catullus returned to Rome, he found that he had lost +Lesbia’s affections. C. 70 was then written, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nulli se dicit mulier mea nubere malle<br /> + quam mihi, non si se Iuppiter ipse petat.<br /> +Dicit: sed mulier cupido quod dicit amanti,<br /> + in vento et rapida scribere oportet aqua.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The words of this poem show that it must have been +written after the death of Clodia’s husband Metellus, which +took place in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59, and it was probably written soon after +that event, when Catullus had returned to Rome from +Verona. +</p> + +<p id="p136"> +Nos. 72, 85, and especially 58, show increasing bitterness, +and must, with the possible exception of 58, be assigned +to the years <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59 or 58. In c. 76 he prays for power +to give Lesbia up; cf. ll. 23-6, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Non iam illud quaero, contra ut me diligat illa,<br /> + aut, quod non potis est, esse pudica velit:<br /> +ipse valere opto et taetrum hunc deponere morbum.<br /> + O di, reddite mi hoc pro pietate mea.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +It is probable that the separation between the lovers +occurred not later than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58; otherwise Catullus would not +have left for Bithynia in the next year. In c. 11, the last +poem that refers to Lesbia, which, from the reference to +Britain in l. 12, cannot have been written before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55, +we see that Catullus is cured of his passion; cf. ll. 21-4, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nec meum respectet, ut ante, amorem,<br /> +qui illius culpa cecidit velut prati<br /> +ultimi flos, praetereunte postquam<br /> + tactus aratro est.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In the spring of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 57 Catullus went to Bithynia on the +staff of the propraetor C. Memmius (cc. 10 and 28). From +c. 10, 29, ‘meus sodalis Cinna est Gaius,’ we see that C. +Helvius Cinna accompanied him. In c. 46, 9 he speaks +of the pleasant meetings of the staff, ‘O dulces comitum +valete coetus.’ C. 46 shows that Catullus left Bithynia in +the spring of the following year: ll. 1-4, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Iam ver egelidos refert tepores ...<br /> +Linquantur Phrygii, Catulle, campi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The dirge in c. 101 shows that Catullus, on his way to +Italy, visited his brother’s tomb in the Troad, and paid +the last rites to it. C. 4, written soon after his return to +Sirmio, tells us how he made his way home again. About +the same time was composed the address to Sirmio in c. +31; c. 10 proves that he soon went back to Rome. +</p> + +<p id="p137"> +The poems against Caesar’s party belong to the years +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55 and 54. In cc. 41 and 43 Catullus calls a Transpadane +girl ‘decoctoris amica Formiani,’ the reference being +to Mamurra, ‘the bankrupt from Formiae,’ who had been +Caesar’s <i>praefectus fabrum</i> in Gaul, and who may have been +a successful rival of Catullus in love. C. 29, written probably +in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54, attacked Mamurra, and also his patrons, +Caesar and Pompey. From l. 24, ‘socer generque, perdidistis +omnia,’ it is clear that the poem was written before +Julia’s death in September, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54; and from ll. 11-12, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘eone nomine, imperator unice,<br /> +fuisti in ultima occidentis insula,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +that it was written after Caesar’s first expedition to Britain +in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55. The poem is referred to by Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 73, +‘Valerium Catullum, a quo sibi versiculis de Mamurra +perpetua stigmata imposita non dissimulaverat, satis facientem +eadem die adhibuit cenae hospitioque patris eius sicut +consueverat uti perseveravit.’ +</p> + +<p> +C. 52 (against Vatinius) was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55 or 54. It +used to be assigned to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 47, when Vatinius was consul, +but l. 3, ‘per consulatum perierat Vatinius’ means ‘Vatinius +perjures himself by his hope of the consulship’ (his name +stood on the list agreed on at Luca, which is mentioned by +Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> iv. 8<i>b</i>, 2); and l. 2, ‘Sella in curuli struma +Nonius sedet,’ cannot refer to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 47, as the only ordinary +curule magistrates in that year were P. Vatinius and Q. Fufius +Calenus. Among other poems against personal enemies are +c. 98, against Vettius, and c. 108, against Cominius, both +of them informers; and c. 84, against Arrius, who aspirated +his words wrongly, and who, from l. 7, ‘hoc misso in Syriam,’ +is supposed to have gone out to Syria as <i>legatus</i> to Crassus +in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55. C. 49 is an attack on Cicero: +</p> + +<blockquote id="p138"> +<p> +‘Disertissime Romuli nepotum,<br /> +quot sunt quotque fuere, Marce Tulli,<br /> +quotque post aliis erunt in annis,<br /> +gratias tibi maximas Catullus<br /> +agit, pessimus omnium poeta,<br /> +tanto pessimus omnium poeta<br /> +quanto tu optimus omnium patronus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The sting lies in the <i>double entendre</i> in the last two lines, +which really mean ‘so much the worst poet of all poets, +as you are the best advocate of all clients, good and bad.’ +So Cicero is called in a good sense <i>omnium patronus</i> by +Caecina in Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> vi. 7, 4. The poem has special +reference to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54, when Cicero defended Vatinius (whom +he had reviled two years before in the speech <i>Pro Sestio</i>), when +prosecuted by Catullus’ friend, Calvus (cf. c. 14, 1-3); and +thanks Cicero ironically for some criticism he had passed +on his poems. Catullus attacks several contemporary poets; +so in c. 22, Suffenus, who in c. 14 is coupled with Caesius +and Aquinus; Volusius in cc. 36 and 95; cf. 36, 1, ‘Annales +Volusi, cacata charta.’<a href="#fn036" id="ref036">[36]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Among Catullus’ friends were Veranius and Fabullus +(cc. 9, 28, etc.); P. Alfenus Varus of Cremona (cc. 10, 22, +30), consul <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 39, and a famous <i>iurisconsultus</i>. C. 61 +celebrates the marriage of L. Manlius Torquatus (who was +praetor <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 49) and Vinia Aurunculeia. Several poems are +addressed to brother poets; c. 35 is to Caecilius of Novum +Comum; c. 38 to Cornificius, a writer of slight love poems +(Ovid, <i>Trist.</i> ii. 436) who died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41; c. 95 is on Cinna’s +<i>Zmyrna</i>; cc. 14, 50, and 96 are addressed to C. Licinius +Calvus; c. 56 to Valerius Cato (see above); c. 65 to +Hortensius Ortalus, who asked Catullus to translate +Callimachus; c. 1, and possibly c. 102, to Cornelius +Nepos. +</p> + +<p id="p139"> +<i>Catullus’ longer poems.</i>—These, unlike the shorter personal +poems, are mostly due to Alexandrian influence, to which +Catullus may have been introduced by his teacher, Valerius +Cato. To these poems Catullus owes his title <i>doctus</i> (Tibull. +iii. 6, 41; Martial, i. 62, 1, etc.). They include: c. 66, +‘coma Berenices,’ from Callimachus; cf. c. 65, ll. 15-6, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sed tamen in tantis maeroribus, Ortale, mitto<br /> + haec expressa tibi carmina Battiadae’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +c. 68 to Allius, also Alexandrian; c. 64, the ‘Nuptials of +Peleus and Thetis,’ l. 30 of which, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Oceanusque, mari totum qui amplectitur orbem,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +is from Euphorion, fr. 158 (Meineke), <span class="greek">Ὠκεανὸς, τῷ πᾶσα περίρρυτος +ἐνδέδεται χθών</span>; c. 63, the ‘Attis’ in Galliambic +metre; c. 62, a translation of a Sapphic epithalamium. +C. 51, and possibly some parts of c. 61, are from Sappho. +Catullus was the first Roman to use the Sapphic measure +(in cc. 11 and 51). +</p> + +<p> +<i>Publication of the Poems.</i>—From the arrangement of the +poems, which accords neither with chronology nor with +subjects, and from the large number of lines extant (2286), +which does not suit <i>libellus</i> (c. i. 1), it is highly probable +that they were not left by Catullus as we find them. C. 2, +beginning ‘Passer, deliciae meae puellae,’ was the first of +a series of short poems. Cf. Martial, iv. 14, 13, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p140"> +<p> +‘Sic forsan tener ausus est Catullus<br /> +magno mittere passerem Maroni’;<a href="#fn037" id="ref037">[37]</a> +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +the book being named from its first word, like <i>Arma virumque</i> +of the <i>Aeneid</i>. C. 1 (to Cornelius Nepos) is the +first of another series of short pieces (cf. the epithet <i>nugae</i> +in l. 4). Catullus doubtless published his larger pieces +together. The traditional arrangement, due to a later hand, +is as follows: (1) The lyric poems in various metres; (2) +the larger poems and the elegies; (3) the shorter poems +written in elegiacs. Catullus began to be popular as soon +as his works were published; cf. Nep. <i>Att.</i> 12, 4 (quoted +<a href="#p124">p. 124</a>). He is imitated in the <i>Priapea</i>, in Ovid, in +Ausonius, in the <i>Ciris</i>, in Martial, etc. C. 4 is closely +parodied in Verg. <i>Catal.</i> 8. +</p> + +<h3>CONTEMPORARY POETS:</h3> + +<p> +(<i>a</i>) <i>Ticidas</i> wrote the Hymenaeus and love-poems on +Perilla. For the latter cf. Ovid, <i>Trist.</i> ii. 433-4 and 437-8 +(read by Riese immediately after), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quid referam Ticidae, quid Memmi carmen, apud quos<br /> + rebus adest nomen nominibusque pudor,<br /> +et quorum libris modo dissimulata Perillae<br /> + nomine nunc legitur dicta, Metelle, tuo?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) <i>C. Helvius Cinna</i> was intimate with Catullus, who +refers to him in c. 10 as being along with him in Bithynia +in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 57. See <a href="#p136">p. 136</a>. From the reference to Gallia +Cisalpina in Cinna, frag. I (Bährens), we might conclude +that he was a countryman of Catullus, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p141"> +<p> +‘At nunc me Cenumana per salicta<br /> +bigis raeda rapit citata nanis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 52, Cinna is spoken of as a partisan of +Caesar: ‘Helvius Cinna tribunus plebis,’ etc.; and he is +probably identical with the person mentioned <i>ibid.</i> 85, +as put to death in mistake for a man of the same name +shortly after the murder of Caesar: ‘Plebs statim a funere +ad domum Bruti et Cassii cum facibus tetendit, atque aegre +repulsa, obvium sibi Helvium Cinnam per errorem nominis, +quasi Cornelius is esset, quem graviter pridie contionatum +de Caesare requirebat, occidit caputque eius praefixum +hastae circumtulit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Cf. especially Plutarch, <i>Brut.</i> 20, <span class="greek">ἦν δέ τις Κίννας, ποιητικὸς +ἀνὴρ, οὐδὲν τῆς αἰτίας μετέχων, ἀλλὰ καὶ φίλος Καίσαρος +γεγονὼς</span>, etc.<a href="#fn038" id="ref038">[38]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Weichert (<i>Poet. Lat. Rell.</i> p. 157) thinks that Plutarch +has confused the tr. pleb. with the poet, and that Virgil’s +words (below) imply that Helvius Cinna was alive when +the <i>Eclogue</i> was written (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41-39). The latest authorities, +however, identify the two persons. Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> 9, 35, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nam neque adhuc Vario videor nec dicere Cinna<br /> +digna, sed argutos inter strepere anser<a href="#fn039" id="ref039">[39]</a> olores.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cinna’s works were: +</p> + +<p> +1. <i>Zmyrna</i>, on the incestuous love of Myrrha for Cinyras. +Cinna spent nine years on this poem, which was very +obscure. Catull. 95, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p142"> +<p> +‘Zmyrna mei Cinnae nonam post denique messem<br /> +quam coeptast nonamque edita post hiemem.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Philargyrius ad Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> 9, 35, ‘Fuit autem liber obscurus +adeo ut et nonnulli eius aetatis grammatici in eum +scripserint magnamque ex eius enarratione sint gloriam +consecuti.’ +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Propempticon Pollionis</i>, written on the occasion of +Asinius Pollio’s visit to Greece. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Epigrams and Love Poems.</i>—For the latter cf. Ovid, +<i>Trist.</i> ii. 435 (on the erotic poets), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cinna quoque his comes est, Cinnaque procacior Anser,<br /> + et leve Cornifici parque Catonis opus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(<i>c</i>) <i>C. Licinius Macer Calvus</i> was the son of the annalist +C. Licinius Macer, and was born 28th May, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 82. +</p> + +<p> +Cic. <i>ad Q.F.</i> ii. 4, 1, ‘Macer Licinius.’ +</p> + +<p> +Valer. Max. ix. 12, 7, ‘C. Licinius Macer, Calvi pater.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> vii. 165, ‘C. Mario Cn. Carbone iii. coss. +a. d. v. Kal. Iun. M. Caelius Rufus et C. Licinius Calvus +eadem die geniti sunt.’ +</p> + +<p> +Calvus probably died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 47. Cf. Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> xv. +21, 4, written to C. Trebonius towards the end of that +year. The letter refers to correspondence with Calvus, +and criticizes his oratory. +</p> + +<p> +See also Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 279 and 283-4; and, for his relations +with Cicero, Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 18. Calvus vied with Cicero for +the first place in the forum. His best known speeches +were <i>in Vatinium</i>, whom he prosecuted at least three times +(<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58-54). +</p> + +<p> +Seneca, <i>Controv.</i> vii. 4, 6-8, ‘Calvus, qui diu cum Cicerone +iniquissimam litem de principatu eloquentiae habuit, usque +eo violentus actor et concitatus fuit, ut in media eius actione +surgeret Vatinius reus et exclamaret: Rogo vos, iudices, num +si iste disertus est, ideo me damnari oportet? Idem postea +cum videret a clientibus Catonis, rei sui, Pollionem Asinium +circumventum in foro caedi, imponi se supra cippum iussit; +erat enim parvolus statura, propter quod etiam Catullus in +hendecasyllabis (c. 53) vocat illum “salaputtium disertum.” +... Solebat praeterea excedere subsellia sua et impetu +latus usque in adversariorum partem transcurrere. Et +carmina quoque eius, quamvis iocosa sint, plena sunt +ingentis animi ... Compositio quoque eius in actionibus ad +exemplum Demosthenis riget: nihil in illa placidum, nihil +lene est, omnia excitata et fluctuantia.’ +</p> + +<p id="p143"> +Catullus also refers to Calvus in c. 14, and in c. 96, +where he speaks of the ‘mors immatura Quintiliae,’ probably +Calvus’ wife. +</p> + +<p> +Of the poems about nineteen lines are extant. They +included: (1) <i>ludicra</i> (in hendecasyllables); (2) <i>epithalamia</i>; +(3) <i>Io</i>; (4) <i>ad uxorem</i>; (5) <i>epigrammata</i>. For the last cf. +Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 73, ‘C. Calvo post famosa epigrammata de +reconciliatione per amicos agenti ultro ac prior scripsit.’ +(6) ‘Calvi de aquae frigidae usu,’ which forms the title of +Martial xiv. 196, may have been a didactic poem. Other +references to Calvus’ poetry are: Ovid, <i>Trist.</i> ii. 431, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Par fuit exigui similisque licentia Calvi,<br /> + detexit variis qui sua furta modis’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Propert. iii. 34, 89, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Haec etiam docti confessast pagina Calvi<br /> + cum caneret miserae funera Quintiliae’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 16, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Illi, scripta quibus comoedia prisca viris est,<br /> +hoc stabant, hoc sunt imitandi: quos neque pulcher<br /> +Hermogenes umquam legit, neque simius iste<br /> +nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p144"> +(<i>d</i>) <i>P. Terentius Varro Atacinus</i> was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 82 in +Gallia Narbonensis near Atax (a river, not a town, as +Jerome states). +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 1935 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 82, ‘P. Terentius Varro vico +Atace in provincia Narbonensi nascitur; qui postea xxxv. +annum agens Graecas litteras cum summo studio didicit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Porphyr. ad Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 46, ‘Terentius Varro Narbonensis, +qui Atacinus ab Atace fluvio dictus est.’ +</p> + +<p> +Varro must have died before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35, when Horace, +speaking of satire, wrote, <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 46, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Hoc erat, experto frustra Varrone Atacino<br /> +atque quibusdam aliis melius quod scribere possem.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Varro’s works were: +</p> + +<p> +1. <i>Bellum Sequanicum</i>, probably an epic on Caesar’s +war with Ariovistus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58. +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Saturae</i>, mentioned only in the above passage of +Horace. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Argonautae</i>, a translation from Apollonius Rhodius +in four Books. Probus ad Verg. <i>Georg.</i> ii. 126, ‘Varro +qui quattuor libros de Argonautis edidit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Cf. Sen. <i>Controv.</i> vii. 1, 27, ‘Illos optimos versus Varronis +(= Apoll. iii. 749-50), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Desierant latrare canes urbesque silebant;<br /> +omnia noctis erant placida composta quiete.” +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Solebat Ovidius de his versibus dicere, potuisse fieri longe +meliores, si secundi versus ultima pars abscideretur et sic +desineret “omnia noctis erant.”’<a href="#fn040" id="ref040">[40]</a> +</p> + +<p id="p145"> +Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 87; Ovid, <i>Am.</i> i. 15, 21; Stat. +<i>Silv.</i> ii. 7, 77. +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Chorographia</i>, a geographical work, as the fragments +show. +</p> + +<p> +5. <i>Ephemeris</i>.—Serv. ad Verg. <i>Georg.</i> i. 375, ‘Hic locus +omnis de Varrone est; nam et Varro et Vergilius Aratum +secuti sunt.’ +</p> + +<p> +6. <i>Elegies.</i>—One line is given by Bährens. Cf. Propert. +iii. 34, 85, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Haec quoque perfecto ludebat Iasone Varro,<br /> + Varro Leucadiae maxima flamma suae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(<i>e</i>) <i>Publilius Syrus</i> was a manumitted slave, a native of +Syria, probably of Antioch. +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 1974 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43, ‘Publilius mimographus +natione Syrus Romae scaenam tenet.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> xxxv. 199, ‘Est et vilissima [creta] qua +circum praeducere ad victoriae notam pedesque venalium +trans maria advectorum denotare instituerunt maiores +talemque Publilium Antiochium (<span class="bcad">MSS.</span> lochium) mimicae +scaenae conditorem et astrologiae consobrinum eius Manilium +Antiochum, item grammaticae Staberium Erotem +eadem nave advectos videre proavi.’ +</p> + +<p> +An account of Publilius’ manumission, and his contest +with Laberius in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45, is given by Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> ii. +7, 4-8, and is quoted under ‘Laberius,’ <a href="#p097">p. 97</a>. +</p> + +<p> +Publilius’ works were: +</p> + +<p> +1. <i>Mimi.</i>—Two titles are quoted. +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Sententiae.</i>—Six hundred and ninety-seven lines from +his mimes (unconnected and alphabetically arranged) are +preserved from different sources. Most are iambic senarii, +some trochaic septenarii. +</p> + +<p id="p146"> +Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> ii. 7, 10, ‘Publili sententiae feruntur +lepidae et ad communem usum adcommodatissimae.’ +</p> + +<p> +Cicero heard his and Laberius’ plays in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46. See +<i>ad Fam.</i> xii. 18, 2, quoted under ‘Laberius,’ <a href="#p099">p. 99</a>. +</p> + +<p> +Sen. <i>de tranquill.</i> 11, 8, ‘Publilius, tragicis comicisque +vehementior ingeniis, quotiens mimicas ineptias et verba +ad summam caveam spectantia reliquit, inter multa alia +cothurno, non tantum sipario fortiora, et hoc ait, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest.”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The lines are, like the above, proverbs of worldly wisdom, +and seem to have been used in schools. +</p> + +<p> +Jerome <i>Ep. ad Laetam</i>, 107, ‘Legi quondam in scholis +puer, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Aegre reprendas quod sinas consuescere.”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<h2 id="p147">CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h2>THE AUGUSTAN AGE.</h2> + +<h3>VIRGIL.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +Our chief authority for the life of Virgil, apart from his +own writings and those of his contemporaries, is Donatus, +whose work is probably based on Suetonius’ <i>De Poetis</i>. +Donatus’ work, though not free from romance, is much +more valuable than the Life by Probus<a href="#fn041" id="ref041">[41]</a> or the metrical +account given by Phocas.<a href="#fn042" id="ref042">[42]</a> Some important details are +given in the Life wrongly attributed to Servius, and in an +account preserved in a Berne <span class="bcad">MS.</span> of the tenth century. +</p> + +<p> +The poet’s name is correctly given as P. Vergilius Maro +in all the Lives. The balance of authority is decidedly +in favour of the spelling ‘Vergilius’; it is always so written +in the early <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> and in inscriptions of the Republic and +of the early centuries <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> The traditional form in modern +literature, ‘Virgil,’ is here retained. +</p> + +<p id="p148"> +Virgil was born 15th October, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 70, at Andes (identified +traditionally with Pietole)<a href="#fn043" id="ref043">[43]</a> near Mantua. Donatus, +<i>vit. Verg.</i>, ‘Natus est Cn. Pompeio Magno et M. Licinio +Crasso primum coss. iduum Octobrium die, in pago qui +Andes dicitur et abest a Mantua non procul.’ +</p> + +<p> +He was of humble extraction, his father being originally +either a potter or a day-labourer. +</p> + +<p> +Probus, <i>vit. Verg.</i>, ‘Matre Magia Polla, patre rustico.’ +</p> + +<p> +Donatus, ‘Parentibus modicis fuit ac praecipue patre, +quem quidam opificem figulum, plures Magi cuiusdam +viatoris initio mercennarium mox ob industriam generum +tradiderunt egregieque substantiae silvis coemendis et +apibus curandis auxisse reculam.’ (Cf. Virgil’s treatment +of bees in <i>Georgic</i> iv.) +</p> + +<p> +His early years were spent at Cremona, whence in +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55 he went to Mediolanum and then to Rome for +his higher education. He studied philosophy, medicine, +mathematics, and rhetoric; but his shyness prevented his +being a success at the bar, where, we are told, he appeared +only once. +</p> + +<p> +Donatus, ‘Initia aetatis Cremonae egit usque ad virilem +togam, quam xv. anno natali suo accepit isdem illis consulibus +iterum duobus quibus erat natus, evenitque ut eo +ipso die Lucretius poeta decederet. De Cremona Mediolanum +et inde paulo post transiit in urbem ... Inter cetera +studia medicinae quoque ac maxime mathematicae<a href="#fn044" id="ref044">[44]</a> operam +dedit. Egit et causam apud iudices unam omnino nec +amplius quam semel; nam et in sermone tardissimum +ac paene indocto similem fuisse Melissus [a freedman of +Maecenas] tradidit.’ +</p> + +<p id="p149"> +The Berne <span class="bcad">MS.</span> above referred to says: ‘Ut primum se +contulit Romam, studuit apud Epidium oratorem cum +Caesare Augusto.’<a href="#fn045" id="ref045">[45]</a> For his studies under the Epicurean +Siron cf. <i>Catal.</i> 7, 8, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nos ad beatos vela mittimus portus,<br /> +magni petentes docta dicta Sironis,<br /> +vitamque ab omni vindicabimus cura.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. also <i>Ecl.</i> 6, 31-40, where a brief sketch is given of +the Epicurean theory of creation. +</p> + +<p> +For a few years we hear nothing of his life, but we may +suppose that he continued his studies in literature and +philosophy, probably at his farm, if we can draw any inference +from the language of <i>Ecl.</i> 1, especially l. 19 <i>sqq.</i> +So far as is known, he took no part in the civil wars. In +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41, when lands were assigned to the troops of Antonius, +Virgil was dispossessed of his property. On the recommendation +of Asinius Pollio, who was <i>legatus</i> of Gallia +Transpadana, he went to Rome and obtained from Octavian +the restitution of his land. The poet expresses his gratitude +in <i>Ecl.</i> 1, 42, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p150"> +<p> +‘Hic illum vidi iuvenem, Meliboee, quotannis<br /> +bis senos cui nostra dies altaria fumant.<br /> +Hic mihi responsum primus dedit ille petenti:<br /> +“Pascite ut ante boves, pueri, submittite tauros.”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. also ll. 70-3. +</p> + +<p> +Donatus, ‘Ad bucolica transiit maxime ut Asinium +Pollionem, Alphenum Varum, et Cornelium Gallum celebraret, +quia in distributione agrorum qui post Philippensem +victoriam<a href="#fn046" id="ref046">[46]</a> veteranis triumvirorum iussu trans Padum dividebantur, +indemnem se praestitissent.’ +</p> + +<p> +Virgil was evicted a second time in the following year, +after the Bellum Perusinum, by the troops of Octavian. +Conflicting accounts are given by the Lives regarding the +persons who seized his land.<a href="#fn047" id="ref047">[47]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Servius, <i>vit. Verg.</i>, ‘Postea ortis bellis civilibus inter +Antonium et Augustum, Augustus victor Cremonensium +agros, quia pro Antonio senserant, dedit militibus suis. +Qui cum non sufficerent, his addidit agros Mantuanos, +sublatos non propter civium culpam, sed propter vicinitatem +Cremonensium: unde ipse in Bucolicis (9, 28), +“Mantua vae miserae nimium vicina Cremonae.”’ +</p> + +<p> +Virgil and his household found refuge on an estate which +had once belonged to his old master Siron: <i>Catal.</i> 10, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Villula, quae Sironis eras, et pauper agelle ...<br /> + Tu nunc eris illi [patri]<br /> +Mantua quod fuerat quodque Cremona prius.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p151"> +Whether he recovered his old farm is uncertain: at all +events he spent most of his time in the south of Italy. +Besides a house in Rome, he seems to have had a country +house near Nola, and we know that the <i>Georgics</i> (cf. iv. 563) +were written at Naples. +</p> + +<p> +Donatus, ‘Habuit domum Romae Esquiliis iuxta hortos +Maecenatis, quamquam secessu Campaniae Siciliaeque +plurimum uteretur.’ +</p> + +<p> +Gell. vi. 20, 1, ‘Scriptum in quodam commentario +repperi ... Vergilium petivisse a Nolanis, aquam uti duceret +in propinquum rus.’ +</p> + +<p> +He lived a retired life, seldom visiting Rome, and devoting +most of his time to poetical composition, in which +he was regular and painstaking. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 13, ‘Securum et quietum Vergilii secessum, +in quo tamen neque apud divum Augustum gratia +caruit neque apud populum Romanum notitia: testes +Augusti epistulae, testis ipse populus, qui auditis in +theatro Vergilii versibus surrexit universus et forte praesentem +spectantemque Vergilium veneratus est sic quasi +Augustum.’ +</p> + +<p> +Quint. x. 3, 8, ‘Vergilium paucissimos die composuisse +versus auctor est Varius.’ +</p> + +<p> +Cf. his own expression, quoted by Gell. xvii. 10, 2, +‘parere se versus more atque ritu ursino’ (alluding +to the notion that the bear licked its young into +shape). +</p> + +<p> +He was already an influential member of Maecenas’ +literary circle, to which, in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 39, he introduced Horace. +Cf. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 6, 54, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p152"> +<p> + ‘optimus olim<br /> +Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +By Maecenas he was introduced to Augustus,<a href="#fn048" id="ref048">[48]</a> who treated +him with liberality. Cf. Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 246, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Munera quae multa dantis cum laude tulerunt<br /> +dilecti tibi Vergilius Variusque poetae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He was on intimate terms with Horace, who addresses +<i>Od.</i> i. 3 to him on the occasion of a proposed visit to +Greece. Cf. ll. 5-8, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Navis, quae tibi creditum<br /> +debes Vergilium, finibus Atticis<br /> + reddas incolumem, precor,<br /> +et serves animae dimidium meae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 37 he formed one of the party who travelled +with Horace to Brundisium: Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 5, 40 (see under +‘Horace,’ <a href="#p167">p. 167</a>). +</p> + +<p> +For the rest of his life we hear little of Virgil in any +public connexion. In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19 he started on a voyage to +Greece and Asia, intending to spend three years on the +revision of the <i>Aeneid</i>, but returned from Athens in +bad health, and died at Brundisium on 21st September. +His remains were buried near Naples. The epitaph +quoted by Donatus is obviously not by Virgil: ‘Anno +aetatis lii. impositurus Aeneidi summam manum, statuit +in Graeciam et in Asiam secedere triennioque continuo +nihil amplius quam emendare, ut reliqua vita tantum +philosophiae vacaret: sed cum ingressus iter Athenis occurrisset Augusto ab oriente Romam revertenti destinaretque +non absistere atque etiam una redire, dum Megara vicinum +oppidum ferventissimo sole cognoscit, languorem nactus +est eumque non intermissa navigatione auxit, ita ut gravior +aliquanto Brundisium appelleret, ubi diebus paucis obiit xi. +Kal. Octobr. Cn. Sentio Q. Lucretio coss. (21st September, +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19). Ossa eius Neapolim translata sunt tumuloque +condita ... in quo distichon fecit tale: +</p> + +<blockquote id="p153"> +<p> +“Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc<br /> + Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces.”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +His personal appearance and character are thus described +by Donatus: ‘Corpore et statura fuit grandis, aquilo colore, +facie rusticana, valetudine varia: nam plerumque a +stomacho et a faucibus ac dolore capitis laborabat, sanguinem +etiam saepe reiecit.’ (Cf. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 5, 48, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Lusum it Maecenas, dormitum ego Vergiliusque;<br /> +namque pila lippis inimicum et ludere crudis.’) +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +‘Cibi vinique minimi, libidinis pronior ... cetera sane +vita et ore et animo tam probum constat, ut Neapoli +Parthenias volgo appellatus sit, ac si quando Romae, quo +rarissime commeabat, viseretur in publico, sectantes demonstrantesque +se suffugeret in proximum tectum.’ +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +<span class="sc">Minor Poems</span>.—According to Donatus, these were: ‘In +Balistam ... deinde Catalecton et Priapia et Epigrammata +et Diras, item Cirim et Culicem, cum esset annorum xvi.’ +Servius omits the boyish production ‘in Balistam,’ and +adds the ‘Copa.’ The ‘Aetna,’ mentioned with doubt by +Donatus, is, of course, not by Virgil. (1) <i>Catalecta</i>.-This +seems better than <i>Catalecton</i>; either would mean “a collection +of poems.” Some give <i>Catalepton</i> (= “trifles,” like +Aratus’ work <cite class="greek">τὰ κατὰ λεπτόν</cite>). Ribbeck thinks <i>Catalecta</i> +originally included the <i>Priapea</i>, <i>Epigrammata</i>, and <i>Dirae</i>, +but came to be restricted to the fourteen short pieces +given in our <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> under that title. Some of these, <i>e.g.</i> +No. 5, are spurious. Quint. viii. 3, 28 vouches for No. 2. +Virgil’s friends, Tucca and Varius, are addressed in 1 and +9, and 10 (on Siron’s villa) refers to an event in Virgil’s +life. In the vein of Catullus are 3, 4, and 8, the last being +an extremely close parody of Catullus, c. 4. (2) <i>Priapea</i>, +three in number. (3) <i>Dirae</i>, spurious. (4) <i>Ciris</i>. The +writer’s reference to himself in l. 2, ‘Irritaque expertum +fallacis praemia volgi,’ shows that Virgil is not the author. +(5) <i>Culex</i>. That Virgil wrote a poem with this title is +attested by Suetonius, Statius, and Martial; <i>e.g.</i> Mart. viii. +56, 19, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p154"> +<p> +‘Protinus Italiam concepit et arma virumque<br /> +qui modo vix Culicem fleverat ore rudi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The poem in its present form is accepted by Ribbeck, but +it does not correspond exactly to the account given by +Donatus of the contents. (6) The <i>Copa</i> Ribbeck accepts +as genuine, but other critics find in it characteristics rather +of Ovid or of Propertius. (7) The <i>Moretum</i>, though found +in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, is not mentioned by Donatus or Servius, a strong +argument against its being genuine. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="sc">Bucolica</span>.—These ten poems are called in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> +<i>Eclogae</i> (“selected pieces”), and were composed <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43-39. +Probus, ‘Scripsit Bucolica annos natus xxviii., Theocritum +secutus.’ +</p> + +<p> +Servius, ‘Tunc ei proposuit Pollio ut carmen bucolicum +scriberet, quod eum constat triennio<a href="#fn049" id="ref049">[49]</a> scripsisse et emendasse.’ +</p> + +<p id="p155"> +They were doubtless published separately as they were +written, and afterwards collected into a volume with <i>Ecl.</i> 1 +(Tityrus) coming first. Cf. <i>Georg.</i> iv. 565, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Carmina qui lusi pastorum, audaxque iuventa,<br /> +Tityre, te patulae cecini sub tegmine fagi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The present order is certainly not the chronological order. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ecl.</i> 1 was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41 as a thanksgiving to Augustus +(see <a href="#p150">p. 150</a>). +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ecl.</i> 2 cannot be earlier than the end of 43 when Pollio +was made governor of Gallia Transpadana, and possibly +should not be put earlier than the summer of 42. The +poem is written on his favourite slave Alexis (see Serv. +<i>ad loc.</i>). +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ecl.</i> 3 was probably written soon afterwards. Virgil +refers in l. 84 to his intimacy with Pollio, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Pollio amat nostram, quamvis est rustica, Musam.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Ecl.</i> 2 and 3 are earlier than 5. Cf. 5, 86-7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Haec nos “Formosum Corydon ardebat Alexim,”<br /> +haec eadem docuit “Cuium pecus? an Meliboei?”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Ecl.</i> 4. The date is clear from l. 3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Si canimus silvas, silvae sint <i>consule</i> dignae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +It must have been written in 40, when Pollio was consul. +This eclogue, which in the Middle Age was believed to be +a prophecy of the Messiah’s coming, cannot be satisfactorily +explained as referring to Pollio’s son Saloninus, or to the +expected child of Augustus, Julia. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ecl.</i> 5. Spohn’s view is highly probable, that it was +written for the first celebration of Caesar’s birthday in +July, 42. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ecl.</i> 6, to Varus, probably written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 40 from Siron’s villa. +</p> + +<p id="p156"> +<i>Ecl.</i> 7 contains no allusion to contemporary events: the +tone is purely pastoral. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ecl.</i> 8 was written while Pollio was on his way back to +Rome from his victory over the Parthini in Illyricum, for +his triumph in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 39. Cf. ll. 6 and 12. +</p> + +<p> +In <i>Ecl.</i> 9, written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 40 at Siron’s villa, the poet +expresses his grief at the second expulsion from his farm. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ecl.</i> 10 entitled ‘Gallus’ was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 39. For details +see under ‘Gallus,’ <a href="#p182">p. 182</a>.<a href="#fn050" id="ref050">[50]</a> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Sources of the Eclogues.</i>—Several of the Eclogues are +modelled on Theocritus (cf. ‘Sicelides Musae’ 4, 1; ‘Syracosius +versus’ 6, 1), <i>e.g.</i> <i>Ecl.</i> 8 on Theocr. 2 and 3; +and close imitations are found throughout. The poet +Euphorion of Chalcis (of third century <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>) is alluded to in +<i>Ecl.</i> 10, 50 in connection with Gallus. The names of the +shepherds are mostly from Theocritus, as Tityrus, Mopsus, +Damoetas. They are ‘Arcades’ (7, 4, etc.), but, like the +scenery, exhibit traits both of Sicily and of North Italy. +Thus the scenery never gives an accurate picture of any +one locality: <i>e.g.</i> <i>Ecl.</i> 9, ll. 1-10, 26-7, 36, 59-60, present +features of the district around Mantua, while in ll. 39-43 +a Sicilian scene is introduced from Theocritus. The lofty +mountains, <i>e.g.</i> 1, 84, are Sicilian, and so are many of the +trees, as chestnut and pine, which are said not to be found +near Mantua. For Mantuan scenery cf. <i>e.g.</i> 7, 12, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Hic virides tenera praetexit harundine ripas<br /> +Mincius.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The <span class="sc">Georgics</span> were written from <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 37 to 30 at the +suggestion of Maecenas. Cf. i. 1. +</p> + +<p> +Serv. <i>vit. Verg.</i> ‘Item proposuit Maecenas Georgica, +quae scripsit emendavitque septem annis.’ +</p> + +<p> +The poem was finished by <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29. Cf. Donatus, +‘Georgica reverso post Actiacam victoriam Augusto atque +Atellae ... commoranti per continuum quadriduum legit.’ +It was written at Naples. Cf. iv. 559, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Haec super arvorum cultu pecorumque canebam ...<br /> +Illo Vergilium me tempore dulcis alebat<br /> +Parthenope, studiis florentem ignobilis oti.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p157"> +The concluding part of Book iv., originally a dirge on +Cornelius Gallus, was afterwards altered for the myth of +Aristaeus, to please Augustus. +</p> + +<p> +Serv. <i>ad Ecl.</i> 10, 1, ‘Fuit Cornelius Gallus amicus +Vergilii, adeo ut quartus Georgicorum a medio usque ad +finem eius laudes teneret, quas postea iubente Augusto +in Aristaei fabulam commutavit.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Sources of the Georgics.</i>—Besides his own observation, +Virgil used the following authorities: +</p> + +<p> +1. Hesiod—mostly in Book i., <i>e.g.</i> ll. 276-286 (lucky +and unlucky days). Cf. ii. 176, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +2. Books of the priests; <i>e.g.</i> i. 269 <i>sqq.</i> (what is lawful +on holy days), i. 338 <i>sqq.</i> (Ambarvalia). +</p> + +<p> +3. For agriculture and natural history—Greek writers +like Aristotle, Theophrastus, Democritus, and Xenophon; +and Latin writers like Cato and Varro. +</p> + +<p id="p158"> +4. Alexandrian writers for science and mythology; <i>e.g.</i> +Eratosthenes for i. 233, ‘quinque tenent caelum zonae,’ etc.; +i. 351-465, signs of weather, from the <cite class="greek">Διοσημεῖα</cite> of Aratus; +iii. 425 <i>sqq.</i>, the Calabrian serpent, from the <cite class="greek">Θηριακά</cite> of +Nicander, whose writings were also used for the subject +of bees in Book iv. +</p> + +<p> +5. Lucretius, to whom Virgil is chiefly indebted, ii. 475 +<i>sqq.</i>, especially 490 <i>sqq.</i>, ‘felix qui potuit,’ etc., refers to +Lucretius. The idea of Lucretius, cf. v. 206-217, that +man has a perpetual struggle with nature, is reflected in +Virgil, but modified by his acceptance of the argument +from design. Cf. i. 99, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘<i>Exercet</i>que frequens tellurem atque <i>imperat</i> arvis,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +and the whole passage i. 118-159. Lucretian science is +borrowed in passages like i. 89, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Seu pluris calor ille vias et caeca relaxat<br /> +spiramenta, novas veniat qua sucus in herbas’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +l. 415-423 (of the habits of birds); iii. 242 <i>sqq.</i> (on the +passion of love). Notice also, with Munro, Lucretian +phrases like <i>principio</i>, <i>quod superest</i>, <i>his animadversis</i>, <i>nunc +age</i>, <i>praeterea</i>, <i>nonne vides</i>, <i>contemplator</i>, <i>genitalia semina</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Political purpose of the Georgics.</i>—The political purpose +of the Georgics is to help the policy of Augustus, which +aimed at checking the depopulation of the country districts. +Cf. i. 498-514, and especially ll. 506-7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Non ullus aratro<br /> +dignus honos: squalent abductis arva colonis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The Emperor is introduced throughout as the object of +veneration. Cf. i. 24-42. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Natural scenery.</i>—Virgil dwells on Nature in her softer +aspects. Cf. phrases like ii. 470, ‘mollesque sub arbore +somni,’ and the passage ii. 458-540 in praise of a country +life. For the praise of Italy see the beautiful passage +ii. 136-176, where special districts are mentioned. +</p> + +<p id="p159"> +<span class="sc">Aeneid</span>.—Even before the <i>Eclogues</i> were written, Virgil +had meditated the composition of an epic, perhaps, as +Servius suggests, on the kings of Alba. Cf. <i>Ecl.</i> 6, 3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cum canerem reges et proelia, Cynthius aurem<br /> +vellit et admonuit: “pastorem, Tityre, pingues<br /> +pascere oportet oves, deductum dicere carmen.”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The idea of a poem in honour of Augustus was present +to his mind when he wrote <i>Georg.</i> iii. 46, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Mox tamen ardentes accingar dicere pugnas<br /> +Caesaris.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The <i>Aeneid</i> was commenced <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29, and remained +unfinished at Virgil’s death. +</p> + +<p> +Servius, <i>vit. Verg.</i>, ‘postea ab Augusto Aeneidem propositam +scripsit annis undecim, sed nec emendavit nec +edidit.’ +</p> + +<p> +His method of working at the poem is thus described +by Donatus, ‘Aeneida prosa prius oratione formatam digestamque +in xii. libros particulatim componere instituit, prout +liberet quidque et nihil in ordinem arripiens. Ut ne quid +impetum moraretur, quaedam imperfecta transmisit, alia +levissimis verbis veluti fulsit, quae per iocum pro tibicinibus +interponi aiebat ad sustinendum opus donec solidae columnae +advenirent.’ +</p> + +<p> +In what order the Books were written it is impossible to +decide; but Book vi. was not read to Augustus till after +the death of the young Marcellus, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 23. +</p> + +<p> +Donatus, ‘Cui [Augusto] multo post perfectaque demum +materia tres omnino libros recitavit, secundum quartum +sextum, sed hunc notabili Octaviae adfectione, quae cum +recitationi interesset ad illos de filio suo versus, “Tu Marcellus +eris,” defecisse fertur atque aegre focillata est.’ +</p> + +<p id="p160"> +Virgil, writing to the emperor, insists on the magnitude +of the task he had rashly undertaken. +</p> + +<p> +Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> i. 24, 11, ‘Tanta incohata res est, ut +paene vitio mentis tantum opus ingressus mihi videar, cum +praesertim, ut scis, alia quoque studia ad id opus multoque +potiora impertiar.’ +</p> + +<p> +Although in his will Virgil left instructions to Varius (and +Tucca) to destroy all his unpublished manuscripts, Varius +was expressly desired by Augustus to revise and publish +the <i>Aeneid</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Donatus, ‘Egerat cum Vario, priusquam Italia decederet, +ut si quid sibi accidisset Aeneida combureret; sed is +facturum se pernegarat ... Edidit autem auctore Augusto +Varius, sed summatim emendata, ut qui versus etiam imperfectos +sicut erant reliquerit.’ +</p> + +<p> +This account is corroborated by Pliny the elder, <i>N.H.</i> +vii. 114, Gellius, and Macrobius. +</p> + +<p> +The rules laid down to the editors by the Emperor were, +according to Servius, ‘ut superflua demerent, nihil adderent +tamen.’ +</p> + +<p> +It seems probable that the <i>Aeneid</i> was published <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 17, +for it is in the <i>Carmen Saeculare</i> of that year that Horace +first alludes to the story of Aeneas (cf. l. 50, ‘clarus Anchisae +Venerisque sanguis’), and in the fourth Book of the <i>Odes</i> +(four years later) it is more than once introduced. +</p> + +<p> +The <i>choice of the subject</i> was influenced (1) by the personal +desire of the Emperor; (2) by the connexion of the +Caesarian house with Venus, through Iulus;<a href="#fn051" id="ref051">[51]</a> cf. the +invention of Atys (<i>Aen.</i> v. 568) by Virgil to please Augustus, +whose mother was Atia; (3) by Virgil’s design to write +an epic on the greatness of Rome, in the manner of +Homer. +</p> + +<p> +<i>The Aeneas Legend.</i>—Stesichorus of Himera, among +other writers, made Aeneas, a Homeric hero (cf. <i>Il.</i> xx. +307-8), settle in Italy; and Naevius is said to have adopted +the legend in the form given by Timaeus, the Sicilian +historian of the third century <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> The legend probably +arose from the worship of Aphrodite on the coasts of Italy, +and was disseminated by the Greeks of Cumae to please +the Romans. The connexion of Rome with Troy had +been officially recognized for two hundred years (cf. Sueton. +<i>Claud.</i> 25), and, though not a popular belief, had been +accepted in literature from the time of Naevius. +</p> + +<p id="p161"> +<i>Sources of the Aeneid.</i>—1. Earlier Roman poets as Naevius, +Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, Hostius, Varro Atacinus, +Lucretius. For details see under these names. +</p> + +<p> +2. Cato’s <i>Origines</i> and Varro’s <i>Antiquitates</i>, for Italian +legends and peoples. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Ius pontificium</i> and <i>ius augurale</i>, as found in the books +of sacred colleges (Macrob. i. 24, 16). Cf. the ritual +meaning of <i>porricio</i> (v. 776), <i>porrigo</i> (viii. 274), the habit +of praying with veiled head (iii. 405), prayer to Apollo of +Soracte (xi. 785). +</p> + +<p> +4. Greek sources: (<i>a</i>) particularly the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>, +but also the Homeric Hymns and Cyclic Poems. Thus +the games in Book v. = the games in honour of Patroclus +in <i>Il.</i> xxiii.; the shield of Aeneas (viii. 626-731) = the shield +of Achilles in <i>Il.</i> xviii.; (<i>b</i>) Apollonius Rhodius, for the +passion of Dido = that of Medea; (<i>c</i>) Greek tragedies, <i>e.g.</i> +the lost <i>Laocoon</i> of Sophocles for ii. 40 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Religion in the <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: period added" +id="corr7">Aeneid.</ins></i>—1. The mythology is mainly from +Homer. From Latin myths come Faunus, Saturnus, Janus, +Picus. Euhemerism is shown by the last three being represented +as originally kings of Rome. +</p> + +<p id="p162"> +2. The power of the gods is denoted by <i>fatum</i> or <i>fata</i>; +cf. x. 112-3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘rex Iuppiter omnibus idem:<br /> +fata viam invenient.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +3. The description of the lower world in Book vi. is +from the descent into Hades in <i>Od.</i> xi., but is modified +by Pythagorean ideas (vi. 748-751, metempsychosis), Stoic +ideas (vi. 724 <i>sqq.</i>, pantheism, cf. <i>Georg.</i> iv. 219-227) +and Platonic myths (<i>e.g.</i> in the <i>Gorgias</i>, <i>Phaedo</i>, and +<i>Republic</i>), and rendered more definite by the introduction +of heroes of the Republic. Note that Virgil emphasizes +its mythical nature by dismissing Aeneas through the ivory +gate (of false dreams). +</p> + +<p> +4. Other beliefs: (<i>a</i>) The golden bough (vi. 203-9) +compared to the mistletoe, the symbol of the lower world +with many Indo-European peoples; (<i>b</i>) Divinities attached +to special places, <i>e.g.</i> viii. 349-354 of the <i>religio</i> attaching +to the Capitol, ii. 351-2 guardian deities: cf. Carmentis, +pater Tiberinus, etc.; (<i>c</i>) Worship of the dead, and belief +in their continued influence on human affairs, iii. 66-8, +301-5. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Political significance.</i>—1. The pre-eminence of the Julian +race and of Augustus himself. Cf. i. 286, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nascetur pulchra Troianus origine Caesar,<br /> +imperium Oceano, famam qui terminet astris,<br /> +Iulius, a magno demissum nomen Iulo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +So vi. 789 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +2. The idea of empire: cf. i. 33, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p163"> +and of Rome as the conqueror and civilizer of the world: +vi. 851, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento:<br /> +hae tibi erunt artes, pacisque imponere morem,<br /> +parcere subiectis et debellare superbos.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +3. The unity of Italy with Rome is seen in Aeneas +and Turnus, representing respectively the <i>pietas</i> and the +martial courage of a past age. This is brought out also +by the introduction of local names. Cf. vii. 682-5, 710-7, +797-802. +</p> + +<p> +4. Virgil shows here and there contempt for pure democracy: +vi. 815, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘iactantior Ancus<br /> +nunc quoque iam nimium gaudens popularibus auris.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. also i. 148-9. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Authors influenced by Virgil.</i>—Livy, Tacitus, Ovid, +Tibullus, Propertius, Manilius, Lucan, Silius Italicus, +Statius, Valerius Flaccus, Martial, Juvenal, the author of +<i>Aetna</i>. See under each. +</p> + +<h3>HORACE.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +Our chief source of information about Horace is his +own works, and some important details are added in a +life of him by Suetonius. +</p> + +<p> +Horace’s full name is Quintus (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 6, 37) Horatius +(<i>Od.</i> iv. 6, 44) Flaccus (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 18). He was born +8th December, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 65, at Venusia in Apulia, on the frontier +of Lucania. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, ‘Natus est vi. Id. Decembr. L. Cotta +et L. Torquato coss.’ +</p> + +<p id="p164"> +<i>Ep.</i> i. 20, 26-8, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Forte meum siquis te percontabitur aevum,<br /> +me quater undenos sciat inplevisse Decembris<br /> +collegam Lepidum quo duxit Lollius anno.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Sat.</i> i. 1, 34, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Lucanus an Appulus anceps:<br /> +nam Venusinus arat finem sub utrumque colonus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +There are a great many references to Apulia in Horace. +So <i>Od.</i> iii. 4, 9 <i>sqq.</i>, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Me fabulosae Volture in Appulo<br /> +nutricis extra limina Pulliae’ (his nurse’s name), etc. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +All Roman virtues are attributed to the Apulians, as in +<i>Od.</i> i. 22, 13; iii. 5, 9; <i>Epod.</i> ii. 39-42. +</p> + +<p> +Horace, though free-born (<i>Sat.</i> i. 6, 7) was the son of +a freedman, who was by profession a collector of debts, +or, according to others, a fishmonger. To this last +story Horace probably refers with proud humility in +<i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 60, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Bioneis sermonibus et sale nigro.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, ‘Patre, ut ipse tradit, libertino et +auctionum coactore, ut vero creditum est, salsamentario.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Sat.</i> i. 6, 6, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ut me libertino patre natum’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>ibid.</i> 85, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nec timuit, sibi ne vitio quis verteret olim,<br /> +si praeco parvas aut, ut fuit ipse, coactor<br /> +mercedes sequerer.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Stories of his childhood are given, <i>Od.</i> iii. 4, 9 <i>sqq.</i>; +<i>Sat.</i> i. 9, 29 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>Sat.</i> ii. 2, 112 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +Horace speaks highly of his father, who took him from +the village school to Rome for his education. After +speaking of his own freedom from vice he says (<i>Sat.</i> +i. 6, 71 <i>sqq.</i>), +</p> + +<blockquote id="p165"> +<p> +‘Causa fuit pater his, qui macro pauper agello<br /> +noluit in Flavi ludum me mittere, ...<br /> +sed puerum est ausus Romam portare docendum<br /> +artis quas doceat quivis eques atque senator<br /> +semet prognatos. Vestem servosque sequentis,<br /> +in magno ut populo, si qui vidisset, avita<br /> +ex re praeberi sumptus mihi crederet illos.<br /> +Ipse mihi custos incorruptissimus omnis<br /> +circum doctores aderat.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He received instruction, both in Latin and Greek, from +Orbilius,<a href="#fn052" id="ref052">[52]</a> a teacher of conservative tendencies. <i>Ep.</i> +ii. 1, 69, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi<br /> +esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo<br /> +Orbilium dictare.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 41, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Romae nutriri mihi contigit atque doceri<br /> +iratus Graiis quantum nocuisset Achilles.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +His education was continued at Athens. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 43, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Adiecere bonae paulo plus artis Athenae,<br /> +scilicet ut vellem curvo dignoscere rectum<br /> +atque inter silvas Academi quaerere verum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +His studies were interrupted by the civil war; he joined +Brutus (who came to Athens in August, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44), was by +him appointed <i>tribunus militum</i>, and took part in the +battle of Philippi, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 42. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 46, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Dura sed emovere loco me tempora grato<br /> +civilisque rudem belli tulit aestus in arma<br /> +Caesaris Augusti non responsura lacertis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p166"> +<i>Od.</i> ii. 7, 9, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Philippos et celerem fugam<br /> +sensi, relicta non bene parmula.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In <i>Sat.</i> i. 7 Horace relates a scene at Clazomenae before +Brutus and his staff; and in <i>Ep.</i> i. 11 he speaks, as if with +personal knowledge, of places in Asia Minor and the +islands of the Aegean, which he probably visited then. +He refers to the hardships of war in <i>Od.</i> ii. 6, 7; ii. 7, 1; +iii. 4, 26. +</p> + +<p> +After the civil war his paternal property was confiscated, +probably in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41, and his poverty compelled him to +seek the post of a clerk in the quaestor’s office, and, as +he says, to write verses. (Some satires and epodes were +then written.) +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, ‘Victis partibus, venia inpetrata, +scriptum quaestorium comparavit.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Sat.</i> ii. 6, 36, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘De re communi scribae magna atque nova te<br /> +orabant hodie meminisses, Quinte, reverti.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 49, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Unde simul primum me dimisere Philippi,<br /> +decisis humilem pennis inopemque paterni<br /> +et laris et fundi paupertas inpulit, audax<br /> +ut versus facerem.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In the spring of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 38 Horace was introduced to +Maecenas<a href="#fn053" id="ref053">[53]</a> by Varius and Virgil, and became intimate +with him in the winter of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 38-7. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, ‘Primo Maecenati, mox Augusto insinuatus +non mediocrem in amborum amicitia locum tenuit. +Maecenas quanto opere eum dilexerit satis testatur illo +epigrammate: +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Ni te visceribus meis, Horati,<br /> +plus iam diligo, tu tuum sodalem<br /> +Ninnio videas strigosiorem”: +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +sed multo magis extremis iudiciis tali ad Augustum elogio: +“Horati Flacci ut mei esto memor!”’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Sat.</i> i. 6, 54, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Optimus olim<br /> +Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem ...<br /> +Abeo, et revocas nono post mense iubesque (l. 61)<br /> +esse in amicorum numero.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p167"> +In <i>Sat.</i> ii. 6, 40-58 Horace describes how intimate he +was socially with Maecenas, who, however, did not make +him a confidant in political matters. The most noteworthy +event of this period is described in <i>Sat.</i> i. 5, viz. Horace’s +journey to Brundisium in the train of Maecenas and +Cocceius, who went to arrange some matters between +Augustus and Antony. His companions were Virgil, +Varius, Plotius, and the Greek rhetorician, Heliodorus. +Plotius, Virgil, and Varius are thus referred to (<i>Sat.</i> i. +5, 41): +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Animae quales neque candidiores<br /> +terra tulit neque quis me sit devinctior alter.’<a href="#fn054" id="ref054">[54]</a> +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 34 Maecenas gave Horace an estate in the +country of the Sabines. The question of its position was +settled last century by the abbé Capmartin de Chaupy. +The only place that suits Horace’s description is east of +Tivoli, and in the neighbourhood of Vicovaro, which is +the same as the Varia of Horace (<i>Ep.</i> i. 14, 3), the market-town +of his tenants. Near it is the stream Licenza, the +Digentia of Horace, on which stands Bardela (the Mandela +of Hor.). <i>Ep.</i> i. 18, 104, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p168"> +<p> +‘Me quotiens reficit gelidus Digentia rivus,<br /> +quem Mandela bibit, rugosus frigore pagus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The site of his villa may be pretty closely determined +from <i>Ep.</i> i. 10, 49, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Haec tibi dictabam post fanum putre Vacunae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Vacuna is a Sabine goddess, identified with Victoria: near +the village an inscription has been found which was erected +by Vespasian, ‘Aedem Victoriae vetustate dilapsam sua +impensa restituit,’ and the natural inference is that this is +the temple mentioned by Horace.<a href="#fn055" id="ref055">[55]</a> Horace stayed a great +deal at his country-house, and his works contain many +references to it. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, ‘Vixit plurimum in secessu ruris sui +Sabini aut Tiburtini, domusque eius ostenditur circa +Tiburni luculum.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Sat.</i> ii. 6, 16, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ubi me in mentis et in arcem ex urbe removi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Other references are <i>Ep.</i> i. 16, 1-14; <i>Od.</i> ii. 18, 14. +</p> + +<p> +Augustus having tried unsuccessfully to induce Horace to +become his secretary, was not offended at the poet’s refusal, +but continued to bestow his favour upon him. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, ‘Augustus epistularum quoque ei +officium obtulit, ut hoc ad Maecenatem scripto significat: +“Ante ipse sufficiebam scribendis epistulis amicorum, nunc +occupatissimus et infirmus Horatium nostrum a te cupio +abducere. Veniet ergo ab ista parasitica mensa ad hanc +regiam et nos in epistulis scribendis adiuvabit.” Ac ne +recusanti quidem aut succensuit quicquam aut amicitiam +suam ingerere desiit ... unaque et altera liberalitate locupletavit.’ +</p> + +<p id="p169"> +Horace composed for Augustus the <i>Carmen Saeculare</i>; +<i>Od.</i> iv. 4; iv. 14, celebrating the victories of Augustus’ +step-sons over the Rhaetians and the Vindelici; also +<i>Ep.</i> ii. 1. +</p> + +<p id="carmsaec"> +Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, ‘Scripta quidem eius usque adeo +probavit mansuraque perpetuo opinatus est, ut non modo +Saeculare carmen componendum iniunxerit sed et Vindelicam +victoriam Tiberii Drusique privignorum suorum eumque +coegerit propter hoc tribus carminum libris ex longo intervallo +quartum addere; post sermones vero quosdam lectos +nullam sui mentionem habitam ita sit questus: “Irasci me +tibi scito, quod non in plerisque eius modi scriptis mecum +potissimum loquaris; an vereris ne apud posteros infame +tibi sit, quod videaris familiaris nobis esse?” expresseritque +eclogam ad se, cuius initium est: +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +“Cum tot sustineas et tanta negotia solus,”’ etc. (<i>Ep.</i> ii. 1). +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Horace died 27th November, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 8, and was buried near +Maecenas. He appointed Augustus his heir. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, ‘Decessit v. Kal. Decembris C. Marcio +Censorino et C. Asinio Gallo coss. lvii. aetatis anno, herede +Augusto palam nuncupato; ... et conditus est extremis +Esquiliis iuxta Maecenatis tumulum.’ +</p> + +<p> +In personal appearance Horace was ‘brevis atque obesus,’ +according to Suetonius, who quotes a joke of Augustus on +the subject: ‘Vereri autem mihi videris ne maiores libelli +tui sint, quam ipse es; sed tibi statura deest, corpusculum +non deest.’ Cf. Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 20, 24, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p170"> +<p> +‘Corporis exigui, praecanum, solibus aptum,<br /> +irasci celerem, tamen ut placabilis essem’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> i. 4, 15, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Me pinguem et nitidum bene curata cute vises,<br /> +cum ridere voles, Epicuri de grege porcum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. also <i>Ep.</i> i. 7, 25; <i>Od.</i> iii. 14, 25. +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +<i>Chronology of the Works.</i>—(1) <i>Satirae</i>, in two Books +(called <i>Sermones</i> in all the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>). +</p> + +<p> +Book i. It is clear from <i>Sat.</i> ii. 6, 40 that Horace was +introduced to Maecenas in the spring of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 38. Now all +the references to Maecenas, with the exception of the prologue +in <i>Sat.</i> 1 (written last), are in the second half of the +book, there being no mention of him in <i>Sat.</i> 2; 3; and 4. +It is therefore probable that these three Satires were written +when Horace knew Varius and Virgil, but not Maecenas, +<i>i.e.</i> <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 40-38. <i>Sat.</i> 2 is probably the oldest we have, as +is shown by other considerations, and by the number of +archaisms it contains. <i>Sat.</i> 5 (on the journey to Brundisium) +was written shortly after the spring of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 37, when +the events recorded took place. The date of the publication +of the book cannot be exactly fixed, the only clue we have +being the reference in <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 86, to Bibulus, the political +agent of Antony, whose presence in Rome <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35 +may be referred to. It cannot be proved that <i>Sat.</i> i. 1, +114 <i>sqq.</i>, is imitated from Verg. <i>Georg.</i> i. 512 <i>sqq.</i>, published +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35. +</p> + +<p> +Book ii. and the <i>Epodes</i> were published in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 30 about +the same time. We have references to Actium (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 31), +as in <i>Sat.</i> ii. 5, 63; and <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1 (written last) speaks +of Augustus (ll. 11-15) as the hero in war, not yet the +bringer of peace, and was probably therefore composed +before the temple of Janus was shut in the beginning of +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29. +</p> + +<p id="p171"> +(2) <i>Epodon liber</i>, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 30, as above. <i>Epod.</i> 9 was written +shortly after the battle of Actium, 2nd September, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 31, +before it was known whither Antony had fled. +</p> + +<p> +(3) <i>Carmina</i> (Odes) Books i.-iii., published <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 23. In +<i>Od.</i> i. 12, 45, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo<br /> +fama Marcellis,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +we have a reference to the marriage in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 25 of Augustus’ +daughter, Julia, to his nephew, Marcellus. Marcellus died +in the autumn of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 23, and the lines must have been +written before his death. <i>Od.</i> ii. 10 and iii. 19 contain +references to Licinius Murena, brother of Terentia, Maecenas’ +wife. Murena was executed for his share in the +conspiracy of Fannius Caepio in the end of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 23, and +it is improbable that Horace could have made these +references after that event.<a href="#fn056" id="ref056">[56]</a> +</p> + +<p> +(4) <i>Epistles</i>, Book i., published <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 20. The date is +fixed by <i>Ep.</i> i. 20, 26-8, already quoted, <a href="#p164">p. 164</a>. +</p> + +<p> +The year referred to is <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 21, and the book was therefore +composed in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 20, before December of that year. +</p> + +<p> +(5) <i>Carmen Saeculare</i>, composed for the <i>Ludi Saeculares</i> +of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 17 (see Sueton. <a href="#carmsaec">quoted above</a>). An inscription +commemorating these games was discovered in 1890 on +the left bank of the Tiber, and in it Horace is mentioned: +‘Sacrificioque perfecto pueri xxvi. quibus denuntiatum erat +patrimi et matrimi et puellae totidem carmen cecinerunt +eodemque modo in Capitolio. Carmen composuit Q. +Horatius Flaccus.’<a href="#fn057" id="ref057">[57]</a> +</p> + +<p id="p172"> +(6) <i>Odes</i>, Book iv., published <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 13. <i>Od.</i> 4 and 14 +celebrate the campaign of Drusus and Tiberius in Rhaetia +and Vindelicia <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 15. <i>Od.</i> 2 and 5 were written just +before Augustus’ return, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 13, from Gaul, where he had +been since <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 16. +</p> + +<p> +(7) <i>Epistles</i>, Book ii. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, to Augustus, was written +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 14 in response (see the quotation from Suetonius above) +to the emperor’s request for a poem addressed to himself, +after seeing that no mention was made of him in <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2 +and the <i>Epistula ad Pisones</i>. These are the <i>sermones +quidam</i> (both, like <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, on literary criticism) referred +to by Suetonius, and not Book i. of the Epistles, where +Augustus is frequently mentioned. The date is fixed by +l. 15, ‘praesenti tibi maturos largimur honores,’ etc., referring +to the worship of the <i>numen Augusti</i>, which was legalized +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 14, and by the reference in ll. 252 <i>sqq.</i> to the victories +of Drusus and Tiberius, and their celebration in <i>Od.</i> iv. +4; iv. 14. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2 (to Iulius Florus) was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 18. +Horace hints (l. 25, ll. 84-6) that he has not yet returned +to lyric poetry; the epistle was therefore written before +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 17. The <i>Epistula ad Pisones</i> or <i>De Arte Poetica</i> was +probably written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 17 or 16 after the <i>Carmen Saeculare</i>, +but before Horace had entered on the composition of the +fourth Book of the Odes. +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Satires</i> are called <i>Sermones</i> in all the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, but as +Horace gave this name both to his Satires (<i>Sat.</i> i. 4, 42) +and to his Epistles (<i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 4; 250) it is convenient to +call them <i>Satirae</i>, the name which Horace also gives them +(<i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 1; 6, 17), and which represent their intended +scope. Horace’s chief model is Lucilius, whom he wished +to adapt to the Augustan age. <i>Sat.</i> i. 4, 56, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p173"> +<p> + ‘his, ego quae nunc,<br /> +olim quae scripsit Lucilius.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +So <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 28 and 74. Lucilius’ influence is seen most +in <i>Sat.</i> i. 2; 5; 7; 8; ii. 2; 3; 4; 8. Horace, after the +reception <i>Sat.</i> i. 2 met with, did not, like Lucilius, attack +individuals; nor did his position as a dependent (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, +60-79) allow him to do so. We find, therefore, no political +satire in Horace, who confines himself to social and literary +topics. He does not attack his contemporaries by name, +but (<i>a</i>) takes some names from Lucilius, as Albucius (<i>Sat.</i> +ii. 1, 48), Opimius (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 3, 142); (<i>b</i>) invents ‘tell-tale-names,’ +as Pantolabus (<i>Sat.</i> i. 8, 11), Novius (<i>Sat.</i> i. 3, 21). +In <i>Sat.</i> i. 4 and ii. 1 he defines the moral and social aim +of his satire. In <i>Sat.</i> i. 4, 1-13 he criticizes Lucilius’ style; +this seems to have given offence, and in <i>Sat.</i> i. 10 he gives +reasons for his former criticism. Horace’s Epicureanism +is more pronounced in Book i. than in Book ii. In <i>Sat.</i> i. +1 and i. 3 (cf. ll. 99-124) the influence of Lucretius is seen. +In i. 3 he takes up an antagonistic position to Stoicism +(cf. ll. 124-142). In ii. 3 he shows less hostility to Stoicism +though he still criticizes it.<a href="#fn058" id="ref058">[58]</a> In <i>Sat.</i> ii. 7, where the slave +Davus enunciates the Stoic doctrine, <span class="greek">ὅτι μόνος ὁ σοφὸς ἐλεύθερος</span>, +Davus’ arguments from l. 75 onwards have been +taken by Horace from Cic. <i>Parad.</i> 5. +</p> + +<p id="p174"> +Horace does not pretend that his Satires (or Epistles) +are poetry, and makes several statements to that effect. +<i>Sat.</i> ii. 6, 17, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quid prius inlustrem satiris musaque pedestri?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 250, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sermones ... repentes per humum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +So <i>Sat.</i> i. 4, 39-44. +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Epodes</i> are called <i>Epodi</i> in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> <span class="greek">Ἐπῳδός</span> was +the name given to a piece composed of couplets, the first +line of which is longer than the second. Horace calls +them <i>iambi</i> (<i>Epod.</i> 14, 7; <i>Od.</i> i. 16, 3). Their style is an +imitation of that of Archilochus of Paros. <i>Ep.</i> i. 19, 23-5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Parios ego primus iambos<br /> +ostendi Latio, numeros animosque secutus<br /> +Archilochi, non res et agentia verba Lycamben.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +This is seen in the personal attacks made in many of +them, as well as in the <span class="greek">αἰσχρολογία</span> employed, and also in +the versification. The dates of several can be fixed. <i>Epod.</i> +16 was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41, and refers to the Perusian war. +Horace takes no part with either side, but advises his +countrymen to leave Rome, like the Phocaeans of old. +<i>Epod.</i> 7 was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 39; and <i>Epod.</i> 1, 9, and 14, +about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 31. The order is strictly metrical. Epodes +1-10 are simple iambics (trimeter and dimeter alternately); +11-16 more complicated forms; 17, the last, in iambic trimeters. +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Odes</i> Horace himself calls <i>carmina</i>. The metres +are nearly all taken from Sappho and Alcaeus, the two +poets whose works Horace wished to present to his countrymen +in a Roman dress. Cf. <i>Od.</i> iii. 30, 13-4, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p175"> +<p> +‘Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italos<br /> +deduxisse modos.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The metrical differences between himself and his originals +are due to the difference in the genius of the two languages +and to the fact that he adopted the views on metre +current in his time. Catullus’ metre, on the other hand, +was closely modelled on that of the Alexandrian poets. +The odes are largely founded on the best Greek lyric +poetry, with which Horace was thoroughly familiar; cf. +his first intention to write in Greek (<i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 31-5). +Alexandrian influence is little seen, and his mythological +allusions are seldom obscure. Examples of imitation +(which is commonest in Book i.) are: <i>Od.</i> i. 9, the +beginning of which is from Alcaeus (so i. 10; 11; 18); +i. 12 (beginning) is from Pindar; i. 27 from Anacreon. +Bacchylides is imitated, <i>e.g.</i> in ii. 18. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Subjects of the Odes.</i>—1. Love and wine form the themes +of many. <i>Od.</i> i. 6, 17, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nos convivia, nos proelia virginum<br /> +sectis in iuvenes unguibus acrium<br /> +cantamus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. <i>Od.</i> ii. 1, 37-40; iii. 3, 69-72. +</p> + +<p> +The love-poems show no trace of personal passion, and +the names of the women whose charms are sung are taken +from Greek; thus Pyrrha (a well-known name from Attic +comedy) i. 5; Lydia, i. 13, etc.; Lalage, i. 22; ii. 5. +Cinara (iv. 1; iv. 13) is probably the only one that +represents a real person. Wine is celebrated, <i>e.g.</i> in i. 9; +18; 27; ii. 7; iii. 21. A tone of moderation is observed +throughout the drinking-songs. It is highly probable<a href="#fn059" id="ref059">[59]</a> that +in <i>Od.</i> i. 27, 1-4 the unrestrained bacchanalian spirit of +Catullus (cf. c. 27) is reproved, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p176"> +<p> +‘Natis in usum laetitiae scyphis<br /> +pugnare Thracum est. Tollite barbarum<br /> + morem verecundumque Bacchum<br /> + sanguineis prohibete rixis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +2. In <i>Od.</i> i. 24 we have the beautiful dirge on the +death of Quintilius Varus. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>On political subjects.</i>—The chief of these are as +follows: i. 2 (towards the end of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 28); i. 12; i. 14; +i. 35 (in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 26); i. 37 (in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 30); ii. 1. The most +important, however, are <i>Od.</i> iii. 1-6, which form one whole, +and are written on the new name of Augustus, and the +ideas therewith connected. They were all written about +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27.<a href="#fn060" id="ref060">[60]</a> +</p> + +<p> +In iii. 1, which is general, the rising generation is +addressed by the prophet of the empire; ll. 3, 4, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Musarum sacerdos<br /> +virginibus puerisque canto.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The lesson of the ode is ‘A moderate life is the best. +Lucky is the man who is spared the trouble of managing +the State.’ +</p> + +<p> +iii. 2 praises courage and honesty, but with special +reference to two institutions of Augustus: (1) the professional +soldier as opposed to the citizen-soldier of the +republic. The officers were taken from the two privileged +classes, and there was no promotion from the ranks. This +is the explanation of ll. 1-4, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p177"> +<p> +‘Angustam amice pauperiem pati<br /> +robustus acri militia puer<br /> + condiscat et Parthos ferocis<br /> + vexet eques,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +lines which also refer to the resuscitation by Augustus +of the citizen-cavalry. The soldier is not to trouble +about politics (ll. 17-20), and must not fear death (l. 13). +(2) The new imperial administrative officers, employed +not only in collecting taxes, but in administrative business +of every kind. Speaking of them, Horace pays a tribute to +loyal silence, and emphasizes the curse that clings to breach +of faith; l. 25, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Est et fideli tuta silentio<br /> + merces’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +l. 31, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Raro antecedentem scelestum<br /> + deseruit pede Poena claudo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +iii. 3 touches intimately the political questions of the +day. Pointed reference is made to Cleopatra; she is the +<i>mulier peregrina</i> (l. 20), the <i>Lacaena adultera</i> (l. 25), who +brought Troy low, and would bring Rome low, if she +and her <i>famosus hospes</i> (l. 26) could raise Troy again. +The reference here is to a report current about Antony, +that he intended to make Troy the capital. It is certain +that he intended to restore to Cleopatra her kingdom with +extended frontiers, and to make himself ruler of the Eastern +empire. This, which would have meant the subjection of +Rome to the Greeks and half-Greeks, was prevented by +the ‘iustum et tenacem propositi virum’ (l. i), who for his +services is honoured as one of the gods; ll. 11-12, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p178"> +<p> +‘Quos inter Augustus recumbens<br /> +purpureo bibit ore nectar.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In iii. 4 the poet’s personality comes out strongest. He +describes his protection by the Muses in his early years, +and this leads him to speak of one of the monarch’s chief +works of peace, his encouragement of literature; ll. 37-40, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Vos Caesarem altum, militia simul<br /> +fessas cohortes abdidit oppidis,<br /> +finire quaerentem labores<br /> +Pierio recreatis antro.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +iii. 5 is a defence of Augustus’ foreign policy. Publicly +he kept up Caesar’s war policy, hence ll. 2-5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Praesens divus habebitur<br /> +Augustus adiectis Britannis<br /> +imperio gravibusque Persis’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +but that this concealed his real policy of non-intervention +is shown by his action regarding Parthia. Hence Horace, +by a speech put into the mouth of Regulus (l. 18 <i>sqq.</i>) +warns the Romans against trying to rescue the survivors +of Crassus’ army, who, by becoming captives, had ceased +to be citizens. That some of the Senate wished to interfere +in this matter is probably shown by ll. 45-6, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Donec labantis consilio patres<br /> +firmaret auctor numquam alias dato.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +iii. 6 refers (ll. 1-8) to Augustus’ policy in restoring the +ancient religion, as is seen by the fact that he rebuilt +82 temples. Lines 21-32 refer to a law of Augustus on +adultery, the date of which is unknown. +</p> + +<p id="p179"> +In Book iv., Odes 2, 4, 5, 6, 14, 15, are political. They +show traces of adulation, and sing the praises rather of +the imperial family than of the nation. Cf. iv. 2, 37 +(of Augustus), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Quo nihil maius meliusve terris<br /> + fata donavere bonique divi,’ etc. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The <i>Epistles</i>.—<i>Sermones</i> is the name given them by +Horace; they are also called <i>Epistulae</i> in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> Social, +ethical, and literary questions are treated of, and the style +is much more careful than that of the Satires. The motto, +one might say, of the book is <i>Ep.</i> i. 1, 10. +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nunc itaque et versus et cetera ludicra pono:<br /> +quid verum atque decens, curo et rogo et omnis in hoc sum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The dates of <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 2, have already been mentioned. +Both treat of literary criticism, and the first deals particularly +with that of the drama. Iulius Florus, to whom +<i>Ep.</i> ii. 2 is addressed, was the representative of the younger +literary school at Rome. The <i>Epistula ad Pisones</i> or +<i>De Arte Poetica</i> is an essay in verse on literary criticism, +specially pointing out how necessary art is to composition. +In it, according to Porphyrion, Horace ‘congessit praecepta +Neoptolemi <span class="greek">τοῦ Παριανοῦ</span><a href="#fn061" id="ref061">[61]</a> de arte poetica, non +quidem omnia, sed eminentissima.’ Horace probably was +also indebted to Aristotle’s <i>Poetics</i>. Porphyrion says that +Horace wrote the <i>Ars Poetica</i> ‘ad L. Pisonem qui postea +urbis custos fuit eiusque liberos.’ This does not fit in +with the probable date, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 17 or 16, as L. Piso was born +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 49, and his sons could not have been old enough for +the letter to be addressed to them. It is probable that +Porphyrion is wrong, and that the <i>A.P.</i> was addressed to +Cn. Piso, who served with Horace under Brutus, and his +two sons. +</p> + +<p id="p180"> +<i>Horace and nature.</i>—Besides references to his Sabine +villa, Horace refers to natural scenery in many passages. +Such are <i>Epod.</i> 2; <i>Od.</i> i. 7, 10; ii. 6, 13; iii. 13, 9; <i>Sat.</i> ii. +6, 1 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>Ep.</i> i. 10, 6 <i>sqq.</i>, i. 16, 1 <i>sqq.</i><a href="#fn062" id="ref062">[62]</a> Horace is fond +of comparing dangers to the plague of floods,<a href="#fn063" id="ref063">[63]</a> a plague +from which Italy has always suffered. Cf. <i>Od.</i> i. 31, 7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘rura quae Liris quieta<br /> +mordet aqua taciturnus amnis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +So <i>Od.</i> iii. 29, 32 <i>sqq.</i>, and many other passages. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Popularity of Horace.</i>—Horace’s prediction that his works +would become school-books, <i>Ep.</i> i. 20, 17, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Hoc quoque te manet, ut pueros elementa docentem<br /> +occupet extremis in vicis balba senectus,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +was early fulfilled. Cf. Iuv. 7, 226, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quot stabant pueri, cum totus decolor esset<br /> +Flaccus et haereret nigro fuligo Maroni.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<h3>CONTEMPORARY POETS:</h3> + +<p> +The following writers were friends of Horace: +</p> + +<p> +(<i>a</i>) <i>C. Valgius Rufus</i>, consul suffectus <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 12, belonged +to the circle of Maecenas (Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 82). +</p> + +<p> +Valgius’ works, of which only a few lines are extant, +included (1) Elegiae. Cf. Hor. <i>Od.</i> ii. 9, 9-12, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Tu semper urges flebilibus modis<br /> +Mysten ademptum, nec tibi Vespero<br /> + surgente decedunt amores<br /> + nec rapidum fugiente solem.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p181"> +(2) Epigrammata, (3) Miscellanies, (4) A translation of +Apollodorus’ <span class="greek">τέχνη</span>. (See Quint. iii. 1, 18.) (5) A book +on herbs. (Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> xxv. 4.) An epic was also expected +of him, but whether written is unknown. Tibull. iv. 1, 179, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Est tibi, qui possit magnis se adcingere rebus,<br /> + Valgius; aeterno propior non alter Homero.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) <i>M. Aristius Fuscus</i>, a poet and grammarian (Porphyr. <i>ad +Sat.</i> i. 9, 60); <i>Od.</i> i. 22, and <i>Ep.</i> i. 10, are addressed to him. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>c</i>) The <i>Visci</i>. Comm. Cruq. <i>ad Sat.</i> i. 10, 83, ‘Visci +duo fratres fuerunt optimi poetae et iudices critici.’ +</p> + +<p> +(<i>d</i>) <i>C. Fundanius</i>, wrote comedies (Porphyr. <i>ad Sat.</i> i. +10, 40). +</p> + +<p> +(<i>e</i>) <i>Servius Sulpicius</i>, a love poet (Ovid, <i>Trist.</i> ii. 441; +Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 86). +</p> + +<p> +(<i>f</i>) <i>Iulius Florus</i> was ‘saturarum scriptor’ (Porphyr. <i>ad +Hor. Ep.</i> i. 3, 1). Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 3 and ii. 2, are addressed +to him. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>g</i>) <i>Titius</i> wrote Pindaric odes, and tragedies, Hor. <i>Ep.</i> +i. 3, 9-14. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>h</i>) <i>Albinovanus Celsus</i>. See Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 3, 15-7. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>i</i>) <i>C. Iullus Antonius</i>, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44-<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 2, was a son of the +triumvir M. Antonius. The Schol. on Hor. <i>Od.</i> iv. 2, 2, +says of him, “Heroico metro Diomedeam scripsit et nonnulla +alia soluta oratione.” +</p> + +<p> +(<i>k</i>) <i>Furnius</i>, an orator; died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 37. He is mentioned +by Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 86. +</p> + +<p> +Other poets contemporary with Virgil and Horace are: +</p> + +<p> +(<i>a</i>) <i>L. Varius Rufus</i> (cf. Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> 9, 35). His works +were: +</p> + +<p> +(1) Epics (<i>a</i>) on the death of Julius Caesar (Macrob. +<i>Saturn.</i> vi. 1, 39), (<i>b</i>) in praise of Augustus. Hor. <i>Ep.</i> +i. 16, 27-29 is a quotation from this poem (Acron <i>ad loc.</i>), +and it is probably referred to in <i>Od.</i> i. 6, 1 (to Agrippa), +</p> + +<blockquote id="p182"> +<p> +‘Scriberis Vario fortis et hostium<br /> +victor Maeonii carminis aliti,<br /> +quam rem cumque ferox navibus aut equis<br /> +miles te duce gesserit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(2) A tragedy, <i>Thyestes</i>, praised by Quint. x. 1, 98, +‘iam Varii Thyestes cuilibet Graecarum comparari potest.’ +</p> + +<p> +(3) Elegies: Porphyr. ad Hor. <i>Od.</i> i. 6, 1, ‘fuit L. Varius +et ipse carminis et tragoediarum et elegiorum auctor.’ +</p> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) <i>Aemilius Macer</i> was a native of Verona, and died +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 16: Jerome yr. Abr. 2001, ‘Aemilius Macer Veronensis +poeta in Asia moritur.’ He was a friend of Virgil, and +was the ‘Mopsus’ of <i>Ecl.</i> 5, according to Serv. <i>ad loc.</i> +Ovid in his youth enjoyed his acquaintance; cf. <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, +43, where three didactic poems are referred to: (1) <i>Ornithogonia</i>, +on birds; (2) <i>Theriaca</i>, on venomous serpents; +(3) <i>De Herbis</i>, on plants. +</p> + +<p> +For his obligations to Nicander, see under ‘Virgil,’ <a href="#p158">p. 158</a>. +Quintilian calls him ‘humilis’ (x. 1, 87). +</p> + +<p> +(<i>c</i>) <i>C. Cornelius Gallus</i> was born at Forum Iulii <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 70, +and died by his own hand <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27. Jerome yr. Abr. 1990, +‘Cornelius Gallus Foroiuliensis poeta ... xliii. aetatis suae +anno propria se manu interficit.’ Having commanded a +division in the war against Antony, he was appointed by +Octavian the first prefect of Egypt, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 30, but incurred +his anger and was banished from Caesar’s house and +provinces (Sueton. <i>Aug.</i> 66). The cause of his downfall +was indiscreet language about Augustus, according to +Ovid, <i>Tr.</i> ii. 445, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Non fuit opprobrio celebrasse Lycorida Gallo,<br /> + sed linguam nimio non tenuisse mero’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +and <i>Am.</i> iii. 9, 63, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p183"> +<p> +‘Tu quoque, si falsum est temerati crimen amici,<br /> + sanguinis atque animae prodige, Galle, tuae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The tenth eclogue of Virgil is a testimony to his friendship +for Gallus, l. 2, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Pauca meo Gallo, sed quae legat ipsa Lycoris,<br /> +carmina sunt dicenda; neget quis carmina Gallo?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Lines 44-49 are said by Servius, <i>ad loc.</i>, to be quoted from +Gallus (‘de ipsius translati carminibus’). For the tribute +to Gallus in the original draft of <i>Georgic</i> iv. see under +‘Virgil,’ <a href="#p157">p. 157</a>. +</p> + +<p> +He wrote four Books of love-poems to Cytheris, the <i>liberta</i> +who afterwards deserted him for Antony: Serv. <i>ad Ecl.</i> x. 1, +‘amorum suorum de Cytheride scripsit libros iv.’ According +to Servius he also translated the poems of Euphorion of +Chalcis. Cf. Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> x. 50, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ibo et Chalcidico quae sunt mihi condita versu<br /> +carmina pastoris Siculi modulabor avena.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Compared with Tibullus and Propertius, he was ‘durior’ +(Quint. x. 1, 93). +</p> + +<p> +(<i>d</i>) <i>Codrus</i>, mentioned by Virgil, <i>Ecl.</i> 7, 22 and 26; 5, 11, +was a contemporary poet (Serv. <i>ad Ecl.</i> 7), and was praised +by Valgius (Schol. Veron. <i>ad loc.</i>), but nothing is known +of his writings. The name is not Roman, and is probably +a disguised form of Cordus. He is sometimes identified +with the Iarbitas of Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 19, 15. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>e</i>) <i>Bavius</i> and <i>Mevius</i> were enemies of Virgil and +Horace. Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> 3, 90, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Qui Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina, Mevi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Horace, <i>Epod.</i> 10, prays for the shipwreck of Mevius. He +wrote about the prodigal son of the actor Aesopus (Porphyr. +ad Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 3, 239). Bavius died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35, according +to Jerome. +</p> + +<p id="p184"> +(<i>f</i>) <i>Anser</i> wrote a poem in praise of Antony, and was +rewarded with a grant of land (Serv. <i>ad Ecl.</i> 9, 36; Cic. +<i>Phil.</i> xiii. 11). He is mentioned by Ovid, <i>Tr.</i> ii. 435, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cinna quoque his comes est, Cinnaque procacior Anser.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Servius sees an allusion to him in <i>Ecl.</i> 9, 36, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Argutos inter strepere anser olores.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(<i>g</i>) <i>Domitius Marsus</i>. His epigram on Tibullus (see +<a href="#p186">p. 186</a>) shows that he was alive in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19; he was, however, +dead when Ovid was exiled in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 8. +</p> + +<p> +Ovid, <i>Ex Pont.</i> iv. 16, 3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Famaque post cineres maior venit; et mihi nomen<br /> + tunc quoque, cum vivis adnumerarer, erat,<br /> +cum foret et Marsus, magnique Rabirius oris,<br /> + Iliacusque Macer sidereusque Pedo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He was a member of Augustus’ literary circle. Mart. viii. +56, 21, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quid Varios Marsosque loquar, ditataque vatum<br /> + nomina, magnus erit quos numerare labor?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +His works were: +</p> + +<p> +1. <i>Cicuta</i>, a collection of epigrams, often referred to +by Martial. Cf. ii. 71, 3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘aut Marsi recitas aut scripta Catulli.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +2. <i>Amazonis</i>, an epic poem.<a href="#fn064" id="ref064">[64]</a> Mart. iv. 29, 7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno<br /> + quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p185"> +3. <i>Amores</i> or <i>Elegiae</i>. Mart. vii. 29, 7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Et Maecenati, Maro cum cantaret Alexin,<br /> + nota tamen Marsi fusca Melaenis erat.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +4. <i>Fabellae</i>. +</p> + +<p> +5. <i>De Urbanitate</i> (in prose). Quint. vi. 3, 102, +‘Domitius Marsus, qui de urbanitate diligentissime +scripsit.’ +</p> + +<p> +(<i>h</i>) <i>Pupius</i>, a tragedian, sneered at by Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 1, 67, +‘lacrimosa poemata Pupi.’ +</p> + +<p> +(<i>i</i>) <i>C. Melissus</i>, a freedman of Maecenas, invented the +<i>trabeata</i>, a variety of the <i>togata</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 21, ‘Fecit et novum genus togatarum +inscripsitque trabeatas.’ +</p> + +<h3>TIBULLUS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +Albius Tibullus (his praenomen was perhaps Aulus, +which, from the abbreviation A. being followed by Albius, +was lost in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>) seems to have been born near Pedum +in Latium. (1) Horace, in <i>Ep.</i> i. 4, 2, addressed to +Tibullus, asks, ‘Quid nunc te dicam facere in regione +Pedana?’ apparently referring to the ‘sedes avitae’ of +Tibullus (Tibull. ii. 4, 53). (2) The Life contained in the +best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, and probably to be attributed to Suetonius, calls +him ‘Albius Tibullus, eques Romanus’ (codd. Paris. and +Lips. ‘regulis’). Bährens (<i>Tibullische Blätter</i>) holds that +<i>Romanus</i> is an erroneous correction of <i>regulis</i>, for which +he proposes to read <i>R.</i> (= Romanus) <i>e Gabis</i> (= Gabiis). +Gabii was within a short distance of Pedum. +</p> + +<p> +The date of his birth can be fixed only by indirect +evidence. +</p> + +<p id="p186"> +(1) The Life says ‘obiit adulescens,’ and the epigram of +Domitius Marsus, found in the best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, calls Tibullus +‘iuvenis’ at the time of his death, which must have occurred +about the same time as Virgil’s, in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Te quoque Vergilio comitem non aequa, Tibulle,<br /> + mors iuvenem campos misit ad Elysios,<br /> +ne foret aut elegis molles qui fleret amores<br /> + aut caneret forti regia bella pede.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(2) Ovid (<i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 53) says of Tibullus, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Successor fuit hic tibi, Galle, Propertius illi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Since Gallus was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 70, and Propertius about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 49, +the birth of Tibullus must have fallen between those years. +</p> + +<p> +(3) Tibullus accompanied Messalla when he left for +Aquitania, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 30 or 29, according to the Life: ‘Ante +alios Corvinum Messallam oratorem dilexit, cuius etiam +contubernalis Aquitanico bello militaribus donis donatus +est.’ Cf. Tibull. i. 7, 9, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Non sine me est tibi partus honos; Tarbella Pyrene<br /> + testis et Oceani litora Santonici.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Putting together these references we may place the date +of Tibullus’ birth in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54. (The statement of the Life +in the Codex Guelferbytanus, ‘Natus est Hyrtio et Pansa +coss.’ is clearly wrong). +</p> + +<p> +He was of equestrian rank, and at one time possessed +considerable wealth, apparently inherited from a long line +of ancestors; i. 1, 41, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Non ego divitias patrum fructusque requiro<br /> + quos tulit antiquo condita messis avo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. ii. 1, 1; ii. 4, 53; Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 4, 7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Di tibi divitias dederunt.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p187"> +His family property, however, had been greatly diminished; +i. 1, 19, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Vos quoque, felicis quondam nunc pauperis agri<br /> + custodes, fertis munera vestra, lares:<br /> +tunc vitula innumeros lustrabat caesa iuvencos;<br /> + nunc agna exigui est hostia parva soli.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. i. 1, 5 and 37. +</p> + +<p> +It has been supposed that Tibullus suffered these losses +in the agrarian disturbances of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41, and that his lands, +like those of Virgil and Propertius, were confiscated. No +town in Latium, however, is mentioned by Appian as +having its territory thus assigned. Tibullus’ property may +possibly have been restored to him through the influence +of Messalla.<a href="#fn065" id="ref065">[65]</a> Cf. Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 4, 11, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Et mundus victus non deficiente crumena’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +also Tibull. i. 1, 77, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Ego composito securus acervo<br /> +despiciam dites despiciamque famem.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Of Messalla Tibullus always speaks with the greatest affection. +He refused at first to accompany him to the East after +the battle of Actium, but afterwards followed him, and was +forced through illness to remain at Corcyra: i. 1, 53, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Te bellare decet terra, Messalla, marique,<br /> + ut domus hostiles praeferat exuvias:<br /> +me retinent vinctum formosae vincla puellae’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +i, 3, 3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Me tenet ignotis aegrum Phaeacia terris.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p188"> +In the Aquitanian campaign he was Messalla’s <i>contubernalis</i>, +and had military distinctions conferred on him (see +<a href="#p186">p. 186</a>). +</p> + +<p> +No further particulars of Tibullus are known, save his +love for his mistresses Delia and Nemesis, and the fact +mentioned by Ovid, in a poem on his death, that his mother +and sister survived him; <i>Amor.</i> iii. 9, 50, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Mater et in cineres ultima dona tulit.<br /> +Hinc soror in partem misera cum matre doloris<br /> + venit inornatas dilaniata comas.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Delia’s real name was Plania (<span class="greek">δῆλος</span> = <i>planus</i>): cf. +Apuleius, <i>Apol.</i> 10, ‘eadem igitur opera accusent ... +Tibullum quod ei sit Plania in animo Delia in versu.’ She +was a <i>libertina</i>, for the name is not known as a <i>nomen +gentilicium</i>, and she had had a husband (i. 2, 41, ‘coniunx +tuus’), who appears to have been serving with the army +in Cilicia: i. 2, 65, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ferreus ille fuit, qui te cum posset habere,<br /> + maluerit praedas stultus et arma sequi.<br /> +Ille licet Cilicum victas agat ante catervas,’ etc. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +A divorce had probably taken place, as she was not entitled +to wear the distinctive dress of the Roman matron; i. 6, 67, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sit modo casta, doce, quamvis non vitta ligatos<br /> + impediat crines nec stola longa pedes.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Nemesis was a <i>meretrix</i>; ii. 4, 14, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Illa cava pretium flagitat usque manu.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +She appears to be the ‘immitis Glycera’ of Hor. <i>Od.</i> i. 33, 2, +addressed to Albius (so Kiessling <i>ad loc.</i>). Both Delia +and Nemesis are represented by Ovid as present at the +funeral of Tibullus. <i>Amor.</i> iii. 9, 53, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cumque tuis sua iunxerunt Nemesisque priorque<br /> + oscula nec solos destituere rogos.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p189"> +Tibullus was on friendly terms with Horace, who +addressed to him <i>Od.</i> i. 33 and <i>Ep.</i> i. 4. Horace was +doubtless attracted by the frank nature of Tibullus (<i>Ep.</i> +i. 4, 1, ‘Albi, nostrorum sermonum candide iudex’), and +by the community of taste which led them both to imitate +the classical Ionic rather than the Alexandrian elegy. +Horace corroborates the statement of Life i. (‘insignis +forma cultuque corporis observabilis’) that Tibullus had a +fine presence; <i>ibid.</i> 1. 6, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Non tu corpus eras sine pectore: di tibi formam,<br /> +di tibi divitias dederunt artemque fruendi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Ovid had met and admired him, and has numerous +imitations of him in his poems; but the difference of age +and the early death of Tibullus prevented any long +acquaintance; Ovid, <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 51, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Nec amara Tibullo<br /> +tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Of friendship between Propertius and Tibullus there is no +evidence: they never mention one another. +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +Four Books of elegiac poems are attributed to Tibullus, +who ranks first among Roman elegists in the view of Quintilian, +x. 1, 93, ‘Elegia quoque Graecos provocamus, cuius +mihi tersus atque elegans maxime videtur auctor Tibullus.’ +</p> + +<p> +Book i., on the poet’s love for Delia and Marathus +(<i>El.</i> 7 is to Messalla), was published by himself, and was +apparently composed in the years <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 31-27. This agrees +with Ovid, <i>Tr.</i> ii. 463, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Legiturque Tibullus<br /> +et placet, et iam te principe notus erat,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p190"> +if we assume that ‘principe’ refers to the title of +Augustus. +</p> + +<p> +Book ii., the chief subject of which is Nemesis, +appears to have been written several years later. It is +unfinished, not having received the author’s final revision, +and was probably published soon after his death, +certainly several years before Ovid’s <i>Ars Amatoria</i> (cf. +<i>A.A.</i> 535 <i>sqq.</i>). +</p> + +<p> +Book iii. (six Elegies) is professedly the work of Lygdamus. +No poet of that name is mentioned in ancient +literature, and it has been suggested that the author may +have been a young relative of Tibullus who used a Greek +adaptation of the gentile name Albius (<span class="greek">λύγδος</span> = white +marble). He speaks as a man of good social position +(iii. 2, 22). From the fact that he belonged to the circle +of Messalla, his poems came to be added to those of +Tibullus, whom he constantly imitates. There are also +many reminiscences of Horace, Ovid, and Propertius. The +six Elegies are addressed to Neaera, who was probably +the poet’s cousin and was married or betrothed to him +(iii. 1, 23; 2, 12). Lygdamus was born in the same year +as Ovid, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43; iii. 5, 17, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Natalem primo nostrum videre parentes,<br /> + cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The remarkable coincidence between iii. 5, 15-20, and +Ovid, <i>A.A.</i> ii. 669-70, <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 6, <i>Amor.</i> ii. 14, 23-4, is +best explained by Hiller (<i>Hermes</i>, xviii. 360-1), who suggests +that Lygdamus may have composed the poem in his earlier +years merely to amuse Neaera, without publishing it, and +that after Ovid’s works had appeared he may, to oblige a +friend or patron (<i>e.g.</i> Messalinus), have published his collection +of elegies, adding in the process of revision the +lines copied from Ovid. +</p> + +<p id="p191"> +The remaining poems belong to Book iii. in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, +but in most editions are printed as a separate Book iv. +iv. 1, in hexameters, is the <i>Panegyricus Messallae</i>, written +in honour of Messalla’s consulship, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 31. Its rhetorical +exaggeration and want of taste forbid its being attributed +to Tibullus, written, as it was, so shortly before he reached +the summit of his powers. Its date puts Lygdamus out of +question: doubtless it is by some young member of +Messalla’s circle. +</p> + +<p> +The rest of the Book has for its theme the love of +Sulpicia, the daughter of Servius Sulpicius and Valeria, +the sister of Messalla, for a young Greek named Cerinthus. +<i>El.</i> 2-6 are apparently by Tibullus himself, who may +have amused himself by turning into verse the letters of +the young lovers. <i>El.</i> 7 is of disputed authorship; but +it resembles the work of Sulpicia rather than that of +Tibullus. <i>El.</i> 8-12 are by Sulpicia to Cerinthus. <i>El.</i> 13 +purports to be by Tibullus. <i>El.</i> 14 is an epigram, of +doubtful authorship. +</p> + +<p> +Two <i>Priapea</i> are found in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> of Tibullus, but probably +neither of them is by him. +</p> + +<h3>PROPERTIUS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +The name by which the poet designates himself is Propertius +simply; the praenomen Sextus rests on the authority +of Donatus. The additions in some <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, ‘Aurelius’ and +‘Nauta,’ are clearly erroneous. +</p> + +<p> +He was certainly a native of the district of Umbria, and +probably of the town of Asisium (the modern Assisi). Cf. +iv. 1, 121, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p192"> +<p> +‘Umbria te notis antiqua penatibus edit,<br /> + (mentior? an patriae tangitur ora tuae?)<br /> +qua nebulosa cavo rorat Mevania campo,<br /> + et lacus aestivis intepet Umber aquis,<br /> +scandentisque Asisi consurgit vertice murus,<br /> + murus ab ingenio notior ille tuo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +‘Asisi’ in l. 125 is Lachmann’s emendation for ‘Asis’ of +the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, and is rendered almost certain by the topography +of the district. Asisium agrees better than Hispellum (the +modern Spello) with the description in the passage quoted; +with iv. 1, 65, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Scandentes quisquis cernet de vallibus arces,<br /> + ingenio muros aestimet ille meo’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +and with the epithet ‘proxima’ in i. 22, 9, as Asisium is +nearer than Hispellum to Perusia. Cf. i. 22, 3-10, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Si Perusina tibi patriae sunt nota sepulcra,<br /> + Italiae duris funera temporibus, ...<br /> +proxima supposito contingens Umbria campo<br /> + me genuit terris fertilis uberibus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +At Assisi, moreover, have been found several inscriptions +of the Propertii, one of which, C. PASSENNO | C. F. SERG. |, +PAULLO | PROPERTIO | BLAESO,<a href="#fn066" id="ref066">[66]</a> probably refers to the Passennus +Paullus mentioned by Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> vi. 15, as ‘municeps +Propertii.’ +</p> + +<p> +Propertius was younger than Tibullus, and older than +Ovid. His birth, therefore, took place between <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54 +and 43 (Hertzberg gives 46, Postgate prefers 50). Cf. Ovid, +<i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 53, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p193"> +<p> +‘Successor fuit hic [Tibullus] tibi, Galle; Propertius illi;<br /> + quartus ab his serie temporis ipse fui.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He came of a family well known in the neighbourhood +(cf. iv. 1, 121, ‘notis penatibus,’ already quoted), but not +‘noble’ in the technical sense; ii. 34, 55, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Aspice me, cui parva domi fortuna relictast,<br /> + nullus et antiquo Marte triumphus avi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +His childhood was clouded by the early death of his +father, and by the confiscation of his estate in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41; +iv. 1, 127, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ossaque legisti non illa aetate legenda<br /> + patris; et in tenues cogeris ipse lares,<br /> +nam tua cum multi versarent rura iuvenci,<br /> + abstulit excultas pertica tristis opes.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +His mother then took him to Rome, where he studied law +for a short time after assuming the <i>toga virilis</i>, but abandoned +it in favour of poetry; iv. 1, 131, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Mox ubi bulla rudi demissast aurea collo,<br /> + matris et ante deos libera sumpta toga,<br /> +tum tibi pauca suo de carmine dictat Apollo<br /> + et vetat insano verba tonare foro.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Meanwhile he was engaged in his first love affair with +Lycinna, who is otherwise unknown (iii. 15, 3 <i>sqq.</i>). In +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29 or 28 his acquaintance with Cynthia began. Her +real name was Hostia (Apuleius, <i>Apol.</i> 10, ‘Accusent ... +Propertium, qui Cynthiam dicat, Hostiam dissimulet’), and +she was possibly a grand-daughter of the poet Hostius +(<a href="#p065">p. 65</a>). Cf. iii. 20, 8, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Splendidaque a docto fama refulget avo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p194"> +A courtesan of the higher class, she is represented by +Propertius as possessed of great personal charms and varied +accomplishments (i. 2, 30, ‘Omnia quaeque Venus quaeque +Minerva probat’), combined with many faults of temper +and character. She had a house at Rome in the Subura, +and we hear of her also at Tibur, where she was buried +(iv. 7, 15; 85). She was considerably older than Propertius; +ii. 18, 19, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘At tu etiam iuvenem odisti me, perfida, cum sis<br /> + ipsa anus haud longa curva futura die.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +At the end of two years the unfaithfulness of Propertius +led to twelve months of estrangement; iii. 16, 9, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Peccaram semel, et totum sum pulsus in annum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cynthia was reconciled to him about the beginning of +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 25; but the passion on both sides gradually cooled +until, in 23, Propertius harshly cast her off (iii. 24 and 25). +Possibly there was a second reconciliation before her death +(iv. 7). The five years of bondage (iii. 25, 3, ‘Quinque +tibi potui servire fideliter annos,’) will thus be <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 28, 27, +25-23. +</p> + +<p> +Propertius lived chiefly at Rome; but i. 18 was written +near the Clitumnus, and in ii. 19 he promises to join +Cynthia in that region. In iii. 21 he contemplates a voyage +to Athens; l. 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Magnum iter ad doctas proficisci cogor Athenas,<br /> + ut me longa gravi solvat amore via.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +A few years earlier he had refused to accompany his friend +Tullus to Athens and Asia (i. 6). +</p> + +<p> +Nothing is known of the subsequent life of Propertius, +but from two passages in the younger Pliny it is natural +to infer that he married, in obedience to the <i>Lex Iulia</i> of +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 18, and had issue. Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> vi. 15, ‘Passennus +Paullus ... inter maiores suos Propertium numerat’; ix. 22, +‘Propertium ... a quo genus ducit.’ +</p> + +<p id="p195"> +We cannot tell even when he died. He must have been +alive in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 16, because iv. 6 was written for the <i>ludi +quinquennales</i>, which were held for the first time in that +year; and iv. 11. 65, is an allusion to the consulship of +P. Cornelius Scipio, also in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 16. +</p> + +<p> +In personal appearance Propertius was pale and thin, +and rather fond of dress; i. 5, 21, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nec iam pallorem totiens mirabere nostrum,<br /> + aut cur sim toto corpore nullus ego’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +ii. 4, 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nequiquam perfusa meis unguenta capillis,<br /> + ibat et expenso planta morata gradu.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He had been introduced to Maecenas after the publication +of his first Book, but naturally was not on such +intimate terms with him as older men like Virgil and +Horace were. ii. 1 and iii. 9 are addressed to Maecenas. +In the first of these poems Propertius declares that he is +unequal to the composition of an epic, which his patron +had urged upon him, but adds (l. 17) +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quod mihi si tantum, Maecenas, fata dedissent<br /> + ut possem heroas ducere in arma manus, ...<br /> +bellaque resque tui memorarem Caesaris, et tu<br /> + Caesare sub magno cura secunda fores.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +For poems referring to Augustus cf. ii. 10, iv. 6 (on +Actium), iii. 18 (on the death of Marcellus). +</p> + +<p id="p196"> +Horace and Propertius do not mention each other by +name. Chronology forbids the identification of the bore +in Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 9 with Propertius, who, on the same ground, +cannot be meant in <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 18, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Neque simius iste,<br /> +nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +But Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 87-101, is undoubtedly aimed at Propertius. +Cf. especially l. 99, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Discedo Alcaeus puncto illius; ille meo quis?<br /> +quis nisi Callimachus? Si plus adposcere visus,<br /> +fit Mimnermus et optivo cognomine crescit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Though both poets belonged to the same literary circle, +they differed widely in temperament as well as in age. +With Tibullus, who was a member of Messalla’s circle, +Propertius may have had no personal acquaintance; at all +events, neither alludes to the other. +</p> + +<p> +For Virgil Propertius expresses warm admiration in ii. 34, +written during the composition of the <i>Aeneid</i>. Ovid, who +calls him ‘blandus’ (<i>Tr.</i> ii. 465) and ‘tener’ (<i>A.A.</i> +iii. 333), was an intimate friend of his; cf. <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 45 +(quoted <a href="#p206">p. 206</a>). The minor poets to whom he writes +are Ponticus (i. 7 and 9), Bassus (i. 4), and a tragic poet, +Lynceus (a pseudonym, ii. 34, 25). +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +The extant Elegies, divided in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> into four Books, +are probably all that Propertius ever wrote. On account +of the disproportionate length of Book ii., and the number +‘tres’ (which, however, may be said in anticipation) in +ii. 13, 25, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sat mea sat magna est si tres sint pompa libelli,<br /> + quos ego Persephonae maxima dona feram,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +some editors make Book ii. consist only of <i>El.</i> 1-9, and +assign the remainder (10-34) to a new Book iii. Books iii. +and iv. of the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> then become iv. and v. respectively. +In the most recent editions, however, the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> arrangement +is retained, and it is here followed. +</p> + +<p id="p197"> +<i>Book</i> i.—All the Elegies in Book i., except the last two, +are amatory. <i>El.</i> 2-10 belong to the first months of the +poet’s love, when Cynthia was gracious, though capricious. +She had refused to accompany a rival of his, who was going +to Illyricum as praetor (<i>El.</i> 8); but afterwards she left Rome +for Baiae, and the rest of the Book is full of complaints +of her harshness. <i>El.</i> 1, written after the year of separation, +introduces the whole Book in a melancholy strain. +</p> + +<p> +The clearest indication of date in Book i. is 8, 21, ‘Nam +me non ullae poterunt corrumpere taedae,’ where Propertius +protests that he will never marry, in spite of the <i>Lex Iulia</i> +of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27. (He could not legally marry a woman of +Cynthia’s class.) The Book was published probably in +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 25, under the title of ‘Cynthia.’ Cf. ii. 24, 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cum sis iam noto fabula libro<br /> +et tua sit toto Cynthia lecta foro.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Her name was a recommendation for the Book, and it was +probably her satisfaction at the fame which it brought her +that caused her to relent towards Propertius. Cf. Mart. +xiv. 189, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cynthia, facundi carmen iuvenile Properti,<br /> + accepit famam, nec minus ipsa dedit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +At all events, a few months afterwards we find the old +relations re-established; ii. 3, 3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Vix unum potes, infelix, requiescere mensem,<br /> + et turpis de te iam liber alter erit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Book</i> ii.—Cynthia is the theme of nearly all the thirty-four +poems of Book ii., which give lively expression to her +lover’s varying moods. Only three Elegies (1, 10, and 31) +are given to other subjects. +</p> + +<p id="p198"> +Of the few poems to which dates can be assigned, the +earliest is <i>El.</i> 31 (on the dedication of the temple of the +Palatine Apollo, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 28), and the latest is <i>El.</i> 10, to +Augustus (written shortly before the invasion of Arabia +by Aelius Gallus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 24. Cf. l. 16, ‘et domus intactae +te tremit Arabiae’). The Book was therefore published +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 24 at the earliest. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Book</i> iii.—In this Book the poems on Cynthia form a +far smaller proportion; 7, 12, and 22 show the warmth +of the poet’s friendship; events of national interest are +treated in 4, 11, and 18. In 5, 23-47, Propertius looks +forward to spending his later years in the study of natural +science (‘naturae perdiscere mores,’ l. 25). +</p> + +<p> +There are few hints of the date of any of the poems +in iii. <i>El.</i> 20 is apparently as early as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 28; 18 certainly +belongs to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 23; 4 perhaps refers to the expedition +against the Parthians planned in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 22. The last-mentioned +year is the earliest possible date of publication. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Book</i> iv., in which there is no principle of arrangement, +probably appeared after the author’s death. His archaeological +tastes come out in four Elegies written, in imitation +of the <cite class="greek">Αἴτια</cite> of Callimachus, on Roman antiquities—<i>El.</i> 2 +on Vertumnus, 4 on Tarpeia, 9 on Cacus, 10 on Jupiter +Feretrius. In this way Propertius fulfilled his promise to +Maecenas, iii. 9, 49, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Celsaque Romanis decerpta Palatia tauris<br /> + ordiar et caeso moenia firma Remo,<br /> +eductosque pares silvestri ex ubere reges,<br /> + crescet et ingenium sub tua iussa meum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p199"> +<i>El.</i> 7 and 8 relate to Cynthia; in 7 her ghost appears +to the poet. <i>El.</i> 3, a letter from Arethusa to Lycotas, +possibly suggested to Ovid the plan of his <i>Heroides</i>, just +as the antiquarian poems already mentioned may have +suggested the <i>Fasti</i>. The Book ends with a lament for +Cornelia, daughter of Scribonia, Augustus’ first wife +(<i>El.</i> 11). +</p> + +<p> +The date of 6 and 11 is certainly not earlier than +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 16, while 8 seems to have been written before the +rupture with Cynthia. The antiquarian poems are considered +by some to have been among Propertius’ earliest +efforts. +</p> + +<p> +Propertius was familiar with the whole range of Greek +poetry—Homer (iii. 1, 25-34), Mimnermus (i. 9, 11), +Pindar (iii. 17, 40), the dramatists, Theocritus, and Apollonius +Rhodius. As his models he names especially the +Alexandrians Callimachus and Philetas, whom he claims +to follow more closely than any of his predecessors; +iii. 1, 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Callimachi Manes et Coi sacra Philetae,<br /> + in vestrum, quaeso, me sinite ire nemus.<br /> +Primus ego ingredior puro de fonte sacerdos<br /> + Itala per Graios orgia ferre choros.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. iv. 1, 64, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Umbria Romani patria Callimachi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In wealth of mythological illustration Propertius is +peculiarly Alexandrian. He is continually drawing parallels +and contrasts from Greek legend; <i>e.g.</i> i. 15, Cynthia how +unlike Calypso! iii. 12, Aelia Galla a modern Penelope. +Of Roman poets, he names as his predecessors in amatory +verse Virgil, Varro Atacinus, Catullus, Calvus, and Cornelius +Gallus (ii 34, 61-92). Once he dreams of writing an +epic on the Alban kings in the vein of Ennius; iii. 3, 5, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p200"> +<p> +‘Parvaque tam magnis admoram fontibus ora,<br /> +unde pater sitiens Ennius ante bibit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In Propertius love of social pleasures appears side by +side with a strain of deep melancholy <i>e.g.</i> in. 5, 21, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +Me iuvat et multo mentem vincire Lyaeo<br /> +et caput in verna semper habere rosa, +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +contrasted with the numerous passages where he is thinking +of the grave, <i>e.g.</i> ii. 1, 71, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quandocumque igitur vitam mea fata reposcent,<br /> +et breve in exiguo marmore nomen ero.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +There is no greater patriot than Propertius. Cf. the +denunciation of Cleopatra (iii. 11) and the frequency of +the epithet ‘Romanus.’ +</p> + +<h3>OVID.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +Ovid’s own writings (especially <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10) supply nearly +all the information we possess regarding his life. The +biographies in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> are valueless. +</p> + +<p> +P. Ovidius Naso was his full name, in which the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> +agree. He speaks of himself as Naso simply, and Statius +and Martial refer to him by that name; Tacitus and the +two Senecas use the <i>nomen</i> Ovidius. +</p> + +<p> +He was born in Sulmo, one of the three divisions of +the Paelignian country, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43—the year in which Hirtius +and Pansa fell at Mutina. <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sulmo mihi patria est, gelidis uberrimus undis,<br /> + milia qui novies distat ab urbe decem.<br /> +Editus hic ego sum; nec non ut tempora noris,<br /> + cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p201"> +His birthday was 20th March—the second day of the +festival of the Quinquatria (cf. <i>Fast.</i> iii. 809-814), l. 13, +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Haec est armiferae festis de quinque Minervae,<br /> + quae fieri pugna prima cruenta solet.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He belonged to an equestrian family, and he frequently +contrasts himself with those who had reached that dignity +by military service or by possessing the requisite fortune; +<i>ibid.</i> l. 7, +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Si quid id est, usque a proavis vetus ordinis heres,<br /> + non sum fortunae munere factus eques.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. <i>Am.</i> i. 3, 7; iii. 8, 9; iii. 15, 5; <i>Pont.</i> iv. 8, 17. +</p> + +<p> +Along with his elder brother, he received a careful +education at Rome, and studied also at Athens. He +practised rhetoric under Arellius Fuscus and Porcius Latro. +<i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 15, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Protinus excolimur teneri, curaque parentis<br /> + imus ad insignes urbis ab arte viros.’ +</p> +</blockquote> +<p> +<i>Tr.</i> i. 2, 77, +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Non peto quas quondam petii studiosus Athenas.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Sen. <i>Contr.</i> ii. 10, 8, ‘Hanc controversiam memini ab +Ovidio Nasone declamari apud rhetorem Arellium Fuscum, +cuius auditor fuit, nam Latronis admirator erat, cum diversum +sequeretur dicendi genus.’ Seneca says that <i>Met.</i> xiii. +121, and <i>Am.</i> i. 2, 11, were borrowed from Latro. +</p> + +<p> +But, in spite of his father’s remonstrances, Ovid preferred +poetry to public life. <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 19, +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> +‘At mihi iam parvo caelestia sacra placebant,<br /> + inque suum furtim Musa trahebat opus.<br /> +Saepe pater dixit, “studium quid inutile temptas?<br /> + Maeonides nullas ipse reliquit opes.”<br /> +Motus eram dictis totoque Helicone relicto<br /> + scribere conabar verba soluta modis:<br /> +sponte sua carmen numeros veniebat ad aptos;<br /> + quicquid temptabam dicere, versus erat.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p202"> +In due time he assumed the <i>toga virilis</i>, and with it the +broad purple stripe worn by prospective senators. He also +held two of the minor offices of the <i>vigintiviratus</i>, the +preliminary to a senatorial career, being (1) triumvir capitalis +or else triumvir monetalis, (2) decemvir stlitibus +iudicandis. <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 28, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Liberior fratri sumpta mihique toga est,<br /> +induiturque umeris cum lato purpura clavo’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +l. 33, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cepimus et tenerae primos aetatis honores,<br /> + deque viris quondam pars tribus una fui.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Fast.</i> iv. 384, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Inter bis quinos usus honore viros.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In virtue of this second office he sat in the centumviral +court;<a href="#fn067" id="ref067">[67]</a> and he also acted as an arbitrator. <i>Tr.</i> ii. 93, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nec male commissa est nobis fortuna reorum<br /> + lisque decem deciens inspicienda viris.<br /> +Res quoque privatas statui sine crimine iudex.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He sought no higher office, having neither strength nor +inclination for the Senate; he assumed the narrow stripe +of the <i>eques</i>, and devoted himself to poetry and pleasure. +<i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 35, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Curia restabat: clavi mensura coacta est:<br /> + maius erat nostris viribus illud onus.<br /> +Nec patiens corpus, nec mens fuit apta labori,<br /> + sollicitaeque fugax ambitionis eram.<br /> +Et petere Aoniae suadebant tuta sorores<br /> + otia, iudicio semper amata meo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p203"> +He made a tour in Asia (including Troy) and Sicily in +the company of the poet Pompeius Macer: the date of +this journey is unknown, but he was almost a year in +Sicily. <i>Pont.</i> ii. 10, 21-29 (to Macer), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Te duce magnificas Asiae perspeximus urbes,<br /> + Trinacris est oculis te duce nota meis, ...<br /> +Hic mihi labentis pars anni magna peracta est.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Fast.</i> vi. 423, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cura videre fuit: vidi templumque locumque,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(of the temple of Pallas at Troy). +</p> + +<p> +Towards the end of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 8, Ovid was banished by +imperial edict to Tomi, on the Black Sea, near the mouth +of the Danube, the cause alleged being the publication +of the <i>Ars Amatoria</i>. Ovid mentions this edict, but also +hints at another reason, connected with the imperial family. +<i>Tr.</i> ii. 207, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Perdiderint cum me duo crimina, carmen et error,<br /> + alterius facti culpa silenda mihi;<br /> +nam non sum tanti renovem ut tua vulnera, Caesar,<br /> + quem nimio plus est indoluisse semel.<br /> +Altera pars superest, qua turpi carmine factus<br /> + arguor obscaeni doctor adulterii.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He was guilty of no crime of his own, but was banished for +witnessing the crime of another. Cf. <i>Tr.</i> iii. 5, 49, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Inscia quod crimen viderunt lumina, plector,<br /> + peccatumque oculos est habuisse meum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +It is probable that the real reason<a href="#fn068" id="ref068">[68]</a> of Ovid’s banishment +was that he was privy to a guilty intrigue between +D. Silanus and Julia, the grand-daughter of Augustus. +Julia was banished in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 9, and Tacitus (<i>Ann.</i> iii. 24) +tells us of the intrigue, for which Silanus (like Ovid) suffered +<i>relegatio</i>. His knowledge of the offence was betrayed by +friends and domestics. Cf. <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 101, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p204"> +<p> +‘Quid referam comitumque nefas famulosque nocentes?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The date of his banishment is given <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 95, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Postque meos ortus Pisaea vinctus oliva<br /> + abstulerat decies praemia victor equus,<br /> +cum maris Euxini positos ad laeva Tomitas<br /> + quaerere me laesi principis ira iubet.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +[Here an Olympiad is reckoned as five years.] His punishment was +<i>relegatio</i>, involving banishment to a fixed spot, +but not confiscation of property; <i>Tr.</i> ii. 135, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Adde quod edictum, quamvis immite minaxque,<br /> + attamen in poenae nomine lene fuit;<br /> +quippe relegatus, non exul, dicor in illo,<br /> + privaque fortunae sunt ibi verba meae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In Tomi he spent the remaining years of his life, far +from friends and books; <i>Tr.</i> v. 12, 53, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Non liber hic ullus, non qui mihi commodet aurem,<br /> + verbaque significent quid mea norit, adest’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +suffering from illness (<i>Tr.</i> iii. 3) and the climate, and +fighting against the barbarians; <i>Tr.</i> iv. 1, 71, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Aspera militiae iuvenis certamina fugi,<br /> + nec nisi lusura movimus arma manu:<br /> +nunc senior gladioque latus scutoque sinistram,<br /> + canitiem galeae subicioque meam.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +On the other hand he learned the language of the people, +and actually wrote poems in it; <i>Tr.</i> v. 12, 57, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ipse mihi videor iam dedidicisse Latine:<br /> + nam didici Getice Sarmaticeque loqui.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p205"> +<i>Pont.</i> iv. 13, 19, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘A! pudet, et Getico scripsi sermone libellum,<br /> + structaque sunt nostris barbara verba modis,<br /> +et placui—gratare mihi—coepique poetae<br /> + inter inhumanos nomen habere Getas!<br /> +materiam quaeris? laudes de Caesare dixi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +For his popularity with the natives cf. <i>Pont.</i> iv. 14, 53, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Solus adhuc ego sum vestris immunis in oris,<br /> + exceptis si qui munera legis habent.<br /> +Tempora sacrata mea sunt velata corona,<br /> + publicus invito quam favor imposuit’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +also <i>Pont.</i> iv. 9, 101. +</p> + +<p> +Ovid’s death took place in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 18: Jerome yr. Abr. +2033, ‘Ovidius poeta in exilio diem obiit et iuxta oppidum +Tomos sepelitur.’ He was thrice married; <i>Tr.</i> iv. +10, 69, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Paene mihi puero nec digna nec utilis uxor<br /> + est data, quae tempus per breve nupta fuit;<br /> +illi successit quamvis sine crimine coniunx,<br /> + non tamen in nostro firma futura toro;<br /> +ultima, quae mecum seros permansit in annos,<br /> + sustinuit coniunx exulis esse viri.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +His third wife belonged to the <i>gens Fabia</i>. Cf. <i>Pont.</i> i. 2, +138 (to Fabius Maximus), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ille ego, de vestra cui data nupta domo est.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The <i>filia</i> mentioned <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 75, may have been either +a daughter or step-daughter of Ovid’s. Some think that +she is the Perilla of <i>Tr.</i> iii. 7. +</p> + +<p> +Ovid’s social position was of the highest, as may be inferred +from his relations with the palace. He was intimate +with Messalla, the patron of Tibullus, and wrote an elegy +on him (now lost). Cf. <i>Pont.</i> i. 7, 27 (to Messalinus), +</p> + +<blockquote id="p206"> +<p> +‘Nec tuus est genitor nos infitiatus amicos,<br /> + hortator studii causaque faxque mei:<br /> +cui nos et lacrimas, supremum in funere munus,<br /> + et dedimus medio scripta canenda foro.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Among the friends to whom the <i>Epp. ex Ponto</i> are written +may be mentioned Albinovanus, Carus, Rufus, Severus, +Fabius Maximus Cotta, Tuticanus, the younger Macer, all +poets; and other literary men of distinction, <i>e.g.</i> Graecinus, +Atticus, Brutus, Sex. Pompeius, Gallio. For his intimacy +with the learned Hyginus cf. Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 20, ‘fuit +familiarissimus Ovidio poetae.’ +</p> + +<p> +He was old enough to have seen Virgil, and hear Aemilius +Macer and Horace recite; with Propertius, Tibullus, Ponticus, +and Bassus he was on terms of close intimacy (<i>Am.</i> iii. +9 is a lament for Tibullus), <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 41-52, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Temporis illius colui fovique poetas,<br /> + quotque aderant vates, rebar adesse deos.<br /> +Saepe suas volucres legit mihi grandior aevo,<br /> + quaeque necet serpens, quae iuvet herba, Macer.<br /> +Saepe suos solitus recitare Propertius ignes,<br /> + iure sodalicii qui mihi iunctus erat.<br /> +Ponticus heroo, Bassus quoque clarus iambis<br /> + dulcia convictus membra fuere mei.<br /> +Detinuit nostras numerosus Horatius aures,<br /> + dum ferit Ausonia carmina culta lyra.<br /> +Vergilium vidi tantum; nec amara Tibullo<br /> + tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Besides the <i>rura paterna</i> at Sulmo, Ovid possessed an +estate on the <i>via Clodia</i>, near Rome; <i>Pont.</i> i. 8, 41, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Non meus amissos animus desiderat agros<br /> + ruraque Paeligno conspicienda solo,<br /> +nec quos piniferis positos in collibus hortos<br /> + spectat Flaminiae Clodia iuncta viae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He cannot have been poor, in spite of his complaints, <i>e.g.</i> +<i>Pont.</i> iv. 8, 32, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p207"> +<p> +‘Carpsit opes illa ruina meas.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. <i>Amores</i>, at first in five Books, but in a second +edition reduced to three; cf. the motto prefixed to the +Book, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Qui modo Nasonis fueramus quinque libelli,<br /> +Tres sumus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The poems are nearly all on Corinna, a name which +probably does not stand for any real person, but merely +for an abstraction around which Ovid groups his own +fancies. To suppose, as Sidonius Apollinaris did (23, +157)<a href="#fn069" id="ref069">[69]</a> that Augustus’ daughter Julia was meant, is absurd, +for Corinna is a <i>meretrix</i>. The identity of Corinna was +unknown; <i>Am.</i> ii. 17, 28, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Et multae per me nomen habere volunt.<br /> +Novi aliquam, quae se circumferat esse Corinnam’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +and twenty years afterwards Ovid could write (<i>A.A.</i> iii. 538), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Et multi, quae sit nostra Corinna, rogant.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The <i>Amores</i>, in their original form, constituted Ovid’s +earliest work, written in his youth. The extant poems are +not all that he wrote on Corinna; <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 57, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Carmina cum primum populo iuvenilia legi,<br /> + barba resecta mihi bisve semelve fuit.<br /> +Moverat ingenium totam cantata per urbem<br /> + nomine non vero dicta Corinna mihi.<br /> +Multa quidem scripsi; sed quae vitiosa putavi,<br /> + emendaturis ignibus ipse dedi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p208"> +The lament for Tibullus (iii. 9) must have been written +in Ovid’s twenty-fourth year. +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Heroides</i>.—Some of these at least were written before +the second edition of the <i>Amores</i>, for in <i>Am.</i> ii. 18, 21-6 +nine of them are mentioned by name. The title <i>Heroides</i> +is due to the grammarian Priscian; in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> they are +called <i>Epistulae</i>, and so Ovid himself refers to them, +<i>A.A.</i> iii. 345, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Vel tibi composita cantetur epistula voce:<br /> + ignotum hoc aliis ille novavit opus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Of the twenty letters in our collection 1-14 are letters +from heroines to their lovers; 15-20 are in pairs, <i>e.g.</i> Paris +to Helen and Helen to Paris. The authenticity of these +last six is doubted, partly because the title <i>Heroides</i> cannot +apply to half of them, and also because of their inferiority +in style. In the use of the epistolary form in love poetry +Ovid had no predecessor, and he himself calls attention +to the novelty (<i>A.A.</i> above). The style shows the influence +of Ovid’s rhetorical training: the Epistles are <i>suasoriae</i> in +verse, and of <i>suasoriae</i> we know that he was particularly +fond (Sen. <i>Contr.</i> ii. 10, 12, ‘Declamabat Naso raro +controversias et non nisi ethicas: libentius dicebat suasorias. +Molesta illi erat omnis argumentatio.’). His matter he +would naturally draw from Homer, the <i>Cypria</i>, Apollonius +Rhodius, and the Greek tragedians. +</p> + +<p> +3. Between the two editions of the <i>Amores</i> he wrote the +lost tragedy <i>Medea</i>. It was later than <i>Am.</i> iii. 1, where +he pictures the Muses of Elegy and Tragedy as contending +for his homage, and he finally decides (ll. 67-8), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Exiguum vati concede, Tragoedia, tempus:<br /> +tu labor aeternus; quod petit illa breve est.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p209"> +On the other hand, it was earlier than <i>Am.</i> ii. 18, 13, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sceptra tamen sumpsi, curaque tragoedia nostra<br /> + crevit, et huic operi quamlibet aptus eram.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The drama enjoyed a high reputation in antiquity. Cf. +Quint. x. 1, 98, ‘Ovidii Medea videtur mihi ostendere, +quantum ille vir praestare potuerit, si ingenio suo imperare +quam indulgere maluisset.’ +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Medicamina Faciei Femineae</i>, an incomplete poem of +100 lines, giving directions for the toilet. Cf. <i>A.A.</i> iii. 205, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Est mihi, quo dixi vestrae medicamina formae,<br /> + parvus, sed cura grande, libellus, opus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +5. <i>Ars Amatoria</i>, a didactic poem in three Books, on +the art of love-intrigue. The title given by the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> is +doubtless correct: Ovid himself speaks of ‘ars amandi,’ or +simply ‘ars’ or ‘artes.’ It was written about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 2, from +the allusion, i. 171, to the ‘naumachia’ in that year, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quid, modo cum belli navalis imagine Caesar<br /> + Persidas induxit Cecropiasque rates?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The <i>Ars</i> must have been in view when he wrote <i>Am.</i> ii. +18, 19, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quod licet, aut artes teneri profitemur amoris—<br /> + ei mihi, praeceptis urgeor ipse meis!’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +6. <i>Remedia Amoris</i>, written next, while professing to be +a recantation of the last-named work, exhibits, if possible, +a more immoral tone. Cf. l. 487, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quaeris, ubi invenias? artes, i, perlege nostras.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +7. Ovid now produced a work of greater compass, the +<i>Metamorphoses</i>, in fifteen Books of heroic verse. When +it was composed is not known, but he had the idea of it +in his mind when he wrote <i>Am.</i> iii. 12, 21-40. At the +time of his banishment the poem had been written, but +not revised. He committed his <span class="bcad">MS.</span> to the flames, but +copies were in the hands of friends; <i>Tr.</i> i. 7, 13-16, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p210"> +<p> +‘Carmina mutatas hominum dicentia formas,<br /> + infelix domini quod fuga rupit opus.<br /> +Haec ego discedens, sicut bene multa meorum,<br /> + ipse mea posui maestus in igne manu. +</p> +<p> +Quae quoniam non sunt penitus sublata, sed extant, (l. 23)<br /> + pluribus exemplis scripta fuisse reor. +</p> + +<p> +Ablatum mediis opus est incudibus illud, (l. 29)<br /> + defuit et scriptis ultima lima meis.’ +</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p> +The poem consists of a collection of stories of the transformation +of human beings into animals. Cf. i. 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas<br /> +corpora.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The idea, title, and much of the subject-matter was +borrowed from the Alexandrians, <i>e.g.</i> the <cite class="greek">Μεταμορφώσεις</cite> +of Parthenius, the <cite class="greek">Ἑτεροιούμενα</cite> of Nicander. +</p> + +<p> +8. In the <i>Fasti</i>, in six Books, Ovid furnishes a poetical +calendar of the Roman year. Each month has a Book +allotted to it, and he speaks of having written twelve +Books; <i>Tr.</i> ii. 549, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sex ego Fastorum scripsi totidemque libellos,<br /> + cumque suo finem mense volumen habet.<br /> +Idque tuo nuper scriptum sub nomine, Caesar,<br /> + et tibi sacratum sors mea rupit opus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Probably the second six Books were never completed; +but there are references to portions of them, <i>e.g.</i> iii. 57, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Vester honos veniet, cum Larentalia dicam;<br /> + acceptus Geniis illa December habet.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The <i>Fasti</i> had been written side by side with the <i>Metam.</i> +and interrupted at the sixth Book by Ovid’s banishment. +During his exile he added some passages, but found that +his Muse was fit only for melancholy themes; iv. 81, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p211"> +<p> +‘Sulmonis gelidi—patriae, Germanice, nostrae—<br /> + me miserum, Scythico quam procul illa solo est!’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +i. 540, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Felix, exilium cui locus ille fuit!’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The design is stated at the outset, i. 1-8, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Tempora cum causis Latium digesta per annum<br /> + lapsaque sub terras ortaque signa canam ...<br /> +Sacra recognosces annalibus eruta priscis,<br /> + et quo sit merito quaeque notata dies.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The work is thus a medley of religion, history, and astrology, +and in its explanations of customs may be compared to +the <cite class="greek">Αἴτια</cite> of Callimachus. For information about religious +rites, and for derivations of names (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Agnalia</i>, i. 317-332), +he would have recourse to Varro; for history, to Livy +(cf. ii. 193-242, the story of the Fabii, from Livy, ii. 49, +and vi. 587, etc., the story of Tullia, from Livy, i. 48); +for astronomy, to Clodius Tuscus. +</p> + +<p> +It was begun some time after Augustus regulated the +Julian calendar in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 8, and was originally addressed to +Augustus, as Ovid himself says (<i>Tr.</i> ii. 552 above); +‘Caesar’ is addressed ii. 15, vi. 763, and elsewhere. +After the death of Augustus, Ovid began to remodel it +and dedicate it to Germanicus. Cf. i. 3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Excipe pacato, Caesar Germanice, voltu<br /> + hoc opus et timidae dirige navis iter.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +But the task was stopped by his death; and while Book i. +has the remodelled form, Books ii.-vi. remain as first +written. +</p> + +<p id="p212"> +<i>Poems written in exile.</i>—9. <i>Tristia</i>, five Books of letters +to Augustus, to Ovid’s wife and friends (who, however, are +not named), praying for pardon or for a place of exile +nearer Rome. Book i. was written on the journey to +Tomi, the other books not after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 11 or 12, Cf. v. 10, 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ut sumus in Ponto, ter frigore constitit Hister.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +10. The <i>Ibis</i> was written at the beginning of his exile. +Cf. l. 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Tempus ad hoc, lustris bis iam mihi quinque peractis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The title was taken from the poem in which Callimachus +attacked Apollonius Rhodius under the name of Ibis. +Cf. l. 55, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nunc, quo Battiades inimicum devovet Ibin,<br /> +hoc ego devoveo teque tuosque modo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Ovid studiously conceals the identity of the enemy whom +he attacks; l. 61, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Et quoniam, qui sis, nondum quaerentibus edo,<br /> +Ibidis interea tu quoque nomen habe.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He had once been a friend of the poet, but had proved +false to him, doubtless in connexion with the circumstances +which caused his banishment; cf. l. 85, ‘capiti male fido,’ +l. 130, ‘perfide.’ He persecuted Ovid’s wife, and tried to +get possession of his property. +</p> + +<p> +The conjectures that the unknown was Messalla Corvinus +or the poet Manilius may be dismissed at once. Many +hold that Hyginus is meant; Prof. Ellis suggests the <i>delator</i> +Cassius Severus (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 21), or T. Labienus (Sen. +<i>Contr.</i> x. praef. 4), or the astrologer Thrasyllus (Tac. +<i>Ann.</i> vi. 20). To the same person probably are addressed +<i>Tr.</i> iii. 11, iv. 9, v. 8; <i>Pont.</i> iv. 3. +</p> + +<p id="p213"> +11. The <i>Epistulae ex Ponto</i>, in four Books, were written +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 12-16. In tone they resemble the <i>Tristia</i>, but the +composition is more careless, and the friends to whom he +writes are mentioned by name. +</p> + +<p> +12. <i>Halieuticon</i>, a poem on fish, in hexameters, in a +fragmentary condition. Ovid wrote this towards the end +of his life. +</p> + +<p> +Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> xxxii. 152, ‘His adiciemus ab Ovidio posita +nomina quae apud neminem alium reperiuntur, sed fortassis +in Ponto nascentium, ubi id volumen supremis suis +temporibus incohavit.’ +</p> + +<h3>MANILIUS.</h3> + +<p> +Manilius is not mentioned by any other writer, and his +own poem gives no particulars of his life. There is uncertainty +even as to the true form of his name, the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> +giving variously M. Mallius, Manlius, or Manilius, with +the addition in one case of EQOM (probably = equitis +Romani). In some <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> the poem is wrongly attributed +to Aratus or Boetius, both of whom wrote on the same +subject as Manilius. +</p> + +<p> +Bentley conjectured that Manilius was an Asiatic Greek, +but the poet speaks of Latin as ‘nostra lingua’ (ii. 889), +while Greek is ‘externa lingua’ (iii. 40), and he uses no +Greek constructions. +</p> + +<p> +His poem, the <i>Astronomica</i>, in its present form, consists +of five Books of hexameter verse: probably a sixth Book +has been lost. It may have been wholly composed in the +reign of Tiberius, or begun under Augustus. Book v. was +written under Tiberius, if the burning of Pompey’s theatre +in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 22 is alluded to in ll. 513-515. The earlier Books +contain nothing which might not have been written after +the death of Augustus—the allusions to the disaster of +Varus in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 9 (i. 899), and to the sojourn of Tiberius +at Rhodes (iv. 764). Either Augustus or Tiberius may be +the ‘Caesar’ of i. 7 and i. 386. On the other hand, +if Ovid is referring to Manilius (as Prof. Ellis suggests) in +<i>Tr.</i> ii. 485, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p214"> +<p> +‘Ecce canit formas alius iactusque pilarum,<br /> +hic artem nandi praecipit, ille trochi,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +it would follow that the whole poem had been published +before the death of Augustus, for the descriptions of +ball-play and swimming occur in v. 165-171 and +420-431. +</p> + +<p> +Astronomy is treated only in Book i.; the rest of the +poem is devoted to astrology. This is in accordance with +the author’s statement of his theme (i. 1-3), which he was +the first Roman to treat in verse (i. 4, 113, ii. 57). As +his object is to convey instruction rather than to give +pleasure (iii. 36-39), he does not scruple to use Greek +technical terms (ii. 693, 829, 897, iii. 40). The subject +does not lend itself readily to verse (i. 20, iii. 31), and +the poem is intolerably dry, except the introductions to +each Book, which reveal considerable poetical power. The +chief peculiarities of Manilius’ language are his strange use +of prepositions and his fondness for alliteration; imitations +of Virgil are found throughout. +</p> + +<p> +Manilius is a fatalist (iv. 14 and 22): still fate does not +abolish the moral quality of actions (iv. 108-118). The +universe is directed by a ‘vis animae divina’ or ‘divinum +numen’ (i. 250, 491). +</p> + +<h3 id="p215">LIVY.</h3> + +<p> +There is no ancient biography of Livy, and very little +light is thrown on his life by his own writings or by +allusions in other authors. +</p> + +<p> +Titus Livius was born at Patavium (the modern Padua) +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59: Jerome yr. Abr. 1958, ‘T. Livius Patavinus +scriptor historicus nascitur.’ (The Armenian version gives +<i>Ol.</i> 180, 4 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 57.) Near Patavium there was a famous +sulphur spring known as Aponus or Aponi fons, whence +Martial calls the district Apona tellus (i. 61, 3, ‘Censetur +Apona Livio suo tellus’). There is no reason to suppose +from this that Livy’s birthplace was not Patavium itself, +but a village Aponus, which is nowhere mentioned. Statius +(<i>Silv.</i> iv. 7, 55) calls him ‘Timavi alumnus.’ For Livy’s +acquaintance with Patavium cf. x. 2, 14 and 15. +</p> + +<p> +From his tone we may infer that he came of a good +family, and he must have possessed a fair income. The +charge against his style of <i>Patavinitas</i> implies that he +spent a considerable part of his life in his native town, +but he probably settled at Rome about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 30. That he +took no part in public life is clear from his own words: +i. praef. 5, ‘Hoc laboris praemium petam, ut me a conspectu malorum, quae nostra tot per annos vidit aetas, +tantisper certe, dum prisca illa tota mente repeto, avertam, +omnis expers curae, quae scribentis animum etsi non +flectere a vero, sollicitum tamen efficere posset.’ +</p> + +<p> +He enjoyed the intimacy of Augustus, whom he himself mentions, iv. 20, 7, ‘hoc ego cum Augustum Caesarem ... se +ipsum ... legisse audissem.’ Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 34, ‘T. +Livius, eloquentiae ac fidei praeclarus in primis, Cn. Pompeium +tantis laudibus tulit, ut Pompeianum eum Augustus +appellaret; neque id amicitiae eorum offecit.’ It was at +Livy’s suggestion that the future emperor, Claudius, started +to compose a history: Sueton. <i>Claud.</i> 41, ‘historiam in +adulescentia, hortante T. Livio, Sulpicio vero Flavo etiam +adiuvante, scribere adgressus est.’ On the other hand, +Caligula would have liked to remove Livy’s writings and +his bust from all the libraries, calling him ‘verbosum in +historia neglegentemque’ (Sueton. <i>Calig.</i> 34). +</p> + +<p id="p216"> +Nothing more is known of his life, except that he visited +Campania, xxxviii. 56, 3, ‘Nam et Literni monumentum +monumentoque statua superimposita fuit, quam tempestate +disiectam nuper vidimus ipsi.’ +</p> + +<p> +He died at his native town, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 17: Jerome yr. Abr. +2033, ‘Livius historicus Patavii moritur.’ +</p> + +<p> +He had at least one son (Quint. x. 1, 39, ‘apud Livium +in epistula ad filium scripta’), and one daughter (Sen. +<i>Contr.</i> x. praef. 2, ‘L. Magius gener T. Livi’). +</p> + +<p> +Livy wrote philosophical works, probably popular +treatises like Cicero’s, some of them in the form of +dialogues. +</p> + +<p> +Sen. <i>Ep.</i> 100, 9, ‘Nomina adhuc T. Livium. Scripsit +enim et dialogos, quos non magis philosophiae adnumerare +possis quam historiae, et ex professo philosophiam continentis +libros.’ +</p> + +<p> +A book on rhetoric was known to Quintilian and Seneca +the elder, apparently in the form of a letter addressed to +the author’s son (Quint. x. 1, 39, above). +</p> + +<p> +Quint. ii. 5, 20, ‘quemadmodum Livius praecipit’ (on +models of style); Sen. <i>Contr.</i> ix. 2, 26, ‘Livius de +oratoribus ... aiebat’ (on obscurity of expression); Sen. +<i>Contr.</i> ix. 1, 14, ‘T. Livius tam iniquus Sallustio fuit ut +hanc ipsam sententiam ... obiceret Sallustio.’ +</p> + +<p id="p217"> +These minor works have perished, and of his great +history only a portion survives. +</p> + +<p> +Its title, according to the oldest <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, the summaries +of the lost Books, and the grammarians, was <i>Ab urbe +condita libri</i>; and this is corroborated by Livy’s own +language: i. praef. 1, ‘si a primordio urbis res populi +Romani perscripserim’; and by Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> praef. 16, +‘T. Livium ... in historiarum suarum, quas repetit ab +origine urbis, quodam volumine.’ Livy refers to it loosely +as <i>meos annales</i> (xliii. 13, 2). Separate parts may have +had special titles: thus Books cix-cxvi. were known as +<i>Civilis belli libri</i> viii. (Codex Nazarenus of the Periochae). +</p> + +<p> +The number of Books now extant is thirty-five, viz., +i.-x., which carry the history down to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 293, and xxi.-xlv., +covering the period <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 218-167. Of these xli. and xliii. +are incomplete. But we possess summaries (<i>Periochae</i> or +<i>Argumenta</i>) of Books i.-cxlii., except cxxxvi. and cxxxvii., +which show that the narrative was continued to the death +of Drusus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 9. There is no evidence that it actually +went further; but as the death of Drusus is hardly an +event of sufficient importance to form the conclusion of +so great a work, it has been thought that Livy may +have intended to finish with the death of Augustus—the +point from which Tacitus starts. The total number of +Books would then have been probably one hundred and +fifty. +</p> + +<p> +The division into Books (<i>libri</i> or <i>volumina</i>) is due to +the author: vi. 1, 1, ‘quae ab condita urbe Romani +gessere quinque libris exposui.’ The division into decades +(<i>i.e.</i> sets of ten Books) is first mentioned towards the end +of the fifth century; it is merely a conventional arrangement, +the subject-matter falling naturally into sets of fifteen +Books, which again sometimes embrace three sub-divisions +each a half-decade, or two, a half-decade and a decade. +</p> + +<p id="p218"> +An epitome was known to Martial, xiv. 190, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Pellibus exiguis artatur Livius ingens,<br /> + quem mea non totum bibliotheca <ins class="correction" + title="Transcriber's note: quote mark added" id="corrp218">capit.’</ins> +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The evidence of the date of composition is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +(<i>a</i>) i. 19, 3, ‘Bis deinde post Numae regnum [Ianus] +clausus fuit, semel T. Manlio consule post Punicum primum +perfectum bellum, iterum, quod nostrae aetati dei dederunt +ut videremus, post bellum Actiacum ab imperatore Caesare +Augusto pace terra marique parta.’ Now, as the first closing +of the temple of Janus by Augustus was in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29, +and as Livy is silent as to the second closing after the +Cantabrian war in 25, it follows that this passage was +written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29-25. The use of the title Augustus, conferred +on Octavian in 27, puts the earliest possible date +two years later. The history therefore was not begun +before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) ix. 36, 1, ‘Silva erat Ciminia magis tum invia atque +horrenda quam nuper fuere Germanici saltus.’ In this +Niebuhr found an allusion to the campaigns of Drusus, +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 12-9, and accordingly assumed that the first decade +was not published till <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 9. But the passage may equally +well refer to earlier campaigns, <i>e.g.</i> of Julius Caesar. Nor +can it be shown that the history of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, +published <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 7, was used by Livy for Books +viii.-x. Book ix. must have been written before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 20, +or Livy would have mentioned the recovery of the standards +from the Parthians in ix. 18, 9. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>c</i>) xxviii. 12, 12, ‘Hispania prima Romanis inita provinciarum, +quae quidem continentis sint, postrema omnium +nostra demum aetate ductu auspicioque Augusti Caesaris +perdomita.’ This was written not earlier than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19, if it +refers to Agrippa’s victory over the Cantabrians. +</p> + +<p id="p219"> +(<i>d</i>) Book lix. mentioned the <i>lex de maritandis ordinibus</i>, +and consequently cannot have been earlier than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 18. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>e</i>) The books in which Pompeius figured were composed +in the lifetime of Augustus (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 34, above). +</p> + +<p> +(<i>f</i>) Book cxxi., according to the oldest <span class="bcad">MS.</span> of the +Periochae, was published after the death of Augustus; so +doubtless were the remaining Books (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 14-17). +</p> + +<p> +A work of such compass, and occupying so many years +of the author’s life, would naturally be published in sections. +This <i>a priori</i> view is corroborated by several considerations: +(<i>a</i>) There are separate prefaces to various sections (vi. 1; +xxi. 1; xxxi. 1); (<i>b</i>) Livy’s style was censured<a href="#fn070" id="ref070">[70]</a> by Asinius +Pollio, who died <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 5; (<i>c</i>) Augustus was acquainted with +Livy’s sympathetic treatment of Pompeius (see above); (<i>d</i>) +Livy had great fame in his lifetime: Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ii. 3, 8, +‘Numquamne legisti Gaditanum quemdam T. Livi nomine +gloriaque commotum ad visendum eum ab ultimo terrarum +orbe venisse statimque ut viderat abisse?’ +</p> + +<p> +The historians from whom Livy derived his materials, +and whom he himself mentions are: <i>Fabius Pictor</i> (i. 44, 2, +etc.). Livy refers to him six times, but it may be questioned +whether he used him at first-hand. More probably he took +his opinions on the authority of later annalists like Macer, +Antias, and Tubero. <i>Cincius Alimentus</i> (xxi. 38, 3): the +Cincius quoted in vii. 3, 7, may be the same, or an antiquarian +of the Ciceronian or Augustan age; <i>Cato</i> (xxxiv. +15, 9); <i>Calpurnius Piso</i> (xxv. 39, 15); <i>Coelius Antipater</i> +(xxix. 25, 3); <i>Claudius Quadrigarius</i> (vi. 42, 5, etc.); +<i>Valerius Antias</i>, quoted thirty-five times—far more frequently +than any other authority; <i>Licinius Macer</i>; <i>Aelius +Tubero</i> (iv. 23, 1); <i>Clodius Licinus</i> (xxix. 22, 10); <i>Rutilius</i> +(xxxix. 52, 1); <i>Polybius</i>; <i>Silenus</i> (xxvi. 49, 3), a Greek, +whose account of the Second Punic War was favourable +to the Carthaginians. +</p> + +<p id="p220"> +A criticism of Livy’s use of these sources is impossible, +except in the case of Polybius, all the others having +perished. His tone in alluding to the Greek historian is +remarkable for its coldness: xxx. 45, 5, ‘Polybius haudquaquam +spernendus auctor’; cf. xxxiii. 10, 8. Although +Polybius is not mentioned till Book xxx., he was undoubtedly +used throughout the third decade, as well as in +the fourth and fifth. Livy follows him very closely. Where +Livy differs from Polybius he is probably following the +account of Coelius Antipater, who is his leading authority +for the Second Punic War. +</p> + +<p> +Livy is not careful to reconcile his sources, and so +frequently contradicts himself. His way of explaining a +discrepancy between his authorities is by striking an average +(xxvi. 49, 6, ‘si aliquis adsentiri necesse est, media simillima +veris sunt’). His irresolution was noted by Quintilian, +ii. 4, 19, ‘saepe quaeri solet de tempore, de loco, quo +gesta res dicitur, nonnumquam de persona quoque, sicut +Livius frequentissime dubitat.’ This of course has its good +side: it saves him from dogmatizing on uncertain points, +and he has a hearty appreciation of the confusion in his +authorities: xxxvii. 34, 5, ‘is ubi et quando et quo casu +captus sit, sicut pleraque alia, parum inter auctores constat.’ +He recognizes the value of contemporary evidence: xxii. 7, 4, +‘Fabium aequalem temporibus huiusce belli potissimum +auctorem habui’; xxi. 38, 3, ‘L. Cincius Alimentus, qui +captum se ab Hannibale scribit, maxime auctor moveret.’ +Criticism of his authorities is most conspicuous in the +case of Valerius Antias, whom at first he followed in good +faith; he condemns him again and again for exaggeration +and credulity, <i>e.g.</i> xxxiii. 10, 8, ‘si Valerio qui credat, +omnium rerum immodice numerum augenti’; xxxix. 43, 1, +‘Valerius Antias, ut qui nec orationem Catonis legisset et +fabulae tantum sine auctore editae credidisset.’ He also +recognizes the bias of Licinius Macer: vii. 9, 5, ‘quaesita +ea propriae familiae laus leviorem auctorem Licinium facit.’ +For the untrustworthiness of family records, cf. viii. 40, 4, +‘vitiatam memoriam funebribus laudibus reor falsisque +imaginum titulis, dum familiae ad se quaeque famam rerum +gestarum honorumque fallenti mendacio trahunt.’ +</p> + +<p id="p221"> +Livy often refers to authorities whom he does not name: +‘invenio apud quosdam,’ ‘satis constat’; and to tradition: +‘fama est,’ ‘dicitur,’ ‘fertur,’ ‘traditur.’ Tradition was the +sole source for events prior to the sack of Rome by the +Gauls, cf. vi. 12, 2 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +There is no trace in Livy of any use of original documents. +</p> + +<p> +He constantly resists the temptation to digress from +his proper theme: <i>e.g.</i> xxxix. 48, 6, ‘cuius belli et causas +et ordinem si expromere velim, immemor sim propositi, +quo statui non ultra attingere externa, nisi qua Romanis +cohaererent rebus.’ +</p> + +<p> +In spite of his love of truth (xxii. 7, 4, ‘nihil haustum +ex vano velim, quo nimis inclinant ferme scribentium animi’: +cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 34, ‘fidei praeclarus’), partiality blinds +him to the faults of his own countrymen, and he fails to +do justice to opponents like the Samnites and Carthaginians. +</p> + +<p id="p222"> +In dealing with the legendary period he admits that +his narrative has no trustworthy foundation, and gives it +merely for what it is worth: Praef. 6, ‘Quae ante conditam +condendamve urbem poeticis magis decora fabulis quam +incorruptis rerum gestarum monumentis traduntur, ea nec +adfirmare nec refellere in animo est. Datur haec venia +antiquitati, ut miscendo humana divinis primordia urbium +augustiora faciat.’ +</p> + +<p> +The numerous speeches exemplify Livy’s rhetorical tendency, +representing what he thought the speaker would +have said under the given circumstances: iii. 67, 1, ‘ibi +in hanc sententiam locutum accipio.’ +</p> + +<p> +His power of describing character is noted by Seneca, +<i>Suas.</i> vi. 21, ‘Quoties magni alicuius viri mors ab historicis +narrata est, toties fere consummatio totius vitae et quasi +funebris laudatio redditur. Hoc ... T. Livius benignius +omnibus magnis viris praestitit.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Religion and morality.</i>—Livy believes in the influence +of the gods on human affairs: ix. 1, 11, ‘cum rerum +humanarum maximum momentum sit, quam propitiis rem, +quam adversis agant dis.’ Superior to the gods is <i>necessitas</i> +(ix. 4, 16), and <i>fortuna</i> is also powerful (ix. 17, 3; v. 37, 1). +He condemns the irreligion of his own day (x. 40, 10, +‘iuvenis ante doctrinam deos spernentem natus’), cf. iii. 20, 5; +viii. 11, 1. He retains the old belief in prodigies and +portents, every war being introduced by a list of them, +but recognizes that many reported instances were fictitious: +xxi. 62, 1, ‘Multa ea hieme prodigia facta, aut, quod +evenire solet motis semel in religionem animis, multa +nuntiata et temere credita sunt.’ +</p> + +<p> +He condemns the vices of his own age, and lauds the +old Romans: Praef. 12, ‘Nuper divitiae avaritiam et +abundantes voluptates desiderium per luxum atque libidinem +pereundi perdendique omnia invexere.’ +</p> + +<p id="p223"> +<i>Politics.</i>—Livy is an aristocrat, with a poor opinion of +the lower orders: <i>e.g.</i> xxiv. 25, 8, ‘Ea natura multitudinis +est: aut servit humiliter aut superbe dominatur; libertatem, +quae media est, nec cupere modice nec habere sciunt.’ +His political attitude is influenced to a great extent by the +earlier historians, who had mostly been on the aristocratic +side. Yet he is not a defender of the aristocratic party +through thick and thin; and though he admired the +character of some leading republicans, there can be no +question of his loyalty to the Empire. Cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 34, +‘Scipionem, Afranium, hunc ipsum Cassium, hunc Brutum +nusquam latrones et parricidas, quae nunc vocabula imponuntur, +saepe ut insignes viros nominat.’ +</p> + +<p> +Livy’s view of Caesar is quoted by Seneca, <i>N.Q.</i> v. 18, 4, +‘in incerto esse utrum illum nasci magis rei publicae +profuerit, an non nasci?’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Contemporaries of Livy.</i>—1. <i>Pompeius Trogus</i>, whose +history is known to us only through the abridgment +made by M. Iunianus Iustinus, probably in the time of +the Antonines. Trogus was of Gallic descent. His grandfather +had received the Roman <i>civitas</i> from Pompey; his +father was one of Caesar’s officers, and is possibly to be +identified with the Cn. Pompeius of Caes. <i>B.G.</i> v. 36 +(Iustin. xliii. 5, 11). His chief work, <i>Historiae Philippicae</i>, +in forty-four Books, was concerned chiefly with the history +of Macedonia and the Diadochi; but it embraced also the +empires of the East and the history of Greece down to the +time of Philip, as well as Parthia, Spain, Carthage, and the +early history of Rome. +</p> + +<p id="p224"> +2. <i>Fenestella</i>, who died, according to Jerome, in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 19 +at the age of seventy. Nothing is known of his life, or of +the poems which Jerome attributes to him; but he certainly +wrote <i>Annales</i> (Nonius, p. 154). He is also quoted +as an authority on miscellaneous antiquarian and constitutional +points. +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>M. Verrius Flaccus</i>, tutor to the grandsons of Augustus +(Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 17), was the author of <i>Fasti</i>, fragments of +which have been discovered near Praeneste, and which were +used by Ovid for his poem of that name. Of Verrius’ +grammatical works, the greatest was that entitled <i>De verborum +significatu</i> (Gell. v. 17, 1), arranged alphabetically. +It is lost, but we possess part of an abridgment (nine out of +sixteen Books) made by <i>Sex. Pompeius Festus</i> before the +third century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> The abridgment of Festus was in turn +epitomized by <i>Paulus Diaconus</i> in the time of Charlemagne, +and his work is extant in a complete form. +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>C. Iulius Hyginus</i>, a freedman of Augustus and librarian +of the Palatine library (Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 20), wrote +<i>De vita rebusque illustrium virorum</i> (Gell. i. 14, 1); +<i>Exempla</i> (Gell. x. 18, 7); <i>De situ urbium Italicarum</i> +(Serv. <i>ad Verg. Aen.</i> iii. 553); <i>De familiis Troianis</i> (ibid. +v. 389); theological works, <i>e.g.</i> <i>De dis Penatibus</i> (Macrob. +<i>Saturn.</i> iii. 4, 13); commentaries on Virgil and Helvius +Cinna; and <i>De Agricultura</i>, a treatise to which Virgil was +indebted (Colum. i. 1, 13). The Hyginus who wrote +<i>Fabulae</i> and <i>De Astrologia</i> probably lived in the second +century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +</p> + +<h3>VITRUVIUS.</h3> + +<p> +Vitruvius Pollio (the cognomen appears only in the +abridgment of his book) served under Caesar in Africa +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46; viii. 3, 25, ‘C. Iulius Masinissae filius ... cum +patre Caesari militavit. Is hospitio meo est usus. Ita +cottidiano convictu necesse fuerat de philologia disputare ...’ +</p> + +<p id="p225"> +Under Augustus he was an officer of engineers, and was +enabled to spend the rest of his life in comfort through the +liberality of that prince and his sister Octavia: i. praef. 2, +‘Cum M. Aurelio et P. Minidio et Cn. Cornelio ad +apparationem ballistarum et scorpionum reliquorumque +tormentorum refectionem fui praesto et cum eis commoda +accepi. Quae cum primo mihi tribuisti, recognitionem per +sororis commendationem servasti. Cum ergo eo beneficio +essem obligatus, ut ad exitum vitae non haberem inopiae +timorem ...’ +</p> + +<p> +He wrote the treatise <i>De Architectura</i>, in ten Books, +when he was no longer young (ii. praef. 4, ‘faciem deformavit +aetas’), between the years <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 16 and 13. The +temple of Quirinus, mentioned iii. 2, 7, was built in the +former year; and he speaks of only one stone theatre in +Rome (iii. 2, 2), whereas in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 13 there were three. +</p> + +<p> +The arrangement of the subject-matter is as follows: +Book i., sciences on which architecture is based, chief +divisions of the subject, choice of site, and method of +laying out a town; ii., building materials; iii., temples—Ionic order; iv., Doric and Corinthian orders; v., public +buildings, <i>e.g.</i>, forum, theatre; vi., private houses—construction; +vii., decoration; viii., water-supply; ix., methods +of measuring time, <i>e.g.</i>, sun-dials; x., engines and machines +used in war and in the arts. +</p> + +<p> +The work is dedicated to Augustus, who is addressed +throughout, and is meant to be of practical use to him in +his building operations. +</p> + +<p> +The body of the work is severely technical; the introductions +to the Books are in a more ambitious style. +Vitruvius writes as a professional man, not as a scholar: +i. 1, 17, ‘Non uti summus philosophus nec rhetor disertus +nec grammaticus summis rationibus artis exercitatus, sed +ut architectus his litteris imbutus haec nisus sum scribere.’ +He freely confesses his obligations to Greek authors, whom +he enumerates vii. praef. 10-14. Diagrams were appended +to the text: i. 6, 12, ‘Quoniam haec a nobis sunt breviter +exposita, ut facilius intellegantur visum est mihi in extremo +volumine formas, sive uti Graeci <span class="greek">σχήματα</span> dicunt duo explicare.’ +</p> + +<h3 id="p226">SENECA THE ELDER.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +Annaeus Seneca (for the praenomen Marcus, usually +given, there is no authority: in the best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> it is Lucius, +possibly through confusion with his son) was a native of +Corduba: Mart. i. 62, 7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Duosque Senecas unicumque Lucanum<br /> + facunda loquitur Corduba.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The date of his birth is probably about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55, for he +was old enough to have heard Cicero if the civil wars +had not prevented him leaving his native town: <i>Contr.</i> i. +praef. 11, ‘Omnes magni in eloquentia nominis excepto +Cicerone videor audisse: ne Ciceronem quidem aetas +mihi eripuerat, sed bellorum civilium furor, qui tunc +orbem totum pervagabatur, intra coloniam meam me continuit.’ +</p> + +<p> +He was of equestrian rank; cf. the speech of Seneca +the younger, Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 53, ‘Egone, equestri et provinciali +loco ortus, proceribus civitatis adnumeror?’ +</p> + +<p id="p227"> +Most of his life appears to have been spent in Rome, +where alone he could have acquired his vast knowledge +of contemporary rhetoric. Together with his countryman +Porcius Latro, he attended the lectures of the rhetorician +Marullus: <i>Contr.</i> i. praef. 22, ‘Hoc Latro meus faciebat, +ut sententias amaret. Cum condiscipuli essemus apud +Marullum rhetorem ...’ Asinius Pollio he had heard at +two different periods: <i>Contr.</i> iv. praef. 3, ‘audivi illum et +viridem et postea iam senem.’ +</p> + +<p> +Seneca’s wife was Helvia, whose noble character is described +by her son (<i>ad Helv.</i> 14, 3; 16, 3): by her he had +three sons, M. Annaeus Novatus, L. Annaeus Seneca, and +M. Annaeus Mela. +</p> + +<p> +He survived Tiberius; for (1) he alludes to events which +happened after his reign, (2) Sueton. <i>Tib.</i> 73, quotes +from ‘Seneca’ an account of the death of Tiberius, and +we know that the elder Seneca wrote history: that his son +did likewise there is nothing to show. Hence he was +alive after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 37. On the other hand, he was dead +before his son’s exile in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 43, for Sen. <i>ad Helv.</i> 2, 5, +after enumerating the calamities which had befallen his +mother—among them his father’s death—concludes with +the words ‘raptum me audisti: hoc adhuc defuerat tibi, +lugere vivos.’ +</p> + +<p> +Seneca was a man of stern character: for his old-world +views and dislike of innovation cf. his son’s words (<i>ad +Helv.</i> 17, 3), ‘Patris mei antiquus rigor.... Virorum +optimus, pater meus, maiorum consuetudini deditus.’ He +disapproved of the higher education of women, ‘propter +istas quae litteris non ad sapientiam utuntur, sed ad luxuriam +instruuntur.’ +</p> + +<h4 id="p228">(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +The only extant works of Seneca are <i>Oratorum et +Rhetorum Sententiae, Divisiones, Colores Controversiarum +et Suasoriarum</i>. +</p> + +<p> +1. The <i>Controversiae</i> were written at the request of his +three sons, but were intended for a wider circle of readers: +i. praef. 10, ‘Quaecumque a celeberrimis viris facunde +dicta teneo, ne ad quemquam privatim pertineant, populo +dedicabo.’ Seneca here gives a criticism of the rhetoricians +of his time, with specimens of the style of each: i. praef. 1, +‘Exigitis rem magis iucundam mihi quam facilem; iubetis +enim quid de his declamatoribus sentiam qui in aetatem +meam inciderunt indicare, et si qua memoriae meae nondum +elapsa sunt ab illis dicta colligere, ut quamvis notitiae +vestrae subducti sint, tamen non credatis tantum de illis, +sed et iudicetis.’ The specimens are given from memory, +and the arrangement is not systematic: i. praef. 4, ‘Illud +necesse est impetrem, ne me quasi certum aliquem ordinem +velitis sequi in contrahendis quae mihi occurrent.’ Seneca +treats only of those rhetoricians whom his sons had not +themselves heard: i. praef. 4, ‘Neque de his me interrogatis +quos ipsi audistis, sed de his qui ad vos usque non +pervenerunt.’ His hero is Cicero, since whose time oratory +has steadily degenerated: i. praef. 11, ‘Illud ingenium +quod solum populus Romanus par imperio suo habuit’; +<i>ibid.</i> 7, ‘Omnia ingenia quae lucem studiis nostris attulerunt +tunc nata sunt: in deterius deinde cottidie data res est.’ +</p> + +<p> +Of the ten Books of <i>Controversiae</i> only five have come +down to us, viz., i., ii., vii., ix., and x. The deficiency is to +some extent supplied by an abridgment (<i>Excerpta</i>) made +in the fourth or fifth century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>, which adds thirty-nine +themes to the thirty-five contained in the surviving part +of the original work. Each Book had a separate preface. +Those to v., vi., and viii. are entirely wanting; for the prefaces +to ii., iii., and iv. we are indebted to the abridgment. +</p> + +<p id="p229"> +The <i>Controversiae</i> were written when Seneca was an +old man, and when his two elder sons were preparing for +public life, probably about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 20: x. praef. 1, ‘Sinite me +ab istis iuvenilibus studiis ad senectutem meam reverti’; +ii. praef. 4 (to Mela), ‘Fratribus tuis ambitiosa curae sunt +foroque se et honoribus parant.’ +</p> + +<p> +As to the date of publication, it has been argued<a href="#fn071" id="ref071">[71]</a> that +they appeared after the fall of Seianus and before the death +of Mamercus Scaurus, <i>i.e.</i>, between <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 31 and 34. Probably, +however, the publication did not take place till after +the death of Tiberius, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 37; the protest against the +burning of books (x. praef. 6-7) would have been as +offensive to him as to Seianus. +</p> + +<p> +2. There is only one book of <i>Suasoriae</i>, and the beginning +of it is lost. It gives specimens of the treatment +of seven themes, <i>e.g.</i>, 3, ‘Deliberat Agamemnon an Iphigeniam +immolet negante Calchante aliter navigari fas esse.’ +It is certainly later than the <i>Controversiae</i>: <i>Contr.</i> ii. 4, 8, +‘Quae dixerit suo loco reddam, cum ad suasorias venero.’ +One passage cannot have been written before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 34: +2, 22, ‘Scaurum Mamercum, in quo Scaurorum familia +exstincta est.’ It was not published in the lifetime of +Tiberius, for Seneca calls the accuser of Scaurus ‘homo +quam improbi animi tam infelicis ingenii’ (2, 22), and +quotes Cremutius Cordus (6, 19) whose books had been +burned in Tiberius’ time. +</p> + +<p id="p230"> +3. Seneca wrote also on Roman history from the commencement +of the civil wars to his own time, but left +the work of publication to his son. +</p> + +<p> +L. Seneca <i>de vita patris</i> (Haase, vol. iii. p. 436), ‘Si +quaecumque composuit pater meus et edi voluit iam in +manus populi emisissem, ad claritatem nominis sui satis +sibi ipsi prospexerat ... Quisquis legisset eius historias ab +initio bellorum civilium, unde primum veritas retro abiit, +paene usque ad mortis suae diem,’ etc. +</p> + +<h2 id="p231">CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<h2>POST-AUGUSTAN WRITERS.</h2> + +<h3>VELLEIUS PATERCULUS.</h3> + +<p> +C.<a href="#fn072" id="ref072">[72]</a> Velleius Paterculus was born at latest <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19, as +he was quaestor-elect <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 6. He was descended from a +distinguished family in Campania (Vell. ii. 16, 2; Liv. xxiii. +7 <i>sqq.</i>). His father was a <i>praefectus equitum</i> (ii. 104, 3). +After some military experience in Thrace and Macedonia, +Velleius accompanied C. Caesar, the grandson of Augustus, +on his mission to the East, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 1. His rank at this +time was <i>tribunus militum</i>. +</p> + +<p> +ii. 101, 2 (of the meeting of C. Caesar and the Parthian +king), ‘Sub initia stipendiorum meorum tribuno militum +mihi visere contigit: quem militiae gradum ante sub patre +tuo, M. Vinici, et P. Silio auspicatus in Thracia Macedoniaque, +mox Achaia Asiaque et omnibus ad Orientem +visis provinciis et ore atque utroque maris Pontici latere, +haud iniucunda tot rerum, locorum, gentium, urbium recordatione +fruor.’ +</p> + +<p id="p232"> +In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 4, as <i>praefectus equitum</i>, he accompanied Tiberius +to Germany: ii. 104, 3, ‘Hoc tempus me, functum ante +tribunatu, castrorum Ti. Caesaris militem fecit; quippe +protinus ab adoptione missus cum eo praefectus equitum +in Germaniam, successor officii patris mei, caelestissimorum +eius operum per annos continuos viii. praefectus aut legatus +spectator et pro captu mediocritatis meae adiutor fui.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 6, when quaestor-elect, he commanded reinforcements +sent from Rome to Tiberius in Pannonia, and at +the expiration of his term of office as quaestor in Rome, +he returned to Tiberius as a <i>legatus</i>: ii. 111, 3, ‘Habuit +in hoc quoque bello mediocritas nostra speciosi ministerii +locum. Finita equestri militia designatus quaestor necdum +senator aequatus senatoribus, etiam designatis tribunis +plebei, partem exercitus ab urbe traditi ab Augusto perduxi +ad filium eius. In quaestura deinde remissa sorte +provinciae legatus eiusdem ad eumdem missus sum.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 9 Velleius served in Dalmatia (ii. 115, 5), afterwards +spending two years in Germany (ii. 104, 3 above). +In the winter of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 12-13 he took part in the triumph +of Tiberius: ii. 121, 2, ‘Ex Pannoniis Delmatisque egit +triumphum ... quem mihi fratrique meo inter praecipuos +praecipuisque donis adornatos viros comitari contigit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Velleius was praetor-elect in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 14: ii. 124, 4, ‘Quo +tempore mihi fratrique meo, candidatis Caesaris, proxime +a nobilissimis ac sacerdotalibus viris destinari praetoribus +contigit, consecutis ut neque post nos quemquam divus +Augustus neque ante nos Caesar commendaret Tiberius.’ +</p> + +<p> +The publication of his history, sixteen years later, is +the only circumstance recorded of Velleius after this date. +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Historia Romana</i>, in two Books, was published +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 30, in the consulship of M. Vinicius, to whom the +book is addressed (i. 8, 1, and often). The beginning of +Book i. is lost; the first eight chapters in our text are +occupied with a rapid survey of the history of Greece +since the Trojan war, the Phoenician settlements in the +Mediterranean, and the chief events in the history of the +world before the foundation of Rome. C. 8 breaks off at +the rape of the Sabine women, and there is a great lacuna +before we reach, in c. 9, the defeat of Perseus at Pydna +in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 168. Ch. 9-13 carry the narrative down to the +destruction of Carthage and Corinth. Book ii. commences +at that point, and ends with the death of Livia, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 29 +(ii. 130, 5, ‘cuius temporis aegritudinem auxit amissa +mater’). +</p> + +<p id="p233"> +Velleius is constantly calling attention to the brevity and +compression of his treatment, in such phrases as ‘omnia +transcursu dicenda’ (ii. 55), ‘artatum opus’ (ii. 86), ‘recisum +opus’ (ii. 89). Much that the plan of his book compels +him to omit, he promises to publish later in a larger work, +<i>e.g.</i> ii. 99, 3, ‘iusto servemus operi,’ ii. 114, 4, ‘iustis +voluminibus ordine narrabimus.’ Even as it is, he occasionally +pauses to describe a great character (ii. 41, Caesar), +or to express his personal opinion (ii. 66, 3, denunciation +of Antony for Cicero’s murder). Specially noticeable are +the digressions on the Roman colonies (i. 14-15) and provinces +(ii. 38-39), on the prominence of different types of +genius at certain epochs (i. 16-18), and on literary history +(ii. 9, the chief writers of the time of the Gracci; ii. 36, +of the Ciceronian and Augustan ages; i. 5, praise of +Homer; i. 7, of Hesiod). As is natural in so short a +book, Velleius names very few authorities. +</p> + +<p> +The motive of the history is evidently the glorification +of the author’s old general, Tiberius, whose actual reign, +however, he dismisses in eight chapters. Probably he felt +the subject too risky, and devoted his strength to the +earlier life of Tiberius, which occupies the greater part +even of the chapters nominally devoted to the reign of +Augustus (ii. 59-123). Tiberius is spoken of throughout +in terms of unqualified praise, and no hint is given of +the darker side of his character. Seianus also is extolled +(ii. 127-8), as he was in high favour at the time when +Velleius wrote. +</p> + +<h3 id="p234">VALERIUS MAXIMUS.</h3> + +<p> +Nothing is known of the life of Valerius Maximus beyond +the fact that he visited Asia in company with Sex. Pompeius, +the friend of Ovid and of Germanicus. Pompeius +was consul <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 14, and between <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 27 and 30 became proconsul +of Asia. +</p> + +<p> +Val. Max. ii. 6, 8, ‘Consuetudinem ... illam etiam in insula +Cea servari animadverti, quo tempore Asiam cum Sex. +Pompeio petens Iulidem oppidum intravi.’ +</p> + +<p> +Valerius dwells on his obligations to Pompeius in his +chapter on friendship (iv. 7, <i>ext.</i> 2). +</p> + +<p> +His sole work, <i>Facta et Dicta Memorabilia</i>, in nine +books, is a collection of notable incidents and sayings, +classified under appropriate headings, for the convenience +of speakers seeking illustrations for their subject-matter. +Cf. the preface, ‘Urbis Romae exterarumque gentium facta +simul ac dicta memoratu digna, quae apud alios latius +diffusa sunt quam ut breviter cognosci possint, ab illustribus +electa auctoribus digerere constitui, ut documenta +sumere volentibus longae inquisitionis labor absit.’ +</p> + +<p> +The <i>illustres auctores</i> from whom he draws most of his +material are Livy, Cicero (each mentioned only once), +Sallust, and Trogus; but thirteen Latin and twenty Greek +authors are mentioned by name. He frequently misrepresents +his authorities. +</p> + +<p id="p235"> +Each book is divided into chapters on separate topics +(<i>e.g.</i> <i>De Pudicitia</i>), under each of which he gives (1) illustrations +from Roman history, (2) those from the history of +other nations. The latter of course are few in comparison. +</p> + +<p> +Although Iulius Paris, the epitomizer of Valerius, speaks +of ten books, only nine are extant, and it may be doubted +whether there ever was a tenth. Book i. is mutilated. +</p> + +<p> +There are only two passages which throw any light on +the date of composition—viii. 11, <i>ext.</i> 4, a denunciation of +Seianus, obviously written after his fall in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 31; and +vi. 1 praef., before the death of Livia, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 29. The work +was published at latest in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 37, for it is dedicated to +Tiberius, who is the object of the most servile flattery +(<i>e.g.</i> ii. 9, 6); similar language is used of Iulius Caesar +(iv. 5, 6), and Augustus (i. 7, 1), while Brutus and Cassius +are denounced as parricides (i. 5, 7; i. 8, 8). +</p> + +<p> +Two abridgments of Valerius Maximus are extant. +</p> + +<h3>CELSUS.</h3> + +<p> +Of the life of Celsus nothing is known; but he was an +older contemporary of Columella. Colum. iii. 17, 4, ‘Iulius +Atticus et Cornelius Celsus, aetatis nostrae celeberrimi +auctores, patrem atque filium Sasernam secuti.’ +</p> + +<p> +He wrote an encyclopaedic work on agriculture, medicine, +war, rhetoric, and philosophy, but only the section +on medicine is extant. +</p> + +<p> +Quint. xi. 12, 24, ‘Cum etiam Cornelius Celsus, mediocri +vir ingenio, non solum de his omnibus conscripserit +artibus sed amplius rei militaris et rusticae et medicinae +praecepta reliquerit.’ +</p> + +<p id="p236"> +The first part consisted of five books on agriculture: cf. +Colum. i. 1, 14, ‘Cornelius totum corpus disciplinae +quinque libris complexus est.’ This section of the work +was probably written in the reign of Tiberius, for it was +known to Iulius Graecinus, whose execution took place +under Caligula. Plin. <i>N.H.</i> xiv. 33, ‘Graecinus, qui alioqui +Cornelium Celsum transcripsit.’ +</p> + +<p> +There are eight books <i>De Re Medica</i>. The only indication +of their date is in iv. 7, where Celsus mentions a prescription +as not found ‘in monumentis medicorum.’ As +this prescription is given by Scribonius Largus, who wrote +about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 47, Celsus must have written before that year. +</p> + +<p> +The section on war was used by Vegetius (<i>De Re +Mil.</i> i. 8). +</p> + +<p> +Rhetoric was also treated in the encyclopaedia. Quintilian, +who mentions him as one of the more careful writers +on that subject (iii. 1, 21, ‘accuratius scripsit Celsus’), +frequently combats his opinions and speaks of him rather +contemptuously: <i>e.g.</i> ix. 1, 18, ‘Cornelius Celsus nimia +profecto novitatis cupidine ductus. Nam quis ignorasse +eruditum alioqui virum credat,’ etc. He may be the Celsus +of Juv. 6, 245, who (according to the Scholiast) wrote a +manual of rhetoric in seven books. +</p> + +<p> +There were also six books on the history of philosophy. +Augustine <i>de haeres. prol.</i>, ‘Opiniones omnium philosophorum +qui sectas varias condiderunt usque ad tempora sua vi. +non parvis voluminibus quidam Celsus absolvit; nec +redarguit aliquem, sed tantum quid sentirent aperuit. Cum +ferme centum philosophos nominasset,’ etc. +</p> + +<p> +Celsus also wrote separate treatises (1) on philosophy, +Quint. x. 1, 24, ‘Scripsit non parum multa Cornelius +Celsus, Sextios secutus, non sine cultu ac nitore’; (2) on +strategy (Lydus <i>de mag.</i> i. 47). +</p> + +<h3 id="p237">PHAEDRUS.</h3> + +<p> +The title of Phaedrus’ work, ‘Phaedri Augusti liberti +fabularum Aesopiarum libri,’ probably means that he was +a freedman of Augustus. Tiberius is called ‘Caesar +Tiberius’ in ii. 6, 7; contrast the reference to Augustus, +iii. 10, 39, ‘a divo Augusto.’ Phaedrus was born in Thrace, +possibly in the district of Pieria; but the date is unknown; +iii. prol. 17, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ego, quem Pierio mater enixa est iugo,<br /> +in quo tonanti sancta Mnemosyne Iovi<br /> +fecunda novies artium peperit chorum’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>ibid.</i> 54, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ego, litteratae qui sum propior Graeciae,<br /> +cur somno inerti deseram patriae decus?<br /> +Threissa cum gens numeret auctores suos,<br /> +Linoque Apollo sit parens, Musa Orpheo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Some wrongly take these allusions to mean that he belongs +to the realm of poesy. That he came to Rome early is +shown by the knowledge of Latin literature he acquired in +his boyhood. Cf. iii. epil. 33, where he quotes Ennius, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ego, quondam legi quam puer sententiam,<br /> +“Palam mutire plebeio piaculum est,”<br /> +dum sanitas constabit, pulchre meminero.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +After publishing two books of fables, Phaedrus was +persecuted by Seianus, in some way unknown; iii. prol. 38, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ego porro illius [Aesopi] semita feci viam,<br /> +et cogitavi plura quam reliquerat,<br /> +in calamitatem deligens quaedam meam.<br /> +Quod si accusator alius Seiano foret,<br /> +si testis alius, index alius denique,<br /> +dignum faterer esse me tantis malis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p238"> +This persecution may have arisen from references in his +fables, such as i. 1 (Lupus et agnus), l. 14, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Haec propter illos scripta est homines fabula,<br /> +qui fictis causis innocentes opprimunt’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +i. 6 (Ranae ad solem), which Nisard<a href="#fn073" id="ref073">[73]</a> thinks refers to +the ambitious marriage which Seianus projected with Livia, +daughter of Germanicus, ‘The sun dries up the ponds; +what will happen if the sun marries and has children?’ l. 9, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quidnam futurum est, si crearit liberos?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Phaedrus survived the attacks made on him, and Book v. +was written in his old age (see below). +</p> + +<p> +Several personal points are clear from his writings: +</p> + +<p> +(1) He had to meet the attacks of critics; ii. epil. 10, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Si livor obtrectare curam voluerit,<br /> +non tamen eripiet laudis conscientiam.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(2) His desire for fame and his self-consciousness; iii. +prol. 60, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ergo hinc abesto livor, ne frustra gemas,<br /> +quoniam sollemnis mihi debetur gloria.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(3) His contempt for money; iii. prol. 21, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Curamque habendi penitus corde eraserim’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +v. 4, 7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Huius respectu fabulae deterritus<br /> +periculosum semper vitavi lucrum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p239"> +Phaedrus wrote five Books of fables. Many have certainly +been lost. Cf. his reference to tree-fables, none of +which we have; i. prol. 6, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘quod arbores loquantur, non tantum ferae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +There are, besides the five Books, thirty fables usually +printed as an appendix, and probably composed by +Phaedrus. The fables are all in ‘impure’ iambic senarii, +like those of Terence and Publius Syrus. Phaedrus followed +Aesop, but, as he affirms, not slavishly; i. prol. 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Aesopus auctor quam materiam repperit,<br /> +hanc ego polivi versibus senariis’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +iv. prol. 10, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘fabulis<br /> +quas Aesopias, non Aesopi, nomino.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +We have the Greek originals for about a third of the +fables; but Phaedrus speaks of his additions to Aesop; +ii. prol. 8, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Equidem omni cura morem servabo senis;<br /> +sed si libuerit aliquid interponere,<br /> +dictorum sensus ut delectet varietas,<br /> +bonas in partes, lector, accipias velim.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Stories from contemporary or recent history are given +in ii. 6, 7; iii. 10; v. 7. +</p> + +<p> +Books i. and ii. were published under Tiberius; Book iii. +was published after Tiberius’ death (cf. iii. prol. 33), and +is dedicated to Eutychus, who has been identified with a +favourite slave of Caligula. Book iv. followed, addressed +to Particulo (iv. prol. 10). Book v., addressed to Philetes, +was written in the poet’s old age; v. 10, 7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Cui senex contra Lacon:<br /> +“Non te destituit animus, sed vires meae.<br /> +Quod fuimus, lauda, si iam damnas, quod sumus.”<br /> +Hoc cur, Philete, scripserim, pulchre vides.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p240"> +Martial is the only classical writer who refers to Phaedrus; +iii. 20, 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘An aemulatur improbi iocos Phaedri?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<h3>SENECA THE YOUNGER.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +L. Annaeus Seneca, the son of Annaeus Seneca, the +rhetor, was born at Corduba in Spain. For information +about his family see under ‘Seneca the elder,’ <a href="#p226">pp. 226-7</a>. +He was probably born about the beginning of our era, as he +seems to have remembered Asinius Pollio, who died <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 5, +and had passed his boyhood in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 19, when the Jewish +and Egyptian rites were expelled from Rome. +</p> + +<p> +Sen. <i>de tranquill. animi</i>, 17, 7, ‘Qualem Pollionem Asinium +meminimus, quem nulla res ultra decimam [horam] retinuit.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> 108, 22, ‘In Tiberii Caesaris principatum iuventae +tempus inciderat: alienigena tum sacra movebantur.’ +</p> + +<p> +At an early age Seneca was brought to Rome by his +mother’s sister, who was probably the wife of Vitrasius +Pollio, prefect of Egypt for sixteen years. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ad Helv.</i> 19, 2, ‘Illius manibus in urbem perlatus sum.’ +</p> + +<p> +Seneca’s mother took a great interest in his education, +which was conducted under Fabianus Papirius (cf. <i>Ep.</i> 100, +9, etc.) and Sotion the Pythagorean, of Alexandria, pupils +of Sextius (for Seneca’s study of whom see <i>Ep.</i> 64). +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ad Helv.</i> 15, 1, ‘Vera vis materni doloris oritur ... “ubi +studia, quibus libentius quam femina, familiarius quam +mater intereram?”’ +</p> + +<p id="p241"> +<i>Ep.</i> 108, 17, ‘Dicebat [Sotion] quare ille animalibus +abstinuisset, quare postea Sextius ... § 22. His ego instinctus +abstinere animalibus coepi et anno peracto non tantum +facilis erat mihi consuetudo, sed dulcis.’ +</p> + +<p> +The elder Seneca put an end to this abstinence, which was +associated in the popular view with foreign superstitions (see +<i>Ep.</i> 108, 17-23). This must have happened about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 19. +The influence of Sotion is seen in passages imitated from +his book <i>de ira cohibenda</i> by Seneca. Seneca also studied +under Attalus, a Greek Stoic, possibly about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 20. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> 108, 13-15, ‘Ego certe cum Attalum audirem in +vitia, in errores, in mala vitae perorantem, saepe misertus +sum generis humani et illum sublimem altioremque humano +fastigio credidi ... Inde mihi quaedam permansere, Lucili. +Magno enim in omnia inceptu veneram. Deinde ad +civitatis vitam reductus ex bene coeptis pauca servavi: +inde ostreis boletisque in omnem vitam renuntiatum est.’ +</p> + +<p> +Seneca speaks of his change of studies and occupations +in <i>Ep.</i> 49, 2, ‘Modo apud Sotionem philosophum puer +sedi. Modo causas agere coepi. Modo desii velle agere, +modo desii posse.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 31 Seneca was probably still at Rome; cf. +<i>N.Q.</i> i. 1, 3, ‘Vidimus [prodigium] eo tempore, quo de +Seiano actum est.’ Lipsius’ inference<a href="#fn074" id="ref074">[74]</a> that Seneca made a +voyage to Egypt about this time is probable, though Seneca +himself gives no direct information about it. According +to this theory his host was Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of Egypt. +While in Egypt, Seneca was attacked by illness, and escaped +death by his aunt’s care. Cf. <i>ad Helv.</i> 19, 2, ‘Illius pio +maternoque nutricio per longum tempus aeger convalui.’ +Seneca accompanied Vitrasius when he resigned his office +and returned with his wife to Italy <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 32 (Dio, lviii. 19, 6). +They suffered shipwreck, and Vitrasius perished. +</p> + +<p id="p242"> +<i>Ad Helv.</i> 19, 4, ‘Sed si prudentiam perfectissimae feminae +novi, non patietur te nihil profuturo maerore consumi et +exemplum tibi suum, cuius ego etiam spectator fui, narrabit. +Carissimum virum amiserat, avunculum nostrum, cui virgo +nupserat, in ipsa quidem navigatione: tulit tamen eodem +tempore et luctum et metum evictisque tempestatibus +corpus eius naufraga evexit.’ +</p> + +<p> +This theory is supported by the fact that Seneca wrote +a work ‘de ritu (al., situ) et sacris Aegyptiorum’ (Serv. <i>ad +Aen.</i> vi. 154). +</p> + +<p> +Through his aunt’s influence Seneca obtained the quaestorship. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ad Helv.</i> 19, 2, ‘Illa pro quaestura mea gratiam suam +extendit, et quae ne sermonis quidem aut clarae salutationis +sustinuit audaciam, pro me vicit indulgentia verecundiam.’ +</p> + +<p> +Seneca’s quaestorship must have been after the death +of his aunt’s husband, in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 32, as the above passage +shows, and before the death of Tiberius in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 37, as it was +with Tiberius that his aunt’s influence lay, on account of +her husband’s services. After his quaestorship Seneca +appears to have married (cf. <i>de ira</i>, iii. 36, 3, etc.). His +wife must have died before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 57, as in that year Seneca +married Pompeia Paulina; cf. Dio, lxi. 10, 3, <span class="greek">γάμον ἐπιφανέστατον ἔγημε</span>. +By his first wife he had three sons +(<i>ad Helv.</i> 2, 5). +</p> + +<p> +While senator, Seneca incurred the jealousy of Caligula, +and in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 39 narrowly escaped death. +</p> + +<p> +Dio, lix. 19, 7, <span class="greek">ὁ δὲ δὴ Σενέκας ... διεφθάρη παρ’ ὀλίγον, +μήτ’ ἀδικήσας τι, μήτε δόξας, ὅτι δίκην τινὰ ἐν τῷ συνεδρίῳ +παρόντος αὐτοῦ καλῶς εἴπε</span>. For Seneca’s attacks on Caligula +cf. <i>ad Helv.</i> 10, 4; <i>Apocol.</i> 15, etc. +</p> + +<p id="p243"> +Sueton. <i>Cal.</i> 53, ‘Peroraturus “stricturum se lucubrationis +suae telum” minabatur; lenius comtiusque scribendi +genus adeo contemnens, ut Senecam, tum maxime placentem, +“commissiones meras” componere, et “harenam esse sine +calce” diceret.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 41 Seneca was banished to Corsica, through the +agency of Messalina, on the charge of adultery with Iulia +Livilla, sister of Caligula, but really because he was suspected +of belonging to the faction of Agrippina. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 42, ‘Nec Suillius questu aut exprobratione +abstinebat ... et Senecam increpans infensum amicis Claudii, +sub quo iustissimum exilium pertulisset ... Se quaestorem +Germanici, illum domus eius adulterum fuisse.’ +</p> + +<p> +Seneca was tried before the Senate, and Claudius prevented +his execution. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ad Polyb.</i> 13, 2, ‘Deprecatus est pro me senatum, et +vitam mihi non tantum dedit, sed etiam petiit.’ +</p> + +<p> +While in Corsica he devoted himself to literature and +science. Cf. <i>ad Helv.</i> 20, 1 (written in exile), ‘Animus +omnis occupationis expers operibus suis vacat et modo se +levioribus studiis oblectat, modo ad considerandam suam +universique naturam veri avidus insurgit: terras primum +situmque earum quaerit.’ +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Consolatio ad Polybium</i>, written during this time, +is full of flattery of Claudius. +</p> + +<p> +Dio, lxi. 10, 2, <span class="greek">τὴν Μεσσαλίναν καὶ τοὺς τοὺ Κλαυδίου +ἐξελευθέρους ἐθώπευεν ὥστε καὶ βιβλίον σφίσιν ἐκ τῆς νήσου +πέμψαι ἐπαίνους αὐτῶν ἔχον, ὃ μετὰ ταῦτα ὑπ’ αἰσχύνης +ἀπήλειψε</span>. +</p> + +<p> +Seneca was recalled at the beginning of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 49, became +Nero’s tutor (although he wished to visit Athens), and +obtained the praetorship through the influence of Agrippina, +with whom his name was coupled by popular rumour. +</p> + +<p id="p244"> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xii. 8, ‘At Agrippina, ne malis tantum +facinoribus notesceret, veniam exilii pro Annaeo Seneca, +simul praeturam inpetrat, laetum in publicum rata ob claritudinem +studiorum eius, utque Domitii pueritia tali magistro +adulesceret et consiliis eiusdem ad spem dominationis uterentur, +quia Seneca fidus in Agrippinam memoria beneficii +et infensus Claudio dolore iniuriae credebatur.’ +</p> + +<p> +Schol. on <i>Iuv.</i> 5, 105, ‘Revocatus ... etsi magno desiderio +Athenas intenderet ab Agrippina tamen in palatium +adductus.’ +</p> + +<p> +Dio, lxi. 10, 1, <span class="greek">οὐ γὰρ ἀπέχρῃσεν αὐτῷ τὴν Ἰουλίαν μοιχεῦσαι, +οὐδὲ βελτίων ἐκ τῆς φυγῆς ἐγένετο, ἀλλὰ καὶ τῇ Ἀγριππίνῃ +ἐπλῃσίαζεν</span>. +</p> + +<p> +For Seneca’s tutorship cf. also Sueton. <i>Nero</i>, 52, ‘Liberales +disciplinas omnes fere puer attigit. Sed a philosophia eum +mater avertit, monens imperaturo contrariam esse: a cognitione +veterum oratorum Seneca praeceptor, quo diutius +in admiratione sui detineret.’ +</p> + +<p> +It is probable that Seneca was, like Nero, privy to the +murder of Claudius in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 54. Cf. his sarcasms against +Claudius in his <i>Apocolocyntosis</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>Nero</i> 33 (of Nero), ‘Cuius [Claudi] necis etsi +non auctor, at conscius fuit: neque dissimulanter, ut qui +boletos, in quo cibi genere venenum is acceperat, quasi +deorum cibum, posthac proverbio Graeco conlaudare sit +solitus.’ +</p> + +<p> +Seneca wrote for Nero a speech which he delivered on +the occasion of Claudius’ death. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 3, ‘Die funeris laudationem eius princeps +exorsus est; dum antiquitatem generis, consulatus ac +triumphos maiorum enumerabat, intentus ipse et ceteri; +liberalium quoque artium commemoratio, et nihil regente +eo triste rei publicae ab externis accidisse, pronis animis +audita. Postquam ad providentiam sapientiamque flexit, +nemo risui temperare, quamquam oratio a Seneca composita +multum cultus praeferret, ut fuit illi viro ingenium +amoenum et temporis eius auribus accommodatum.’ +</p> + +<p id="p245"> +He acted as a check on Nero (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 6; 11), +and baffled Agrippina’s vengeance and ambition. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 2, ‘Ibaturque in caedes, nisi Afranius +Burrus et Annaeus Seneca obviam issent. (Ch. 5) Quin +et legatis Armeniorum causam gentis apud Neronem +orantibus escendere suggestum imperatoris et praesidere +simul parabat, nisi ceteris pavore defixis Seneca admonuisset, +venienti matri occurreret.’ +</p> + +<p> +Seneca interfered to shelter Nero in his amour with +Acte, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 55, and used the occasion to stir up feud +between Agrippina and Nero (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 13). Hence +followed an attack by Agrippina on Seneca. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 14, ‘Audiretur hinc Germanici filia, inde +debilis rursus Burrus et exsul Seneca, trunca scilicet manu +et professoria lingua generis humani regimen expostulantes.’ +</p> + +<p> +It is unlikely that Seneca opposed the murder of Britannicus +(Feb. <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 55). Cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 17, ‘Facinus cui +plerique iam hominum ignoscebant, antiquas fratrum +discordias et insociabile regnum aestimantes.’<a href="#fn075" id="ref075">[75]</a> +</p> + +<p id="p246"> +Seneca took part shortly afterwards in the trial in which +Agrippina was found not guilty (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 20-21). +There are many references to Seneca’s great power and +wealth at this time.<a href="#fn076" id="ref076">[76]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Cf. Dio, lxi. 4, 1, <span class="greek">αὐτοὶ</span> (Seneca and Burrus) <span class="greek">τὴν ἀρχὴν +ἅπασαν παρέλαβον καὶ διῴκησαν ἐφ’ ὅσον ἠδυνήθησαν ἄριστα +καὶ δικαιότατα</span>. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 53 (Seneca addressing Nero in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 62), +‘Quartus decimus annus est, Caesar, ex quo spei tuae +admotus sum, octavus, ut imperium obtines: medio +temporis tantum honorum atque opum in me cumulasti, +ut nihil felicitati meae desit nisi moderatio eius... At tu +gratiam immensam, innumeram pecuniam circumdedisti, +adeo ut plerumque intra me ipse volvam, “Egone, equestri +et provinciali loco ortus, proceribus civitatis adnumeror? ... +Talis hortos extruit, et per haec suburbana incedit, et +tantis agrorum spatiis, tam lato faenore exuberat?”’ +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 42 (speech of Suillius, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 58), ‘Qua +sapientia, quibus philosophorum praeceptis, intra quadriennium +regiae amicitiae ter miliens sestertium paravisset?’ +(Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives his wealth as 75,000,000 denarii). +</p> + +<p> +Seneca had many estates both in Italy (<i>Ep.</i> 123, 1, etc.) +and abroad, and lent money abroad, even in Britain. His +attraction to finance is seen in the number of metaphors +he draws from that subject. +</p> + +<p> +Sen. <i>vit. beat.</i> 17, 2, ‘Cur trans mare possides? cur +plura quam nosti?’ +</p> + +<p> +Dio, lxii. 2, 1 (of the rising of the Britons under Boudicca), +<span class="greek">ὁ Σενέκας χιλίας σφίσι μυριάδας ἄκουσιν ἐπὶ χρησταῖς ἐλπίσι +τόκων δανείσας, ἔπειτ’ ἀθρόας τε ἅμα αὐτὰς καὶ βιαίως +εἰσέπρασσεν</span>. +</p> + +<p id="p247"> +His attack on usury (<i>de ben.</i> vii. 10, 3) is a piece of +theoretic philosophy. +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 57 Seneca was consul suffectus (Ulpian, <i>Dig.</i> +xxxvi. 1). In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 58 he brought about the downfall of +the former delator, P. Suillius. Cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 42, +‘Variis deinde casibus iactatus et multorum odia meritus +reus, haud tamen sine invidia Senecae damnatur. Is fuit +P. Suillius.’ Seneca is thought to have been implicated in +Agrippina’s murder in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 59. He wrote to the Senate +for Nero an account of her death. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 7 (Nero says after the fruitless attempt of +Anicetus to kill Agrippina), ‘Quod contra subsidium sibi +nisi quid Burrus et Seneca expedirent? Quos statim +acciverat, incertum an aperiens, et ante ignaros. Igitur +longum utriusque silentium, ne inriti dissuaderent; an eo +descensum credebant, ut, nisi praeveniretur Agrippina, +pereundum Neroni esset? Post Seneca, hactenus promptius, +ut respiceret Burrum, ac sciscitaretur an militi imperanda +caedes esset. (Ch. 11) Ergo non iam Nero, cuius +immanitas omnium questus anteibat, sed Seneca adverso +rumore erat, quod oratione tali confessionem scripsisset.’ +</p> + +<p> +The death of Burrus in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 62 weakened the power of +Seneca, who resolved to retire. His request, however, was +not granted by Nero (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 55-6), but he reduced +his establishment, and lived in semi-privacy. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 52, ‘Mors Burri infregit Senecae potentiam, +quia nec bonis artibus idem virium erat altero velut +duce amoto, et Nero ad deteriores inclinabat. Hi variis +criminationibus Senecam adoriuntur ... Certe finitam +Neronis pueritiam, et robur iuventae adesse. Exueret +magistrum, satis amplis doctoribus instructus maioribus +suis. (Ch. 56) Instituta prioris potentiae commutat, prohibet +coetus salutantium, vitat comitantis, rarus per urbem, quasi +valetudine infensa aut sapientiae studiis domi attineretur.’ +</p> + +<p id="p248"> +Later in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 62, came an unsuccessful attempt to ruin +Seneca. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 65, ‘Romanus secretis criminationibus +incusaverat Senecam ut Gai Pisonis socium; +sed validius a Seneca eodem crimine perculsus est.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 64, on the occasion of the burning of Rome by +Nero, Seneca wished to retire. He is said to have offered +money to repair the disasters of the fire. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 45, ‘Ferebatur Seneca, quo invidiam +sacrilegii a semet averteret, longinqui ruris secessum oravisse, +et postquam non concedebatur, ficta valetudine, quasi +aeger nervis, cubiculum non egressus.’ +</p> + +<p> +Dio, lxii. 25, 3, <span class="greek">πᾶσαν αὐτῷ τὴν οὐσίαν ἐπὶ τῇ τῶν +οἰκοδομουμένων προφάσει κεχαρισμένος</span>. +</p> + +<p> +The story given in Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 45 of the attempt to +poison Seneca probably arose from his abstemious habits. +</p> + +<p> +‘Tradidere quidam venenum ei per libertum ipsius cui +nomen Cleonicus paratum iussu Neronis, vitatumque a +Seneca proditione liberti seu propria formidine, dum persimplici +victu et agrestibus pomis, ac si sitis admoneret, +profluente aqua vitam tolerat.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 65 Seneca was implicated in the conspiracy of +Piso, and was forced to commit suicide. His wife wished +to die with him, but was prevented by Nero’s orders. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 60, ‘Sequitur caedes Annaei Senecae, +laetissima principi, non quia coniurationis manifestum +compererat, sed ut ferro grassaretur, quando veneno non +processerat ... (Ch. 63) Post quae eodem ictu brachia +ferro exsolvunt. Seneca, quoniam senile corpus et parco +victu tenuatum lenta effugia sanguini praebebat, crurum +quoque et poplitum venas abrumpit. Saevisque cruciatibus +defessus, ne dolore suo animum uxoris infringeret atque +ipse visendo eius tormenta ad impatientiam delaberetur, +suadet in aliud cubiculum abscedere. Et novissimo quoque +momento suppeditante eloquentia advocatis scriptoribus +pleraque tradidit ... (Ch. 64) At Nero nullo in Paulinam +proprio odio, ac ne glisceret invidia crudelitatis, inhibere +mortem. ... Seneca interim, durante tractu et lentitudine +mortis, Statium Annaeum, diu sibi amicitiae fide et arte +medicinae probatum, orat, provisum pridem venenum, quo +damnati publico Atheniensium iudicio exstinguerentur, promeret; +adlatumque hausit frustra, frigidus iam artus, et +cluso corpore adversum vim veneni. Postremo stagnum +calidae aquae introiit, respergens proximos servorum, addita +voce, libare se liquorem illum Iovi liberatori. Exin balneo +inlatus, et vapore eius exanimatus, sine ullo funeris sollemni +crematur.’ +</p> + +<p id="p249"> +There was a rumour that some of the conspirators intended +to make Seneca emperor. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 65, ‘Fama fuit Subrium Flavum cum +centurionibus occulto consilio, neque tamen ignorante +Seneca, destinavisse, ut post occisum opera Pisonis Neronem +Piso quoque interficeretur, tradereturque imperium +Senecae, quasi insontibus claritudine virtutum ad summum +fastigium delecto.’ +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p>The following prose works are extant: +</p> + +<p> +1. <i>Dialogorum libri</i> xii. +</p> + +<p> +(1) <i>ad Lucilium: quare aliqua incommoda bonis viris +accidant cum providentia sit; sive de providentia</i>. This +was probably a late work. +</p> + +<p id="p250"> +(2) <i>ad Serenum: nec iniuriam nec contumeliam accipere +sapientem; sive de constantia sapientis</i>: written in the first +years of Nero’s reign. +</p> + +<p> +(3-5) <i>ad Novatum de ira libri</i> iii., probably written in +the first year of Claudius’ reign. +</p> + +<p> +(6) <i>ad Marciam de consolatione</i>: written to console Marcia, +the daughter of Cremutius Cordus, for the death of her son +Metilius. The work may have been written in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 41, as +Caligula’s name is studiously avoided. +</p> + +<p> +(7) <i>ad Gallionem de vita beata</i>. This book, addressed +to Seneca’s brother Gallio (Novatus), was probably written +shortly after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 58, and justifies his having wealth though a +philosopher. +</p> + +<p> +(8) <i>ad Serenum de otio</i>. This work, like the next, was +addressed to Annaeus Serenus, and was written probably +about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 62. Only a part of it is extant. The book +discusses whether a wise man should engage in state affairs. +</p> + +<p> +(9) <i>ad Serenum de tranquillitate animi</i>, probably written +soon after Seneca’s recall. +</p> + +<p> +(10) <i>ad Paulinum de brevitate vitae</i>. For the date cf. +13, 8, ‘Sullam ultimum Romanorum protulisse pomoerium.’ +Now, Claudius extended the pomoerium in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 50, so +this must have been written in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 49, as the book was +brought out after Seneca’s return from exile. +</p> + +<p> +(11) <i>ad Polybium de consolatione</i>. This book was addressed +in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 43 or 44 to Polybius, a favourite of Claudius, on the +occasion of his brother’s death. The date is fixed by the +reference to Claudius’ expedition to Britain in 12, 2-3. +Cf. § 3, ‘Non desinam totiens tibi offerre Caesarem. Illo +moderante terras et ostendente, quanto melius beneficiis +imperium custodiatur quam armis, illo rebus humanis +praeside non est periculum, ne quid perdidisse te sentias.’ +For similar flattery of Claudius, cf. 7,4; 12,5. +</p> + +<p id="p251"> +(12) <i>ad Helviam matrem de consolatione</i>, written during +his banishment. +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>ad Neronem Caesarem de clementia</i>, in three Books, +two of which are extant. The work was written in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +55-6, doubtless to show the public what sort of instruction +Seneca had given Nero, and what sort of emperor they +had to expect (cf. i, 1, 1). The date is settled by i. 9, 1, +‘[divus Augustus] cum hoc aetatis esset quod tu nunc es, +duodevicesimum egressus annum,’ Nero having been born +15th December, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 37. The flattery contained in ii. 1, +1-2, and elsewhere, can be justified to some extent by +Nero’s conduct at that time. Cf. Sueton. <i>Nero</i>, 10, ‘Neque +liberalitatis, neque clementiae, ne comitatis quidem exhibendae +ullam occasionem omisit.’ +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>De Beneficiis</i> in seven Books, addressed to Aebutius +Liberalis of Lugdunum. It is probable that Books i.-iv. +were published first, shortly after the death of Claudius +(who is sneered at in i. 15, 6). Books v.-vii. are probably +a later addition. Cf. v. 1, 1, ‘In prioribus libris videbar consummasse +propositum ... Quidquid ultra moror, non servio +materiae, sed indulgeo ... Verum quia ita vis, perseveremus +peractis.’ The eulogy of Demetrius the Cynic in vii. 8-12, +makes it probable that Book vii. at least was written in +Seneca’s last years. +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Apocolocyntosis</i>, a political satire on Claudius, written +shortly after his death in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 54. The explanation of +the title is given by Dio, lx. 35, 2, <span class="greek">Ἀγριππίνα καὶ ὁ +Νέρων ... ἐς τὸν οὐρανὸν ἀνήγαγον ὃν ἐκ τοῦ συμποσίου +φοράδην ἐξενηνόχεσαν. ὅθευπερ Λούκιος Ἰούνιος Γαλλίων ὁ +τοῦ Σενέκα ἀδελφὸς ἀστειότατόν τι ἀπεφθέγξατο· συνέθηκε +μὲν γὰρ καὶ ὁ Σενέκας σύγγραμμα, ἀποκολοκύντωσιν αὐτὸ +ὥσπερ τινὰ ἀπαθανάτισιν ὀνομάσας, ἐκεῖνος δὲ ἐν βραχυτάτῳ +πολλὰ εἰπὼν ἀπομνημονεύεται ... ἔφη τὸν Κλαύδιον ἀγκίστρῳ +ἐς τὸν οὐρανὸν ἀνενεχθῆναι</span>. The work does not bear this +title in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, and there is no hint of the witticism in +the book itself; the St. Gall <span class="bcad">MS.</span>, however, has ‘Divi +Claudii <span class="greek">ΑΠΟΘΗΟΣΙΣ</span> Annei Senecae per Saturam,’ which +may be a corruption of the proper title. The title is +derived from <span class="greek">κολοκύντη</span>, ‘a gourd,’ which was used to +denote a fool. Seneca (<i>Apocol.</i> 6) takes the official view +that Claudius died of a fever. The work may have been +published at the Saturnalia, and written shortly before, as +Narcissus is represented as having just arrived in Orcus. +The personal animosity of Seneca against Caligula and +Claudius is everywhere apparent. +</p> + +<p id="p252"> +5. <i>Naturales Quaestiones</i> in seven Books, addressed to +Lucilius. Book ii. was written after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 57, as in ii. 9, 2 an +amphitheatre is mentioned which was built by Nero in that +year. The work was finished before the end of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 64, for +in Book vii. there is no mention among other prodigies of +the comet which appeared again at the end of that year. +</p> + +<p> +6. <i>Epistulae morales ad Lucilium</i>. These were addressed +to Lucilius Iunior, the author of ‘Aetna’ (see <a href="#p277">p. 277</a>). +There are extant one hundred and twenty four letters, in +twenty Books, but some Books have been lost, as Gell. xii. +2, 3 quotes from Book xxii. Books i.-iii. were probably +published by Seneca, the rest after his death, generally in +chronological order. +</p> + +<p> +The following poetical works are extant: +</p> + +<p> +1. <i>Epigrams.</i>—Nine on his exile are given in the +editions; probably only Nos. 1, 2, and 7 are genuine. +</p> + +<p id="p253"> +2. <i>Tragedies.</i>—Some of these may have been composed +during Seneca’s exile in Corsica. See <i>ad Helv.</i> 20 (quoted +<a href="#p243">p. 243</a>). The metrical treatment is strict, especially in the +senarii. Anapaestic, glyconic, sapphic lines, etc., are used +in the choral odes. There are only three actors, except +in the spurious <i>Octavia</i>. The plays are: (1) <i>Hercules +Furens</i> and (2) <i>Troades</i> or <i>Hecuba</i>, founded on Euripides. +(3) <i>Phoenissae</i> or <i>Thebais</i>. The two parts do not +correspond. In ll. 1-362, Oedipus and Antigone are on +their way to Cithaeron; from l. 363 to the end we find +Iocasta and Antigone in Thebes while it is besieged by +the Seven. (4) <i>Medea</i>, founded on Euripides. Ovid has also +been imitated; so ll. 56 <i>sqq.</i> from Ovid, <i>Heroides</i>, 12, 137. +(5) <i>Phaedra</i> or <i>Hippolytus</i>. (6) <i>Oedipus</i>, after Sophocles. +(7) <i>Agamemnon</i>, after Aeschylus. (8) <i>Thyestes</i>. (9) <i>Hercules +Oetaeus</i>, of which the second part, at least, is spurious. +(10) <i>Octavia</i>, a praetexta, describing the death of Octavia, +Nero’s wife (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 62). Seneca himself appears in it. It +cannot be by Seneca, as Nero’s downfall (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 68) is +mentioned in ll. 628-36. +</p> + +<p> +The following works are lost or exist only in fragments: +</p> + +<p> +i. Poems of a light nature (Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> v. 3). 2. <i>De +motu terrarum</i>, afterwards incorporated in <i>N.Q.</i> vi. (see +<i>N.Q.</i> vi. 4, 2). 3. <i>De lapidum natura</i>. 4. <i>De piscium +natura</i>. 5. <i>De ritu et sacris Aegyptiorum</i> (see <a href="#p242">p. 242</a>). +6. <i>De situ Indiae</i>. 7. <i>De forma mundi</i>. 8. <i>Exhortationes</i>. +9. <i>De officiis</i>. 10. <i>De immatura morte</i>. 11. <i>De superstitione +dialogus</i>. 12. <i>De matrimonio</i>. 13. <i>De amicitia</i>. +14. <i>De vita patris</i>, along with an edition of his works. +15. Speeches by himself or by Nero. 16. <i>Epistulae</i> (a) <i>ad +Novatum</i>, probably written from Corsica, (b) <i>ad Caesonium +Maximum</i>. 17. A book in praise of Messalina, afterwards +withdrawn (see <a href="#p243">p. 243</a>). 18. <i>Moralis philosophiae libri</i> (see +<i>Ep.</i> 106, 2). 19. <i>De remediis fortuitorum</i>, addressed to +Gallio. A synopsis with additions is extant. 20. <i>De +paupertate</i>. 21. <i>De formula honestae vitae</i>, probably founded +on one of Seneca’s works. 22. <i>Notae</i> (see Sueton. pp. +135-6 <span class="sc">R.</span>). +</p> + +<p id="p254"> +The following are spurious works: +</p> + +<p> +1. ‘Epistulae Senecae, Neronis imperatoris magistri, ad +Paulum Apostolum et Pauli Apostoli ad Senecam.’ These +letters, fourteen in all, are accepted as genuine by Jerome, +<i>de vir. illustr.</i> 12. ‘Seneca ... quem non ponerem in +catalogo sanctorum, nisi me epistulae illae provocarent, +quae leguntur a plurimis, Pauli ad Senecam et Senecae +ad Paulum.’ +</p> + +<p> +2. A work extant under the title of <i>Sententiae Rufi</i> has +been wrongly thought to correspond to Seneca’s dying +words mentioned in Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 63. +</p> + +<p> +3. The book <i>De moribus</i> or <i>Monita</i> contains maxims +by Christian writers. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Views and Character.</i>—For Seneca’s training in Stoic +doctrines see <i>Ep.</i> 108, 13 (quoted <a href="#p241">p. 241</a>). With these +views he generally associates himself (cf. <i>Ep.</i> 113, 1; +117, 1), but does not bind himself to one school. +</p> + +<p> +Cf. <i>Ep.</i> 45, 4, ‘Non enim me cuiquam emancipavi, +nullius nomen fero. Multum magnorum virorum iudicio +credo, aliquid et meo vindico.’ +</p> + +<p> +Especially towards the end of his life, he came under +the influence of Demetrius the Cynic. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> 62, 3, ‘Demetrium, virorum optimum, mecum circumfero +et relictis conchyliatis cum illo seminudo loquor, +ilium admiror. Quidni admirer? vidi nihil ei deesse.’ +</p> + +<p id="p255"> +In <i>de provid.</i> 5, 7, after quoting Demetrius’ fatalistic +views, Seneca adds, ‘Fata nos ducunt, et quantum cuique +temporis restat, prima nascentium hora disposuit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Seneca was one of the few Romans who condemned +the butcheries practised in the arena, and his views doubtless +influenced Nero’s conduct in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 58. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> 95, 33, ‘Homo, sacra res homini, iam per lusum +ac iocum occiditur et quem erudiri ad inferenda accipiendaque +volnera nefas erat, is iam nudus inermisque producitur +satisque spectaculi ex homine mors est.’ +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 31, ‘Edixit Caesar ne quis magistratus +aut procurator, qui provinciam obtineret, spectaculum +gladiatorum aut ferarum aut quod aliud ludicrum ederet.’ +</p> + +<p> +For Seneca’s love of wealth see <a href="#p246">p. 246</a>. For his estimate +of riches cf. <i>De vita beata</i>, 22, 5. ‘Apud me divitiae aliquem +locum habent, apud te summum ac postremum. Divitiae +meae sunt, tu divitiarum es.’ +</p> + +<p> +His simplicity of life has been already dealt with. +</p> + +<p> +Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives a most unjust account of Seneca’s +character: +</p> + +<p> +<span class="greek">πάντα τὰ ἐναντιώτατα οἷς ἐφιλοσόφει ποιῶν ἠλέγχθη. καὶ +γὰρ τυραννίδος κατηγορῶν τυραννοδιδάσκαλος ἐγίνετο, καὶ +τῶν συνόντων τοῖς δυνάσταις κατατρέχων οὐκ ἀφίστατο τοῦ +παλατίου ... τοῖς τε πλουσίοις ἐγκαλῶν οὐσίαν ἑπτακισχιλίων +καὶ πεντακοσίων μυριάδων ἐκτήσατο</span>. +</p> + +<p> +Seneca followed no traditional style. Cf. <i>Ep.</i> 100, 6, +‘De compositione non constat’; <i>Ep.</i> 114, 13, ‘Oratio +certam regulam non habet.’ Quintilian, x. 1, 125-131, attacks +his style, though admitting his great powers. +</p> + +<h3 id="p256">CURTIUS RUFUS.</h3> + +<p> +The full name is Q. Curtius Rufus, given in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> +of his work, ‘Historiarum Alexandri Magni Macedonis +Libri x.’, the first two Books of which are lost. Curtius +is not referred to by name by any ancient writer, but is +probably identical with the Q. Curtius Rufus mentioned in +the list prefixed to Sueton. <i>de claris oratoribus</i> between +M. Porcius Latro and L. Valerius Primanus. This order +favours the view that he belonged to the reign of Claudius, +a view supported by the two contemporary references in +Curtius: +</p> + +<p> +iv. 4, 21 (of Tyre), ‘nunc tandem longa pace cuncta +refovente sub tutela Romanae mansuetudinis adquiescit.’ +</p> + +<p> +x. 9, 3-6, ‘Quod imperium sub uno stare potuisset, +dum a pluribus sustinetur, ruit. Proinde iure meritoque +populus Romanus salutem se principi suo debere profitetur, +qui noctis, quam paene supremam habuimus, novum sidus +inluxit. Huius hercule, non solis ortus lucem caliganti +reddidit mundo, cum sine suo capite discordia membra +trepidarent,’ etc. +</p> + +<p> +This passage probably refers to the tumultuous scene +on the night between 24th and 25th Jan., <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 41, before +Claudius’ accession, after the murder of Caligula (cf. the +pun in <i>caliganti</i>), when rival claimants to the throne were +put forward, and the Senate wished to restore the republic +(cf. <i>discordia membra trepidarent</i>). Sen. <i>ad Polyb.</i> 13, 1, +uses similar language of Claudius, ‘Sidus hoc, quod praecipitato +in profundum et demerso in tenebras orbi refulsit, +semper luceat.’ +</p> + +<p> +As Curtius says nothing but good about the reign of +Claudius, he probably wrote shortly after his accession. +The passage in iv. 4, 21 (above) also fits in with this view, +as there was little fighting in the Roman world from 17 to +43 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> His bold tone with regard to rulers would also +suit this time, while it would have been dangerous under +Caligula, or from 43 to 54 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +</p> + +<p id="p257"> +Cf. viii. 5, 6, ‘Non deerat talia concupiscenti perniciosa +adulatio, perpetuum malum regum, quorum opes saepius +adsentatio quam hostis evertit.’ +</p> + +<p> +This tone also renders it impossible to identify him with +Curtius Rufus, mentioned in Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xi. 21, as governor +of Africa, and as ‘adversus superiores tristi adulatione, +adrogans minoribus, inter pares difficilis.’ +</p> + +<p> +Seneca is supposed to have quoted his contemporary +Curtius once or twice. Cf. Sen. <i>Ep.</i> 56, 9, ‘Nihil tam +certum est quam otii vitia negotio discuti’; and Curt. +vii. 1, 4, ‘Satis prudens, otii vitia negotio discuti.’ Cf. +also viii. 10, 29 with Sen. <i>Ep.</i> 59, 12. +</p> + +<p> +Curtius claims to transcribe his authorities carefully. +Cf. ix. 1, 34, ‘Equidem plura transscribo quam credo: +nam nec adfirmare sustineo, de quibus dubito, nec subducere +quae accepi.’ +</p> + +<p> +Curtius’ statements are usually parallel to those of one +or other of the historians of Alexander, but he appeals +only twice to other authorities by name. +</p> + +<p> +ix. 8, 15, ‘Clitarchus (c. 300 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>) est auctor.’ +</p> + +<p> +ix. 5, 21, ‘Ptolemaeum (c. 300 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>), qui postea regnavit, +huic pugnae adfuisse auctor est Clitarchus et Timagenes +(c. 55 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>). Sed ipse ... afuisse se missum in expeditionem +memoriae tradidit.’ +</p> + +<p> +The rhetorical tone of the work is seen in the speeches +and letters. For the latter cf. iv. 1, 10-74. Curtius has +little technical knowledge of war or politics. Thus Alexander’s +assumption of oriental pomp to conciliate the +Asiatics is looked on as <span class="greek">ὕβρις</span>. Cf. iii. 12, 18. Like Livy, +he attempts to depreciate Alexander’s abilities by unduly +accentuating his good fortune. +</p> + +<p id="p258"> +Cf. viii. 3, 1, ‘Sed hanc quoque expeditionem, ut pleraque +alia, fortuna indulgendo ei numquam fatigata pro absente +transegit.’ +</p> + +<h3>COLUMELLA.</h3> + +<p> +L. Iunius Moderatus Columella was a native of Gades: +x. 185, ‘mea [lactuca] quam generant Tartessi littore +Gades.’ On an inscription he is styled ‘trib. mil. leg. vi. +ferratae’ (<i>C.I.L.</i> ix. 325), and it was probably in the course +of his military service that he visited Cilicia and Syria: +ii. 10, 18, ‘hoc semen Ciliciae Syriaeque regionibus ipse +vidi.’ +</p> + +<p> +His uncle, M. Columella, was a leading man in the +province of Baetica (v. 5, 15); and he himself possessed land +in Italy: iii. 9, 2, ‘cum et in Ardeatino agro, quem multis +temporibus ipsi ante possedimus, et in Carseolano itemque +in Albano generis Aminei vites huius modi notae habuerimus.’ +</p> + +<p> +He was a contemporary of the younger Seneca, who is +spoken of as alive (iii. 3, 3). +</p> + +<p> +His chief work is <i>De Re Rustica</i> in twelve Books, dedicated +to P. Silvinus—a practical treatise on husbandry for +‘negotiosi agricolae’ (ix. 2, 5). Book x., on gardening, +is in hexameter verse, and was written at the suggestion +of Silvinus and another friend, to fill the gap which Virgil +had left in the Georgics (iv. 147-8); cf. the preface, ‘Cultus +hortorum ... sicut institueram, prosa oratione prioribus +subnecteretur exordiis, nisi propositum expugnasset frequens +postulatio tua, quae pervicit, ut poeticis numeris explerem +Georgici carminis omissas partes, quas tamen et ipse +Vergilius significaverat, posteris se memorandas relinquere.’ +</p> + +<p id="p259"> +The last two Books were added as an afterthought; +xi. 1, 2, ‘numerum quem iam quasi consummaveram +voluminum excessi.’ +</p> + +<p> +Columella wrote before <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'B.C.'" id="corr2"> +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span></ins> 65 (see above); later than +Celsus, but earlier than the elder Pliny. +</p> + +<p> +There is also extant a book <i>De Arboribus</i>, which formed +Book ii. of an earlier treatise on agriculture: cf. i. 1, ‘Quoniam +de cultu agrorum abunde primo volumine praecepisse +videmur, non intempestiva erit arborum virgultorumque +cura.’ It covers the same ground as <i>De R.R.</i> iii.-v. +</p> + +<p> +Columella also wrote ‘adversus astrologos’ (xi. 1, 31), +and projected a treatise on the religious rites connected +with agriculture (ii. 22, 5, ‘lustrationum ceterorumque sacrificiorum, +quae pro frugibus fiunt, morem priscis +usurpatum’). +</p> + +<h3>POMPONIUS MELA.</h3> + +<p> +The geographer Pomponius Mela was a native of Tingentera in Spain (ii. +96). His date can be inferred from iii. 49; the ‘principum maximus’ +mentioned there as triumphing over Britain might be either +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Claudius'" id="corr3"> +Caligula +</ins> +(in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 40) or +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Caligula'" id="corr4"> +Claudius +</ins> +(in 44); but the earlier date is favoured by Mela’s division of Africa +according to the system abolished by +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Caligula'" id="corr5"> +Claudius +</ins> +in 42 (i. 25-30). The title of his work is <i>De Chorographia</i>, in +three Books: the dryness of its details (i. 1, ‘opus impeditum et +facundiae minime capax’) is relieved by word-painting, <i>e.g.</i> the +description of Britain, iii. 49. The only authors to whom he +acknowledges obligations are Nepos (iii. 45) and Hanno (iii. 90). +</p> + +<h3 id="p260">PERSIUS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +We possess a very full account of the life of Persius, +which, according to the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, is taken from Probus’ commentary +on the poet, and may therefore be looked upon +as trustworthy. According to Probus (from whom are +taken the quotations throughout), he lived from 34 to +62 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>: ‘Aulus Persius Flaccus natus est pridie Non. +Decembr. Fabio Persico L. Vitellio coss., decessit viii. +Kal. Decembr. Rubrio Mario Asinio Gallo coss.’ These +dates are confirmed by Jerome. +</p> + +<p> +He was born at Volaterrae in Etruria, and was the son of +a Roman knight who died when Persius was quite young: +</p> + +<p> +‘Natus in Etruria Volaterris, eques Romanus, sanguine +et affinitate primi ordinis viris coniunctus. Pater eum +Flaccus pupillum reliquit moriens annorum fere sex.’ +</p> + +<p> +‘Fulvia Sisennia (his mother) nupsit postea Fuscio +equiti Romano.’ +</p> + +<p> +After the completion of his early education (for which +see <i>Sat.</i> 3, 44-51) he studied at Rome, where he came +under the influence of the Stoic Annaeus Cornutus: +</p> + +<p> +‘Studuit Flaccus usque ad annum xii. aetatis suae +Volaterris, inde Romae apud grammaticum Remmium +Palaemonem et apud rhetorem Verginium Flavum. Cum +esset annorum xvi., amicitia coepit uti Annaei Cornuti, ita +ut nusquam ab eo discederet; inductus aliquatenus in +philosophiam est.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <i>Sat.</i> 5, 21-24 and 30-51, he speaks in the highest +terms of Cornutus as his guide in life and close friend: +cf. esp. ll. 36-7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘teneros tu suspicis annos,<br /> +Socratico, Cornute, sinu.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p261"> +Among his other friends were Caesius Bassus (to whom +<i>Sat.</i> 6 is addressed), Lucan, Seneca, and his own relative, +Paetus Thrasea: +</p> + +<p> +‘Cognovit per Cornutum etiam Annaeum Lucanum, +aequaevum auditorem Cornuti. Lucanus adeo mirabatur +scripta Flacci ut vix retineret se recitante eo cum clamore +quin illa esse vera poemata diceret, sua ipse ludos faceret. +Sero cognovit et Senecam, sed non ut caperetur eius +ingenio ... Idem decem fere annis summe dilectus a Paeto +Thrasea est, ita ut peregrinaretur quoque cum eo aliquando, +cognatam eius Arriam uxorem habente.’ +</p> + +<p> +Persius was a man of considerable means, as is shown +by his will and his landed property: +</p> + +<p> +‘Reliquit circa HS vicies matri et sorori; scriptis +tamen ad matrem codicillis Cornuto rogavit ut daret sestertia +ut quidam centum, ut alii volunt ..., et argenti facti +pondo viginti, et libros circa septingentos sive bibliothecam +suam omnem. Verum a Cornuto sublatis libris, pecuniam +sororibus, quas heredes frater fecerat, reliquit.’ +</p> + +<p> +‘Decessit ad octavum miliarium via Appia in praediis +suis ... vitio stomachi anno aetatis xxviii.’ +</p> + +<p> +His character was lofty and disinterested: +</p> + +<p> +‘Fuit morum lenissimorum, verecundiae virginalis, formae +pulchrae, pietatis erga matrem et sororem et amitam exemplo +sufficientis. Fuit frugi, pudicus.’ +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. His early works, which Cornutus caused to be +destroyed at his death, were: +</p> + +<p> +(<i>a</i>) A praetexta, called <i>Vescia</i> (?). +</p> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) One Book of <span class="greek">ὁδοιπορικά</span>, no doubt referring to his +travels with Thrasea. +</p> + +<p id="p262"> +(<i>c</i>) Some verses on Arria, the wife of Paetus. +</p> + +<p> +‘Scripserat in pueritia Flaccus etiam praetextam Vesciam, +et <span class="greek">ὁδοιπορικῶν</span> librum unum, et paucos in socrum Thraseae +in Arriam matrem versus ... Omnia ea auctor fuit +Cornutus matri eius ut aboleret.’ +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Satires.</i> There are six of these (in hexameters), with +a prologue (in scazons). Persius wrote slowly, and the +Book was left unfinished: +</p> + +<p> +‘Et raro et tarde scripsit. Hunc ipsum librum imperfectum +reliquit. Versus aliqui dempti sunt ultimo libro, +ut quasi finitus esset. Leviter retractavit Cornutus, et +Caesio Basso petenti, ut ipsi cederet, tradidit edendum.’ +</p> + +<p> +The prologue, and the first satire (on literary criticism)—the only real satire he wrote—are said to be imitated +from Lucilius. The other five are largely Stoic dissertations +in verse, and show throughout the influence of Cornutus +and Persius’ other Stoic friends. Probus says he attacked +Nero’s poetry in <i>Sat.</i> 1. +</p> + +<p> +‘Lecto Lucilii libro x. vehementer satiras componere +instituit, cuius libri principium imitatus est ... cum tanta +recentium poetarum et oratorum insectatione, ut etiam +Neronem ... culpaverit, cuius versus in Neronem cum ita +se haberet: +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Auriculas asini Mida rex habet,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +in eum modum a Cornuto, ipso iam tum mortuo, est +emendatus: +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Auriculas asini quis non habet?’ [1, 121] +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +ne hoc Nero in se dictum arbitraretur.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Sat.</i> 1, 99-102 is said to be a travesty of Nero’s poetry. +</p> + +<p> +Very few passages, however, are quoted by the Scholiasts +as modelled on Lucilius. +</p> + +<p id="p263"> +Persius refers to Lucilius and Horace in 1, 114-8: +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Secuit Lucilius urbem,<br /> +te, Lupe, te, Muci, et genuinum fregit in illis;<br /> +omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico<br /> +tangit, et admissus circum praecordia ludit,<br /> +callidus excusso populum suspendere naso.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +His obligations to Horace are paramount, imitations—often unintentional burlesques—occurring everywhere. Examples +are: 1, 42, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘cedro digna locutus,<br /> +linquere nec scombros metuentia carmina nec tus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +from Hor. <i>A.P.</i> 331, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘carmina ... linenda cedro’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +and Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 269, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Deferar in vicum vendentem tus et odores<br /> +et piper et quidquid chartis amicitur + <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: quote mark added" id="corrp263">ineptis.’</ins> +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Again, 5, 103, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘exclamet Melicerta perisse<br /> +frontem de rebus’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +from Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 80, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘clament periise pudorem<br /> +cuncti paene patres.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He even borrows Horace’s names: Pedius (1, 85), Natta +(3, 31), Nerius (2, 14), Craterus (3, 65), Bestius (6, 37). +</p> + +<p> +The statement of Joannes Lydus (i. 41) that Persius +imitated the mimic writer, Sophron, has little to support it. +</p> + +<p> +Probus says the work became immediately popular: +‘Editum librum continuo mirari homines et diripere +coeperunt.’ +</p> + +<p id="p264"> +Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 94, ‘multum et verae gloriae quamvis +uno libro Persius meruit’; Mart. iv. 29, 7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno<br /> +quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<h3>LUCAN.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +Besides references to Lucan in other writers, especially +Statius, Martial, and Tacitus, we have three biographies of +him: (1) a short and defective life, probably by Suetonius, +and showing his well-known hatred of the Annaei; (2) one +by Vacca, a commentator on Lucan, who lived probably +in the sixth century, complete and favourable; (3) one in +Codex Vossianus ii. The last two are in part derived +from the first. +</p> + +<p> +M. Annaeus Lucanus was born at Corduba in Hispania +Baetica, and was the son of M. Annaeus Mela, a Roman +knight, and nephew of M. Annaeus Novatus (the Gallio +of Acts 18, 12-17) and L. Annaeus Seneca the philosopher. +</p> + +<p> +Vacca, <i>vit. Luc.</i>, ‘M. Annaeus Lucanus patrem habuit +M. Annaeum Melam ex provincia Baetica Hispaniae interioris +Cordubensem equitem Romanum, illustrem inter suos, +notum Romae et propter Senecam fratrem, clarum per +omnes virtutes virum, et propter studium vitae quietioris ... +Matrem habuit et regionis eiusdem et urbis Aciliam +nomine, Acilii Lucani filiam ... cuius cognomen huic +inditum apparet.’ +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xvi. 17, ‘Mela, quibus Gallio et Seneca, +parentibus natus ... Idem Annaeum Lucanum genuerat, +grande adiumentum claritudinis.’ +</p> + +<p id="p265"> +Lucan was born Nov. 3, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 39, and was removed to +Rome when eight months old. +</p> + +<p> +Vacca, <i>ibid.</i>, ‘Natus est iii. Non. Novembr. C. Caesare +Germanico ii. L. Apronio Caesiano coss. Octavum mensem +agens Romam translatus est.’ +</p> + +<p> +He had a successful school and college career. One of +his teachers was Cornutus, through whom he knew Persius +(see <a href="#p261">p. 261</a>). +</p> + +<p> +Vacca, <i>ibid.</i>, ‘A praeceptoribus tunc eminentissimis est +eruditus eosque intra breve temporis spatium ingenio +adaequavit ... Declamavit et graece et latine cum magna +admiratione audientium.’ +</p> + +<p> +His first literary success was the <i>laudes Neronis</i> in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +60; this led to his political advancement. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>vit. Luc.</i>, ‘Prima ingenii experimenta in Neronis +laudibus dedit quinquennali certamine.’ +</p> + +<p> +Vacca, <i>ibid.</i>, ‘Ob quod puerili mutato in senatorium +cultum et in notitiam Caesaris Neronis facile pervenit et +honore vixdum aetati debito dignus iudicatus est. Gessit +autem quaesturam, in qua cum collegis more tunc usitato +munus gladiatorium edidit secundo populi favore; sacerdotium +etiam accepit auguratus.’ +</p> + +<p> +Similarly Suetonius, who also tells us that Lucan had +been in Athens. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>ibid.</i>, ‘Revocatus Athenis a Nerone cohortique +amicorum additus atque etiam quaestura honoratus, non +tamen permansit in gratia.’ +</p> + +<p> +The reason of the strained relations between Lucan and +the emperor was, according to Suetonius, that Lucan had +behaved rudely when reciting in public. Vacca says the +reason lay in the jealousy felt by Nero, who forbade Lucan +to write poetry or to plead causes. +</p> + +<p id="p266"> +Vacca, <i>ibid.</i>, ‘Quippe et certamine pentaeterico acto in +Pompei theatro laudibus recitatis in Neronem fuerat coronatus +et ex tempore Orphea scriptum in experimentum +adversum conplures ediderat poetas et tres libros, quales +videmus. Quare inimicum sibi fecerat imperatorem. Quo +ambitiosa vanitate, non hominum tantum, sed et artium +sibi principatum vindicante interdictum est ei poetica, +interdictum est etiam causarum actionibus.’ +</p> + +<p> +Cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 49, ‘Famam carminum eius premebat +Nero prohibueratque ostentare, vanus adsimulatione.’ +</p> + +<p> +Lucan replied by a poem satirizing Nero and his court. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>ibid.</i>, ‘Sed et famoso carmine cum ipsum tum +potentissimos amicorum gravissime proscidit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Lucan joined the conspiracy of Piso which was started +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 62, but was discovered, and compelled to commit +suicide, 30th April, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 65. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>ibid.</i>, ‘Paene signifer Pisonianae coniurationis +extitit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Vacca, <i>ibid.</i>, ‘A coniuratis in caedem Neronis socius +adsumptus est, sed parum fauste. Deceptus est a Pisone ... +Sua sponte coactus vita excedere venas sibi praecidit +periitque pridie Kal. Maias Attico Vestino et Nerva Siliano +coss., xxvi. aetatis annum agens.’ +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 70, ‘Exin Annaei Lucani caedem imperat. +Is, profluente sanguine, ubi frigescere pedes manusque et +paulatim ab extremis cedere spiritum fervido adhuc et +compote mentis pectore intellegit, recordatus carmen a se +compositum, quo volneratum militem per eius modi mortis +imaginem obisse tradiderat, versus ipsos rettulit, eaque illi +suprema vox fuit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Suetonius (corroborated by Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 56) says that +Lucan named his mother as a fellow-conspirator. +</p> + +<p id="p267"> +‘Verum detecta coniuratione nequaquam parem animi +constantiam praestitit. Facile enim confessus et ad humillimas +devolutus preces matrem quoque innoxiam inter +socios nominavit, sperans impietatem sibi apud parricidam +principem profuturam.... Epulatus largiter brachia ad +secandas venas praebuit medico.’ +</p> + +<p> +Lucan married Polla Argentaria. Statius and Martial +were her friends, and seem to have kept up an observance +of Lucan’s birthday. +</p> + +<p> +Cf. especially Statius, <i>Silvae</i>, ii. 7, on which the author, +in his preface to the book, says, ‘Cludit volumen genethliacon +Lucani, quod Polla Argentaria, clarissima uxorum, +cum hunc diem forte consecraremus, imputari sibi +voluit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Martial vii. 21, 22, and 23 are written on the subject of +Lucan’s birthday. +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. The only extant work of Lucan is <i>De Bello Civili.</i> +This is the title in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, and in Petron. 118. The +usual title comes from ix. 985, ‘Pharsalia nostra vivet,’ +words which come after a list of places in Greece and Asia +immortalized by the poets, and which mean ‘My story of +Pharsalus shall live.’ There is no evidence that Lucan +gave the poem this title. +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>Lost works.</i> Vacca mentions the following: +</p> + +<p> +(<i>a</i>) In verse: Orpheus; Iliacon; Saturnalia; Catachthonion; +Silvarum x.; tragoedia Medea (imperfecta): +Salticae Fabulae, xiv.; epigrammata. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) In prose: Oratio in Octavium Sagittam et pro eo; +de incendio urbis; epistulae ex Campania. +</p> + +<p> +Suetonius also mentions ‘Neronis laudes; famosum +carmen in Neronem.’ Stat. <i>Silv.</i> ii. 7, 62, mentions another +work—‘allocutio ad Pollam’ (his wife). +</p> + +<p id="p268"> +Lucan’s works became immediately popular. +</p> + +<p> +Sueton. <i>ibid.</i>, ‘Poemata eius etiam praelegi memini, +confici vero ac proponi, non tantum operose et diligenter, +sed et inepte quoque.’ +</p> + +<p> +Mart. xiv. 194, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sunt quidam qui me dicunt non esse poetam:<br /> +sed qui me vendit bibliopola putat.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The epic poem <i>De Bello Civili</i> in ten Books (the last +incomplete) carries the story of the Civil War down to the +point where Caesar is besieged in Alexandria. Vacca informs +us that Lucan did not live to correct the last seven +Books. +</p> + +<p> +‘Ediderat ... tres libros quales videmus ... Reliqui vii. +belli civilis libri locum calumniantibus tamquam mendosi +non darent, qui tametsi sub vero crimine non egent patrocinio: +in isdem dici, quod in Ovidii libris praescribitur, +potest: “emendaturus, si licuisset, erat.”’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Lucan’s political views.</i>—The first three Books were +published when Lucan was still on good terms with Nero +(cf. the gross flattery in i. 33-66), but practically the same +view of the empire is taken throughout the poem; only Lucan +expresses his views with greater vigour in the last seven +Books; and, while in Books i.-iii. the question is one +between Caesar and Pompey, afterwards it is one between +Caesar and liberty. Even in Books i.-iii. Caesar is the +villain of the piece; Pompey embodies all that is good; +Cato and Brutus are highly spoken of; the former stands as +the ideal Stoic. The Senate, except in Book v. <i>ad init.</i>, +appears in a rather unfavourable light, and so does the +plebs. Lucan did not want the re-establishment of the +republican oligarchy, but acquiesced in the empire as being +ordained by fate. This is borne out by what we know of +the Pisonian conspiracy, the object of which was not to +re-establish the republic, but to put some leading man like +Seneca on the throne. A few quotations will exemplify +these points: +</p> + +<p id="p269"> +(1) The empire; iv. 691, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Libyamque auferre tyranno<br /> +dum regnum te, Roma, facit’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +vii. 432, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quod fugiens civile nefas redituraque nunquam<br /> +libertas ultra Tigrim Rhenumque recessit’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +vii. 442, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Felices Arabes Medique eoaque tellus,<br /> +quam sub perpetuis tenuerunt fata tyrannis.<br /> +Ex populis qui regna ferunt, sors ultima nostra est,<br /> +quos servire pudet.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(2) Pompeius; ii. 732-6, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Non quia te superi patrio privare sepulchro<br /> +maluerint, Phariae busto damnantur harenae:<br /> +parcitur Hesperiae; procul hoc et in orbe remoto<br /> +abscondat fortuna nefas, Romanaque tellus<br /> +inmaculata sui servetur sanguine Magni.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. ix. 601-4 (where apotheosis is assigned him). +</p> + +<p> +(3) Cato (the hero of Book ix.) and Brutus; ii. 234, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘At non magnanimi percussit pectora Bruti<br /> +terror’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +ix. 554, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nam cui crediderim superos arcana daturos<br /> +dicturosque magis quam sancto vera Catoni?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. ix. 186-9. +</p> + +<p id="p270"> +(4) Caesar; ii. 439, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Caesar in arma furens nullas nisi sanguine fuso<br /> +gaudet habere vias’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +v. 242, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘perdere successus scelerum’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +vii. 593, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘nondum attigit arcem<br /> +iuris et humanum columen, quo cuncta premuntur,<br /> +egressus meruit fatis tam nobile letum.<br /> +Vivat et, ut Bruti procumbat victima, regnet.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Caesar’s acts are sometimes unfairly represented, as in +vii. 798 <i>sqq.</i>, ix. 1035 <i>sqq.</i> (on viewing Pompeius’ corpse); +ll. 1038-9, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘lacrimas non sponte cadentis<br /> +effudit gemitusque expressit pectore laeto.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Lucan’s philosophical and religious views.</i>—His Stoicism +comes out strongly in the poem, ix. 566-84 (speech of Cato), +especially 578-80, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Estque dei sedes, nisi terra et pontus et aër<br /> +et caelum et virtus? Superos quid quaerimus ultra?<br /> +Iuppiter est, quodcumque vides, quodcumque moveris?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +vii. 814, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Communis mundo superest rogus ossibus astra<br /> +mixturus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Note especially the very frequent references to fate; i. 263-4, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘cunctasque pudoris<br /> +rumpunt fata moras.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The gods are not introduced as chief agents; cf. the +censure of Petronius quoted below. Lucan prides himself +on despising the gods, and substitutes for them his favourite +divinity, Fortuna; i. 128, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p271"> +<p> +‘Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +vii. 445, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Sunt nobis nulla profecto<br /> +numina; cum caeco rapiantur saecula casu,<br /> +mentimur regnare Iovem.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Rhetorical treatment</i> is seen in (1) the vast amount of +hyperbole employed; cf. the account of the siege of +Massilia, iii. 538-762; (2) the geographical and mythological +learning introduced. This is sometimes inaccurate; +the best known instance is his confusion of Pharsalus and +Philippi; cf. i. 1 and 688. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Lucan’s models.</i>—(1) For diction, chiefly Virgil.<a href="#fn077" id="ref077">[77]</a> Horace +and Ovid are also imitated. +</p> + +<p> +(2) For history Lucan is supposed to have used Livy +mostly. How far he used other authorities is unknown. +His history is sometimes inexact. In ii. 478 <i>sqq.</i> the +character of L. Domitius Ahenobarbus is falsely portrayed. +So the journey of Cato to the shrine of Hammon, ix. 511 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +(3) Seneca is one of his authorities for science and philosophy. +Thus in describing the Nile, x. 194-331, Lucan +has used Seneca, <i>Nat. Quaest.</i> iv. 1-2. The biographer of +the <i>Codex Vossianus</i> ii. attributes (probably wrongly) the +first seven verses of Book i. to Seneca. +</p> + +<p> +‘Seneca, qui fuit avonculus eius, quia ex abrupto incohabat, +hos vii. versus addidit: “Bella per Emathios” usque “et +pila minantia pilis.”’ +</p> + +<p id="p272"> +<i>Criticisms of Lucan.</i>—Petronius, in introducing his parody +of Lucan, says, § 118, ‘Ecce belli civilis ingens opus quisquis +attigerit, nisi plenus litteris, sub onere labetur. Non +enim res gestae versibus comprehendendae sunt, quod longe +melius historici faciunt, sed per ambages deorumque ministeria +et fabulosum sententiarum tormentum praecipitandus +est liber spiritus.’ See <a href="#p275">p. 275</a>. +</p> + +<p> +Quint. x. 1, 90, ‘Lucanus ardens et concitatus et sententiis +clarissimus et, ut dicam quod sentio, magis oratoribus quam +poetis imitandus.’ +</p> + +<h3>PETRONIUS.</h3> + +<p> +The <i>Satirae</i> of Petronius are attributed in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> to +Petronius Arbiter. It is practically certain that the author +was C. Petronius, once proconsul of Bithynia and afterwards +consul, who was long a member of Nero’s inner +circle, and who, in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 66, when accused by Tigellinus, +anticipated execution by suicide. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xvi. 18, ‘Proconsul Bithyniae, et mox consul, +vigentem se ac parem negotiis ostendit. Dein revolutus +ad vitia, seu vitiorum imitatione, inter paucos familiarium +Neroni adsumptus est, elegantiae arbiter, dum nihil +amoenum et molle adfluentia putat, nisi quod ei Petronius +adprobavisset. Unde invidia Tigellini ... (Ch. 19) Forte ... +Campaniam petiverat Caesar, et Cumas usque progressus +Petronius illic attinebatur. Nec tulit ultra timoris aut spei +moras. Neque tamen praeceps vitam expulit, sed incisas +venas, ut libitum, obligatas aperire rursum, et adloqui +amicos, non per seria aut quibus gloriam constantiae +peteret ... Flagitia principis sub nominibus exoletorum +feminarumque et novitatem cuiusque stupri perscripsit, +atque obsignata misit Neroni.’ +</p> + +<p id="p273"> +The document mentioned above as sent to Nero has +nothing to do with the extant <i>Satirae</i>. That C. Petronius +is the author of the work is rendered even more certain +from the fact that it was obviously written in Nero’s time by +a man of high culture and knowledge of the world. +</p> + +<p> +The novel contains an account of the adventures of a +certain Encolpius, as told by himself. Encolpius comes in +contact with Priapus in Massilia, Cumae, and Croton; and +probably the wrath of Priapus (a parody of the wrath of +Poseidon in the Odyssey) is the leading motive that binds +the disjointed parts. Cf. ch. 139, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Me quoque per terras, per cani Nereos aequor<br /> +Hellespontiaci sequitur gravis ira Priapi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The work, the extant parts of which are from Books xv. +and xvi., is in form a Satira Menippea,<a href="#fn078" id="ref078">[78]</a> alternately prose +and verse. The longer episodes, as the supper of Trimalchio +and the story of the matron of Ephesus, are exclusively +prose. In the <i>Cena Trimalchionis</i>, where Encolpius and his +company are entertained by a rich freedman, Petronius has +given us a correct account of provincial life in South Italy. +Mommsen (<i>Hermes</i>, xiii. 106) has shown that Cumae was +the town where Trimalchio lived. It is a ‘Graeca urbs’ +(ch. 81), and a Roman colony (ch. 44, etc.), so that it +cannot be Naples. The chief magistrates are called +<i>praetores</i> (ch. 65), which suits Cumae alone of the towns +of this district. The only objection to Cumae being the +place is the passage in ch. 48, where an event at Cumae +is given as something wonderful and unusual: +</p> + +<p> +‘Nam Sibyllam quidem Cumis ego ipse oculis meis vidi +in ampulla pendere, et cum illi pueri dicerent: <span class="greek">Σίβυλλα, +τί θέλεις;</span> respondebat illa: <span class="greek">ἀποθανεῖν θέλω</span>.’ +</p> + +<p id="p274"> +This, however, may simply be given for comic effect. +Friedländer thinks <i>Cumis</i> is a wrong reading. The date +of Encolpius’ adventures cannot be under Tiberius, for the +emperor is called ‘pater patriae’ (ch. 60), a title which +Tiberius refused. Mommsen thinks the dramatic date is +under Augustus; Friedländer,<a href="#fn079" id="ref079">[79]</a> towards the end of Claudius’ +or the beginning of Nero’s reign. The cognomen of Trimalchio, +Maecenatianus (ch. 71), means that he was a freedman +of the well-known Maecenas. Trimalchio, therefore, came +to Rome as a boy (ch. 29; 75) before Maecenas’ death +(<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 8), and was probably born about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 18. He is +represented as ‘senex’ (ch. 27), <i>i.e.</i> at least sixty, but may +have been over seventy. <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 57 is probably the later limit +of date. Mommsen thinks that the words (ch. 57), ‘puer +capillatus in hanc coloniam veni: adhuc basilica non erat +facta,’ mean that when Trimalchio came to Cumae it was +not a Roman colony. Now, Cumae became a colony +between 43 and 27 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>, and, on this supposition, the +supper of Trimalchio would have to be placed between +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 7 and <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 23, as it is about fifty years since Trimalchio +came to Cumae. Friedländer, however, thinks that the +basilica would not have been put up immediately the town +became a colony. +</p> + +<p> +The language of the narrative is that of the educated +classes of the time, and is in close agreement with the style +of Seneca the younger. The diction of Trimalchio and his +fellow-freedman is the South Italian popular speech of the +time, filled with grammatical mistakes and provincialisms, +and rich in proverbial expressions. The longest poems in +the work are: (1) <i>Troiae halosis</i> (ch. 89), 65 senarii, +supposed to be a parody of Nero’s poem of the same name; +(2) <i>De bello civili</i> (ch. 119-124), 295 hexameters, in which +Lucan’s style is imitated and sometimes parodied. Cf. +ll. 26-7, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p275"> +<p> +‘Et laxi crines et tot nova nomina vestis,<br /> +quaeque virum quaerunt,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +with Lucan, i. 164-5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Cultus gestare decoros<br /> +vix nuribus rapuere mares’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +and ll. 51-2, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Praeterea gemino deprensam gurgite plebem<br /> +faenoris illuvies ususque exederat aeris,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +with Lucan, i. 181, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Hinc usura vorax, avidumque in tempora faenus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<h3>CALPURNIUS SICULUS.</h3> + +<p> +Eleven eclogues used to be attributed to T. Calpurnius +Siculus, but only the first seven are his work, the last four +being written by M. Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus in the +second half of the 3rd century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> A <span class="bcad">MS.</span> now lost gave +before <i>Ecl.</i> 1, ‘Titi Calphurnii Siculi bucolicum carmen ... +incipit’; and before <i>Ecl.</i> 8, ‘Aurelii Nemesiani poetae +Carthaginiensis ecloga prima incipit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Some information about Calpurnius’ life is got from his +works. In 4, 17-8, he (as Corydon) mentions a brother; +in 4, 155-6, he speaks of his poverty; and in 4, 29 <i>sqq.</i>, of +Meliboeus as having come to his assistance when about to +leave for Spain; cf. <i>Ecl.</i> 4, 36-42, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p276"> +<p> +Ecce nihil querulum per te, Meliboee, sonamus;<br /> +per te secura saturi recubamus in umbra,<br /> +et fruimur silvis Amaryllidos, ultima nuper<br /> +litora terrarum, nisi tu, Meliboee, fuisses,<br /> +ultima visuri, trucibusque obnoxia Mauris +pascua Geryonis. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The old theory was that Calpurnius lived in the time of +Carus and his sons (in the second half of the 3rd century +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span>), but the facts fit in best with the view that he lived at +the beginning of Nero’s reign. (1) Meliboeus in <i>Ecl.</i> 4 +probably stands for Seneca (others suppose Calpurnius +Piso to be meant); 4, 53-7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +Nam tibi non tantum venturos discere nimbos<br /> +agricolis qualemque ferat sol aureus ortum,<br /> +attribuere dei, sed dulcia carmina saepe<br /> +concinis. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +These lines agree with the fact of Seneca’s being the author +of <i>Naturales Quaestiones</i> and of tragedies. (2) <i>Ecl.</i> i. 77-83 +refers to the comet which appeared at the beginning of +Nero’s reign. (3) References to Nero’s youth and beauty, +poetical gifts, the games he gave, and the new era of peace +he introduced; 1, 42-5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +Aurea secura cum pace renascitur aetas,<br /> +et redit ad terras tandem squalore situque<br /> +alma Themis posito, iuvenemque beata secuntur<br /> +saecula, maternis causam qui vicit in ulnis +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +7, 6, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +quae patula iuvenis deus edit harena. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. also 1, 84-8; 4, 84-9; 7, 83-4. <i>Ecl.</i> 7 used to be taken +as referring to the Colosseum, which was not commenced +till about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 77; but the games may be those mentioned +in Sueton. <i>Nero</i>, 11, and the wooden amphitheatre in 7, +23-4, may be that mentioned by Sueton. <i>Nero</i>, 12, and Tac. +<i>Ann.</i> xiii. 31. +</p> + +<p id="p277"> +The difference of authorship of <i>Ecl.</i> 1-7 and of <i>Ecl.</i> 8-11 +is shown by the following: (1) Final <i>ŏ</i> +shows classical usage +in 1-7, but in 8-11 we have <i>expectŏ</i> (9, 26), <i>coniungŏ</i> (10, 14), +<i>ambŏ</i> (9, 17), and the like; (2) 1-7 show only eight elisions, +7-11 show thirty-nine; (3) no ending like <i>montivagus Pan</i> +(10, 17) is found in 1-7; (4) <i>fateor</i> and <i>memini</i> used parenthetically +are common in 1-7, and not found in 8-11; (5) +there are no allusions to the emperor in 8-11; (6) <i>Ecl.</i> 9 +shows imitations of <i>Ecl.</i> 2 and 3; (7) 8-11 agree in many +points with Nemesianus’ <i>Cynegetica</i>. +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Eclogues</i> are modelled chiefly on Virgil and Theocritus, +<i>e.g.</i> <i>Ecl.</i> 3 on Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> 7 and Theocr. 3, 14, +and 23. +</p> + +<p> +The poem <i>de laude Pisonis</i> is now generally attributed to +Calpurnius Siculus. One point of similarity with Calpurnius’ +other poems is the rareness of elision, there being only two +instances (ll. 24, 259). The description of Piso’s liberality +and eloquence (ll. 32, 88, 97 <i>sqq.</i>) and of his skill in +draughts (ll. 178-96) corresponds with the information +given by Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 48 and the Schol. on Iuv. 5, 109, +about Calpurnius Piso, who flourished under Claudius. +</p> + +<h3>AETNA.</h3> + +<p> +This poem, in 645 hexameter lines, is attributed to +Virgil in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, but is probably by Lucilius Iunior, +to whom Seneca addresses his <i>Epistulae Morales</i>, <i>De +Providentia</i>, and <i>Quaestiones Naturales</i>. Lucilius was +younger than Seneca (Sen. <i>Ep.</i> 26, 7, ‘iuvenior es’), and +was born at Naples or Pompeii. +</p> + +<p id="p278"> +Sen. <i>Ep.</i> 49, 1, ‘Ecce Campania et maxime Neapolis +ad Pompeiorum tuorum conspectum incredibile est quam +recens desiderium tui fecerint.’ +</p> + +<p> +Lucilius had held procuratorial offices in Alpes Graiae +et Poeninae, Epirus, Creta et Cyrene, and Sicily. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ibid.</i> 44, 2, ‘Eques Romanus es et ad hunc ordinem +tua te perduxit industria.’ <i>Ibid.</i> 31, 9, ‘Quo modo, +inquis, isto pervenitur? Non per Poeninum Graiumve +montem, nec per deserta Candaviae, nec Syrtes tibi nec +Scylla aut Charybdis adeundae sunt, quae tamen omnia +transisti procuratiunculae pretio.’<a href="#fn080" id="ref080">[80]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Sen. <i>N.Q.</i> iv. praef. 1, ‘Delectat te, Lucili, Sicilia et +officium procurationis otiosae.’ +</p> + +<p> +For his life cf. also the words put into his mouth by +Sen. <i>N.Q.</i> iv. praef. 15-17, which show his loyalty to his +friends, ‘Non mihi in amicitia Gaetulici (died <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 39) vel +Gaius fidem eripuit, non in aliorum persona infeliciter +amatorum Messalla et Narcissus ... propositum meum +avertere potuerunt.... videbam apud Gaium tormenta, videbam +ignes.’<a href="#fn081" id="ref081">[81]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Seneca speaks of him as a pupil in philosophy in <i>Ep.</i> +34, 2, ‘Adsero te mihi: meum opus es.’ +</p> + +<p> +A literary work of his is spoken of by Seneca, also a +poem in which he mentions Alpheus and Arethusa: +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> 46, 1, ‘Librum tuum, quem mihi promiseras, accepi. +Levis mihi visus est, cum esset nec mei nec tui corporis, +sed qui primo adspectu aut T. Livi aut Epicuri posset +videri.... Non tantum delectatus, sed gavisus sum.’ +</p> + +<p id="p279"> +<i>N.Q.</i> iii. 26, 6, ‘Hoc et a te traditum est ut in +poemate, Lucili carissime, et a Vergilio, qui adloquitur +Arethusam.’ +</p> + +<p> +A poem on Aetna is referred to in <i>Ep.</i> 79, 5-7, ‘Donec +pudor obstet, ne Aetnam describas in tuo carmine et hunc +sollemnem omnibus poetis locum adtingas; quem quo +minus Ovidius tractaret, nihil obstitit, quod iam Vergilius +impleverat ... Aut ego te non novi aut Aetna tibi salivam +movet: iam cupis grande aliquid et par prioribus scribere.’ +</p> + +<p> +Some authorities think that Lucilius had meant to +incorporate this description in a larger poem, but changed +his mind, and wrote a poem on Aetna alone. +</p> + +<p> +As regards the date of the poem: (1) It was written +at a time when imitation of Ovid was common. Cf. Sen. +<i>N.Q.</i> iv. 2, 2, ‘Quare non cum poeta meo iocor et illi +Ovidium suum impingo?’ (2) There is no mention of +Vesuvius in the list of volcanoes in 1. 425 <i>sqq.</i> The +poem must therefore have been written before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79. +</p> + +<p> +The following are the arguments for Lucilius having +been the author: +</p> + +<p> +(1) The poem was written by one who knew Aetna +and the vicinity. Now Lucilius was long procurator of +Sicily. +</p> + +<p> +(2) Military metaphors, as ll. 464-74, would fit in +with his having been a soldier. +</p> + +<p> +(3) The author speaks as if he knew the neighbourhood +of Naples well. +</p> + +<p> +(4) However, the argument that the writer shows +Epicurean views, and that Lucilius was an Epicurean, +has little weight. (<i>a</i>) There are Stoical doctrines in the +poem. Cf. ll. 33-5, 68-70, on the divinity of the stars; +ll. 173-4, which maintain that the world would come +back to its former state; ll. 536-9, where Heraclitus’ +doctrine of fire is recommended. (<i>b</i>) The <i>Epistulae +Morales</i> only show that Lucilius had a leaning to +Epicureanism, not that he was an Epicurean. +Cf. <i>Ep.</i> 23, 9, ‘Vocem tibi Epicuri tui reddere,’ +and other playful references. +</p> + +<p id="p280"> +(5) The views on natural science given in the poem +are sometimes the same as those in Sen. <i>N.Q.</i> This +would fix the date of the poem between 65 and 79 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +Cf. <i>Aetna</i>, 123, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Flumina quin etiam latis currentia rivis<br /> + occasus habuere suos: aut illa vorago<br /> + derepta in praeceps fatali condidit ore<br /> + aut occulta fluunt tectis adoperta cavernis<br /> + atque inopinatos referunt procul edita cursus’; +</p> +</blockquote> +<p> +and Sen. <i>N.Q.</i> iii. 26, 3, ‘Quaedam flumina palam in +aliquem specum decidunt et sic ex oculis auferuntur, +quaedam consumuntur paulatim et intercidunt. Eadem +ex intervallo revertuntur recipiuntque et nomen et cursum.’ +Cf. also <i>Aetna</i>, 96, +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Defit namque omnis hiatu,<br /> + secta est omnis humus penitusque cavata latebris<br /> + exiles suspensa vias agit’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +and Sen. <i>N.Q.</i> v. 14, 1, ‘Non tota solido contextu terra +in imum usque fundatur, sed multis partibus cava et +caecis suspensa latebris.’ So the story of the Catanian +brothers (ll. 624-45) is told by Sen. <i>De Benef.</i> iii. 37, 2-3. +</p> + +<p> +Imitations of Lucretius abound. Cf. ll. 219 <i>sqq.</i>, +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Nunc quoniam in promptu est operis natura solique,<br /> + unde ipsi venti, quae res incendia pascit,’ etc. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p281"> +For the author’s attacks on superstition, cf. ll. 91-3, +</p> +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Debita carminibus libertas ista; sed omnis<br /> + in vero mihi cura: canam quo fervida motu<br /> + aestuet Aetna novosque rapax sibi congerat ignes.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +A version of the <i>Phaenomena</i> of Aratus is extant, the +author of which is called in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> ‘Claudius Caesar,’ +or ‘Germanicus.’ He is generally identified with +Germanicus, the adopted son of Tiberius (so Jerome and +Lactantius), though in modern times the poem has been +ascribed to Domitian, who had the title of ‘Germanicus’ +from <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 84. There are also fragments of <i>Prognostica</i>, +which are independent of Aratus. +</p> + +<h3>PLINY THE ELDER.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +There is a very brief life of Pliny by Suetonius, but most +of our information about him is derived from his own writings +and the letters of his nephew (Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 5; +v. 8; vi. 16; vi. 20). +</p> + +<p> +C. Plinius Secundus was born <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 23 or 24, for at the +time of his death in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79 he was in his fifty-sixth year +(Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 5, 7, ‘decessisse anno sexto et +quinquagesimo’). His birthplace was Comum in Cisalpine Gaul, +according to Sueton. <i>vit. Plin.</i> In an anonymous Life +he is styled ‘Veronensis,’ probably on account of the phrase +in <i>N.H.</i> praef. 1, ‘Catullum conterraneum meum,’ where, +however, <i>terra</i> means Gallia, the province, not the city.</p> + +<p> +Pliny was the son of an <i>eques</i>, and had a sister +married to L. Caecilius of Novum Comum (see <a href="#p139">p. 139</a>). +He came to Rome not later than <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 35 (<i>N.H.</i> +xxxvii. 81, ‘Servilii Noniani quem consulem vidimus’), +and was trained in poetry and literature, probably by +P. Pomponius Secundus<a href="#fn082" id="ref082">[82]</a>; his instructors in rhetoric +are not known, but he mentions as rhetoricians Remmius +Palaemon (xiv. 49) and Arellius Fuscus (xxxiii. 152). In +botany he learned much from Antonius Castor (xxv. 9). +</p> + +<p id="p282"> +At the beginning of the reign of Claudius, Pliny was an +eye-witness of the building operations at the harbour of +Ostia, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 42 (ix. 14): in 44 he practised in the law +courts. Having decided on a military career, he would +begin, according to the regulation of Claudius (Sueton. +<i>Claud.</i> 25), with the command of a cohort of infantry. +He was next <i>praefectus alae</i> (Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 5, 3) under +Corbulo, who was <i>legatus</i> of Germania Inferior, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 47, +in his campaign against the Chauci: cf. <i>N.H.</i> xvi. 2, ‘Sunt +vero in septemtrione visae nobis Chaucorum [gentes]’; +and in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 50 fought under Pomponius against the Chatti. +His ‘castrense contubernium’ with Titus (born <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 41) +was probably in 55 or 56, when he was in the army of +Pompeius Paulinus: cf. xxxiii. 143, ‘Pompeium Paulinum +XII pondo argenti habuisse apud exercitum ferocissimis +gentibus oppositum scimus.’ Personal knowledge of Germany +appears in several passages of the <i>N.H.</i>, e.g. xii. 98, +‘extremo in margine imperii, qua Rhenus adluit, vidi’; +xxii. 8, ‘quem morem etiam nunc durare apud Germanos +scio.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pliny was present at the festivities at Lake Fucinus in +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 52 (xxxiii. 63). During Nero’s reign he spent some +time in Campania (ii. 180) and Cisalpine Gaul (xxxv. 20), +was a spectator at the Vatican games in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 59, and saw +the building of Nero’s golden house after the fire of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 64 +(xxxvi. iii). +</p> + +<p id="p283"> +Under Vespasian Pliny was procurator in Italy, and in +several of the provinces: Sueton. <i>vit.</i>, ‘Procurationes +splendidissimas et continuas summa integritate administravit.’ +(<i>a</i>) Hispania Tarraconensis: Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 5, 17, +‘cum procuraret in Hispania’; (<i>b</i>) Gallia Narbonensis: +<i>N.H.</i> ii. 150, ‘ego vidi in Vocontiorum agro’; (<i>c</i>) Gallia +Belgica: xviii. 183, ‘nec recens subtrahemus exemplum in +Treverico agro tertio ante hoc anno compertum’; (<i>d</i>) +Africa: vii. 36, ‘ipse in Africa vidi.’ For his intimacy +with Vespasian cf. Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 5, 9, ‘ante lucem ibat ad +Vespasianum imperatorem ... inde ad delegatum sibi +officium.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79 Pliny was in command of the fleet at +Misenum, when his scientific interest in the eruption of +Vesuvius led him to approach too near the volcano, with +the result that he was suffocated by the ashes (24th +August). For a detailed account of his death, see Plin. +<i>Ep.</i> vi. 16 (to Tacitus). Cf. Sueton. <i>vit.</i>, ‘Periit clade +Campaniae. Cum enim Misenensi classi praeesset, et +flagrante Vesuvio ad explorandas propius causas liburnica +pertendisset, neque adversantibus ventis remeare posset, vi +pulveris ac favillae oppressus est, vel, ut quidam existimant, +a servo suo occisus, quem aestu deficiens ut necem sibi +maturaret oraverit.’ +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +A chronological list of Pliny’s writings is given by his +nephew (<i>Ep.</i> iii. 5). +</p> + +<p id="p284"> +1. <i>De iaculatione equestri</i>.—‘Hunc, cum praefectus alae +militaret, pari ingenio curaque composuit.’ This manual +on the javelin as a cavalry weapon is mentioned by Pliny +himself, <i>N.H.</i> viii. 162, ‘Nos diximus in libro de iaculatione +equestri condito.’ +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>De vita Pomponii Secundi</i>, in two Books, a tribute to +the memory of a valued friend, the tragic poet Pomponius. +Cf. <i>N.H.</i> xiv. 56, ‘referentes vitam Pomponii Secundi vatis.’ +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Bella Germaniae</i>, in twenty Books, a narrative of the +Roman wars in Germany; begun by Pliny when serving +in that country, the apparition of Drusus having besought +him to rescue his name from oblivion (so Pliny the +younger). Cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> i. 69, ‘Tradit C. Plinius, Germanicorum +bellorum scriptor.’ +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Studiosus</i>, in three Books or six parts, a treatise on +rhetoric from the very rudiments. Quintilian, though surprised +at some of Pliny’s views (xi. 3, 143; 148), numbers +him among the more careful exponents of the subject (iii. 1, +21, ‘accuratius scripsit’). The book contained models of +good style: Gell. ix. 16, 1, ‘refert plerasque sententias +quas in declamandis controversiis lepide arguteque dictas +putat.’ +</p> + +<p> +5. <i>Dubius Sermo</i>, in eight Books, published <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 67, +towards the end of Nero’s reign, when purely technical +subjects alone could be treated without danger to an +author. Cf. <i>N.H.</i> praef. 28, ‘libellos quos de grammatica +edidi.’ +</p> + +<p> +6. <i>A fine Aufidii Bassi</i>, in thirty-one Books. At what +point Bassus’ history ended and Pliny’s began is not known: +but the latter certainly dealt with the closing years of Nero’s +reign (<i>N.H.</i> ii. 199, ‘anno Neronis principis supremo, sicut +in rebus eius exposuimus’), as well as with the times of +Vespasian and Titus (<i>N.H.</i> praef. 20, ‘Vos omnes, patrem +te fratremque diximus opere iusto, temporum nostrorum +historiam orsi a fine Aufidii Bassi’). The work was completed +in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 77, but not published till after the author’s +death. His nephew says he wrote with scrupulous care: +<i>Ep.</i> v. 8, 5, ‘historias et quidem religiosissime scripsit.’ +The book was used by Tacitus (<i>Ann.</i> xiii. 20; xv. 53; +<i>Hist.</i> iii. 28). +</p> + +<p id="p285"> +7. <i>Naturae Historiae</i>, in thirty-seven Books, is Pliny’s +only extant work. As he speaks of Titus as ‘sexies consul,’ +the date of its presentation to him was <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 77. Book i. +consists of a dedicatory epistle to Titus and a table of +contents. The body of the work is arranged as follows: +Book ii., the universe and the elements; iii.-vi., geography +of Europe, Asia, and Africa; vii., anthropology and human +physiology; viii.-xi., zoology; xii.-xix., botany; xx.-xxvii., +the use of vegetable substances in medicine; xxviii.-xxxii., +the use of animal substances in medicine; xxxiii.-xxxvii., +mineralogy applied to medicine and the fine arts. +</p> + +<p> +This work, which was meant not for continuous perusal, +but for consultation as a book of reference, contained twenty +thousand facts; and its preparation involved the reading +of about two thousand volumes by one hundred authors +(see <i>N.H.</i> praef. 17). The extracts he had made from +these sources Pliny bequeathed to his nephew in one +hundred and sixty volumes. He makes a point of acknowledging +his obligations to other writers (praef. 21, ‘in his +voluminibus auctorum nomina praetexui, est enim benignum ... et +plenum ingenui pudoris fateri per quos profeceris’); +cf. the lists of authorities, Roman and foreign, prefixed to +the work. Such devotion to natural science was unusual +in men of Pliny’s class, and not generally appreciated; cf. +xxii. 15, ‘Plerisque ultro etiam irrisui sumus ista commentantes +atque frivoli operis arguimur.’ As a scientific +writer Pliny fails because he is not an original investigator, +and because he lacks the critical faculty. For his method +of working see Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 5. +</p> + +<p id="p286"> +Politically, Pliny recognizes the necessity of the empire, +but his heroes are old Romans such as Cincinnatus and +Cato. His Roman and Italian feeling is intense: cf. xxxvii. +201, ‘In toto orbe ... pulcherrima omnium est in rebusque +merito principatum naturae obtinet Italia, rectrix parensque +mundi altera.’ +</p> + +<p> +His view of life is gloomy (<i>N.H.</i> ii. 25, ‘nec quidquam +miserius homine’), and through the <i>Naturae Historiae</i> there +runs a monotonous strain of condemnation of the immorality +of his day. He is uncertain as to divine providence, but +considers the belief in it salutary, and he accepts portents +(ii. 92). His tendency is, in the main, Stoic; he was probably +acquainted with Paetus Thrasea, who corresponded +with Pomponius. +</p> + +<h3>VALERIUS FLACCUS.</h3> + +<p> +His full name is given in the Vatican <span class="bcad">MS.</span> as C. Valerius +Flaccus Setinus Balbus. It is doubtful (even if the last +two names really belong to the poet) whether <i>Setinus</i> +means from Setia in Italy or from Setia in Spain. The +poet’s Latinity gives no evidence on the point. Quintilian +is the only Roman writer who refers to him; x. 1, 90, +‘Multum in Valerio Flacco nuper amisimus’; which shows +that he must have died about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 90. In the beginning +of the first Book of the <i>Argonautica</i> (written shortly after +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 70), Valerius addresses Vespasian, referring to his +exploits in Britain, and to the capture of Jerusalem by +Titus; i. 7 <i>sqq.</i>, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p287"> +<p> + ‘Tuque o, pelagi cui maior aperti<br /> +fama, Caledonius postquam tua carbasa vexit<br /> +oceanus Phrygios prius indignatus Iulos,<br /> +eripe me populis et habenti nubila terrae,<br /> +sancte pater, veterumque fave veneranda canenti<br /> +facta virum. Versam proles tua pandet Idumen<br /> +(namque potest), Solymo nigrantem pulvere fratrem<br /> +spargentemque faces et in omni turre furentem.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +i. 5 <i>sqq.</i> probably shows that Valerius was a quindecimvir +sacris faciundis, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Phoebe, mone, si Cymaeae mihi conscia vatis<br /> +stat casta cortina domo, si laurea digna<br /> +fronte viret.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. the allusion in viii. 239 <i>sqq.</i> to Cybele’s bath, which +was under the management of the xv.viri; and to the +rites of lustration, iii. 417 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +There are several allusions to the eruption of Mt. +Vesuvius in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79, <i>e.g.</i> iv. 507. +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Argonautica</i> is in eight Books, the last being incomplete, and the story breaking off shortly before the death +of Medea’s brother, Absyrtus. Valerius probably meant to +write twelve Books, but it is not known how much farther +he actually proceeded in his work. There is evidence to +show that the last Books would have differed considerably +from the story as given by Apollonius Rhodius; <i>e.g.</i> the +visit to Phaeacia was probably omitted, as Jason was +married at Peuce (Book viii.). +</p> + +<p> +Apollonius is followed very closely, many passages being +translated from him; thus iv. 236 = Apoll. ii. 38; vii. +404 = Apoll. in. 966. Valerius, however, amplifies where +Apollonius is brief, and vice versa. Thus Apoll. ii. 948 +<i>sqq.</i> is dismissed by Valerius v. 110 <i>sqq.</i> in a few words. +The character painting of Valerius is superior to that of +the original, cf. the character of Jason and of Aeetes. +So for his artistic work; thus his portraiture of the gradual +progress of Medea’s love is superior to Apollonius’ description, +and to Virgil’s of Dido. +</p> + +<p id="p288"> +The obligations to Virgil are paramount. +</p> + +<p> +(1) Verbal; as i. 55, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Tu, cui iam curaeque vigent animique viriles,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +from <i>Aen.</i> ix. 311, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ante annos animumque gerens curamque virilem.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. ‘horrentem iaculis, nec credere quivi, heu quid agat, +libans carchesia, summa dies, miscere polum, rumpere +questus,’ in Book i.<a href="#fn083" id="ref083">[83]</a> +</p> + +<p> +(2) In matter. The description of Fame, ii. 116 <i>sqq.</i>, +is from <i>Aen.</i> iv. The character of Styrus, the betrothed +of Medea, is modelled on that of Turnus. +</p> + +<p> +After Virgil, Homer (esp. in Book vi.), Ovid, and +Seneca’s tragedies are chiefly imitated. Statius is full of +imitations of Valerius. +</p> + +<p> +Valerius often tries to connect his subject with Rome.<a href="#fn084" id="ref084">[84]</a> +Cf. ii. 304, +</p> + + <blockquote> +<p> +‘Iam nemus Egeriae, iam te ciet altus ab Alba<br /> +Iuppiter et soli non mitis Aricia regi’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +ii 573, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘genus Aeneadum et Troiae melioris honores.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<h3 id="p289">SILIUS ITALICUS.</h3> + +<p> +The full name of Silius is got from an inscription +(<i>C.I.L.</i> vi. 1984), and is Ti. Catius Silius Italicus. Our +chief information about his life is found in Pliny, <i>Epist.</i> +iii. 7, where his recent death is mentioned. It was +probably written <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 101, and as it states that Silius was +then 75 years old, the year of his birth was <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 25. +His birthplace is unknown, but was not Italica in Spain, +otherwise Martial would have claimed him as a countryman. +Pliny tells us that Silius had risen by acting as +a <i>delator</i> under Nero, who made him consul <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 68. +He had taken the side of Vitellius in the war of the +succession <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 69<a href="#fn085" id="ref085">[85]</a> and had afterwards, as proconsul, +governed Asia with success (under Vespasian). After this +he possessed great social influence. Towards the end of +his life, he retired to Campania, and gave himself up to +study. The account of his learned retirement,<a href="#fn086" id="ref086">[86]</a> his +reverence for Virgil,<a href="#fn087" id="ref087">[87]</a> the consulship of his son,<a href="#fn088" id="ref088">[88]</a> the +death of his younger son,<a href="#fn089" id="ref089">[89]</a> and other details, are corroborated +by his contemporary Martial. +</p> + +<p> +The passage of Pliny is as follows: +</p> + +<p> +‘Modo nuntiatus est Silius Italicus in Neapolitano suo +inedia finisse vitam. Causa mortis valetudo. Erat illi +natus insanabilis clavus, cuius taedio ad mortem inrevocabili +constantia decucurrit, usque ad supremum diem +beatus et felix, nisi quod minorem ex liberis duobus +amisit, sed maiorem melioremque florentem atque etiam +consularem reliquit. Laeserat famam suam sub Nerone, +credebatur sponte accusasse: sed in Vitelli amicitia +sapienter se et comiter gesserat, ex proconsulatu Asiae +gloriam reportaverat, maculam veteris industriae laudabili +otio abluerat. Fuit inter principes civitatis sine potentia, +sine invidia: salutabatur, colebatur, multumque in lectulo +iacens cubiculo semper non ex fortuna frequenti doctissimis +sermonibus dies transigebat, cum a scribendo vacaret. +Scribebat carmina maiore cura quam ingenio, non numquam +iudicia hominum recitationibus experiebatur. Novissime +ita suadentibus annis ab urbe secessit, seque in +Campania tenuit, ac ne adventu quidem novi principis +inde commotus est ... Erat <span class="greek">φιλόκαλος</span> usque ad emacitatis +reprehensionem. Plures isdem in locis villas possidebat +adamatisque novis priores neglegebat. Multum ubique +librorum, multum statuarum, multum imaginum, quas non +habebat modo verum etiam venerabatur, Vergilii ante +omnes, cuius natalem religiosius quam suum celebrabat, +Neapoli maxime, ubi monimentum eius adire ut templum +solebat. In hac tranquillitate annum quintum et septuagensimum excessit, delicato magis corpore quam infirmo; +utque novissimus a Nerone factus est consul, ita postremus +ex omnibus quos Nero consules fecerat decessit.’ +</p> + +<p id="p290"> +Silius’ career as an orator is mentioned by Martial +vii. 63, 5-8, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sacra cothurnati non attigit ante Maronis,<br /> + implevit magni quam Ciceronis opus.<br /> +Hunc miratur adhuc centum gravis hasta virorum,<br /> + hunc loquitur grato plurimus ore cliens.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The <i>Punica</i> is an Epic in seventeen Books on the +Second Punic War, and treats of events down to the +battle of Zama, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 202. The historical treatment is +founded mainly on Livy, and in point of style Silius has +followed Homer and Virgil, imitations of whom are found +on every page. For Silius’ reverence for Virgil, see +above, and cf. viii. 593, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p291"> +<p> +‘Mantua Musarum domus, atque ad sidera cantu<br /> +evecta Aonio, et Smyrnaeis aemula plectris.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Silius also follows Homer and Virgil in their mythology, +bringing in supernatural motives in a way unsuitable to +a historical subject, <i>e.g.</i> in xv. 20, where Scipio has, like +Hercules, to choose between Voluptas and Virtus. +</p> + +<p> +The example of Hannibal’s dream, iii. 163-182, will show +these different points. The story of the dream is got +from Livy xxi. 22, but, for <i>iuvenis divina specie</i>, Silius, +like Virg. <i>Aen.</i> iv. 222 <i>sqq.</i> and 259 <i>sqq.</i> substitutes Mercury. +Individual imitations in the passage are: l. 172, ‘Turpe +duci totam somno consumere noctem,’ from <i>Il.</i> ii. 24, +<span class="greek">οὐ χρὴ παννύχιον εὕδειν βουληφόρον ἄνδρα</span>; l. 168, ‘umentem +noctis umbram’ is from <i>Aen.</i> iv. 7, ‘umentemque +Aurora polo dimoverat umbram’; l. 174, ‘iam maria +effusas cernes turbare carinas,’ from <i>Aen.</i> iv. 566, ‘iam +mare turbari trabibus ... videbis’; l. 182, ‘altae moenia +Romae’ is from <i>Aen.</i> i. 7; l. 181, ‘respexisse veto’ from +<i>Ecl.</i> 8, 102, ‘nec respexeris.’ +</p> + +<p> +The Epitome of the Iliad (in 1075 hexameters), which +passes under the name of <i>Homerus Latinus</i>, has been +attributed to Silius. It is a close adaptation from the +original. +</p> + +<h3>STATIUS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +P. Papinius Statius was born at Naples (<i>Silv.</i> i. 2, 260, +‘mea Parthenope’), probably about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 60, for he speaks +of himself as on the threshold of life at the time of his +father’s death, about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 80 (‘limine primo fatorum,’ <i>Silv.</i> +v. 3, 72). The apparent discrepancy in <i>Silv.</i> iv. 4, 69 +(written <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 94-5), ‘Nos facta aliena canendo vergimur +in senium,’ may be explained by observing that ‘senium’ +is very often used for premature age induced by study +(cf. ‘insenuit,’ Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 82). +</p> + +<p id="p292"> +The father of Statius came of a distinguished but not +wealthy family: <i>Silv.</i> v. 3, 116, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Non tibi deformes obscuri sanguinis ortus<br /> +nec sine luce genus, quamquam fortuna parentum<br /> +artior expensis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He taught first at Naples (<i>ibid.</i> l. 146) and then at Rome +(l. 176); and died at the age of sixty-five (l. 252) soon after +the eruption of Vesuvius, which he had intended to +make the subject of a poem (l. 205). It was from his +learned father (‘genitor perdocte,’ l. 3) that Statius derived +his first impulse towards poetry, and to his training he +acknowledges deep obligations (ll. 209-214). +</p> + +<p> +Statius won two prizes for poetry, at the <i>Augustalia</i> in +Naples and at Alba; but was unsuccessful at the Capitoline competition, probably in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 94 (<i>ibid.</i> 225-232). In +that year he seems to have removed from Rome to +Naples, and spent there the remainder of his days: +<i>Silv.</i> iii. 5, 12, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Anne quod Euboicos fessus remeare penates<br /> +auguror et patria senium componere terra?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The date of his death is unknown. The latest event +mentioned in his poems is the seventeenth consulship +of Domitian, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 95 (<i>Silv.</i> iv. 1). +</p> + +<p> +Statius was married to a widow named Claudia (<i>Silv.</i> +iii. 5, 51 <i>sqq.</i>), but had no children (v. 5, 79). +</p> + +<p id="p293"> +He enjoyed the favour of Domitian (‘indulgentissimus +imperator,’ <i>Silv.</i> i. praef.) who granted him a supply of +water for his country house at Alba, and occasionally +invited him to his table: <i>Silv.</i> iii. 1, 61, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ast ego, Dardaniae quamvis sub collibus Albae<br /> +rus proprium magnique ducis mihi munere currens<br /> +unda domi curas mulcere aestusque levare<br /> +sufficerent.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Silv.</i> iv. praef., ‘Sacratissimis eius epulis honoratus.’ +</p> + +<p> +He more than once promises to write an epic on +Domitian’s career (e.g. <i>Theb.</i> i. 32). The emperor’s freedman +Earinus (<i>Silv.</i> iii. 4) was one of Statius’ patrons. +</p> + +<p> +His regard for the poet Lucan produced <i>Silv.</i> ii. 7, +which is a poem on Lucan’s birthday, addressed to his +widow (see <a href="#p267">p. 267</a>). But his chief admiration was +reserved for the memory of Virgil: Naples and Alba +were endeared to him by their associations with the +‘great master’ and the story of Aeneas: <i>Silv.</i> iv. 4, 53, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Tenues ignavo pollice chordas<br /> +pulso, Maroneique sedens in margine templi<br /> +sumo animum et magni tumulis adcanto magistri.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +For Alba cf. <i>Silv.</i> v. 3, 37. The <i>Thebais</i> must recognize its +inferiority to the <i>Aeneid</i>: <i>Theb.</i> xii. 816, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Vive, precor; nec tu divinam Aeneida tempta,<br /> +sed longe sequere et vestigia semper adora.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. The <i>Thebais</i>, an epic poem in twelve Books, occupied +Statius for twelve years: xii. 811, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘O mihi bis senos multum vigilata per annos<br /> +Thebai.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p294"> +Cf. <i>Silv.</i> iv. 7, 26, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Thebais multa cruciata lima.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The twelve years were probably 79-91 or 80-92 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +<i>Silv.</i> i. praef. (written 91 or 92), ‘Adhuc pro Thebaide mea, +quamvis me reliquerit, timeo.’ The publication apparently +did not take place till <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 95 (cf. <i>Silv.</i> iv. 4, 87 <i>sqq.</i> +written in that year). +</p> + +<p> +The subject of the poem is the strife between the +brothers Eteocles and Polynices, and the subsequent +history of Thebes to the death of Creon. The dedication +is to Domitian. For the popularity of the <i>Thebais</i> cf. +Juv. <i>Sat.</i> 7, 82, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Curritur ad vocem iucundam et carmen amicae<br /> +Thebaidos, laetam cum fecit Statius urbem<br /> +promisitque diem. Tanta dulcedine captos<br /> +afficit ille animos tantaque libidine volgi<br /> +auditur; sed, cum fregit subsellia versu,<br /> +esurit, intactam Paridi nisi vendit Agaven.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +2. The <i>Achilleis</i>, also dedicated to Domitian, is an incomplete +epic, consisting of one Book and part of a +second. It was later than the Thebaid, for Statius was +working at it in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 95: <i>Silv.</i> iv. 4, 93, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nunc vacuos crines alio subit infula nexu:<br /> +Troia quidem magnusque mihi temptatur Achilles.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The poem was intended to cover the whole career of +Achilles, including his retreat in Scyros before the Trojan +War, and his exploits after the death of Hector, which +did not enter into the plan of the <i>Iliad</i>: cf. l. 3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Quamquam acta viri multum inclita cantu<br /> +Maeonio, sed plura vacant: nos ire per omnem<br /> +(sic amor est) heroa velis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p295"> +3. The <i>Silvae</i>, which represent the poet in his less +serious mood, are occasional poems on miscellaneous +subjects, published in five separate Books. Cf. 1, praef. +‘Diu multumque dubitavi ... an hos libellos, ... cum +singuli de sinu meo prodierint, congregates ipse dimitterem.’ +Many of them were thrown off in haste at the command +of the Emperor or the request of friends: cf. such expressions +as ‘stili facilitas’ (ii. praef.), ‘libellorum temeritas,’ +‘hanc audaciam stili nostri’ (iii. praef.). Of the +poems in Book i. he says, ‘nullum ex illis biduo longius +tractum, quaedam et in singulis diebus effusa’ (i. praef.). +Each of the Books is introduced by a prose preface. +</p> + +<p> +None of the <i>Silvae</i> appeared before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 92; for +Rutilius Gallicus, for whom i. 4 was written, died in +that year, and the poem was not published till after his +death (i. praef.). Book v. was probably a posthumous +work: there is no proper preface, and the third and fifth +poems are incomplete. +</p> + +<p> +Hexameter verse is employed for all the <i>Silvae</i> except +six. Of these, four are in hendecasyllabics, one in the +Alcaic and one in the Sapphic stanza. +</p> + +<p> +4. The only other poem of which there is distinct +evidence is the pantomime <i>Agave</i>, written not later than +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 84, the year in which the player Paris was put to +death (Juv. <i>Sat.</i> 7, 86, quoted above). +</p> + +<h3>MARTIAL.<a href="#fn090" id="ref090">[90]</a></h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +M. Valerius Martialis (Coquus is added in the old +glossaries) was born at Bilbilis in Hispania Tarraconensis +on 1st March in one of the years <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 38-41. His tenth +Book, written <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 95-8, contains a poem (x. 24) written +on his fifty-seventh birthday. Cf. ll. 4-5, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p296"> +<p> +‘quinquagesima liba septimamque<br /> +vestris addimus hanc focis acerram’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +ix. 52, 3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘ut nostras amo Martias Kalendas’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +x. 103, 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Municipes, Augusta mihi quos Bilbilis acri<br /> + monte creat, rapidis quem Salo cingit aquis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +His parents’ names are given, v. 34, 1, ‘Fronto pater, +genetrix Flaccilla.’ Martial went through the usual education +at Bilbilis or at a neighbouring town; ix. 73, 7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘At me litterulas stulti docuere parentes:<br /> + quid cum grammaticis rhetoribusque mihi?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Martial went to Rome <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 64, for in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98, when he +left Rome, he gives the length of his stay as thirty-four +years; x. 103, 7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quattuor accessit tricesima messibus aestas,<br /> + ut sine me Cereri rustica liba datis,<br /> +moenia dum colimus dominae pulcherrima Romae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +At Rome Martial became the client of the house of the +Senecas, and was on intimate terms with L. Calpurnius +Piso, Memmius Gemellus, and Vibius Crispus; xii. 36, 8, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Pisones Senecasque Memmiosque<br /> +et Crispos mihi redde sed priores.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The failure of Piso’s conspiracy in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 65 and the consequent +downfall of the Senecas must have affected Martial’s +position. In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 96 Martial addresses as his patroness +Argentaria Polla, Lucan’s widow, the only surviving member +of the family; x. 64, 1, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p297"> +<p> +‘Contigeris regina meos si Polla libellos,’ etc. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +From her he may have got the small vineyard near Nomentum +which he possessed by <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 84 (xiii. 42 and 119). +</p> + +<p> +Little is known of Martial’s life before the reign of +Domitian. He may have practised at the bar; cf. ii. 30, 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Is mihi “dives eris, si causas egeris” inquit’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +and Quintilian appears to have advised this course +(ii. 90). He probably lived as a client of great houses +to which he was recommended by his early-developed +poetical talents. Cf. i. 113, 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quaecumque lusi iuvenis et puer quondam.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 80 he commemorated the opening by Titus of the +Flavian Amphitheatre by a collection of poems sent to the +emperor. Cf. <i>Spectac.</i> 32, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Da veniam subitis: non displicuisse meretur,<br /> +festinat, Caesar, qui placuisse tibi.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Martial received the ‘ius trium liberorum’ from two of the +emperors. This probably means that Titus bestowed it +and Domitian ratified it. Cf. ix. 97, 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘tribuit quod Caesar uterque<br /> +ius mihi natorum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Martial became a titular tribune, and consequently an +<i>eques</i>, an honour probably given him by Titus; iii. 95, 9 +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘vidit me Roma tribunum’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +v. 13, 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sum, fateor, semperque fui, Callistrate, pauper,<br /> +sed non obscurus nec male notus eques.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p298"> +Martial is unsparing in his flattery of Domitian and his +freedmen. Cf. ix. 79, iv. 45, of Parthenius, the emperor’s +chamberlain; vii. 99, viii. 48, of Crispinus, the emperor’s +favourite. In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 86 we find his poems eagerly read by +the emperor. Cf. iv. 27, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Saepe meos laudare soles, Auguste, libellos.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +He obtained citizen rights for several applicants; cf. ix. +95. 11, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quot mihi Caesareo facti sunt munere cives’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +and was occasionally invited to the emperor’s table; cf. ix. +91. Domitian, however, refused to assist him pecuniarily +(vi. 10). A description of Martial’s life as a client of great +houses is found, <i>e.g.</i>, in v. 20. Among the friends of high +rank whom Martial made after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 86 were the poet Silius +Italicus (iv. 14), the future emperor Nerva (v. 28), the +author S. Iulius Frontinus (x. 58), the younger Pliny (x. 19). +Martial also mentions Quintilian (ii. 90) and other literary +men from Spain, and Juvenal (vii. 24, etc.). Statius he +never mentions, and was probably at enmity with him; +cf. his sneers at mythological epics (x. 4, etc.), which hint +indirectly at the <i>Thebais</i>. Martial also attacks his critics +(i. 3; xi. 20, etc.), plagiarists (<i>e.g.</i> xi. 94), and those who +wrote scurrilous verses in his name (<i>e.g.</i> x. 3). +</p> + +<p> +Martial received rewards in return for his poetry, and +often begs for gifts, and complains of his poverty and the +unproductiveness of his estate at Nomentum (xii. 57); v. 36, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Laudatus nostro quidam, Faustina, libello<br /> + dissimulat, quasi nil debeat: imposuit’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +vii. 16, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Aera domi non sunt, superest hoc, Regule, solum,<br /> +ut tua vendamus munera: numquid emis?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p299"> +From 86 to 90 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> Martial lived in lodgings on the Quirinal, +three stairs up; i. 117, 6, +</p> + +<p> +‘Longum est, si velit ad Pirum venire, +et scalis habito tribus, sed altis.’ +</p> + +<p> +Later he had a house of his own (ix. 18, 2, etc.), and +mentions his slaves (i. 101; v. 34, etc.). That he was +still poor in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98 is evident from Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> iii. 21, 2, +‘Prosecutus eram viatico secedentem: dederam hoc +amicitiae, dederam etiam versiculis quos de me composuit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Martial was evidently never married (ii. 92). In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98 +he left Rome and went to Spain, where he had liberal +friends, as Terentius Priscus (xii. 4), and Marcella (xii. 21), +who gave him an estate, described in xii. 18. From xii. +praef. we see his longing for Rome: +</p> + +<p> +‘In hac provinciali solitudine ... bibliothecas, theatra, +convictus ... desideramus quasi destituti. Accedit his municipalium +robigo dentium et iudici loco livor,’ etc. +</p> + +<p> +Martial died, at latest, about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 104, being from 63 +to 66 years old. +</p> + +<p> +Pliny <i>Ep.</i> iii. 21 (written not after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 104), ‘Audio +Valerium Martialem decessisse et moleste fero.’ +</p> + +<p> +Martial does not disguise the bad points of his character. +Cf. his flattery of Domitian, and his continual begging +(<i>passim</i>), his cynical reasons for giving panegyrics (v. 36, +quoted above); the number of indecent poems he wrote, +for which he apologizes (<i>e.g.</i> i. praef.). Among his good +points are his ‘candor,’ mentioned by Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> iii. 21; +his love of unadorned nature, <i>e.g.</i> iii. 58; his love for +his friends, <i>e.g.</i> i. 15. +</p> + +<h4 id="p300">(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +<i>Publication of the Poems.</i>—<i>Liber Spectaculorum</i> was published <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 80, on the opening of Titus’ Amphitheatre. +The <i>Xenia</i> and <i>Apophoreta</i> were two collections of inscriptions +for presents at the <i>Saturnalia</i> in December 84 or +85 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> The numbering of these as Books xiii. and xiv. +has no ancient authority. Martial furnished the other Books +with numbers (cf. ii. 92, 1, ‘primus liber’). Books i., ii., +appeared together <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 86. Then came Books iii.-xi. at +intervals of about a year to December, 96 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> Martial +prepared a selection from Books x. and xi. for Nerva’s +use (no longer extant). This was presented along with +xii. 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Longior undecimi nobis decimique libelli<br /> +artatus labor est, et breve rasit opus.<br /> +Plura legant vacui, quibus otia tuta dedisti;<br /> +haec lege tu Caesar; forsan et illa leges.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Book xii. appeared at the beginning of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 102. and shortly +afterwards in an enlarged edition. An edition of all the +Books probably did not appear till after Martial’s death. +</p> + +<p> +For Martial’s immediate popularity, cf. vi. 61, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Laudat, amat, cantat nostros mea Roma libellos,<br /> +meque sinus omnis, me manus omnis habet’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +xi. 3, 3, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Sed meus in Geticis ad Martia signa pruinis<br /> + a rigido teritur centurione liber,<br /> +dicitur et nostros cantare Britannia versus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Pliny <i>Ep.</i> iii. 21 (written just after Martial’s death), +‘Erat homo ingeniosus acutus acer, et qui plurimum in +scribendo et salis haberet et fellis nec candoris minus.’ +</p> + +<p id="p301"> +<i>Martial’s Models.</i>—His manner is very original, but +some of his motives are taken from Greek epigrammatists, +especially from Lucillius, who flourished under Nero. +Thus iv. 53 = Lucill. 30; v. 53 = L. 93; xii. 23 = L. 34. +Many of his pieces are doubtless improvisations, and consequently +contain careless expressions and errors as to +facts. Thus, vii. 61, 2, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Inque suo nullum limine limen erat’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +x. 2, 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Festinata prior decimi mihi cura libelli<br /> + elapsum manibus nunc revocavit opus’; +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +x. 93, 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Ut rosa delectat, metitur quae pollice primo’<br /> + (= the rose which has not yet been plucked). +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In iv. 55, 3, Arpi is given as Cicero’s birthplace; in v. 30, +2, etc., Calabria instead of Apulia is given as Horace’s +native district. Catullus is Martial’s chief model for +hendecasyllabics and choliambics. He mentions no other +poet so often. Cf. x. 103, 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nec sua plus debet tenui Verona Catullo<br /> + meque velit dici non minus illa suum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Ovid, of whom he has more than two hundred +reminiscences, is Martial’s chief pattern for elegiacs. After +these Martial’s chief model is Virgil, chiefly the <i>Priapea</i>; +then Horace to a less extent; Propertius; and Tibullus. +Domitius Marsus, Gaetulicus, Calvus, etc., are mentioned +frequently, and doubtless imitated. +</p> + +<p> +For Martial’s conception of himself as a painter of +manners, cf. viii. 3, 19 (ad Musam), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘At tu Romano lepidos sale tinge libellos:<br /> + adgnoscat mores vita legatque suos.<br /> +Angusta cantare licet videaris avena,<br /> + dum tua multorum vincat avena tubas.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p302"> +x. 4, 7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quid te vana iuvant miserae ludibria chartae?<br /> + hoc lege, quod possit dicere vita “Meum est.”<br /> +Non hic Centauros, non Gorgonas, Harpyiasque<br /> + invenies: hominem pagina nostra sapit.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Martial satirizes people under manufactured or arbitrarily +chosen names. +</p> + +<p> +Cf. i. praef., ‘Spero me secutum in libellis meis tale +temperamentum, ut de illis queri non possit, quisquis de +se bene senserit, cum salva infimarum quoque personarum +reverentia ludant.’ +</p> + +<p> +Some are tell-tale names, as Vetustilla, ‘an old woman,’ +iii. 93; Dento, ‘a gourmand,’ v. 45; Eulogus, ‘a herald,’ +vi. 8; but the same names, <i>e.g.</i> Zoilus, are often used to +denote different types. +</p> + +<p> +The chief forms of verse used are the elegiac distich +(most frequent), scazons, and hendecasyllabics. In vi. 65 +he apologizes for using the pure hexameter, which is +found only four times. Other metres are extremely rare. +</p> + +<h3>QUINTILIAN.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +M. Fabius Quintilianus was born at Calagurris in Spain. +Auson. <i>prof.</i> i. 7, ‘Adserat usque licet Fabium Calagurris +alumnum.’ Cf. Jerome yr. Abr. 2104 (quoted below). +</p> + +<p> +Quintilian came at an early age to Rome, where his +father was a rhetorician. Cf. his reminiscences: +</p> + +<p> +x. 1, 86, ‘Utar verbis isdem quae ex Afro Domitio (died +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 59) iuvenis excepi.’ +</p> + +<p id="p303"> +v. 7, 7, ‘a Domitio Afro quem adulescentulus senem +colui.’ +</p> + +<p> +vi. 1, 14, ‘Nobis adulescentibus accusator Cossutiani +Capitonis’ (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 57), etc. +</p> + +<p> +From the above quotations, Quintilian must have been +born somewhere between <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 35 and 40. <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 35 is usually +given as an approximation. For Quintilian’s father cf. +ix. 3, 73, ‘Et cur me prohibeat pudor uti domestico +exemplo? Pater meus contra eum qui,’ etc. He is possibly +the person mentioned by Seneca, <i>Contr.</i> x. praef. 2, +‘quo modo ... Quintilianus senex declamaverit.’ +</p> + +<p> +For Quintilian’s teachers of rhetoric, cf. Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ii. +14, 10, ‘Narrabat ille [Quintilianus], Adsectabar Domitium +Afrum.’ Others were Iulius Africanus (Quint. x. 1, 118), +Servilius Nonianus (x. 1, 102), Galerius Trachalus (x. 1, +119), Iulius Secundus (x. 1, 120), Vibius Crispus (xii. 10, +11), Remmius Palaemon (Schol. ad Iuv. 6, 452). After +his education Quintilian returned to Calagurris, but was +brought back to Rome by Galba in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 68. +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 2084 = <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 68, ‘M. Fabius Quintilianus +Romam a Galba perducitur.’ +</p> + +<p> +Quintilian engaged as a pleader at Rome, and makes +some references to his cases. Some of his speeches were +published without his consent. +</p> + +<p> +vii. 2, 24, ‘In causa Naevi Arpiniani ... cuius actionem +et quidem solam in hoc tempus emiseram, quod ipsum +me fecisse ductum iuvenili cupiditate gloriae fateor. Nam +ceterae, quae sub nomine meo feruntur, neglegentia excipientium +in quaestum notariorum corruptae minimam +partem mei habent.’ +</p> + +<p> +iv. 1, 19, ‘Ego pro regina Berenice apud ipsam eam +causam dixi.’ +</p> + +<p id="p304"> +Cf. also vii. 2, 5; ix. 2, 73-4. +</p> + +<p> +Quintilian was the first person who received an imperial +grant as teacher of oratory. +</p> + +<p> +Jerome yr. Abr. 2104 = <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 88, ‘Quintilianus ex Hispania +Calagurritanus primus Romae publicam scholam et salarium +e fisco accepit et claruit.’ The date given by Jerome is +much too late, as it is Quintilian that is alluded to by +Sueton. <i>Vesp.</i> 18, ‘Primus e fisco Latinis Graecisque rhetoribus +annua centena constituit.’ The appointment must +therefore have been made by <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79. The professorship +is referred to by Mart. ii. 90, 1, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quintiliane, vagae moderator summe iuventae,<br /> + gloria Romanae, Quintiliane, togae.’<br /> +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ii. 14, 10, ‘Ita certe ex Quintiliano, praeceptore +meo, audisse memini.’ Quintilian’s career as a +teacher lasted for twenty years. +</p> + +<p> +i. prooem. 1, ‘Post impetratam studiis meis quietem, +quae per viginti annos erudiendis iuvenibus impenderam.’ +</p> + +<p> +Teuffel thinks that the <i>Institutio</i> was written <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 89-91, +in which case Quintilian’s career as professor was from +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 68 to 88; Peterson<a href="#fn091" id="ref091">[91]</a> thinks that Quintilian dated his +educational work as from <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 70 to 90, and that the +<i>Institutio</i> was begun <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 92. +</p> + +<p> +Quintilian grew rich by the practice of his profession, +from which he ultimately retired. Iuv. 7, 186, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Hos inter sumptus sestertia Quintiliano,<br /> +ut multum, duo sufficient; res nulla minoris<br /> +constabit patri, quam filius. “Unde igitur tot<br /> +Quintilianus habet saltus?”’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p305"> +Quint. ii. 12, 12, ‘quando et praecipiendi munus iam +pridem deprecati sumus et in foro quoque dicendi, quia +honestissimum finem putamus, desinere dum desideraremur.’ +</p> + +<p> +After his retirement Quintilian was appointed tutor of +Domitian’s grandnephews, sons of his niece Flavia Domitilla +and his cousin Flavius Clemens. +</p> + +<p> +Quint. iv. prooem. 2, ‘Cum mihi Domitianus Augustus +sororis suae nepotum delegaverit curam.’ +</p> + +<p> +Through the influence of Clemens, he obtained the +consulship. +</p> + +<p> +Auson. <i>grat. act.</i> p. 23 (Schenkl), ‘Quintilianus consularia +per Clementem ornamenta sortitus honestamenta potius +videtur quam insignia potestatis habuisse.’ +</p> + +<p> +Cf. Iuv. 7, 197, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Si Fortuna volet, fies de rhetore consul;<br /> +si volet haec eadem, fies de consule rhetor.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +His gratitude led him into fulsome flattery of Domitian. +</p> + +<p> +x. 1, 91, ‘Germanicum Augustum ab institutis studiis +deflexit cura terrarum, parumque dis visum est esse eum +maximum poetarum’ (cf. iv. prooem. 3-5). +</p> + +<p> +Quintilian married late in life. His wife died at the +age of eighteen, his younger son soon afterwards at the +age of five, the elder one subsequently at the age of nine. +</p> + +<p> +vi. prooem. § 2, ‘Illum, de quo summa conceperam et +in quo spem unicam senectutis reponebam, repetito volnere +orbitatis amisi’; § 9, ‘Non flosculos, sicut prior, sed iam +decimum aetatis ingressus annum, certos ac deformatos +fructus ostenderat’; § 4, ‘erepta prius mihi matre eorumdem, +quae nondum expleto aetatis undevicesimo anno +duos enixa filios ...’; § 5, ‘cum omni virtute, quae in +feminas cadit, functa insanabilem adtulit marito dolorem, +tum aetate tam puellari, praesertim meae comparata, potest +et ipsa numerari inter volnera orbitatis’; § 6, ‘Mihi filius +minor quintum egressus annum prior alterum ex duobus +eruit lumen.’ +</p> + +<p id="p306"> +The date of Quintilian’s death is unknown. If he outlived +Domitian it was not for long, as Pliny in the letters +quoted above (the earlier written about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 100) does +not speak of Quintilian as alive. +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +<i>Earlier works.</i>—Quintilian refers to a work <i>de causis +corruptae eloquentiae</i>, and to an <i>ars rhetorica</i> in two Books. +For speeches of his taken down and published, see vii. 2, +24, quoted <a href="#p303">p. 303</a>. +</p> + +<p> +vi. prooem. 3, ‘eum librum, quem de causis corruptae +eloquentiae emisi.’ +</p> + +<p> +i. prooem. 7, ‘Duo iam sub nomine meo libri ferebantur +artis rhetoricae neque editi a me neque in hoc comparati. +Namque alterum, sermone per biduum habito, pueri, quibus +id praestabatur, exceperant; alterum pluribus sane diebus, +quantum notando consequi potuerant, interceptum, boni +iuvenes sed nimium amantes mei, temerario editionis honore +volgaverant.’ +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Institutio Oratoria</i>.—For the date of publication +see <a href="#p304">p. 304</a>. The circumstances of publication are given +by Quintilian in the preface addressed to his bookseller +Trypho. +</p> + +<p> +‘Efflagitasti cottidiano convicio, ut libros, quos ad Marcellum +meum de Institutione oratoria scripseram, iam +emittere inciperem. Nam ipse eos nondum opinabar satis +maturuisse, quibus componendis, ut scis, paulo plus quam +biennium tot alioqui negotiis districtus impendi ... Sed +si tanto opere efflagitantur quam tu affirmas, permittamus +vela ventis et oram solventibus bene precemur.’ +</p> + +<p id="p307"> +The work is dedicated to Vitorius Marcellus (to whom +Statius’ <i>Silvae</i>, Book iv., is addressed), and was originally +written in view of the education of his son Geta. +</p> + +<p> +i. prooem. 6, ‘Quod opus, Marcelle Vitori, tibi dicamus +... quod erudiendo Getae tuo ... non inutiles fore libri +videbantur.’ +</p> + +<p> +Book iv. prooem. was written when Quintilian had been +appointed tutor to the young princes, who are mentioned +along with Geta and Quintilian’s elder son; Book vi. +prooem. was written not long afterwards, and refers to +his bereavements; in Book xii. prooem. no names are +mentioned. +</p> + +<p> +The work deals with the whole education of the future +orator. +</p> + +<p> +i. prooem. 5, ‘Nec aliter, quam si mihi tradatur educandus +orator, studia eius formare ab infantia incipiam.’ +</p> + +<p> +Quintilian himself gives a sketch of the contents: +</p> + +<p> +i. prooem. 21-2, ‘Liber primus ea quae sunt ante +officium rhetoris continebit [including grammar and philology]. +Secundo prima apud rhetorem elementa et quae de +ipsa rhetorices substantia quaeruntur tractabimus. Quinque +deinceps (iii.-vii.) inventioni, nam huic et dispositio subiungitur, +quattuor (viii.-xi.) elocutioni, in cuius partem +memoria ac pronuntiatio veniunt, dabuntur. Unus (xii.) +accedet, in quo nobis orator ipse informandus est, ut qui +mores eius, quae in suscipiendis, discendis, agendis causis +ratio, quod eloquentiae genus, quis agendi debeat esse +finis, quae post finem studia ... disseramus.’ +</p> + +<p id="p308"> +The ordinary handbooks of rhetoric are attacked. +</p> + +<p> +i. prooem. 24-5, ‘Nam plerumque nudae illae artes nimia +subtilitatis affectatione frangunt atque concidunt quidquid +est in oratione generosius, et omnem sucum ingeni bibunt +et ossa detegunt, quae ut esse et adstringi nervis suis +debent, sic corpore operienda sunt. Ideoque nos non +particulam illam, sicut plerique, sed quidquid utile ad +instituendum oratorem putabamus, in hos duodecim libros +contulimus breviter omnia demonstraturi.’ +</p> + +<p> +Quintilian uses his own experience and the best views +of different authorities. +</p> + +<p> +vi. 2, 25, ‘Quod si tradita mihi sequi praecepta sufficeret, +satisfeceram huic parti, nihil eorum, quae legi vel didici, +quod modo probabile fuit, omittendo; sed eruere in animo +est, quae latent, et penitus ipsa huius loci aperire penetralia, +quae quidem non aliquo tradente sed experimento meo ac +natura ipsa duce accepi.’ +</p> + +<p> +Quintilian insists that the orator must be a good man +(cf. the importance he attaches to early education, i. 1, etc.). +</p> + +<p> +xii. 1, 1, ‘Sit ergo nobis orator, quem constituimus, is +qui a M. Catone finitur, vir bonus dicendi peritus; verum, +id quod et ille posuit prius, et ipsa natura potius ac maius +est, utique vir bonus.’ +</p> + +<p> +Cf. i. prooem. 9-10; ii. 2 (the whole chapter); ii. 15, 1. +</p> + +<p> +Quintilian’s exposition is founded mainly on Cicero, from +whom he seldom differs. Cf. vii. 3, 8, ‘Quamquam dissentire +vix audeo a Cicerone.’ +</p> + +<p> +Quintilian’s illustrations are mainly drawn from classical +writers. Upwards of four hundred and fifty passages of +Cicero and about one hundred and forty of Virgil are +referred to. Quintilian not only attacks the modern style, +but warns his pupils against the early writers. +</p> + +<p id="p309"> +ii. 5, 21-2, ‘Duo autem genera maxime cavenda pueris +puto: unum, ne quis eos antiquitatis nimius admirator in +Graccorum Catonisque et aliorum similium lectione durescere +velit ... Alterum, quod huic diversum est, ne +recentis huius lasciviae flosculis capti voluptate prava deleniantur, +ut praedulce illud genus et puerilibus ingeniis hoc +gratius, quo propius est, adament.’ +</p> + +<p> +For Quintilian’s high appreciation of Cicero see x. 1, +105-112; and for his antagonism to Seneca, x. 1, 125-131, +and to philosophers in general, i. prooem. 10. +</p> + +<p> +For Quintilian’s authorities see iii. 1, ‘Prooemium de +scriptoribus artis rhetoricae.’ They include Dionysius of +Halicarnassus; Caecilius; Chrysippus (for education; cf. i. +1, 16, etc.); Cicero; <i>Auctor ad Herenn.</i>; Celsus, cf. iii. 1, 21, +etc.; Rutilius, cf. ix. 3, 89; Remmius Palaemon. +</p> + +<p> +Literary criticism is treated of in Book X. as regards the +Greek and Latin authors useful to the orator. The principal +authority used was the <span class="greek">περὶ μιμήσεως</span> of Dionysius +Halicarnassius. Much of Quintilian’s criticism is traditional, +and the lists of great writers came ultimately from the +critics of Alexandria. Roman literary critics referred to +were Cicero (<i>e.g.</i> on the Attic orators, x. 1, 76-80) and +Horace (x. 1, 24; 56, etc.). +</p> + +<p> +<i>Spurious works.</i>—These include two collections of +<i>declamationes</i>. +</p> + +<p> +1. Nineteen long pieces, ascribed to Quintilian by Jerome +and others, but much later than Quintilian’s time. +</p> + +<p> +2. One hundred and forty-five shorter pieces out of an +original collection of three hundred and eighty-eight, the +first half being lost. Some suppose they are the ‘libri +artis rhetoricae’ (i. prooem. 7, quoted above), but this is +not likely. +</p> + +<h3 id="p310">FRONTINUS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +Iulius Frontinus (as he is called by Tacitus: inscriptions +and some <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> give the <i>praenomen</i> Sextus) was born at +latest <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 41, for he was <i>praetor urbanus</i> <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 70. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Hist.</i> iv. 39, ‘in senatu quem Iulius Frontinus +praetor urbanus vocaverat ... Mox eiurante Frontino +Caesar Domitianus praeturam cepit.’ +</p> + +<p> +He served in Gaul during the revolt of Civilis, and +received the submission of the Lingones (Front. <i>Strat.</i> iv. +3, 14<a href="#fn092" id="ref092">[92]</a>). Under Vespasian he held the consulship, and +preceded Agricola in the command in Britain, where he +conquered the Silures, probably <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 76-78. +</p> + +<p> +Tac. <i>Agr.</i> 17, ‘Et Cerealis quidem alterius successoris +curam famamque obruisset: sustinuit molem Iulius Frontinus, +vir magnus, quantum licebat, validamque et pugnacem +Silurum gentem armis subegit, super virtutem hostium +locorum quoque difficultates eluctatus.’ +</p> + +<p> +His knowledge of the tactics of Domitian (<i>Strat.</i> i. 1, 8; +i. 3, 10; ii. 3, 23; ii. 11, 7) makes it probable that he took +part in the war with the Chatti, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 83. In 97 he became +<i>curator aquarum</i> (<i>Aq.</i> 102), and at the beginning of the +following year was consul for the second time (<i>C.I.L.</i> iii., +p. 862); cf. Martial x. 48, 20, ‘bis Frontino consule.’ In +100 he was once more consul (<i>C.I.L.</i> viii. 7066). He also +held the office of augur, in which, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 103 or 104, he +was succeeded by the younger Pliny; Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iv. 8, +‘gratularis mihi quod acceperim auguratum ... Successi +Iulio Frontino, principi viro.’ His death then may be +placed in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 103. +</p> + +<p id="p311"> +Frontinus was a friend of Martial, who addresses to him +<i>Epig.</i> x. 58. +</p> + +<p> +We get a glimpse of his character from Pliny’s words, +<i>Ep.</i> ix. 19, 6, ‘Vetuit exstrui monumentum: sed quibus +verbis? “Impensa monumenti supervacua est: memoria +nostri durabit si vita meruimus.”’ +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +During the reign of Domitian (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 81-96) Frontinus +composed two works. One of these, of which only fragments +survive, dealt with the art of land-surveying and the +laws relating to land. The other, written after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 84, +when Domitian received the title of Germanicus (<i>Strat.</i> +ii. II, 7, ‘eo bello quo victis hostibus cognomen Germanici +meruit’), is a manual of strategy, in three Books, entitled +<i>Strategemata</i>. It is a sequel to a previous work (now lost) +on the theory of the art of war, and illustrates its rules +by historical examples derived chiefly from Sallust, Caesar, +and Livy. The purpose of the book did not require the +citation of authorities, and the mention of Livy in ii. 5, +31 and 34, is probably spurious. Frontinus gives either a +paraphrase retaining some of the expressions of the original +(cf. <i>Strat.</i> i. 5, 16, with Liv. xxxv. 11, 2-13), or a bald +summary (cf. <i>Strat.</i> ii. 5, 1, with Liv. i. 14, 6-11). See +G. Gundermann, <i>Jahrb. f. class. Philol.</i>, suppl. xvi., p. 315 +<i>sqq.</i> (1888). Some later hand has added a fourth Book, +which not only presents marked differences in style and +tone from the original three, but deals with an entirely +different subject—the maintenance of discipline, and other +duties of a commander. +</p> + +<p id="p312"> +Under Nerva and Trajan (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 97-98) Frontinus wrote +his treatise on the Roman water-supply, <i>De Aquis Urbis +Romae</i>. Having been appointed <i>curator aquarum</i>, he considered +it his first duty to acquaint himself with the details +of his department, and published the result of his inquiries +in the hope that they might be useful to his successors +(cf. the preface). The book was begun under Nerva (praef. +‘cum ... sit nunc mihi ab Nerva Augusto ... aquarum +iniunctum officium’), but Nerva had been succeeded by +Trajan before it was completed (118, ‘divus Nerva’; 93, +‘Traianum Augustum’). +</p> + +<h3>JUVENAL.</h3> + +<p> +The sources for Juvenal’s life are (1) his works; (2) +an inscription found at Aquinum; (3) thirteen extant +<i>vitae</i>; (4) information of the scholiasts; (5) references +in Martial and other writers. +</p> + +<p> +The inscription at Aquinum has been much debated; +but it is safe to follow the opinion of Mommsen, whose +experience in identifying people mentioned in inscriptions +with historical characters depends upon a width of knowledge +that no other person possesses. The <i>vitae</i> are all +early mediaeval works, probably founded on a brief account +of the poet’s life composed by some unknown ancient +writer, and existing at the early Renaissance. The extant +<i>vitae</i> contain a very few facts which appear to be derived +from this source, together with a number of inferences +gathered, often incorrectly, from Juvenal’s works. The +most important statement is that regarding Juvenal’s +birth, which is contained in the <i>vita</i> in the Codex Barberinus, +8, 18, discovered by J. Dürr. The date is given +in such precise and accurate terms, and is in itself so +probable as solving so many of the questions connected +with the poet’s works, that to invent it requires an amount +of knowledge with which we cannot credit the writer of +this otherwise very poor account. The statements of the +<i>vitae</i> must be carefully weighed, and accepted only when +rendered probable by other considerations.<a href="#fn093" id="ref093">[93]</a> +</p> + +<p id="p313"> +Juvenal’s name is given in some of the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> as Decimus +Iunius Iuvenalis. He was born <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 55. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Codex Barberinus</i>, ‘Iunius Iuvenalis Aquinas Iunio +Iuvenale patre, matre vero Septumuleia ex Aquinati municipio +Claudio Nerone et L. Antistio consulibus natus est. +Sororem habuit Septumuleiam, quae Fuscino nupsit.’ +</p> + +<p> +The statement about his sister and mother is very +doubtful; that about Fuscinus is a bad inference from +the fact that <i>Sat.</i> 14 (on the education of children) is +addressed to him. The name <i>Septumuleia</i> may be invented +from 14, 105, <i>septima lux</i>. Juvenal’s sister must have +been called Iunia after her father; the naming of a girl +after her mother was a mediaeval idea. +</p> + +<p> +Juvenal was born at Aquinum, a town of the Volscians. +Twelve of the <i>vitae</i> agree in this, and they are confirmed +by the poet’s own words supposed to be addressed to +him by his friend Umbricius: 3, 318-21, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Quotiens te<br /> +Roma tuo refici properantem reddet Aquino,<br /> +me quoque ad Helvinam Cererem vestramque Dianam<br /> +converte a Cumis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p314"> +Cf. 6, 57, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘agello cedo paterno.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +This is corroborated by the inscription found at Aquinum +(<i>C.I.L.</i> x. 5382), which gives us other information about +the poet: +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + <i>cere</i>RI · SACRVM<br /> +<i>d . iu</i>NIVS · IVVENALIS<br /> +<i>trib</i> COH·<i>i</i>·DELMATARVM<br /> + II · VIR · QVINQ · FLAMEN<br /> + DIVI · VESPASIANI<br /> + VOVIT · DEDICAV<i>itq</i>VE<br /> + SVA PEC +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +This inscription appears to have stood near the temple +of Ceres Helvina or Elvina, dedicated by a member of +the gens Elvia, references to which are found on inscriptions +of the district. +</p> + +<p> +The <i>vitae</i> say that Juvenal was the son of a freedman.<a href="#fn094" id="ref094">[94]</a> +Cf. <i>Vitae</i> i. <i>a</i>, i. <i>b</i>, ii. <i>c</i> (Dürr): ‘libertini locupletis incertum +filius an alumnus.’ <i>Vita</i> v. (Dürr), ‘ordinis ut fertur +libertinorum.’ This story is due to a misapprehension of +some of Juvenal’s references. 1, 99-102, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Iubet a praecone vocari<br /> +ipsos Troiugenas (nam vexant limen et ipsi<br /> +nobiscum): “da praetori, da deinde tribuno.”<br /> +Sed libertinus prior est.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p315"> +<i>Libertinus</i> here is not to be taken to mean that the +entire set are freedmen. +</p> + +<p> +As to 4, 98, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘unde fit ut malim fraterculus esse gigantis,’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +it gives no evidence whatever of Juvenal’s position. If it +meant anything, it would rather imply that Juvenal was +the son of a poor Italian and not of a foreign slave. So +for 11, 145-6. His family was respectable, his means +were fair, and he could afford to look down on upstarts +in virtue both of his birth and of his property, although +it is clear from his own works that he had in Rome the +position of a rather humble dependent, who would be +exposed to insult at the tables of the rich and powerful. +Cf. 3, 318; 6, 57 (above); 12, 89, ‘laribus paternis’; 1, 24, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘patricios omnes opibus cum provocet unus,<br /> +quo tondente gravis iuveni mihi barba sonabat.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +So 10, 225. +</p> + +<p> +In <i>vita</i> iv. he is said to have attained equestrian rank. +(Tribunician rank implied equestrian). This, on the whole, +is confirmed by the inscription, and may be founded on +the original <i>vita</i>. +</p> + +<p> +Juvenal had a full course of education, first under the +<i>litterator</i> and the <i>grammaticus</i>, then under the <i>rhetor</i>.<a href="#fn095" id="ref095">[95]</a> +Cf. 1, 15, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p316"> +<p> +‘Et nos ergo manum ferulae subduximus, et nos<br /> +consilium dedimus Sullae, privatus ut altum<br /> +dormiret.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +This would imply a good position, and a certain command +of money. Such <i>patres libertini</i> as Horace’s were +very rare. +</p> + +<p> +The inscription above quoted (<i>divi Vespasiani</i> shows +that its date is after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79, and probably not long after) +informs us that Juvenal was (1) ‘tribunus cohortis I. +Delmatarum’<a href="#fn096" id="ref096">[96]</a>; (2) ‘duumvir quinquennalis’<a href="#fn097" id="ref097">[97]</a> and ‘flamen +divi Vespasiani’ at Aquinum. The dates when Juvenal +held these posts cannot be determined exactly; but we +can infer certain points. +</p> + +<p> +(1) There was a <i>certus ordo honorum</i> in municipal life, +and Juvenal must have held the quaestorship and the +aedileship before the <i>duumviratus quinquennalis</i>. The +lower limit of entering on a municipal career was twenty-five, +according to an order of Augustus, and people did +not usually begin it much later; we may therefore conclude +that these municipal posts were held by Juvenal +somewhere between <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 80 and 90. The last year is +approximately fixed by the way in which Martial in two +of his epigrams (vii. 24 and 91) belonging to <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 91 +or 92 speaks of Juvenal; the words show that the +latter must have been established in Rome for some +time. +</p> + +<p id="p317"> +(2) In ordinary course Juvenal would enter the army +after the completion of his seventeenth year. The short +time he took to arrive at the position of tribune, and the +statement of <i>vita</i> iv. ‘cum ... ad dignitatem equestris +ordinis pervenire sua virtute meruisset,’ make it probable +that he entered the army as <i>petitor militiae equestris</i>, +as a preliminary step towards entering on a political +career. +</p> + +<p> +The cohors Delmatarum I., which Juvenal commanded +as tribune, was in Britain in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 106, and in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 124.<a href="#fn098" id="ref098">[98]</a> +Probably it had been stationed there for a period of +years, and it is likely that Juvenal filled his tribuneship +there. Now, all the <i>vitae</i> inform us that Juvenal was +banished under the pretext of a military command. While +the other <i>vitae</i> give Egypt as the place of his banishment, +<i>vita</i> iv. gives Scotland; and it seems highly probable that +<i>vita</i> iv. has confused Juvenal’s regular military command +in Britain, and his banishment, late in life, to Egypt. +The words are: +</p> + +<p> +‘[Tyrannus] sub honoris praetextu fecit eum praefectum +militis contra Scotos, qui bellum contra Romanos +moverant.’ +</p> + +<p> +This is supported by Juvenal’s references to Britain. +Some of these, like his references to Egypt, seem, in +contradistinction to most of his references to foreign parts, +to imply personal knowledge and observation. They are +as follows: +</p> + +<p id="p318"> +(1) 2, 159-161, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Arma quidem ultra<br /> +litora Iuvernae promovimus et modo captas<br /> +Orcadas ac minima contentos nocte Britannos.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Here ‘Iuverna’ is the old name of Ireland, which is not +mentioned even in Tacitus’ <i>Agricola</i><a href="#fn099" id="ref099">[99]</a>; for the Orcades +cf. Tac. <i>Agr.</i> 10; and the excessive shortness of the +summer nights mentioned in the last clause is especially +true of the north of Scotland. +</p> + +<p> +(2) 10, 14, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quanto delphinis balaena Britannica maior.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +This is also particularly applicable to the north of Scotland, +whales being frequently seen off the Orkney and +Shetland Islands. +</p> + +<p> +(3) 4, 141, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Rutupinove edita fundo<br /> +ostrea.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(4) 14, 196, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Castella Brigantum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(5) 15, 111, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos,<br /> +de conducendo loquitur iam rhetore Thule.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Cf. Tac. <i>Agr.</i> 21. +</p> + +<p> +(6) 15, 124, ‘Brittones.’ This form is rarely found +except in military inscriptions,<a href="#fn100" id="ref100">[100]</a> and could scarcely have +been used except by one familiar with the camp in +Britain.<a href="#fn101" id="ref101">[101]</a> +</p> + +<p id="p319"> +That Juvenal came to Rome about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 90 has been +shown above. This step he may have taken to forward +his promotion in the army and afterwards in the procuratorial +service. His failure in this direction may have +led to his pessimism. His friendship with Martial (whom, +however, he does not mention) is shown by Mart. vii. +24 (cf. vii. 91), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cum Iuvenale meo quae me committere temptas,<br /> +quid non audebis, perfida lingua, loqui?’ etc. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +That he was still in Rome in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 101, and had the +entrée of the atria of rich nobles is shown by Mart. xii. +18, written in that year. +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Dum tu forsitan inquietus erras<br /> +clamosa, Iuvenalis, in Subura<br /> +aut collem dominae teris Dianae,<br /> +dura per limina te potentiorum<br /> +sudatrix toga ventilat vagumque<br /> +maior Caelius et minor fatigant,<br /> +me multos repetita post Decembres<br /> +accepit mea rusticumque fecit<br /> +auro Bilbilis et superba ferro.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +From this we see that he lived in the Subura, the plebeian +quarter. Cf. 3, 5, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘ego vel Prochytam praepono Suburae.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p id="p320"> +While in Rome he still possessed his land at Aquinum +and also a property at Tibur; 11, 65, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘de Tiburtino veniet pinguissimus agro<br /> +haedulus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The statement of the <i>vitae</i> that Juvenal studied rhetoric +till middle life is, as already stated, improbable, as +being inconsistent with his military and municipal career; +‘facundus,’ applied to him by Mart. vii. 91, 1, does not +mean ‘declaiming,’ but ‘poetical’ or ‘oratorical.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Vitae</i> i. <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> (and other seven) say, ‘ad mediam fere +aetatem declamavit animi magis causa quam quod scholae +se aut foro praepararet.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Juvenal’s literary life.</i>—In the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> the satires are divided +into Books, and the division seems ancient. Book i. includes +<i>Sat.</i> 1-5; Book ii. = <i>Sat.</i> 6; Book iii. = <i>Sat.</i> 7-9; +Book iv. = <i>Sat.</i> 10-12; Book v. = <i>Sat.</i> 13-16. +</p> + +<p> +Book i. was written under Trajan; certainly after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 100, +the date of the trial of Marius Priscus <a href="#fn102" id="ref102">[102]</a>; 1, 49, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘exul ab octava Marius bibit et fruitur dis<br /> +iratis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Book ii. not earlier than <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 116. It is highly probable +that 6, 407, ‘instantem regi Armenio Parthoque cometen,’ +refers to a comet seen at Rome in November <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 115; +and 6, 411, ‘nutare urbes, subsidere terras,’ to the earthquake +at Antioch, 13th December, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 115. +</p> + +<p> +Book iii., probably about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 120, was written under +Hadrian, who is eulogized in 7, 1-35. Dürr thinks it +probable that 7, 36-243, was written under Trajan, and +that the introduction, in praise of Hadrian, was written +afterwards. This is also Friedländer’s view; cf. l. 1, ‘Et +spes et ratio studiorum in Caesare tantum,’ with Spart. <i>vit. +Hadr.</i> 14, 8, ‘poematum studiosissimus.’ This also supports +the view that the introduction was written not long after +Hadrian’s accession, when a new era for poets was supposed +to be beginning. +</p> + +<p id="p321"> +Book iv. was probably written about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 125. +</p> + +<p> +Book v. A clue to the date is found in 13, 16-7, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Stupet haec, qui iam post terga reliquit<br /> +sexaginta annos, Fonteio consule natus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Fonteius Capito and C. Iulius Rufus were consuls <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 67, +in which year the sexagenarian friend whom Juvenal +addresses was born. The date of writing will therefore +be <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 127.<a href="#fn103" id="ref103">[103]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Cf. also 15, 27, ‘nuper consule Iunco.’ Iuncus was +consul <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 127, so that this satire could not have been +written before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 128. So 15, 44, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Horrida sane<br /> +Aegyptos, sed luxuria, quantum ipse notavi,<br /> +barbara famoso non cedit turba Canopo.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Juvenal must have added these lines to the satire while +he was an exile in Egypt, if he did not write the whole +of it there. This is in accordance with what <i>vita</i> v. says, +‘in exilio ampliavit satyras.’ Supposing this passage to be +an addition, we may conclude that Book v. was written +about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 128, but not before that year. +</p> + +<p id="p322"> +<i>Juvenal’s banishment.</i>—As before stated, all the <i>vitae</i> but +one give Egypt as the place of Juvenal’s exile. The exact +place, according to the scholiast on 1, 1 and 4, 38, was +the Great Oasis (Hoasa: Hoasis). Three <i>vitae</i> (i. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, +iii. <i>c</i>) state that he was at that time <i>octogenarius</i>. This +would make the date <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 135 or 136. Most of the <i>vitae</i> +give as the reason of his exile the fact that he wrote the +lines,<a href="#fn104" id="ref104">[104]</a> 7, 90-2, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quod non dant proceres dabit histrio. Tu Camerinos<br /> +et Baream, tu nobilium magna atria curas?<br /> +Praefectos Pelopea facit, Philomela tribunos.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Now these lines, the first he ever wrote (<i>vita</i> iii. <i>c</i>) were +composed in his youth as an epigram on Paris, Domitian’s +favourite, probably about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 81-3. The true story then +is that, when Juvenal in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 135 or 136 published a new +edition of <i>Sat.</i> 7, he added these lines (<i>vitae</i> i. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, ‘ut ea +quoque quae prima fecerat inferciret novis scriptis’).<a href="#fn105" id="ref105">[105]</a> Now +it has been inferred from Spart. <i>vit. Hadr.</i> 23 <i>sqq.</i> that at +this time an actor had great influence over Hadrian, and +the lines were taken as referring to him. The emperor in +a rage banished Juvenal to Egypt <i>per honorem militiae</i>, +writing maliciously on his commission ‘Et te Philomela +promovit’ (<i>vita</i> iv.). The banishment is assigned to the +influence of Paris by Iohannes Malalas, p. 262 <i>sqq.</i> +(Dindorf), and by Suidas. Cf. also <i>Sat.</i> 15, 44 <i>sqq.</i>, +already quoted, and Sidonius Apollinaris 9, 267 <i>sqq.</i>, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p323"> +<p> +‘Non qui tempore Caesaris secundi<br /> +aeterno incoluit Tomos reatu:<br /> +non qui consimili deinde casu<br /> +ad volgi tenuem strepentis auram<br /> +irati fuit histrionis exul.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<i>Vita</i> iii. <i>b</i>, ‘Tristitia et angore periit anno aetatis suae +altero et octuagesimo.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Vita</i> v., ‘Decessit longo senio confectus exul Antonino +Pio imperatore.’ +</p> + +<p> +If this last statement is correct, Juvenal died after +reaching the age of eighty-two, as Antoninus came to the +throne on 10th July, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 138. It follows from this also +that he must have been born in the second half of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 55. +</p> + +<p> +<i>The Satires.</i>—The following are the more important +points regarding these: +</p> + +<p> +(1) Juvenal’s reasons for writing satire are given in <i>Sat.</i> 1, +ll. 1-14. He is wearied with tragedies and epics on mythological +subjects, ‘Semper ego auditor tantum?’ +</p> + +<p> +He is resolved to follow in the footsteps of Lucilius; +ll. 19-21, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo,<br /> +per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus,<br /> +si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +His satire is due to indignation at the moral decay of the +Roman world. +</p> + +<p> +l. 30, ‘Difficile est satiram non scribere’ (cf. ll. 63, +79). +</p> + +<p> +However, he does not intend to satirize the living, at +least under their own names; and in fact he has in his +mind particularly the times of Domitian, while most of +his names are those of persons living under Claudius or +Nero; l. 170, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p324"> +<p> + ‘Experiar quid concedatur in illos,<br /> +quorum Flaminia tegitur cinis atque Latina.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In the first nine Satires Juvenal’s bitterness is directed +mainly against the senatorial class, possibly because they +had given him no support in his office-seeking. Even his +violent attack on women in <i>Sat.</i> 6 is launched chiefly +against the women of the highest class. Note also the +unjust way in which he speaks of the government of the +provinces (<i>Sat.</i> 8, 87-139). Juvenal is very bitter against +Greeks and Orientals, most of all against Egyptians (cf. +<i>Sat.</i> 15, and his attacks on the Egyptian Crispinus in 4, +1-33, etc.). Cf. 3, 119-125, for his attacks on foreigners. +</p> + +<p> +(2) He claims a wide scope for his subject; 1, 85, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Quidquid agunt homines, votum timor ira voluptas<br /> +gaudia discursus nostri farrago libelli est.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +(3) His pessimism is very marked; cf. 1, 147, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nil erit ulterius, quod nostris moribus addat<br /> +posteritas; eadem facient cupientque minores,<br /> +omne in praecipiti vitium stetit. Utere velis,<br /> +totos pande sinus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +So 12, 48-9. His pessimism leads to extravagant language +like 6, 29 <i>sqq.</i> He is as hard on trifling foibles as on the +most heinous offences. Cf. 6, 166 <i>sqq.</i>, 185 <i>sqq.</i>, 398 <i>sqq.</i>, +434-56 (on learned ladies). +</p> + +<p> +(4) His rhetorical learning and style (found in all the +Satires, but particularly in the later ones) are shown by +</p> + +<p> +(<i>a</i>) His metre and language. Thus we find rhetorical +uses of <i>ergo</i> (3, 104; 281, etc.); <i>nunc</i> (3, 268; 10, 210); +<i>porro</i> (3, 126; 11, 9); and of other particles. +</p> + +<p id="p325"> +(<i>b</i>) The way in which he chooses themes for his Satires, +and subdivides them. Several of the Satires, as 5, 8, 10, 14, +are <i>theses</i>, <i>i.e.</i> problems of a general character worked out +in the manner of the rhetorical schools. Thus <i>Sat.</i> 5 +discusses the question, ‘Is the position of a client worth +having?’ <i>Sat.</i> 8, ‘Has high birth a value in itself?’ He +sometimes uses the commonplaces of the schools, as 8, 56, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Animalia muta<br /> +quis generosa putet nisi fortia?’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +So 8, 215-6. In the manner of a rhetorician he sometimes +gives superabundant details. The best example of this is +10, 190-250, on the troubles of old age. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>c</i>) His knowledge of mythology, history, law, and philosophy. +This is found mostly in the later Books. In +the earlier Satires he dealt more with life as he had +known it. In the later Satires he has recourse to republican +times and to foreign history. His historical examples +Friedländer thinks he took mostly from Valerius Maximus. +Juvenal’s knowledge of philosophy was very superficial, +and was probably got from his rhetorical training. Errors +occur; thus in 13, 121-2, Stoics and Cynics are looked +upon as identical.<a href="#fn106" id="ref106">[106]</a> +</p> + +<p> +(<i>d</i>) His high-flown language referred to above. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>e</i>) His references to previous literature. Thus Horace +is often referred to (cf. 7, 62 and 227); Virgil with great +frequency (cf. 1, 162; 6, 434 <i>sqq.</i>; 7, 66 and 227; 7, 233 <i>sqq.</i>). +Mayor mentions Homer, Herodotus, Plato, Lucilius, Cicero, +Ovid, Manilius, Valerius Maximus, Seneca, Lucan, and +Martial among the authors imitated by Juvenal. +</p> + +<h3 id="p326">PLINY THE YOUNGER.</h3> + +<p> +Pliny’s full name on the inscriptions of the later period +of his life reads ‘C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius Secundus.’ +This name he partly got from his mother’s brother C. +Plinius Secundus (Pliny the elder), who adopted him by +will: cf. <i>Ep.</i> v. 8, 5, ‘Avunculus meus idemque per +adoptionem pater.’ Pliny’s name before his adoption in +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79 (see below) was P. Caecilius L. f. Ouf. Secundus. +His birthplace was Comum, and he belonged to the +Oufentina, the tribe of the people of Comum, as well on +the side of his natural as on that of his adoptive father. +In an inscription preserved at Como (<i>C.I.L.</i> v. 5279) +Pliny’s father, Cilo, is mentioned, and two men who are +undoubtedly Cilo’s sons, the second mentioned being Pliny +the younger, who had always been called Secundus. +</p> + +<p> +‘L. Caecilius L. f. Cilo iiii.vir a(edilicia) p(otestate), +qui testamento suo (sestertium) n(ummum) xxxx. (milia) +municipibus Comensibus legavit, ex quorum reditu quotannis +per Neptunalia oleum in campo et in thermis et +in balineis omnibus, quae sunt Comi, praeberentur, +t(estamento) f(ieri) iussit et L. Caecilio L. f. Valenti et +P. Caecilio L. f. Secundo et Lutullae Picti f. contubernali.’<a href="#fn107" id="ref107">[107]</a> +</p> + +<p> +For Cilo’s bequests here mentioned cf. Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> i, 8, +5; Comum is referred to as ‘patria mea’ in <i>Ep.</i> iv. 30, 1. +The Caecilii were a family of station at Comum even in +Caesar’s time. Cf. Catull. 35, +</p> + +<blockquote id="p327"> +<p> +‘Poetae tenero meo sodali<br /> +velim Caecilio, papyre, dicas,<br /> +Veronam veniat Novi relinquens<br /> +Comi moenia Lariumque litus.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Pliny inherited landed property there from his father and +mother. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> vii. 11, 5, ‘Indicavit mihi cupere se aliquid circa +Larium nostrum possidere: ego illi ex praediis meis quod +vellet ... optuli, exceptis maternis paternisque.’ +</p> + +<p> +The above inscription shows that Pliny’s father belonged +to the municipal nobility, and possibly had ‘equestris +nobilitas.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pliny was in his eighteenth year (<i>Ep.</i> vi. 20, 5, ‘agebam +duodevicensimum annum’) on 24th August, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79, when +his uncle perished in the eruption of Vesuvius, and he +was therefore born in the second half of 61 or in the +first half of 62 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> Cilo died young, before holding the +chief municipal post, and before Pliny was of age; and +Verginius Rufus became Pliny’s guardian. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 8, ‘Ille mihi tutor relictus adfectum parentis +exhibuit.’ Pliny was removed to Rome with his uncle, +probably at the end of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 72. While at school he +wrote poetry (<i>Ep.</i> vii. 4, 2, quoted below), and studied +philosophy and rhetoric. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> vi. 6, 3, ‘Quos tunc ego frequentabam, Quintilianum, +Niceten Sacerdotem.’ Cf. also ii. 14, 10; i. 20, 4; vii. +4, etc. For literary studies with his uncle cf. <i>Ep.</i> vi. +20, 5, ‘Posco librum Titi Livi et quasi per otium lego, +atque etiam, ut coeperam, excerpo.’ +</p> + +<p id="p328"> +His uncle, as above stated, died on 24th August, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +79, and by his will adopted Pliny, whose name thereafter +was C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius Secundus. He therefore +changed his praenomen to that of his adoptive +father, and put his former nomen among his cognomina. +By his contemporaries he is called Plinius (cf. Martial, x. +19), or Secundus, as by Trajan. The name Caecilius +was confined to formal inscriptions. +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 80 or 81 Pliny first appeared as an advocate. +Cf. <i>Ep.</i> v. 8, 8, ‘Undevicensimo aetatis anno dicere in +foro coepi.’ Before entering the Senate, he held (as +stated in the chief inscription, given below) the decemvirate +<i>litibus iudicandis</i>, the military tribunate in the third Gallic +legion, and the title of Sevir in the Roman knighthood. +Pliny probably held his military tribunate under Domitian +(<i>i.e.</i>, after 13th September, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 81) in Syria. +</p> + +<p> +Cf. <i>Ep.</i> i. 10, 2, ‘Hunc [Euphraten philosophum] ego +in Syria, cum adulescentulus militarem, penitus et domi +inspexi.’ +</p> + +<p> +The date of Pliny’s praetorship as <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 93 is settled by +<i>Ep.</i> iii. 11, 2, the events recorded in which passage are +known from Tac. <i>Agr.</i> 45 to have taken place shortly +after Agricola’s death in August, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 93. +</p> + +<p> +‘Fui praetor ... cum ... occisis Senecione Rustico Helvidio, +relegatis Maurico Gratilla Arria Fannia ... mihi quoque +impendere idem exitium certis quibusdam notis augurarer.’ +</p> + +<p> +The words in <i>Ep.</i> vii. 16 (of Calestrius Tiro), ‘Simul +quaestores Caesaris fuimus: ille me in tribunatu liberorum +iure praecessit, ego illum in praetura sum consecutus, +cum mihi Caesar annum remisisset,’ refer to the fact that +the emperor did not insist on the year of absence from +office between the tribunate and the quaestorship. Pliny +was quaestor from 1st June, 89 to 31st May, 90 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>, +being nominated by the emperor, as shown by the above +passage. He was <i>trib. pleb.</i> from 10th December, 90 to 9th +December, 91 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>, and during his year of office undertook +no cases. Cf. <i>Ep.</i> i. 23, 2, ‘Ipse cum tribunus +essem ... abstinui causis agendis.’ By special favour he +was allowed to take office as praetor on 1st January, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +93. In this year he appeared before the Senate for the +people of Baetica against the procurator Baebius Massa. +</p> + +<p id="p329"> +<i>Ep.</i> vii. 33, esp. § 4, ‘Dederat me senatus cum Herennio +Senecione advocatum provinciae Baeticae contra Baebium +Massam.’ +</p> + +<p> +The inscriptions of Pliny show that he was <i>praefectus +aerarii militaris</i> between his praetorship in 93 and his +<i>praefectura aerarii Saturni</i> (from 98 onwards), and this +office he held either from 94 to 96 or from 95 to 97 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +Pliny tells us that he and Cornutus Tertullus were designated +consuls, when they had held the <i>praefectura aerarii +Saturni</i> for less than two years. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Paneg.</i> 91, ‘Nondum biennium compleveramus in +officio laboriosissimo et maximo, cum tu nobis ... consulatum +obtulisti.’ +</p> + +<p> +This <i>designatio</i> took place on 9th January, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 100, +whence the <i>praefectura</i> must have been entered on shortly +after 9th January, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98. Pliny was probably nominated +to it by Nerva and Trajan. +</p> + +<p> +Cf. <i>ad Trai.</i> 3, ‘Ut primum me, domine, indulgentia +<i>vestra</i> promovit ad praefecturam aerarii Saturni.’ +</p> + +<p> +Mommsen<a href="#fn108" id="ref108">[108]</a> believes that this praefectura was held at +the same time as the consulship, and on to December, +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 101, an unusual length of tenure. H. F. Stobbe, +however, makes the trial of Classicus, on which the last +date depends, extend from September 99 to July 100 +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> (<i>Philologus</i>, xxx. 347 <i>sqq.</i>). +</p> + +<p id="p330"> +<i>Paneg.</i> 92, ‘Nobis praefectis aerarii consulatum ante +quam successorem dedisti.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pliny, along with Cornutus Tertullus, his colleague in +the <i>praefectura</i>, was made consul <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 100. He held the +office in September of that year, and the tenure was +either from July 1 to September 30, or from September +1 to October 31. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Paneg.</i> 92, ‘Ei nos potissimum mensi attribuisti quem +tuus natalis exornat.’ +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Panegyricus</i> is a speech of thanks to Trajan spoken +on this occasion. In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 99 Pliny, along with Tacitus, +appeared for the Africans against the proconsul Marius +Priscus (see <i>Ep.</i> ii. 11 quoted <a href="#p338">p. 338</a>); and in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 101, +while still <i>praefectus aerarii</i>, he appeared for the people of +Baetica against the proconsul Caecilius Classicus. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> iii. 4, 2, ‘Legati provinciae Baeticae questuri de proconsulatu +Caecili Classici advocatum me a senatu petierunt.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pliny obtained the augurship, probably in 103 or 104, +in succession to Sex. Iulius Frontinus, who probably died +in 102 or 103 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> Cf. <i>Ep.</i> iv. 8, 3, ‘Successi Iulio +Frontino.’ In 103 or 104 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> he appeared against the +Bithynians for the proconsul Iulius Bassus (<i>Ep.</i> iv. 9 etc.). +He held the <i>cura alvei Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum +urbis</i> probably from 105 to 107 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> See Pliny’s chief +inscription (below), and cf. <i>Ep.</i> v. 14, 1-2, ‘Mihi nuntiatum +est Cornutum Tertullum accepisse Aemiliae viae curam +... aliquanto magis me delectat mandatum mihi officium, +postquam par Cornuto datum video.’ +</p> + +<p id="p331"> +About <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 106 Pliny appeared against the Bithynians +for the proconsul Varenus Rufus (<i>Ep.</i> vi. 29, 11). +</p> + +<p> +From 111-2 or 112-3 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> Pliny was governor of Pontus +and Bithynia, being sent out for a special purpose by +the emperor as <i>legatus pro praetore consulari potestate</i>. +Cf. the chief inscription (below) and the words of Trajan. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Trai.</i> 32, ‘Meminerimus idcirco te in istam provinciam +missum, quoniam multa in ea emendanda apparuerint.’ +</p> + +<p> +The date of Pliny’s governorship is fixed by the mention +of Calpurnius Macer in the letters (<i>ad Trai.</i> 42; 61; 62) +as the governor of the nearest province. Mommsen has +identified him with P. Calpurnius Macer Caulius Rufus, +who is shown by an inscription (<i>C.I.L.</i> iii. 7 and 17) to +have been governor of Lower Moesia in 112 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> This +is corroborated by the fact that no mention is made of +Bithynia in the chief collection of letters, which was not +completed till <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 108 at least. Therefore the governorship +falls after that time. On the other hand, Pliny +must have been sent out not later than <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 113, as in +the chief inscription <i>Optimus</i> does not appear in Trajan’s +name, and this cognomen he assumed in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 114. +Finally, the fact that Trajan was at Rome during Pliny’s +governorship points to a time between the end of the +second Dacian War in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 107 and the outbreak of the +Parthian War in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 113. +</p> + +<p> +Our information about Pliny ends with the close of +his correspondence with Trajan. It is certain that he +held no further office, and it is probable that he died +before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 114 in his province or shortly after his return +to Rome. +</p> + +<p> +As regards municipal relations, Pliny held the post of +<i>flamen divi Augusti</i>, according to the inscription which +the corporation of Vercellae erected to him at his own +town (<i>C.I.L.</i> v. 5667). +</p> + +<p id="p332"> +‘C. Plini[o L. f. O]uf. Caec[ilio] Secundo [c]os. augur. cur. +alv. Tib. [et ripa]r. et cloac. urb. [praef. a]er. Sat. praef. +aer. mil. [pr. tr. pl.] imp. sevir. eq. R. tr. m[i]l. leg. iii. Gall. +x. viro stl. iud. fl. divi T. Aug.’ +</p> + +<p> +For bequests to his native town see the chief inscription +(below). Besides these are mentioned gifts in his life-time. +Under Domitian Pliny presented his townspeople with a +library (<i>Ep.</i> i, 8), apparently worth 1,000,000 sesterces +(v. 7), and endowed it with 100,000 sesterces. He also +gave 500,000 sesterces for the support of freeborn boys +and girls (<i>Ep.</i> i, 8); and promised to pay one-third of +the salary of the professor of rhetoric at Comum (<i>Ep.</i> +iv. 13, 5). +</p> + +<p> +The following is the chief inscription of Pliny (as +restored by Mommsen), which was erected at the <i>Thermae</i> +which he presented to Comum (<i>C.I.L.</i> v. 5262): +</p> + +<p> +‘C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius <i>Secundus cos.</i> augur +legat. pro pr. provinciae Pon<i>ti et Bithyniae</i> consulari +potesta<i>t.</i> in eam provinciam e<i>x. s. c. missus ab</i> Imp. +Caesar. Nerva Traiano Aug. German<i>ico Dacico p.p.</i> curator +alvei Ti<i>b</i>eris et riparum e<i>t cloacar. urb.</i> praef. aerari +Satu<i>r</i>ni praef. aerari mil<i>it. pr. trib. pl.</i> quaestor imp. sevir +equitum <i>Romanorum</i> trib. milit. leg. <i>iii.</i> Gallicae <i>x.vir stli</i>tib. +iudicand. therm<i>as ex HS</i> ... adiectis in ornatum HS +ccc ... <i>et eo amp</i>lius in tutela<i>m</i> HS CC t. f. i. <i>item in alimenta</i> +libertor. suorum homin. C. HS XVIII LXVI DCLXVI +rei<i>p. legavit, quorum inc</i>rement. postea ad epulum <i>pl</i>eb. +urban. voluit pertin<i>ere ... item vivus</i> dedit in aliment. +pueror. et puellar. pleb. urban. HS D <i>item bybliothecam et</i> +in tutelam bybliothecae HS C.’ +</p> + +<p id="p333"> +Pliny was also patron of Tifernum Tiberinum and of +the Baetici. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> iv. 1, 4, ‘Oppidum est praediis nostris vicinum, +nomen Tiferni Tiberini, quod me paene adhuc puerum +patronum cooptavit ... In hoc ego ... templum pecunia mea +exstruxi, cuius dedicationem ... differre longius inreligiosum +est.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> iii. 4, 4, ‘Legati ... inplorantes fidem meam, quam +essent contra Massam Baebium experti, adlegantes patrocini +foedus.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pliny married three times, twice under Domitian. Cf. +<i>ad Trai.</i> 2, ‘Liberos ... habere etiam tristissimo illo saeculo +volui, sicut potes duobus matrimoniis meis credere.’ +For his third wife, Calpurnia, who died <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 97, see +<i>Ep.</i> iv. 19. Pliny had no children, but Trajan conferred +on him the <i>ius trium liberorum</i> in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98. Cf. <i>ad Trai.</i> +2, ‘Me dignum putasti iure trium liberorum.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Pliny as orator and writer.</i>—Most of Pliny’s cases +were before the <i>centumviri</i>, who dealt with inheritances: +cf. <i>Ep.</i> vi. 12, 2, ‘in harena mea, hoc est apud centumviros.’ +So Mart. x. 19, 14 (written <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 96), +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Totos dat tetricae dies Minervae<br /> +dum centum studet auribus virorum<br /> +hoc quod saecula posterique possint<br /> +Arpinis quoque comparare chartis.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +For Pliny’s five speeches in criminal trials before +the Senate see above. Cf. <i>Ep.</i> vi. 29, 7 <i>sqq.</i>, ‘Egi +quasdam a senatu iussus ... Adfui Baeticis contra Baebium +Massam ... Adfui rursus isdem querentibus de Caecilio +Classico ... Accusavi Marium Priscum ... Tuitus sum +Iulium Bassum ... Dixi proxime pro Vareno.’ +</p> + +<p id="p334"> +Pliny recited his speeches before delivering them, and +subsequently published them, sometimes with additions. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> vii. 17, 2, ‘Miror quod scribis fuisse quosdam qui +reprehenderent quod orationes omnino recitarem.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> iii. 18, 1 (of the <i>Panegyricus</i>), ‘Quod ego in senatu +cum ad rationem et loci et temporis ex more fecissem, +bono civi convenientissimum credidi eadem illa spatiosius +et uberius volumine amplecti.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pliny speaks of his early attempts at poetry: +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> vii. 4, 2-3, ‘Numquam a poetice (altius enim +repetam) alienus fui; quin etiam quattuordecim natus +annos Graecam tragoediam scripsi. Qualem? inquis: +nescio: tragoedia vocabatur.’ +</p> + +<p> +In Books i.-iii. he appears only as a lover of poetry and +a patron of poets (cf. i. 16; iii. 15). From Book iv. +(published <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 105) onwards he appears as a poet. In +<i>Ep.</i> vii. 4, 6 are thirteen poor hexameter lines on Cicero; +<i>ibid.</i> §§ 7-8, ‘Transii ad elegos: hos quoque non minus +celeriter explicui: addidi iambos, facilitate corruptus ... +Postremo placuit exemplo multorum unum separatim +hendecasyllaborum volumen absolvere, nec paenitet. +Legitur, describitur, cantatur etiam.’ Pliny defends himself +for writing light verses in <i>Ep.</i> v. 3, etc. In the later +books he refers to another proposed collection of verses. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> viii. 21, 3, ‘Liber fuit et opusculis varius et +metris.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pliny says he did not observe chronological order in +publishing his letters. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ep.</i> i. 1, 1, ‘Collegi non servato temporis ordine +(neque enim historiam componebam), sed ut quaeque in +manus venerat.’ +</p> + +<p> +This, however, is not convincing, as it falls in with +Pliny’s wish to give an appearance of negligence to the +work, and besides it may apply only to Book i. Successive +publication of the different Books is shown by many +references; so <i>Ep.</i> ix. 19, ‘Significas legisse te in quadam +epistula,’ where <i>Ep.</i> vi. 10 is referred to. So also contemporaneous +events are always described in the same +Book or in two Books close together; and when a subject +is continued in another letter, the order of the two letters +fits in with chronology. So iii. 4 and iv. 1 deal with +the building of a temple at Tifernum; iii. 20 and iv. 25 +with ballot at elections. +</p> + +<p id="p335"> +The following are the probable dates of publication: +Book i. in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 97; Book ii. in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 100; Book iii. in +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 101 or 102; Book iv. in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 105; Book v. in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +106; Book vi. possibly in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 106; Book vii. in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +107; Book viii. not before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 109; Book ix. probably +about the same time. +</p> + +<p> +The correspondence with Trajan is independent of the +nine Books of letters. The epistles are roughly in chronological +order. <i>Epp.</i> 1-14 range from 98 to 106 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +<i>Epp.</i> 15 to the end were probably all written in Bithynia +during Pliny’s governorship there. Trajan’s reply is subjoined +to most of the letters. The correspondence extant +stretches from September <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 111 over January <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 113. +</p> + +<p> +Pliny had intimate relations with other writers, the +principal being Tacitus; Martial (cf. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 21); Silius +Italicus (cf. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 7). See <a href="#p340">pp. 340</a>, <a href="#p298">298</a>, <a href="#p289">289</a>. For his +literary reputation see <i>Ep.</i> ix. 23, 2, quoted <a href="#p338b">p. 338</a> and cf. +<i>Ep.</i> i. 2, 6, ‘Libelli quos emisimus dicuntur in manibus +esse, quamvis iam gratiam novitatis exuerint; nisi tamen +auribus nostris bibliopolae blandiuntur.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Pliny’s character.</i>—Pliny, without being a great man, is +a more favourable specimen of character, feeling, and gentlemanly +tone, than almost any other Roman author. He +avoided censorious writing, and most of the people he +mentions are praised. The chief exception is Regulus +(<i>Ep.</i> i. 5, etc.), and possibly also Iavolenus Priscus (vi. +15). When anybody is blamed, his name is omitted unless +he is dead or has been banished. +</p> + +<p id="p336"> +<i>Ep.</i> vii. 28, i, ‘Ais quosdam apud te reprehendisse, +tamquam amicos meos ex omni occasione ultra modum +laudem. Agnosco crimen, amplector etiam. Quid enim +honestius culpa benignitatis?’ +</p> + +<p> +For his desire of praise cf. <i>Ep.</i> ix. 23, 5, ‘An ... ego +celebritate nominis mei gaudere non debeo? Ego vero +et gaudeo et gaudere me dico.’ +</p> + +<p> +For his kindness to slaves cf. <i>Ep.</i> viii. 16, 1, ‘Permitto +servis quoque quasi testamenta facere eaque ut legitima +custodio’ (and the rest of the letter). +</p> + +<p> +For his grief at the loss of friends cf. <i>Ep.</i> v. 21, 6, +‘Sed quid ego indulgeo dolori? cui si frenos remittas, +nulla materia non maxima est. Finem epistulae faciam, +ut facere possim etiam lacrimis quas epistula expressit.’ +</p> + +<p> +For his love of nature cf. Ep. i. 9, 6, ‘O mare, o litus, +verum secretumque <span class="greek">μουσεῖον</span>, quam multa invenitis, quam +multa dictatis!’ +</p> + +<p> +Cf. also descriptions of natural scenery, as in <i>Epp.</i> ii. +17, 3; v. 6, 13; vi. 31, 15; viii. 8. +</p> + +<h3>TACITUS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +The historian’s full name is uncertain. Other writers, +<i>e.g.</i> Pliny the younger, call him Cornelius Tacitus, or simply +Tacitus. His praenomen is given as P. in the best Tacitean +<span class="bcad">MS.</span> (Mediceus I.), and as C. in later <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> and by Sidonius +Apollinaris (<i>Ep.</i> iv. 14; 22).<a href="#fn109" id="ref109">[109]</a> His birthplace is unknown. +The tradition that he was born at Interamna in Umbria +arose from the fact that the emperor Tacitus (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 275-6), +who claimed descent from the historian (Vopisc. <i>Tac.</i> 10, 3), +was born there.<a href="#fn110" id="ref110">[110]</a> The probable date of his birth is got +from a comparison of two passages: +</p> + +<p id="p337"> +<i>Dial.</i> 1, ‘Disertissimorum ... hominum ... quos eamdem +hanc quaestionem pertractantes iuvenis admodum audivi.’ +</p> + +<p> +Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> vii. 20, 3, ‘Erit rarum et insigne duos homines +aetate dignitate propemodum aequales ... alterum alterius +studia fovisse. Equidem adulescentulus, cum iam tu fama +gloriaque floreres, te sequi, tibi longo sed proximus intervallo +et esse et haberi concupiscebam.’ +</p> + +<p> +The dramatic date of the Dialogue is <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 75 (<i>Dial.</i> 17), +and at that time Tacitus, as <i>iuvenis admodum</i>, must have +been between seventeen and twenty. From a consideration +of the words of Pliny, who was born <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 61 or 62, the +later age seems nearer the mark, and we may conclude +that Tacitus was born <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 55 or 56. +</p> + +<p> +We have no positive information about Tacitus’ family, +but his education, political career, and marriage into a +distinguished house, prove that he belonged to a family +of station. The first person of the name we know of is +mentioned by Pliny the elder as an <i>eques</i>, and may have +been Tacitus’ father. +</p> + +<p id="p338"> +Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> vii. 76, ‘Corneli Taciti, equitis Romani, +Belgicae Galliae rationes procurantis.’ +</p> + +<p> +Tacitus received the regular rhetorical training under the +best masters. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Dial.</i> 2, ‘M. Aper et Iulius Secundus, celeberrima tum +ingenia fori nostri, quos ego in iudiciis non modo studiose +audiebam, sed domi quoque et in publico adsectabar, mira +studiorum cupiditate et quodam ardore iuvenili, ut fabulas +quoque eorum et disputationes et arcana semotae dictionis +penitus exciperem.’ +</p> + +<p id="p338b"> +That Tacitus had a very great reputation as a speaker +is seen from Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ix. 23, 2, ‘Numquam maiorem +cepi voluptatem, quam nuper ex sermone Corneli Taciti. +Narrabat sedisse se cum quodam Circensibus proximis: +hunc post varios eruditosque sermones requisisse “Italicus +es an provincialis?” se respondisse “nosti me, et quidem +ex studiis.” Ad hoc illum “Tacitus es an Plinius?”’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98 (according to others, 97) Tacitus delivered +the funeral oration over Verginius Rufus, and in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 100 +he and Pliny prosecuted Marius Priscus, proconsul of +Africa, for extortion. +</p> + +<p> +Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 6, ‘Laudatus est [Verginius Rufus] a +consule Cornelio Tacito: nam hic supremus felicitati eius +cumulus accessit, laudator eloquentissimus.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ibid.</i> ii. 11, 2, ‘Ego et Cornelius Tacitus, adesse provincialibus +iussi.’ § 17, ‘Respondit Cornelius Tacitus +eloquentissime, et quod eximium orationi eius inest, <span class="greek">σεμνῶς</span>.’ +</p> + +<p> +In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 77 Tacitus was betrothed to the daughter of +Agricola, then consul, and in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 78 he married her. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Agr.</i> 9, ‘Consul egregiae tum spei filiam iuveni mihi +despondit ac post consulatum collocavit, et statim Britanniae +praepositus est.’ +</p> + +<p id="p339"> +Tacitus gives us a clue to his political career in <i>Hist.</i> +i. 1. +</p> + +<p> +‘Dignitatem nostram a Vespasiano incohatam, a Tito +auctam, a Domitiano longius provectam non abnuerim.’ +</p> + +<p> +This probably means that Vespasian granted him the +<i>latus clavus</i>, <i>i.e.</i> a place in the <i>ordo senatorius</i>, which was +followed by the <i>vigintiviratus</i> given by the Senate, and a +commission in the army as <i>tribunus militum laticlavius</i>; +that Titus appointed him quaestor <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 80-1; and that +Domitian made him tribune or aedile (about 84), and in +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 88 praetor. For the last office cf. <i>Ann.</i> xi. 11, +</p> + +<p> +‘Is [Domitianus] edidit ludos saeculares, eisque intentius +adfui sacerdotio quindecimvirali praeditus ac tunc praetor.’ +</p> + +<p> +That Tacitus was absent from Rome <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 90-93 we may +infer from what he says of Agricola’s death (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 93). +</p> + +<p> +<i>Agr.</i> 45, ‘Nobis tam longae absentiae condicione ante +quadriennium amissus est.’ +</p> + +<p> +He must have returned to Rome soon afterwards, for +he says in the same chapter: ‘Mox nostrae duxere Helvidium +in carcerem manus; nos Maurici Rusticique visus, +nos innocenti sanguine Senecio perfudit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Tacitus was appointed consul suffectus under Trajan +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98 (see Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 6, above quoted). +</p> + +<p> +An inscription found at Mylasa in Caria shows that +Tacitus was proconsul of Asia about 112-116 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span><a href="#fn111" id="ref111">[111]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Tacitus probably died soon after the publication of the +<i>Annals</i> (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 115-7), as he did not live to write his contemplated +works on the Augustan age and the reigns of +Nerva and Trajan. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Hist.</i> i. 1, ‘Quod si vita suppeditet, principatum divi +Nervae et imperium Traiani ... senectuti seposui.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ann.</i> iii. 24, ‘Cetera illius aetatis [Augusti] memorabo, +si effectis in quae tetendi, plures ad curas vitam produxero.’ +</p> + +<p id="p340"> +Tacitus was on intimate terms with Pliny, eleven of +whose letters are addressed to him. From vii. 20 and +viii. 7 we see that they were in the habit of “exchanging +proof-sheets.” To the same circle belonged Fabius Iustus, +to whom the <i>Dialogus</i> is dedicated, and Asinius Rufus. +</p> + +<p> +Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> iv. 15, 1, ‘Asinium Rufum singulariter +amo. ... Idem Cornelium Tacitum arta familiaritate +complexus est.’ +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. <i>Dialogus de Oratoribus</i>, an inquiry into the causes +of the decay of eloquence—‘cur nostra potissimum aetas +deserta et laude eloquentiae orbata vix nomen ipsum +oratoris retineat’ (<i>Dial.</i> 1). Some critics have supposed +that Tacitus meant this work to be an <i>apologia pro vita +sua</i>, a justification of his preference for a literary to a +rhetorical career, but this cannot be proved. That Tacitus +is the author is clear from Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ix. 10, 2, ‘Itaque +poemata quiescunt, quae tu inter nemora et lucos commodissime +perfici putas’—a reference to <i>Dial.</i> 9, ‘poetis ... +in nemora et lucos, id est in solitudinem, secedendum est.’ +The dramatic date is given in <i>Dial.</i> 17 as <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 75; the +statement there and in <i>Dial.</i> 24 that one hundred and twenty +years have passed since Cicero’s death (which would give +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 77) is made in round numbers. The date of composition +is uncertain. It was not under Domitian, as Tacitus +remained silent during his reign (<i>Agr.</i> 2). We can hardly +suppose it to have been written under Nerva, as its style is +so different from that of the <i>Agricola</i>; but it may have been +written under Domitian, and published after his death. +Some authorities put it as early as <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 81.<a href="#fn112" id="ref112">[112]</a> +</p> + +<p id="p341"> +2. <i>De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae liber</i>, an account +of the life of Cn. Iulius Agricola, Tacitus’ father-in-law, +and particularly of his career in Britain. It was written +early in the reign of Trajan, and therefore after 27th Jan., +98 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>, and probably in that year. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Agr.</i> 3, ‘quamquam primo statim beatissimi saeculi ortu +Nerva Caesar res olim dissociabiles miscuerit, principatum +ac libertatem, augeatque cottidie felicitatem temporum +Nerva Traianus.’ +</p> + +<p> +3. <i>Germania</i>.—The Vatican <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> give the title as <i>de +origine et situ</i> (another <span class="bcad">MS.</span> adds <i>moribus ac populis</i>) Germanorum. +The date of publication, as seen from <i>Germ.</i> 37, +was <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98. The book is not mentioned in <i>Agr.</i> 3 among +the proposed works of Tacitus; and it has therefore been +supposed that the materials were collected for the <i>Histories</i>, +and that the work was published separately on account of +its length, and also the interest felt in Germany at the +time. There is nothing in the theory that the book is a +political pamphlet, or that it contains a moral purpose. +Tacitus is by no means blind to the faults of the Germans +(c. 17 <i>sqq.</i>, etc.), though he compares them favourably in +many respects with the Romans. +</p> + +<p> +4. <i>Historiae</i>.—The title is guaranteed by Tertull. <i>apol.</i> 16, +‘Cornelius Tacitus in quinta historiarum suarum.’ The +work embraced the time from Galba to Domitian, <i>i.e.</i> +69-96 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> The first four Books and part of the fifth are +extant, and give the history of 69 and most of 70 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +In <span class="bcad">MS.</span> Mediceus II., the only ancient <span class="bcad">MS.</span> that contains +<i>Ann.</i> xi.-xvi. and the <i>Histories</i>, there is no title, but the +Books are numbered continuously as belonging to the same +work. Cf. Jerome, <i>Comm. on Zacharias</i>, iii. 14, ‘Cornelius +Tacitus, qui post Augustum usque ad mortem Domitiani +vitas Caesarum triginta voluminibus exaravit.’ If, therefore, +the <i>Annals</i> contained sixteen Books, the <i>Histories</i> must +have contained fourteen, supposing Jerome’s statement to +be correct. Some authorities think the numbers were +eighteen and twelve respectively. The work was written +under Trajan (cf. <i>Hist.</i> i. 1, ‘principatum divi Nervae et +imperium Traiani’), and was probably brought out in +instalments. Pliny’s letters (vi. 16; 20; vii. 33), written +about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 106-9, contain contributions to it. +</p> + +<p id="p342"> +5. <i>Annales</i>, or rather <i>Ab excessu divi Augusti</i>, the title +given by <span class="bcad">MS.</span> Med. I. Tacitus often calls his work <i>annales</i> +(as in <i>Ann.</i> iv. 32), but uses the word to signify his plan +of recording events by their years. Cf. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 71, ‘Ni +mihi destinatum foret suum quaeque in annum referre, +avebat animus antire,’ etc. +</p> + +<p> +He occasionally apologises (as in xii. 40) for departing +from this order for the sake of clearness. The Books, +the division into which was made by Tacitus himself (cf. +vi. 27, ‘in prioribus libris’), usually, however, end with +some important event. +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Annals</i> deal with the time from the death of +Augustus to that of Nero, <i>i.e.</i> from 14 to 68 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> There +are extant Books i.-iv. and a part of v. and vi., and Books +xi.-xvi., except the beginning of xi. and the end of xvi. +We have thus lost the whole of the reign of Caligula and +the reign of Claudius from 41-47 (part), and Nero’s reign +from the close of 66 to 68. The work was published +between <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 115 and 117. This is settled by <i>Ann.</i> ii. 61, +‘Exin ventum Elephantinen ac Syenen, claustra olim +Romani imperii, quod nunc rubrum ad mare patescit.’ +</p> + +<p id="p343"> +The conquest here spoken of was made by Trajan <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +115, and his successor Hadrian, soon after coming to the +throne (August, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 117), gave up the regions beyond the +Euphrates and Tigris (Spartianus, <i>Hadri.</i> 5).<a href="#fn113" id="ref113">[113]</a> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Tacitus’ views on politics, philosophy, and religion.</i>— +</p> + +<p> +(1) The ideal mixed form of government Tacitus considers +to be impracticable. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ann.</i> iv. 33, ‘Cunctas nationes et urbes populus aut +primores aut singuli regunt: delecta ex eis et consociata +rei publicae forma laudari facilius quam evenire, vel si +evenit, haud diuturna esse potest.’ +</p> + +<p> +Tacitus is essentially a conservative. Thus he always +uses <i>antiquus</i> and <i>priscus</i> in a good sense (<i>H.</i> ii. 5; 64; +<i>Ann.</i> vi. 32). +</p> + +<p> +In <i>Ann.</i> iii. 60 he speaks with pride of the republic: +‘Magna eius diei species fuit, quo senatus maiorum beneficia, +sociorum pacta, regum etiam, qui ante vim Romanam +valuerant, decreta ipsorumque numinum religiones introspexit, +libero, ut quondam, quid firmaret mutaretve.’ +</p> + +<p> +See also the speech of C. Cassius in <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 43. As +an aristocrat Tacitus is sometimes unjust to men of low +birth, as in <i>Ann.</i> iv. 3, where he sneers at Seianus as +‘municipali adultero,’ and attaches great value to high +birth (cf. vi. 27). He is prejudiced against slaves and +barbarians. +</p> + +<p id="p344"> +Tacitus theoretically prefers a republic (cf. <i>Ann.</i> vi. 42, +‘Populi imperium iuxta libertatem, paucorum dominatio +regiae libidini propior est’), but admits the impossibility of +a restitution of the free state (<i>H.</i> ii. 37-8) and the necessity +of empire. <i>H.</i> i. 1 (of Augustus), ‘omnem potentiam ad +unum conferri pacis interfuit.’ +</p> + +<p> +Cf. also Galba’s speech in <i>H.</i> i. 16. The problem is +to reconcile the empire with freedom (see <i>Agr.</i> 3 quoted +<a href="#p341">p. 341</a>). One’s duty is to steer one’s course <i>inter abruptam +contumaciam et deforme obsequium</i> (<i>Ann.</i> iv. 20). Tacitus +gives only modified approval to patriots like Paetus Thrasea +(<i>Ann.</i> xiv. 12; 49) and Helvidius Priscus (<i>H.</i> iv. 6), and +on the other hand gives praise for moderation to men like +Agricola (<i>Agr.</i> 42), M. Lepidus (<i>Ann.</i> iv. 20), L. Piso +(<i>Ann.</i> vi. 10). +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ann.</i> xiv. 12, ‘Thrasea Paetus ... sibi causam periculi +fecit, ceteris libertatis initium non praebuit.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Agr.</i> 42, ‘Non contumacia neque inani iactatione libertatis +famam fatumque provocabat.’ +</p> + +<p> +Tacitus blames those who despair of their own times. +<i>Ann.</i> ii. 88, ‘dum vetera extollimus recentium incuriosi.’ He +thinks that the emperors, from their irresponsible position, +were often gradually led into wickedness, their downward +career being helped by flatterers and satellites, and draws +a moral lesson from the servile Senate and the <i>delatores</i>, +who, like the emperors themselves, received punishment +for their conduct (<i>Ann.</i> i. 74; iii. 65 <i>sqq.</i>). +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ann.</i> vi. 48, ‘Cum Tiberius post tantam rerum experientiam +vi dominationis convulsus et mutatus sit.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ann.</i> iv. 33, ‘Pauci prudentia honesta ab deterioribus +utilia ab noxiis discernunt, plures aliorum eventis docentur.’ +</p> + +<p id="p345"> +<i>Ann.</i> vi. 6, ‘Adeo facinora atque flagitia sua ipsi quoque +in supplicium verterant ... Quippe Tiberium non fortuna, +non solitudines protegebant, quin tormenta pectoris suasque +ipse poenas fateretur.’ +</p> + +<p> +(2) Tacitus attaches himself to no particular school of +philosophy, and deprecates too close an attention to the +subject. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Agr.</i> 4, ‘Memoria teneo solitum ipsum [Agricolam] +narrare se prima in iuventa studium philosophiae acrius, +ultra quam concessum Romano ac senatori, hausisse, ni +prudentia matris incensum ac flagrantem animum coercuisset.’ +</p> + +<p> +He cannot make up his mind as to freewill and predestination, +but in spite of this doubt expressly states his +desire to find out the causes of events. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ann.</i> vi. 22, ‘Sed mihi haec ac talia audienti in incerto +iudicium est, fatone res mortalium et necessitate immutabili +an forte volvantur’ (and the rest of the chapter, where the +Stoic and Epicurean views are mentioned). On the other +hand, <i>H.</i> i. 4, ‘Ut non modo casus eventusque rerum, +qui plerumque fortuiti sunt, sed ratio etiam causaeque +noscantur.’ +</p> + +<p> +He expresses his belief in divine agency, particularly in +the <i>Annals</i>, but sometimes adopts the pessimistic view +that the gods take little interest in mankind. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Ann.</i> xiv. 5, ‘Noctem sideribus inlustrem et placido mari +quietam, quasi convincendum ad scelus, di praebuere.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>H.</i> v. 5, ‘Pessimus quisque spretis religionibus patriis.’ +</p> + +<p> +<i>H.</i> i. 3, ‘Nec enim umquam atrocioribus populi Romani +cladibus magisve iustis indiciis adprobatum est non esse +curae deis securitatem nostram, esse ultionem.’ +</p> + +<p id="p346"> +<i>Ann.</i> xvi. 33, ‘Aequitate deum erga bona malaque +documenta.’ +</p> + +<p> +He believes in the science of divination (see especially +<i>Ann.</i> iv. 58), but speaks contemptuously of the impostors +found among soothsayers and astrologers. +</p> + +<p> +<i>H.</i> i. 22, ‘Mathematicis ... genus hominum potentibus +infidum, sperantibus fallax, quod in civitate nostra et vetabitur +semper et retinebitur.’ +</p> + +<p> +Prodigies are recognized, but mentioned only in the +<i>Histories</i> and the last books of the <i>Annals</i> (from <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 51 +onwards). See especially <i>H.</i> ii. 50. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Tacitus as a historian.</i>—As regards his sources, Tacitus +makes more use of his predecessors than he does of original +documents. Among the latter he mentions <i>acta diurna</i> +(<i>Ann.</i> iii. 3) and <i>commentarii</i> or <i>acta senatus</i> (<i>Ann.</i> xv. 74); +but these he did not make much use of, as they were apt +to be falsified. He also refers to <i>publica acta</i>, probably +inscriptions (<i>Ann.</i> xii. 24); Tiberius’ speeches (<i>Ann.</i> i. 81); +memoirs of Agrippina, Nero’s mother (<i>Ann.</i> iv. 53); and +of Domitius Corbulo on his campaigns in Parthia (<i>Ann.</i> +xv. 16). He also refers by name to several historians, +especially in dealing with the times after Nero, as C. +Plinius (<i>Ann.</i> i. 69, quoted <a href="#p284">p. 284</a>), Vipstanus Messalla +(<i>H.</i> iii. 25), Fabius Rusticus,<a href="#fn114" id="ref114">[114]</a> and Cluvius Rufus<a href="#fn115" id="ref115">[115]</a> (<i>Ann.</i> +xiii. 20). +</p> + +<p> +Other writers are sparingly mentioned, as Sisenna (<i>H.</i> +iii. 51), Caesar (<i>Germ.</i> 28). It is certain that Tacitus made +use of other historians, but he generally refers to his sources +without mentioning names (as <i>Ann.</i> i. 29, ‘tradunt plerique’). +He sometimes weighs the value of two conflicting accounts, +or mentions a story only to reject it. +</p> + +<p id="p347"> +<i>Ann.</i> iv. 11, ‘Haec vulgo iactata, super id quod nullo +auctore certo firmantur, prompte refutaveris.’ +</p> + +<p> +Tacitus’ credibility has been attacked, particularly as +regards his representation of the characters of Tiberius and +Nero, but not very successfully. He has, however, made +mistakes, the most striking of which are his view of the +Christians (<i>Ann.</i> xv. 44) and his account of the Jews +(<i>H.</i> v. 2 <i>sqq.</i>). The explanation is that he held the view +current in the upper classes, and did not take the trouble +to investigate these matters, as the Jews and Christians +belonged mostly to the lower orders. +</p> + +<p> +Tacitus is not free from superstition (<i>Ann.</i> xi. 21; <i>H.</i> +ii. 50, etc.), but one must not suppose he believes the +fables he relates (as <i>Ann.</i> vi. 28; <i>H.</i> iv. 83) simply because +he expresses no opinion of them. +</p> + +<p> +Tacitus is free from party spirit (<i>Ann.</i> i. 1, ‘sine ira et +studio, quorum causas procul habeo’; cf. <i>H.</i> i. 1) and just +in his judgment, except in a few passages in the <i>Histories</i>, +where he is rather unfair (i. 42, ii. 95). He is milder in +the <i>Annals</i> through advancing years, and from the better +times he lived in. Generally he takes a lenient view of +things, except (1) in offences against the state (cf. the +character of Tiberius); (2) when the religious element +comes in; cf. what he says of Claudius’ marriage with +his brother’s daughter Agrippina: <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 2, ‘Agrippina +... exercita ad omne flagitium patrui nuptiis.’ +</p> + +<p> +He shows a somewhat lax morality occasionally, as in +<i>Ann.</i> xiii. 17 <i>sqq.</i>, when speaking of Nero’s murder of his +brother Britannicus. In <i>Ann.</i> xi. 19 he approves of compassing a barbarian’s death by treachery. +</p> + +<p id="p348"> +For Tacitus’ conception of history as dealing with great +events cf. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 31, ‘pauca memoria digna evenere, +nisi cui libeat laudandis fundamentis et trabibus, quis +molem amphitheatri apud campum Martis Caesar extruxerat, +volumina implere, cum ex dignitate populi Romani +repertum sit res inlustres annalibus, talia diurnis urbis actis +mandare.’ +</p> + +<p> +His complaints as to his subject-matter in <i>Ann.</i> iv. 32, +‘Nobis in arto et inglorius labor,’ must not be taken too +seriously. +</p> + +<h3>SUETONIUS.</h3> + +<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4> + +<p> +C. Suetonius Tranquillus was the son of Suetonius Laetus, +a tribune of the thirteenth legion, who took part in the +battle of Bedriacum, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 69 (Sueton. <i>Otho</i>, 10). His birth +seems to have taken place soon after that year,<a href="#fn116" id="ref116">[116]</a> for he +was ‘adulescens’ twenty years after Nero’s death; <i>Nero</i> 57, +‘cum post viginti annos, adulescente me, exstitisset condicionis incertae qui se Neronem esse iactaret.’ +</p> + +<p> +Suetonius was a friend of the younger Pliny, to whom +he was indebted for a military tribuneship, which he afterwards passed on to a relative (Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 8), and for +assistance in the purchase of a small estate (ibid. i. 24). +Pliny encouraged him to publish some of his writings +(v. 10), and obtained for him from Trajan the <i>ius trium +liberorum</i> (<i>ad Trai.</i> 94). +</p> + +<p id="p349"> +Under Hadrian he was <i>magister epistularum</i>, but was +dismissed from office in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 121. Spartianus, <i>Hadr.</i> 11, 3, +‘Septicio Claro praefecto praetorio et Suetonio Tranquillo +epistularum magistro multisque aliis, quod apud Sabinam +uxorem in usu eius familiarius se tunc egerant quam reverentia +domus aulicae postulabat, successores dedit.’ The +remainder of his life appears to have been devoted to +literature. +</p> + +<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4> + +<p> +1. <i>De Vita Caesarum</i>, in eight Books (Books i.-vi. Iulius-Nero; +vii. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius; viii. Vespasian, +Titus, and Domitian). It was published <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 119-21, as it +was dedicated (according to Joannes Lydus) to C. Septicius +Clarus, praetorian prefect, who held office during those +years. The preface and the beginning of the life of Iulius +are wanting. Suetonius is a conscientious and accurate +writer (cf. his discussion of Caligula’s birthplace, <i>Calig.</i> 8), +and he makes use of good sources, e.g. the <i>Monumentum +Ancyranum</i>, <i>Acta populi</i>, <i>Acta senatus</i>, autograph documents +of the emperors (<i>Aug.</i> 87, <i>Nero</i> 52); but there is in his +work an almost entire absence of dates, and the personal +element is, from the point of view of history, unduly +prominent. +</p> + +<p> +2. <i>De Viris Illustribus</i>, including poets, orators (beginning +with Cicero), historians (from Sallust onwards), philosophers, +grammarians, and rhetoricians. The greater part of the +section <i>De grammaticis et rhetoribus</i> is extant, as well as +lives of Terence, Horace, and Lucan from the section <i>de +poetis</i>, and of Pliny the elder from the section <i>de historicis</i>. +Extracts from the rest of the work are preserved by Jerome. +In each section there was (1) a list of the authors discussed, +(2) a general survey of their branch of literature, +(3) brief notices of the authors in chronological order. The +publication took place, according to Roth, 106-113 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> +</p> + +<p id="p350"> +3. Minor works, now lost (mentioned by Suidas), on +Greek games, Roman games, the Roman year, on critical +marks, on Cicero’s <i>Republic</i>, on dress, on imprecations +(<span class="greek">περὶ δυσφήμων λέξεων ἤτοι βλασφημιῶν καὶ πόθεν ἑκάστη</span>), on +Roman laws and customs. Some of these were probably +only sections of the <i>Prata</i>, a miscellany in ten Books, +which also treated of natural science and philology. The +books on Greek games and on imprecations were almost +certainly composed in Greek. +</p> + +<h2 id="p351">APPENDIX A</h2> + +<h2>ON SOME OF THE CHIEF ANCIENT AUTHORITIES +FOR THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. +</h2> + +<p> +1. <span class="sc">Jerome</span><a href="#fn117" id="ref117">[117]</a> +(<span class="sc">Hieronymus</span>) was born about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 335 at +Stridon, on the frontiers of Dalmatia and Pannonia, and died +<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 420 at the monastery of Bethlehem. His contributions +to the history of Roman literature are to be found in his +translation of the Chronicle (<span class="greek">χρονικοὶ κανόνες</span>) of Eusebius, in +which the dates are reckoned from the first year of Abraham +(= <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 2016 according to his chronology), the point at which +Eusebius commenced. On the period between the Trojan War +and <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 325 Jerome not merely translated the remarks of +Eusebius, as he had done in the earlier period, but also added +numerous extracts from authorities on Roman history and +literature. The source from which he derived nearly all his +information on literature is universally admitted to have been +the work of Suetonius <i>De Viris Illustribus</i>. With the statements +in the surviving sections of that treatise the observations +of Jerome agree, and there can be no reasonable doubt that +he made a similar use of the parts no longer extant. It is a +significant fact that the important authors on whom Jerome +is silent, <i>e.g.</i> Tacitus, Juvenal, and the younger Pliny, are +precisely those whom Suetonius, as a contemporary, naturally +could not discuss. +</p> + +<p id="p352"> +The statements of Jerome, based as they are on the high +authority of Suetonius, may be regarded as in the main trustworthy. +Some of them, however, are doubtful, and others +manifestly wrong. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>a</i>) Jerome’s plan obliged him to fix every event to a definite +year; and this, in many cases, can only be guess-work, for +Suetonius, as may be seen from his extant writings, was often +vague in his chronology. +</p> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) Comparison with the remains of Suetonius shows that +Jerome’s claim to have made his extracts with care was not +always well grounded; <i>e.g.</i> his statement that Ennius was a +native of Tarentum (see <a href="#p027">p. 27</a>). +</p> + +<p> +(<i>c</i>) In reckoning, according to his system of dates, events +dated by one of the many confusing systems of chronology +current in ancient times, many openings for error presented +themselves; <i>e.g.</i> he sometimes erred through confusing consuls +of the same or similar names, as in the case of Lucilius +(<a href="#p059">p. 59</a>); or through confusing similar events, as in the case +of Livius Andronicus, although the mistake about the latter +was of long standing (<a href="#p002">p. 2</a>). Once at least he seems to +have confused the date of an author’s <i>floruit</i> and that of his +death, making Plautus die in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 200 instead of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 184 +(<a href="#p008">p. 8</a>). +</p> + +<p> +2. <span class="sc">Aulus Gellius</span><a href="#fn118" id="ref118">[118]</a> was born probably about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 123, and +studied under the most eminent teachers both at Rome and +at Athens. Of his subsequent life nothing is known except +that he held some judicial post at Rome. His work, the +<i>Noctes Atticae</i> in twenty Books (of Book viii. only the headings +of chapters are preserved), is a miscellany of information on +philology, philosophy, rhetoric, history, biography, literary +criticism, natural science, and antiquities. The title is due to +the fact that the book was commenced in the winter evenings +during the author’s residence at Athens. The arrangement of +the contents simply follows the haphazard order of the notes +which Gellius made in the course of his reading of Greek and +Roman authors. Those authors, and the conversation of contemporaries, +are Gellius’ professed sources, but in some cases +the author he names is evidently quoted at second-hand, and +many of the conversations are doubtless quite imaginary. Our +obligations to Gellius are twofold. +</p> + +<p id="p353"> +(<i>a</i>) Innumerable extracts from ancient authors are preserved +by him alone. (No quotations are given from post-Augustan +writers—a fact which accords with the affected archaism of +his style.) +</p> + +<p> +(<i>b</i>) His remarks on incidents in the lives of the Roman poets +are in the main derived from Varro, whose work <i>De Poetis</i> +is quoted for the epitaph of Plautus (see <a href="#p009">p. 9</a>); elsewhere +his source is indicated either vaguely or not at all, e.g. iii. 3, 15, +‘accepimus’; xii. 4, 5, ‘ferunt.’ For literary criticism Varro is +quoted: iii. 3, 9, <i>sqq.</i>; vi. 14, 6 (see <a href="#p010">pp. 10</a>, <a href="#p051">51</a>). +</p> + +<p> +3. <span class="sc">Nonius Marcellus</span>,<a href="#fn119" id="ref119">[119]</a> a Peripatetic, of Thubursicum in +Numidia, is identified by Mommsen with the Nonius Marcellus +Herculius of <i>C.I.L.</i> viii. 4878 (date <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 323); but +nothing is known of his life. His work, <i>De Compendiosa +Doctrina ad Filium</i> in twenty Books (of Book xvi. the title +only is known; Book xx. is fragmentary), though modelled on +that of Gellius, is immeasurably inferior in execution. According +to the theory usually received Nonius borrowed largely +from Gellius; but it is possible that both compilers made +independent use of the same authorities, viz., scholars such as +Verrius Flaccus, Valerius Probus, and Suetonius, whose works +they knew either directly or through abridgments. The subjects +with which Nonius deals are grammar, lexicography, and +antiquities; and he is often our sole authority for the titles of +works as well as for brief extracts. +</p> + +<p id="p354"> +4. <span class="sc">Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius</span>, doubtless identical +with the Macrobius who held, among other high offices, the +proconsulship of Africa <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 410, was probably, like Nonius, +of African origin. Besides his commentary on the <i>Somnium +Scipionis</i> of Cicero, Macrobius wrote a work in seven Books +on Roman literature and antiquities with the title of <i>Saturnalia</i>. +The imaginary conversations of which it consists are supposed +to take place during the festival of the Saturnalia at Rome +(hence the title); and the chief subject of discussion is the +poetry of Virgil. A remarkable feature of the book is its +wealth of quotation from Greek and Latin authors. Macrobius, +like Gellius, bases his work on extracts from older authorities; +but, unlike him, arranges his matter systematically. +</p> + +<p> +5. <span class="sc">Aelius Donatus</span>, a grammarian who flourished at Rome +about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 350, and was one of Jerome’s teachers, extracted +from the lost work of Suetonius the Lives of Terence and Virgil, +and prefixed them to his own commentaries on Terence and +on the <i>Georgics</i> and <i>Aeneid</i>. The latter is lost, and the commentary +on Terence contains much that is not from the hand +of Donatus. +</p> + +<p> +6. <span class="sc">Servius</span>.—There are two versions of the Servian commentary +on Virgil. The shorter is the work of Maurus Servius +Honoratus, who was born about 350 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>, and lived at Rome +(Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> i. 2, 15); his topographical references show +that he composed his commentary there. Servius, whose notes +are chiefly on the language of the poems, gives illustrative +quotations from Roman authors, in some cases from memory +and inaccurately. Donatus is the authority whom he mentions +oftenest, but he undoubtedly made extensive use of Suetonius. +</p> + +<p> +The longer version contains learned additions to the work +of Servius by an anonymous Christian writer, who deals mainly +with the subject-matter of Virgil. +</p> + +<p> +7. <span class="sc">Acro</span> and <span class="sc">Porphyrio</span>.—Helenius Acro (probably about +200 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>) was the author of commentaries on Horace and +Terence, now lost. The scholia on Horace extant under +Acro’s name are, with few exceptions, taken from the commentary +of Pomponius Porphyrio, which we possess in a +mutilated form. Porphyrio, who probably belonged to the +4th cent. <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>, names among his sources Acro and Suetonius. +</p> + +<p id="p355"> +For <span class="sc">Asconius</span> see <a href="#fn028">p. 77</a>; for <span class="sc">Valerius Probus</span>, <a href="#fn041">p. 147</a>. +</p> + +<h2 id="p356">APPENDIX B</h2> + +<h2>SELECT LIST OF EDITIONS.</h2> + +<p> +<span class="sc">Note</span>.—All editions mentioned have explanatory notes, except those marked +“text” (which are merely texts), and those marked “crit.” (which have an +apparatus criticus). +</p> + +<p> +Editions published in England and Germany have English and German notes +respectively, unless otherwise stated. +</p> + +<p> +F.P.R. = Fragmenta Poetarum Romanorum, ed. E. Bährens. +</p> + +<pre> +<b>Livius Andronicus.</b> + Plays-- + In Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, ed. + O. Ribbeck (vol. i. <i>Trag.</i>, ii. <i>Com.</i>) (crit.), Leip. ’71-73 + Do. (with Naevius’ plays), L. Müller, Berl. ’85 + Odisia, in E. Bährens’ Frag. Poet. Rom. (crit.), Leip. ’86 + +<b>Naevius.</b> + Bellum Punicum, J. Vahlen, Leip. ’54 + " F.P.R. + Plays (see above). + +<b>Plautus.</b> + J. L. Ussing (Latin commentary), Copenh. ’75-87 + F. Ritschl, revised by G. Loewe, G. Goetz, and F. + Schöll (crit.), Leip. ’94 + Amphitruo, A. Palmer, Lond. ’90 + Asinaria, J. H. Gray, Camb. ’94 + Aulularia, W. Wagner, Camb. ’92 + Captivi, J. Brix, Leip. ’84 + " W. M. Lindsay, Oxf. ’95 + " E. A. Sonnenschein, Lond. ’80 + " A. R. S. Hallidie, Lond. ’95 + Epidicus, J. H. Gray, Camb. ’93 + Mostellaria, A. O. F. Lorenz, Berl. ’83 + " E. A. Sonnenschein, Camb. ’84 + Menaechmi, J. Brix and M. Niemeyer, Leip. ’91 + " W. Wagner, Camb. ’92 + Miles, J. Brix, Leip. ’82 + " A. O. F. Lorenz, Berl. ’86 + " R. Y. Tyrrell, Lond. ’94 + Pseudolus, A. O. F. Lorenz, Berl. ’76 + Rudens, E. A. Sonnenschein, Oxf. ’91 + Stichus, C. A. M. Fennell, Camb. ’93 + Trinummus, J. Brix and M. Niemeyer, Leip. ’88 + " W. Wagner, Camb. ’90 + " C. E. Freeman and A. Sloman, Oxf. ’96 + +<b>Ennius.</b> + F.P.R. + J. Vahlen Leip. ’54 + Do. (with Naevius’ + Bell. Pun.), L. Müller, St. Petersb. ’85 + +<b>Pacuvius</b> and <b>Caecilius Statius.</b> + Ribbeck, <i>Trag.</i> and <i>Com.</i> + +<b>Terence.</b> + K. Dziatzko (text), Leip. ’84 + W. Wagner, Lond. ’92 + Andria, A. Spengel, Berl. ’88 + " C. E. Freeman and A. Sloman, Oxf. ’93 + " and Eunuchus, T. L. Papillon, Lond. ’70 + Heaut. Tim., E. S. Shuckburgh, Lond. ’94 + " J. H. Gray, Camb. ’95 + Phormio, K. Dziatzko, Leip. ’85 + " A. Sloman, Oxf. ’94 + " J. Bond and A. S. Walpole, Lond. ’95 + Adelphoe, K. Dziatzko, Leip. ’81 + " A. Spengel, Berl. ’79 + " A. Sloman, Oxf. ’92 + " S. G. Ashmore, Lond. ’93 + +<b>Cato the Elder.</b> + De Agricultura (and + Varro, Res Rusticae), H. Keil (crit.), Leip. ’82-91 + Other fragments, H. Jordan (crit.), Leip. ’60 + +<b>Accius.</b> + Ribbeck, and F.P.R. + +<b>Lucilius.</b> + L. Müller, Leip. ’72 + C. Lachmann (crit.), Berl. ’76 + F.P.R. + +<b>Atta, Afranius, Laberius.</b> + Ribbeck. + +<b>Matius, Laevius, Bibaculus, Calvus, Cinna, Varro Atacinus.</b> + F.P.R. + +<b>Auctor ad Herennium.</b> + C. L. Kayser, Leip. ’54 + F. Marx (crit.), Leip. ’94 + +<b>Varro.</b> + Sat. Menipp., Logistorici, + Sententiae Varronis, A. Riese (crit.), Leip. ’65 + Sat. Menipp. (text in F. Bücheler’s Petronius), Berl. ’95 + Antiquitates (text in R. Merkel’s Ovid, Fasti), Berl. ’41 + De vita pop. Rom., H. Kettner (crit.), Halle, ’63 + De gente pop. Rom., H. Peter (Frag. Hist. Rom.), Leip. ’83 + De Lingua Latina, A. Spengel (crit.), Berl. ’85 + Res Rusticae, H. Keil (see ‘Cato’). + Grammatical Works + (except <i>De L.L.</i>), A. Wilmanns (crit.), Berl. ’64 + +<b>Cicero.</b> + 1. <i>Speeches</i>-- + Pro Sex. Rosc. Amer., E. H. Donkin, Lond. ’95 + Pro Sex. Rosc. Amer., G. Landgraf, Erlangen, ’84 + Pro Q. Rosc. Com., C. A. Schmidt, Leip. ’39 + Verrines, C. G. Zumpt, Berl. ’31 + Div. in Caec. and in + Verr., Act. i., W. E. Heitland and H. Cowie, Camb. ’95 + Verr., Act. i., J. R. King, Lond. ’87 + Div. in Caec. and in Verr. + Act ii., 4 and 5, E. Thomas, Paris, ’95 + Pro Caecina, C. A. Jordan, Leip. ’47 + De Imp. Cn. Pompei, A. S. Wilkins, Lond. ’94 + Pro Cluentio, W. and G. G. Ramsay, Oxf. ’89 + Pro Cluentio, W. Y. Fausset, Lond. ’88 + De Lege Agraria, A. W. Zumpt, Berl. ’61 + Pro Rab. perd. reo, W. E. Heitland, Camb. ’82 + In Catilinam, A. S. Wilkins, Lond. ’95 + Pro Murena, W. E. Heitland, Camb. ’93 + Pro Murena, J. H. Freese, Lond. ’94 + Pro Sulla, J. S. Reid, Camb. ’91 + Pro Archia, J. S. Reid, Camb. ’95 + Pro Flacco, A. du Mesnil, Leip. ’83 + Pro Sestio, H. A. Holden, Lond. ’95 + In Vatinium, C. Halm, Leip. ’46 + De Prov. Cons., G. Tischer, Berl. ’61 + Pro Balbo, J. S. Reid, Camb. ’90 + Pro Plancio, H. A. Holden, Camb. ’93 + Pro Milone, J. S. Reid, Camb. ’95 + Pro Milone, A. C. Clark, Oxf. ’95 + Pro Marcello, Ligario, + Deiotaro, W. Y. Fausset, Oxf. ’93 + Philippics, J. R. King. Oxf. ’78 + II. Phil., J. E. B. Mayor, Lond. ’93 + II. Phil., A. G. Peskett, Camb. ’91 + 2. <i>Rhetorical Works</i>-- + De Oratore, A. S. Wilkins, Oxf. ’92 + De Oratore, G. Sorof, Berl. ’82 + De Oratore, K. W. Piderit + and O. Harnecker, Leip. ’86-90 + De Inventione, A. Weidner, Berl. ’78 + Brutus, K. W. Piderit + and W. Friedrich, Leip. ’89 + Brutus, O. Jahn and A. Eberhard, Berl. ’77 + Orator, J. E. Sandys, Camb. ’85 + Orator, K. W. Piderit, Leip. ’76 + Orator, (with De Opt. + Gen. Orat.), O. Jahn, Berl. ’69 + Partit. Orat., K. W. Piderit, Leip. ’67 + 3. <i>Philosophical Works</i>-- + De Re Publica, F. Osann, Gött. ’47 + De Legibus, A. du Mesnil, Leip. ’79 + Paradoxa, G. H. Moser, Gött. ’46 + De Finibus, J. N. Madvig (Lat. comm.), Copenh. ’78 + " H. Holstein, Leip. ’73 + Academica, J. S. Reid, Lond. ’85 + Tusc. Disp.,. R. Kühner (Lat.), Hanover, ’74 + " O. Heine, Leip. ’92-96 + " G. Tischer and G. Sorof, Berl. ’84-87 + De Nat. Deor., J. B. Mayor, Camb. ’83-91 + " G. F. Schömann, Berl. ’76 + De Senectute, J. S. Reid, Camb. ’94 + " Amicitia, J. S. Reid, Camb. ’93 + " Officiis, H. A. Holden, Camb. ’93 + " Divinatione, De + Fato, G. H. Moser, Frankf. ’28 + 4. <i>Letters</i>-- + Correspondence of C. R. Y. Tyrrell and + L. C. Purser, Dubl. ’85-94 + Selections, A. Watson, Oxf. ’91 + " (C. in his + Letters), R. Y. Tyrrell, Lond. ’96 + Epp. ad Att., J. G. C. Boot (Lat.) Amst. ’86 + Epp. ad Fam., L. Mendelssohn (crit.), Leip. ’93 + C. F. W. Müller (crit.), Leip. ’96 + 5. <i>Poems</i>-- + F.P.R. + <i>Complete texts</i>-- + J. C. Orelli, J. G. Baiter, and C. Halm,. Zür. ’45-61 + C. F. A. Nobbe, Leip. ’50 + C. F. W. Müller, etc., Leip. ’90-96 + J. G. Baiter and C. L. Kayser, Leip. ’60-69 + +<b>Caesar.</b> + B. Dinter (text), Leip. ’96 + B. Kübler (text), Leip. ’93-94 + Bell. Gall., J. Bond and A. S. Walpole, Lond. ’87 + " A. G. Peskett, Camb. ’78 + Bell. Gall., C. E. Moberly, Oxf. ’90 + Bell. Gall., F. Kraner and W. Dittenberger, Berl. ’90 + Bell. Gall., A. Doberenz and B. Dinter, Leip. ’92 + Bell. Civ., C. E. Moberly, Oxf. ’92 + Bell. Civ., F. Kraner and F. Hofmann, Berl. ’90 + Bell. Civ., A. Doberenz and B. Dinter, Leip. ’84 + Bell. Civ., (Bk. i.), A. G. Peskett, Camb. ’90 + Bell. Alex., R. Schneider, Berl. ’89 + Bell. Afr., E. Wölfflin and A. Miodonski, Leip. ’89 + +<b>Nepos.</b> + C. Nipperdey and B. Lupus, Berl. ’95 + J. Siebelis and M. Jancovius, Leip. ’96 + O. Browning and W. R. Inge, Oxf. ’88 + E. S. Shuckburgh, Camb. ’95 + +<b>Lucretius.</b> + H. A. J. Munro, Camb. ’91-93 + C. Lachmann, Berl. ’82 + Books i.-iii., J. H. W. Lee, Lond. ’93 + Book v., J. D. Duff, Camb. ’96 + +<b>Sallust.</b> + Cat. and Iug., W. W. Capes, Oxf. ’89 + Cat. and Iug., C. Merivale, Lond. ’84 + Cat. and Iug., (and + frags. of Hist.), R. Jacobs and H. Wirz, Berl. ’94 + Cat., A. M. Cook, Lond. ’88 + Hist. (text), H. Jordan, Leip. ’87 + Historiarum Reliquiae, B. Maurenbrecher, Leip. ’91-93 + +<b>Publilius Syrus.</b> + Sententiae, W. Meyer (crit.), Leip. ’80 + Sententiae, R. A. H. Bickford Smith, Camb. ’95 + +<b>Catullus.</b> + A. Palmer (crit.), Lond. ’96 + R. Ellis (crit.), Oxf. ’78 + R. Ellis (commentary), Oxf. ’89 + B. Schmidt (introd. and text), Leip. ’87 + F. P. Simpson (selections), Lond. ’94 + (With Tibullus and + Propertius), L. Müller (text), Leip. ’92 + +<b>Horace.</b> + E. C. Wickham, Oxf. ’90-96 + A. Kiessling, Berl. ’89-95 + J. C. Orelli, W. Hirschfelder, and W. Mewes, Berl. ’86-92 + Satires, A. Palmer, Lond. ’96 + Odes and Epodes, T. E. Page, Lond. ’95 + " J. Gow, Camb. ’96 + Epistles and A.P., A. S. Wilkins, Lond. ’92 + +<b>Virgil.</b> + O. Ribbeck (crit.), Leip. ’94-95 + " (text only), Leip. ’95 + T. E. Papillon and A. E. Haigh (text only), Oxf. ’92 + [The above include the minor poems.] + J. Conington and H. Nettleship, Lond. ’83-84 + T. E. Papillon and A. E. Haigh, Oxf. ’92 + A. Sidgwick, Camb. ’90-94 + B. H. Kennedy, Lond. ’79 + T. Ladewig, C. Schaper, and P. Deuticke, Berl. ’91 + K. Kappes, Leip. ’93-95 + Aeneid (i.-vi.), T. E. Page, Lond. ’94 + +<b>Tibullus.</b> + E. Hiller (text), Leip. ’85 + E. Bährens (text), Leip. ’78 + L. Dissen, Gött. ’35 + +<b>Propertius.</b> + W. A. Hertzberg, Halle, ’43-45 + F. A. Paley, Lond. ’72 + A. Palmer (text), Lond. ’80 + J. P. Postgate (selections), Lond. ’94 + " (text), Lond. ’94 + +<b>Ovid.</b> + A. Riese (introd.), Leip. ’71-89 + Heroides, A. Palmer, Lond. ’74 + " E. S. Shuckburgh, Lond. ’96 + Metam., J. Sibelis and F. Polle, Leip. ’92-96 + " M. Haupt, O. Korn, and + H. J. Müller, Berl. ’85 + Fasti, G. H. Hallam, Lond. ’93 + Fasti, R. Merkel, Berl. ’41 + " H. Peter, Leip. ’89 + Tristia, S. G. Owen (crit.), Oxf. ’89 + " (Bks. i., iii.), S. G. Owen, Oxf. ’90-93 + " and Ibis, R. Merkel, Berl. ’37 + Ibis, R. Ellis (Lat.), Oxf. ’82 + +<b>Manilius.</b> + F. Jacob, Berl. ’46 + [See also R. Ellis, <i>Noctes Manilianae</i>, Oxf. ’91.] + +<b>Livy.</b> + W. Weissenborn and H. J. Müller, Berl. ’73-96 + M. Hertz (introd. and text), Leip. ’57-63 + Book i., J. R. Seeley, Oxf. ’81 + Books iv., vi., ix., xxvii., H. M. Stephenson, Camb. ’90-94 + Book v., L. Whibley, Camb. ’94 + Books xxi., xxii., M. S. Dimsdale, Camb. ’94-95 + " W. W. Capes, Lond. ’95 + +<b>Trogus.</b> + A. Bielowski, Lemberg, ’53 + +<b>Verrius Flaccus.</b> + (Festus and Paulus), C. O. Müller, Leip. ’80 + +<b>Vitruvius.</b> + V. Rose and H. Müller-Strübing (crit.), Leip. ’67 + +<b>Seneca the Elder.</b> + H. J. Müller (text), Prague, ’87 + A. Kiessling (text), Leip. ’72 + +<b>Velleius.</b> + C. Halm (crit.), Leip. ’76 + D. Ruhnken, ed. C. H. Frotscher, Leip. ’39 + +<b>Valerius Maximus.</b> + C. Kempf (text), Leip. ’88 + +<b>Celsus.</b> + C. Daremberg (text), Leip. ’59 + +<b>Phaedrus.</b> + J. Siebelis and F. A. Eckstein, Leip. ’89 + +<b>Seneca the Younger.</b> + Prose Works, F. Haase (text), Leip. ’93-95 + Apocolocyntosis, in F. Bücheler’s Petronius (text). + Tragedies, R. Peiper and G. Richter (text), Leip. ’67 + +<b>Curtius Rufus.</b> + T. Vogel, Leip. ’93 + +<b>Columella.</b> + In <i>Scriptores Rei Rusticae</i>, + ed. I. G. Schneider (Lat.), Leip. 1794-7 + +<b>Asconius.</b> + A. Kiessling and R. Schöll, Berl. ’75 + +<b>Mela.</b> + C. Frick (text), Leip. ’80 + +<b>Persius.</b> + O. Jahn and F. Bücheler (text), Berl. ’93 + J. Conington, ed. H. Nettleship, Oxf. ’93 + +<b>Probus.</b> + H. Keil, Halle, ’48 + +<b>Lucan.</b> + C. Hosius (text), Leip. ’92 + C. E. Haskins (introd. by W. E. Heitland), Lond. ’87 + Book i., W. E. Heitland and C. E. Haskins, Camb. ’95 + " Lejay, Paris, ’94 + Books i.-v., C. M. Francken (Lat.), Leiden, ’96 + +<b>Petronius.</b> + F. Bücheler (text), Berl. ’95 + Cena Trimalchionis, L. Friedländer (text, German + trans., and notes), Leip. ’91 + +<b>Calpurnius Siculus.</b> + H. Schenkl (text), Prague, ’85 + C. H. Keene, Lond. ’87 + +<b>Aetna.</b> + H. A. J. Munro, ’Camb. 67 + +<b>Pliny the Elder.</b> + L. van Jan and Mayhoff (text), Leip. ’75-92 + J. Sillig, Hamburg, ’51-58 + J. Hardouin, Paris, 1723 + D. Detlefsen (crit.), Berl, ’66-82 + (Selections) Chrestomathia + Pliniana, L. Urlichs, Berl. ’57 + +<b>Valerius Flaccus.</b> + J. A. Wagner, Gött. 1805 + N. E. Lemaire, Paris, ’24 + G. Thilo (text), Halle, ’63 + +<b>Silius Italicus.</b> + A. Drakenborch (Lat.), Utrecht, 1717 + G. A. Ruperti, ed. Lemaire, Paris, ’23 + L. Bauer (text), Leip. ’90 + +<b>Statius.</b> + Silvae, E. Bährens (text), Leip. ’76 + Achilleis, P. Kohlmann (text), Leip. ’79 + Thebais, Leip. ’84 + +<b>Martial.</b> + L. Friedländer, Leip. ’86 + (Selections,) H. M. Stephenson, Lond. ’95 + F. A Paley and W. H. Stone, Lond. ’82 + +<b>Quintilian.</b> + G. L. Spalding and C. G. Zumpt, Leip. 1798-1834 + F. Meister (text), Prague, ’86-87 + C. Halm (crit.), Leip. ’69 + Book X., J.E.B. Mayor, Lond. ’72 + " W. Peterson, Oxf. ’91 + " G.T.A. Krüger, Leip. ’88 + " E. Bonnell and F. Meister, Berl. ’82 + +<b>Frontinus.</b> + A. Dederich (text), Leip. ’55 + Strategemata, G. Gundermann (text), Leip. ’88 + De Aquis, F. Bücheler (text), Leip. ’58 + +<b>Juvenal.</b> + L. Friedländer, Leip. ’95 + A. Weidner, Leip. ’89 + XIII. Satires, J. E. B. Mayor, Lond. ’93 + " C. H. Pearson and H. A. Strong, Oxf. ’92 + " E. G. Hardy, Lond. ’95 + +<b>Tacitus.</b> + C. Halm (text), Leip. ’89-93 + Dialogus, W. Peterson, Oxf. ’93 + Germania, H. Furneaux, Oxf. ’94 + " and Agricola, A. J. Church and + W. J Brodribb, Lond. ’91-94 + " " H. M. Stephenson, Camb. ’94 + Histories, E. Wolff, Berl. ’86-88 + " W. A. Spooner, Lond. ’91 + " (Books i., ii.), A. D. Godley, Lond. ’94 + Annals, K. Nipperdey and G. Andresen, Berl. ’84-92 + " A. Dräger and F. Becher, Leip. ’82-95 + " H. Furneaux, Oxf. ’83-91 + " H. Furneaux (Books i.-iv.), Oxf. ’92 + +<b>Pliny the Younger.</b> + H. Keil (text), Leip. ’53 + H. Keil and Th. Mommsen (crit.), Leip. ’70 + G. H. Schaefer, Leip. 1805 + Epistles, G. Cortius and P. D. Longolius, Amsterd. 1734 + " (Book iii.), J. E. B. Mayor, Lond. ’89 + " (to Trajan), E. G. Hardy, Lond. ’89 + +<b>Suetonius.</b> + C. L. Roth (text), Leip. ’75 + C. G. Baumgarten-Crusius, Leip. ’16 + Julius and Augustus, H. T. Peck, New York, ’93 + Augustus, E. S. Shuckburgh, Camb. ’96 + Praeter Caesarum libros reliquiae, A. Reifferscheid, Leip. ’60 + +<b>Miscellaneous.</b> + Aulus Gellius, M. Hertz (text), Leip. ’86 + Macrobius, F. Eyssenhardt (text), Leip. ’93 + Nonius Marcellus, L. Müller (crit.), Leip. ’88 + Servius, G. Thilo and H. Hagen (crit.), Leip. ’78-94 + Grammatici Latini, H. Keil (crit.), Leip. ’56-80 + Corpus Poetarum Latinorum, ed. J. P. Postgate (crit.), Lond. ’94 + [Including Ennius, Lucretius, Catullus, Horace, Virgil, + Tibullus, Propertius, Ovid; other parts to follow.] + Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta, H. Meyer (text), Zürich, ’42 + Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta, H. Peter (text), Leip. ’83 + Selected Fragments of Roman Poetry, W. W. Merry, Oxf. ’91 + Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, J. Wordsworth, Oxf. ’74 +</pre> + +<h2 id="p368">GENERAL INDEX</h2> + +<ul> + <li>Abuccius, <a href="#p099">99</a>.</li> + + <li id="accius">Accius, + <ul> + <li> birth, <a href="#p055">55</a>;</li> + <li> literary activity, friendships with leading men, <a href="#p056">56</a>;</li> + <li> character, <a href="#p056">56</a>;</li> + <li> plays and other works, <a href="#p057">57</a>;</li> + <li> Accius on philology and philosophy, <a href="#p057">57</a>;</li> + <li> views on Accius, <a href="#p058">58</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Pacuvius, <a href="#p035">35</a>;</li> + <li> on the dates of Livius, <a href="#p001">1</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p121">121</a>;</li> + <li> by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Acro, <a href="#p354">354</a>.</li> + + <li>Acta diurna and Acta senatus, + <ul> + <li>used by Tac. <a href="#p346">346</a>;</li> + <li> by Sueton. <a href="#p349">349</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Aedituus, <i>see</i> <a href="#valeriusaed">Valerius</a>.</li> + + <li>Aelius Stilo, <a href="#p010">10</a>, <a href="#p025">25</a>, <a href="#p029">29</a>.</li> + + <li>Aelius Tubero, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li> + + <li id="aemmacer">Aemilius Macer, <a href="#p182">182</a>.</li> + + <li id="aemscaur">Aemilius Scaurus, <a href="#p058">58</a>.</li> + + <li>Aeschylus, + <ul> + <li>imit. by Livius, <a href="#p003">3</a>;</li> + <li> by Accius, <a href="#p057">57</a>;</li> + <li> by Sen. <a href="#p253">253</a>;</li> + <li> trans. by Cic. <a href="#p088">88</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Aesop, imit. by Phaedrus, <a href="#p239">239</a>.</li> + + <li>Aesopus, actor, <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li> + + <li>Aetna, <i>see</i> <a href="#luciun">Lucilius Iunior</a>.</li> + + <li>Afranius, L. <a href="#p064">64</a>.</li> + + <li>Agricola, <a href="#p338">338</a>, <a href="#p341">341</a>.</li> + + <li>Agrippina, <a href="#p243">243</a> <i>sqq.</i>; + <ul> + <li> her memoirs, <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Albinovanus Celsus, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li> + + <li>Albius, <i>see</i> <a href="#tibull">Tibullus</a>.</li> + + <li>Alcaeus, imit. by Hor. <a href="#p174">174</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + + <li>Alexandrian influence on Catull. <a href="#p139">139</a>, <a href="#p175">175</a>; + <ul> + <li> on Virg. <a href="#p157">157</a>;</li> + <li> on Propert. <a href="#p199">199</a>;</li> + <li> on Ovid, <a href="#p210">210</a>.</li> +</ul> + </li> + + <li>Alimentus, Cincius, <a href="#p053">53</a>.</li> + + <li>Amafinius, <a href="#p083">83</a>.</li> + + <li>Ambivius Turpio, <a href="#p038">38</a>, <a href="#p043">43</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + + <li>Amiternum, birthplace of Sallust, <a href="#p125">125</a>.</li> + + <li>Anacreon, foll. by Hor. <a href="#p175">175</a>.</li> + + <li>Andes, +<ul> + <li> birthplace of Virg. <a href="#p148">148</a>;</li> + <li> its position, <a href="#fn043">148 note</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + + <li id="andron">Andronicus, Livius, + <ul> + <li>dispute as to his dates, <a href="#p001">1</a>;</li> + <li> facts of life, <a href="#p002">2</a>;</li> + <li> actor and schoolmaster, <a href="#p003">3</a>;</li> + <li> plays, <a href="#p003">3</a>;</li> + <li> Odisia, <a href="#p003">3</a>;</li> + <li> Hor.’s reference to, <a href="#p165">165</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Annaeus, <i>see</i> <a href="#cornutus">Cornutus</a>, <a href="#lucan">Lucanus</a>, <a href="#seneca">Seneca</a>.</li> + + <li>Anser, <a href="#p184">184</a>, <a href="#p141">141</a>-<a href="#p142">2</a>.</li> + + <li>Antias, <i>see</i> <a href="#valant">Valerius</a>.</li> + + <li>Antioch, birthplace of Publilius Syrus, <a href="#p145">145</a>.</li> + + <li>Antiochus, + <ul> + <li>teacher of Cicero, <a href="#p070">70</a>;</li> + <li> of Varro, <a href="#p091">91</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Antipater, <i>see</i> <a href="#coel">Coelius</a>.</li> + + <li>Antonius, C. Iullus, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li> + + <li>Antonius, M., the orator, <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li> + + <li>Antonius Gnipho, rhetorician, <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li> + + <li>Apollodorus, imit. by Ter. <a href="#p046">46</a>, <a href="#p047">47</a>.</li> + + <li>Apollonius Rhodius, + <ul> + <li>trans. by Atac. <a href="#p144">144</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li> + <li> by Val. Flaccus, <a href="#p287">287</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Aquilius, <a href="#p039">39</a>.</li> + + <li>Aquinum, birthpl. of Juv. <a href="#p313">313</a>.</li> + + <li>Aratus, + <ul> + <li>trans. by Cic. <a href="#p087">87</a>;</li> + <li> this trans. used by Lucr. <a href="#p120">120</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Atac. <a href="#p145">145</a>;</li> + <li> by Virg. <a href="#p157">157</a>;</li> + <li> trans. by Germanicus, <a href="#p281">281</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Archias, <a href="#p069">69</a>, <a href="#p075">75</a>, <a href="#p089">89</a>.</li> + + <li>Archilochus, imit. by Hor. <a href="#p174">174</a>.</li> + + <li>Argumenta, + <ul> + <li>to Plautus, <a href="#p018">18</a>;</li> + <li> to Ter. <a href="#p051">51</a>;</li> + <li> to Livy, <a href="#p217">217</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="arist">Aristius Fuscus, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li> + + <li>Aristotle, + <ul> + <li>foll. by Cic. <a href="#p079">79</a>, <a href="#p085">85</a>;</li> + <li> by Hor. <a href="#p179">179</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Arpinum, birthpl. of Cic. <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li> + + <li id="ascon">Asconius Pedianus, <a href="#p077">77</a>.</li> + + <li>Asinius, <i>see</i> <a href="#pollio">Pollio</a>.</li> + + <li>Asisium, birthpl. of Propert. <a href="#p192">192</a>.</li> + + <li>Atacinus, <i>see</i> <a href="#varratac">Varro</a>.</li> + + <li>Ateius, foll. by Sall. <a href="#p131">131</a>.</li> + + <li>Atellana fabula, <a href="#p067">67</a>.</li> + + <li>Atilius, <a href="#p039">39</a>.</li> + + <li id="atta">Atta, T. Quintius, <a href="#p064">64</a>.</li> + + <li>Attalus, teacher of Seneca, <a href="#p241">241</a>.</li> + + <li id="atticus">Atticus, T. Pomponius, <a href="#p090">90</a>, <a href="#p085">85</a> <i>sqq.</i>; + <ul> + <li> on chronology, <a href="#p001">1</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Nepos, <a href="#p113">113</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Attius, <i>see</i> <a href="#accius">Accius</a>.</li> + + <li>Augustus, + <ul> + <li>works, <a href="#p152">152</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Virg. <a href="#p149">149</a>, <a href="#p152">152</a>, <a href="#p159">159</a>;</li> + <li> with Hor. <a href="#p166">166</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + <li> with Gallus, <a href="#p182">182</a>;</li> + <li> with Propert. <a href="#p195">195</a>;</li> + <li> with Ovid, <a href="#p211">211</a>;</li> + <li> with Livy, <a href="#p215">215</a>;</li> + <li> with Vitruvius, <a href="#p225">225</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Bacchanalia, <a href="#p012">12</a>.</li> + + <li>Bacchylides, foll. by Hor. <a href="#p175">175</a>.</li> + + <li>Bassus, Aufidius, <a href="#p284">284</a>.</li> + + <li>Bassus, poet, <a href="#p196">196</a>, <a href="#p206">206</a>.</li> + + <li>Bavius, <a href="#p183">183</a>.</li> + + <li>Bibaculus, <i>see</i> <a href="#furbib">Furius</a>.</li> + + <li>Bilbilis, birthpl. of Martial, <a href="#p295">295</a>.</li> + + <li>Britannicus, <a href="#p245">245</a>.</li> + + <li>Brundisium, birthpl. of Pacuvius, <a href="#p034">34</a>.</li> + + <li>Brutus, + <ul> + <li>relations with Cic. <a href="#p080">80</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> with Hor. <a href="#p165">165</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> Lucan on, <a href="#p269">269</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Burrus, friend of Seneca, <a href="#p245">245</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Caecilius of Novum Comum, <a href="#p139">139</a>.</li> + + <li id="caecstat">Caecilius Statius, + <ul> + <li>dates, <a href="#p037">37</a>;</li> + <li> comedies, <a href="#p038">38</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Ter. <a href="#p038">38</a>, <a href="#p042">42</a>;</li> + <li> views on Caecilius, <a href="#p039">39</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Ennius, <a href="#p028">28</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Ter. <a href="#p043">43</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Caelius Rufus, + <ul> + <li>defended by Cic. <a href="#p076">76</a>;</li> + <li> enemy of Catull. <a href="#p135">135</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="caesar">Caesar, C. Iulius, + <ul> + <li>birth, <a href="#p100">100</a>;</li> + <li> early connexion with democrats, <a href="#p100">100</a>;</li> + <li> military and civil career, <a href="#p101">101</a>-<a href="#p102">2</a>;</li> + <li> supports Pompey, <a href="#p102">102</a>;</li> + <li> first triumvirate, conquest of Gaul, civil war, <a href="#p103">103</a>;</li> + <li> dictator, death, <a href="#p104">104</a>;</li> + <li> <i>De Bello Gallico</i>, <a href="#p104">104</a>;</li> + <li> its objects, style, <a href="#p105">105</a>;</li> + <li> <i>De Bello Civili</i>, <a href="#p106">106</a>;</li> + <li> other works in the Corpus Caesarianum, <a href="#p106">106</a>;</li> + <li> theories on their authorship, <a href="#p107">107</a>;</li> + <li> Caesar’s lost works, incl. speeches and poems, <a href="#p109">109</a>;</li> + <li> criticisms on his poems, <a href="#p111">111</a>;</li> + <li> verses on Ter. <a href="#p051">51</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Cic. <a href="#p071">71</a>, <a href="#p077">77</a>, <a href="#p109">109</a>, <a href="#p110">110</a>;</li> + <li> with Varro, <a href="#p092">92</a>;</li> + <li> with Sall. <a href="#p127">127</a>;</li> + <li> with Laberius, <a href="#p097">97</a>;</li> + <li> with Catull. <a href="#p137">137</a>;</li> + <li> with Calvus, <a href="#p143">143</a>;</li> + <li> celebrated by Bibaculus, <a href="#p100">100</a>;</li> + <li> by Atac. <a href="#p144">144</a>;</li> + <li> Livy on, <a href="#p223">223</a>;</li> + <li> Lucan on, <a href="#p268">268</a>, <a href="#p270">270</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Frontinus, <a href="#p311">311</a>;</li> + <li> by Tac. <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Caesar Strabo, <a href="#p066">66</a>.</li> + + <li>Calagurris, birthpl. of Quintilian, <a href="#p302">302</a>.</li> + + <li>Calendar, Caesar’s reform of, <a href="#p104">104</a>, <a href="#p110">110</a>.</li> + + <li id="calidus">Calidus, Iulius, <a href="#p124">124</a>.</li> + + <li>Caligula, and Seneca, <a href="#p242">242</a>.</li> + + <li>Callimachus, + <ul> + <li>imit. by Catull. <a href="#p139">139</a>;</li> + <li> by Propert. <a href="#p198">198</a>-<a href="#p199">9</a>;</li> + <li> by Ovid, <a href="#p211">211</a>-<a href="#p212">2</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="calppiso">Calpurnius Piso, <a href="#p058">58</a>; + <ul> + <li> foll. by Livy, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="calpsic">Calpurnius Siculus, T. <a href="#p275">275</a>;<ul> + <li> discussion of his date, <a href="#p276">276</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Eclogae</i> and sequel by Nemesianus, his models, <i>De laude Pisonis</i>, <a href="#p277">277</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="calvus">Calvus, C. Licinius Macer, + <ul> + <li>life, speeches, <a href="#p142">142</a>;</li> + <li> poems, relations with Caes. <a href="#p143">143</a>;</li> + <li> with Catull. <a href="#p138">138</a>-<a href="#p139">9</a>, <a href="#p143">143</a>;</li> + <li> Hor.’s opinion of, <a href="#p143">143</a>, <a href="#p176">176</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Canticum, <a href="#p019">19</a>, <a href="#p050">50</a>.</li> + + <li id="cassius">Cassius Hemina, <a href="#p058">58</a>.</li> + + <li>Catilinarian conspiracy, <a href="#p070">70</a>, <a href="#p075">75</a>, <a href="#p102">102</a>.</li> + + <li>Catius, T. <a href="#p083">83</a>, <a href="#p112">112</a>.</li> + + <li id="cato">Cato, M. Porcius, the censor, + <ul> + <li>date, <a href="#p053">53</a>;</li> + <li> founder of Latin prose, <a href="#p053">53</a>;</li> + <li> works, <a href="#p054">54</a>-<a href="#p055">5</a>;</li> + <li> patron of Enn. <a href="#p027">27</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Nep. <a href="#p117">117</a>;</li> + <li> by Virg. <a href="#p157">157</a>, <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li> + <li> by Livy, <a href="#p219">219</a>;</li> + <li> imit, by Sall. <a href="#p131">131</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cato Uticensis, Lucan on, <a href="#p269">269</a>.</li> + + <li>Cato, Valerius, teacher of Catullus, <a href="#p133">133</a>, <a href="#p139">139</a>.</li> + + <li id="catull">Catullus, C. Valerius, + <ul> + <li>birth and dates, <a href="#p132">132</a>;</li> + <li> family and education, <a href="#p133">133</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Lesbia, <a href="#p134">134</a>;</li> + <li> voyage to Bithynia, <a href="#p136">136</a>;</li> + <li> attacks Caesar’s party, <a href="#p137">137</a>;</li> + <li> relations with contemporaries, <a href="#p138">138</a>;</li> + <li> longer poems, Alexandrian influence, publication of poems, <a href="#p139">139</a>;</li> + <li> metre, <a href="#p175">175</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Nep. <a href="#p114">114</a>-<a href="#p115">5</a>;</li> + <li> of Calvus, <a href="#p138">138</a>-<a href="#p139">9</a>, <a href="#p143">143</a>;</li> + <li> of Cinna, <a href="#p140">140</a>;</li> + <li> Hor.’s opinion of, <a href="#p143">143</a>, <a href="#p176">176</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Virg. <a href="#p154">154</a>;</li> + <li> by Mart. <a href="#p301">301</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Catulus, <i>see</i> <a href="#lutat">Lutatius</a>.</li> + + <li id="celsus">Celsus, Cornelius, + <ul> + <li>his encyclopaedia, <a href="#p235">235</a>;</li> + <li> its subdivisions, extant part <i>De Re Medica</i>, <a href="#p236">236</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Quint. <a href="#p309">309</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Christians, Tacitus’ view of, <a href="#p347">347</a>.</li> + + <li id="cicero">Cicero, M. Tullius, + <ul> + <li>birth, education, at the bar, <a href="#p069">69</a>;</li> + <li> in the East, political career, Catilinarian conspiracy, banishment, <a href="#p070">70</a>;</li> + <li> recall, proconsul of Cilicia, in civil war, <a href="#p071">71</a>;</li> + <li> death, <a href="#p073">73</a>;</li> + <li> speeches, <a href="#p073">73</a>;</li> + <li> philosophical works, <a href="#p079">79</a>;</li> + <li> Cic. as a philosopher, <a href="#p083">83</a>;</li> + <li> rhetorical works, <a href="#p083">83</a>;</li> + <li> letters, <a href="#p085">85</a>;</li> + <li> their style, lost prose writings, <a href="#p086">86</a>;</li> + <li> poems, <a href="#p087">87</a>;</li> + <li> criticisms of his poetry, <a href="#p088">88</a>;</li> + <li> on chronology, <a href="#p001">1</a>, <a href="#p009">9</a>;</li> + <li> verses on Ter. <a href="#p051">51</a>;</li> + <li> conversed with Accius, <a href="#p056">56</a>;</li> + <li> criticises Sisenna, <a href="#p067">67</a>;</li> + <li> attacked by Catull. <a href="#p138">138</a>;</li> + <li> his reference to Lucr. <a href="#p119">119</a>;</li> + <li> editorship of Lucr. <a href="#p120">120</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Nep. <a href="#p114">114</a>;</li> + <li> with Calvus, <a href="#p142">142</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Nep. <a href="#p117">117</a>;</li> + <li> by Lucr. <a href="#p120">120</a>;</li> + <li> by Hor. <a href="#p174">174</a>;</li> + <li> by Val. Max. <a href="#p234">234</a>;</li> + <li> largely quoted by Quint. <a href="#p308">308</a>;</li> + <li> admired by elder Sen. <a href="#p228">228</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Cicero, Quintus, <a href="#p089">89</a>.</li> + + <li>Cincius Alimentus, <a href="#p053">53</a>;<ul> + <li> foll. by Livy, <a href="#p219">219</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="cinna">Cinna, C. Helvius,<ul> + <li> friend of Catull. <a href="#p136">136</a>-<a href="#p139">9</a>, <a href="#p140">140</a>;</li> + <li> partisan of Caesar, discussion of his identity, <a href="#p141">141</a>;</li> + <li> poems, <a href="#p141">141</a>;</li> + <li> patronized by Pollio, <a href="#p112">112</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Claudius, emperor, + <ul> + <li>relations with Livy, <a href="#p216">216</a>;</li> + <li> with Sen. <a href="#p243">243</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="claudquad">Claudius Quadrigarius, <a href="#p067">67</a>;<ul> + <li> foll. by Livy, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="clodia">Clodia (Lesbia), <a href="#p076">76</a>;<ul> + <li> Catullus’ relations with, <a href="#p134">134</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Clodius, P. <a href="#p070">70</a>, <a href="#p076">76</a>.</li> + + <li>Clodius Licinus, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li> + + <li>Cluvius Rufus, foll. by Tac. <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li> + + <li>Codrus, <a href="#p183">183</a>.</li> + + <li id="coel">Coelius Antipater, <a href="#p058">58</a>; + <ul> + <li>foll. by Livy, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + + <li>Columella, + <ul> + <li>birth, military service, property, date, <a href="#p258">258</a>;</li> + <li> works, <a href="#p258">258</a>-<a href="#p259">9</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Comum, birthpl. of the two Plinii, <a href="#p281">281</a>, <a href="#p326">326</a>.</li> + + <li>Contaminatio, <a href="#p006">6</a>, <a href="#p013">13</a>, <a href="#p046">46</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + + <li>Corbulo, Domitius, memoirs of, <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li> + + <li>Corduba, birthpl. of the two Senecas and Lucan, <a href="#p226">226</a>, <a href="#p240">240</a>, <a href="#p264">264</a>.</li> + + <li>Corinna, celebrated by Ovid, <a href="#p207">207</a>.</li> + + <li>Cornelius, <i>see</i> <a href="#celsus">Celsus</a>, <a href="#gallus">Gallus</a>, <a href="#nepos">Nepos</a>, <a href="#sisenna">Sisenna</a>, <a href="#tacitus">Tacitus</a>.</li> + + <li>Cornificius, <a href="#p088">88</a>.</li> + + <li>Cornificius, poet, <a href="#p139">139</a>.</li> + + <li id="cornutus">Cornutus, Annaeus,<ul> + <li> teacher of Persius, <a href="#p260">260</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> of Lucan, <a href="#p265">265</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Corvinus, <i>see</i> <a href="#messalla">Messalla</a>.</li> + + <li>Cremona, birthpl. of Bibaculus, <a href="#p099">99</a>.</li> + + <li>Crispus, <i>see</i> <a href="#sallust">Sallustius</a>.</li> + + <li id="curtius">Curtius Rufus, + <ul> + <li>his date and identity, <a href="#p256">256</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Historiae Alexandri</i>, <a href="#p257">257</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="cynthia">Cynthia (Hostia), Propertius’ relations with, <a href="#p065">65</a>, <a href="#p193">193</a>, <a href="#p197">197</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> +</ul><ul> + <li id="delia">Delia (Plania), Tibullus’ love for, <a href="#p188">188</a>-<a href="#p189">9</a>.</li> + + <li>Demetrius the Cynic, <a href="#p251">251</a>, <a href="#p254">254</a>.</li> + + <li>Democritus, imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p123">123</a>.</li> + + <li>Demophilus, <a href="#p011">11</a>.</li> + + <li>Didascaliae, <a href="#p015">15</a>, <a href="#p017">17</a>, <a href="#p044">44</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + + <li>Diodotus, teacher of Cic. <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li> + + <li>Diphilus, + <ul> + <li>imit. by Plaut. <a href="#p012">12</a>, <a href="#p015">15</a>, <a href="#p017">17</a>;</li> + <li> by Ter. <a href="#p048">48</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Diverbium, <a href="#p019">19</a>, <a href="#p050">50</a>.</li> + + <li>Domitian, + <ul> + <li>patron of Statius, <a href="#p293">293</a>;</li> + <li> of Mart. <a href="#p297">297</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> of Quint. <a href="#p305">305</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="domitius">Domitius Marsus, <a href="#p184">184</a>; + <ul> + <li>epigram on Tibull. <a href="#p186">186</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + + <li>Donatus, Aelius, <a href="#p354">354</a>, <a href="#p039">39</a>, <a href="#p044">44</a>, <a href="#p147">147</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + + <li>Dossenus, in fabula Atellana, <a href="#p025">25</a>, <a href="#p067">67</a>.</li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Eclecticism, + <ul> + <li>of Enn. <a href="#p029">29</a>;</li> + <li> of Cic. <a href="#p083">83</a>;</li> + <li> of Hor. <a href="#p173">173</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Egnatius, <a href="#p099">99</a>.</li> + + <li>Empedocles, imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p122">122</a>.</li> + + <li>Ennius, + <ul> + <li>birth, <a href="#p026">26</a>;</li> + <li> in Sardinia, <a href="#p026">26</a>;</li> + <li> life in Rome, <a href="#p027">27</a>;</li> + <li> in Aetolia, a Roman citizen, death, <a href="#p028">28</a>;</li> + <li> character and views, <a href="#p029">29</a>;</li> + <li> plays, Saturae, etc. <a href="#p030">30</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Annals</i>, <a href="#p031">31</a>;</li> + <li> services to Latin literature—the hexameter, <a href="#p032">32</a>;</li> + <li> influence on other poets, <a href="#p033">33</a>;</li> + <li> views on Ennius, <a href="#p034">34</a>;</li> + <li> criticised by Lucilius, <a href="#p062">62</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p121">121</a>;</li> + <li> by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li> + <li> in <i>Bell. Hisp.</i> <a href="#p109">109</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Naevius, <a href="#p007">7</a>;</li> + <li> quoted by Phaedrus, <a href="#p237">237</a>;</li> + <li> taught Pacuv. <a href="#p035">35</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Epicureanism, <a href="#p083">83</a>;<ul> + <li> in Enn. <a href="#p030">30</a>;</li> + <li> discussed by Cic. <a href="#p080">80</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> in Lucr. <a href="#p120">120</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + <li> in Virg. <a href="#p149">149</a>;</li> + <li> in Hor. <a href="#p170">170</a>, <a href="#p173">173</a>;</li> + <li> in <i>Aetna</i>, <a href="#p279">279</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Epidius, teacher of Virg. <a href="#p149">149</a>.</li> + + <li>Euhemerism, <a href="#p031">31</a>, <a href="#p162">162</a>.</li> + + <li>Euphorion, <a href="#p156">156</a>, <a href="#p183">183</a>.</li> + + <li>Euripides, + <ul> + <li>imit. by Enn. <a href="#p030">30</a>;</li> + <li> by Pacuv. <a href="#p036">36</a>;</li> + <li> by Accius, <a href="#p057">57</a>;</li> + <li> by Sen. <a href="#p253">253</a>;</li> + <li> criticised by Lucilius, <a href="#p062">62</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Fabianus, Papirius, <a href="#p240">240</a>.</li> + + <li>Fabius, <i>see</i> <a href="#quintil">Quintilianus</a>.</li> + + <li>Fabius Labeo, <a href="#p042">42</a>, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li> + + <li>Fabius Pictor, <a href="#p052">52</a>;<ul> + <li> foll. by Livy, <a href="#p219">219</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="fabrust">Fabius Rusticus, <a href="#p245">245</a>;<ul> + <li> foll. by Tac. <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Fannius, <a href="#p058">58</a>.</li> + + <li>Fenestella, <a href="#p040">40</a>, <a href="#p224">224</a>.</li> + + <li>Festus, <a href="#p008">8</a>, <a href="#p224">224</a>.</li> + + <li>Flaccus, <i>see</i> <a href="#horaz">Horatius</a>, <a href="#persius">Persius</a>, <a href="#valflacc">Valerius</a>, <a href="#verrius">Verrius</a>.</li> + + <li id="florus">Florus, Iulius, <a href="#p181">181</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a>.</li> + + <li>Forum Iulii, birthpl. of Gallus, <a href="#p182">182</a>.</li> + + <li id="frontinus">Frontinus, S. Iulius, + <ul> + <li>military and civil career, <a href="#p310">310</a>;</li> + <li> works, <a href="#p311">311</a>-<a href="#p312">2</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Mart. <a href="#p298">298</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Fundanius, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li> + + <li>Furius Antias, <a href="#p066">66</a>.</li> + + <li id="furbib">Furius Bibaculus, <a href="#p099">99</a>.</li> + + <li>Furnius, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li> + + <li>Fuscus, <i>see</i> <a href="#arist">Aristius</a>.</li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Gades, birthpl. of Columella, <a href="#p258">258</a>.</li> + + <li>Gaetulicus, <a href="#p301">301</a>.</li> + + <li>Gallio, <i>see</i> <a href="#novat">Novatus</a>.</li> + + <li id="gallus">Gallus, Cornelius, + <ul> + <li>life, <a href="#p182">182</a>;</li> + <li> poems, <a href="#p183">183</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Virg. <a href="#p150">150</a>, <a href="#p156">156</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Gellius, Aulus, <a href="#p352">352</a>.</li> + + <li>Geminus, <i>see</i> <a href="#tanus">Tanusius</a>.</li> + + <li>Germanicus Caesar, <a href="#p281">281</a>.</li> + + <li>Glycera, <i>see</i> <a href="#nemesis">Nemesis</a>.</li> + + <li>Gracci, <a href="#p058">58</a>.</li> + + <li>Guilds of poets, <a href="#p002">2</a>, <a href="#p038">38</a>.</li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Hadrian, + <ul> + <li>banishes Juv. <a href="#p322">322</a>;</li> + <li> dismisses Sueton. <a href="#p349">349</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Helvia, <a href="#p227">227</a>, <a href="#p240">240</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + + <li>Helvius, <i>see</i> <a href="#cinna">Cinna</a>.</li> + + <li>Hemina, <i>see</i> <a href="#cassius">Cassius</a>.</li> + + <li>Herennium, Rhet. ad, <a href="#p088">88</a>;<ul> + <li> foll. by Quint. <a href="#p309">309</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hesiod, imit. by Virg. <a href="#p157">157</a>.</li> + + <li>Hieronymus, <i>see</i> <a href="#jerome">Jerome</a>.</li> + + <li>Hirtius and the Corpus Caes. <a href="#p106">106</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + + <li>Homer, + <ul> + <li>trans. by Livius, <a href="#p003">3</a>;</li> + <li> by Matius, <a href="#p066">66</a>;</li> + <li> by Cic. <a href="#p088">88</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Hostius, <a href="#p065">65</a>;</li> + <li> by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li> + <li> by Val. Flaccus, <a href="#p288">288</a>;</li> + <li> by Silius, <a href="#p291">291</a>;</li> + <li> parodied by Petron. <a href="#p273">273</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="horaz">Horatius Flaccus, Q., + <ul> + <li>name, birth, <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li> + <li> parentage, <a href="#p164">164</a>;</li> + <li> education, in civil war, <a href="#p165">165</a>;</li> + <li> clerkship, <a href="#p166">166</a>;</li> + <li> introduction to Maecenas, journey to Brundisium, Sabine farm, <a href="#p167">167</a>;</li> + <li> relations with imperial house, <a href="#p168">168</a>;</li> + <li> death, personal appearance, <a href="#p169">169</a>;</li> + <li> chronology of works, <a href="#p170">170</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Satires</i>, <a href="#p170">170</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Odes</i> and <i>Epodes</i>, <a href="#p171">171</a>, <a href="#p174">174</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Epistles</i>, <a href="#p171">171</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Carm. Saec.</i> <a href="#p171">171</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Ars Poet.</i> <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a>;</li> + <li> nature of the Satires, <a href="#p173">173</a>;</li> + <li> Odes, models of, <a href="#p174">174</a>;</li> + <li> metre and subjects of, <a href="#p175">175</a>;</li> + <li> Epistles, subjects of, <a href="#p179">179</a>;</li> + <li> Hor. and nature, popularity of Hor. <a href="#p180">180</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Virg. <a href="#p151">151</a>;</li> + <li> with Tibull. <a href="#p189">189</a>;</li> + <li> with Propert. <a href="#p195">195</a>;</li> + <li> patronized by Pollio, <a href="#p112">112</a>;</li> + <li> on Calvus and Catull. <a href="#p143">143</a>, <a href="#p176">176</a>;</li> + <li> on Atac. <a href="#p144">144</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Lucilius, <a href="#p062">62</a>;</li> + <li> Lucr. <a href="#p125">125</a>;</li> + <li> parodied Bibac. <a href="#p100">100</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Persius, <a href="#p263">263</a>;</li> + <li> by Lucan, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li> + <li> by Mart. <a href="#p301">301</a>;</li> + <li> by Juv. <a href="#p325">325</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Quint. <a href="#p309">309</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Hortensius, <a href="#p074">74</a>.</li> + + <li>Hostia, <i>see</i> <a href="#cynthia">Cynthia</a>.</li> + + <li>Hostius, <a href="#p065">65</a>; +<ul> +<li>imit. by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + + <li id="hyginus">Hyginus, C. Iulius, <a href="#p224">224</a>;<ul> + <li> friend of Ovid, <a href="#p206">206</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Iambi = satirical verses, <a href="#p100">100</a>, <a href="#p174">174</a>.</li> + + <li>Imbrex, Licinius, <a href="#p039">39</a>.</li> + + <li>Italicus, <i>see</i> <a href="#silius">Silius</a>.</li> + + <li>Iulia, grand-daughter of Augustus, <a href="#p203">203</a>.</li> + + <li>Iulius, <i>see</i> <a href="#caesar">Caesar</a>, <a href="#calidus">Calidus</a>, <a href="#florus">Florus</a>, <a href="#frontinus">Frontinus</a>, <a href="#hyginus">Hyginus</a>.</li> + + <li>Iunior, <i>see</i> <a href="#luciun">Lucilius</a>.</li> + + <li>Iuvenalis, D. Iunius, + <ul> + <li>sources for his life, <a href="#p312">312</a>;</li> + <li> birth, <a href="#p313">313</a>;</li> + <li> inscription at Aquinum, <a href="#p314">314</a>;</li> + <li> parentage, position, and education, <a href="#p314">314</a>-<a href="#p316">6</a>;</li> + <li> military and civil career, <a href="#p316">316</a>;</li> + <li> in Britain, <a href="#p317">317</a>;</li> + <li> references to Britain, <a href="#p318">318</a>;</li> + <li> life in Rome, <a href="#p319">319</a>;</li> + <li> dates of Satires, <a href="#p320">320</a>;</li> + <li> banishment, <a href="#p322">322</a>;</li> + <li> death, <a href="#p323">323</a>;</li> + <li> subjects of Satires, <a href="#p323">323</a>;</li> + <li> pessimism, rhetorical learning and style, <a href="#p324">324</a>-<a href="#p326">6</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Mart. <a href="#p298">298</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Iuventius, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li> +</ul><ul> + <li id="jerome">Jerome, <a href="#p351">351</a>;<ul> + <li> mistakes of, <a href="#p002">2</a>, <a href="#p008">8</a>, <a href="#p058">58</a>, <a href="#p099">99</a>, <a href="#p144">144</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Jews, Tacitus’ view of, <a href="#p347">347</a>.</li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Labeo, Fabius, <a href="#p042">42</a>, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li> + + <li>Laberius, + <ul> + <li>dates, <a href="#p097">97</a>;</li> + <li> contest with Publ. Syrus, <a href="#p097">97</a>, <a href="#p145">145</a>;</li> + <li> mimes, <a href="#p098">98</a>;</li> + <li> language and views, <a href="#p099">99</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Laelius, literary circle of, <a href="#p035">35</a>, <a href="#p041">41</a>, <a href="#p059">59</a>.</li> + + <li>Laenas, <i>see</i> <a href="#popill">Popillius</a>.</li> + + <li>Laevius, <a href="#p066">66</a>.</li> + + <li>Lanuvinus, <i>see</i> <a href="#lusc">Luscius</a>.</li> + + <li id="latro">Latro, Porcius, + <ul> + <li>teacher of Ovid, <a href="#p201">201</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Sen. <a href="#p227">227</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lesbia, <i>see</i> <a href="#clodia">Clodia</a>.</li> + + <li>Libri lintei, <a href="#p068">68</a>.</li> + + <li>Licinius Imbrex, <a href="#p039">39</a>.</li> + + <li>Licinius Tegula, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li> + + <li>Licinius Macer, <a href="#p067">67</a>;<ul> + <li> foll. by Livy, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Licinius Macer Calvus, <i>see</i> <a href="#calvus">Calvus</a>.</li> + + <li>Licinus, Porcius, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li> + + <li>Livius, <i>see</i> <a href="#andron">Andronicus</a>.</li> + + <li>Livius, T., + <ul> + <li>birth, intimacy with imperial house, <a href="#p215">215</a>;</li> + <li> death, <a href="#p216">216</a>;</li> + <li> works on philosophy and rhetoric, <a href="#p216">216</a>;</li> + <li> his history, the <i>Periochae</i>, number and scope of books, <a href="#p217">217</a>;</li> + <li> date of composition, <a href="#p218">218</a>;</li> + <li> publication, <a href="#p219">219</a>;</li> + <li> his sources, <a href="#p068">68</a>, <a href="#p319">319</a>;</li> + <li> comparison with Polybius, <a href="#p220">220</a>;</li> + <li> characteristics of his history, <a href="#p220">220</a>-<a href="#p221">1</a>;</li> + <li> views on religion and morality, <a href="#p222">222</a>;</li> + <li> politics, <a href="#p223">223</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Ovid, <a href="#p211">211</a>;</li> + <li> by Val. Max. <a href="#p234">234</a>;</li> + <li> by Lucan, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li> + <li> by Silius, <a href="#p290">290</a>;</li> + <li> by Frontinus, <a href="#p311">311</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="lucan">Lucanus, M. Annaeus, + <ul> + <li>biographies of, <a href="#p264">264</a>;</li> + <li> education, <i>Laudes Neronis</i>, political advancement, breach with Nero, <a href="#p265">265</a>;</li> + <li> satirizes Nero, joins Piso’s conspiracy, suicide, <a href="#p266">266</a>;</li> + <li> his wife, <a href="#p267">267</a>;</li> + <li> lost works, <a href="#p267">267</a>;</li> + <li> <i>De Bello Civili</i> (Pharsalia), <a href="#p267">267</a>, <a href="#p268">268</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + <li> popularity of his works, <a href="#p268">268</a>;</li> + <li> his views on politics, <a href="#p268">268</a>;</li> + <li> on philosophy and religion, <a href="#p270">270</a>;</li> + <li> rhetorical treatment, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li> + <li> his models, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li> + <li> criticisms of Lucan, <a href="#p272">272</a>;</li> + <li> friendship with Persius, <a href="#p261">261</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Juv. <a href="#p326">326</a>;</li> + <li> admired by Statius, <a href="#p293">293</a>;</li> + <li> parodied by Petron. <a href="#p275">275</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lucilius, + <ul> + <li>date, <a href="#p058">58</a>;</li> + <li> birthpl. and rank, <a href="#p059">59</a>;</li> + <li> his friends and enemies, <a href="#p059">59</a>-<a href="#p060">60</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Saturae</i>, dates of composition, <a href="#p061">61</a>;</li> + <li> subjects of, <a href="#p062">62</a>;</li> + <li> on philology, <a href="#p062">62</a>;</li> + <li> style and character, <a href="#p063">63</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p121">121</a>;</li> + <li> by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li> + <li> by Hor. <a href="#p173">173</a>;</li> + <li> by Persius, <a href="#p262">262</a>-<a href="#p263">3</a>;</li> + <li> by Juv. <a href="#p326">326</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="luciun">Lucilius Iunior, <a href="#p277">277</a>;<ul> + <li> official career, friendship with Sen. <a href="#p278">278</a>;</li> + <li> date and authorship of <i>Aetna</i>, <a href="#p279">279</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Sen. and Lucr. <a href="#p280">280</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Lucillius, epigrammatist, <a href="#p301">301</a>.</li> + + <li>Lucretius Carus, T., + <ul> + <li>his dates, <a href="#p119">119</a>;</li> + <li> Cic.’s editorship of his works, recently discovered biography, <a href="#p120">120</a>;</li> + <li> position and character, <a href="#p121">121</a>;</li> + <li> <i>De rerum natura</i>, <a href="#p122">122</a>;</li> + <li> his ethics and physics, <a href="#p123">123</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Enn. <a href="#p033">33</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Virg. <a href="#p158">158</a>, <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li> + <li> by Hor. <a href="#p173">173</a>;</li> + <li> in <i>Aetna</i>, <a href="#p280">280</a>.</li> + <li> Lucullus, <a href="#p068">68</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ludi Megalenses, <a href="#p015">15</a>, <a href="#p017">17</a>, <a href="#p044">44</a>;<ul> + <li> Romani, <a href="#p017">17</a>;</li> + <li> plebei, <a href="#p017">17</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="lusc">Luscius Lanuvinus, <a href="#p039">39</a>, <a href="#p049">49</a>.</li> + + <li id="lutat">Lutatius Catulus, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li> + + <li>Lycinna, <a href="#p193">193</a>.</li> + + <li>Lygdamus, <a href="#p190">190</a>.</li> + + <li>Lynceus, <a href="#p196">196</a>.</li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Maccius, <i>see</i> <a href="#plautus">Plautus</a>.</li> + + <li>Macer, <i>see</i> <a href="#aemmacer">Aemilius</a>, <a href="#calvus">Calvus</a>, <a href="#pompmac">Pompeius</a>.</li> + + <li>Macrobius, <a href="#p354">354</a>.</li> + + <li>Maecenas, <a href="#p166">166</a>;<ul> + <li> relations with Virg. <a href="#p151">151</a>, <a href="#p157">157</a>;</li> + <li> with Hor. <a href="#p166">166</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> with Valgius, <a href="#p180">180</a>;</li> + <li> with Propert. <a href="#p195">195</a>, <a href="#p198">198</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mamurra, Catullus’ hostility to, <a href="#p137">137</a>.</li> + + <li>Manilius, <a href="#p213">213</a>;<ul> + <li> imit. Lucr. <a href="#p125">125</a>;</li> + <li> Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Juv. <a href="#p326">326</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Marcellus, nephew of Augustus, <a href="#p159">159</a>, <a href="#p171">171</a>.</li> + + <li>Maro, <i>see</i> <a href="#vergil">Vergilius</a>.</li> + + <li>Marsus, <i>see</i> <a href="#domitius">Domitius</a>.</li> + + <li id="martial">Martialis, M. Valerius, + <ul> + <li>birth, <a href="#p295">295</a>;</li> + <li> education, life at Rome, patrons, <a href="#p296">296</a>;</li> + <li> life under Domitian and Titus, <a href="#p297">297</a>;</li> + <li> friends of Martial, <a href="#p298">298</a>;</li> + <li> returns to Spain, <a href="#p299">299</a>;</li> + <li> character, <a href="#p299">299</a>;</li> + <li> publication of Epigrams, popularity, <a href="#p300">300</a>;</li> + <li> models, mistakes, <a href="#p301">301</a>;</li> + <li> satire and versification, <a href="#p302">302</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Catull. <a href="#p140">140</a>;</li> + <li> Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Lucan, <a href="#p267">267</a>;</li> + <li> of Silius, <a href="#p289">289</a>;</li> + <li> of Frontinus, <a href="#p311">311</a>;</li> + <li> of Juv. <a href="#p319">319</a>;</li> + <li> of Pliny the younger, <a href="#p335">335</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Juv. <a href="#p326">326</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Maternus, Curiatius, <a href="#p341">341</a>.</li> + + <li>Matius, Cn. <a href="#p066">66</a>.</li> + + <li>Maximus, <i>see</i> <a href="#valmax">Valerius</a>.</li> + + <li>Mediocritas of Terence, <a href="#p051">51</a>.</li> + + <li id="mela">Mela, Pomponius, <a href="#p259">259</a>.</li> + + <li>Melissus, <a href="#p149">149</a>, <a href="#p185">185</a>.</li> + + <li>Memmius, C. <a href="#p120">120</a>, <a href="#p122">122</a>, <a href="#p136">136</a>.</li> + + <li>Menander, + <ul> + <li>imit. by Plaut. <a href="#p013">13</a>, <a href="#p015">15</a>, <a href="#p018">18</a>;</li> + <li> by Caecilius, <a href="#p038">38</a>;</li> + <li> by Ter. <a href="#p044">44</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> by Turpilius, <a href="#p052">52</a>;</li> + <li> by Afranius, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Menippea Satira, <a href="#p096">96</a>, <a href="#p273">273</a>.</li> + + <li>Messalina, <a href="#p243">243</a>.</li> + + <li id="messalla">Messalla Corvinus, <a href="#p187">187</a>;<ul> + <li> patron of Tibull. <a href="#p186">186</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> relations with Ovid, <a href="#p205">205</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Mevius, <a href="#p183">183</a>.</li> + + <li>Molo, + <ul> + <li>teacher of Cic. <a href="#p069">69</a>, <a href="#p070">70</a>;</li> + <li> of Caes. <a href="#p102">102</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Murena, conspiracy of, <a href="#p171">171</a>.</li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Naevius, Cn., + <ul> + <li>birth, <a href="#p004">4</a>;</li> + <li> attacks Metelli, <a href="#p005">5</a>;</li> + <li> banishment and death, <a href="#p006">6</a>;</li> + <li> plays, <a href="#p006">6</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Bellum Punicum</i>, <a href="#p007">7</a>;</li> + <li> Plautus’ reference to, <a href="#p014">14</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p121">121</a>;</li> + <li> by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Naples, birthpl. of Statius, <a href="#p291">291</a>.</li> + + <li>Naso, <i>see</i> <a href="#ovid">Ovidius</a>.</li> + + <li>Nemesianus, <a href="#p275">275</a>, <a href="#p277">277</a>.</li> + + <li id="nemesis">Nemesis (Glycera), Tibullus’ love for, <a href="#p188">188</a>, <a href="#p190">190</a>.</li> + + <li>Neoptolemus, <a href="#p179">179</a>.</li> + + <li id="nepos">Nepos, Cornelius, + <ul> + <li>discussion of date, <a href="#p113">113</a>;</li> + <li> intimacy with Atticus, <a href="#p113">113</a>;</li> + <li> with Catull. <a href="#p114">114</a>;</li> + <li> character and views, <a href="#p114">114</a>;</li> + <li> minor works, <a href="#p115">115</a>;</li> + <li> <i>De viris illustribus</i>, <a href="#p116">116</a>;</li> + <li> sources, <a href="#p117">117</a>;</li> + <li> value of his work, <a href="#p117">117</a>;</li> + <li> authenticity of his works, <a href="#p118">118</a>;</li> + <li> on Terence, <a href="#p040">40</a>;</li> + <li> on Cato, <a href="#p054">54</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Catull. <a href="#p139">139</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Mela, <a href="#p259">259</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nero, + <ul> + <li>relations with Sen. <a href="#p244">244</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> with Lucan, <a href="#p265">265</a>;</li> + <li> with Petron. <a href="#p272">272</a>;</li> + <li> with Silius, <a href="#p289">289</a>;</li> + <li> Calp. Sic. on, <a href="#p276">276</a>;</li> + <li> his poetry parodied by Persius, <a href="#p262">262</a>;</li> + <li> by Petron. <a href="#p275">275</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nicander, + <ul> + <li>foll. by Virg. <a href="#p158">158</a>;</li> + <li> by Macer, <a href="#p182">182</a>;</li> + <li> by Ovid, <a href="#p210">210</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Nonius Marcellus, <a href="#p353">353</a>.</li> + + <li id="novat">Novatus, M. Annaeus (= Gallio), <a href="#p227">227</a>, <a href="#p250">250</a>, <a href="#p264">264</a>.</li> + + <li>Novius, <a href="#p067">67</a>.</li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Oppius, and the Corpus Caes. <a href="#p106">106</a>.</li> + + <li>Orbilius, <a href="#p099">99</a>, <a href="#p165">165</a>.</li> + + <li id="ovid">Ovidius Naso, P., + <ul> + <li>name and birth, <a href="#p200">200</a>;</li> + <li> rank and education, <a href="#p201">201</a>;</li> + <li> official career, <a href="#p202">202</a>;</li> + <li> travels, <a href="#p203">203</a>;</li> + <li> banishment, <a href="#p203">203</a>;</li> + <li> probable reasons for it, <a href="#p203">203</a>-<a href="#p204">4</a>;</li> + <li> life at Tomi, <a href="#p204">204</a>-<a href="#p205">5</a>;</li> + <li> death, <a href="#p205">205</a>;</li> + <li> his literary friends, <a href="#p206">206</a>;</li> + <li> his property, <a href="#p206">206</a>;</li> + <li> poems, <a href="#p207">207</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Aemilius Macer, <a href="#p182">182</a>;</li> + <li> with Tibull. <a href="#p189">189</a>;</li> + <li> with Propert. <a href="#p196">196</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Catull. <a href="#p140">140</a>;</li> + <li> Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li> + <li> foll. Propert. <a href="#p199">199</a>;</li> + <li> Verrius Flaccus, <a href="#p224">224</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Sen. <a href="#p253">253</a>;</li> + <li> by Lucan, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li> + <li> in <i>Aetna</i>, <a href="#p279">279</a>;</li> + <li> by Val. Flaccus, <a href="#p288">288</a>;</li> + <li> by Mart. <a href="#p301">301</a>;</li> + <li> by Juv. <a href="#p326">326</a>;</li> + <li> on Varro Atac. <a href="#p144">144</a>;</li> + <li> on Gallus, <a href="#p182">182</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Pacuvius, + <ul> + <li>birth, <a href="#p034">34</a>;</li> + <li> literary friends, <a href="#p035">35</a>;</li> + <li> tragedies, saturae, <a href="#p036">36</a>;</li> + <li> views and style, <a href="#p036">36</a>;</li> + <li> views on Pacuvius, <a href="#p037">37</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p121">121</a>;</li> + <li> by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="paetus">Paetus Thrasea, + <ul> + <li>relative of Persius, <a href="#p261">261</a>, <a href="#p286">286</a>;</li> + <li> Tacitus’ attitude to, <a href="#p344">344</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Palliata fabula, <a href="#p006">6</a>, <a href="#p010">10</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#p039">39</a>, <a href="#p044">44</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li> + + <li>Panaetius, <a href="#p082">82</a>.</li> + + <li>Papinius, <i>see</i> <a href="#statius">Statius</a>.</li> + + <li>Patavinitas, <a href="#p215">215</a>, <a href="#p219">219</a>.</li> + + <li>Patavium, birthpl. of Livy, <a href="#p215">215</a>.</li> + + <li>Paterculus, <i>see</i> <a href="#velleius">Velleius</a>.</li> + + <li>Paul, St., and Seneca, <a href="#p254">254</a>.</li> + + <li>Paulus Diaconus, abridged Festus, <a href="#p224">224</a>.</li> + + <li>Pedianus, <i>see</i> <a href="#ascon">Asconius</a>.</li> + + <li>Pedum, prob. birthpl. of Tibull. <a href="#p185">185</a>.</li> + + <li>Pellio, actor of Plautus, <a href="#p012">12</a>.</li> + + <li id="persius">Persius Flaccus, A., + <ul> + <li>dates, birthpl., rank, education, <a href="#p260">260</a>;</li> + <li> his friends, property, and character, <a href="#p261">261</a>;</li> + <li> early works, <a href="#p261">261</a>;</li> + <li> Satires—their nature, <a href="#p262">262</a>;</li> + <li> obligations to Hor. <a href="#p263">263</a>;</li> + <li> popularity, <a href="#p263">263</a>-<a href="#p264">4</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Lucilius, <a href="#p063">63</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Petronius Arbiter, C., + <ul> + <li>life, <a href="#p272">272</a>;</li> + <li> Satirae—their subject, <a href="#p273">273</a>;</li> + <li> dramatic scene and date, <a href="#p273">273</a>-<a href="#p274">4</a>;</li> + <li> style, <a href="#p274">274</a>;</li> + <li> poems in the book, <a href="#p275">275</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Phaedrus (philosopher), <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li> + + <li>Phaedrus (poet), + <ul> + <li>life, <a href="#p237">237</a>;</li> + <li> persecuted by Seianus, <a href="#p237">237</a>;</li> + <li> personal points, <a href="#p238">238</a>;</li> + <li> <i>fabulae Aesopiae</i>, <a href="#p239">239</a>;</li> + <li> the five books, <a href="#p239">239</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Philemon, imit. by Plaut. <a href="#p014">14</a>, <a href="#p015">15</a>, <a href="#p017">17</a>.</li> + + <li>Philetas, imit. by Propert. <a href="#p199">199</a>.</li> + + <li>Philo, teacher of Cic. <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li> + + <li>Philology, <a href="#p057">57</a>, <a href="#p063">63</a>, <a href="#p094">94</a>, <a href="#p307">307</a>.</li> + + <li>Phocas, <a href="#p147">147</a>.</li> + + <li>Pictor, Fabius, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li> + + <li>Pindar, foll. by Hor. <a href="#p175">175</a>.</li> + + <li>Pisaurum, birthpl. of Accius, <a href="#p055">55</a>.</li> + + <li>Piso, <i>see</i> <a href="#calppiso">Calpurnius</a>.</li> + + <li>Piso, conspiracy of, <a href="#p248">248</a>, <a href="#p266">266</a>, <a href="#p296">296</a>.</li> + + <li>Plania, <i>see</i> <a href="#delia">Delia</a>.</li> + + <li>Plato, + <ul> + <li>trans. by Cic. <a href="#p082">82</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Nep. <a href="#p117">117</a>;</li> + <li> by Virg. <a href="#p162">162</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="plautus">Plautus, T. Maccius, + <ul> + <li>name, <a href="#p007">7</a>;</li> + <li> date and pl. of birth, <a href="#p008">8</a>;</li> + <li> varied employments, <a href="#p008">8</a>, <a href="#p009">9</a>;</li> + <li> intimacy with the Scipios, death, <a href="#p009">9</a>;</li> + <li> Plautine canon, <a href="#p010">10</a>;</li> + <li> extant plays, <a href="#p010">10</a>-<a href="#p018">18</a>;</li> + <li> argumenta, <a href="#p018">18</a>;</li> + <li> prologues, <a href="#p018">18</a>;</li> + <li> acts, diverbium, canticum, characters, <a href="#p019">19</a>;</li> + <li> language, <a href="#p020">20</a>;</li> + <li> references to Greek and Roman life, <a href="#p020">20</a>;</li> + <li> prosody, <a href="#p022">22</a>;</li> + <li> views on Plautus, <a href="#p025">25</a>;</li> + <li> reference to Naevius, <a href="#p005">5</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Plinius Secundus, C. (the elder), <a href="#p281">281</a>;<ul> + <li> education, <a href="#p282">282</a>;</li> + <li> military and procuratorial career, <a href="#p282">282</a>-<a href="#p283">3</a>;</li> + <li> death, <a href="#p283">283</a>;</li> + <li> lost works, <a href="#p284">284</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Naturae Historiae</i>, their contents and character, <a href="#p285">285</a>;</li> + <li> views, <a href="#p286">286</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Tac. <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Plinius Secundus, C. (the younger), + <ul> + <li>name and birthpl. <a href="#p326">326</a>;</li> + <li> date of birth, education, <a href="#p327">327</a>;</li> + <li> adoption by his uncle, <a href="#p328">328</a>;</li> + <li> at the bar, civil career, <a href="#p328">328</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Panegyricus</i>, <a href="#p330">330</a>;</li> + <li> governor of Pontus et Bithynia, correspondence with Trajan, + municipal relations, <a href="#p331">331</a>-<a href="#p333">333</a>;</li> + <li> as orator and writer, <a href="#p333">333</a>;</li> + <li> the Epistles, <a href="#p334">334</a>;</li> + <li> relations with other writers, character, <a href="#p335">335</a>;</li> + <li> love of nature, <a href="#p336">336</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Silius, <a href="#p289">289</a>;</li> + <li> of Mart. <a href="#p298">298</a>;</li> + <li> of Frontinus, <a href="#p310">310</a>;</li> + <li> of Tac. <a href="#p340">340</a>;</li> + <li> of Sueton. <a href="#p348">348</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Polla Argentaria, <ul> + <li> wife of Lucan, <a href="#p267">267</a>;</li> + <li> patroness of Mart. <a href="#p297">297</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="pollio">Pollio, Asinius, <a href="#p112">112</a>;<ul> + <li> criticises Caesar, <a href="#p105">105</a>;</li> + <li> connexion with Corpus Caes. <a href="#p107">107</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> criticises Livy, <a href="#p219">219</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Virg. <a href="#p149">149</a>, <a href="#p154">154</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pollio, <i>see</i> <a href="#vitruv">Vitruvius</a>.</li> + + <li>Polybius, + <ul> + <li>foll. by Nep. <a href="#p117">117</a>;</li> + <li> by Livy, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Polybius, favourite of Claudius, <a href="#p250">250</a>.</li> + + <li id="pompmac">Pompeius Macer, poet, <a href="#p203">203</a>.</li> + + <li>Pompeius Magnus, + <ul> + <li>Livy a supporter of, <a href="#p219">219</a>;</li> + <li> Lucan’s view of, <a href="#p268">268</a>-<a href="#p269">9</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pompeius, <i>see</i> <a href="#trogus">Trogus</a>.</li> + + <li>Pompilius, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li> + + <li>Pomponius, <i>see</i> <a href="#mela">Mela</a>, <a href="#atticus">Atticus</a>.</li> + + <li>Pomponius Bononiensis, <a href="#p067">67</a>.</li> + + <li>Pomponius Secundus, <a href="#p282">282</a>, <a href="#p284">284</a>.</li> + + <li>Ponticus, <a href="#p196">196</a>, <a href="#p206">206</a>.</li> + + <li id="popill">Popillius Laenas, <a href="#p042">42</a>, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li> + + <li>Porcius, <i>see</i> <a href="#cato">Cato</a>, <a href="#latro">Latro</a>.</li> + + <li>Porcius Licinus, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li> + + <li>Porphyrio, <a href="#p355">355</a>.</li> + + <li>Posidippus, <a href="#p014">14</a>.</li> + + <li>Posidonius, <a href="#p070">70</a>, <a href="#p082">82</a>.</li> + + <li>Praetexta fabula, <a href="#p007">7</a>, <a href="#p030">30</a>, <a href="#p036">36</a>, <a href="#p057">57</a>, <a href="#p341">341</a>.</li> + + <li id="probus">Probus, M. Valerius, <a href="#p147">147</a>;<ul> + <li> his life of Persius, <a href="#p260">260</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Probus, Aemilius, falsely credited with Nepos’ works, <a href="#p118">118</a>.</li> + + <li>Prologues, <a href="#p018">18</a>, <a href="#p049">49</a>.</li> + + <li>Propertius, Sex., + <ul> + <li>name, <a href="#p191">191</a>;</li> + <li> birth, <a href="#p192">192</a>;</li> + <li> youth and education, <a href="#p193">193</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Lycinna and Cynthia, <a href="#p193">193</a>-<a href="#p194">4</a>;</li> + <li> later life, <a href="#p194">194</a>-<a href="#p195">5</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Maecenas, Augustus, and contemporary poets, <a href="#p195">195</a>-<a href="#p196">6</a>;</li> + <li> elegies, <a href="#p196">196</a>;</li> + <li> dates and contents of the four books, <a href="#p196">196</a>-<a href="#p199">9</a>;</li> + <li> his archaeological tastes, <a href="#p198">198</a>;</li> + <li> character, <a href="#p200">200</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Ovid, <a href="#p206">206</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Mart. <a href="#p301">301</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Prosody, <a href="#p022">22</a>, <a href="#p032">32</a>.</li> + + <li id="publil">Publilius Syrus, + <ul> + <li>life and works, <a href="#p145">145</a>;</li> + <li> views on, <a href="#p146">146</a>;</li> + <li> contest with Laberius, <a href="#p097">97</a>, <a href="#p145">145</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Pupius, <a href="#p185">185</a>.</li> + + <li>Pythagoreanism, + <ul> + <li>in Enn. <a href="#p030">30</a>;</li> + <li> in Laberius, <a href="#p099">99</a>;</li> + <li> in Virg. <a href="#p162">162</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Quadrigarius, <i>see</i> <a href="#claudquad">Claudius</a>.</li> + + <li id="quintil">Quintilianus, M. Fabius, + <ul> + <li>pl. of birth, <a href="#p302">302</a>;</li> + <li> probable date of birth, his teachers, at the bar, <a href="#p303">303</a>;</li> + <li> professor of oratory, date of the <i>Institutio</i>, retirement, <a href="#p304">304</a>;</li> + <li> tutor to Domitian’s grandnephews, consul, flattery of Domitian, + domestic relations, <a href="#p305">305</a>;</li> + <li> earlier works, <a href="#p306">306</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Institutio</i>, <a href="#p306">306</a>;</li> + <li> scope of work, <a href="#p307">307</a>;</li> + <li> his authorities, <a href="#p308">308</a>;</li> + <li> spurious works, <a href="#p309">309</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Martial, <a href="#p298">298</a>;</li> + <li> teacher of Pliny the younger, <a href="#p327">327</a>;</li> + <li> views on Roman writers, <i>passim</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Quintius, <i>see</i> <a href="#atta">Atta</a>.</li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Rabirius, <a href="#p083">83</a>.</li> + + <li>Reate, birthpl. of Varro, <a href="#p091">91</a>.</li> + + <li>Religion, + <ul> + <li>in Enn. <a href="#p029">29</a>;</li> + <li> in Pacuv. <a href="#p036">36</a>;</li> + <li> in Accius, <a href="#p057">57</a>;</li> + <li> in Lucr. <a href="#p122">122</a>;</li> + <li> in Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li> + <li> in Livy, <a href="#p222">222</a>;</li> + <li> in Tac. <a href="#p343">343</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Rhinthonica, <a href="#p011">11</a>.</li> + + <li>Roscius, actor, <a href="#p069">69</a>, <a href="#p073">73</a>.</li> + + <li>Rudiae, birthpl. of Enn. <a href="#p026">26</a>.</li> + + <li>Rufus, <i>see</i> <a href="#curtius">Curtius</a>, <a href="#valgius">Valgius</a>, <a href="#varius">Varius</a>.</li> + + <li>Rusticus, <i>see</i> <a href="#fabrust">Fabius</a>.</li> + + <li>Rutilius, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li> + + <li id="sallust">Sallustius Crispus, C., + <ul> + <li>dates, youth, rank, <a href="#p125">125</a>;</li> + <li> political and military life, <a href="#p126">126</a>-<a href="#p127">7</a>;</li> + <li> retirement, <a href="#p128">128</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Bell. Cat.</i>, object of work, <a href="#p128">128</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Bell. Iug.</i>, object of work, <a href="#p129">129</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Hist.</i> <a href="#p129">129</a>;</li> + <li> spurious works, <a href="#p130">130</a>;</li> + <li> as a historian, <a href="#p130">130</a>;</li> + <li> authorities and models, <a href="#p131">131</a>;</li> + <li> style, popularity, <a href="#p132">132</a>;</li> + <li> criticised by Livy, <a href="#p216">216</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Frontinus, <a href="#p311">311</a>;</li> + <li> by Val. Max. <a href="#p235">235</a>;</li> + <li> on Sisenna, <a href="#p067">67</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Santra, on Terence, <a href="#p042">42</a>.</li> + + <li>Sappho, + <ul> + <li>imit. by Catull. <a href="#p139">139</a>;</li> + <li> by Hor. <a href="#p174">174</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sarranae tibiae, <a href="#p045">45</a>.</li> + + <li>Sarsina, birthpl. of Plautus, <a href="#p008">8</a>.</li> + + <li>Saturae, <a href="#p030">30</a>, <a href="#p036">36</a>, <a href="#p061">61</a>, <a href="#p064">64</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p262">262</a>, <a href="#p320">320</a>;<ul> + <li> Menippeae, <a href="#p096">96</a>, <a href="#p273">273</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Saturnians, <a href="#p003">3</a>, <a href="#p007">7</a>.</li> + + <li>Scaurus, <i>see</i> <a href="#aemscaur">Aemilius</a>.</li> + + <li>Scipio Africanus the elder, friend of Enn. <a href="#p027">27</a>.</li> + + <li>Scipio Africanus the younger, + <ul> + <li>friend of Ter. <a href="#p040">40</a>;</li> + <li> of Lucilius, <a href="#p059">59</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="sedigitus">Sedigitus, Volcacius, <a href="#p066">66</a>;<ul> + <li> on Plautus, <a href="#p010">10</a>;</li> + <li> canon, <a href="#p039">39</a>, <a href="#p066">66</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Seianus, + <ul> + <li>praised by Velleius, <a href="#p234">234</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Phaedrus, <a href="#p237">237</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="seneca">Seneca, Annaeus, the elder, + <ul> + <li>birth, rank, <a href="#p226">226</a>;</li> + <li> life in Rome, death, character, <a href="#p227">227</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Controversiae</i>, <a href="#p228">228</a>-<a href="#p229">9</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Suasoriae</i>, <a href="#p229">229</a>;</li> + <li> his history, <a href="#p230">230</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Seneca, L. Annaeus, the younger, + <ul> + <li>birth, family, education, <a href="#p240">240</a>;</li> + <li> voyage to Egypt, <a href="#p241">241</a>;</li> + <li> political advancement, <a href="#p242">242</a>;</li> + <li> banishment, recall, <a href="#p243">243</a>;</li> + <li> tutorship of Nero, privy to Claudius’ murder, <a href="#p244">244</a>;</li> + <li> checks Nero, <a href="#p245">245</a>;</li> + <li> power and wealth, <a href="#p246">246</a>;</li> + <li> loss of power, <a href="#p247">247</a>;</li> + <li> wishes to retire, <a href="#p248">248</a>;</li> + <li> Piso’s conspiracy, death of Seneca, <a href="#p248">248</a>;</li> + <li> extant prose works, <a href="#p249">249</a>;</li> + <li> extant poems, incl. tragedies, <a href="#p252">252</a>;</li> + <li> lost works, <a href="#p253">253</a>;</li> + <li> spurious works, views and character, <a href="#p254">254</a>;</li> + <li> style, <a href="#p255">255</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Curtius Rufus, <a href="#p257">257</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Persius, <a href="#p261">261</a>;</li> + <li> of Calp. Sic. <a href="#p276">276</a>;</li> + <li> of Lucilius Iunior, <a href="#p277">277</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> foll. by Lucan, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Lucilius, <a href="#p280">280</a>;</li> + <li> by Val. Flaccus, <a href="#p288">288</a>;</li> + <li> by Juv. <a href="#p326">326</a>;</li> + <li> patron of Mart. <a href="#p296">296</a>;</li> + <li> Quintilian’s antagonism to, <a href="#p309">309</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Servius, <a href="#p354">354</a>, <a href="#p147">147</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + + <li>Sextius, <a href="#p237">237</a>, <a href="#p240">240</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + + <li>Siculus, <i>see</i> <a href="#calpsic">Calpurnius</a>.</li> + + <li>Silanus, D. <a href="#p203">203</a>.</li> + + <li id="silius">Silius Italicus, + <ul> + <li>life, <a href="#p289">289</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Punica</i>, <a href="#p290">290</a>;</li> + <li> models, <a href="#p291">291</a>;</li> + <li> Homerus Latinus, <a href="#p291">291</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Mart. <a href="#p298">298</a>;</li> + <li> of Pliny the younger, <a href="#p335">335</a>;</li> + <li> on life of Ennius, <a href="#p026">26</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Siron, <a href="#p149">149</a>, <a href="#p150">150</a>.</li> + + <li id="sisenna">Sisenna, L. Cornelius, <a href="#p067">67</a>;<ul> + <li> foll. by Sall. <a href="#p129">129</a>;</li> + <li> by Tac. <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sophocles, + <ul> + <li> imit. by Pacuv. <a href="#p036">36</a>;</li> + <li> by Accius, <a href="#p057">57</a>;</li> + <li> by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li> + <li> by Sen. <a href="#p253">253</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Soranus, <i>see</i> <a href="#valsor">Valerius</a>.</li> + + <li>Sotadean metre, <a href="#p031">31</a>, <a href="#p057">57</a>.</li> + + <li>Sotion, <a href="#p240">240</a>.</li> + + <li>Stataria, <a href="#p011">11</a>, <a href="#p046">46</a>.</li> + + <li>Statius, <i>see</i> <a href="#caecstat">Caecilius</a>.</li> + + <li id="statius">Statius, P. Papinius, + <ul> + <li>birth, <a href="#p291">291</a>;</li> + <li> poetical competitions, <a href="#p292">292</a>;</li> + <li> patronized by Domitian, admiration for Lucan and Virgil, <a href="#p293">293</a>;</li> + <li> works, <a href="#p293">293</a>-<a href="#p295">5</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li> + <li> Val. Flaccus, <a href="#p288">288</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Lucan, <a href="#p267">267</a>;</li> + <li> sneered at by Mart. <a href="#p298">298</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Stilo, Aelius, <a href="#p010">10</a>, <a href="#p025">25</a>, <a href="#p029">29</a>.</li> + + <li>Stoicism, + <ul> + <li>discussed by Cic. <a href="#p079">79</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> in Virg. <a href="#p162">162</a>;</li> + <li> Hor.’s attitude to, <a href="#p173">173</a>;</li> + <li> in Sen. <a href="#p241">241</a>, <a href="#p254">254</a>;</li> + <li> in Persius, <a href="#p262">262</a>;</li> + <li> in Lucan, <a href="#p270">270</a>;</li> + <li> in <i>Aetna</i>, <a href="#p279">279</a>;</li> + <li> in Juv. <a href="#p325">325</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sueius, <a href="#p066">66</a>.</li> + + <li>Suessa, birthpl. of Lucilius, <a href="#p059">59</a>.</li> + + <li id="sueton">Suetonius Tranquillus, C., + <ul> + <li>life, <a href="#p348">348</a>;</li> + <li> works, <a href="#p349">349</a>;</li> + <li> biography of Lucan, <a href="#p264">264</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Sulla, <a href="#p068">68</a>, <a href="#p129">129</a>.</li> + + <li>Sulmo, birthpl. of Ovid, <a href="#p200">200</a>.</li> + + <li>Sulpicia, <a href="#p191">191</a>.</li> + + <li>Sulpicius, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li> + + <li>Sulpicius Apollinaris, <a href="#p018">18</a>, <a href="#p051">51</a>.</li> + + <li>Syrus, see <a href="#publil">Publilius</a>.</li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Tabernaria fabula, <a href="#p006">6</a>, <a href="#p064">64</a>.</li> + + <li id="tacitus">Tacitus, Cornelius, <a href="#p336">336</a>;<ul> + <li> birth and rank, <a href="#p337">337</a>;</li> + <li> reputation as an orator, <a href="#p338">338</a>;</li> + <li> political career, death, <a href="#p339">339</a>;</li> + <li> works, <a href="#p340">340</a>-<a href="#p343">3</a>;</li> + <li> views, <a href="#p343">343</a>;</li> + <li> sources, <a href="#p346">346</a>;</li> + <li> his credibility, <a href="#p347">347</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Pliny the younger, <a href="#p335">335</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Sall. <a href="#p132">132</a>;</li> + <li> Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li> + <li> Pliny the elder, <a href="#p285">285</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="tanus">Tanusius Geminus, <a href="#p138">138</a>.</li> + + <li>Tegula, Licinius, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li> + + <li>Terentius Afer, P., + <ul> + <li>date and pl. of birth, <a href="#p039">39</a>, <a href="#p040">40</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Laelius, Scipio, and Caecilius, <a href="#p041">41</a>-<a href="#p042">2</a>;</li> + <li> death, <a href="#p043">43</a>;</li> + <li> personal appearance, <a href="#p044">44</a>;</li> + <li> comedies, <a href="#p044">44</a>;</li> + <li> prologues, representation, <a href="#p049">49</a>;</li> + <li> names of characters, <a href="#p050">50</a>;</li> + <li> arguments, prosody, views on Ter. <a href="#p051">51</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Afranius, <a href="#p065">65</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Caecilius, <a href="#p038">38</a>;</li> + <li> attacks on Luscius, <a href="#p039">39</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Terentius, <i>see</i> <a href="#varro">Varro</a>.</li> + + <li>Theocritus, + <ul> + <li>imit. by Virg. <a href="#p156">156</a>;</li> + <li> by Calp. Sic. <a href="#p277">277</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Theophrastus, imit. by Cic. <a href="#p079">79</a>, <a href="#p082">82</a>.</li> + + <li>Thrasea, <i>see</i> <a href="#paetus">Paetus</a>.</li> + + <li>Thucydides, + <ul> + <li>imit. by Sall. <a href="#p132">132</a>;</li> + <li> by Lucr. <a href="#p123">123</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Nep. <a href="#p117">117</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tiberius, + <ul> + <li>Tac.’s view of, <a href="#p344">344</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> praised by Hor. <a href="#p172">172</a>;</li> + <li> by Velleius, <a href="#p233">233</a>;</li> + <li> by Val. Max. <a href="#p235">235</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tibiae, <a href="#p045">45</a>, <a href="#p050">50</a>.</li> + + <li id="tibull">Tibullus, Albius, + <ul> + <li>birth, <a href="#p185">185</a>;</li> + <li> rank and wealth, <a href="#p186">186</a>;</li> + <li> friendship with Messalla, <a href="#p187">187</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Delia and Nemesis, <a href="#p188">188</a>;</li> + <li> with other poets, <a href="#p189">189</a>;</li> + <li> poems, <a href="#p189">189</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Ovid, <a href="#p206">206</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Mart. <a href="#p301">301</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Ticidas, <a href="#p140">140</a>.</li> + + <li>Ticinum, birthpl. of Nepos, <a href="#p113">113</a>.</li> + + <li>Tingentera, birthpl. of Mela, <a href="#p259">259</a>.</li> + + <li id="tiro">Tiro, M. Tullius, <a href="#p090">90</a>;<ul> + <li> edits Cicero’s works, <a href="#p078">78</a>, <a href="#p085">85</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Titinius, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li> + + <li>Titius, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li> + + <li>Togata fabula, <a href="#p006">6</a>, <a href="#p052">52</a>, <a href="#p064">64</a>, <a href="#p185">185</a>.</li> + + <li>Trabea, <a href="#p039">39</a>.</li> + + <li>Trabeata fabula, <a href="#p185">185</a>.</li> + + <li>Tragicomoedia, <a href="#p010">10</a>.</li> + + <li>Tranquillus, <i>see</i> <a href="#sueton">Suetonius</a>.</li> + + <li id="trogus">Trogus, Pompeius, <a href="#p223">223</a>;<ul> + <li> followed by Val. Max. <a href="#p235">235</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Tucca, <a href="#p154">154</a>, <a href="#p160">160</a>.</li> + + <li>Tullia, <a href="#p072">72</a>, <a href="#p080">80</a>.</li> + + <li>Tullius, <i>see</i> <a href="#cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="#tiro">Tiro</a>.</li> + + <li>Turpilius, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li> + + <li>Tusculum, birthpl. of Cato, <a href="#p053">53</a>.</li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Vacca, biographer of Lucan, <a href="#p264">264</a>.</li> + + <li>Valerius, <i>see</i> <a href="#catull">Catullus</a>, <a href="#probus">Probus</a>, <a href="#martial">Martialis</a>.</li> + + <li>Valerius, writer of palliatae, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li> + + <li id="valeriusaed">Valerius Aedituus, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li> + + <li id="valant">Valerius Antias, <a href="#p067">67</a>;<ul> + <li> foll. by Livy, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Valerius Cato, <a href="#p133">133</a>.</li> + + <li id="valflacc">Valerius Flaccus, + <ul> + <li>life, <a href="#p234">234</a>.</li> + <li> the <i>Argonautica</i>, <a href="#p287">287</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="valmax">Valerius Maximus, <a href="#p234">234</a>;<ul> + <li> his <i>Facta et Dicta Memorabilia</i>, <a href="#p234">234</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Juv. <a href="#p325">325</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="valsor">Valerius Soranus, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li> + + <li id="valgius">Valgius Rufus, <a href="#p180">180</a>.</li> + + <li id="varius">Varius Rufus, L., <a href="#p181">181</a>;<ul> + <li> friend of Virg. <a href="#p154">154</a>, <a href="#p160">160</a>;</li> + <li> of Horace, <a href="#p166">166</a> <i>sqq.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="varratac">Varro Atacinus, P. Terentius, <a href="#p144">144</a>;<ul> + <li> imit. by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="varro">Varro, M. Terentius, + <ul> + <li>birth, <a href="#p091">91</a>;</li> + <li> military and political career, <a href="#p091">91</a>-<a href="#p092">2</a>;</li> + <li> death, <a href="#p093">93</a>;</li> + <li> works, <a href="#p093">93</a>-<a href="#p097">7</a>;</li> + <li> on chronology, <a href="#p005">5</a>, <a href="#p006">6</a>, <a href="#p026">26</a>;</li> + <li> on criticism, <a href="#p010">10</a>, <a href="#p051">51</a>;</li> + <li> on Sallust, <a href="#p126">126</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Virg. <a href="#p157">157</a>, <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li> + <li> by Ovid, <a href="#p211">211</a>;</li> + <li> friend of Cic. <a href="#p081">81</a>, <a href="#p094">94</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Vatinius, + <ul> + <li>attacked by Cic. <a href="#p076">76</a>;</li> + <li> by Catull. <a href="#p137">137</a>;</li> + <li> by Calvus, <a href="#p142">142</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Vatronius, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li> + + <li id="velleius">Velleius Paterculus, C., + <ul> + <li>military and civil career, <a href="#p231">231</a>-<a href="#p232">2</a>;</li> + <li> his <i>Historia Romana</i>, <a href="#p232">232</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Venusia, birthpl. of Hor. <a href="#p163">163</a>.</li> + + <li id="vergil">Vergilius Maro, P., + <ul> + <li>name, <a href="#p147">147</a>;</li> + <li> parentage and education, <a href="#p148">148</a>;</li> + <li> evictions from farm, <a href="#p149">149</a>, <a href="#p150">150</a>;</li> + <li> friendship of Augustus, <a href="#p149">149</a>;</li> + <li> literary life, <a href="#p151">151</a>;</li> + <li> later years, <a href="#p152">152</a>;</li> + <li> personal appearance and character, <a href="#p153">153</a>;</li> + <li> minor poems, <a href="#p153">153</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Bucolica</i>, <a href="#p154">154</a>;</li> + <li> the separate Eclogues, <a href="#p155">155</a>;</li> + <li> sources, <a href="#p156">156</a>;</li> + <li> scenery in the Eclogues, <a href="#p156">156</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Georgics</i>, <a href="#p157">157</a>;</li> + <li> sources, <a href="#p157">157</a>;</li> + <li> political purpose, <a href="#p158">158</a>;</li> + <li> natural scenery, <a href="#p158">158</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Aeneid</i>, <a href="#p159">159</a>;</li> + <li> method of composition, <a href="#p159">159</a>;</li> + <li> posthumous publication, subject, why chosen, <a href="#p160">160</a>;</li> + <li> the Aeneas legend, <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li> + <li> sources of <i>Aeneid</i>, religion in <i>Aeneid</i>, <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li> + <li> political significance, <a href="#p162">162</a>;</li> + <li> influence of Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li> + <li> popularity of Virg. <a href="#p180">180</a>;</li> + <li> patronized by Pollio, <a href="#p112">112</a>;</li> + <li> imit. Naevius, <a href="#p007">7</a>;</li> + <li> Enn. <a href="#p033">33</a>;</li> + <li> Accius, <a href="#p058">58</a>;</li> + <li> Lucilius, <a href="#p062">62</a>;</li> + <li> Hostius, <a href="#p065">65</a>;</li> + <li> Bibaculus, <a href="#p100">100</a>;</li> + <li> Lucr. <a href="#p125">125</a>;</li> + <li> Catull. <a href="#p140">140</a>;</li> + <li> Atac. <a href="#p145">145</a>;</li> + <li> Hyginus, <a href="#p224">224</a>;</li> + <li> relations with Hor. <a href="#p166">166</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li> + <li> with Aemilius Macer, <a href="#p182">182</a>;</li> + <li> with Gallus, <a href="#p183">183</a>;</li> + <li> with Propert. <a href="#p196">196</a>;</li> + <li> imit. by Manilius, <a href="#p214">214</a>;</li> + <li> by Lucan, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li> + <li> by Calp. Sic. <a href="#p277">277</a>;</li> + <li> by Val. Flaccus, <a href="#p288">288</a>;</li> + <li> by Silius, <a href="#p291">291</a>;</li> + <li> by Statius, <a href="#p293">293</a>;</li> + <li> by Mart. <a href="#p301">301</a>;</li> + <li> by Juv. <a href="#p325">325</a>;</li> + <li> supplemented by Colum. <a href="#p258">258</a>;</li> + <li> <i>Aetna</i> attributed to, <a href="#p277">277</a>;</li> + <li> quoted largely by Quint. <a href="#p308">308</a>;</li> + <li> half-lines in, <a href="#p144">144</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Verona, + <ul> + <li>birthpl. of Catull. <a href="#p132">132</a>;</li> + <li> of Aemilius Macer, <a href="#p182">182</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li id="verrius">Verrius Flaccus, <a href="#p224">224</a>.</li> + + <li>Visci, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li> + + <li id="vitruv">Vitruvius Pollio, <a href="#p224">224</a>;<ul> + <li> his <i>Architectura</i>, <a href="#p225">225</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li>Volaterrae, birthpl. of Persius, <a href="#p260">260</a>.</li> + + <li>Volcacius, <i>see</i> <a href="#sedigitus">Sedigitus</a>.</li> + + <li>Volusius, <a href="#p138">138</a>.</li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Xenophon, + <ul> + <li>trans. by Cic. <a href="#p087">87</a>;</li> + <li> foll. by Nep. <a href="#p117">117</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> +</ul><ul> + <li>Zeno, <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<h2 id="p378">INDEX OF TITLES</h2> + +<ul> +<li>A fine Aufidii Bassi, <a href="#p284">284</a></li> +<li>Ab excessu divi Augusti, <a href="#p342">342</a></li> +<li>Ab urbe condita, <a href="#p217">217</a></li> +<li>Academica, <a href="#p080">80</a></li> +<li>Achilleis, <a href="#p294">294</a></li> +<li>Achilles, <a href="#p003">3</a></li> +<li>Actis Scenicis, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Adelphoe, <a href="#p048">48</a></li> +<li>Admiranda, <a href="#p087">87</a></li> +<li>Aegisthus, <a href="#p003">3</a></li> +<li>Aeneadae, <a href="#p057">57</a></li> +<li>Aeneas, <a href="#p282">282</a></li> +<li>Aeneid, <a href="#p159">159</a></li> +<li>Aethiopis, <a href="#p100">100</a></li> +<li>Aetia, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Aetna, <a href="#p277">277</a></li> +<li>Agamemnon, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Agave, <a href="#p295">295</a></li> +<li>Agricola, <a href="#p341">341</a></li> +<li>Agricultura, De<ul> +<li> (Cato), <a href="#p054">54</a></li> +<li> (Hyginus), <a href="#p224">224</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Ajax, <a href="#p152">152</a></li> +<li>Alexandri Historiae, <a href="#p256">256</a></li> +<li>Amazonis, <a href="#p184">184</a></li> +<li>Ambracia, <a href="#p030">30</a></li> +<li>Amicitia, De<ul> +<li> (Cic.), <a href="#p082">82</a></li> +<li> (Sen.), <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Amores<ul> +<li> (Marsus), <a href="#p185">185</a></li> +<li> (Ovid), <a href="#p207">207</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Amphitruo, <a href="#p010">10</a></li> +<li>Analogia, De, <a href="#p109">109</a></li> +<li>Andria, <a href="#p044">44</a></li> +<li><cite class="greek">Ἀνέκδοτα</cite>, <a href="#p087">87</a></li> +<li>Annales of<ul> +<li> Accius, <a href="#p057">57</a></li> +<li> Q. Cicero, <a href="#p090">90</a></li> +<li> Ennius, <a href="#p031">31</a></li> +<li> Fenestella, <a href="#p224">224</a></li> +<li> Hortensius, <a href="#p074">74</a></li> +<li> Sueius, <a href="#p066">66</a></li> +<li> Tacitus, <a href="#p342">342</a></li> +<li> Varro, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Annalis, <a href="#p090">90</a></li> +<li>Anticatones, <a href="#p110">110</a></li> +<li>Antiopa, <a href="#p036">36</a></li> +<li>Antiquitate litterarum, De, <a href="#p094">94</a></li> +<li>Antiquitates, <a href="#p094">94</a></li> +<li>Antonianae orationes, <a href="#p078">78</a></li> +<li>Apocolocyntosis, <a href="#p251">251</a></li> +<li>Apophoreta, <a href="#p300">300</a></li> +<li><cite class="greek">Ἀποφθέγματα</cite><ul> +<li> (Cato), <a href="#p055">55</a></li> +<li> (Caes.), <a href="#p110">110</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Aquis urbis Romae, De, <a href="#p312">312</a></li> +<li>Arboribus, De, <a href="#p259">259</a></li> +<li>Archia, Pro, <a href="#p075">75</a></li> +<li>Architectura, De, <a href="#p225">225</a></li> +<li>Argonautae, <a href="#p144">144</a></li> +<li>Argonautica, <a href="#p287">287</a></li> +<li>Ars Amatoria, <a href="#p209">209</a></li> +<li>Ars Poetica, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a></li> +<li>Asinaria, <a href="#p011">11</a></li> +<li>Astris, De, <a href="#p110">110</a></li> +<li>Astrologia, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Astronomica, <a href="#p213">213</a></li> +<li>Attis, <a href="#p139">139</a></li> +<li>Auguriis, De, <a href="#p082">82</a></li> +<li>Aulularia, <a href="#p011">11</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Bacchides, <a href="#p013">13</a></li> +<li>Balbo, Pro, <a href="#p076">76</a></li> +<li>Balistam, In, <a href="#p153">153</a></li> +<li>Bella Germaniae, <a href="#p284">284</a></li> +<li>Bello Civili, De (Lucan), <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li>Bellum<ul> +<li>Africum, <a href="#p106">106</a></li> +<li> Alexandrinum, <a href="#p106">106</a></li> +<li> Civile, <a href="#p106">106</a></li> +<li> Gallicum<ul> +<li>(Bibaculus), <a href="#p100">100</a></li> +<li> (Caes.), <a href="#p104">104</a></li></ul> +</li> +<li> Hispaniense, <a href="#p106">106</a></li> +<li> Histricum, <a href="#p065">65</a></li> +<li> Iugurthinum, <a href="#p129">129</a></li> +<li> Punicum, <a href="#p007">7</a></li> +<li> Sequanicum, <a href="#p144">144</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Beneficiis, De, <a href="#p251">251</a></li> +<li>Bibliothecis, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Boeotia, <a href="#p039">39</a></li> +<li>Brevitate vitae, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li> +<li>Brundusinae, <a href="#p064">64</a></li> +<li>Brutus<ul> +<li>(Accius), <a href="#p057">57</a></li> +<li> (Cic.), <a href="#p084">84</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Bucco Adoptatus, <a href="#p067">67</a></li> +<li>Bucolica, <a href="#p154">154</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Caecilium, Divinatio in, <a href="#p073">73</a></li> +<li>Caecina, Pro, <a href="#p074">74</a></li> +<li>Caelio, Pro, <a href="#p076">76</a></li> +<li>Caesarem, Ad, <a href="#p087">87</a></li> +<li>Caesaris, De morte, <a href="#p181">181</a></li> +<li>Captivi, <a href="#p011">11</a></li> +<li>Carmen Saeculare, <a href="#p171">171</a></li> +<li>Carmina<ul> +<li>(Catull.), <a href="#p132">132</a></li> +<li> (Hor.), <a href="#p171">171</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p174">174</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Casina, <a href="#p012">12</a></li> +<li>Catachthonion, <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li>Catalecta, <a href="#p153">153</a></li> +<li>Catilinae coniuratione, De, <a href="#p128">128</a></li> +<li>Catilinam, In, <a href="#p075">75</a></li> +<li>Cato, <a href="#p341">341</a></li> +<li>Cato Maior, <a href="#p082">82</a></li> +<li>Catonis vita, <a href="#p115">115</a></li> +<li>Causis corruptae eloquentiae, De, <a href="#p306">306</a></li> +<li>Cena Trimalchionis, <a href="#p273">273</a></li> +<li>Chorographia<ul> +<li>(Atacinus), <a href="#p145">145</a></li> +<li> (Cic.), <a href="#p087">87</a></li> +<li> (Mela), <a href="#p259">259</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Chronica, <a href="#p115">115</a></li> +<li>Ciceronis vita, <a href="#p116">116</a></li> +<li>Cicuta, <a href="#p184">184</a></li> +<li>Ciris, <a href="#p154">154</a></li> +<li>Cistellaria, <a href="#p012">12</a></li> +<li>Claris Oratoribus, De, <a href="#p084">84</a></li> +<li>Clastidium, <a href="#p007">7</a></li> +<li>Clementia, De, <a href="#p251">251</a></li> +<li>Cluentio, Pro, <a href="#p074">74</a></li> +<li>Coma Berenices, <a href="#p139">139</a></li> +<li>Commentarii <ul> +<li>(Caes.), <a href="#p104">104</a></li> +<li> (Donatus, Servius, etc.), <a href="#p354">354</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Commentariolum petitionis, <a href="#p089">89</a></li> +<li>Compendiosa doctrina, De, <a href="#p353">353</a></li> +<li>Compitalia, <a href="#p065">65</a></li> +<li>Consolatio, <a href="#p080">80</a></li> +<li>Consolatione, De,<ul> +<li>ad Marc., <a href="#p250">250</a></li> +<li> ad Polyb., <a href="#p250">250</a></li> +<li> ad Helv., <a href="#p251">251</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Constantia, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li> +<li>Consulatu, De suo, <a href="#p087">87</a></li> +<li>Consulatu Ciceronis, De, <a href="#p091">91</a></li> +<li>Controversiae, <a href="#p228">228</a></li> +<li>Copa, <a href="#p154">154</a></li> +<li>Culex, <a href="#p154">154</a></li> +<li>Cum populo gratias egit, <a href="#p075">75</a></li> +<li>Cum senatui gratias egit, <a href="#p075">75</a></li> +<li>Cupuncula, <a href="#p030">30</a></li> +<li>Curculio, <a href="#p011">11</a></li> +<li>Cynegetica, <a href="#p277">277</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Decius, <a href="#p057">57</a></li> +<li>Declamationes, <a href="#p309">309</a></li> +<li>Deiotaro, Pro rege, <a href="#p077">77</a></li> +<li>Descriptionibus, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Dialogus de oratoribus, <a href="#p340">340</a></li> +<li>Didascalica, <a href="#p057">57</a></li> +<li>Diomedea, <a href="#p181">181</a></li> +<li>Dirae, <a href="#p154">154</a></li> +<li>Dis penatibus, De, <a href="#p224">224</a></li> +<li>Disciplinae, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Divinatione, De, <a href="#p082">82</a></li> +<li>Domitius, <a href="#p341">341</a></li> +<li>Domo sua, De, <a href="#p076">76</a></li> +<li>Drusi vita, <a href="#p152">152</a></li> +<li>Dubius sermo, <a href="#p284">284</a></li> +<li>Duo Dosseni, <a href="#p067">67</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Eclogae<ul> +<li>(Virg), <a href="#p154">154</a></li> +<li> (Calp. Sic.), <a href="#p275">275</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li><cite class="greek">Εἰσαγωγικός</cite>, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Elegiae—of<ul> +<li>Atacinus, <a href="#p145">145</a></li> +<li> Marsus, <a href="#p029">29</a></li> +<li> Propert., <a href="#p196">196</a></li> +<li> Tibull., <a href="#p189">189</a></li> +<li> Valgius, <a href="#p180">180</a></li> +<li> Varius, <a href="#p182">182</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Ephemeris, <a href="#p145">145</a></li> +<li>Ephemeris navalis, Eph. rustica, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Epicharmus, <a href="#p031">31</a></li> +<li>Epidicus, <a href="#p012">12</a></li> +<li>Epigrammata—of <ul> +<li>Calvus, <a href="#p143">143</a></li> +<li> Ennius, <a href="#p029">29</a></li> +<li> Lucan, <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li> Marsus, <a href="#p185">185</a></li> +<li> Martial, <a href="#p300">300</a></li> +<li> Seneca, <a href="#p252">252</a></li> +<li> Valgius, <a href="#p181">181</a></li> +<li> Virgil, <a href="#p154">154</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Epistolicae quaestiones, <a href="#p097">97</a></li> +<li>Epistula ad Pisones, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a></li> +<li>Epistulae—<ul> +<li>ad Atticum, <a href="#p085">85</a></li> +<li> ad Brutum, <a href="#p086">86</a></li> +<li> ad Caesonium, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li> ad Familiares, <a href="#p086">86</a></li> +<li> ad Novatum, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li> ad Paulum, <a href="#p254">254</a></li> +<li> ad Quintum fratrem, <a href="#p086">86</a></li> +<li> ad Traianum, <a href="#p335">335</a></li> +<li> ex Campania, <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li> ex Ponto, <a href="#p213">213</a></li> +<li> Latinae, <a href="#p097">97</a></li> +<li> morales, <a href="#p252">252</a></li> +<li> of Horace, <a href="#p171">171</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a></li> +<li> of Ovid, <a href="#p208">208</a></li> +<li> of Pliny, <a href="#p334">334</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Epithalamia, <a href="#p143">143</a></li> +<li>Epodi, <a href="#p171">171</a>, <a href="#p174">174</a></li> +<li>Erotopaegnia, <a href="#p066">66</a></li> +<li>Euhemerus, <a href="#p031">31</a></li> +<li>Excellentibus ducibus, De, <a href="#p116">116</a></li> +<li>Exempla<ul> +<li> (Nepos), <a href="#p115">115</a></li> +<li> (Hyginus), <a href="#p224">224</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Exhortationes, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Fabellae, <a href="#p185">185</a></li> +<li>Fabulae Aesopiae, <a href="#p239">239</a></li> +<li>Facta et dicta memorabilia, <a href="#p234">234</a></li> +<li>Familiis Troianis, De<ul> +<li> (Hyginus), <a href="#p224">224</a></li> +<li> (Varro), <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Fasti<ul> +<li> (Ovid), <a href="#p210">210</a></li> +<li> (Verrius), <a href="#p224">224</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Fato, De, <a href="#p082">82</a></li> +<li>Finibus, De, <a href="#p080">80</a></li> +<li>Flacco, Pro, <a href="#p075">75</a></li> +<li>Fonteio, Pro, <a href="#p074">74</a></li> +<li>Forma mundi, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Forma philosophiae, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Formula honestae vitae, De, <a href="#p254">254</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Gente populi Romani, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Geometria, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Georgica, <a href="#p157">157</a></li> +<li>Germania, <a href="#p341">341</a></li> +<li>Gloria, De, <a href="#p082">82</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Halieuticon, <a href="#p213">213</a></li> +<li>Haruspicum responsis, De, <a href="#p076">76</a></li> +<li>Heauton Timorumenos, <a href="#p045">45</a></li> +<li>Hebdomades, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Hecuba, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Hecyra, <a href="#p047">47</a></li> +<li>Hedyphagetica <a href="#p031">31</a></li> +<li>Herbis, De, <a href="#p182">182</a></li> +<li>Hercules Furens; Herc. Oetaeus, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Heroides, <a href="#p208">208</a></li> +<li>Hippolytus, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Historia Romana, <a href="#p232">232</a></li> +<li>Historiae<ul> +<li> (Sall.), <a href="#p129">129</a></li> +<li> (Sisenna), <a href="#p067">67</a></li> +<li> (Tac.), <a href="#p341">341</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Homerus Latinus, <a href="#p291">291</a></li> +<li>Hortationes ad philosophiam, <a href="#p152">152</a></li> +<li>Hortensius, <a href="#p080">80</a></li> +<li>Hymenaeus, <a href="#p141">141</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Iaculatione equestri, De, <a href="#p284">284</a></li> +<li>Ibis, <a href="#p212">212</a></li> +<li>Iliacon, <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li>Imagines, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Imaginibus, De, <a href="#p091">91</a></li> +<li>Immatura morte, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Imperio Cn. Pompei, De, <a href="#p074">74</a></li> +<li>Incendio urbis, De, <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li>Institutio oratoria, <a href="#p306">306</a></li> +<li>Inventione, De, <a href="#p083">83</a></li> +<li>Io, <a href="#p143">143</a></li> +<li>Iocularis libellus, <a href="#p088">88</a></li> +<li>Ira, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li> +<li>Iter, <a href="#p111">111</a></li> +<li>Iure civili, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Iure civili in artem redigendo, De, <a href="#p087">87</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Laelius, <a href="#p082">82</a></li> +<li>Lapidum natura, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Lectionibus, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Legationum libri, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Lege agraria, De, <a href="#p074">74</a></li> +<li>Lege Manilia, Pro, <a href="#p074">74</a></li> +<li>Legibus, De, <a href="#p079">79</a></li> +<li>Ligario, Pro, <a href="#p077">77</a></li> +<li>Limon, <a href="#p088">88</a></li> +<li>Lingua Latina, De, <a href="#p094">94</a></li> +<li><cite class="greek">Λογιστορικοί</cite>, <a href="#p096">96</a></li> +<li>Lucubrationes, <a href="#p100">100</a></li> +<li>Lucullus, <a href="#p081">81</a></li> +<li>Ludus de morte Claudi, <a href="#p251">251</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Maccus Copa, Miles, Sequester, Virgo, <a href="#p067">67</a></li> +<li>Marcello, Pro, <a href="#p077">77</a></li> +<li>Marius, <a href="#p088">88</a></li> +<li>Matrimonio, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Medea<ul> +<li> (Ennius), <a href="#p030">30</a></li> +<li> (Lucan), <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li> (Maternus), <a href="#p341">341</a></li> +<li> (Ovid), <a href="#p208">208</a></li> +<li> (Sen.), <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Medicamina, <a href="#p209">209</a></li> +<li>Menaechmi, <a href="#p014">14</a></li> +<li>Mensuralia, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Mensuris, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Mercator, <a href="#p015">15</a></li> +<li>Metamorphoses, <a href="#p209">209</a></li> +<li>Miles Gloriosus, <a href="#p014">14</a></li> +<li>Milone, Pro, <a href="#p077">77</a></li> +<li>Mimi<ul> +<li> (Laberius), <a href="#p097">97</a></li> +<li> (Syrus), <a href="#p145">145</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Mimiambi, <a href="#p066">66</a></li> +<li>Monita, <a href="#p254">254</a></li> +<li>Moralis philosophiae libri, <a href="#p254">254</a></li> +<li>Moretum<ul> +<li> (Sueius), <a href="#p066">66</a></li> +<li> (Virg.), <a href="#p154">154</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Moribus, De<ul> +<li> (Cato), <a href="#p055">55</a></li> +<li> (Sen.), <a href="#p254">254</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Mostellaria, <a href="#p014">14</a></li> +<li>Motu terrarum, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Murena, Pro, <a href="#p075">75</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Natura deorum, De, <a href="#p081">81</a></li> +<li>Naturae historiae, <a href="#p285">285</a></li> +<li>Naturales quaestiones, <a href="#p252">252</a></li> +<li>Navales libri, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Neronem, In, <a href="#p268">268</a></li> +<li>Neronis laudes, <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li>Nidus, <a href="#p066">66</a></li> +<li>Niptra, <a href="#p036">36</a></li> +<li>Noctes Atticae, <a href="#p352">352</a></li> +<li>Numerorum libri, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Octavia, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li><ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Octaviam'" +id="corr6">Octavium</ins>, Or. in, <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li>Odes (Hor.), <a href="#p171">171</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p174">174</a></li> +<li><cite class="greek">Ὁδοιπορικά</cite>, <a href="#p261">261</a></li> +<li>Odyssea, <a href="#p003">3</a></li> +<li>Oedipus<ul> +<li> (Caes.), <a href="#p111">111</a></li> +<li> (Sen.), <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Officiis, De<ul> +<li> (Cic.), <a href="#p082">82</a></li> +<li> (Sen.), <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Optimo genere dicendi, De, <a href="#p084">84</a></li> +<li>Optimo genere oratorum, De, <a href="#p085">85</a></li> +<li>Ora maritima, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Orator, <a href="#p084">84</a></li> +<li>Oratore, De, <a href="#p084">84</a></li> +<li>Origine linguae Latinae, De, <a href="#p094">94</a></li> +<li>Origines, <a href="#p054">54</a></li> +<li>Originibus scenicis, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Ornithogonia, <a href="#p182">182</a></li> +<li>Orpheus, <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li>Otio, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Pancratiastes, <a href="#p030">30</a></li> +<li><cite class="greek">Πανδέκται</cite>, <a href="#p090">90</a></li> +<li>Panegyricus (Plin.), <a href="#p330">330</a></li> +<li>Panegyricus Messallae, <a href="#p191">191</a></li> +<li>Paradoxa, <a href="#p080">80</a></li> +<li>Partitiones Oratoriae, <a href="#p085">85</a></li> +<li>Paulus, <a href="#p036">36</a></li> +<li>Paupertate, De, <a href="#p254">254</a></li> +<li>Peleus et Thetis, <a href="#p139">139</a></li> +<li><cite class="greek">Περιαλγής</cite>, <a href="#p165">165</a></li> +<li>Persa, <a href="#p016">16</a></li> +<li>Personis, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Petitione consulatus, De, <a href="#p089">89</a></li> +<li>Phaedra, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Phaenomena, <a href="#p281">281</a></li> +<li>Pharsalia, <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li>Philippicae Historiae, <a href="#p223">223</a></li> +<li>Philippics, <a href="#p078">78</a></li> +<li>Philosophia, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Phoenissae, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Phormio, <a href="#p046">46</a></li> +<li>Piscium natura, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Pisonem, In, <a href="#p077">77</a></li> +<li>Pisonis, De Laude, <a href="#p277">277</a></li> +<li>Plancio, Pro, <a href="#p077">77</a></li> +<li>Plocium, <a href="#p038">38</a></li> +<li>Poematis, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Poenulus, <a href="#p016">16</a></li> +<li>Poetis, De<ul> +<li> (Sedig.), <a href="#p066">66</a></li> +<li> (Varro), <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Pollam, Ad, <a href="#p268">268</a></li> +<li>Pompeio, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Pontius Glaucus, <a href="#p087">87</a></li> +<li>Ponto, Epp. ex, <a href="#p213">213</a></li> +<li>Praecepta, <a href="#p031">31</a></li> +<li>Praecepta ad filium, <a href="#p055">55</a></li> +<li>Pragmatica, <a href="#p057">57</a></li> +<li>Praxidica, <a href="#p057">57</a></li> +<li>Priapea, <a href="#p154">154</a>, <a href="#p191">191</a></li> +<li>Pridie quam in exilium iret, <a href="#p078">78</a></li> +<li>Principiis numerorum, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Prognostica, <a href="#p087">87</a>, <a href="#p281">281</a></li> +<li>Propempticon Pollionis, <a href="#p142">142</a></li> +<li>Proprietate Scriptorum, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Protreptica, <a href="#p031">31</a></li> +<li>Providentia, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li> +<li>Provinciis consularibus, De, <a href="#p076">76</a></li> +<li>Pseudolus, <a href="#p015">15</a></li> +<li>Pseudotragoediae, <a href="#p096">96</a></li> +<li>Pulli, <a href="#p066">66</a></li> +<li>Punica, <a href="#p290">290</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Quaestiones Plautinae, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Quinctio, Pro, <a href="#p073">73</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Rabirio Postumo, Pro, <a href="#p077">77</a></li> +<li>Rabirio perd. reo, Pro, <a href="#p074">74</a></li> +<li>Re medica, De, <a href="#p236">236</a></li> +<li>Re militari, De, <a href="#p055">55</a></li> +<li>Re publica, De, <a href="#p079">79</a></li> +<li>Re rustica, De<ul> +<li> (Varro), <a href="#p093">93</a></li> +<li> (Colum.), <a href="#p258">258</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Remedia Amoris, <a href="#p209">209</a></li> +<li>Remediis fortuitorum, De, <a href="#p254">254</a></li> +<li>Rerum natura, De<ul> +<li> (Egnatius), <a href="#p099">99</a></li> +<li> (Lucretius), <a href="#p120">120</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Res urbanae, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Rescripta, <a href="#p152">152</a></li> +<li>Rhetorica<ul> +<li> (Hortens.), <a href="#p074">74</a></li> +<li> (Cic.), <a href="#p083">83</a></li> +<li> ad Herenn., <a href="#p088">88</a></li> +<li> (Varro), <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li> (Quint.), <a href="#p306">306</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Ritu et sacris Aegyptiorum, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Romulus, <a href="#p007">7</a></li> +<li>Roscio, Pro Sex., <a href="#p073">73</a></li> +<li>Roscio Comoedo, Pro, <a href="#p073">73</a></li> +<li>Rudens, <a href="#p016">16</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Sacra Historia, <a href="#p031">31</a></li> +<li>Sallustium, In, <a href="#p078">78</a>, <a href="#p130">130</a></li> +<li>Salticae fabulae, <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li>Saturae Menippeae, <a href="#p096">96</a></li> +<li>Saturae<ul> +<li> (Enn.), <a href="#p030">30</a></li> +<li> (Pacuv.), <a href="#p036">36</a></li> +<li> (Lucil.), <a href="#p061">61</a></li> +<li> (Atac.), <a href="#p144">144</a></li> +<li> (Hor.), <a href="#p170">170</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a></li> +<li> (Persius), <a href="#p262">262</a></li> +<li> (Petron.), <a href="#p272">272</a></li> +<li> (Juv.), <a href="#p320">320</a>, <a href="#p323">323</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Saturnalia (Lucan.), <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li>Saturnalia (Macrob.), <a href="#p354">354</a></li> +<li>Scenicis actionibus, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Scipio, <a href="#p031">31</a></li> +<li>Senectute, De, <a href="#p082">82</a></li> +<li>Sententiae (Varro), <a href="#p097">97</a></li> +<li>Sententiae (Syrus), <a href="#p145">145</a></li> +<li>Sententiae Rufi, <a href="#p254">254</a></li> +<li>Sermone Latino, De, <a href="#p094">94</a></li> +<li>Sermones (Hor.), <a href="#p170">170</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a></li> +<li>Sestio, Pro, <a href="#p076">76</a></li> +<li>Sicilia, <a href="#p152">152</a></li> +<li>Silvae (Lucan), <a href="#p267">267</a></li> +<li>Silvae (Statius), <a href="#p295">295</a></li> +<li>Similitudine verborum, De, <a href="#p094">94</a></li> +<li>Situ Indiae, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Situ urbium Italicarum, De, <a href="#p224">224</a></li> +<li>Somnium Scipionis, <a href="#p079">79</a></li> +<li>Sota, <a href="#p031">31</a></li> +<li>Spectacula, <a href="#p300">300</a></li> +<li>Stichus, <a href="#p017">17</a></li> +<li>Strategemata, <a href="#p311">311</a></li> +<li>Studiosus, <a href="#p284">284</a></li> +<li>Suasiones, <a href="#p097">97</a></li> +<li>Suasoriae, <a href="#p229">229</a></li> +<li>Sulla, Pro, <a href="#p075">75</a></li> +<li>Superstitione, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Temporibus suis, De, <a href="#p087">87</a></li> +<li>Tereus, <a href="#p056">56</a></li> +<li>Thebais (Sen.), <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Thebais (Stat.), <a href="#p293">293</a></li> +<li>Theriaca, <a href="#p182">182</a></li> +<li>Thyestes<ul> +<li> (Enn.), <a href="#p030">30</a></li> +<li> (Varius), <a href="#p182">182</a></li> +<li> (Sen.), <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li> (Maternus), <a href="#p341">341</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Topica, <a href="#p085">85</a></li> +<li>Tranquillitate animi, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li> +<li>Tribuum liber, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li><cite class="greek">Τρικάρανος</cite>, <a href="#p092">92</a></li> +<li>Trinummus, <a href="#p017">17</a></li> +<li>Tristia, <a href="#p212">212</a></li> +<li>Troades, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Truculentus, <a href="#p017">17</a></li> +<li>Tullium, invectiva in, <a href="#p130">130</a></li> +<li>Tusculanae disputationes, <a href="#p081">81</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Urbanitate, De, <a href="#p185">185</a></li> +<li>Utilitate sermonis, De, <a href="#p094">94</a></li> +<li>Uxorem, Ad, <a href="#p143">143</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Vatinium, In, <a href="#p076">76</a></li> +<li>Verborum significatu, De, <a href="#p224">224</a></li> +<li>Verrem, In, <a href="#p073">73</a></li> +<li>Vescia, <a href="#p261">261</a></li> +<li>Vidularia, <a href="#p018">18</a></li> +<li>Viris illustribus, De<ul> +<li> (Hyg.), <a href="#p224">224</a></li> +<li> (Nep.), <a href="#p116">116</a></li> +<li> (Sueton.), <a href="#p349">349</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Virtutibus, De, <a href="#p082">82</a></li> +<li>Vita beata, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li> +<li>Vita Caesarum, De, <a href="#p349">349</a></li> +<li>Vita patris, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li> +<li>Vita Pomponii, De, <a href="#p284">284</a></li> +<li>Vita populi Romani, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li>Vita sua, De<ul> +<li> (Varro), <a href="#p095">95</a></li> +<li> (Aug.), <a href="#p152">152</a></li> +</ul></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Xenia, <a href="#p300">300</a></li> +<li><cite class="greek">Χαρακτήρων, περὶ</cite>, <a href="#p094">94</a></li> +<li><cite class="greek">Χρονικοὶ κανόνες</cite>, <a href="#p351">351</a></li> +</ul><ul> +<li>Zmyrna, <a href="#p141">141</a></li> +</ul> + +<hr class="gap" /> + +<p class="small ctr gap"> +GLASGOW: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO. +</p> + +<h2>Footnotes</h2> + +<p> +<a href="#ref001" id="fn001">[1]</a> The scheme of this old national metre, which depends on accent +and not on quantity, may be seen from the two examples given below. +Various forms are found, but one of the commonest types is identical +with the rhythm of the nursery rhyme, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘The queen was in the parlour, eating bread and honey.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<a href="#ref002" id="fn002">[2]</a> ‘I have heard that a Roman poet is languishing in prison with +head on hand’—probably a metaphor from a pillar (but the sense is far from certain). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref003" id="fn003">[3]</a> Utica was besieged by Scipio from 204 to 202 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref004" id="fn004">[4]</a> In the <i>fabula togata</i> or <i>tabernaria</i> the surroundings of the comedy +were Roman, in the <i>fabula palliata</i> Greek, as in Plautus’ plays. +<i>Togata</i> in a wider sense included tragedy as well as comedy. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref005" id="fn005">[5]</a> This term means the construction of a new play by uniting two +old ones. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref006" id="fn006">[6]</a> The references are to the revised edition of Ritschl. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref007" id="fn007">[7]</a> A species of burlesque tragedy, called after its inventor Rhinthon, who flourished <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 300. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref008" id="fn008">[8]</a> <i>R.H.</i> ii. p. 431 trans. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref009" id="fn009">[9]</a> This shows that the ancient (rough alphabetical) order has been +departed from. Some grammarian of the fifth century altered the +position of the play on account of the reference to it in <i>Epid.</i> 213-5 +(quoted above). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref010" id="fn010">[10]</a> I.e. the ‘Patruus’ written by the old Roman (lit., ‘son of the +porridge-eater’). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref011" id="fn011">[11]</a> These games were celebrated in April. Plays were exhibited also +at the <i>Ludi Romani</i> (September) and the <i>Ludi Plebei</i> (November). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref012" id="fn012">[12]</a> Much of the information on this head is taken from J. Brix’s edition +of the <i>Trinummus</i>. Leipzig, 1888. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref013" id="fn013">[13]</a> This is shown in the universal classical usage of <i>benĕ</i>, <i>malĕ</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref014" id="fn014">[14]</a> The references are to Vahlen’s edition. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref015" id="fn015">[15]</a> Thus the original name of Beneventum was Maleventum, i.e. +<span class="greek">ΜαλόϜεντα</span>, accusative of <span class="greek">ΜαλόϜεις</span>; cf. Agrigentum from <span class="greek">Ἀκράγας</span>, +and Tarentum from <span class="greek">Τάρας</span>. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref016" id="fn016">[16]</a> Euhemerus of Messana, who wrote about the end of the fourth +century <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>, tried in this work to show that the worship of the gods +arose from the worship of deified kings and heroes. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref017" id="fn017">[17]</a> The Oscan form of <i>Pacuvi</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref018" id="fn018">[18]</a> The term <i>doctus</i> refers to his knowledge of the Greek laws of +artistic composition. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref019" id="fn019">[19]</a> After Ambivius’ name appears in most of the didascaliae ‘L. Hatilius +Praenestinus.’ Probably this person was an actor at some later +productions, and his name has in this way crept into the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref020" id="fn020">[20]</a> <i>Tibiae</i> were called <i>pares</i> or <i>impares</i> according as they were or +were not of the same length and key. <i>Duae dextrae</i> were two pipes +both playing the treble. <i>Tibiae Sarranae</i>, from Sarra, the old Latin +name for Tyre, were a special form of <i>tibiae pares</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref021" id="fn021">[21]</a> <i>Mediocritas</i> = <span class="greek">τὸ μέσον</span>, the intermediate style between <span class="greek">τὸ ἁδρόν</span>, +‘the florid’ (<i>ubertas</i>), and <span class="greek">τὸ ἰσχνόν</span>, ‘the simple’ (<i>gracilitas</i>). See +W. Peterson’s note on Quint. x. 1, 44. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref022" id="fn022">[22]</a> For the omission of names, cf. iv. 12 (Jordan), ‘dictatorem Karthaginiensium +magister equitum monuit’ (of Hannibal and Maharbal). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref023" id="fn023">[23]</a> This means that Lucilius would represent the nom. plu. by <i>-ei</i> and +the gen. sing, by <i>-i</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref024" id="fn024">[24]</a> The <i>fabula Atellana</i> was a species of farce adopted by the Romans +from the Oscan town of Atella in Campania. See Livy, vii. 2, for +this and the early history of the Roman drama. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref025" id="fn025">[25]</a> Q. Hortensius Hortalus (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 114-50), Cicero’s rival as an orator, +and author of <i>Annales</i> (Vell. ii. 16, 3), a <i>Rhetoric</i> (Quint. ii. 1, 11), +and love poems (Ovid <i>Tr.</i> ii. 441). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref026" id="fn026">[26]</a> According to <i>ad Att.</i> ii. 1, 3 (if genuine), Cicero intended to publish +speeches 9-11 in a collection of ‘orationes consulares’ (‘Hoc totum +<span class="greek">σῶμα</span> curabo ut habeas’). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref027" id="fn027">[27]</a> <i>R.H.</i> iv. 311 (note). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref028" id="fn028">[28]</a> Q. Asconius Pedianus (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 3-88), probably a native of Padua, +author of a commentary on Cicero’s speeches. The extant part is on +<i>Pro Cornelio de maiestate</i>, <i>In toga candida</i>, <i>In Pisonem</i>, +<i>Pro Scauro</i>, +and <i>Pro Milone</i>. The commentary on the Verrines and Divinatio, +which deals almost exclusively with the language, is spurious: the +true Asconius confines himself to the subject-matter. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref029" id="fn029">[29]</a> The Epicurean philosophy was expounded in the writings of C. +Amafinius, Rabirius, and T. Catius, whose opinions and literary style +were alike distasteful to Cicero (<i>Ac.</i> i. 5; <i>ad. Fam.</i> xv. 19, 2). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref030" id="fn030">[30]</a> F. Ritschl, <i>Opuscula</i>, iii., p. 525. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref031" id="fn031">[31]</a> L. Schwabe, <i>Quaest. Catull.</i>, p. 296. B. Schmidt, however (ed. +of Catullus, p. 57), thinks that the <i>Chronica</i> are not referred to here. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref032" id="fn032">[32]</a> A life of Lucretius has been recently discovered by J. Masson +(<i>Journal of Philology</i>, xxiii. 46), which was written by Girolamo +Borgia in 1502. It gives <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 95-51 as the poet’s dates. Several +new points were supposed to lend it a claim to authority, such as +the statement that he was ‘matre natus diu sterili.’ This, however, +has been shown to rest on a wrong reading of Q. Serenus Sammonicus’ <i>Liber Medicinalis</i>, xxxii., in a passage dealing with the +barrenness of women, ‘hoc poterit magni quartus [liber] monstrare +Lucreti,’ where <i>partus</i>, the reading of the oldest edition, was used. +This, and other considerations, show that the <i>vita</i> does not rest on +any ancient sources, beyond those which are still extant. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref033" id="fn033">[33]</a> Memmius wrote love poems (Ovid, <i>Tr.</i> ii. 433). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref034" id="fn034">[34]</a> Some ascribe these stories to Lenaeus, a freedman of Pompey, +Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 15. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref035" id="fn035">[35]</a> Only inferior <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> give Q., and the reading in c. 67, 12, ‘verum +istud populi, fabula, Quinte, facit,’ is not to be accepted. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref036" id="fn036">[36]</a> Some critics, without sufficient proof, identify Volusius with the +inferior poet Tanusius Geminus. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref037" id="fn037">[37]</a> Martial, of course, has here forgotten his dates. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref038" id="fn038">[38]</a> The incident has been borrowed from Plutarch by Shakespeare, +<i>Julius Caesar</i>, Act iii. Scene 3. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref039" id="fn039">[39]</a> See <a href="#p184">p. 184</a>. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref040" id="fn040">[40]</a> This appears to us to be an indirect proof that the half lines in +Virgil are often complete as they stand. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref041" id="fn041">[41]</a> M. Valerius Probus of Berytus (Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 24) who flourished, +according to Jerome, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 56, prepared critical editions of Lucretius, +Virgil, and Horace. A commentary on the <i>Eclogues</i> and <i>Georgics</i> +passes under his name, but most of it is spurious. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref042" id="fn042">[42]</a> A grammarian of the fifth century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>, who merely versifies +Donatus. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref043" id="fn043">[43]</a> On this point Professor W. M. Ramsay writes to us: ‘Virgil’s +farm was certainly not at Pietole (which is two miles south of Mantua, +out in the flat plain): for (1) the farm was a long way from the city +(cf. <i>Ecl.</i> 9, 59 <i>sqq.</i>); (2) it was beside hills (<i>ibid.</i> 7 <i>sqq.</i>); (3) woods +were on or by it (cf. Donatus “silvis coemendis”), and the flat fertile +valley was certainly not abandoned to forests. After exploring the +country, I felt clear that the farm was on the west bank of the Mincio, +opposite Valeggio, where the northern hills sink to the dead level +of the Po valley.’ +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref044" id="fn044">[44]</a> His knowledge of science is reflected in his works. Cf. <i>Georgics</i>, +passim, and <i>Ecl.</i> 3, ll. 40-2. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref045" id="fn045">[45]</a> The latter part of this statement is worthless: Augustus was only +a child when Virgil came to Rome. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref046" id="fn046">[46]</a> Probus is manifestly wrong in saying that the distribution of land +took place ‘post <i>Mutinense</i> bellum.’ +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref047" id="fn047">[47]</a> For details see H. Nettleship, <i>Ancient Lives of Vergil</i>, who holds +that there was really only one eviction. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref048" id="fn048">[48]</a> The writings of Augustus are enumerated by Sueton. Aug. 85— +(1) <i>Rescripta Bruto de Catone</i>, a reply to Brutus’ pamphlet on Cato; +(2) <i>Hortationes ad Philosophiam</i>; (3) <i>De Vita Sua</i>; (4) Life of Drusus +(Sueton. <i>Claud.</i> 1); (5) Poems: ‘Sicily’ in hexameters, Epigrams +and Fescennine verses; a tragedy, ‘Ajax’ (never finished). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref049" id="fn049">[49]</a> Servius wrote ‘triennio’ perhaps because he thought only of the +dates of <i>Ecl.</i> 1 and 10 (H. Nettleship, <i>ibid.</i>). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref050" id="fn050">[50]</a> C. Schaper’s view is that <i>Ecls.</i> 4, 6, and 10 were not written till +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27-25 for a second edition. He supposes <i>Ecl.</i> 6 to allude to the +marriage of Marcellus and Julia in 25 (referring 6, 3 to the <i>Aeneid</i>), +and <i>Ecl.</i> 10 to be a lament for Gallus, who committed suicide +<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref051" id="fn051">[51]</a> Iulus is properly spelt Iullus (as in inscriptions), and is for Iovillos, +a diminutive from the stem of Iuppiter. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref052" id="fn052">[52]</a> L. Orbilius Pupillus of Beneventum, who in his <cite class="greek">Περιαλγής</cite> complained +of the wrongs of his profession (Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 4 and 9). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref053" id="fn053">[53]</a> Maecenas wrote, besides smaller prose works, a history of his own +times (Hor. <i>Od.</i> ii. 12, 9; Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> vii. 148). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref054" id="fn054">[54]</a> For Horace’s relations to Propertius see <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 91-101, and under +‘<i>Propertius</i>,’ <a href="#p196">p. 196</a>. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref055" id="fn055">[55]</a> See G. Boissier, <i>Nouvelles Promenades Archéologiques: Horace et +Virgile</i> (Paris, 1886). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref056" id="fn056">[56]</a> Dr. A. W. Verrall’s argument (<i>Studies in Horace</i>, pp. 25 <i>sqq.</i>) that +<i>Od.</i> i.-iii. were published <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19 is not convincing. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref057" id="fn057">[57]</a> Ed. by Mommsen in <i>Ephemeris Epigraphica</i>, 1892, p. 225. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref058" id="fn058">[58]</a> For Horace’s eclectic position in philosophy, cf. <i>Ep.</i> i. 1, 14-15, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> +‘Nullius addictus iurare in verba magistri,<br /> +quo me cumque rapit tempestas, deferor hospes.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<a href="#ref059" id="fn059">[59]</a> As suggested to us by Prof. W. M. Ramsay. For Horace’s +opinion of Catullus cf. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 18-9, +</p> + +<blockquote> +<p> + ‘Simius iste,<br /> +nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.’ +</p> +</blockquote> + +<p> +<a href="#ref060" id="fn060">[60]</a> See Th. Mommsen, <i>Sitzungsberichte der königl. preuss. Akad. der +Wissenschaften zu Berlin</i>. 24 Jan. 1889. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref061" id="fn061">[61]</a> A Peripatetic of the third century <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>, who wrote a popular +account of the literary and philosophical views of his school. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref062" id="fn062">[62]</a> E. Voss, <i>Die Natur in der Dichtung des Horaz</i> (Düsseldorf, 1889). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref063" id="fn063">[63]</a> As pointed out by A. W. Verrall, <i>Studies in Horace</i>, p. 134 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref064" id="fn064">[64]</a> This poem is probably referred to by Hor. <i>Od.</i> iv. 4, 19-22. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref065" id="fn065">[65]</a> M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus, author of memoirs of the Civil +War (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 34), love poems (Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> v. 3, 5), and works +on grammar (Quint. i. 7, 35). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref066" id="fn066">[66]</a> Dessau, <i>Inscr. Lat. Sel.</i> 2925. <i>Serg.</i> stands for <i>Serg[ia tribu]</i>, +and is not a cognomen <i>Sergio</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref067" id="fn067">[67]</a> See Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> v. 9, 2. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref068" id="fn068">[68]</a> This question was first satisfactorily worked out by T. Dyer, +<i>Classical Museum</i> for 1847, p. 229 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref069" id="fn069">[69]</a> See under ‘Juvenal,’ <a href="#p323">p. 323</a>. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref070" id="fn070">[70]</a> Pollio accused him of Patavinitas, <i>i.e.</i> the use of provincialisms +(<i>verba peregrina</i>, as opposed to <i>Latina</i>, Quint. i. 5, 55, <i>curiose loqui</i> +rather than <i>Latine</i>, Quint. viii. 1, 2). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref071" id="fn071">[71]</a> By A. Diepenbrock, <i>L. Annaeus Seneca</i>, p. 12 (Amsterdam, 1888). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref072" id="fn072">[72]</a> The praenomen ‘Gaius’ is rendered highly probable by the reading +of the <i>editio princeps</i> and by an inscription found in Africa (<i>C.I.L.</i> +viii. 10311). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref073" id="fn073">[73]</a> <i>Les Poètes Latins de la Décadence</i>, vol. i., p. 8. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref074" id="fn074">[74]</a> Antwerp edition, p. 89. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref075" id="fn075">[75]</a> Tacitus does not say openly that Seneca was privy to the murder. +On the whole he is favourable to Seneca, either because he followed +the authority of Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, or because +Seneca perished afterwards through Nero’s agency, or because he +thought Seneca deserved his consideration. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref076" id="fn076">[76]</a> Seneca’s influence on the Imperial policy, especially in the liberal +view it took regarding religion, is well brought out by Prof. W. M. Ramsay, +in his book, <i>St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman +Citizen</i>, pp. 354 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref077" id="fn077">[77]</a> See the very large list of parallels collected by Heitland, <i>Introduction</i> +to Haskins’ <i>Lucan</i>, § 51. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref078" id="fn078">[78]</a> See under Varro, <a href="#p096">p. 96</a>. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref079" id="fn079">[79]</a> Ed. of <i>Cena Trimalchionis</i>, p. 7. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref080" id="fn080">[80]</a> See O. Hirschfeld’s note on this passage in <i>Römische Verwaltungsgeschichte</i>, p. 261. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref081" id="fn081">[81]</a> Messalla was a favourite of Gaius, Narcissus of Claudius. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref082" id="fn082">[82]</a> Pomponius was the author of <i>Aeneas</i> and other tragedies. Pliny +calls him ‘consularis poeta,’ ‘vates civisque clarissimus’ (<i>N.H.</i> vii. 80, +xiii. 83). Cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xii. 28. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref083" id="fn083">[83]</a> Given with other examples by W. C. Summers, <i>Study of the +Argonautica</i> (Camb. 1894), p. 27. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref084" id="fn084">[84]</a> Summers, <i>ibid.</i> p. 56. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref085" id="fn085">[85]</a> Cf. Tac. <i>Hist.</i> iii. 65. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref086" id="fn086">[86]</a> Mart. vii. 63. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref087" id="fn087">[87]</a> Mart. xi. 48; 49. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref088" id="fn088">[88]</a> Mart. viii. 66. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref089" id="fn089">[89]</a> Mart. ix. 68. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref090" id="fn090">[90]</a> The references are to L. Friedländer’s edition (Leipzig, 1886). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref091" id="fn091">[91]</a> Ed. of Book x., Introd. p. 9 (Oxford, 1891). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref092" id="fn092">[92]</a> A passage probably inserted by the pseudo-Frontinus from memoirs +of the genuine Frontinus to give an air of authenticity to his work. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref093" id="fn093">[93]</a> J. Dürr, <i>Das Leben Juvenals</i> (Ulm, 1888). L. Friedländer (ed. of +Juvenal: Leipzig, 1895) attaches little importance to this and the other +<i>vitae</i>, but his arguments do not appear to us to be convincing. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref094" id="fn094">[94]</a> E. G. Hardy (ed. of Juvenal: London, 1891, introd. p. 8) thinks +that this is supported by Juvenal’s gentile name Iunius. As a representative +of the middle classes he (thinks Hardy) could not have +been related by blood to either of the two <i>gentes</i> of that name. +Hardy also states that Decimus is a common <i>praenomen</i> of the +plebeian <i>gens Iunia</i>, and suggests that Juvenal may have got his +<i>praenomen</i> from them. There is no reason, however, to think that +every Iunius must be related or associated in some way with one +of these two <i>gentes</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref095" id="fn095">[95]</a> The statement of the <i>vitae</i>, ‘ad mediam fere aetatem declamavit,’ +may imply no more than that he continued his studies in private; +but it must be observed that the usual meaning of <i>declamare</i> is ‘to +attend college classes’; and the statement, in whatever way it is +taken, must be looked upon as improbable. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref096" id="fn096">[96]</a> If the number I. is right, and this appears most likely. II. is +the only other possible reading, and it must be noted that the second +Dalmatian cohort was in Britain at the beginning of the second century, +and probably had been there for a considerable time. <i>Trib.</i> in the +inscription is a conjecture suggested by the <i>vitae</i>: <i>praef.</i>, which is +epigraphically possible, is preferred by some authorities. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref097" id="fn097">[97]</a> E. G. Hardy thinks that <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 87 was one of the years when +<i>duumviri quinquennales</i> (appointed every five years) were elected in +Aquinum, and hypothetically assigns Juvenal’s holding of the post to +that year. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref098" id="fn098">[98]</a> <i>C.I.L.</i> vii. 1195. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref099" id="fn099">[99]</a> Cf. E. G. Hardy, ed. of Juvenal. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref100" id="fn100">[100]</a> Cf. E. G. Hardy, <i>ibid.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref101" id="fn101">[101]</a> The reference in 4, 126, ‘De temone Britanno excidet Arviragus,’ +proves nothing. It is the sort of reference that would be made by +an Italian ignorant of Britain, and is, in fact, put into the mouth of +one. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref102" id="fn102">[102]</a> The view that <i>Sat.</i> i. 33 <i>sqq.</i> refers to M. Aquilius Regulus, who +died probably <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 105 (Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> i. 5, 14-15), is rejected by Friedländer +<i>ad loc.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref103" id="fn103">[103]</a> H. Nettleship (<i>Journal of Philology</i>, xvi., p. 45) points out that +C. Vipstanus Apronianus and C. Fonteius Capito were consuls <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 59, +and suggests that this may be the year meant. This would give <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 119 +as the date of composition. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref104" id="fn104">[104]</a> The scholiast connects with 4, 37-8. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref105" id="fn105">[105]</a> This story is rejected both by Hardy and by Friedländer. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref106" id="fn106">[106]</a> Juvenal had a leaning to Stoicism: cf. <i>Sat.</i> 10 <i>ad fin.</i>, and his +references to fate, <i>e.g.</i> 7, 200; 10, 365; 12, 63. He believes in the +gods (13, 247-9), but disbelieves the doctrines of the popular religion +(2, 149 <i>sqq.</i>). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref107" id="fn107">[107]</a> The inscription records the appointment of Cilo’s sons and a woman +Lutulla as trustees of a fund, the interest of which was to be disbursed +to the people of Comum. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref108" id="fn108">[108]</a> <i>Hermes</i>, iii. 31 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref109" id="fn109">[109]</a> The inscription in Caria, formerly supposed to give P. as praenomen, +is now shown to have been misread. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref110" id="fn110">[110]</a> The inhabitants of Terni (Interamna) erected a statue to Tacitus +as to a fellow-townsman in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 1514. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref111" id="fn111">[111]</a> <i>Bull. de Corr. Hell.</i>, 1890, p. 621, quoted by Prof. W. M. Ramsay, +<i>The Church in the Roman Empire</i>, p. 228. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref112" id="fn112">[112]</a> One of the speakers in the Dialogue, Curiatius Maternus, was the +author of tragedies <i>Medea</i> and <i>Thyestes</i>, and of praetextae <i>Domitius</i> +and <i>Cato</i> (<i>Dial.</i> 2-3). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref113" id="fn113">[113]</a> Various attempts have been made, especially in a work published in +London, 1878, to prove, of course unsuccessfully, that the <i>Annals</i> were +forged in the fifteenth century by the Italian scholar Poggio Bracciolini. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref114" id="fn114">[114]</a> Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, quoted also for the shape of +Britain (<i>Agr.</i> 10). +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref115" id="fn115">[115]</a> Cluvius Rufus, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 69 (<i>H.</i> i. 8). +Mommsen considers that he is one of the historians censured in <i>H.</i> +ii. 101. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref116" id="fn116">[116]</a> Roth gives 71, Teuffel 75 at latest. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref117" id="fn117">[117]</a> See <i>Quaestiones Suetonianae</i> in Reifferscheid’s <i>Suetonius</i>, pp. 363 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref118" id="fn118">[118]</a> See H. Nettleship, <i>Lectures and Essays</i> (1885), p. 248 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#ref119" id="fn119">[119]</a> See Nettleship, <i>ibid.</i> p. 277 <i>sqq.</i> +</p> + +<div class="notes gap"> +<p> +<strong>Transcriber’s note:</strong> +</p> +<p> +The following typographical errors were corrected: +</p> +<ul style="list-style-type: disc"> +<li> +<a href="#corr1">Page 29</a>: “equs” changed to “equus” +</li> +<li> +<a href="#corrp34">Page 34</a>: single quote added following “clueret.” +</li> + <li> +<a href="#corr7">Page 161</a>: period added following “Religion in the Aeneid” + </li> + <li> +<a href="#corrp218">Page 218</a>: single quote added following “capit.” +</li> +<li> +<a href="#corr2">Page 259</a>: “<span class="bcad">B.C.</span>” changed to “<span class="bcad">A.D.</span>” +</li> +<li> +<a href="#corr3">Page 259</a>: “Claudius” changed to “Caligula” +</li> +<li> +<a href="#corr4">Page 259</a>: “Caligula” changed to “Claudius” (twice) +</li> + <li> +<a href="#corrp263">Page 263</a>: single quote added following “ineptis.” +</li> + <!-- <li> +<a href="#corrp368">Page 368</a>: comma changed to semicolon following “Lucr. 121” +</li> --> +<li> +<a href="#corr6">Page 381</a>: “Octaviam” changed to “Octavium” +</li> +</ul> +<p>Inconsistencies in hyphenation have not been normalized.</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Student's Companion to Latin +Authors, by George Middleton and Thomas R. 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