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diff --git a/28380-8.txt b/28380-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6471bfa --- /dev/null +++ b/28380-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7962 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of Life of Charles Darwin, by G. T. (George +Thomas) Bettany + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Life of Charles Darwin + + +Author: G. T. (George Thomas) Bettany + + + +Release Date: March 21, 2009 [eBook #28380] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIFE OF CHARLES DARWIN*** + + +E-text prepared by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, René Anderson Benitz, and +the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team +(http://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Transcriber's note: + + In this e-text the letter e with a breve is represented + by [)e]. + + Minor printer's errors have been corrected without note. + Obvious typographical errors have been corrected and are + listed at the end of the text. + + + + + +"Great Writers." + +Edited by + +Professor Eric S. Robertson, M.A., + +LIFE OF DARWIN. + + +LIFE OF CHARLES DARWIN + +by + +G. T. BETTANY + + + + + + + +London +Walter Scott +24 Warwick Lane, Paternoster Row +1887 + + + + +CONTENTS. + +CHAPTER I. + PAGE +Darwin's ancestry; his grandfather, Dr. Erasmus Darwin, a +successful physician, and author of "The Botanic Garden," "The +Temple of Nature," &c.; his father, Robert Waring Darwin, also +a successful physician; his maternal grandfather, Josiah +Wedgwood, the celebrated potter; his mother's education and +training; Charles Robert Darwin, born at Shrewsbury, Feb. 12, +1809; Mrs. Darwin dies in July, 1817; her eldest son, Erasmus, +friend of the Carlyles; Charles Darwin's education by Mr. Case, +and at Shrewsbury Grammar School; his character as a boy; is +sent to Edinburgh University in 1825 11 + +CHAPTER II. + +Darwin a member of the Plinian Society, of Edinburgh; makes +natural history excursions; his first scientific paper read +March 27, 1827; friendship with Dr. Grant; Jameson's lectures +on zoology; Darwin enters Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1828; +his friendship with Prof. Henslow; his account of Henslow; +Darwin at this time specially an entomologist; his excursions +with Henslow; takes B.A. degree in 1831, M.A. in 1837; voyage +of _Beagle_ proposed, and Darwin appointed as naturalist; +the _Beagle_ sails on Dec. 27, 1831; Darwin's letters to +Henslow published 1835; 1832, Darwin at Teneriffe, Cape +de Verde Islands, St. Paul's Rocks, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro +(April); excursions into interior and amusing adventures; +his experiences and horror of slavery; at Monte Video, +July; Maldonado, Rio Negro; visit to Tierra del Fuego, Dec. +1832--Jan. 1833; _rencontre_ with General Rosas; many extinct +animals discovered; Buenos Ayres, Sept. 1833; excursion to +Santa Fé; Port Desire, Dec. 1833; Port St. Julian, Jan. 1834; +Valparaiso, July 1834; expeditions to the Andes, Santiago, &c.; +Chiloe, Nov. 1834; the Chonos Archipelago, Dec. 1834; Valdivia, +Feb. 1835; an earthquake experience; expedition across the +Cordillera in March, 1835; voyage across the Pacific commenced +in September; the Galapagos Archipelago and its interesting +animals; Tahiti, Nov. 1835; Darwin's opinion of English +products, and of the influence of Christian missionaries; New +Zealand, Dec. 1835; Port Jackson, Jan. 1836; Tasmania, Feb.; +the Keeling Islands, April; the homeward journey; Falmouth +reached, Oct. 2, 1836; Capt. Fitzroy's opinion of Darwin; +Darwin's first impression of savages 22 + +CHAPTER III. + +Darwin elected F.G.S.; Lyell's high opinion of him; secretary +of the Geological Society, Feb. 1838-41; reads numerous papers +before the Society; elected F.R.S., Jan. 24, 1839; marries his +cousin, Miss Wedgwood, early in 1839; "Journal of Researches," +published 1839, highly praised in _Quarterly Review_; +publication of zoology of the _Beagle_ (1839-43); extraordinary +animals described therein; other results of the voyage; +plants described by Hooker and Berkeley; work on "Coral +Reefs" published 1842; Darwin's new theory at once accepted; +subsequent views of Semper, Dana, and Murray; second and third +parts of Geology of _Beagle_ ("Volcanic Islands" and "South +America"); other geological papers; Darwin settles at Down +House, near Beckenham, 1842; appears at Oxford meeting of +British Association, 1847; contributes chapter on Geology to +Herschel's manual of Scientific Enquiry; publishes great works +on recent and fossil cirripedia, 1851-4; receives Royal Medal +of Royal Society, 1853, and Wollaston Medal of Geological +Society, 1859 51 + +CHAPTER IV. + +Confusion in description of species; labours of Professors Owen +and Huxley; Darwin's ideas on the origin of species germinated +during the voyage of the _Beagle_; he collected facts, +1837-42; drew up a sketch, 1842; enlarged it in 1844; previous +speculations on the subject; views of Erasmus Darwin, Geoffroy +St. Hilaire, and Lamarck; Darwin's opinion of Lamarck; +influence of Lyell; influence of South American experience; +reads Malthus on Population; "Vestiges of Creation "; Mr. +Herbert Spencer and evolution; Lyell's letters; Sir Joseph +Hooker on species; Mr. A. R. Wallace communicates his views to +Darwin; Lyell and Hooker persuade Darwin to publish his views +together with those of Wallace; introductory letter by Lyell +and Hooker to Linnean Society, June 30, 1858; Darwin's and +Wallace's papers, read July 1, 1858; Sir J. Hooker announces +his adhesion to Darwin's views, 1859 64 + +CHAPTER V. + +Analysis of the "Origin of Species," published Nov. 1859; +special notes of Darwin's personal experiences; remarkable +growth of morphology and embryology since its publication; +opposition to the new views; criticisms of leading journals and +reviews; second edition of "Origin," called for in six weeks; +third, in March 1861; historical sketch of progress of opinion +prefixed; alterations in successive editions; sixth edition, +1872; foreign translations 79 + +CHAPTER VI. + +Darwin's physical appearance, habits, distinguished visitors; +his kindliness; attachment of friends; his family; he reads +important botanical papers before the Linnean Society; +publishes the "Fertilisation of Orchids," 1862; analysis of +the book; Darwin receives Copley Medal of Royal Society, 1864; +"Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants," 1865; "Variation of +Animals and Plants under Domestication," 1868; the hypothesis +of pangenesis not favourably received 100 + +CHAPTER VII. + +"The Descent of Man," 1871; Darwin's varied use of personal +experiences; his views on the differences between men and +women; his views on happiness and its promotion in mankind; +reception of the "Descent of Man"; _Punch_, the _Quarterlies_, +_The Saturday Review_ 113 + +CHAPTER VIII. + +"Expression of the Emotions," 1872; Darwin's methods of +studying the question; his personal experiences; studies of +children; reminiscences of South American travel; studies of +monkeys; his wide study of novels; his influence on mental +science 126 + +CHAPTER IX. + +"Insectivorous Plants," 1875; how Darwin was led to +study them; analysis of the book; "Effects of Cross and +Self-Fertilisation," 1876; competitive germination and +growth; "The Different Forms of Flowers," 1877; "The Power +of Movement in Plants," 1880 136 + +CHAPTER X. + +Honours bestowed on Darwin; his reception at Cambridge in 1877; +portraits by Richmond and Collier; Haeckel's and De Candolle's +descriptions of visits to Darwin; "The Formation of Vegetable +Mould by Earthworms," 1881; the long series of experiments on +which it was based; obligations of archæologists to worms; +gradual exhaustion in 1882; his death on April 19, 1882 146 + +CHAPTER XI. + +Darwin buried in Westminster Abbey, April 26, 1882; quotation +from _The Times_; subscriptions to Darwin memorial; large +number of subscriptions from Sweden; statue executed by Mr. +Boehm, placed in Museum of Natural History, South Kensington, +unveiled by Prince of Wales, June 9, 1885; remainder of fund +handed to Royal Society to promote biological research; _The +Saturday Review_ on Darwin; his geniality and humour; his +influence on others; his lack of prejudice; extracts from his +letters; letter on experiments on living animals; Darwin as an +experimenter; his attitude towards Christianity and revelation; +his literary style; his imagination; Prof. Huxley on Darwin; +Dr. Masters on his influence on horticulture; Messrs. Sully and +Winchell on his philosophy; conclusion 154 + +INDEX 171 + + + * * * * * + + +NOTE. + + +Darwin revealed himself so largely in his books, that a vivid picture of +much of his life can be extracted from them. Thus it has been found +possible to combine much biographical interest with sketches of his most +important works. Like other biographers of Darwin, I am much indebted to +Mr. Woodall's valuable memoir, contributed to the Transactions of the +Shropshire Archæological Society. But original authorities have been +consulted throughout, and the first editions of Darwin's books quoted, +unless the contrary is explicitly stated. I am greatly obliged to +Messrs. F. Darwin and G. J. Romanes for kindly permitting me to quote +from Mr. Darwin's letters to Mr. Romanes. I must also express my thanks +to my friends, Mr. Romanes and Prof. D'Arcy W. Thompson, for doing me +the great service of looking over the proof-sheets of this book. + + + + +LIFE OF DARWIN. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +If ever a man's ancestors transmitted to him ability to succeed in a +particular field, Charles Darwin's did. If ever early surroundings were +calculated to call out inherited ability, Charles Darwin's were. If ever +a man grew up when a ferment of thought was disturbing old convictions +in the domain of knowledge for which he was adapted, Charles Darwin did. +If ever a man was fitted by worldly position to undertake unbiassed and +long-continued investigations, Charles Darwin was such a man. And he +indisputably found realms waiting for a conqueror. Yet Darwin's +achievements far transcend his advantages of ancestry, surroundings, +previous suggestion, position. He stands magnificently conspicuous as a +genius of rare simplicity of soul, of unwearied patience of observation, +of striking fertility and ingenuity of method, of unflinching devotion +to and belief in the efficacy of truth. He revolutionised not merely +half-a-dozen sciences, but the whole current of thinking men's mental +life. + +The Darwins were originally a Lincolnshire family of some position, and +being royalists suffered heavy losses under the Commonwealth. The third +William Darwin (born 1655), whose mother was a daughter of Erasmus +Earle, serjeant-at-law,[1] married the heiress of Robert Waring, of +Wilsford, Notts, who also inherited the manor of Elston, near Newark, in +that county, which still remains in the family. Robert Darwin, second +son of this William Darwin, succeeded to the Elston estate, and was +described by Stukeley, the antiquary, as "a person of curiosity," an +expression conveying high commendation. His eldest son, Robert Waring +Darwin, studied botany closely, and published a "Principia Botanica," +which reached a third edition; but his youngest son, Erasmus, born 1731, +was destined to become the first really famous man of the family. + +Erasmus Darwin's personal characteristics, his medical talents, and his +poetic writings were such as to overshadow, for his own generation, his +scientific merit. We have not space here to describe his career and his +works, which has been so well done by his grandson, and by Ernst Krause +("Erasmus Darwin," 1879). Horace Walpole regarded his description of +creation in "The Botanic Garden" (part i., canto 1, lines 103-114) as +the most sublime passage in any language he knew: and _The Edinburgh +Review_ (vol. ii., 1803, p. 501) says of his "Temple of Nature": "If his +fame be destined in anything to outlive the fluctuating fashion of the +day, it is on his merit as a poet that it is likely to rest; and his +reveries in science have probably no other chance of being saved from +oblivion but by having been 'married to immortal verse.'" + +The present age regards it as next to impossible to write science in +poetry; although few have succeeded better in the attempt than Erasmus +Darwin. It is singular that he should have partially anticipated his +illustrious grandson's theories, but without supporting them by +experimental proof or by deep scientific knowledge. Suffice it to say +now, that Erasmus contemplated to a great extent the same domain of +science as Charles Darwin, having also a mechanical turn; and was +educated at Edinburgh and Cambridge. His observations on Providence in +1754, when only twenty-three, in commenting on his father's death, are +very interesting to compare with his grandson's attitude: "That there +exists a superior Ens Entium, which formed these wonderful creatures, is +a mathematical demonstration. That He influences things by a particular +providence is not so evident. The probability, according to my notion, +is against it, since general laws seem sufficient for that end.... The +light of Nature affords us not a single argument for a future state: +this is the only one, that it is possible with God, since He who made us +out of nothing can surely re-create us; and that He will do this we +humbly hope." He published an ode against atheism, with which he has +strangely enough often been charged, beginning-- + + "Dull atheist, could a giddy dance + Of atoms lawless hurl'd + Construct so wonderful, so wise, + So harmonised a world?" + +and his moral standpoint is shown by the declaration that "the sacred +maxims of the author of Christianity, 'Do as you would be done by,' and +'Love your neighbour as yourself,' include all our duties of benevolence +and morality; and if sincerely obeyed by all nations, would a +thousandfold multiply the present happiness of mankind" ("Temple of +Nature," 1803, p. 124). His principal poetical writings were "The +Botanic Garden," in two parts; Part I. containing "The Economy of +Vegetation," first published in 1790; and Part II., "The Loves of the +Plants," in 1788, before the first part had appeared. "The Temple of +Nature, or the Origin of Society," was published after his death, in +1803. His chief prose works are "Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life," +in two volumes, 1794-6, the second volume being exclusively medical; and +"Phytologia, or the Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening," 1800. All +these books are in quarto, with plates. His views on species are +referred to on pages 66 and 67. [Transcriber's Note: Footnote 6.] + +Robert Waring Darwin, third son of Erasmus by his first wife, Mary +Howard, was born in 1766. As a boy he was brought much into association +with the Wedgwoods of Stoke, Josiah Wedgwood being one of Erasmus +Darwin's most intimate friends. In 1779 Robert, already destined to be a +doctor, stayed at Etruria for some time, sharing with Wedgwood's +children in Warltire's private chemical instruction; and Josiah Wedgwood +wrote at this time: "The boys drink in knowledge like water, with great +avidity." Before he was twenty Robert Darwin had taken his medical +degree with distinction at Edinburgh, where he had the advantage of the +lectures of Black, Cullen, and Gregory, and had also studied at Leyden, +and travelled in Germany. In 1786 his father set him up in practice at +Shrewsbury, leaving him with twenty pounds, which was afterwards +supplemented by a similar sum from his uncle, John Darwin, Rector of +Elston. On this slender capital he contrived to establish himself, in +spite of severe competition; and his burly form and countenance, as he +sat in his invariable yellow chaise, became well known to every man, +woman, and child around Shrewsbury for many miles. Before long, no one +thought of sending to Birmingham for a consultant, and Dr. Darwin was +for many years the leading Shropshire physician, and accumulated an +abundant fortune. + +According to his son Charles, Robert Darwin "did not inherit any +aptitude for poetry or mechanics, nor did he possess, as I think, a +scientific mind. He published, in vol. lxxvi. of the 'Philosophical +Transactions,' a paper on Ocular Spectra, which Wheatstone told me was a +remarkable production for the period; but I believe that he was largely +aided in writing it by his father. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal +Society in 1788. I cannot tell why my father's mind did not appear to me +fitted for advancing science, for he was fond of theorising, and was +incomparably the most acute observer whom I ever knew. But his powers in +this direction were exercised almost wholly in the practice of medicine +and in the observation of human character. He intuitively recognised the +disposition or character, and even read the thoughts, of those with whom +he came into contact, with extraordinary astuteness. This skill partly +accounts for his great success as a physician, for it impressed his +patients with belief in him; and my father used to say that the art of +gaining confidence was the chief element in a doctor's worldly success." + +Sensitive, sociable, a good talker, high-spirited and somewhat +irascible, a man who admitted no one to his friendship whom he could not +thoroughly respect, the friend of the poor, prescribing gratuitously to +all who were needy, pre-eminent for sympathy, which for a time made him +hate his profession for the constant suffering it brought before his +eyes--such was Charles Darwin's father. Miss Meteyard, in her "Group of +Englishmen," 1871, gives a vivid picture of the old doctor, his +acknowledged supremacy in Shrewsbury, his untiring activity and +ubiquity, his great dinner parties, his liberal and rather unpopular +opinions, tolerated for the sake of his success in curing his patients. +His face, powerful, unimpassioned, mild, and thoughtful, was always the +same as he rolled through the streets and lanes, for he sat "as though +carved in stone." His love of children was marked. "He would address +them in his small, high-pitched falsetto voice, and if their answers +pleased him he would reply; and occasionally, lifting them on to a chair +or table, he would measure their heads with his broad hand, as though +reading character, and mentally prognosticating their future fate." + +The successful doctor bought a piece of land near the Holyhead road, and +built on it a large square house, of plain architecture, which from its +charming position, a hundred feet above the Severn, received the name +of "The Mount."[2] Having thus provided the nest, in 1796 he brought +home his wife, Susannah Wedgwood, eldest daughter of the celebrated +potter, to whom he was married at Marylebone Church on April 18th. + +The character and education of Charles Darwin's mother is a matter of +considerable interest, notwithstanding that her death when he was only +eight years old cut short her opportunities of influencing him. She was +born at Burslem in January, 1765, and a year after her father describes +her as a "fine, sprightly lass:" she became his best-beloved child. She +was partly educated in London, under the eye of her father's partner, +the accomplished Thomas Bentley, in whose heart she won as tender a +place as in her father's. Later she continued her education at home with +her brothers, under good tuition. Many visits were exchanged between the +Darwins and the Wedgwoods, and old Erasmus Darwin became very fond of +Miss Wedgwood. By the time of her marriage she was matured by much +intercourse with notable people, as well as by extensive reading, and +from her experience of London society and varied travel in England was +well fitted to shine as the county doctor's wife. From her father, who +died in 1795, she had doubtless inherited, in addition to a handsome +fortune, many valuable faculties, and probably she transmitted more of +them to her son Charles than she herself manifested. Josiah Wedgwood, +over whose career it would be delightful to linger, is well described by +Miss Meteyard in words which might be precisely applied to Charles +Darwin, as "patient, stedfast, humble, simple, unconscious of half his +own greatness, and yet by this very simplicity, patience, and +stedfastness displaying the high quality of his moral and intellectual +characteristics, even whilst insuring that each step was in the right +direction, and firmly planted." A truly experimental genius in artistic +manufacture, Wedgwood foreshadowed a far greater experimental genius in +science. + +Before her famous son was born, however, Mrs. Darwin's health had begun +to fail, and in 1807 she wrote to a friend: "Every one seems young but +me." Her second son (four daughters having preceded him) was born at The +Mount on February 12, 1809, and christened "Charles Robert," at St. +Chad's Church, Shrewsbury, on November 17th following. No doubt her +declining health emphasised her attachment to home pursuits, to quiet +reading, to the luxuriant garden, and to her numerous domestic pets. The +beauty, variety, and lameness of The Mount pigeons was well known in the +town and far beyond. Mr. Woodall states that one of Darwin's +schoolfellows, the Rev. W. A. Leighton, remembers him plucking a plant +and recalling one of his mother's elementary lessons in botany. Too soon +however the mother was taken from The Mount; she died in July, 1817, +when Charles was between eight and nine years old. + +The eldest son of Dr. Robert Darwin, on whom the grandfather's name of +Erasmus had been bestowed, is notable as the intimate friend of the +Carlyles. "He had something of original and sarcastically ingenious in +him," says Carlyle, in his "Reminiscences," "one of the sincerest, +naturally truest, and most modest of men.... E. Darwin it was who named +the late Whewell, seeing him sit, all ear (not all assent), at some of +my lectures, 'The Harmonious Blacksmith.' My dear one had a great favour +for this honest Darwin always; many a road to shops, and the like, he +drove her in his cab, in those early days when even the charge of +omnibuses was a consideration, and his sparse utterances, sardonic +often, were a great amusement to her. 'A perfect gentleman,' she at once +discerned him to be, and of sound worth and kindliness, in the most +unaffected form." He died in 1881, aged 77, leaving no memorial to the +public of his undoubtedly great abilities. Like his younger brother, he +was a member of Christ's College, Cambridge, where he graduated M.B., in +1828. + +Early in 1817, the closing year of his mother's life, Charles Darwin was +placed at school with the Rev. George Case, minister of the Shrewsbury +Unitarian church, to which the Darwins were attached, in this resembling +the Wedgwoods. At midsummer, 1818, however, the boy entered Shrewsbury +Grammar School, then under Samuel Butler, afterwards Bishop of +Lichfield. Classics, as ever, formed the staple of the instruction there +afforded, and proved but little to the future naturalist's taste. +Unfortunately for the repute of English schools, Charles Darwin was +little benefited by his schooling; and Euclid, then an extra subject, +constituted, to his mind, the only bit of real education Shrewsbury +school gave him. Seventy years later, the study of mother earth and her +teeming productions, which Darwin made so attractive, is still but +scantily represented in the instruction afforded by our great schools. + +Thus out of sympathy with the prevalent studies, the youth showed no +fondness for his schoolfellows' sports. He was reserved, frequently lost +in thought, and fond of long solitary rambles, according to one +schoolfellow, the Rev. W. A. Leighton; another, the Rev. John Yardley, +Vicar of St. Chad's, Shrewsbury, remembers him as cheerful, +good-tempered, and communicative. One of the recorded incidents of his +boyish days is a fall from the old Shrewsbury wall, while walking in a +"brown study." Even at this early period he was fond of collecting +objects which many schoolboys delight in, such as shells and minerals, +seals, franks, and coins; and the mechanical aptitude derived from both +the Darwins and the Wedgwoods was manifested by keen interest in +mechanism. One especially remembered youthful treat was when his uncle +Josiah Wedgwood explained to him the principle of the vernier. No doubt +the pigeons, the exotics, the shrubs and flowers of his father's grounds +impressed themselves indelibly on the boy's mind and unconsciously +prepared him for his future. Schooldays were for him fortunately not +protracted, for in 1825, at the age of sixteen, he went to Edinburgh +University, where his father and grandfather had likewise studied, with +the idea of devoting himself to medicine. The youth of sixteen was well +equipped with the results of long thinking and observing rather than +with book-learning, and was prepared to play an independent part without +noise and show, assimilating that which commended itself to his mind, +and rejecting that which found no appropriate soil in him, in a manner +characteristic of genuine originality. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1: This is the Erasmus Earle who forms the subject of "A +Lawyer's Love Letters," in _The National Review_, February, 1887. +Letters of his are also printed in the Tenth Report of the Historical +MSS. Commission.] + +[2: "The house is seen," says Mr. Woodall, "from the line +immediately beyond the low tower of St. George's Church. Visitors who +make a pilgrimage there, after crossing the Welsh Bridge, follow the +main street until St. George's Church is passed, and the continuous line +of houses ceases. The next carriage drive, on the right, cutting in two +a lofty side-walk, is the entrance to The Mount. A short street of new +houses, near St. George's Church, has been called 'Darwin Street;' as +yet the only public recognition in the town of the greatest of +Salopians. A memorial of a more private character has been placed in the +Unitarian Chapel, in the form of a tablet bearing the following +inscription:--'To the memory of Charles Robert Darwin, author of "The +Origin of Species," born in Shrewsbury, February 12th, 1809. In early +life a member and constant worshipper in this church. Died April 19th, +1882.' Mrs. Darwin, we believe, was not strict in her adhesion to the +communion in which she had been brought up, but often attended St. +Chad's Church, where Charles and his brother were baptized."] + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +When Charles Darwin went to Edinburgh, the university was not in one of +its palmiest periods. The medical professors failed to attract him to +their profession, and two years of Edinburgh satisfied him that medicine +should not absorb him. With natural history the case was different. Its +attractiveness for Darwin increased. He found congenial companionship in +the Edinburgh Plinian Society, and Mr. W. F. Ainsworth relates (in _The +Athenæum_, May 13, 1882) that Darwin and himself made frequent +excursions on the shores of the Firth of Forth in pursuit of objects of +natural history, sometimes visiting the coasts of Fifeshire, and +sometimes the islands off the coast. On one occasion, accompanied by Dr. +Greville, the botanist, they went to the Isle of May, and were both +exceedingly amused at the effect produced upon the eminent author of the +Scottish Cryptogamic Flora by the screeching of the kittiwakes and other +water-fowl. He had actually to lie down on the greensward to enjoy his +prolonged cachinnation. On another occasion the young naturalists were +benighted on Inch Keith, but found refuge in the lighthouse. + +Darwin was now not merely a collector and exploring naturalist, but he +observed biological facts of importance. On the 27th of March, 1827, he +made a communication to the Plinian Society on the ova, or rather larvæ, +of the Flustra or sea-mat, a member of the class Polyzoa, forming a +continuous mat-like colony of thousands of organisms leading a +joint-stock existence. He announced that he had discovered in these +larvæ organs of locomotion, then so seldom, now so frequently, known to +exist on such bodies. At the same time, he made known that the small +black body which until that time had been mistaken for the young state +of a species of seaweed, was in reality the egg of _Pontobdella +muricata_, a sort of sea-leech. On the 3rd of April following, the +discoverer exhibited specimens of the latter creature with eggs and +young. + +In making these researches, Darwin was no doubt stimulated and aided by +the teaching of Dr. Grant, afterwards Professor of Natural History at +University College, London, who was then at Edinburgh, making +discoveries in the structure of sponges. Professor Jameson, too, who was +then forming his splendid museum of natural history, cannot fail to have +influenced Darwin somewhat; and we find that the first lecture of the +concluding portion of Jameson's zoological course, dealing with "The +Philosophy of Zoology," had the suggestive title of "The Origin of the +Species of Animals." Thus we must acknowledge that already at Edinburgh +Darwin was fairly started in the paths of zoological inquiry, and the +northern university must be admitted to share with Cambridge, the +distinction of being the foster-parent of this giant-child. + +Medicine being distasteful, Edinburgh had no other distinctive charms to +offer to young Darwin, and he was entered at Christ's College, +Cambridge, early in 1828, with the idea of his becoming a clergyman of +the Church of England. It might have been thought that there was scant +stimulus for a biological student in the Cambridge of that period; but +although the old literary and mathematical studies were still the only +paths to a degree, there were men of original force and genius at work +preparing the ground for a coming revolution. Sedgwick was teaching +geology with the fire of a prophet, and Henslow as a botanist was +showing that lessons of enthralling interest were to be learned from the +humblest flower. Henslow especially attracted young Darwin, who never +forgot his old teacher. In the preface to the journal of his voyage in +the _Beagle_ he returns his most sincere thanks to Professor Henslow, +"who," he says, "when I was an undergraduate at Cambridge, was one chief +means of giving me a taste for natural history; who, during my absence, +took charge of the collections I sent home, and by his correspondence +directed my endeavours--and who, since my return, has constantly +rendered me every assistance which the kindest friend could offer." + +No better idea of Darwin's Cambridge days can be given than that which +is derived from reading his account of Professor Henslow, contributed to +the Rev. L. Jenyns's "Memoirs" of that accomplished man. There can be no +doubt, also, that in thus pourtraying the character of another, he was +at the same time, as Mr. Romanes puts it, "unconsciously giving a most +accurate description of his own." + +"I went to Cambridge," wrote Darwin, "early in the year 1828, and soon +became acquainted, through some of my brother entomologists,[3] with +Professor Henslow, for all who cared for any branch of natural history +were equally encouraged by him. Nothing could be more simple, cordial, +and unpretending than the encouragement which he afforded to all young +naturalists. I soon became intimate with him, for he had a remarkable +power of making the young feel completely at ease with him; though we +were all awe-struck with the amount of his knowledge. Before I saw him I +heard one young man sum up his attainments by simply saying that he knew +everything. When I reflect how immediately we felt at perfect ease with +a man older and in every way so immensely our superior, I think it was +as much owing to the transparent sincerity of his character, as to his +kindness of heart, and, perhaps, even still more to a highly remarkable +absence in him of all self-consciousness. One perceived at once that he +never thought of his own varied knowledge or clear intellect, but solely +on the subject in hand. Another charm, which must have struck every one, +was that his manner to old and distinguished persons and to the youngest +student was exactly the same: to all he showed the most winning +courtesy. He would receive with interest the most trifling observation +in any branch of natural history, and however absurd a blunder one might +make, he pointed it out so clearly and kindly, that one left him in no +way disheartened, but only determined to be more accurate the next time. +In short, no man could be better formed to win the entire confidence of +the young, and to encourage them in their pursuits. + +"His lectures on botany were universally popular, and as clear as +daylight. So popular were they, that several of the older members of the +university attended successive courses. Once every week he kept open +house in the evening, and all who cared for natural history attended +these parties, which, by thus favouring intercommunication, did the same +good in Cambridge, in a very pleasant manner, as the scientific +societies do in London. At these parties many of the most distinguished +members of the university occasionally attended; and when only a few +were present, I have listened to the great men of those days conversing +on all sorts of subjects, with the most varied and brilliant powers. +This was no small advantage to some of the younger men, as it stimulated +their mental activity and ambition. Two or three times in each session +he took excursions with his botanical class, either a long walk to the +habitat of some rare plant, or in a barge down the river to the fens, or +in coaches to some more distant place, as to Gamlingay, to see the wild +lily-of-the-valley, and to catch on the heath the rare natter-jack. +These excursions have left a delightful impression on my mind. He was, +on such occasions, in as good spirits as a boy, and laughed as heartily +as a boy at the misadventures of those who chased the splendid +swallow-tail butterflies across the broken and treacherous fens. He used +to pause every now and then and lecture on some plant or other object; +and something he could tell us on every insect, shell, or fossil +collected, for he had attended to every branch of natural history. After +our day's work we used to dine at some inn or house, and most jovial we +then were. I believe all who joined these excursions will agree with me +that they have left an enduring impression of delight on our minds. + +"As time passed on at Cambridge I became very intimate with Professor +Henslow, and his kindness was unbounded; he continually asked me to his +house, and allowed me to accompany him in his walks. He talked on all +subjects, including his deep sense of religion, and was entirely open. I +owe more than I can express to this excellent man. His kindness was +steady. When Captain Fitzroy offered to give up part of his own cabin to +any naturalist who would join the expedition in H.M.S. _Beagle_, +Professor Henslow recommended me as one who knew very little, but who, +he thought, would work. I was strongly attached to natural history, and +this attachment I owed in large part to him. During the five years' +voyage he regularly corresponded with me, and guided my efforts; he +received, opened, and took care of all the specimens sent home in many +large boxes; but I firmly believe that, during these five years, it +never once crossed his mind that he was acting towards me with unusual +and generous kindness. + +"During the years when I associated so much with Professor Henslow I +never once saw his temper even ruffled. He never took an ill-natured +view of any one's character, though very far from blind to the foibles +of others. It always struck me that his mind could not be even touched +by any paltry feeling of vanity, envy, or jealousy. With all this +equability of temper and remarkable benevolence, there was no insipidity +of character. A man must have been blind not to have perceived that +beneath this placid exterior there was a vigorous and determined will. +When principle came into play no power on earth could have turned him +one hair's breadth.... + +"In intellect, as far as I could judge, accurate powers of observation, +sound sense, and cautious judgment seemed predominant. Nothing seemed to +give him so much enjoyment as drawing conclusions from minute +observations. But his admirable memoir on the geology of Anglesea shows +his capacity for extended observations and broad views. Reflecting over +his character with gratitude and reverence, his moral attributes rise, +as they should do in the highest character, in pre-eminence over his +intellect." + +The young man's modesty is conspicuous in the above narrative. He does +not see how his own transparent candour, his desire to learn, his +respect for those who were already masters of science, won upon the +great men with whom he came in contact. It was by no means as "one who +knew very little" that Henslow recommended Darwin to Captain Fitzroy, +but as "a young man of promising ability, extremely fond of geology, and +indeed all branches of natural history." "In consequence," says Fitzroy, +"an offer was made to Mr. Darwin to be my guest on board, which he +accepted conditionally. Permission was obtained for his embarkation, and +an order given by the Admiralty that he should be borne on the ship's +books for provisions. The conditions asked by Mr. Darwin were, that he +should be at liberty to leave the _Beagle_ and retire from the +expedition when he thought proper, and that he should pay a fair share +of the expenses of my table." + +Darwin had taken an ordinary or "poll" degree in 1831 and was admitted a +Master of Arts in 1837. In the interval he had become truly a Master of +Science, which at that time was adequately recognised by no university +in the British dominions. The memorable voyage of the _Beagle_, a little +barque of 242 tons, was at first delayed by heavy gales which twice +drove her back; but she finally sailed from Devonport on December 27, +1831. The object of the expedition was to complete the survey of +Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, to survey the shores of Chili, Peru, and +some Pacific Islands, and to carry a chain of chronometrical +measurements round the world. + +Professor Henslow's interest in his young pupil's progress is shown by +the fact that in 1835 (December 1) he printed some extracts from his +letters, for distribution among the members of the Cambridge +Philosophical Society, in consequence of the notice excited by some +geological observations they contained, which had been read before the +society on the 16th of November previous. The following points having a +personal reference to the traveller may be quoted. On August 15, 1832, +Darwin wrote from Monte Video, "I might collect a far greater number of +specimens of invertebrate animals if I took up less time over each: but +I have come to the conclusion that two animals with their original +colour and shape noted down will be more valuable to naturalists than +six with only dates and place." Here we see the accuracy which was the +source of much of his after-success. On November 24, 1832, he writes +from the same place, "As for one little toad, I hope it may be new, that +it may be christened 'Diabolicus.' Milton must allude to this very +individual, when he talks of 'squat like a toad.'" In March, 1834, +writing from East Falkland Island, he says, "The whole of the east coast +of the southern part of South America has been elevated from the ocean +since a period during which mussels have not lost their blue colour." +Describing his examination of the central peaks of the Andes in Chili, +he says, April 18, 1835, "I cannot tell you how much I enjoyed some of +these views; it is worth coming from England, once to feel such intense +delight. At an elevation of from ten to twelve thousand feet, there is a +transparency in the air, and a confusion of distances, and a sort of +stillness, which give the sensation of being in another world." + +Coming now to Darwin's Journal as first published in 1839, forming the +third volume of Fitzroy's narrative, the 7th of January, 1832, on which +the Peak of Teneriffe was seen suddenly illumined, while the lower parts +were veiled in fleecy clouds, is noted as "the first of many delightful +days never to be forgotten." On the 16th the Cape de Verde Islands were +reached, and their volcanic geology was carefully explored. Darwin was +already equipped with the first volume of Lyell's famous "Principles of +Geology," published in 1830, the second following in 1832; and in the +second edition of his journal, published in 1845, he acknowledges with +grateful pleasure "that the chief part of whatever scientific merit this +journal and the other works of the author may possess, has been derived +from studying the well-known and admirable 'Principles of Geology.'" He +was already noting the diffusion of minute organisms and impalpable dust +by winds,[4] and was much surprised to find in some dust collected on a +vessel 300 miles from land particles of stone more than a thousandth of +an inch square. After this, he remarks, one need not be surprised at the +diffusion of the far lighter and smaller sporules of cryptogamous +plants. + +The volcanic island of St. Paul in the open Atlantic was touched at on +February 16th, and it afforded the young naturalist a text for +destroying the pretty ideas as to stately palms and birds taking +possession of newly-formed oceanic land; at any rate, here were only two +species of sea birds, no plants, and the fauna was completed by a number +of insects and spiders of no very exalted habits. Fernando Noronha was +passed on February 20th, and at last the South American continent was +reached. + +On February 29th, at Bahia, Darwin describes his first day in a +Brazilian forest, in a passage which is of special interest. "The day +has passed delightfully. Delight itself, however, is a weak term to +express the feelings of a naturalist who, for the first time, has +wandered by himself in a Brazilian forest. The elegance of the grasses, +the novelty of the parasitical plants, the beauty of the flowers, the +glossy green of the foliage, but, above all, the general luxuriance of +the vegetation, filled me with admiration. A most paradoxical mixture of +sound and silence pervades the shady parts of the wood. The noise from +the insects is so loud that it may be heard even in a vessel anchored +several hundred yards from the shore; yet within the recesses of the +forest a universal silence appears to reign. To a person fond of natural +history, such a day as this brings with it a deeper pleasure than he can +ever hope to experience again." + +Arriving at Rio de Janeiro early in April, Darwin made several +excursions into the interior during the following three months. On these +expeditions it was rarely indeed that decent accommodation could be +procured at the inns. "On first arriving," he says, "it was our custom +to unsaddle the horses and give them their Indian corn; then, with a low +bow, to ask the senhor to do us the favour to give us something to eat. +'Anything you choose, sir,' was his usual answer. For the few first +times, vainly I thanked Providence for having guided us to so good a +man. The conversation proceeding, the case universally became +deplorable. 'Any fish can you do us the favour of giving?' 'Oh, no, +sir!' 'Any soup?' 'No, sir!' 'Any bread?' 'Oh, no, sir!' 'Any dried +meat?' 'Oh, no, sir!' If we were lucky, by waiting a couple of hours, we +obtained fowls, rice, and farinha. It not unfrequently happened that we +were obliged to kill, with stones, the poultry for our own supper. When, +thoroughly exhausted by fatigue and hunger, we timorously hinted that we +should be glad of our meal, the pompous and (though true) most +unsatisfactory answer was, 'It will be ready when it is ready!' If we +had dared to remonstrate any further, we should have been told to +proceed on our journey, as being too impertinent. The hosts are most +ungracious and disagreeable in their manners; their houses and their +persons are often filthily dirty; the want of the accommodation of +forks, knives, and spoons is common; and I am sure no cottage or hovel +in England could be found in a state so utterly destitute of every +comfort." + +When we add to these discomforts on land the fact that the young +traveller was a constant sufferer from sea-sickness and nausea, which +became chronic, it becomes more surprising that he should not have +withdrawn early from his adventurous course. But his energy and +resolution were equal to any drafts upon them, and the delights of the +study of nature outweighed all physical discomforts. Admiral J. Lort +Stokes in a letter to _The Times_, after the death of his old friend +and comrade in the _Beagle_, described how after perhaps an hour's work +he would say, "Old fellow, I must take the horizontal for it." Then he +would stretch himself on one side of the table, and obtain a brief +relief from discomfort, after which he would resume work. + +Some remarks which Darwin makes upon slavery in South America are very +forcible, and also illustrate his own sympathetic nature. Here is one +incident which struck him more than any story of cruelty, as showing the +degradation of slavery. "I was crossing a ferry with a negro, who was +uncommonly stupid. In endeavouring to make him understand, I talked +loud, and made signs, in doing which I passed my hand near his face. He, +I suppose, thought I was in a passion, and was going to strike him; for +instantly, with a frightened look and half-shut eyes, he dropped his +hands. I shall never forget my feelings of surprise, disgust, and shame, +at seeing a great powerful man afraid even to ward off a blow, directed, +as he thought, at his face. This man had been trained to a degradation +lower than the slavery of the most helpless animal." + +In one of the numerous additions to the second issue of the Journal in +1845, Darwin speaks thus eloquently from his heart: "On the 19th of +August [1836], we finally left the shores of Brazil. I thank God I shall +never again visit a slave-country. To this day, if I hear a distant +scream, it recalls with painful vividness my feelings when, passing a +house near Pernambuco, I heard the most pitiable moans, and could not +but suspect that some poor slave was being tortured, yet knew that I +was as powerless as a child, even to remonstrate. I suspected that these +moans were from a tortured slave, for I was told that this was the case +in another instance. Near Rio de Janeiro I lived opposite to an old +lady, who kept screws to crush the fingers of her female slaves. I have +stayed in a house where a young household mulatto, daily and hourly, was +reviled, beaten, and persecuted enough to break the spirit of the lowest +animal. I have seen a little boy, six or seven years old, struck thrice +with a horse-whip (before I could interfere) on his naked head, for +having handed me a glass of water not quite clean; I saw his father +tremble at a mere glance from his master's eye.... I will not even +allude to the many heart-sickening atrocities which I authentically +heard of; nor would I have mentioned the above revolting details, had I +not met with several people, so blinded by the constitutional gaiety of +the negro, as to speak of slavery as a tolerable evil.... Those who look +tenderly at the slave-owner, and with a cold heart at the slave, never +seem to put themselves into the position of the latter. What a cheerless +prospect, with not even a hope of change! Picture to yourself the +chance, ever hanging over you, of your wife and your little +children--those objects which nature urges even the slave to call his +own--being torn from you, and sold like beasts to the first bidder! And +these deeds are done and palliated by men who profess to love their +neighbours as themselves, who believe in God, and pray that His will be +done on earth!" + +Such burning expressions are not yet superfluous, and it is wholesome to +recall to a generation which scarcely realises the past miseries of +slavery, and is too apt to rest content with what has been accomplished +in diminishing the sufferings of slaves, white and black, the impression +produced on a scientific man by what he saw. It is well, too, that it +should be brought forcibly home to Englishmen that Darwin's heart was no +less sympathetic than his intelligence was far-seeing, and that the +testimony of friends of late years to his moral grandeur is corroborated +by the personal records of his years of travel. + +The variety and interest of the observations made during his stay at +Rio, when tropical nature was still a fresh and unexplored page to the +young observer, are wonderful. Cabbage palms, liana creepers, luxuriant +fern leaves--roads, bridges, and soil--planarian worms, frogs which +climbed perpendicular sheets of glass, the light of fireflies, brilliant +butterflies, fights between spiders and wasps, the victories of ants +over difficulties, the habits of monkeys, the little Brazilian boys +practising knife-throwing--all these came in turn under his watchful +eyes and are vividly described. + +In July, 1832, Monte Video was reached, and the _Beagle_ was occupied in +surveying the extreme southern and eastern coasts of America, south of +La Plata, during the succeeding two years. During ten weeks at Maldonado +an entertaining excursion to the River Polanco was made, and many a +humorous remark appears in the Journal relating to it. "The greater +number of the inhabitants [of European descent] had an indistinct idea +that England, London, and North America were different names for the +same place; but the better-informed well knew that London and North +America were separate countries close together, and that England was a +large town in London!" "Washing my face in the morning caused much +speculation at the village of Las Minas; a superior tradesman closely +cross-questioned me about so singular a practice." Among these rich +descendants of Europeans Darwin felt as if he were among the inhabitants +of Central Africa; so low can the proud superior race descend, that the +distance between it and the negro appeared small indeed. The remarkable +absence of trees in the country could not fail to provoke comment; but +it is on the old-fashioned basis, and the young student does not get +beyond the conclusion "that herbaceous plants, instead of trees, were +created to occupy that wide area, which, within a period not very +remote, has been raised above the waters of the sea." This appears in +the first edition; but in 1845 these words were expunged, and the author +says significantly "we must look to some other and unknown cause." + +At Maldonado within the distance of a morning's walk no fewer than +eighty species of birds were collected, most of them exceedingly +beautiful. Darwin's observations on the molothri (representatives of our +cuckoos), the tyrant fly-catchers, and the carrion-feeding hawks are +most attractive reading. Rio Negro, much further south, was next +visited, and the fauna of a salt lake examined. The adaptation of +creatures to live in and near brine struck him as wonderful. "Well may +we affirm," says he, "that every part of the world is habitable! Whether +lakes of brine, or those subterranean ones, hidden beneath volcanic +mountains--warm mineral springs--the wide expanse and depths of the +ocean--the upper regions of the atmosphere, and even the surface of +perpetual snow--all support organic beings." Here he found reason to +believe that all the great plains which he was surveying had been raised +above the sea level in a modern geological period. + +Our naturalist started by land for Bahia Blanca and Buenos Ayres on +August 11, 1833, and we have the record: "This was the first night which +I had ever passed under the open sky, with the gear of the recado for my +bed. There is high enjoyment in the independence of the Gaucho's life, +to be able at any moment to pull up your horse, and say, 'Here we will +pass the night.' The deathlike stillness of the plain, the dogs keeping +watch, the gipsy group of Gauchos making their beds round the fire, have +left in my mind a strongly-marked picture of this first night, which +will not soon be forgotten." After an interesting _rencontre_ with +General Rosas, Bahia Blanca was reached, and at Punta Alta were found +many of the fossil bones which Owen subsequently described, this point +being a perfect catacomb, as Darwin terms it, for monsters of extinct +races. The remains of nine great kinds of quadrupeds chiefly allied to +the sloths were found embedded on the beach within a space of about two +hundred yards square; and these were associated with shells of molluscs +of still existing species. Here was indeed a remarkable fact to +germinate in the great naturalist's mind. It bore full fruit at a later +date. An important theory then current, that large animals require a +luxuriant vegetation, was overthrown at the same time, for there was +every reason to believe that the sterility of the surrounding country +was no new thing. The South American ostrich and many other animals +here afforded material for important observations. + +On the way to Buenos Ayres, the rugged Sierra de la Ventana, a white +quartz mountain, was ascended. Buenos Ayres was reached on September 20, +1833, and no time was lost in arranging for an expedition to Santa Fé, +nearly 300 miles up the Parana. On October 3, Santa Fé was entered, and +near it many more remains of large extinct mammals were found. The +remains of a horse, in a similar fossil condition, greatly astonished +our explorer, for it seemed indeed surprising that in South America a +native horse should have co-existed with giant extinct forms, and should +itself have become extinct, to be succeeded in modern times by the +countless herds descended from the few horses introduced by the Spanish +colonists. These and other strange facts in the distribution of +mammalian animals in America led Darwin to make some pregnant comments. +The enormous number of large bones embedded in the estuary deposits +became continually more evident, until he came to the conclusion that +the whole area of the Pampas was one wide sepulchre. + +Unfortunately ill-health compelled the explorer to return, and on +October 12th he started for Buenos Ayres in a small vessel. During this +journey he had an opportunity of examining the shifting and variable +islands of the muddy Parana, on which the jaguar thrives. Arrived at Las +Conchas, a revolution had broken out, and Darwin was detained to a +certain extent under surveillance; but by the influence of General +Rosas' name, he was allowed to pass the sentinels, leaving his guide +and horses behind, and ultimately reached Buenos Ayres in safety. After +a fortnight's delay, Monte Video was once more made for. Here it +appeared that the _Beagle_ would remain sometime longer, so the restless +inquirer started on another expedition, this time up the Uruguay and Rio +Negro. One of the halts was at the house of a very large landed +proprietor. A friend of the proprietor's, a runaway captain from Buenos +Ayres, was very anxious to have the traveller's opinion on the beauty of +the Buenos Ayres ladies, and on receiving satisfactory assurances, +voluntarily gave up his bed to the stranger! During this journey amazing +quantities of huge thistles were met with, the cardoon being as high as +a horse's back, while the Pampas thistle rose above the rider's head. To +leave the road for a yard was out of the question. Incidentally the +writer describes fully the horsemanship of the Gauchos, and gives a +vivid picture of the state of society in the towns. + +During this journey, too, a peculiar breed of small cattle, called +niata, was observed, but full details were not given till the second +edition of the Journal appeared. This breed is strangely at a +disadvantage in droughts, compared with ordinary cattle; their lower +jaws project beyond the upper, and their lips do not join, rendering +them unable to browse on twigs. "This strikes me," says Darwin, "as a +good illustration of how little we are able to judge from the ordinary +habits of life, on what circumstances, occurring only at long intervals, +the rarity or extinction of a species may be determined." By the time +this appeared, however, in 1845, the author had embarked on his great +investigation. + +The Rio Plata was quitted on December 6, 1833, and sail was made for +Port Desire, on the coast of Patagonia. One evening, ten miles from the +Bay of San Blas, myriads of butterflies filled the air, so that the +seamen cried out that it was snowing butterflies. The flight seemed to +be voluntary. On another occasion many beetles were found alive and +swimming, seventeen miles from the nearest land. But these instances +were insignificant compared with the alighting of a large grasshopper on +the _Beagle_, when to windward of the Cape de Verde Islands, and when +the nearest land, in a direction not opposed to the prevailing trade +wind, was 370 miles distant. Marvellous appearances of spiders far from +land were also noted. One day when the ship was sixty miles from land +vast numbers of a small gossamer spider arrived. Its habits in fact were +aëronautic; it would send forth a small thread, and suddenly letting go +its hold, would sail away horizontally. + +The _Beagle_ arrived at Port Desire on December 23, 1833, but Patagonia +afforded less of interest to the zoologist than the northern countries. +The next halt was made at Port St. Julian, 110 miles further south, on +January 9, 1834. Here the evidences of the modern elevation of Patagonia +were powerfully reinforced, and further, from the nature of the animal +remains arose the conviction that "existing animals have a close +relation in form with extinct species," another of the germinal facts +which bore fruit in the "Origin of Species." Darwin was led to speculate +on the causes which could have extinguished so many great species, and +he remarks most suggestively: "One is tempted to believe in such simple +relations as variation of climate and food, or introduction of enemies, +or the increased numbers of other species, as the cause of the +succession of races." But he does not yet go farther. He ends his +reflections by observing: "All that at present can be said with +certainty is that, as with the individual, so with the species, the hour +of life has run its course, and is spent." + +In the second edition of the Journal the philosopher showed signs of +considerable advance (pp. 174-5). The effect of changed conditions is +further developed. The checks to indefinite multiplication are insisted +on, while the tendency of every species to increase geometrically is +clearly pointed out. In the place of the former concluding sentence we +find the following: "To admit that species generally become rare before +they become extinct--to feel no surprise at the comparative rarity of +one species with another, and yet to call in some extraordinary agent +and to marvel greatly when a species ceases to exist, appears to me much +the same as to admit that sickness in the individual is the prelude to +death--to feel no surprise at sickness--but when the sick man dies, to +wonder, and to believe that he died through violence." + +The continental regions of South America did not supply the sole food +for the reflections of the young naturalist during this period. An +intervening visit had been paid, in December, 1832, and January, 1833, +to Tierra del Fuego, and the natives were most carefully observed. He +was greatly struck by their low condition; "one can hardly make oneself +believe they are fellow creatures, and inhabitants of the same world." +Yet these abject people have been infinitely raised since that period +by missionaries, and Darwin, hearing of this success, which he termed +wonderful, sent a donation to the South American Missionary Society. + +The Falkland Islands were explored both in 1833 and 1834, and the +Straits of Magellan were carefully examined, and many valuable +geological facts recorded. The southern portion of the continent was at +last quitted for Chili, Valparaiso being reached on July 23, 1834. After +Tierra del Fuego this was a delightful change, and here Darwin found an +old schoolfellow and friend, Mr. Richard Corfield, who entertained him +hospitably during his stay in Chili. Various expeditions to the Andes, +to Santiago, to gold mines and copper mines, supplied abundant objects +of curiosity and science, as well as varied visions of beauty; but the +fatigues undergone had to be paid for by a month's illness at +Valparaiso, during which Mr. Corfield's kindness was unremitting. + +The large island of Chiloe was visited in November, and its climate even +in summer proved wretched, reminding one of some parts of the Hebrides, +a week without torrents of rain being wonderful. Castro, the almost +deserted Spanish capital, could not furnish, even among hundreds of +inhabitants, a pound of sugar or an ordinary knife. No one possessed +either a watch or a clock, and the church bell was rung by guess by an +old man who was supposed to have the best notion of time. + +In December the rugged Chonos Archipelago, still further south, was +explored. Here a storm worthy of Tierra del Fuego was experienced. +"White, massive clouds were piled up against a dark blue sky, and +across them black, ragged sheets of vapour were rapidly driven. The +successive mountain ranges appeared like dim shadows; and the setting +sun cast on the woodland a yellow gleam, much like that produced by the +flame of spirits of wine on a man's countenance. The water was white +with the flying spray; and the wind lulled and roared again through the +rigging. It was a most ominous, sublime scene." While near Tres Montes +the year 1835 was ushered in, as Darwin says, "with the ceremonies +proper to it in these regions. She lays out no false hopes; a heavy N.W. +gale, with steady rain, bespeaks the rising year. Thank God, we are not +destined here to see the end of it, but hope then to be in the Pacific, +where a blue sky tells one there is a heaven--a something beyond the sky +above our heads." + +Valdivia being reached in February, the _Beagle_ party were witnesses of +a severe earthquake. Darwin was on shore, lying down in the wood to +rest. The effect produced upon him by the motion he experienced was very +marked: "There was no difficulty in standing upright, but the motion +made me almost giddy. It was something like the movement of a vessel in +a little cross ripple, or still more like that felt by a person skating +over thin ice, which bends under the weight of his body. A bad +earthquake at once destroys the oldest associations; the world, the very +emblem of all that is solid, has moved beneath our feet like a crust +over a fluid; one second of time has conveyed to the mind a strange idea +of insecurity, which hours of reflection would never have created." By +the same earthquake every house in Concepcion (afterwards visited) was +thrown down, and a most impressive sight met the travellers. + +Arriving at Valparaiso again on March 11, 1835, after only an interval +of two days the indefatigable explorer started to cross the Cordillera +by the seldom traversed Portillo pass. Here geological observations were +abundant. The roar of the mountain torrents spoke eloquently to the +geologist. "The thousands and thousands of stones, which, striking +against each other, make the one dull uniform sound, are all hurrying in +one direction. It is like thinking of time, when the minute that now +glides past is irrecoverable. So it is with these stones; the ocean is +their eternity, and each note of that wild music tells of one other step +towards their destiny." Who can fail to discern in such a passage the +poetic instinct which Erasmus Darwin more fully manifested? + +Mendoza was reached on March 27th, and on the 29th the return journey by +the northern or Uspallata pass was commenced. On the 10th of April +Santiago was again arrived at, and Mr. Caldcleugh most hospitably +welcomed the traveller, delighted with his expedition. "Never," he says, +"did I more deeply enjoy an equal space of time." Various excursions in +Northern Chili and Peru followed. Little was seen of Peru, owing to the +troubled state of public affairs, and there was very little regret when +the _Beagle_ started early in September on her journey across the +Pacific. + +The Galapagos Islands, with their two thousand volcanic craters, their +apparently leafless bushes and wretched weeds, their peculiar animals, +so unsuspicious of man that they did not move when stones were thrown, +were extremely interesting to the naturalist, and gave rise to numerous +observations and suggestions in later works. The huge tortoises slowly +carrying their great bodies about, appeared like strange antediluvian +animals. The hideous large water-lizard (_Amblyrhynchus_), swimming with +perfect ease, and capable of an hour's immersion in sea-water; and the +land lizard of the same genus, so numerous that at James Island it was +hardly possible to find a spot free from their burrows, the roofs of +which constantly give way under the pedestrian, were equally strange +denizens of this group of islands, where reptiles replace herbivorous +mammals. With regard to the last-mentioned species we find a remark +indicating the persistence of a belief in special creation up to this +date. "It would appear as if this species had been created in the centre +of the Archipelago, and thence had been dispersed only to a certain +distance." + +During the years intervening between the first and second editions of +the Journal, reflection intensified Darwin's perception of the +singularity of the Galapagos fauna. "Considering the small size of these +islands," he says, "we feel the more astonished at the number of their +aboriginal beings, and at their confined range. Seeing every height +crowned with its crater, and the boundaries of most of the lava streams +still distinct, we are led to believe that within a period geologically +recent the unbroken sea was here spread out. Hence, both in space and +time, we seem to be brought somewhat nearer to that great fact--that +mystery of mysteries--the first appearance of new beings on this earth." +And he afterwards says, "One is astonished at the amount of creative +force, if such an expression may be used, displayed on these small, +barren, and rocky islands; and still more so at its diverse yet +analogous action in points so near each other." + +The long voyage to Tahiti, 3,200 miles, begun on October 20, 1835, +ending on November 15th, was succeeded by a most enjoyable stay. Darwin +was as delighted as any traveller with the charms of the island and the +islanders. His testimony to the quality of English products is worth +noticing, if only as a piece of natural patriotism. He acknowledges that +Tahitian pineapples are of excellent flavour, perhaps better than those +cultivated in England, and this he believes to be the highest compliment +which can be paid to a fruit, or indeed to anything else. He found +reason to speak well of the influence of the Christian missionaries on +the natives, and of the conscientiousness of the latter, in opposition +to Kotzebue's narrative. + +On December 19th New Zealand was sighted. Our traveller's observations +here are of much value, as relating to a late period before civilised +government was effectively established. At Waimate he was delighted with +the effects produced by the religious teacher. "The lesson of the +missionary is the enchanter's wand," and he rejoiced as an Englishman at +what his countrymen had effected. The remarkable absence of land +mammals, the late enormous increase of the imported Norway rat, the dock +spreading far and wide, its seeds having been sold as tobacco seeds by a +rascally Englishman, the huge Kauri pines, were all full of import to +the inquiring mind; but New Zealand proved on the whole less +attractive, as seen by Darwin, than most other countries he had visited. +December 30th saw the _Beagle_ on the way to Sydney, and Port Jackson +was reached on January 12, 1836. An interesting excursion to the Blue +Mountains and to Bathurst showed many aspects of colonial life, as well +as the strange duckbill or platypus in its native haunts. Tasmania, with +which island Darwin was greatly pleased, was visited in February. In +April the Keeling Islands furnished much of the material for the future +book on coral reefs, the essence of which is, however, included in the +Journal. Mauritius, Cape Town, St. Helena, Ascension, Bahia, Pernambuco, +Cape Verde, and the Azores were the successive stages of the homeward +journey, and on October 2, 1836, anchor was cast at Falmouth, where the +naturalist, equipped for his life work, was landed. + +The high opinion Captain Fitzroy formed of Darwin during this long +voyage is shown by many passages in his own narrative, and by many other +references. He paid him the marked compliment of naming no fewer than +three important geographical localities after him, namely, Mount Darwin +and Darwin Sound (Tierra del Fuego), and Port Darwin in North Australia, +thus connecting his name for future generations with two lands whose +inhabitants were subjects of Darwin's unceasing interest and +investigation throughout life, and served in no small degree to +elucidate the history and rise of mankind in Darwin's mind and for a +world's instruction. Fitzroy complimented his friend markedly when +himself receiving the medal of the Royal Geographical Society; and in +one of his papers, speaking of him as a zealous volunteer in the cause +of science, observed that his perseverance might be estimated from the +fact that he never ceased to be a martyr to sea-sickness; while his +interest in science and his public spirit were evident from his having +presented his valuable collections to the public. + +The concluding pages of the Journal are both eloquent and instructive. +Everywhere there had been fascinating visions, and attractive problems +remained unsolved. Was it not significant of future studies that the +contrast between barbarian and civilised man should have been so +impressed upon the future author of "The Descent of Man"? He writes thus +on this subject, "Of individual objects, perhaps no one is more certain +to create astonishment than the first sight in his native haunt of a +real barbarian, of man in his lowest and most savage state. One's mind +hurries back over past centuries, and then asks, could our progenitors +have been such as these? Men, whose very signs and expressions are less +intelligible to us than those of the domesticated animals; men, who do +not possess the instinct of those animals, nor yet appear to boast of +human reason, or at least of arts consequent on that reason. I do not +believe it is possible to describe or paint the difference between +savage and civilised man. It is the difference between a wild and tame +animal: and part of the interest in beholding a savage, is the same +which would lead every one to desire to see the lion in his desert, the +tiger tearing his prey in the jungle, the rhinoceros on the wide plain, +or the hippopotamus wallowing in the mud of some African river." + +We have dwelt thus at length upon the history of this eventful voyage, +not only because it filled an important space in Darwin's life, but also +because it undoubtedly gave rise to the thoughts and speculations which +impelled him to devote his life to the study of problems of evolution. +It has been shown to some extent, how he saw, without pre-arrangement, +just those phenomena which could stimulate his mind, already fit, to its +highest flights. We have seen, too, how universal was Darwin's interest +in nature, and how sympathetic a heart went with his scientific insight. +He had yet to show how masterly was his patience, to work for yet twenty +years, in order that he might not by premature publication of a crude +theory risk defeat and throw science backward rather than forward. This +long patient work was to be the triumph of his genius. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[3: This statement by Darwin disposes of Mr. Grant Allen's +assertion that geology was Darwin's "first love" (p. 36). He reckoned +himself an entomologist when he went to Cambridge, and certainly Mr. +Ainsworth's statement shows that he was a naturalist in a wide sense +while at Edinburgh. C. V. Riley, the well-known American entomologist, +says (Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, U.S., vol. +i., 1882, p. 70) "I have the authority of my late associate editor of +_The American Entomologist_, Benjamin Dann Walsh, who was a class-mate +of Darwin's at Cambridge, that the latter's love of natural history was +chiefly manifested, while there, in a fine collection of insects." +Indeed, he was one of the original members of the Entomological Society +of London, founded in 1833, and showed an active interest in its affairs +throughout life, being elected a member of its council in 1838. As early +as January 4, 1836, a memoir based on insects sent home by Darwin from +Chiloe, was read before the Society by Charles Babington, now Professor +of Botany at Cambridge.] + +[4: Mr. Grant Allen ("Darwin," p. 42) states that Darwin +observed sixty-seven distinct organic forms in the fine dust which fell +on deck. It was Ehrenberg who determined these organisms in dust sent to +him by Darwin, and four out of five of the packets of dust sent to +Ehrenberg were given to Darwin by Lyell (Darwin's Journal, second +edition, p. 5).] + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +On his return home, Darwin speedily placed himself in communication with +the leaders of scientific progress, and, in consequence of the valuable +results of his voyage, he soon found himself in a most advantageous +position. On November 20, 1836, he was elected a Fellow of the +Geological Society, and before the end of the year he had sent the +manuscript of one of his early papers to Lyell, who writes to him +(December 26, 1836): "I have read your paper with the greatest +pleasure.... What a splendid field you have to write upon." He strongly +advised the young man not to accept any official scientific place, but +to devote himself to his own line of work. But Darwin was overpersuaded, +and became a member of the Council of the Geological Society in the +following February, and secretary in February, 1838. This office he held +with success for three years. Lyell referred in considerable detail to +the young traveller's views in his presidential address to the Society +in 1837. + +Darwin's geological papers soon became numerous. In 1837 he discussed in +succession the recent elevation of the coast of Chili, the deposits +containing extinct mammalia in the neighbourhood of the Plata, the areas +of elevation and subsidence in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, as deduced +from the study of coral formations, and the formation of mould (the +precursor of a work he issued more than forty years later). Papers on +the connection of certain volcanic phenomena, and on the formation of +mountain chains, and other geological notes on South America, were read +in 1838; the interesting Parallel Roads of Glen Roy, in Scotland, which +he believed to be of marine origin, were described in 1839; the erratic +(glacial) boulders of South America, in 1841; and coral reefs in 1842: a +full record, one would imagine, of busy years, occupied also with +secretarial work. Lyell, writing to Sir John Herschel (May 24, 1837), +says: "I am very full of Darwin's new theory of coral islands, and have +urged Whewell to make him read it at our next meeting. I must give up my +volcanic crater theory for ever, though it costs me a pang at first." In +March, 1838, Lyell describes the reception of the paper on volcanic +phenomena at the Geological Society. "He opened upon De la Beche, +Phillips, and others, his whole battery of the earthquakes and volcanoes +of the Andes; and argued that spaces of a thousand miles long were +simultaneously subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and that +the elevation of the Pampas, Patagonia, &c., all depended upon a common +cause." In fit acknowledgment of such services to science, he was +elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on January 24, 1839. + +Early in 1839 Darwin married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood, daughter of his +uncle Josiah Wedgwood: a union which, though consanguineous, proved in +the highest degree congenial and fortunate. In succeeding years a +numerous family of sons and daughters surrounded the happy parents. +After considerable delays by the Admiralty, though it had long been +ready, the Journal appeared, in 1839, as the third volume of Fitzroy's +"Voyages of _The Adventure_ and _Beagle_." _The Quarterly Review_ (lxv. +224) said that there could be no two opinions of its merits. "We find +ample materials for deep thinking; we have the vivid description that +fills the mind's eye with brighter pictures than painter can present, +and the charm arising from the freshness of heart which is thrown over +these virgin pages of a strong intellectual man, and an acute and deep +observer." Its merits, however, were somewhat slow to become known to +the general public, owing to the original expensive form of publication; +and it was not till 1845, when the second and enlarged edition appeared +as "The Journal of Researches," that the popular ear was gained. Later, +under the title, "A Naturalist's Voyage Round the World," the book has +become very widely known and appreciated. + +The publication of "The Zoology of the Voyage of _The Beagle_," +commenced in 1838, under Darwin's superintendence, gave a fuller view of +the acquisitions to natural history which had been made than had +previously been possible. The Treasury, acting on the representations of +the presidents of the Linnean, Zoological, and Geological Societies, as +well as of the naturalist himself, in 1837 made a grant of £1000 towards +the expenses of publication of these memoirs. Owen's description of the +fossil mammalia, completed in 1840; G. Waterhouse's of the living +mammalia, in 1839; Gould's of the birds, in 1841; L. Jenyns's of the +fish, in 1842; and Thomas Bell's of the reptiles, in 1843--all in +quarto, with beautiful plates, were a solid testimony to a splendid +success. Darwin furnished an introduction to each part, and the portions +of the text referring to the habits and ranges of the living animals. +Three species of mastodon and the gigantic megatherium were the only +extinct mammalia known from South America previous to Darwin's voyage. +To these were now added the _Mylodon Darwinii_, a giant sloth; the +scelidotherium, a somewhat smaller form; the great camel-like, yet +odd-toed, macrauchenia; and the toxodon, as large as a hippopotamus, yet +having a strange resemblance to the little rodents. All these belonged +to geological deposits not far anterior to the present age. The +collections of living vertebrates were less profoundly interesting, but +the number of new species was large; and the habits and localities being +recorded by so good an observer, gave them additional value. + +The fossil mammals were given by the generous traveller to the London +College of Surgeons, the mammals and birds to the Zoological Society, +the reptiles to the British Museum, and the fishes to the Cambridge +Philosophical Society. Nor was this all. The collections of insects, +shells, and crustacea were described by many able specialists in +scientific publications. The flowering plants were described by Hooker, +and the non-flowering by Berkeley; and, altogether, no expedition ever +yielded a more solid result to the scientific naturalist, while +furnishing a delightful narrative to the general reader, and laying the +foundation for generalisations of surpassing importance to all thinking +minds. + +It was evident to many geologists that the greatest value would attach +to the full record of the geological observations made by the gifted +young secretary of the Geological Society. A year after the publication +of the Journal the first portion of these observations, dealing with +coral reefs, was almost ready, but the continued ill-health of the +author delayed the publication till 1842. When it appeared, under the +title of "The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs," its success +was immediate and complete. + +Ever since their first description by voyagers, marvel had been +expressed at the strange and beautiful phenomena presented by coral +islands. Coral, as being built up by the tireless labours of innumerable +so-called "insects," or "worms," had become associated with romantic +ideas. It really consists of the internal skeletons of coral-polyps, +allied to the sea anemone. Captain Basil Hall, in his "Voyage to Loo +Choo," looking with the eyes of one ignorant of zoology, had credited +the building of coral reefs to all kinds of creatures which lived on and +near the coral after it had been made; and his erroneous views had been +amplified and developed by James Montgomery, in his "Pelican Island," +into the most fantastically incorrect description that ever versifier +penned. Sad to relate, his lines were often quoted, as if correct, by +scientific men in pre-Darwinian times. + +Nothing gives clearer evidence of the power of mind which Darwin had +already attained when voyaging round the world than the originality of +his views on coral reefs. The lagoon islands, or atolls, he describes as +"vast rings of coral rock, often many leagues in diameter, here and +there surmounted by a low verdant island, with dazzling white shores, +bathed on the outside by the foaming breakers of the ocean; and, on the +inside, surrounding a calm expanse of water which, from reflection, is +of a bright, but pale, green colour." Keeling atoll, outside which, at +less than a mile and a half distance, no bottom was found with a line +7,200 feet in length, having been fully described, and an account given +of all other known atoll systems, the peculiarities of the great barrier +reef of North-east Australia, and that of New Caledonia, were recounted. +Off the latter, no bottom was found, at two ships' length from the reef, +with a line 900 feet long. With these were linked the smaller reefs of +Tahiti and others, where considerable islands are more or less +completely surrounded by them. Next, the fringing or shore reefs, at +first sight only a variety of barrier reefs, were clearly distinguished +from them by the absence of an interior deep-water channel, and their +not growing up from an immense, but from a moderate depth of water. + +The remarkable fact was pointed out by Darwin that all coral islands are +within a little more than 30 degrees of the Equator, but that, at the +same time, they are absent over certain larger areas within the tropical +seas. There are none on the West Coast of South America, nor on the West +Coast of Africa. In this portion of his work we have another significant +sentence bearing on the struggle for existence. In discussing the +apparently capricious distribution of coral reefs, he remarks that "the +study of the terrestrial and better-known half of the world must +convince every one that no station capable of supporting life is +lost--nay more, that there is a struggle for each station between the +different orders of nature." He describes the large fishes and the +trepangs (_holothuriæ_) preying upon the coral-polyps, and shows how +complex are the conditions which determine the formation of reefs on any +shore. Perhaps no part of his work is more important than that in which +he collects the evidence proving how rapidly coral masses grow, and that +they for the most part cannot flourish in a greater depth of water than +fifteen fathoms. + +Reasoning upon the facts observed by himself and others Darwin now +proceeded to upset the received theory that atolls were based upon +submarine volcanic craters, and to substitute for it the view that there +has been a prolonged and gradual subsidence of the areas upon which the +atolls are based, and a corresponding upward growth of the reef-building +corals. Thus fringing-reefs in time become barrier-reefs; and +barrier-reefs, when they encircle islands, are converted into atolls, or +lagoon islands, as soon as the last pinnacle of land sinks beneath the +surface of the ocean. The whole matter is summed up thus: "A magnificent +and harmonious picture of the movements which the crust of the earth has +within a late period undergone is presented to us. We see vast areas +rising, with volcanic matter every now and then bursting forth through +the vents or fissures with which they are traversed. We see other wide +spaces slowly sinking without any volcanic outbursts; and we may feel +sure that this sinking must have been immense in amount as well as in +area, thus to have buried over the broad face of the ocean every one of +these mountains above which atolls now stand like monuments, marking the +place of their former existence." "No more admirable example of +scientific method was ever given to the world," says Professor A. +Geikie, "and even if he had written nothing else, this treatise alone +would have placed Darwin in the very front of investigators of nature." + +After thirty-two years' interval, a second edition of "Coral Reefs" +appeared, in a cheaper form, in 1874. It is rare indeed for a scientific +treatise to attain at once and maintain so long a position of such +undisputed authority. The eminent German naturalist, Semper, in 1863, +criticised the general theory in consequence of his own careful +examination of the Pelew Islands; but Darwin easily answered him by +pointing to the cumulative evidence in favour of his own views. The only +really important work on the subject, after Darwin's, was that of +Professor J. D. Dana, the eminent American naturalist and geologist, on +"Corals and Coral Islands," published in 1872. Darwin, in the preface to +his second edition, candidly acknowledged that he had not previously +laid sufficient weight on the mean temperature of the sea in determining +the distribution of coral reefs; but this did not touch his main +conception. In fact, he maintained his ground undisturbed, and at the +same time admired greatly Dana's book, which was the result of personal +examination of more coral formations than perhaps any one man had ever +studied, and which accepted Darwin's fundamental proposition, that +lagoon islands or atolls and barrier-reefs have been formed during +periods of subsidence.[5] + +No such strikingly original theory is propounded in the second part of +"The Geology of the _Beagle_" dealing chiefly with volcanic islands. St. +Jago, in the Cape de Verde Islands; Fernando Noronha, Terceira, Tahiti, +Mauritius, St. Paul's, Ascension, St. Helena, and the Galapagos are in +turn more or less fully described, according to the opportunities the +explorer had possessed. To some extent, as in the succeeding part, +Darwin adapts his views on mountain elevation too closely to those +enunciated by Elie de Beaumont. The third part of the geology of the +_Beagle_, entitled "Geological Observations on South America," was not +published till 1846. Even this did not exhaust the contributions to +geology made from the _Beagle_ voyage, for it did not include the papers +on the "Connection of certain Volcanic Phenomena in South America" +(1838); on the "Distribution of Erratic Boulders" (1841); on the "Fine +Dust which falls on Vessels" (1845); and on the "Geology of the +Falkland Islands" (1846). A second edition of the two latter parts of +"The Geology of the _Beagle_" was published in one volume in 1876. + +Meanwhile, after spending a few years of his early married life in +London, during which he was often in ill-health, Darwin fixed his +residence in 1842 at Down House, near Beckenham, Kent. The little +village of Down, three or four miles from the Orpington railway station, +was near enough to London for convenient access, yet greatly secluded +and thoroughly rural. The traveller's roving days were over, and his +infirmity of health prevented him from undertaking very fatiguing +journeys. After the cessation of his active work for the Geological +Society, Darwin's chief public appearance was when he spoke at the +Oxford meeting of the British Association, in 1847, when, strange to +say, Ruskin was secretary of the Geological Section. + +At Down then, situated some 400 feet above the sea level on a plateau of +chalk, interrupted by wavy hollows with beech woods on the slopes, about +forty years of Darwin's life were passed. Down House, one of the square +red brick mansions of the last century, to which have been since added a +gable-fronted wing on one side and a more squarely-built wing and +pillared portico on the other, is shut in and almost hidden from the +roadway by a high wall and belt of trees. On the south side a walled +garden opens into a quiet meadow, bounded by underwood, through which is +seen a delightful view of the narrow valley beyond, towards Westerham. + +One of the most admirable chapters of the well-known "Manual of +Scientific Enquiry," published in 1849, for the use of the navy and +travellers generally, and edited by Sir John Herschel, was Darwin's, on +Geology. The explorer is here taught to make the most of his +opportunities upon the soundest principles. The habits which the author +had himself formed are inculcated upon the observer--copious collecting, +accurate recording, much thinking. Nothing is omitted. Number-labels +which can be read upside down must have a stop to indicate the right way +up; every specimen should be ticketed on the day of collection; diagrams +of all kinds should be made, as nearly as possible, to scale. "Acquire +the habit of always seeking an explanation of every geological point met +with." "No one can expect to solve the many difficulties which will be +encountered, and which for a long time will remain to perplex +geologists; _but a ray of light will occasionally be his reward, and the +reward is ample_." Truly an ample reward awaited the observer who could +thus speak of the value of "a ray of light;" he certainly did, to use +the concluding words of the essay, "enjoy the high satisfaction of +contributing to the perfection of the history of this wonderful world." + +Meanwhile Darwin had been carrying on a great research on the very +peculiar order of crustacea, termed Cirripedia, better known as +barnacles and acorn shells. He had originally only intended to describe +a single abnormal member of the group, from South America, but was led, +for the sake of comparison, to examine the internal parts of as many as +possible. The British Museum collection was freely opened to him, and as +the importance of studying the anatomy of many specimens became +evident, the splendid collections of Messrs. Stutchbury, Cuming, and +others were placed at his disposal, and he was permitted to open and to +dissect unique specimens of great value. In fact, almost every +naturalist of note who had any knowledge of the subject freely aided +him, and the result was a masterly series of finely illustrated volumes; +two on the living Cirripedia, issued by the Ray Society in 1851 and +1854; and two on the fossil Cirripedia of Great Britain, by the +Palæontographical Society, published in the same years. There is +evidence in these volumes that careful observations on the growth of +these creatures had been made as far back as the visit to the Galapagos +Islands in 1835. In many respects these works are as masterly as any the +author ever wrote. Considering the previous obscurity of the subject, +the difficulties attending the research, the almost entire lack at that +time of any general microscopical knowledge of tissues, and especially +of those of embryos, Darwin's success is marvellous. The details are too +technical for statement here, but any one with a zoological training, +who studies the strange complication of the reproductive systems, and +the remarkable transformations which the young undergo, as told in these +volumes, will appreciate more than ever the breadth and the solidity of +the basis of patiently acquired knowledge which Charles Darwin had +accumulated while his "Origin of Species" was taking shape. + +At the anniversary meeting of the Royal Society in November, 1853, a +royal medal was presented to the author of "Coral Reefs" and the "Memoir +on the Cirripedia," the president, the Earl of Rosse, eulogizing the +former as one of the most important contributions to modern geology, and +the latter as containing new facts and conclusions of first-rate +interest. Finally, this chapter of Darwin's life may be closed with the +tardy award of the Wollaston medal to him by the Geological Society, in +February, 1859, when Professor John Phillips spoke of him as combining +the rarest acquirements as a naturalist, with the qualifications of a +first-class geologist, and as having by his admirable monograph on the +fossil Cirripedia added much to a reputation already raised to the +highest rank. + +Yet even such a reputation could not secure fair treatment and impartial +judgment for the coming book, the subject of which might be supposed to +require supreme gifts of the very kind Darwin possessed. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[5: Mr. John Murray's views, derived from the experience +acquired in the voyage of the _Challenger_, and published in 1880, tend +to modify Darwin's conclusions to some extent. Mr. Murray says that it +is now shown that many submarine mountains exist, which are usually +volcanic, and which, being built upon by various forms of shell-bearing +animals, could be raised to such a level that ordinary corals could +build upon them. He concludes that probably all atolls are seated on +submarine volcanoes, and thus it is not necessary to suppose such +extensive and long-continued subsidences as Darwin suggested. This view +is also in harmony with Dana's views of the great antiquity and +permanence of the great ocean basin. See "The Structure and Origin of +Reefs and Islands." By John Murray; Proc. Roy. Soc., Edin., x. 505-18 +(abstract); also _Nature_, xxii. 351-5.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +If no other record of Darwin's twenty-two years (1837-59) of life and +thought after his return to England remained than the papers and books +he published during that period, we should find enough to place him on a +level with the most gifted biologists and geologists of his age. But all +that time he was occupied with thoughts, researches, and experiments, of +which the world at large perceived no fruits. Few persons suspected that +a tremendous revolution in scientific thought was in preparation at the +quiet country home at Down. New species of animals and plants were being +described by naturalists at an alarming rate. The bulk of knowledge of +specific characters and the necessity of specialisation bade fair to +make every species-monger a dry and narrow pedant; and the pedants +quarrelled about the characters and limits of their species. + +In the later years of this period some rays of improvement shone out. To +end the reign of Owen's misleading types and imaginary archetypes, there +arose a wielder of two potent words, "morphology" and "biology," the +sciences of form and of life, who showed that differences of adult form +grew out of likeness and simplicity in the young; and that the life of +plants and animals was one science, their study one discipline. What +Huxley had begun to proclaim from the housetop, Darwin was meditating in +secret; and much more. Let us see how he states the case in the famous +modest opening of the "Origin of Species" (1859): "When on board H.M.S. +_Beagle_, as naturalist, I was much struck with certain facts in the +distribution of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological +relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent. +These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of +species--that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our +greatest philosophers. On my return home, it occurred to me, in 1837, +that something might perhaps be made out on this question by patiently +accumulating and reflecting on all sorts of facts which could possibly +have any bearing on it. After five years' work I allowed myself to +speculate on the subject, and drew up some short notes; these I enlarged +in 1844 into a sketch of the conclusions, which then seemed to me +probable: from that period to the present day I have steadily pursued +the same object. I hope that I may be excused for entering on these +personal details, as I give them to show that I have not been hasty in +coming to a decision." We learn also, independently, from the +"Expression of the Emotions" (p. 19), that Darwin as early as 1838 was +inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, or the derivation of +species from other and lower forms. + +It is somewhat difficult to decide precisely what Darwin owed to his +predecessors who believed in the mutability of species and doubted their +separate creation; this is partly owing to his exceeding modesty. He +was over-ready to acknowledge the value to himself of other people's +ideas, and he under-estimated the strength of the illumination which his +own mind threw upon those ideas, transforming them from guesses into +probable hypotheses, confirming them by his vast and varied knowledge, +and building a superstructure where they had laid but an uncertain +foundation. The question was in the air; guessing replies of great +interest were made by a few who doubted the received belief; but they +were not satisfying answers and they did not effect a revolution. Goethe +in Germany, Erasmus Darwin in England,[6] and Geoffroy Saint Hilaire in +France, came independently to similar conclusions as to the mutability +of species; and Lamarck followed with several well-known works in +1801-15, in which he upholds the doctrine that all species, including +man, are descended from other species. As Darwin says, Lamarck first did +the eminent service of arousing attention to the probability of all +change in the organic, as well as in the inorganic world, being the +result of law, and not of miraculous interposition. He saw the +difficulty of distinguishing between species and varieties, the almost +perfect gradation of form in some groups, and the great similarity of +domestic breeds of animals to such species. He believed that some degree +of change was produced by the physical conditions of life, the +intercrossing of species, and by habits causing increased use or disuse +of parts. Indeed he thought very many remarkable adaptations, such as +that of the neck of the giraffe for browsing on trees, were the effect +of habit. But he attributed, perhaps, more to a law of progressive +development impressed on all forms of life, which thus would all in +time gradually cease to be lowly, their place being taken by new forms +continually or "spontaneously" generated. + +It does not appear that Lamarck would by any means have sufficed to +convince Darwin, judging from his references to him in his Journal and +the "Origin." Here is the passage in which in the second edition of his +Journal he refers to the blindness of the Brazilian Tucutuco, or +Ctenomys, a rodent or gnawing mammal with the habits of a mole: +"Considering the strictly subterranean habits of the Tucutuco, the +blindness, though so common, cannot be a very serious evil; yet it +appears strange that any animal should possess an organ frequently +subject to be injured. Lamarck would have been delighted with this fact +had he known it when speculating (probably with more truth than usual +with him) on the gradually _acquired_ blindness of the Aspalax, a gnawer +living underground, and of the Proteus, a reptile living in dark caverns +filled with water, in both of which animals the eye is in an almost +rudimentary state, and is covered with a tendinous membrane and skin.... +In the Tucutuco, which, I believe, never comes to the surface of the +ground, the eye is rather larger (than in the mole), but often rendered +blind and useless, though without apparently causing any inconvenience +to the animal: no doubt Lamarck would have said that the Tucutuco is +now passing into the state of the Aspalax and Proteus." Many years +afterwards in the "Origin of Species" Darwin referred to the "erroneous +views and grounds of opinion of Lamarck." + +No doubt some impulse to Darwin's views in this direction would be due +to his intercourse with Dr. Grant at Edinburgh, whose celebrated paper +on the fresh-water sponge concludes with a declaration of his belief +that species are descended from other species, and that they become +improved in the course of modification. But previous to the occurrences +of his voyage, we can find no stronger influence tending to make Darwin +an evolutionist, than Lyell's "Principles of Geology," which, by showing +constant and gradual change as the law of the world's history now as in +past periods, gave emphasis and point to all observations of change and +succession in the living world. Indeed, in June, 1836, before Darwin's +voyage was over, Lyell writes to Sir John Herschel: "In regard to the +origination of new species, I am very glad to find that you think +it probable that it may be carried on through the intervention of +intermediate causes. I left this rather to be inferred, not thinking it +worth while to offend a certain class of persons by embodying in words +what would only be a speculation. But the German critics have attacked +me vigorously, saying, that by the impugning of the doctrine of +spontaneous generation, and substituting nothing in its place, I have +left them nothing but the direct and miraculous intervention of the +First Cause, as often as a new species is introduced, and hence I have +overthrown my own doctrine of revolutions carried on by a regular system +of secondary causes.... When I first came to the notion, which I never +saw expressed elsewhere, though I have no doubt it had all been thought +out before, of a succession of extinction of species, and creation of +new ones going on perpetually now, and through an indefinite period of +the past, and to continue for ages to come, all in accommodation to the +changes which must continue in the inanimate and habitable earth, the +idea struck me as the grandest which I had ever conceived, so far as +regards the attributes of the Presiding Mind." + +In a succeeding paragraph, Lyell very remarkably foreshadows Darwin's +"natural selection" and "struggle for existence." He speaks of a species +being rendered more prolific in order to perpetuate its existence; +"but this would perhaps make it press too hard upon other species at +other times. Now if it be an insect it may be made in one of its +transformations to resemble a dead stick, or a leaf, or a lichen, or a +stone, so as to be somewhat less easily found by its enemies; or if this +would make it too strong, an occasional variety of the species may have +this advantage conferred on it; or if this would be still too much, one +sex of a certain variety. _Probably there is scarcely a dash of colour +on the wing or body of which the choice would be quite arbitrary, or +which might not affect its duration for thousands of years._" The +significance of the last sentence is immense, and when we reflect that +this bold but cautious thinker was in constant intercourse with Darwin, +we can readily comprehend why the second edition of the Journal was so +enthusiastically dedicated to Lyell. On page 481 of the "Origin of +Species," Darwin acknowledges that the belief that species were +immutable productions was almost unavoidable, as long as the history of +the world was thought to be of short duration: which affords another +proof how profoundly Lyell's views on the long duration of the past +history of the globe, and its modification by the slow operation of +existing causes, influenced Darwin, and led him to comprehend how +species might be modified. + +We see Darwin, then, possessed of the idea that species are mutable, +informed as to past and recent changes in the animal, plant, and +physical world, seeking for causes which should suffice to produce +modification of species by a continuous law. The next step in his +progress was attention to domestic animals and cultivated plants. As he +wrote in 1864 to Haeckel, one of his most brilliant followers: "In South +America three classes of facts were brought strongly before my mind. +Firstly, the manner in which closely-allied species replace species in +going southward. Secondly, the close affinity of the species inhabiting +the islands near South America to those proper to the continent. This +struck me profoundly, especially the difference of the species in the +adjoining islets in the Galapagos Archipelago. Thirdly, the relation of +the living Edentata and Rodentia to the extinct species. I shall never +forget my astonishment when I dug out a gigantic piece of armour like +that of the living armadillo. + +"Having reflected much on the foregoing facts, it seemed to me probable +that allied species were descended from a common ancestor. But during +several years I could not conceive how each form could have been +modified so as to become admirably adapted to its place in nature. I +began, therefore, to study domesticated animals and cultivated +plants,[7] and after a time perceived that man's power of selecting and +breeding from certain individuals was the most powerful of all means in +the production of new races. Having attended to the habits of animals, +and their relations to the surrounding conditions, I was able to realise +the severe struggle for existence to which all organisms are subjected; +and my geological observations had allowed me to appreciate, to a +certain extent, the duration of past geological periods. With my mind +thus prepared, I fortunately happened to read Malthus's 'Essay on +Population;' and the idea of natural selection through the struggle for +existence at once occurred to me. Of all the subordinate points in the +theory, the last which I understood was the cause of the tendency in the +descendants from a common progenitor to diverge in character."[8] + +Malthus taught the inevitable tendency of all animal life to increase +beyond the means of subsistence, and expounded the checks which begin to +act when population increases too rapidly. But his book had lain +unfruitful to naturalists since 1798, until Darwin read it, and with +his special knowledge evolved from it the brilliant idea of the +preservation of better-equipped races in the struggle for life, or, as +Herbert Spencer put it, the survival of the fittest. At one bound the +gloomy revelations of misery which the "Essay on Population" contained, +were exchanged for the bright view of perpetual progress and improvement +as being necessitated and brought about by the very struggle which +ensued upon the natural increase of animal and plant life. Instead of +struggle and pain, producing starvation and extinction merely, struggle +and pain were seen as the conditions of development and improvement; the +death of the lower, the life of the higher. + +It is less profitable here to attempt to sketch the history of ideas of +evolution in general, because that history as now revealed by research, +and as detailed by many writers, was not the path along which Darwin +travelled. Indeed, many of these ideas were not disinterred, and +certainly were not brought to Darwin's notice till after the publication +of the "Origin of Species." True he read Robert Chambers's "Vestiges of +Creation," which, with its "powerful and brilliant style," although +displaying in its earlier editions "little accurate knowledge and a +great want of scientific caution," Darwin acknowledges to have done +excellent service in calling attention to the subject, in removing +prejudice, and in preparing the ground for the reception of analogous +views. Herbert Spencer, in his Essay on the Development Hypothesis, +first published in _The Leader_ in March, 1852, and republished in his +"Essays" (first series, 1858), argued that species have been modified +owing to change of circumstances, basing his argument upon the analogy +of domestic animals and plants, the changes which the embryos of many +species undergo, and the difficulty of distinguishing species and +varieties. + +But we need not here dwell on the works of these thinkers, important as +they are to the general history of evolutionary thought, because +Darwin's speculations had taken form long before, and he could be but +slightly indebted to them. Far in advance of them he was at work +collecting and testing the facts which alone could win general support +for his views, and experimenting incessantly with the same object in +view. Lyell and Hooker were in his confidence, and in Lyell's letters we +meet with references such as the following, dated November 13, 1854: +"You probably know about this (the remarkable orchid, Catasetum), which +will figure in C. Darwin's book on 'Species,' with many other 'ugly +facts,' as Hooker, clinging like me to the orthodox faith, calls these +and other abnormal vagaries," showing at the same time how completely +Darwin was the leader, while his friends, advanced as they were, hung +back. Again (Lyell to Hooker, July 25, 1856): "Whether Darwin persuades +you and me to renounce our faith in species (when geological epochs are +considered) or not, I foresee that many will go over to the indefinite +modifiability doctrine." + +Further light is thrown on the progress of ideas on species by Sir +Joseph Hooker's admirably written Introductory Essay to the "Flora Novæ +Zelandiæ," dated November, 1853, in which he discusses among other +questions, "The Limits of Species; their Dispersion and Variation." +While still adhering on the whole to the origin of species from single +parents, or from one pair, and the permanence of specific characters, he +insists that species vary more, and are more widely distributed, than is +generally admitted, and that their distribution has been brought about +by natural causes. In this essay he makes the following statements: "Mr. +Darwin not only directed my earliest studies in the subjects of the +distribution and variation of species, but has discussed with me all the +arguments, and drawn my attention to many of the facts which I have +endeavoured to illustrate in this essay. I know of no other way in which +I can acknowledge the extent of my obligation to him, than by adding +that I should never have taken up the subject in its present form but +for the advantages I have derived from his friendship and +encouragement." + +Appropriately enough, it was through Lyell and Hooker that the new +theory was introduced to the public, and it was owing to them that +Darwin did not obliterate his own claims to priority, and give them over +to Alfred Russel Wallace, who had independently come to similar +conclusions. The letter, dated June 30, 1858, in which the announcement +was conveyed to the Linnean Society, deserves quotation, as being the +authoritative and accurate record of the circumstances which launched +the "Origin of Species" upon the world: + + "The accompanying papers, which we have the honour of communicating + to the Linnean Society, and which all relate to the same subject, + viz., 'The Laws which affect the Production of Varieties, Races, + and Species,' contain the results of the investigations of two + indefatigable naturalists, Mr. Charles Darwin and Mr. Alfred + Wallace. + + "These gentlemen having, independently and unknown to one another, + conceived the same very ingenious theory to account for the + appearance and perpetuation of varieties and of specific forms on + our planet, may both fairly claim the merit of being original + thinkers in this important line of inquiry; but neither of them + having published his views, though Mr. Darwin has been repeatedly + urged by us to do so, and both authors having now unreservedly + placed their papers in our hands, we think it would best promote + the interests of science that a selection from them should be laid + before the Linnean Society. + + "Taken in the order of their dates, they consist of-- + + "1. Extracts from a MS. work on species, by Mr. Darwin, which was + sketched in 1839, and copied in 1844, when the copy was read by Dr. + Hooker, and its contents afterwards communicated to Sir Charles + Lyell. The first part is devoted to 'The Variation of Organic + Beings under Domestication and in their Natural State'; and the + second chapter of that part, from which we propose to read to the + Society the extracts referred to, is headed, 'On the Variation of + Organic Beings in a State of Nature; on the Natural Means of + Selection; on the Comparison of Domestic Races and true Species.' + + "2. An abstract of a private letter addressed to Professor Asa + Gray, of Boston, U.S., in October, 1857, by Mr. Darwin, in which + he repeats his views, and which shows that these remained unaltered + from 1839 to 1857. + + "3. An essay by Mr. Wallace, entitled 'On the Tendency of Varieties + to depart indefinitely from the Original Type.' This was written at + Ternate in February, 1858, for the perusal of his friend and + correspondent, Mr. Darwin, and sent to him with the expressed wish + that it should be forwarded to Sir Charles Lyell, if Mr. Darwin + thought it sufficiently novel and interesting. So highly did Mr. + Darwin appreciate the value of the views therein set forth, that he + proposed, in a letter to Sir Charles Lyell, to obtain Mr. Wallace's + consent to allow the essay to be published as soon as possible. Of + this step we highly approved, provided Mr. Darwin did not withhold + from the public, as he was strongly inclined to do (in favour of + Mr. Wallace) the memoir which he had himself written on the same + subject, and which, as before stated, one of us had perused in + 1844, and the contents of which we had both of us been privy to for + many years. On representing this to Mr. Darwin, he gave us + permission to make what use we thought proper of his memoir, &c.; + and in adopting our present course, of presenting it to the Linnean + Society, we have explained to him that we are not solely + considering the relative claims to priority of himself and his + friend, but the interests of science generally; for we feel it to + be desirable that views founded on a wide deduction from facts, and + matured by years of reflection, should constitute at once a goal + from which others may start, and that, while the scientific world + is waiting for the appearance of Mr. Darwin's complete work, some + of the leading results of his labours, as well as those of his + able correspondent, should together be laid before the public." + +In these papers, read on July 1, 1858, Darwin's share amounts to little +more than six pages, yet within this space he describes the geometrical +rate of increase of animals, the checks that occur, the effects of +changed conditions, the natural selection of the better equipped forms +resulting from the struggle for existence, and the influence of sexual +selection. Wallace insists on essentially the same view, which he calls +that of progression and continued divergence. "This progression, by +minute steps, in various directions, but always checked and balanced by +the necessary conditions, subject to which alone existence can be +preserved, may, it is believed, be followed out so as to agree with all +the phenomena presented by organised beings, their extinction and +succession in past ages, and all the extraordinary modifications of +form, instinct, and habits which they exhibit." Those who read Wallace's +original essay can best appreciate the extraordinary simplicity and +nobility of character which inclined the elder naturalist, who had so +long held the same views, to step aside in favour of the younger man, +who from different researches was led to such similar conclusions. It +may here be added that Hooker, in the Introductory Essay to the "Flora +Tasmaniæ," dated November 4, 1859, before the publication of the "Origin +of Species," but after seeing much of it in manuscript, accepted and +advocated the view that species are derivative and mutable, and +developed it as regards the geographical distribution of plants. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[6: It is worth while to reproduce here a few sentences from +Erasmus Darwin's "Zoonomia," showing how acutely he guessed in the +direction of evolution. + +"When we revolve in our minds, first, the great changes which we see +naturally produced in animals after their nativity.... Secondly, when we +think over the great changes introduced into various animals by +artificial or accidental cultivation.... Thirdly, when we enumerate the +great changes produced in the species of animals before their +nativity.... Fourthly, when we revolve in our minds the great similarity +of structure which obtains in all the warm-blooded animals.... Fifthly, +from their first rudiment or primordium to the termination of their +lives, all animals undergo perpetual transformations, which are in part +produced by their own exertions;... and many of these acquired forms or +propensities are transmitted to their posterity.... A great want of one +part of the animal world has consisted in the desire of the exclusive +possession of the female; and these have acquired weapons to combat each +other for this purpose.... The final cause of this contest amongst the +males seems to be that the strongest and most active animal should +propagate the species, which should thence become improved. Another +great want consists in the means of procuring food, which has +diversified the forms of all species of animals.... All which seem to +have been gradually produced during many generations by the perpetual +endeavour of the creatures to supply the want of food, and to have been +delivered to their posterity with constant improvement of them for the +purpose required.... The third great want among animals is that of +security, which seems much to have diversified the forms of their bodies +and the colour of them.... The contrivances for the purposes of security +extend even to vegetables.... Would it be too bold to imagine that in +the great length of time since the earth began to exist ... all +warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament, which the +Great First Cause endued with animality;... possessing the faculty of +continuing to improve by its own inherent activity, and of delivering +down those improvements by generation to its posterity, world without +end!"] + +[7: In this study Darwin came into communication, as early as +1839, with the Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert, afterwards Dean of Manchester, +and received from him a personal account of his experiments on hybrids. +It was Herbert who, as early as 1822, in the fourth volume of the +"Horticultural Transactions," and in his work on the Amaryllidaceæ, +1837, declared that horticultural experiments have established, beyond +the possibility of refutation, that botanical species are only "a higher +and more permanent class of varieties." He extended the same view to +animals, and believed that single species of each genus were originally +created in a highly plastic condition, and that these have produced, +chiefly by intercrossing, but also by variation, all our existing +species.] + +[8: The first portion of this important letter is quoted from +the English translation of Haeckel's "History of Creation," 1876; the +second portion from O. Schmidt's "Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism," +having been re-written by Darwin from the German text.] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +Darwin's great work "On the Origin of Species by means of Natural +Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for +Life," was published in November, 1859. It begins with the simplest +narrative of the events leading to its publication, and an apology for +the imperfection of "this abstract." The author is well aware, he says, +that on most points he deals with, facts can be adduced which often +apparently lead to conclusions directly opposite to his own. He states +clearly the important truth that a mere belief in the origin of species +by descent from other species is unsatisfactory until it can be shown +_how_ species can have been modified so as to acquire their present +remarkable perfection of structure and coadaptation. Consequently cases +of observed modification of species are of the highest value, and +precedence is given to the variation of animals and plants in a state of +domestication. + +The individuals belonging to the same variety of any of our +long-cultivated animals or plants differ much more from each other than +the individuals of any one species or variety in a state of nature. +Darwin explains this by the changed conditions of their life, excess or +changed quality of food, climate, changed habits, &c. Thus man has +effected remarkable changes in many species by consciously or +unconsciously selecting particular qualities in the animals or plants +kept for use or beauty. Domestic productions seem in fact to have become +plastic in man's hands, and the inheritance of acquired qualities by +offspring is reckoned on as almost certain. The breeds of cattle, +poultry, dogs, and pigeons, are striking examples. + +Darwin, as he tells us, kept every breed of domestic pigeons he could +purchase or obtain, in order to study their variations. In this he was +himself reverting to the associations of childhood, when the beauty, +variety, and tameness of The Mount pigeons at Shrewsbury were well +known. + +We can imagine the astonishment with which the "eminent fanciers" and +members of the London Pigeon Clubs, whose acquaintance the great +naturalist cultivated, received the simplicity, yet depth, of his +inquiries, as he came among them day after day, utilising all their +lore, and yet continually asking what they neither knew nor suspected +the drift of. He began his study with a prepossession against the idea +of the immense diversity of modern pigeons having originated from one +common stock. Yet if such modification has taken place in any creature, +pigeons may furnish an example, for they have been kept and bred for +thousands of years, being recorded in Egypt about 3000 B.C., and Pliny +relates that their pedigree and race could be reckoned by the Romans of +his time. "We cannot suppose that all the breeds were suddenly produced +as perfect and as useful as we now see them; indeed, in several cases +we know that this has not been their history. The key is man's power of +accumulative selection; nature gives successive variations; man adds +them up in certain directions useful to him." This is an undoubted fact, +to which breeders and fanciers give far more emphatic testimony even +than Darwin. As Lord Somerville said, speaking of what breeders have +done for sheep, "It would seem as if they had chalked upon a wall a form +perfect in itself, and then had given it existence." + +Side by side with conscious selection goes unconscious. Two breeders, +breeding from similar stock, aiming at the same end, will get different +results. Aiming at a particular result, they find that with it is +associated some other of which they had not dreamed. Thus through long +ages our cultivated vegetables and flowers have been produced, by always +selecting the best variety, and sowing its seeds. The fact which Darwin +notes, that our cultivated plants and domestic breeds date from so +ancient a time that we know really nothing of their origin, has an +important bearing on the great antiquity of man, then scarcely imagined, +now generally accepted; seeing that all domestic development depends on +a variability in living creatures, which man can not produce, but can +only work upon. + +That variation of species occurs in a state of nature Darwin proves not +only by recorded facts, but by a consideration of the chaotic condition +of species-description, owing to the differences between authors as to +what are species and what are varieties, one observer describing a +dozen species where another reckons only one. If such divergence of +opinion is possible between good observers, it is evident that there is +no sufficiently clear rule for deciding what a species is, although for +centuries naturalists have laboured to establish them. If species vary +continually, and become modified, then this difficulty is explained. + +But what is there in nature to answer to the breeder's selection? Here +comes in Darwin's remarkable application and amplification of Malthus's +principle of population. "Nothing is easier," he says, "than to admit +in words the truth of the universal struggle for life, or more +difficult--at least I have found it so--than constantly to bear this +conclusion in mind. Yet unless it be thoroughly engrained in the mind, I +am convinced that the whole economy of nature, with every fact on +distribution, rarity, abundance, extinction, and variation will be dimly +seen or quite misunderstood. We behold the face of nature bright with +gladness; we often see superabundance of food; we do not see, or we +forget, that the birds which are idly singing round us mostly live on +insects or seeds, and are thus constantly destroying life; or we forget +how largely these songsters, or their eggs, or their nestlings are +destroyed by birds and beasts of prey; we do not always bear in mind, +that though food may be now superabundant, it is not so at all seasons +of each recurring year." The proofs given of the enormous rate at which +animals and plants tend to increase in numbers are very striking; even +the elephant, the slowest breeder of all animals, would increase from +one pair to fifteen millions in the fifth century, if no check existed. + +Thus every animal and plant may be said to struggle for existence with +those with which it competes for space, food, light, air. The numbers +are kept down by heavy destruction at various periods of life. Take the +case of seedling plants. Darwin had a piece of ground three feet long +and two feet wide dug and cleared, so that no grown plants existed to +check the growth of seedlings of native plants as they came up. He +counted and marked all that came up, and out of 357 no fewer than 295 +were destroyed, chiefly by slugs and insects. So in a little plot of +long-mown turf, allowed to grow freely, out of twenty species nine +perished in the struggle. Many further personal observations of the +author are given: such as that the winter of 1854-5 destroyed +four-fifths of the birds in his own grounds; that he has sometimes +failed to get a single seed from wheat or other plants in his garden. + +On the estate of a relative in Staffordshire the changes consequent on +planting several hundred acres with Scotch fir were remarkable. In +twenty-five years twelve species of conspicuous plants, and six +different insectivorous birds had become settled and flourishing +inhabitants in the plantations. The characteristic of the philosopher, +who sees in the unconsidered trifles of others the material for his +choicest discoveries, is well exemplified in his mode of observing the +results of enclosure near Farnham, in Surrey. Here a multitude of +self-sown firs sprang up in the enclosures, and Darwin went to examine +into the cause of the strange phenomenon. Not a fir was in sight except +some distant clumps. "But on looking closely between the stems of the +heath, I found a multitude of seedlings and little trees, which had been +perpetually browsed down by the cattle. In one square yard, at a point +some hundred yards distant from one of the old clumps, I counted +thirty-two little trees; and one of them, judging from the rings of +growth, had during twenty-six years tried to raise its head above the +stems of the heath, and had failed." + +The interdependence of animal upon animal, of animal upon plant, of +plant upon animal, is enforced in many ways by Darwin. For instance, the +visits of humble-bees are of special importance to the welfare of red +clover; humble-bees are largely destroyed by field-mice; cats largely +destroy field-mice near villages, and so favour humble-bees, and +secondarily red clover. Every paragraph of the chapter on the struggle +for existence is full of suggestion, and subversive of old imaginings. +But Darwin's knowledge is to him slight, his ignorance profound. Yet, he +says, notwithstanding our ignorance, "we may console ourselves with the +full belief that the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear is +felt, that death is generally prompt, and that the vigorous, the +healthy, and the happy survive and multiply." + +The great chapter on Natural Selection, or the preservation of +favourable and the rejection of injurious variations, is crowded with +striking passages. One of these vividly contrasts man's selection with +nature's. "Man can act only on external and visible characters: nature +cares nothing for appearances, except in so far as they may be useful to +any being. She can act on every internal organ, on every shade of +constitutional difference, on the whole machinery of life. Man selects +only for his own good; nature only for that of the being she tends. +Every selected character is fully exercised by her; and the being is +placed under well-suited conditions of life.... Under nature, the +slightest difference of structure or constitution may well turn the +nicely-balanced scale in the struggle for life, and so be preserved. How +fleeting are the wishes and efforts of man! how short his time! and +consequently how poor will his products be, compared with those +accumulated by nature during whole geological periods. Can we wonder, +then, that nature's productions should be far 'truer' in character than +man's productions; that they should be infinitely better adapted to the +most complex conditions of life, and should _plainly bear the stamp of +far higher workmanship_?" The words in italics certainly are a good +answer to those who think Darwin had any tendency to depreciate the +marvels of nature by bringing them under the law of natural selection. +But we shall gain further light on this subject later on. + +The main argument may be summed up thus: if variations beneficial to any +creature occur, which cannot be doubted, the individuals in whom they +occur will have the best chance of surviving and transmitting their +qualities to their offspring. This natural selection will tend to +produce divergence of character among offspring, and to intensify +differences until they equal those between species or even genera. The +same tendency to improvement brings about the decay and ultimate +extinction of many lower and unimproved forms of life. + +One of the best examples of Darwin's style is in the passage comparing +all members of the same class of beings to a great tree. "I believe this +simile largely speaks the truth. The green and budding twigs may +represent existing species; and those produced during each former year +may represent the long succession of extinct species. At each period of +growth all the growing twigs have tried to branch out on all sides, and +to overtop and kill the surrounding twigs and branches, in the same +manner as species and groups of species have tried to overmaster other +species in the great battle for life. The limbs divided into great +branches, and these into lesser and lesser branches, were themselves +once, when the tree was small, budding twigs; and this connexion of the +former and present buds by ramifying branches may well represent the +classification of all extinct and living species in groups subordinate +to groups. Of the many twigs which flourished when the tree was a mere +bush, only two or three, now grown into great branches, yet survive and +bear all the other branches; so with the species which lived during +long-past geological periods, very few now have living and modified +descendants. From the first growth of the tree many a limb and branch +has decayed and dropped off; and these lost branches of various sizes +may represent those whole orders, families, and genera which have now no +living representatives, and which are known to us only from having been +found in a fossil state. As we here and there see a thin straggling +branch springing from a fork low down in a tree, and which by some +chance has been favoured and is still alive on its summit, so we +occasionally see an animal like the Ornithorhynchus or Lepidosiren, +which in some small degree connects by its affinities two large branches +of life, and which has apparently been saved from fatal competition by +having inhabited a protected station. As buds give rise by growth to +fresh buds, and these, if vigorous, branch out and overtop on all sides +many a feebler branch, so by generation I believe it has been with the +great Tree of Life, which fills with its dead and broken branches the +crust of the earth, and covers the surface with its ever-branching and +beautiful ramifications." + +What may be the laws controlling or producing variation Darwin candidly +tells us he does not know. Some authors, he says, believe it to be as +much the function of the reproductive system to produce individual +differences, or very slight deviations of structure, as to make the +child like its parents. But we certainly do not know the precise effect +of any change of conditions, or what changes may be entailed in other +parts of an organism by given changes in one part.[9] + +Why, if species are continually being modified, do we not see multitudes +of transitional forms around us? How can the elaborate structure and +special habits of a bat have been formed by the modification of some +animal of entirely different habits? How can the marvellous perfections +of the human eye or that of one of the higher animals be supposed to +have arisen through natural selection? These questions Darwin answers +with powerful effect; but for the details we must refer the reader to +the book itself. Incidentally he refers to objections urged against the +view that every detail of structure has been produced for the good of +its possessor. He says plainly that if structures have been created for +beauty in the eyes of man, or for mere variety, that is fatal to his +theory. Yet he admits that many structures are of no direct use to their +possessors; but they have been inherited from ancestors to whom they +were of use, or they have arisen as correlated changes or in dependence +on some other cause, where use and benefit have been primary. + +In dealing with Instinct, we see Darwin personally studying ants and +bees in their social habits. The idea of ants making slaves is to him +"odious," which we can well understand after his references to slavery +in South America. For three years, during June and July, he watched for +many hours several ants' nests in Surrey and Sussex to see whether the +slaves ever left the nest. One day he witnessed a migration of ants from +one nest to another, the masters carefully carrying their slaves in +their jaws. Again, he saw a party attempting to carry off slaves, +succeeding, however, only in carrying their corpses off for food to the +nest. Darwin then dug up a small group of pupæ of the slave species from +another nest, and put them down near the place of combat. They were +eagerly seized and carried off by the tyrants, "who perhaps fancied +that, after all, they had been victorious in their late combat." At the +same time the slave-owners were able to distinguish instantly the pupæ +of another species, showing much terror at sight of them; yet they +ultimately took heart, and carried them off. + +The cell-making instinct of the hive-bee, "the most wonderful of all +known instincts," as Darwin terms it, was closely studied. The comb, +"so beautifully adapted to its end," he enthusiastically admired. Yet he +finds gradation among bees, and can imagine a method by which this +beautiful construction, has been gradually developed. His ideas were +tested by setting bees to work on a solid piece of wax between two +combs. The detailed account of these experiments is most instructive. It +is quite charming to mentally follow the patient experimenter covering +the edges of a single cell or the extreme margin of a growing comb with +a thin layer of vermilion wax, and soon proving that many bees work in +succession at a single cell by the rapid diffusion of the vermilion +colouring as delicately as a painter could have done it, atoms of the +coloured wax being removed and worked into the growing cells all +round.[10] "It was really curious," Darwin says, "to note in cases of +difficulty, as when two pieces of comb met at an angle, how often the +bees would entirely pull down and rebuild in different ways the same +cell, sometimes recurring to a shape which they had at first rejected." +Here surely he was watching evolution in that slow, gradual process +which appears to be the rule. + +The castes of neuter ants, constituting as they did "by far the most +serious special difficulty" Darwin had encountered, were similarly +studied; but, as expected, gradations were found connecting them, +although the extremes differ markedly in shape and size. The case is +most interesting, because these castes could only be developed if the +variations which produced them were profitable to the community; "for no +amount of exercise, or habit, or volition, in the utterly sterile +members of a community could possibly have affected the structure or +instincts of the fertile members, which alone leave descendants." This +fact Darwin considers to be demonstrative against Lamarck's doctrine. At +the same time, he admits that instincts are not always perfect, and are +liable to make mistakes; and that no instinct has been produced for the +exclusive good of other animals, but that each animal takes advantage of +the instincts of others. It is to him "far more satisfactory to look at +such instincts as the young cuckoo ejecting its foster-brothers, ants +making slaves, the larvæ of ichneumonidæ feeding within the live bodies +of caterpillars, not as specially endowed or created instincts, but as +small consequences of one general law, leading to the advancement of all +organic beings, namely, multiply, vary, let the strongest live and the +weakest die." And here Darwin strikes one of his truest and most helpful +notes. It _is_ far more satisfactory to contemplate the rapine and war +of nature as incidents which aid in working out a grand progress than as +multitudinous cruelties, working no good, and in past ages of unknown +length merely preluding the struggle and rapine through which man works +out his rise or fall. If we agonise that we and our descendants may +rise, life is worth living. + +We cannot follow in detail the profoundly suggestive chapters on +Hybridism, on the Imperfection of the Geological Record, on the +Geological Succession of Organic Beings, on the Geographical +Distribution, and on the Mutual Affinity of Plants and Animals. The +first of these is one of the most difficult portions of the subject, and +yet remains as a stumbling-block of science by its apparently +inexplicable phenomena. The author throws on the past history of life on +the earth the glamour of a fairy record, as he contemplates the infinite +number of generations, which the mind cannot grasp, which must have +succeeded one another in the long roll of years, the limited extent to +which at any time fossil remains have been preserved, the immense amount +of destruction of such records which has taken place; and hence argues +most powerfully how improbable it is that the transitional stages from +species to species should have been handed down and also (another rare +chance) have been laid open to us. The great array of facts about +extinct animals and plants is shown to be consistent with, and to +be largely explained by, descent with modification, and to be +incomprehensible on any other view. The eccentric contrasts and +parallelisms displayed in the geographical distribution of plants and +animals, the striking effects of barriers such as mountains, deserts, +and seas, the phenomena of dispersion of living creatures, the +indications of old glacial periods in the present distribution of Alpine +plants, the strange distribution of fresh-water animals and plants, the +specialities of oceanic islands, and many other subjects of a like kind, +are dealt with, all being turned to advantage, and shown to give strong +support to Darwin's view. + +Classification and classifiers are all made to bear testimony in the +same direction. Morphology, which, in the hands of Huxley, Haeckel, +Gegenbaur, Ray Lankester, and Balfour has, since the first issue of the +"Origin of Species," grown into a coherent science, based on embryology, +was even then seen by Darwin to yield evidence for his views. Examining +very young animals, he found that in very distinct races of dogs and +horses the young had by no means acquired their adult differences. He +compared pigeons of extremely various breeds twelve hours after being +hatched, and found their differences incomparably less than in the +full-grown birds. How immensely morphological science has progressed +since Darwin directed investigation into this profitable line would need +a separate treatise to show; but it is not too much to say that +embryology alone, without other evidence, would now suffice to prove the +doctrine of descent with adaptive modification. + +Rudimentary organs, again, strange appearances, like the presence of +teeth in unborn whales and in the front of the upper jaws of unborn +calves, the rudimentary wings of many insects, the rudimentary stamens +or pistils of many flowers, are all swept into the Darwinian net. +"Nothing can be plainer than that wings are formed for flight; yet in +how many insects do we see wings so reduced in size as to be utterly +incapable of flight, and not rarely lying under wing-cases, firmly +soldered together?" These phenomena are all explicable if descent with +modification is true. + +Approaching the close of his work, the author expressed his doubts of +being able to convert naturalists of long standing to his views; but +based his main hopes on young and rising men approaching these questions +without prejudices. He put some puzzling questions, however, to those +who might oppose him. Did they really believe that at innumerable +periods in the earth's history certain atoms had been commanded suddenly +to flash into living tissues? Were animals and plants created as eggs or +seed or as full grown? At each act of creation was one individual or +were many produced? For himself, he came to the conclusion that all +organic beings had descended from some one primordial form into which +life was first breathed. + +On this view Darwin predicted that a great increase of interest in many +departments of natural history would arise. "When we no longer look at +an organic being as a savage looks at a ship, as at something wholly +beyond his comprehension; when we regard every production of nature as +one which has had a history; when we contemplate every complex structure +and instinct as the summing up of many contrivances, each useful to the +possessor, nearly in the same way as when we look at any great +mechanical invention as the summing up of the labour, the experience, +the reason, and even the blunders of numerous workmen; when we thus +view each organic being, how far more interesting--I speak from +experience--will the study of natural history become.... The whole +history of the world, as at present known, although of a length quite +incomprehensible to us, will hereafter be recognized as a mere fragment +of time compared with the ages which have elapsed since the first +creature, the progenitor of innumerable extinct and living descendants, +was created.... We may look forward with some confidence to a secure +future of equally inappreciable length. And as natural selection works +solely by and for the good of each being, all corporeal and mental +endowments will tend to progress towards perfection." The concluding +sentence of the "Origin of Species" has become one of our classical +quotations. "There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several +powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; +and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed +law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful +and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved." + +This is not the place to give a history of the criticisms and +discussions which arose in regard to "The Origin of Species," especially +as Darwin himself took no public part in them, except by the alterations +made in successive editions. As indicating the tone of prominent +critical organs, we may note that _The Athenæum_ (November 19, 1859) +acknowledges there is something poetical in the theory. "If a monkey has +become a man, what may not a man become?" Neither book, author, nor +subject being ordinary, "the work deserves attention." _The Edinburgh +Review_ considered that the author left the question very nearly where +he found it. Failing to find original observations adequate even to give +a colour to the hypothesis, the reviewer sought to find flaws in the +author's mode of reasoning, and concluded that "we are called upon to +accept a hypothesis on the plea of want of knowledge." Defective +information, vagueness, and incompleteness are charged upon the man whom +we now delight to honour; "intellectual husks," we are told; are all +that he offers. Professor Huxley, who lectured at the Royal Institution, +on February 10, 1860, on "Species and Races and their Origin," and +brought forward Darwin's investigations as exemplifying that application +of science to which England owes her greatness, was told that it more +truly paralleled "the abuse of science to which a neighbouring +nation--some seventy years since--owed its temporary degradation." And +the professor was accused of audaciously seeking to blind his audience. +Samuel Wilberforce, then Bishop of Oxford, was equally denunciatory in +_The Quarterly_. He hopes that "this flimsy speculation" will be +completely put down. "It is a dishonouring view of nature.... Under such +influences," says the courtly bishop, "a man soon goes back to the +marvelling stare of childhood at the centaurs and hippogriffs of fancy; +or, if he is of a philosophic turn, he comes, like Oken, to write a +scheme of creation under a 'sort of inspiration,' but it is the frenzied +inspiration of the inhaler of mephitic gas. The whole world of nature is +laid for such a man under a fantastic law of glamour, and he becomes +capable of believing anything; and he is able, with a continually +growing neglect of all the facts around him, with equal confidence and +equal delusion, to look back to any past and to look on to any +future."[11] + +_The Saturday Review_ was much more moderate, by no means sharing the +anxiety of those who regarded evolutionary theories as hostile to +Christianity. The author is said to have encountered the difficulties +of his theory "with admirable skill and ability," and though _The +Saturday_ remained unconvinced of his general argument, yet it +acknowledged itself "persuaded that natural selection must henceforward +be admitted as the chief mode by which the structure of organised beings +is modified in a state of nature;" and thought it very possible that, +through its agency, considerable groups of nearly allied species might +have been derived from a single progenitor: but there _The Saturday_ +stopped, believing in limits to this power. + +The second edition of "The Origin of Species," which appeared in +January, 1860, only six weeks after the first, contained but few +alterations; the third, in March, 1861, had received extensive additions +and corrections. The most important of these discussed the so-called +tendency of organisation to advance, and explained the present +coexistence of high and lowly organised forms. A valuable historical +sketch of the modern progress of opinion on the subject, from Lamarck's +time, was prefixed to the book. It was further enlarged in subsequent +editions, as evidences accumulated that various thinkers had +independently adopted the evolution theory, or the more special one of +natural selection. Notable instances of anticipation were those of Dr. +Wells, who, in a paper read before the Royal Society in 1813, but not +published till 1818, had expressed the opinion that all animals tend to +vary; that agriculturists improve breeds by selection; and that what +they do by art "seems to be done with equal efficacy, though more +slowly, by nature, in the formation of varieties of mankind." He then +goes on to exemplify the survival of the fittest, though in other words. +Mr. Patrick Matthew, in 1831, published a work on "Naval Timber and +Arboriculture," in which he expressed, in scattered passages, a view +nearly resembling Darwin's. + +The fourth edition of "The Origin," in 1866, was longer, by fifty pages, +than its predecessor. Among the additions may be mentioned a fuller +treatment of the argument from embryology, which was made stronger by +later investigations. The fifth edition (1869) was comparatively little +increased in bulk, though altered in many details. In particular it +contained a somewhat important change relating to the extent of the +influence of natural selection. This is also referred to in "The Descent +of Man" (first edition, vol. i. pp. 152-3), where the author says he had +not formerly considered sufficiently the existence of many structures +which appeared to be neither beneficial nor injurious, and had +attributed too much to natural selection. "I was not able," he says, "to +annul the influence of my former belief, then widely prevalent, that +each species had been purposely created; and this led to my tacitly +assuming that every detail of structure, excepting rudiments, was of +some special, though unrecognised, service.... If I have erred in giving +to natural selection great power, which I am far from admitting, or in +having exaggerated its power, which is in itself probable, I have, at +least, as I hope, done good service in aiding to overthrow the dogma of +separate creations." + +The sixth edition (1872), in smaller type, was considerably revised and +altered, and remains permanent. A glossary of scientific terms was added +by Mr. W. S. Dallas. A new chapter was inserted after the sixth, and +entitled "Miscellaneous Objections to the Theory of Natural Selection." +It was partly derived from modified portions of chapter iv. of former +editions, but the latter and larger part was new, and relates chiefly to +the supposed incompetency of natural selection to account for the very +early stages of useful structures. Numerous cases, such as the +development of the giraffe's neck, the baleen of the whale, the mammary +glands, &c., are admirably discussed. Causes preventing the acquisition, +through natural selection, of useful structures in many cases are dealt +with, and reasons given for disbelieving in great and sudden +modifications. In the concluding chapter Darwin further admits that he +had formerly underrated the frequency and importance of use and disuse +of parts, of the direct action of external conditions, and of variations +which seem to us, in our ignorance, to arise spontaneously. He alludes +to misrepresentations of his views, and calls attention to the fact +that, in the first edition, at the close of the introduction, he stated +his conviction that natural selection had been the main, _but not the +exclusive_ means of modification. "This has been of no avail. Great is +the power of steady misrepresentation; but the history of science shows +that, fortunately, this power does not long endure." This is Darwin's +almost sole allusion in his works to the persistence with which views +not his had been attributed to him, or he had been calumniated for views +he did hold. But in his own lifetime--nay, within fifteen years--he +witnessed a sufficiently satisfying revolution. "I formerly spoke to +very many naturalists on the subject of evolution, and never once met +with any sympathetic agreement. It is probable that some did then +believe in evolution, but they were either silent or expressed +themselves so ambiguously, that it was not easy to understand their +meaning. Now things are wholly changed, and almost every naturalist +admits the great principle of evolution" ("Origin," sixth edition, p. +424). At present the sale of the book in this country approaches forty +thousand copies. Its sale in America has been very large; and numerous +translations into German, French, Italian, Russian, Dutch, and Swedish, +and even into Japanese and Hindustani, have been largely sold. It must +always be one of the most valued of all English classics. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[9: Mr. Romanes, in his paper on "Physiological Selection" +(Journal of the Linnean Society, Zoology, xix. 337-411), has entered +upon a most important discussion of this question.] + +[10: The full text of a large part of Darwin's original chapter +on Instinct, which was omitted from the "Origin of Species" for the sake +of condensation, is published in Mr. Romanes' "Mental Evolution in +Animals," 1883, which also contains many other observations by Darwin.] + +[11: The reader will thus be able to judge for himself how far +Darwin's "Origin of Species" gained, "from the very first outset, +universal respect and a fair hearing," as Mr. Grant Allen, with singular +forgetfulness, states ("Darwin," p. 112). The violence of the attacks +made upon Darwin by the majority of religious and orthodox journals is +well known.] + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +We have already gathered much concerning Darwin's mental and moral fibre +in our survey of his works. Let us make some further acquaintance with +his personality as known to his friends. Outwardly he appeared a man of +powerful physique, standing six feet high, with prominent forehead and +over-arching brow, and keen, deep-set eyes in which resolute strength +and piercing insight were indicated. Apart from his persistent +infirmity, he was actively disposed, as indeed is evident from the +laborious journeys he undertook during his travels. Field sports, +including hunting, were among the recreations of his more active years. +But through all his work or recreation the imperious conditions +necessitated by his infirmity of stomach had to be considered, and +nothing but the most rigorous care could possibly have enabled him to +achieve what he did. On many days he could not work at all, and on many +others two or three hours were his limit. And what but his own system, +his own orderliness and perseverance could have accomplished his task? +In preparing his books he had a special set of shelves for each, +standing on or near his writing-table, one shelf for each chapter. The +maxim, "Early to bed, and early to rise," was his essentially, and +regularity kept all balanced. Rising at six, he took a cold plunge bath, +breakfasted simply, and took a first walk, beginning work often at +eight. "Later in the day," I quote from Mr. Woodall's pleasant pages, +"he generally walked again, often in his own grounds, but sometimes +further afield, and then generally by quiet footpaths rather than +frequented roads. The walks at one time were varied by rides along the +lanes on a favourite black cob, but some years before his death his +four-footed friend fell, and died by the roadside, and from that day the +habit of riding was given up. Part of the evening was devoted to his +family and his friends, who delighted to gather round him to enjoy the +charm of his bright intelligence, and his unrivalled stores of +knowledge. To Down, occasionally, came distinguished men from many +lands; and there in later years would sometimes be found the younger +generation of scientific students, looking up to the great naturalist +with the reverence of disciples, who had experienced his singular +modesty, his patient readiness to listen to all opinions, and the +winning grace with which he informed their ignorance and corrected their +mistakes. In the midst of all the delights of home and the demands of +study, Darwin kept an open mind for public affairs. He united the +earnest politician with the patient student: a rare combination, which +supplies another proof of his largeness of heart and sympathy with his +fellow men. In the village of Down he was liked by everybody, old and +young, and in his own household the same servants lived year after year +under his roof. One of them, Margaret Evans, who assisted in nursing +him in his last illness, had come to Down nearly forty years before, +from Shrewsbury, where her uncle and aunt were in Dr. Darwin's service." + +At Down the family in time numbered nine children, two, however, not +surviving childhood; one died in 1842, another in 1858. His five sons +have already attained distinction or positions of influence. The eldest, +William Erasmus, became a banker in Southampton; the second, George, was +second Wrangler and Smith's Prizeman at Cambridge in 1868, became a +Fellow of Trinity, and is now Plumian Professor of Astronomy at his +university, having early gained the Fellowship of the Royal Society for +his original papers bearing on the evolution of the universe and the +solar system, and many other subjects of high mathematical and +philosophical interest. His third son, Francis, gained first-class +honours in the Cambridge Natural Science Tripos in 1870, and is likewise +a Fellow of the Royal Society, in recognition of his original botanical +investigations. The fourth, Leonard, an officer in the Royal Engineers, +has done valuable astronomical work. The fifth, Horace, has devoted +himself to mechanical science, and has largely aided in developing the +Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company. + +The great thinker, fulfilling his duties as head of a family with +singular success, charged with the burden of new thoughts and +observations, slowly perfecting his life work, had neither time nor +inclination for controversy. He set himself to publish facts, which by +their accumulation tended to clench his arguments. Soon after the +"Origin of Species" he had in course of publication several important +botanical papers, on the two forms of flower in the Primrose genus +(1862), and in the genus Linum (flax), 1863, on the forms of +Loosestrife, 1864, all published in the Linnean Society's Journal. + +In 1862 he brought out his first botanical book, the "Fertilisation of +Orchids," more fully entitled, "On the various Contrivances by which +Orchids are Fertilised by Insects." These most singular flowers had long +attracted great attention owing to their peculiar shapes and often their +great beauty, while their marked deviation from typical forms of flowers +perplexed botanists extremely. The celebrated Robert Brown, in a +well-known paper in the Linnean Society's Transactions, 1833, expressed +the belief that insects are necessary for the fructification of most +orchids; and as far back as 1793, Christian Sprengel (in "The Newly +Discovered Secret of Nature") gave an excellent account of the action of +the several parts in the genus Orchis, having discovered that insects +were necessary to remove the pollen masses. But the _rationale_ of the +process was not fully known until Darwin revealed it, and illuminated it +by the light of natural selection. He had, in the "Origin of Species," +given reasons for the belief that it is an almost universal law of +nature that the higher organic beings require an occasional cross with +another individual. He here emphasised that doctrine by a series of +proofs from a peculiar and otherwise inexplicable order of plants, and +showed that the arrangements by which orchids are fertilised have for +their main object the fertilisation of the flowers with pollen brought +by insects from a distinct plant. + +In the group to which our common orchids belong, remarkable adaptations +for securing that the pollen masses brought from another flower solely +through the visits of insects shall reach their precise destination, +were brought to light. "A poet," says Darwin, "might imagine that whilst +the pollinia were borne through the air from flower to flower, adhering +to an insect's body, they voluntarily and eagerly placed themselves in +that exact position in which alone they could hope to gain their wish +and perpetuate their race." As he had examined all the British genera, +Darwin's conclusions were indubitable. He had patiently watched for +hours on the grass to notice insects' visits, had counted the fertilised +flowers on many spikes, the fertilised spikes on many plants, had +dissected and redissected the flowers till he saw how the fertilisation +must absolutely be effected; and utilising the enthusiasm of orchid +growers, had excited them to do the same, till his storehouse of facts +was full. + +On examining the exotic forms of orchids, which are so conspicuous in +our conservatories, still more striking facts presented themselves. In +the great group of the Vandeæ, relative position of parts, friction, +viscidity, elastic and hygrometric movements were all found to be nicely +related to one end--the aid of insects in fertilisation. Without their +aid not a plant in the various species of twenty-nine genera which +Darwin examined would set a seed. In the majority of cases insects +withdraw the pollen masses only when retreating from the flower, and, +continuing their flower visits, effect a union between two flowers, +generally on distinct plants. In many cases the pollen masses slowly +change their position while adhering to the insects, and so assume a +proper direction for striking the stigma of another flower, and the +insects during this interval will almost certainly have flown from one +plant to another. + +The family to which Catasetum belongs furnished the most remarkable +examples. This plant possesses a special sensitiveness in certain parts, +and when definite points of the flower are touched by an insect the +pollen masses are shot forth like an arrow, the point being blunt and +adhesive. The insect, disturbed by so sharp a blow, or having eaten its +fill, flies sooner or later to a female plant, and whilst standing in +the same position as before, the pollen-bearing end of the arrow is +inserted into the stigmatic cavity, and a mass of pollen is left on its +viscid surface. The strange structures of Cypripedium, or the Lady's +Slipper, were then analysed, and the mode of fertilisation by small bees +was discovered. The whole structure of orchids, as modified to secure +insects' visits and cross fertilisation, was now expounded, and the +benefits shown by cases where insects' visits were prevented, and no +seed was set. The number of seeds in a capsule was reckoned, and thence +it was found that the progeny of a single plant of the common orchis +would suffice to cover the globe in the fourth generation. A single +plant of another orchid might bear seventy-four millions of seeds: +surely an ample provision for a struggle for existence, and selection +and survival of the fittest. But, as Darwin remarks, profuse expenditure +is nothing unusual in nature, and it appears to be more profitable for a +plant to yield a few cross-fertilised than many self-fertilised seeds. + +Darwin impresses forcibly on his readers the endless diversity of +structures, and the prodigality of resources displayed for gaining the +same end, the fertilisation of one flower by pollen from another plant. +"The more I study nature," he says, "the more I become impressed with +ever-increasing force that the contrivances and beautiful adaptations +slowly acquired through each part occasionally varying in a slight +degree ... transcend in an incomparable manner the contrivances and +adaptations which the most fertile imagination of man could invent." +Finally he concludes: "It is hardly an exaggeration to say that nature +tells us, in the most emphatic manner, that she abhors perpetual +self-fertilisation"; and thus was announced a new doctrine in botany. A +second much-improved edition of this book appeared in 1877. + +In 1864, in presenting the Copley medal of the Royal Society to the +author of the "Origin of Species," Major-General Sabine, the President, +entered into a full description of the merits of his works, "stamped +throughout with the impress of the closest attention to minute +details and accuracy of observation, combined with large powers of +generalisation." The award, while highly eulogising the "Origin," was +not however based upon it, but on the more recent botanical writings. +"The Fertilisation of Orchids" was described as perhaps the most +masterly treatise on any branch of vegetable physiology that had ever +appeared; and the fact was justly emphasised that all Darwin's botanical +discoveries had been obtained by the study of some of the most familiar +and conspicuous of our native plants, and some of the best-known and +easily-procured cultivated exotics. + +In 1865 appeared another work from the Darwinian treasury, but in this +case it was at first restricted to the Journal of the Linnean Society +(vol. ix.), and was not made generally available till the second edition +was published separately in 1875. "The Movements and Habits of Climbing +Plants" described in the first place the twining of the hop plant, +studied by night and day continuously, in a well-warmed room, to which +the author was confined by illness. Again and again were different +species of plants watched, and the periods in which their shoots +revolved noted. The clematises, tropæolums, solanums, gloriosa lilies +among leaf-climbing plants; the bignonias, cobæas, bryonies, vines, +passion flowers, and other tendril-bearing plants; the ivy, and other +root and hook climbers were carefully studied; and botanists for the +first time realised fully the advantages which climbing plants possess +in the struggle for existence. The climbing faculty depends on a +sensitiveness to contact with any firm support, and a most interesting +series of modifications has probably, as Darwin suggests, led to the +present development of climbing organs, by the spontaneous movement of +young shoots and other organs, and by unequal growth. + +In concluding, the author made some most profoundly suggestive remarks, +which went far to revolutionise our conception of plants. "It has often +been vaguely asserted that plants are distinguished from animals by not +having the power of movement. It should rather be said that plants +acquire and display this power only when it is of some advantage to +them; this being of comparatively rare occurrence, as they are affixed +to the ground, and food is brought to them by the air and rain. We see +how high in the scale of organisation a plant may rise, when we look at +one of the more perfect tendril-bearers. It first places its tendrils +ready for action, as a polypus places its tentacula. If the tendril be +displaced, it is acted on by the force of gravity, and rights itself. It +is acted on by the light, and bends towards or from it, or disregards +it, which ever may be most advantageous. During several days the +tendrils, or internodes, or both, spontaneously revolve with a steady +motion. The tendril strikes some object, and quickly curls round and +firmly grasps it. In the course of some hours it contracts into a spire, +dragging up the stem, and forming an excellent spring. All movements now +cease. By growth the tissues soon become wonderfully strong and durable. +The tendril has done its work, and has done it in an admirable manner." + +The labour of revising the successive editions of the "Origin of +Species," together with prolonged ill-health, delayed the fulfilment of +the promise given in that work, that the facts upon which it was based +should be published. It was not till 1868 that the first instalment, +"The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication," was given to +the world, in two large volumes, with numerous illustrations. The +author's design was to discuss in a second work the variability of +organic beings in a state of nature, and the conversion of varieties +into species, the struggle for existence and the operation of natural +selection, and the principal objections to the theory, including +questions of instinct and hybridisation. In a third work it was intended +to test the principle of natural selection by the extent to which it +explains the geological succession of organic beings, their distribution +in past and present times, and their mutual affinities and homologies. +The two latter works were never completed, in consequence of ill-health, +and the labour involved in dealing with objections to and new facts in +support of the "Origin," and of the other works which at various times +it became important to complete. But many portions of these subjects +were admirably dealt with by disciples. In some cases Darwin's views led +to the rapid growth of a new science, such as that of comparative +embryology, and it would not have been possible for him to cope with and +interpret the multitude of new and astonishing facts discovered, which +changed the face of organic nature as viewed by biologists. By doing +each day the work which seemed most necessary, and which he could best +do, Darwin managed, in spite of his infirmity of constitution, to +complete a larger body of original work, both in experiment and in +thought, together with a greater quantity of bibliographical study and +collation of observed facts, than any Englishman perhaps has ever done. + +The valuable book on "Variation" records and systematises a vast number +of facts respecting all our principal domestic animals and cultivated +plants. It gives evidence of wide reading, as well as great diligence in +writing letters of inquiry to all living authorities who could give +accurate information. Very many visits were paid to zoological gardens, +breeders' establishments, nursery grounds, &c.; and the preparation of +skulls, skins, &c., was a frequent occurrence in the Darwinian +laboratory. To take the case of rabbits alone, which occupied but a +fraction of the time devoted to pigeons: over twenty works are quoted +for historical facts, skeletons of various rabbits were prepared and +exhaustively compared, the effects of use and disuse of parts traced, +most careful measurements are given, and a list of the modifications +which domestic rabbits have undergone, with the probable causes, +concludes the chapter. As to pigeons, no pigeon-fancier ought to be +without the book, for never assuredly was a sporting topic treated by so +great a thinker and so admirably. The numerous experiments in crossing +different breeds, and the results obtained, make this one of the most +instructive books for all breeders. It would seem desirable that this +portion of the book should be issued in a separate form. Again, when we +turn to the sections on plants we see how indefatigable Darwin was, for +he tells us that he cultivated fifty-four varieties of gooseberries +alone, and compared them throughout in flower and fruit. + +The chapters on Inheritance, and on Reversion to ancestral characters, +or atavism, are profoundly suggestive. What can be more wonderful, the +author asks, than that some trifling peculiarity should be transmitted +through a long course of development, and ultimately reappear in the +offspring when mature or even when old? Nevertheless, the real subject +of surprise is not that a character should be inherited, but that any +should ever fail to be inherited. Gradually leading up to the important +hypothesis with which the work closes, he observes that to adequately +explain the numerous characters that reappear after intervals of one or +more generations, we must believe that a vast number of characters, +capable of evolution, lie hidden in every organic being. "The +fertilised germ of one of the higher animals, subjected as it is to so +vast a series of changes from the germinal cell to old age--incessantly +agitated by what Quatrefages well calls the _tourbillon vital_--is +perhaps the most wonderful object in nature. It is probable that hardly +a change of any kind affects either parent, without some mark being left +on the germ. But on the doctrine of reversion the germ becomes a far +more marvellous object, for, besides the visible changes to which it is +subjected, we must believe that it is crowded with invisible characters, +proper to both sexes, to both the right and left side of the body, and +to a long line of male and female ancestors separated by hundreds or +even thousands of generations from the present time; and these +characters, like those written on paper with invisible ink, all lie +ready to be evolved under certain known or unknown conditions." + +Through a further discussion of many deeply interesting facts, about the +intercrossing of breeds and species, and about the causes of +variability, we pass to the hypothesis of pangenesis, which, briefly +stated, supposes that the cells or units of the body are perpetually +throwing off minute granules or gemmules, which accumulate in the +reproductive system, and may, instead of developing in the next +generation, be transmitted in a dormant state through more than one +generation and then be developed. Combination in various degrees between +these gemmules is supposed to influence their appearance or +non-appearance in the offspring at various stages. + +This hypothesis certainly gives a picture of a possible mode of +accounting for many peculiarities shown by living organisms. Although +not generally accepted, it has certainly not been disproved. Mr. Grant +Allen's opinion that it is Darwin's "one conspicuous failure," and that +it is "crude and essentially unphilosophic," must be discounted by his +known devotion to Mr. Herbert Spencer's philosophy. If Darwin had been a +specialist in modern physiology, he might, perhaps, have expressed his +hypothesis in a more persuasive form; but Weismann's germ plasma theory +is the only alternative one hitherto suggested in place of it. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +Although the descent of man from animal ancestors was directly implied +in the "Origin of Species," Darwin hesitated at the time of its +publication to declare his views fully, believing that he would only +thus augment and concentrate the prejudice with which his theory would +be met. He had for many years held the views he afterwards expressed; +but it was not until he had by his other works raised up a strong body +of scientific opinion in favour of his great generalisation, that he +fully presented his views on man to the public. The "Descent of Man" was +studied as a special case of the application of his general principles, +a test all the more severe because several classes of argument were +necessarily cut off, such as the nature of the affinities which connect +together whole groups of organisms, their geographical distribution, and +their geological succession. But adopting the high antiquity of man as +demonstrated, he considered in detail the evidence as to man's descent +from some pre-existing form, the manner of his development, and the +value of the differences between the so-called races of man. No +originality is claimed for the theory or for the facts advanced; but it +may safely be affirmed that the master's acuteness, his moderation, his +candour, and his desire to state facts which tell against him, are as +conspicuous in the "Descent of Man" as in any of his works. + +The "Descent of Man," which was published in 1871 in two volumes, with +numerous illustrations, began, after a short introduction, with a +suggestive series of questions, which to the evolutionist suffice to +decide the question as to man's origin. As the answers to these +questions are obvious, Darwin first concentrated his inquiry upon two +points on which disputes must necessarily occur, namely, the traces +which man shows, in his bodily structure, of descent from some lower +form, and the mental powers of man as compared with those of lower +animals. The facts of our bodily structure are inexplicable on any other +view than our community of descent with the quadrumana, unless structure +is but a snare to delude our reason. It is only our natural prejudice, +says Darwin, and that arrogance which made our fathers declare that they +were descended from demigods, which leads us to demur to this +conclusion. + +The comparison of the mental powers of animals with those of man, +proving, as Darwin contends, that they therein also show traces of +community of descent, was certain to provoke much more debate, for the +term "instinct" and the use made of it by naturalists and psychologists +as signifying untaught, unlearnt ability, largely tended to obscure the +question, and to create prejudices against believing that instincts +could be built up by inherited experience, that instincts were really +not absolute and fixed, but relative and variable, and that all +instincts were not perfect or perfectly useful. The working out of the +evolution theory as applied to animal minds, the study of the first +beginnings of nerve action, and the analysis of instinct, all due +largely to Darwin's prominent disciple, Romanes, together with the +immensely fuller knowledge of molecular physics, of protoplasm, and of +brain function, acquired in the years since Darwin wrote, have sufficed +to place these questions on a much more secure basis. But the collection +of facts made by him, and the suggestive remarks he everywhere makes, +render his book of permanent value. His sympathy is obvious in such +passages as this: "Every one has heard of the dog suffering under +vivisection who licked the hand of the operator; this man, unless he had +a heart of stone, must have felt remorse to the last hour of his life;" +the "terrible" superstitions of the past, such as human sacrifices, +trial by ordeal, &c., show us, he says, "what an indefinite debt of +gratitude we owe to the improvement of our reason, to science, and our +accumulated knowledge." We see the fruit of Darwin's repeated visits to +the Zoological Gardens, especially in his study of the habits and mental +powers of monkeys. We gain a definition from him of imagination, by +which faculty man "unites, independently of the will, former images and +ideas, and thus creates brilliant and novel results.... The value of the +products of our imagination depends of course on the number, accuracy, +and clearness of our impressions; on our judgment and taste in selecting +or rejecting the involuntary combinations, and to a certain extent on +our power of voluntarily combining them." As to religion, he says, +"There is no evidence that man was aboriginally endowed with the +ennobling belief in the existence of an omnipotent God." On the +contrary, evidence proves that there are and have been numerous races +without gods and without words to express the idea. The question, he +says, is "wholly distinct from that higher one, whether there exists a +Creator and Ruler of the universe; and this has been answered in the +affirmative by the highest intellects that have ever lived." The fact of +races existing without a belief in a god is shown to be compatible with +the origin of religious ideas from attempts to explain external +phenomena and man's own existence, by attributing to other objects and +agencies a similar spirit to that which his consciousness testifies to +in himself. + +Man's social qualities, as well as those of animals, Darwin regards as +having been developed for the general good of the community, which he +defines as "the means by which the greatest possible number of +individuals can be reared in full vigour and health, with all their +faculties perfect, under the conditions to which they are exposed." This +may be regarded as a more satisfactory expression of the idea underlying +the phrase, "the greatest happiness of the greatest number." Sympathy +for animals he notes as one of the later acquisitions of mankind, and +remarks that he found the very idea of humanity a novelty to the Gauchos +of the Pampas. "The highest stage in moral culture at which we can +arrive is when we recognise that we ought to control our thoughts.... +Whatever makes any bad action familiar to the mind, renders its +performance so much the easier"--a significant expression for those who +would compare the teachings of Darwinism with those of Christianity. +Finally, he concludes that the difference in mind between man and the +higher animals is one of degree, not of kind. "At what age does +the new-born infant possess the power of abstraction, or become +self-conscious and reflect on its own existence? We cannot answer; nor +can we answer in regard to the ascending organic scale." Yet that man's +mental and moral faculties may have been gradually evolved "ought not to +be denied, when we daily see their development in every infant; and when +we may trace a perfect gradation from the mind of an utter idiot, lower +than that of the lowest animal, to the mind of a Newton." + +The action of natural selection on the variations known to occur in man, +is next shown to be sufficient to account for his rise from a lowly +condition. Perhaps it is in discussing the development of the +intellectual and moral faculties that Darwin is least successful; more +knowledge of psychology than he possessed is demanded for this +discussion. He gives up the problem of the first advance of savages +towards civilisation as "at present much too difficult to be solved." +He, however, vigorously contests the idea that man was at first +civilised and afterwards degenerated; and expresses the opinion that the +"highest form of religion--the grand idea of God hating sin and loving +righteousness--was unknown during primeval times." Finally, after +discussing the steps in the genealogy of man, he comes to the conclusion +that from the old-world monkeys, at a remote period, proceeded man, "the +wonder and glory of the universe." The early progenitors of man he +believes to have been covered with hair, both sexes having had beards; +their ears were pointed and capable of movement; their bodies were +provided with a tail, and the foot was probably prehensile. Our +primitive ancestors lived chiefly in trees in some warm forest-clad +land, and the males were provided with formidable weapons in the shape +of great canine teeth. + +"Thus," says Darwin, "we have given to man a pedigree of prodigious +length, but not, it may be said, of noble quality. The world, it has +been often remarked, appears as if it had long been preparing for the +advent of man; and this, in one sense, is strictly true, for he owes his +birth to a long line of progenitors. If any single link in this chain +had never existed, man would not have been exactly what he now is. +Unless we wilfully close our eyes, we may, with our present knowledge, +approximately recognize our parentage; nor need we feel ashamed of it. +The most humble organism is something much higher than the inorganic +dust under our feet; and no one with an unbiassed mind can study any +living creature, however humble, without being struck with enthusiasm at +its marvellous structure and properties." + +In considering the formation and perpetuation of the races of mankind, +Darwin was again and again baffled. He could not decide that any of the +physical differences between the races are of direct and special service +to him, thus giving opportunity to natural selection to work. Hence he +was led to study in detail the effects of sexual selection, especially +as applicable to man. The greater part of "The Descent of Man" is +occupied with tracing out what may be called the history of courtship in +man and animals. The great variety of interesting subjects dealt with +cannot be detailed here. We must only notice a few points about mankind +which are of special importance. + +Darwin concludes that man's predominance over woman in size, strength, +courage, pugnacity, and even energy was acquired in primeval times, and +that these advantages have been subsequently augmented chiefly through +the contests between men for women. Even man's intellectual vigour and +inventiveness are probably due to natural selection, combined with +inherited effects of habit, for the most able men will have succeeded +best in defending and providing for their wives and offspring. Beards, +beardlessness, voice, beauty are all related to sexual charm, and have +been selectively developed. Early man, less licentious, not practising +infanticide, was in several respects better calculated to carry out +sexual selection than he is now; and thus we find the various races of +men fully differentiated at the earliest date of historic records. + +Incidentally Darwin gives us his views on the mental differences between +man and woman. Woman is more tender and less selfish than man, whose +ambition "passes too easily into selfishness," which latter qualities +"seem to be his natural and unfortunate birthright." Woman's powers of +intuition, of rapid perception, and perhaps of imitation, are more +strongly marked than in man. Yet the chief pre-eminence of man he +considers to consist in attaining greater success in any given line than +woman, by reason of greater energy, patience, &c. "In order that woman +should reach the same standard as man, she ought, when nearly adult, to +be trained to energy and perseverance, and to have her reason and +imagination exercised to the highest point, and then she would probably +transmit these qualities chiefly to her adult daughters." Here we have a +plan of women's higher education according to the great evolutionist, +although he does not assert that it is the essential and desirable one; +but given a certain object, here is the best method of securing it. "The +whole body of women, however, could not be thus raised, unless during +many generations the women who excelled in the above robust virtues were +married, and produced offspring in larger numbers than other women." + +The doctrine that man is descended from some less highly organised form, +Darwin asserts in his concluding chapter, rests on grounds which will +never be shaken--namely, the similar structure and course of development +of embryos of the higher animals, and vast numbers of facts of structure +and constitution, rudimental structures, and abnormal reversions. The +mental powers of the higher animals graduate into those of man. +Language, and the use of tools, made man dominant. The brain then +immensely developed, and morality sprang from the social instinct. +Comparing and approving certain actions and disapproving others, +remembering and looking back, he became conscientious and imaginative. +Sympathy, arising in the desire to give aid to one's fellows, was +strengthened by praise and blame, and conduces to happiness. "As +happiness is an essential part of the general good, the greatest +happiness principle indirectly serves as a nearly safe standard of right +and wrong.... But with the less civilised nations reason often errs, +and many bad customs and base superstitions come within the same scope, +and consequently are esteemed as high virtues and their breach as heavy +crimes." + +The belief in God, the author says, is not innate or intuitive in man, +but only arises after long culture. As to the bearing of the evolution +theory on the immortality of the soul, Darwin thinks few people will +find cause for anxiety in the impossibility of determining at what +period in the ascending scale man became an immortal being. "The birth, +both of the species and of the individual, are equally parts of that +grand sequence of events, which our minds refuse to accept as the result +of blind chance. The understanding revolts at such a conclusion." + +The bearing of the Darwinian doctrine on some important practical +questions for society leads to the remark that, while man scans with +scrupulous care the pedigree of his animals, when he comes to his own +marriage he rarely or never takes any such care. Perhaps Darwin was +somewhat in error here; and, also, he seems to have underrated the +unconscious tendency to act according to natural law, which has no doubt +influenced mankind largely. He lays down the principle that both sexes +ought to refrain from marriage if markedly inferior in body or mind, or +if they cannot avoid abject poverty for their children. When the laws of +inheritance are thoroughly known, he says, we shall not hear ignorant +members of our legislature rejecting with scorn a plan for ascertaining, +by an easy method, whether or not consanguineous marriages are injurious +to man. But Darwin is by no means in favour of any restriction on man's +natural rate of increase; for it is the greatest means of preventing +indolence from causing the race to become stagnant or to degenerate. +Only, there should be open competition for all men; and the most able +should not be prevented by laws or customs from succeeding best and +rearing the largest number of offspring. + +In summing up on the entire subject, Darwin expresses himself with more +than his wonted vigour and point. On the one hand, he endeavours to +disarm opposition by quoting heroic monkeys as contrasted with degraded +barbarians; on the other hand, he welcomes the elevation of man so far +above his barbarous ancestors. Finally, he takes his stand upon truth, +as against likes and dislikes. "The astonishment which I felt on first +seeing a party of Fuegians on a wild and broken shore will never be +forgotten by me, for the reflection at once rushed into my mind--such +were our ancestors. These men were absolutely naked and bedaubed +with paint; their long hair was tangled, their mouths frothed with +excitement, and their expression was wild, startled, and distrustful. +They possessed hardly any arts, and, like wild animals, lived on what +they could catch. They had no government, and were merciless to every +one not of their own small tribe. He who has seen a savage in his native +land will not feel much shame, if forced to acknowledge that the blood +of some more humble creature flows in his veins. For my own part, I +would as soon be descended from that heroic little monkey, who braved +his dreaded enemy in order to save the life of his keeper; or from that +old baboon, who, descending from the mountains, carried away in triumph +his young comrade from a crowd of astonished dogs--as from a savage who +delights to torture his enemies, offers up bloody sacrifices, practises +infanticide without remorse, treats his wives like slaves, knows no +decency, and is haunted by the grossest superstitions. + +"Man may be excused for feeling some pride at having risen, though not +through his own exertions, to the very summit of the organic scale; and +the fact of his having thus risen, instead of having been aboriginally +placed there, may give him hopes for a still higher destiny in the +distant future. But we are not here concerned with hopes or fears, only +with the truth as far as our reason allows us to discover it. I have +given the evidence to the best of my ability; and we must acknowledge, +as it seems to me, that man, with all his noble qualities, with sympathy +which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not +only to other men, but to the humblest living creature, with his +god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and +constitution of the solar system--with all these exalted powers--Man +still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly +origin." + +The reception accorded to "The Descent of Man" was more excited than +that of "The Origin of Species." The first large edition was quickly +exhausted, and discussion or ridicule of the book was the fashionable +recreation. _Mr. Punch_, week after week, reflected passing opinion. One +of his Darwinian ballads on our ancestors is worth quoting from:-- + + + "They slept in a wood, + Or wherever they could, + For they didn't know how to make beds; + They hadn't got huts, + They dined upon nuts, + Which they cracked upon each other's heads. + They hadn't much scope + For a comb, brush, or soap, + Or towels, or kettle, or fire; + They had no coats nor capes, + For ne'er did these apes + Invent what they didn't require. + + · · · · · + + From these though descended, + Our manners are mended, + Though still we can grin and backbite; + We cut up each other, + Be he friend or brother, + And tails are the fashion--at night. + This origination + Is all speculation-- + We gamble in various shapes; + So Mr. Darwin + May speculate in + Our ancestors having been apes." + + +_The Athenæum_ was unbelieving, but not denunciatory. _The Edinburgh +Review_ declared the doctrine of natural selection hopelessly inadequate +to explain the phenomena of man's body; although its truth and falsehood +had no necessary connection with the general theory of evolution: some +law as yet unknown being looked for. Darwin's attempt to explain the +evolution of mind and the moral sense is regarded as failing in every +point. "Never, perhaps, in the history of philosophy, have such wide +generalisations been derived from such a small basis of fact." _The +Quarterly Review_ now acknowledged that "the survival of the fittest" +was a truth which readily presented itself to any one considering the +subject, and that to Darwin was due the credit of having first brought +it forward and demonstrated its truth, and asserted that the destruction +of the least fit was recognised thousands of years ago. But, in regard +to the descent of man, it fastens specially upon the author's theory of +mental and moral evolution, and declares that he has utterly failed. +_The Saturday Review_, however, admitted the high antiquity of man, and +the nearness of his bodily structure to the apes, and went much further. +In discussing the evolution of morals, the author's unexampled grasp of +facts, with his power of correlation, is, according to _The Saturday_, +seen at its highest, in an exquisite chain of philosophical deduction. +The mode in which, at a remote period, the races of mankind became +differentiated, is declared to be the weak point in the argument. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +"The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals" followed "The +Descent of Man" in 1872. The motive which suggested it was the desire to +explain the complexities of expression on evolution principles. But the +study of emotional expression had evidently engaged Darwin's attention +at least from the time when the Fuegians and the Gauchos had vividly +roused his imaginative faculties; and his direct observations commenced +as early as 1838; when he was already inclined to believe in evolution, +and were continued at intervals ever after. The third edition of Sir +Charles Bell's "Anatomy of Expression," published in 1844, while greatly +admired by him, was unsatisfactory in being throughout based on the +conviction that species came into existence in their present condition; +and notwithstanding that Bain and Herbert Spencer had made considerable +advances in a treatment of the subject based on physiology, an +exhaustive book was wanted, which should throw on Expression the new and +interesting light of Darwinism. + +What was Darwin's method? Observation, cleverly devised appeal to +nature; observation over a wide field as to the varied races of man +still existing, utilising the aid of travellers and residents in many +lands; observation of domestic animals in familiar and in untried +circumstances; observation of infants, especially his own, from a very +early age; observation of the insane, who are liable to the strongest +passions, and give them uncontrolled vent. It was in 1867 that Darwin +circulated his group of questions designed to ascertain the mode of +expressing every emotion, and their physical concomitants in every +possible race. Sculpture, paintings, and engravings, afforded little +evidence, because beauty is their main object, and "strongly contracted +facial muscles destroy beauty." Information was specially sought as to +natives who had had little communication with Europeans, and in whom +imitation might not have destroyed ancestral and original expression. + +The result was to develop three principles which appeared, in +combination, to account for most of the expressions and gestures +involuntarily used by man and animals. The first was that of serviceable +associated habits: certain complex actions being somehow serviceable in +particular states of mind, to gratify and relieve certain sensations, +desires, &c., whenever the same state of feeling is repeated, there is a +tendency to the same movements or actions, though they may not then be +of the least use. The second principle, that of antithesis, is the +converse of the last; when an opposite state of mind is induced, there +is an involuntary tendency to directly opposite movements, though of no +use. The third principle, that of the direct action of the nervous +system, is independent of the will and of habit; nerve force being +generated in excess by strong emotions. + +In discussing all these principles we discover how every thought and +every circumstance of the great naturalist seem to have been utilised in +his life work. "I have noticed that persons in describing a horrid +sight, often shut their eyes momentarily and firmly, or shake their +heads as if not to see, or to drive away, something disagreeable; and I +have caught myself, when thinking in the dark of a horrid spectacle, +closing my eyes firmly." "I noticed a young lady earnestly trying to +recollect a painter's name, and she first looked to one corner of the +ceiling, and then to the opposite corner, arching the one eyebrow on +that side, although of course there was nothing to be seen there." "Many +years ago I laid a small wager with a dozen young men that they would +not sneeze if they took snuff, although they all declared that they +invariably did so; accordingly they all took a pinch, but from wishing +much to succeed, not one sneezed, though their eyes watered, and all, +without exception, had to pay me the wager." "I put my face close to the +thick glass-plate in front of a puff-adder in the Zoological Gardens, +with the firm determination of not starting back if the snake struck at +me; but as soon as the blow was struck, my resolution went for nothing, +and I jumped a yard or two backwards with astonishing rapidity. My will +and reason were powerless against the imagination of a danger which had +never been experienced." "I observed that though my infants started at +sudden sounds, when under a fortnight old, they certainly did not always +wink their eyes, and I believe never did so. The start of an older +infant apparently represents a vague catching hold of something to +prevent falling. I shook a pasteboard box close before the eyes of one +of my infants, when 114 days old, and it did not in the least wink; but +when I put a few comfits into the box, holding it in the same position +as before, and rattled them, the child blinked its eyes violently every +time, and started a little." The behaviour of dogs and horses under many +circumstances was watched. Cats and monkeys were most carefully +scrutinised. At all moments Darwin seized upon and recorded the passing +emotion and its associated movements. "I remember once seeing a boy who +had just shot his first snipe on the wing, and his hands trembled to +such a degree from delight, that he could not for some time reload his +gun;" an instance of an emotional movement being disadvantageous. + +Some of Darwin's descriptions of emotional outbursts are among the best +portions of his writing; as when he speaks of a mother whose infant has +been intentionally injured, "how she starts up with threatening aspect, +how her eyes sparkle and her face reddens, how her bosom heaves, +nostrils dilate, and heart beats." In describing a mourner when +quiescent, he says: "The sufferer sits motionless, or gently rocks to +and fro; the circulation becomes languid; respiration is almost +forgotten, and deep sighs are drawn. All this reacts on the brain, and +prostration soon follows with collapsed muscles and dulled eyes." + +One of the most striking features of this book is the evidence it +affords of Darwin's acuteness and persistence in observation during his +travels, and of the excellence of his memory. "I remember that my mules +and dogs, brought from a lower and warmer country, after spending a +night on the bleak Cordillera, had the hair all over their bodies as +erect as under the greatest terror." He noted that Jemmy Button, the +Fuegian, blushed when he was quizzed about the care which he took in +polishing his shoes, and in otherwise adorning himself; and this fact +long after is fitted into the theory of blushing. Guanacoes in South +America, when not intending to bite, but merely to spit their offensive +saliva from a distance at an intruder, yet retract their ears as a sign +of their anger; and Darwin found the hides of several which he shot in +Patagonia, deeply scored by teeth marks, in consequence of their battles +with each other. A party of natives in Tierra del Fuego endeavoured to +explain that their friend, the captain of a sealing vessel, was out of +spirits, by pulling down their cheeks with both hands, so as to make +their faces as long as possible; and the fact is treasured till it comes +in to illustrate the lengthening of features under depression. As if he +foreknew that he should want the fact forty years later, he inquired of +Jemmy Button whether kissing was practised by his people, and learnt +that it was unknown to them. "I remember," he says, "being struck whilst +travelling in parts of South America, which were dangerous from the +presence of Indians, how incessantly--yet as it appeared, +unconsciously--the half-wild Gauchos closely scanned the whole horizon." +"In Tierra del Fuego, a native touched with his finger some cold +preserved meat which I was eating at our bivouac, and plainly showed +utter disgust at its softness; whilst I felt utter disgust at my food +being touched by a naked savage, though his hands did not appear dirty." +And this illustrates the primary meaning of disgust--anything offensive +to the taste. + +In later years his own children, and his domestic pets, were incessantly +watched, and suitable experiments were devised to bring out the real +nature of their expressions. The period at which tears are formed and +crying begins, the shape of the mouth in crying, the contraction of the +muscles in shouting, the effects of steady gazing at objects, the +various stages of smiling, the effects of shyness, shame, and fear, are +all set before us, as thus observed. For instance, "I asked one of my +boys to shout as loudly as he possibly could, and as soon as he began he +firmly contracted his orbicular muscles (surrounding the eyes). I +observed this repeatedly, and on asking him why he had every time so +firmly closed his eyes, I found that he was quite unaware of the fact: +he had acted instinctively or unconsciously." Some of his early +observations were afterwards published by Darwin in _Mind_, vol. ii., +under the title of "A Biographical Sketch of an Infant." + +Here is a carefully-worded and very suggestive experiment on animals: +"Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed a looking-glass on +the floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known, had +never before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images with the +most steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. They then +approached close, and protruded their lips towards the image, as if to +kiss it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done towards +each other when first placed, a few days before, in the same room. They +next made all sorts of grimaces, and put themselves in various +attitudes before the mirror; they pressed and rubbed the surface; they +placed their hands at different distances behind it; looked behind it; +and finally seemed almost frightened, started a little, became cross, +and refused to look any longer." So monkeys were tested with a dressed +doll, a live turtle, and stuffed snakes, &c. + +The mode and purpose of erection of the hair, feathers, and dermal +appendages of animals were the subject of much careful inquiry. +Chimpanzees, monkeys, baboons, and many other creatures, were tested in +the Zoological Gardens. A stuffed snake taken into the monkey-house +caused several species to bristle. When Darwin showed the same to a +peccary, the hair rose in a wonderful manner along its back. A cassowary +erected its feathers at sight of an ant-eater. + +Every unexpected occurrence was pressed into service. Witness the +following anecdote: "One day my horse was much frightened at a drilling +machine, covered by a tarpaulin and lying on an open field. He raised +his head so high that his neck became almost perpendicular; and this he +did from habit, for the machine lay on a slope below, and could not have +been seen with more distinctness through the raising of the head; nor if +any sound had proceeded from it could the sound have been more +distinctly heard. His eyes and ears were directed intently forwards; and +I could feel through the saddle the palpitations of his heart. With red, +dilated nostrils, he snorted violently, and whirling round, would have +dashed off at full speed had I not prevented him." + +We see, too, in this book the results of Darwin's extensive reading. +The novelists are laid considerably under contribution, their power of +describing expressive signs of emotion being particularly appreciated. +Dickens, Walter Scott, Mrs. Oliphant, and Mrs. Gaskell are among the +novelists quoted; while the author of Job, Homer, Virgil, Seneca, +Shakespeare, Lessing, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and many other deceased +writers, illustrate the subject. The living authorities--scientific men, +travellers, doctors--referred to for facts are exceedingly numerous, +including Sir James Paget, Professor Huxley, Mr. Herbert Spencer, Sir J. +Crichton Browne, Sir Samuel Baker, Sir Joseph Lister, Professors Cope +and Asa Gray, and many others. + +One of the most interesting chapters in the book is that dealing with +blushing. It is shown to depend on self-attention, excited almost +exclusively by the opinion of others. "Every one feels blame more +acutely than praise. Now, whenever we know, or suppose, that others are +depreciating our personal appearance, our attention is strongly drawn +towards ourselves, more especially to our faces." This excites the nerve +centres receiving sensory nerve for the face, and in turn relaxes the +blood capillaries, and fills them with blood. "We can understand why the +young are much more affected than the old, and women more than men, and +why the opposite sexes especially excite each others' blushes. It +becomes obvious why personal remarks should be particularly liable to +cause blushing, and why the most powerful of all the causes is shyness; +for shyness relates to the presence and opinion of others, and the shy +are always more or less self-conscious." + +One great result made clear by Darwin is that the muscles of expression +have not been created or developed for the sake of expression only, and +that every true or inherited movement of expression had some natural or +independent origin. All the chief expressions are proved to be +essentially the same throughout the world, which is an additional +argument for man being descended from one stock. We cannot refrain from +admiring the tone of the pages which close the book, describing as they +do the probable expressions of our early ancestors, their utility, the +value of differences of physiognomy, and the desirability or otherwise +of repressing signs of emotion. The subject, says the author, "deserves +still further attention, especially from any able physiologist;" and so +simply ends a volume of surpassing human interest, a text-book for +novelists and students of human nature, a landmark in man's progress in +obedience to the behest "Know thyself." + +To fully measure the merit of one so far elevated above ordinary men is +almost impossible; rather is it desirable to recognise the undeniable +greatness of a great man, and learn all that is possible from him. An +undoubted authority in mental science, however, has given a judgment +on Darwin's services to that science, which it is right to quote: +"To ourselves it almost seems one of the most wonderful of the many +wonderful aspects of Mr. Darwin's varied work that by the sheer force +of some exalted kind of common-sense, unassisted by any special +acquaintance with psychological method, he should have been able to +strike, as it were, straight down upon some of the most important +truths which have ever been brought to light in the region of mental +science."[12] These truths are specified as the influence of natural +selection in the formation of instinct, in the "Origin of Species;" the +evolution of mind and of morals, in the "Descent of Man," considered by +the late Professor Clifford as containing the simplest and clearest and +most profound philosophy that was ever written on the subject; and the +evolution of expression in the book described in this chapter. Thus, +says Mr. Romanes, in respect both of instincts and intelligence, the +science of comparative psychology may be said to owe its foundation to +Darwin. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[12: G. J. Romanes, in "Charles Darwin," memorial notices +reprinted from _Nature_.] + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +In 1875 appeared another great work from the master's pen, +"Insectivorous Plants," which was destined to place in a yet more +striking light the many-sidedness and fertility of his mind. As usual +Darwin tells us that this work dated from many years back. "During the +summer of 1860," he says, "I was surprised by finding how large a number +of insects were caught by the leaves of the common sun-dew (_Drosera +rotundifolia_) on a heath in Sussex. I had heard that insects were thus +caught, but knew nothing further on the subject. I gathered by chance a +dozen plants, bearing fifty-six fully expanded leaves, and on thirty-one +of these dead insects or remnants of them adhered." Here was the germ of +something, the discoverer scarcely knew what. It was evident to him that +the little sun-dew was excellently adapted for catching insects, and +that the number of them thus slaughtered annually must be enormous. What +bearing might this have upon the problem of the struggle for existence? + +A masterly series of experiments was forthwith set on foot, with the +result of proving that sun-dews and a number of other plants obtain the +bulk of their nourishment by catching, killing, and digesting insects. +They may be called truly carnivorous plants. What an unexpected +reversal this was of the order of things hitherto believed to prevail +universally. Animals live on other animals or on plants. Here were +plants living on animals, and keeping down their number. Moreover, +without a nervous system, the action of the parts of a sun-dew leaf was +proved to be as apparently purposive as the combined action of the limbs +of an animal. Without a stomach, the sun-dew poured forth a digestive +fluid as effective in extracting and fitting the nutritious matter of +the insect for its own purposes as that of an animal. Without sensory +nerve-endings, there was a percipient power in the sun-dew which +recognised instinctively and at once the non-nutritious nature of +various objects, and which responded to the most delicate chemical +stimuli and to the minutest weights. + +We cannot describe the little sun-dew better than in Darwin's own words: +"It bears from two or three to five or six leaves, generally extended +more or less horizontally, but sometimes standing vertically upwards. +The leaves are commonly a little broader than long. The whole upper +surface is covered with gland-bearing filaments, or tentacles as I shall +call them from their manner of acting. The glands were counted on +thirty-one leaves, but many of these were of unusually large size, and +the average number was 192; the greatest number being 260, and the least +130. The glands are each surrounded by large drops of extremely viscid +secretion, which, glittering in the sun, have given rise to the plant's +poetical name of the sun-dew." + +This secretion, when excited by nutritious matter, becomes distinctly +acid, and contains a digestive ferment allied to the pepsin of the human +stomach. So excited, it is found capable of dissolving boiled white of +egg, muscle, fibrin, cartilage, gelatine, curd of milk, and many other +substances. Further, various substances that animal gastric juice is +unable to digest are not acted upon by the secretion of the sun-dew. +These include all horny matter, starch, fat, and oil. It is not however +prejudiced in favour of animal matter. The sun-dew can absorb nutriment +from living seeds of plants, injuring or killing them, of course, in the +process, while pollen and fresh green leaves yield to its influence. + +The action of salts of ammonia and other chemicals was even more +wonderful. "It is an astonishing fact that so inconceivably minute a +quantity as the one twenty-millionth of a grain of phosphate of ammonia +should induce some change in a gland of Drosera sufficient to cause a +motor impulse to be sent down the whole length of the tentacle; this +impulse exciting movement often through an angle of above 180°. I know +not whether to be most astonished at this fact, or that the pressure of +a minute bit of hair, weighing only 1/78700 of a grain, and largely +supported by the dense secretion, should quickly cause conspicuous +movement." + +These are but specimens of a multitude of profoundly interesting facts +brought out in this exhaustive investigation. If this single research +were his only title to fame Darwin's name must rank high as an +experimenter of rare ingenuity and success. But he concludes his summary +of results by the utterly modest remark, "We see how little has been +made out in comparison with what remains unexplained and unknown." + +The facts relating to Venus' fly-trap (_Dionæa muscipula_) and other +members of the order to which the sun-dew belongs were better known, but +Darwin elicited new truths by his ingenious and varied experiments. The +rapidity with which the two lobes of the leaf of dionæa close together +when anything touches the tiny spikes which stand up vertically from the +upper surface of the lobes, is astonishing, and any insect which causes +the closure is almost certain to be caught. Digestion is accomplished in +the case of the dionæa by a separate agency, consisting of a large +number of minute reddish glands covering the surface of the lobes. These +secrete a digestive fluid when stimulated by the contact of any +nitrogenous matter, and of course this takes place when any insect +is caught. In fact, essentially the same process of digestion and +absorption takes place as in the sun-dew. The insect is held firmly for +days, until its juices have been absorbed, and then the leaf slowly +reopens, not being able to close again for many subsequent days. + +It is interesting to note the extreme caution with which the great +naturalist speculates upon the mode by which the varied members of the +sun-dew order became modified from an ordinary plant-form to such a +remarkable degree. The details are too special for quotation here. He +suggests, but he does not in the slightest degree dogmatise. For many +years to come Darwin's suggestions and comments must be the pregnant +soil out of which fruitful research will spring, and his caution will +remain the model, to depart from which will but sow hindrances in the +path of scientific progress. + +The order to which the butterwort and the bladderworts belong also +afforded valuable results. The leaf of the butterwort bears glandular +hairs, and its margins curve inwards when excited by contact of various +bodies, especially living insects, and, at the same time, these are +caught in the viscid secretion of the glands, and their juices absorbed +by the plant. The bladderworts are even more remarkably constructed, for +they have a portion of their leaves developed into subaqueous bladders, +with a narrow entrance beneath, defended by a complex valve, which +facilitates the entrance of water insects or crustaceans, but prevents +their exit. The whole interior of the bladder is lined with transparent +four-branched protoplasmic hairs, but nevertheless the bladderwort is +unlike the preceding plants in having no power of digesting its prey, +however long it may remain in captivity. Yet there is no doubt that the +imprisoned creatures do decay in their watery cell, and that the hairs +just described absorb the products of their decay. + +Such is a brief account of Darwin's work on "Insectivorous Plants." With +his characteristic expressions he acknowledges the valuable aid given +him by Professor Burdon-Sanderson, and by his son, Mr. Francis Darwin. +The former was enabled to give the first brief account of the process of +digestion in these plants, as observed by Darwin, in a lecture before +the Royal Institution, in June, 1874, and Dr. (now Sir Joseph) Hooker +called general public notice to the subject of Carnivorous Plants in his +lecture before the British Association at Belfast in the same year: so +that a thoroughly awakened attention was given to this new work from +Darwin's pen. The public and the scientific world learnt to appreciate +yet more keenly his varied talent, his long patience, his reserve of +power; and thence dated very definitely a general appreciation of the +fundamental unity of the animal and plant kingdoms, seeing that the +salient faculties of digestion, of purposive locomotion, of rapid +communication and consentaneous action were no longer restricted to +animals, but were possessed in a high degree by plants also. Eager +followers soon brought forward further proofs of unity of functions in +the two kingdoms, and of reciprocal combinations between them, and now +no one in the slightest degree acquainted with modern biology doubts +that life is at bottom one phenomenon, shared equally and manifested in +essentially the same modes by the living substance of plant and animal +alike. + +Following "Insectivorous Plants" came "The Effects of Cross and +Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom," in 1876. Darwin had led +the way in the study of this subject by his book on Orchids, and his +lead had been excellently followed by Hildebrand, Hermann Müller, Sir +John Lubbock, and others. The path having been indicated, it had +appeared comparatively easy for botanists to follow it up. But there yet +remained a region of experimental inquiry which it required Darwin's +patience and ingenuity to master and to expound conclusively. Although +it might be practically granted that natural selection developed +a process because advantage was gained by it, was it possible to +demonstrate that flowers cross-fertilised bear more and larger seeds, +which produce healthier offspring than those fertilised from their own +pollen? This Darwin set himself exhaustively to do. For more than a +dozen years after his book on orchids appeared, unwearied experiments +on plants were progressing, and nature was being questioned acutely, +untiringly. Competitive germination was carried on. The two classes of +seeds were placed on damp sand in a warm room. As often as a pair +germinated at the same time, they were planted on opposite sides of the +same pot, with a partition between. Besides these pairs of competitors, +others were planted in beds, so that the descendants of the crossed +and self-fertilised flowers might compete. The resulting seeds were +carefully compared, and their produce again compared. Species were +selected from widely distinct families, inhabiting various countries. +From a large number of plants, when insects were quite excluded by a +thin net covering the plant, few or no seeds were produced. The extent +of transport of pollen by insects was unveiled, and the relation between +the structure, odour, and conspicuousness of flowers, the visits of +insects, and the advantages of cross-fertilisation was shown. "We +certainly," says Darwin, "owe the beauty and odour of our flowers, and +the storage of a large supply of honey, to the existence of insects." +The multitude of facts gathered about insects could only have been +discovered and rightly appreciated by one who was a true entomologist +as well as a botanist. + +In the last chapter of the book the author discusses with remarkable +power the causes of the phenomena he has discovered. He believes that +the favourable effects of crossing are due to the parents having been +subjected to diverse conditions; but what the precise benefit is, or how +it can operate so as to render the offspring more healthy and vigorous, +he cannot discern. "And so it is," he observes, "with many other facts, +which are so obscure that we stand in awe before the mystery of life." +So it is. The man who probably understood nature better than any man who +has ever lived, who had not only asked her multitudinous questions, but +to whom very many answers had been undoubtedly vouchsafed in response to +his persevering, humble, diligent, acute questioning, acknowledges that +he knows little; that much remains a mystery. But from all we know of +him, from his books, his letters, his friends, his was the joy of a +soul in sympathy with the master power of the universe. He marched +continually on the confines of the unknown, and to him was granted the +felicity of largely extending the boundaries of the known. + +Again, in 1877, a new work proceeded from Darwin's pen, "The Different +Forms of Flowers in Plants of the same Species," dedicated to Professor +Asa Gray. It gathered up the contents of numerous papers read before the +Linnean Society, with later additions, and showed conclusively how many +plants possess distinctive forms of flowers in the same species, adapted +to, and in some cases absolutely necessitating, reciprocal fertilisation +through the visits of insects. It gave evidence of all the well-known +Darwinian characteristics of long-continued labour, thought, and +experiment. + +In 1880 "The Power of Movement in Plants" was exemplified in a fresh +volume, in which the veteran was materially assisted by his son, Mr. +Francis Darwin. Its object was to describe and connect together several +large classes of movements, common to almost all plants. The surprising +fact was established, that all the parts or organs of plants, whilst +they continue to grow, are continually revolving, or circumnutating as +Darwin called it. This movement commences even before the young seedling +has broken through the ground. The combination of this with the effects +of gravity and light explains countless phenomena in the life of plants. +The tip of the rootlet is thus enabled to penetrate the ground, and it +is proved to be more sensitive than the most delicate tendril. Movement +goes on through all stages of life. Every growing shoot of a great tree +is continually describing small ellipses; the tip of every rootlet +endeavours to do the same. The changes of position of leaves and of +climbing plants, and the sleep of leaves are all brought under this +great principle of circumnutation. It is impossible in reading the book +not to be struck with the great resemblance between the movements of +plants and many of the actions performed unconsciously by the lower +animals. "With plants an astonishingly small stimulus suffices, and, +even with allied plants, one may be highly sensitive to the slightest +continued pressure, and another highly sensitive to a slight momentary +touch. The habit of moving at certain periods is inherited both by +plants and animals, and several other points of similitude have been +specified. But the most striking resemblance is the localisation of +their sensitiveness, and the transmission of an influence from the +excited part to another which consequently moves. Yet plants do not +of course possess nerves or a central nervous system; and we may +infer that with animals such structures serve only for the more +perfect transmission of impressions, and for the more complete +intercommunication of the several parts." + +Here we see how much light may be thrown on animal structures and +functions by vegetable physiology. We learn to limit our ideas of the +superiority of animals by discovering how much of what we consider +peculiar to them is found in plants. We appreciate the unity of biology, +indivisible without injury to our knowledge of its parts. No structure +in plants appears more wonderful, as Darwin describes it, than the +tip of the rootlet of a seedling. It is impressed by and transmits +influences of pressure, injury, moisture, light, and gravity to other +parts, and determines the course pursued by the rootlet in penetrating +the ground. "It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the +radicle thus endowed, and having the power of directing the movements of +the adjoining parts, acts like the brain of one of the lower animals;" +and the brain of Charles Darwin, in working out this acquisition of +knowledge for mankind, has added a new department to vegetable +physiology and to biology. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +In his later years honours poured thick upon Darwin. In 1871 he received +the Prussian order of knighthood "For Merit"; and was elected a +corresponding member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. In 1877 +Cambridge University, making an exception to its custom of not +conferring honorary degrees on its members, gave him the LL.D. and an +ovation, when the kindly eyes of the venerable naturalist beamed upon +the monkey-figure dangled by undergraduates before him from the +galleries, in addition to a solitary link of a huge chain, no doubt +representing "the missing link." In 1878 the honour, long withheld, and +certainly unsought, of being elected a corresponding member of the Paris +Academy of Sciences in the section of Zoology, was his; and that tardy +body recognised late the man whose supremacy in science it had done +nothing either to foster or to approve. In 1879 the Baly Medal of the +London College of Physicians was awarded to him. + +After the Cambridge celebration a subscription was raised to obtain a +portrait of the veteran evolutionist, which was executed by Mr. W. B. +Richmond, and now adorns the Philosophical Library of the New Museums at +Cambridge. Later, yet another portrait--the finest in his own and many +others' belief--was painted by Mr. John Collier, and presented to +the Linnean Society, which will always be associated with the first +announcement of Darwin's main theory, as well as with many others of his +scientific discoveries. + +Professor Haeckel has given the following charming description of Darwin +and his home surroundings in his later years: "In Darwin's own carriage, +which he had thoughtfully sent for my convenience to the railway +station, I drove, one sunny morning in October, through the graceful, +hilly landscape of Kent, that with the chequered foliage of its woods, +with its stretches of purple heath, yellow broom, and evergreen oaks, +was arrayed in its fairest autumnal dress. As the carriage drew up in +front of Darwin's pleasant country house, clad in a vesture of ivy and +embowered in elms, there stepped out to meet me from the shady porch, +overgrown with creeping plants, the great naturalist himself, a tall and +venerable figure, with the broad shoulders of an Atlas supporting a +world of thought, his Jupiter-like forehead highly and broadly arched, +as in the case of Goethe, and deeply furrowed with the plough of mental +labour; his kindly, mild eyes looking forth under the shadow of +prominent brows; his amiable mouth surrounded by a copious silver-white +beard. The cordial, prepossessing expression of the whole face, the +gentle, mild voice, the slow, deliberate utterance, the natural and +naive train of ideas which marked his conversation, captivated my whole +heart in the first hour of our meeting, just as his great work had +formerly, on my first reading it, taken my whole understanding by storm, +I fancied a lofty world-sage out of Hellenic antiquity--a Socrates or +Aristotle--stood before me." + +The well-known botanist, Alphonse de Candolle, thus describes a visit to +Down: + + "I longed to converse once more with Darwin, whom I had seen in + 1839, and with whom I kept up a most interesting correspondence. It + was on a fine autumn morning in 1880 that I arrived at Orpington + station, where my illustrious friend's break met me. I will not + here speak of the kind reception given to me at Down, and of the + pleasure I felt in chatting familiarly with Mr. and Mrs. Darwin and + their son Francis. I note only that Darwin at seventy was more + animated and appeared happier than when I had seen him forty-one + years before. His eye was bright and his expression cheerful, + whilst his photographs show rather the shape of his head, like that + of an ancient philosopher. His varied, frank, gracious + conversation, entirely that of a gentleman, reminded me of that of + Oxford and Cambridge _savants_. The general tone was like his + books, as is the case with sincere men, devoid of every trace of + charlatanism. He expressed himself in English easily understood by + a foreigner, more like that of Bulwer or Macaulay, than that of + Dickens or Carlyle. I asked him for news of the committee, of which + he was a member, for reforming English spelling, and when I said + that moderate changes would be best received by the public, he + laughingly said, 'As for myself, _of course_, I am for the most + radical changes.' We were more in accord on another point, that a + man of science, even up to advanced age, ought to take an interest + in new ideas, and to accept them, if he finds them true. 'That was + very strongly the opinion of my friend Lyell,' he said; 'but he + pushed it so far as sometimes to yield to the first objection, and + I was then obliged to defend him against himself.' Darwin had more + firmness in his opinions, whether from temperament, or because he + had published nothing without prolonged reflection. + + "Around the house no trace appeared to remain of the former labours + of the owner. Darwin used simple means. He was not one who would + have demanded to have palaces built in order to accommodate + laboratories. I looked for the greenhouse in which such beautiful + experiments on hybrid plants had been made. It contained only a + vine. One thing struck me, although it is not rare in England, + where animals are loved. A heifer and a colt were feeding close to + us with the tranquillity which tells of good masters, and I heard + the joyful barking of dogs. 'Truly,' I said to myself, 'the history + of the variations of animals was written here, and observations + must be going on, for Darwin is never idle.' I did not suspect that + I was walking above the dwellings of those lowly beings called + earthworms, the subject of his last work, in which Darwin showed + once more how little causes in the long run produce great effects. + He had been studying them for thirty years, but I did not know it. + + "Returning to the house, Darwin showed me his library, a large room + on the ground floor, very convenient for a studious man; many books + on the shelves; windows on two sides; a writing-table and another + for apparatus for his experiments. Those on the movements of stems + and roots were still in progress. The hours passed like minutes. I + had to leave. Precious memories of that visit remain." + +Yet once more, in 1881, the famous publishing house of Murray issued a +new work--his last--by the great illuminator of Nature. Its subject was +one which no one save those who knew him could have expected. It dealt +with "The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Action of Worms, +with Observations on their Habits," and in it the lowly earthworm was at +last raised to its true rank as the genuine preparer and possessor of +the soil. Both Gilbert White and Edward Jenner had been impressed with +the work earthworms do in nature, but no one had written extensively on +the subject till Darwin himself, in 1837, read a short paper on the +"Formation of Mould" before the Geological Society of London (published +in the fifth volume of the Society's Transactions), showing that small +fragments of burnt marl, cinders, &c., which had been thickly strewed +over the surface of several meadows, were found after a few years lying +at the depth of some inches beneath the turf. It was suggested to him by +his relative Mr. Wedgwood, of Maer Hall, in Staffordshire, that this was +due to the quantity of fine earth continually brought up to the surface +by worms in the form of castings. Observation and experiment were to +settle the question in the usual Darwinian manner, and many a portion of +soil was watched. One experiment lasted nearly thirty years, for a +quantity of broken chalk and sifted coal cinders was spread on December +20, 1842, over distinct parts of a field near Down House, which had +existed as pasture for a very long time. At the end of November, 1871, a +trench was dug across this part of the field, and the nodules of chalk +were found buried seven inches. A similar change took place in a field +covered with flints, where in thirty years the turf was compact without +any stones. A pathway formed of loose-set flagstones was similarly +buried by worms, and became undistinguishable from the rest of the lawn. +And these are but a few of the evidences of the wonderful action of +worms, collected by the activity of Charles Darwin and his sons. + +Earthworms were not only scrutinised in their out-of-door work, but were +kept in confinement and studied. It appears they swallow earth both to +make their burrows and to extract all nutriment it may contain; they +will eat almost anything they can get their skin over. From careful +calculation it was shown that worms on an average pass ten tons of the +soil on an acre of ground through their bodies every year. It is, then, +but a truism to say that every bit of soil on the surface of the globe +must have passed through their bodies many times. They were discovered +to work mainly by night, when hundreds may with care be discerned, with +tails fixed in their burrows, prowling round in circles, rapidly +retreating into holes, and strongly resisting efforts to extract them. +It was found by careful study that they have no sense of hearing, but a +most remarkable sensitiveness to vibrations of the earth or even +to contact with air in motion. No book Darwin wrote was fuller of +interesting and undoubtedly correct observations. + +In concluding, the author enforces the claims of worms on the gratitude +of archæologists, as they protect and preserve for an indefinitely long +period every object not liable to decay which is dropped on the surface +of the land, by burying it beneath their castings. It is thus that many +tesselated pavements and other ancient remains have been preserved; but, +on the other hand, worms have undermined many old massive walls and +caused them to subside, and no building is in this respect safe unless +the foundations are at least six or seven feet beneath the surface, +below which depth worms cannot work. Worms also prepare the ground in an +excellent manner for plant life, periodically exposing the mould to the +air, sifting it so that no stones larger than the particles they can +swallow are left in it, mingling the whole intimately together, burying +all decaying objects within reach of the roots of the plants, allowing +air to penetrate deeply into the earth. "When we behold a wide, +turf-covered expanse, we should remember that its smoothness, on which +so much of its beauty depends, is mainly due to all the inequalities +having been slowly levelled by worms. It is a marvellous reflection that +the whole of the superficial mould over any such expanse has passed, and +will again pass, every few years through the bodies of worms. The plough +is one of the most ancient and most valuable of man's inventions; but +long before he existed the land was in fact regularly ploughed, and +still continues to be thus ploughed by earthworms. It may be doubted +whether there are many other animals which have played so important +a part in the history of the world, as have these lowly organised +creatures." + +After this last book Darwin felt much exhausted, and wrote: "I feel +so worn out that I do not suppose I shall ever again give reviewers +trouble." His brother Erasmus's death in the same year was the severance +of a link with early days. Yet for some months he continued in a +moderate degree of health, still working. For some weeks however in the +following March and April he was slightly unwell, and the action of his +heart became so weak that he was not allowed to mount the stairs. On +Tuesday, April 18, he was in his study examining a plant which he had +had brought to him, and he read the same evening before retiring. Till +the day of his death he did not become seriously ill. On that day the +heart, which had so long done its duty, failed, and about 4 p.m., +on April 19, 1882, Charles Darwin breathed his last in peace, aged +seventy-three years, two months, and seven days. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +The death of Charles Darwin focussed, as it were, into one concentrated +glow the feelings of admiration, and even reverence, which had been +growing stronger and stronger in the years since the "Origin of Species" +was published. It soon became evident that a public funeral in +Westminster Abbey was very generally called for, and this being granted, +a grave was chosen in the north aisle and north-east corner of the nave, +north of and side by side with that of Sir John Herschel, and ten or +twelve feet only from that of Sir Isaac Newton. On April 26, 1882, a +great representative host of scientists, literary men, politicians, and +theologians assembled for the final scene. The pallbearers were the +Dukes of Devonshire and Argyll, the Earl of Derby, Mr. J. Russell Lowell +(then American Minister in London), Mr. W. Spottiswoode (President of +the Royal Society), Sir Joseph Hooker, Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace, +Professor Huxley, Sir John Lubbock, and Canon Farrar. The Bishop of +Carlisle, preaching at the Abbey on the following Sunday, admitted that +Darwin had produced a greater change in the current of thought than +any other man, and had done it by perfectly legitimate means. He had +observed Nature with a strength of purpose, pertinacity, honesty, and +ingenuity never surpassed. + +"The career of Charles Darwin," wrote _The Times_ on the day of his +funeral, "eludes the grasp of personal curiosity as much as of personal +enmity. He thought, and his thoughts have passed into the substance of +facts of the universe. A grass plot, a plant in bloom, a human gesture, +the entire circle of the doings and tendencies of nature, builds his +monument and records his exploits.... The Abbey has its orators and +ministers who have convinced senates and swayed nations. Not one of them +all has wielded a power over men and their intelligences more complete +than that which for the last twenty-three years has emanated from a +simple country house in Kent. Memories of poets breathe about the mighty +church. Science invokes the aid of imagination no less than poetry. +Darwin as he searched, imagined. Every microscopic fact his patient eyes +unearthed, his fancy caught up and set in its proper niche in a fabric +as stately and grand as ever the creative company of Poets' Corner wove +from sunbeams and rainbows." + +"Our century is Darwin's century," said the _Allgemeine Zeitung_. _The +New York Herald_ described his life as "that of Socrates except its +close." The _Neue Freie Presse_ said truly that his death caused +lamentation as far as truth had penetrated, and wherever civilisation +had made any impression. + +A movement was at once set on foot for securing a worthy public memorial +of Darwin. Subscriptions flowed in abundantly, and came from all +countries of Europe, the United States, the British Colonies, and +Brazil. Sweden sent the astonishing number of 2296 subscriptions; +persons of all ranks contributed, from a bishop to a seamstress. Over +£4,000 in all was subscribed, and it was resolved, in the first place, +to procure the best possible statue. This work was entrusted to Mr. +Boehm, R.A., with admirable results. Permission was obtained to place it +in the great hall of the British Museum of Natural History, South +Kensington, and here it was unveiled on June 9, 1885, by the Prince of +Wales, who accepted the statue on behalf of the Trustees of the British +Museum from Professor Huxley as representing the subscribers. It is +agreed that the statue is excellent, the attitude easy and dignified, +the expression natural and characteristic. The only defect is that the +hands are unlike Darwin's. The balance, about £2,200, remaining over +from the fund, was given to the Royal Society to be invested for the +promotion of biological studies and researches. + +The conditions under which Darwin lived were just those in which, as +_The Saturday Review_ put it, his sweet and gentle nature could blossom +into perfection. "Arrogance, irritability, and envy, the faults +that ordinarily beset men of genius, were not so much conquered as +non-existent in a singularly simple and generous mind. It never occurred +to him that it would be to his gain to show that he and not some one +else was the author of a discovery. If he was appealed to for help by a +fellow-worker, the thought never passed into his mind that he had +secrets to divulge which would lessen his importance. It was science, +not the fame of science, that he loved, and he helped science by the +temper in which he approached it. He had to say things which were +distasteful to a large portion of the public, but he won the ear even of +his most adverse critics by the manifest absence of a mere desire to +shine, by his modesty, and by his courtesy. He told honestly what he +thought to be the truth, but he told it without a wish to triumph or to +wound. There is an arrogance of unorthodoxy as well as an arrogance of +orthodoxy, and if ideas that a quarter of a century ago were regarded +with dread are now accepted without a pang, the rapidity of the change +of opinion, if not the change itself, is largely due to the fact that +the leading exponent of these ideas was the least arrogant of men." + +Geniality and genuine humour must be remembered as among the many +delightful traits in Darwin's character. Mr. Edmund Yates, in his +"Celebrities at Home" (second series), describes his as a laugh to +remember, "a rich Homeric laugh, round and full, musical and jocund." +"At a droll suggestion of Mr. Huxley's, or a humorous doubt insinuated +in the musical tones of the President of the Royal Society (Sir Joseph +Hooker), the eyes twinkle under the massive overhanging brows, the +Socratic head, as Professor Tyndall loves to call it, is thrown back, +and over the long white beard rolls out such a laugh as we have +attempted to describe." + +Exceptionally good-hearted and sympathetic as a man, Darwin discovered +his life-work, and did it, in spite of a most powerful hindrance, in the +best possible manner, with the least possible waste of force. But, more +than doing his work, he set others to work, incited them, suggested to +them, aided them, scattered among them seeds which, finding fertile +soil, sprang up and bore fruit a hundredfold. His greatness is as much +in what be caused others to do as in what he did himself. Even in +arousing antagonism, though by the gentlest means, he did a great work, +for he secured examination and criticism in such bulk that the whole +world was leavened by his doctrine; and in controversy no man has any +disagreeable reminiscence of him. Many have cause to bless the day when +they first came into communication with Darwin, to find him welcome +them, encourage them, place his own vast stores of knowledge and thought +at their disposal, and, best of all, make them love him naturally as a +dear friend. + +Darwin's was one of those open and frank minds which are entrenched +behind no rampart of isolating prejudice, and elevated on no platform of +conscious superiority. It was equally natural to him to ask and to give +information. No one ever was more accessible to all who genuinely sought +his aid in their inquiries or their projects; no one ever more truly +sought information from all quarters whence truth was attainable. Hence +the mass of his letters to all kinds of persons is enormous, and only a +small proportion, probably, will ever be published. His letters are like +his conversation, free, frank, without a trace of _arrière pensée_, +praising others where possible--and no man ever found it more possible +to praise others more genuinely--depreciating himself and his work most +unduly. "You so overestimate the value of what I do," he writes on +one occasion, "that you make me feel ashamed of myself, and wish to +be worthy of such praise." Again, "You have indeed passed a most +magnificent eulogium on me, and I wonder that you were not afraid of +hearing 'oh, oh,' or some other sign of disapprobation. Many persons +think that what I have done in science has been much overrated, and +I very often think so myself, but my comfort is that I have never +consciously done anything to gain applause." Here we see the scientific +man occupying the highest possible moral standpoint as a seeker after +truth. His election as one of the honorary members of the Physiological +Society was to him a "wholly unexpected honour," and a "mark of +sympathy" which pleased him in a very high degree. + +"Work," he writes on another occasion, "is my sole pleasure in life." +"It is so much more interesting to observe than to write." So long as he +could devise experiments and mark the results he continued to do +it, rather than prepare his voluminous notes on many subjects for +publication. "Trollope, in one of his novels, gives as a maxim of +constant use by a brickmaker, 'It is dogged as does it,' and I have +often and often," wrote Darwin, "thought this is a motto for every +scientific worker." How faithfully he adopted it himself those who read +through any one of his experimental books can appreciate. He habitually +read or heard some good novel as a recreation, and took a by no means +restricted interest in general literature. + +Considering how usual it is for leading thinkers to be drawn into +controversy, even when most desirous of avoiding it, it is remarkable +how little Darwin was mixed up with hotly-debated questions. "I hate +controversy," he writes, "and it wastes much time, at least with a man +who, like myself, can work for only a short time in a day." One of the +few occasions on which he appeared as a champion of a cause was on the +question of vivisection, in which a chivalrous feeling led him to +intervene with the following letter to Professor Holmgren, of Upsala +University, which was published in _The Times_ of April 18, 1881. "I +thought it fair," he wrote, "to bear my share of the abuse poured in so +atrocious a manner on all physiologists." + + "DEAR SIR,--In answer to your courteous letter of April 7, I have + no objection to express my opinion with respect to the right of + experimenting on living animals. I use this latter expression as + more correct and comprehensive than that of vivisection. You are at + liberty to make any use of this letter which you may think fit, but + if published I should wish the whole to appear. I have all my life + been a strong advocate for humanity to animals, and have done what + I could in my writings to enforce this duty. Several years ago, + when the agitation against physiologists commenced in England, it + was asserted that inhumanity was here practised, and useless + suffering caused to animals; and I was led to think that it might + be advisable to have an Act of Parliament on the subject. I then + took an active part in trying to get a Bill passed, such as would + have removed all just cause of complaint, and at the same time have + left physiologists free to pursue their researches--a Bill very + different from the Act which has since been passed. It is right to + add that the investigation of the matter by a Royal Commission + proved that the accusations made against our English physiologists + were false. From all that I have heard, however, I fear that in + some parts of Europe little regard is paid to the sufferings of + animals, and if this be the case I should be glad to hear of + legislation against inhumanity in any such country. On the other + hand, I know that physiology cannot possibly progress except by + means of experiments on living animals, and I feel the deepest + conviction that he who retards the progress of physiology commits a + crime against mankind. Any one who remembers, as I can, the state + of this science half a century ago, must admit that it has made + immense progress, and it is now progressing at an ever-increasing + rate. + + "What improvements in medical practice may be directly attributed + to physiological research is a question which can be properly + discussed only by those physiologists and medical practitioners who + have studied the history of their subjects; but, as far as I can + learn, the benefits are already great. However this may be, no one, + unless he is grossly ignorant of what science has done for mankind, + can entertain any doubt of the incalculable benefits which will + hereafter be derived from physiology, not only by man, but by the + lower animals. Look, for instance, at Pasteur's results of + modifying the germs of the most malignant diseases, from which, as + it so happens, animals will, in the first place, receive more + relief than man. Let it be remembered how many lives, and what a + fearful amount of suffering have been saved by the knowledge gained + of parasitic worms through the experiments of Virchow and others on + living animals. In the future every one will be astonished at the + ingratitude shown, at least in England, to these benefactors of + mankind. As for myself, permit me to assure you that I honour, and + shall always honour, every one who advances the noble science of + physiology. + + "Dear sir, yours faithfully, + "CHARLES DARWIN." + +As an experimenter Darwin was by no means overconfident either in his +methods or his power of obtaining results. He simply took the best means +open to him, or that he could devise, applied them in the best way known +to him, and calmly studied the result. "As far as my experience goes," +he wrote, in reference to experimental work, "what one expects rarely +happens." On another occasion, after working like a slave at a certain +investigation, "with very poor success;" he remarks, "as usual, almost +everything goes differently to what I had anticipated." How few +investigators have the magnanimity which appears in this confession. But +more than this, it is an indication of the rare patience with which he +stuck at a subject till he knew all he could read or discover or develop +in connection with it. It was "dogged" that did it; "awfully hard work" +sometimes. In reference to an attempt of his to define intelligence, +which he regarded as unsatisfactory, after remarking that he tried to +observe what passed in his own mind when he did the work of a worm, he +writes: "If I come across a professed metaphysician, I will ask him to +give me a more technical definition with a few big words, about the +abstract, the concrete, the absolute, and the infinite. But sincerely, I +should be grateful for any suggestions; for it will hardly do to assume +that every fool knows what 'intelligent' means." + +Inasmuch as it must necessarily be of great interest to know +the attitude which so great a thinker as Darwin adopted towards +Christianity, revelation, and other matters of theology, we give +unabridged two letters which were written without a view to publication, +and were published after his death without the authorisation of his +representatives. Having been widely published, however, it is right +that they should be given here. + +The first of these was sent in 1873 to N. D. Deedes, a Dutch gentleman, +who wrote to ask Darwin his opinion on the existence of a God: + + "It is impossible to answer your question briefly; I am not sure + that I could do so even if I wrote at some length. But I may say + that the impossibility of conceiving that this grand and wondrous + universe, with our conscious selves, arose through chance, seems to + me our chief argument for the existence of God; but whether this is + an argument of real value, I have never been able to decide. I am + aware that if we admit a first cause, the mind still craves to know + whence it came and how it arose. Nor can I overlook the difficulty + from the immense amount of suffering through the world. I am, also, + induced to defer to a certain extent to the judgment of the many + able men who have fully believed in God; but here, again, I see how + poor an argument this is. The safest conclusion seems to be that + the whole subject is beyond the scope of man's intellect, but man + can do his duty." + +The second letter was addressed to Nicholas, Baron Mengden, a German +University student, in whom the study of Darwin's books had raised +religious doubts. It is dated June 5, 1879. The following is a +re-translation of a German translation: + + "I am very busy, and am an old man in delicate health, and have not + time to answer your questions fully, even assuming that they are + capable of being answered at all. Science and Christ have nothing + to do with each other, except in so far as the habit of scientific + investigation makes a man cautious about accepting any proofs. As + far as I am concerned, I do not believe that any revelation has + ever been made with regard to a future life; every one must draw + his own conclusions from vague and contradictory probabilities." + +It should be added that he was greatly averse to every form of militant +anti-religious controversy, and always deprecated it. He would have been +the last to desire that his words should be quoted as of scientific +authority, or as being more than the results of his own thought on +questions which were not the subject of his life study. Let those who +think that his having expressed these views is a regrettable blow to +orthodox Christianity, set against it the enormous service Darwin did to +reasonable natural theology by giving an intelligible key to the +explanation of the universe. And let all men remember that genuine +honesty such as Darwin's cannot possibly hinder the interests or the +spread of truth. His declaration that "man can do his duty," implies his +conviction that man may know what his duty is; and very many noble +spirits besides Darwin have not found it possible to advance with +certainty beyond this point. + +As to Darwin's place in literature, that is due supereminently to his +thoughts. In his expression of them he had the saving quality of +directness, and usually wrote with simplicity. Incisive he was not +ordinarily; caution of his type harmonises ill with incisiveness. But +what he lost thereby he gained in solidity and in permanence. Sometimes, +as we have pointed out, his imagination carried him beyond his usual +sober vein, and then he showed himself aglow with feeling or with +sympathetic perception. + +But when we speak of his imagination we pass at once to the other side +of his mind--if indeed any such patient inquiry as his could have been +maintained except for the imaginative side of him. This lit up his path, +buoyed him in difficulties and failures, suggested new expedients, +experiments, and combinations. The use of imagination in science has +never been more aptly illustrated nor more beneficial than in his case. +Darwin, more than any other man perhaps, showed the value, if not the +essentiality, of "working hypotheses"; and if any man now wants to +progress in biology, he will be foolish if he does not seek such and use +them freely, and abandon them readily if disproved. + +Darwin imagined grandly, and verified his imaginings as far as one man's +life suffices; and no man can do more. And Darwin won, as far as a man +can win, success during his lifetime. As Professor Huxley said, in +lecturing on "The Coming of Age of 'The Origin of Species,'" "the +foremost men of science in every country are either avowed champions of +its leading doctrines, or at any rate abstain from opposing them." His +prescience has in less than a generation been justified by the discovery +of intermediate fossil forms of animals too numerous to be here +recounted. The break between vertebrate and invertebrate animals, +between flowering and non-flowering plants, between animal and plant, is +now bridged over by discoveries in the life histories of animals and +plants which exist to-day. Embryo animals and plants are now known to go +through stages which repeat and condense the upward ascent of life; and +they give us information of the greatest value as to lost stages in the +path. We can, as it were, see the actual track through which evolution +may have proceeded. "Thus," says Professor Huxley, "if the doctrine of +evolution had not existed, palæontologists must have invented it, so +irresistibly is it forced upon the mind by the study of the remains of +the Tertiary mammalia which have been brought to light since 1859;" and +again, "so far as the animal world is concerned, evolution is no longer +a speculation, but a statement of historical fact." + +As to the limits of the truth of Darwin's theory, Professor Huxley, +writing on "Evolution in Biology," in "The Encyclopædia Britannica," +says: "How far natural selection suffices for the production of species +remains to be seen. Few can doubt that, if not the whole cause, it is a +very important factor in that operation; and that it must play a great +part in the sorting out of varieties into those which are transitory, +and those which are permanent. But the causes and conditions of +variation have yet to be thoroughly explored; and the importance of +natural selection will not be impaired, even if further inquiries should +prove that variability is definite, and is determined in certain +directions rather than in others, by conditions inherent in that which +varies." + +We have not space to describe the importance of the work Darwin did in, +or bearing on, entomology, changing its face and vastly elevating its +importance. A volume might be compiled from his writings on this +subject, as reference to Professor Riley's excellent summary (Darwin +Memorial Meeting, Washington, 1882) will readily show. Nor can we +recount his important work in other branches of biology further than has +been already done in the foregoing pages. To do so would require much +more than a volume of this size. + +One special department may perhaps claim notice on the ground of its +supposed non-scientific character. Dr. Masters (_Gardeners' Chronicle_, +April 22, 1882) says of Darwin's service to horticulture: "Let any one +who knows what was the state of botany in this country even so recently +as fifteen or twenty years ago, compare the feeling between botanists +and horticulturists at that time with what it is now. What sympathy had +the one for the pursuits of the other? The botanist looked down on the +varieties, the races, and strains, raised with so much pride by the +patient skill of the florist as on things unworthy of his notice and +study. The horticulturist, on his side, knowing how very imperfectly +plants could be studied from the mummified specimens in herbaria, which +then constituted in most cases all the material that the botanist of +this country considered necessary for the study of plants, naturally +looked on the botanist somewhat in the light of a laborious trifler.... +Darwin altered all this. He made the dry bones live; he invested plants +and animals with a history, a biography, a genealogy, which at once +conferred an interest and a dignity on them. Before, they were as the +stuffed skin of a beast in the glass case of a museum; now they are +living beings, each in their degree affected by the same circumstances +that affect ourselves, and swayed, _mutatis mutandis_, by like feelings +and like passions. If he had done nothing more than this we might still +have claimed Darwin as a horticulturist; but as we shall see, he has +more direct claims on our gratitude. The apparently trifling variations, +the variations which it was once the fashion for botanists to overlook, +have become, as it were, the keystone of a great theory." + +A valuable summary of Darwin's influence on general philosophic thought +has been given by Mr. James Sully, in his article, "Evolution in +Philosophy," in "The Encyclopædia Britannica," 9th ed., vol. viii. He, +like many other thinkers, considers that Darwin has done much to banish +old ideas as to the evidence of purpose in nature. Mr. Sully's views are +not entirely shared, however, by Professor Winchell, an able American +evolutionist ("Encyclopædia Americana," vol. ii.) who considers that the +question of teleology, or of purpose in nature, is not really touched by +the special principle of natural selection, nor by the general doctrine +of evolution. The mechanical theorist may, consistently with these +doctrines, maintain that every event takes place without a purpose; +while the teleologist, or believer in purpose, may no less consistently +maintain that the more orderly and uniform we find the succession +of events, the more reason is there to presume that a purposeful +intelligence is regulating them. It is certainly impossible to show that +the whole system of evolution does not exist for a purpose. The ranks of +the evolutionists, and even of the Darwinians, as a fact, embrace +believers in the most diverse systems of philosophy, including many +of those who accept Christ's teaching as an authoritative Divine +revelation. May not this diversity among Darwinians itself teach hope? +Darwinism is held with vital grip and will therefore not become a dead +creed, a fossil formula. The belief that every generation is a step in +progress to a higher and fuller life contains within it the promise of +a glorious evolution which is no longer a faint hope, but a reasoned +faith. + + "Man's thought is like Antæus, and must be + Touched to the ground of Nature to regain + Fresh force, new impulse, else it would remain + Dead in the grip of strong Authority. + But, once thereon reset, 'tis like a tree, + Sap-swollen in spring-time: bonds may not restrain; + Nor weight repress; its rootlets rend in twain + Dead stones and walls and rocks resistlessly. + + Thine then it was to touch dead thoughts to earth, + Till of old dreams sprang new philosophies, + From visions systems, and beneath thy spell + Swiftly uprose, like magic palaces,-- + Thyself half-conscious only of thy worth-- + Calm priest of a tremendous oracle."[13] + +Here let us leave Charles Darwin; a marvellously patient and successful +revolutioniser of thought; a noble and beloved man. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[13: Round Table Series. "Charles Darwin" (1886), by J. T. +Cunningham.] + + + + +THE END. + + + + +INDEX. + + +A. + +Ainsworth, Mr. W. F., on Darwin at Edinburgh, 22 +Allen, Mr. Grant, on Darwin, 25, 31, 95, 112 +Ancestry of the Darwins, 11, 12, 14 +Andes, 43, 45 +Antiquity of man, 113 +Ants, Observations on, 88, 89 +Archæology and earthworms, 151, 152 +_Athenæum_, The, 22, 94, 124 + + +B. + +Bahia, 32 +Bahia Blanca, 38 +_Beagle_, H.M.S., 27, 29, 34, 36, 40, 41, 44, 45, 48, 52-60, 65 +Bees, Observations on, 88, 89 +Bell, Sir C., "Anatomy of Expression," 126 +Bentley, T., and Darwin's mother, 17 +Blushing, 133 +Bladderwort, The, 140 +Botanical papers, 103 +Botanical works, 103-108, 136-145 +Brazil, 32-36 +Breeds, Domestic, 80-82, 109-111 +British Association, Darwin at, 60 +Buenos Ayres, 39, 40 +Burdon-Sanderson, Prof., 140 +Butterwort, The, 140 +Button, Jemmy, the Fuegian, 130 + + +C. + +Caldcleugh, Mr., 45 +Cambridge University, 24-29, 146 +Candolle, A. de, 148-150 +Carlisle, Bishop of, on Darwin, 154, 155 +Carlyle, Thomas and Mrs., and Erasmus Darwin, 19 +Character of Darwin, 155-160, 162-165 +Chili, 43-45 +Chiloe, 43 +Chonos Archipelago, 43 +Christianity and Darwin, 115-117, 121, 163-166, 169 +Cirripedia, Books on, 61-63 +Classification, 91 +"Climbing Plants," 107 +Copley medal, 106 +Coral reefs, Book on, 55-59; + observations on, 48, 52, 55 +Corfield, Mr. R., 43 +Cross-fertilisation of plants, 141-143 + + +D. + +Dana, Prof. J. D., on Coral Reefs, 58 +Darwin, Charles, and domestic animals, 71; + and entomology, 25, 167; + and Malthus, 72, 73; + and novelists, 133; + and Prof. Henslow, 24-30; + and Sir C. Lyell, 31, 51, 52, 69, 70; + and Sir J. Hooker, 54, 74, 75, 78; + and slavery, 34, 35; + and spelling reform, 148; + as an experimenter, 162; + at Cambridge, 24-29; + at Edinburgh, 22-24; + "Biographical Sketch of an Infant," 131; + birth, 18; + character of, 155-160, 162-165; + "Climbing Plants," 107; + contributions to mental science, 134, 135; + death of, 153; + "Descent of Man," 112-125; + discovery of extinct mammals, 38, 39; + elected F.G.S., 51; + F.R.S., 52; + experience of missionaries, 43, 47; + experiments on children, 129, 131; + "Expression of Emotions," 126-135; + fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom, 141-143; + "Fertilisation of Orchids," 103-106; + first scientific paper, 23; + "Formation of Mould," 150-152; + forms of flowers, 143; + funeral of, 154; + "Geology of the _Beagle_," 55-60; + history of "Origin of Species," 64-78; + honours bestowed on, 146; + "Insectivorous Plants," 136-139; + "Journal of Researches," 52; + modesty of, 28, 66; + on blushing, 133; + on Cirripedia, 61-63; + on religion, 115-117, 121, 163-169; + on vivisection, 160-162; + "Origin of Species," 41, 42, 46, 64-78, 79-99; + physical appearance and habits of, 100-102, 147, 148; + places named after, 48; + portraits of, 146; + power of movement in plants, 143-145; + school-days of, 19-21; + secretary of Geological Society, 51; + sons of, 102; + statue of, 156; + voyage in _Beagle_, 29-50 +Darwin, Mrs. C., 53 +Darwin, Erasmus, of Lichfield and Derby, 12-14, 66-67 +Darwin, Erasmus, of London, 19, 153 +Darwin, Mr. Francis, 140-144 +Darwin, Mrs. R. W. (Susannah Wedgwood), 17-19 +Darwin, R. W., of Elston, 12 +Darwin, R. W., father of Charles, 14-18 +Darwin Sound, 48 +Death of Charles Darwin, 153 +"Descent of Man," 112-125 +Digestion by plants, 137, 138 +Discovery of extinct mammals, 39 +Down House, 60, 101, 102, 147-150 + + +E. + +Earle, Erasmus, 12 +Earthquake experience, 44 +Earthworms, Darwin on, 150-152 +_Edinburgh Review_, on "Descent of Man," 124; + on Erasmus Darwin, 12, 13; + on "Origin of Species," 94 +Edinburgh University, 21-24 +Ehrenberg, 31 +Entomology, 25, 141-143 +Evolution, History of, in Darwin's mind, 39, 40-42, 46, 47, 50, 64-78, 112 +"Expression of Emotions," 126-135 + + +F. + +Falkland Islands, 43, 60 +Fertilisation, Cross and Self-, in the Vegetable Kingdom, 141-143 +"Fertilisation of Orchids," 103-106 +Fitzroy, Capt., 27, 29, 31, 48, 49 +"Forms of Flowers," 143 +Fuegians, 42, 43, 112 +Funeral of Charles Darwin, 154 + + +G. + +Galapagos Islands, 45-47 +Gauchos, 38, 40, 116, 130 +Geikie, Prof. A., on Darwin's "Coral Reefs," 58 +Geographical distribution, 91 +Geological observations by Darwin, 30, 38, 39 +Geological papers by Darwin, 51, 52, 59, 60 +Geological record, Imperfection of, 90, 91 +Geological Society, 51, 52, 63 +"Geology of the _Beagle_," 53, 55-60 +Germination of plants, 142 +Grant, Prof., 23, 69 +Greville, Dr., 23 + + +H. + +Haeckel, Prof., 71, 72, 147 +Hall, Capt. Basil, and Coral Reefs, 55 +Henslow, Prof., 24-30 +Herbert, Dean, 71 +Holmgren, Prof., Letter to, 160-162 +Honours conferred on Darwin, 146 +Hooker, Sir J., 54, 74, 78, 140 +Huxley, Prof., 65, 91, 94, 165-167 + + +I. + +Imagination, Definition of, 115 +"Insectivorous Plants," 136-141 +Insects, 88, 89, 102-106, 136-139 +Instinct, 88-90, 114 +Interdependence of species, 84 + + +J. + +Jameson, Prof., 23 +"Journal of Researches," 31, 34, 36, 42, 46, 53 + + +K. + +Keeling Islands, 48, 56 + + +L. + +Lamarck and Darwin, 67, 68 +Linnean Society, 75-78, 107, 143, 147 +Literary position of Darwin, 165 +Lubbock, Sir J., 141 +Lyell, Sir C., 31, 51, 52, 69, 70, 74 + + +M. + +Magellan, Straits of, 43 +Maldonado, 36, 37 +Malthus on Population, 72, 73, 82 +Mammals, Extinct, 38, 39, 54 +Masters, Dr., on Darwin and Horticulture, 167 +Matthew, Mr. P., and "Origin of Species," 97 +Mental powers of man, 114-123 +Mental science, Darwin and, 134, 135 +Meteyard, Miss, on R. W. Darwin, 16; + on Wedgwood, 18 +Missionaries, 43, 47 +Monkeys, 132 +Monkeys and man, 114, 115, 117, 118, 120, 122 +Monte Video, 36, 40 +Montgomery, James, "Pelican Island," 55 +Morphology, 64, 91, 92 +"Mould, Formation of," 152 +Mount Darwin, 49 +Mount, The, Shrewsbury, 17-20, 80 +"Movement, Power of, in Plants," 143-145 +Murray, Mr. J., on Coral Reefs, 59 +_Mylodon Darwinii_, 54 + + +N. + +"Naturalist's Voyage Round the World," 53 +Natural Selection, 84, 85, 97-99, 108, 117 +New Zealand, 47 +Niata cattle, 40 +Novelists, 133 + + +O. + +"Orchids, Fertilisation of," 103-106 +"Origin of Species," 41, 42, 46, 64-78, 79-99 +Owen, Sir R., 53, 64 +Oxford, Bishop of, (Wilberforce), on "Origin of Species," 95 + + +P. + +Palæontographical Society, 62 +Pampas thistles, 40 +Pangenesis, Hypothesis of, 111 +Patagonia, 41 +Peru, 45 +Phillips, Prof. J., 52, 63 +Physiological Selection, 87 +Physiological Society, 159 +Plinian Society, Edinburgh, 22, 23 +Port Darwin, 48 +Portraits of Darwin, 146 +_Punch_, 123, 124 + + +Q. + +_Quarterly Review_ on Darwin's "Journal," 53; + on "Descent of Man," 124, 125; + on "Origin of Species," 95 + + +R. + +Ray Society, 62 +Religion, 115-117, 121 +Religious views of Darwin, 163-166, 169 +Reptiles of Galapagos, 46 +Riley, Prof. C. V., on Darwin and Entomology, 25, 167 +Rio Negro, 37, 40 +Rio Plata, 41 +Romanes, Mr., 87, 89, 115, 134, 135 +Rosas, General, 38, 39 +Royal medal, 62 +Royal Society and Charles Darwin, 52, 62, 106 +Rudimentary organs, 92 + + +S. + +Santiago, 43, 45 +_Saturday Review_ on Charles Darwin, 156, 157; + on "Descent of Man," 125; + on "Origin of Species," 95 +Savage man described, 49, 122, 123 +"Scientific Inquiry, Manual of," 61 +Selection, Natural, 84, 85, 97-99 +Selection, Physiological, 87 +Semper, Prof., on Coral Reefs, 58 +Shrewsbury, 15-20 +Shrewsbury school, 20 +Social qualities of man, 116 +Social questions, 121 +Sonnet on Darwin, 169 +Spencer, Mr. Herbert, Views of, 73, 112 +Statue of Darwin, 155-156 +Stokes, Admiral, 33, 34 +Structure of human body, 114 +Struggle for existence, 72, 73, 82, 83 +Sully, Mr. James, on Evolution and Design, 168 +Sun-dew, 136-139 +Sweden and Darwin, 156 +Sydney, 48 + + +T. + +Tahiti, 47 +Tasmania, 48 +Tierra del Fuego, 42, 43 +_Times, The_, on Charles Darwin, 155 +Tree of Life, 85-87 +Tres Montes, 44 +Tucutuco, Blindness of, 68 + + +U. + +Unitarian Church, Shrewsbury, 17, 19 + + +V. + +Valdivia, 44 +Valparaiso, 43, 45 +"Variation of Animals and Plants," 108-112 +Variations of Species, 79, 85-87, 108-112 +Verde, Cape de, 31, 41 +"Vestiges of Creation," 73 +Vivisection, Darwin on, 160-162 +Volcanic islands, 59 + + +W. + +Wallace, Mr. A. R., 75-78 +Wedgwood, Josiah, 14 +Wells, Dr., and Origin of Species, 96 +Winchell, Prof., and evolution, 168-169 +Wollaston medal, 63 +Woman compared with man, 119, 120 +Woodall, Mr. E., on Charles Darwin, 17, 101 + + +Y. + +Yates, Mr. E., on "Darwin at Home," 157 + + +Z. + +Zoological Gardens, 115, 128, 131, 132 +"Zoology of the _Beagle_," 53 + + + + + BIBLIOGRAPHY. + + BY + + JOHN P. ANDERSON + + (_British Museum_). + + * * * * * + + I. WORKS. + + II. MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS. + + III. APPENDIX-- + Biography, Criticism, etc. + Magazine Articles. + + IV. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF WORKS. + + * * * * * + + + + +I. WORKS. + + +Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and +Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of +the Southern Shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation +of the globe. [With appendices and addenda.] 3 vols. London, 1839, 8vo. + + Vol. iii. is the "Journal and Remarks, 1832-1836," by Charles Darwin. + The appendix to vol. ii. has a distinct title-page and pagination. + Some copies of this work were issued in 2 vols., the third being + complete in itself, and sold separately with the title "Journal of + Researches into the Geology and Natural History of the various + countries visited by H.M.S. Beagle, under the command of Captain + Fitzroy, R.N., from 1832 to 1836. By Charles Darwin, Esq.," etc. + +Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the +Countries visited during the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the World, +under the command of Captain Fitzroy, R.N. Second edition, corrected, +with additions. (_Murray's Colonial and Home Library._) London, 1845, +8vo. + + This has been reprinted with a new title-page reading, "A Naturalist's + Voyage Round the World, etc." + +The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, under the command of Captain +R. Fitzroy, during the years 1832-36. Edited and superintended by C. D. +Part i., Fossil Mammalia, by R. Owen. (Part ii., Mammalia, described by +G. R. Waterhouse, with a notice of their habits and ranges by C. D. Part +iii., Birds, described by J. Gould, with a notice of their habits and +ranges by C. D., with an anatomical appendix by T. C. Eyton. Part iv., +Fish, described by L. Jenyns. Part v., Reptiles, described by T. Bell.) +5 parts. London, 1840-39-43, 4to. + +The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. Being the first part of +the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Captain +Fitzroy, 1832 to 1836. London, 1842, 8vo. + +Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands, visited during the +voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, together with some brief notices on the Geology +of Australia and the Cape of Good Hope. Being the second part of the +Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle, etc. London, 1844, 8vo. + +Geological Observations on South America. Being the third part of the +Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Captain +Fitzroy, etc. London, 1846, 8vo. + +The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, by C. D. With three +plates. Second edition, revised. London, 1874, 8vo. + +Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands and parts of South +America, visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, by C. D. Second +edition, with maps and illustrations. London, 1876, 8vo. + +A Monograph on the Fossil Lepadidæ or Pedunculated Cirripedes of Great +Britain. (_Palæontographical Society._) London, 1851, 4to. + +A Monograph of the sub-class Cirripedia, with figures of all the +species. (_Ray Society._) 2 vols. London, 1851-54, 8vo. + +A Monograph of the Fossil Balanidæ and Verrucidæ of Great Britain. +(_Palæontographical Society._) London, 1854, 4to. + +On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, or the +preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. By C. D. +London, 1859, 8vo. + +---- Fifth thousand. London, 1860, 8vo. + +---- Third edition, with additions and corrections. London, 1861, 8vo. + +---- Fourth edition, with additions and corrections. London, 1866, 8vo. + +---- Fifth edition, with additions and corrections. London, 1869, 8vo. + +---- Sixth edition, with additions and corrections. London, 1872, 8vo. + +On the Various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are +fertilised by Insects, and on the good effects of intercrossing. By C. +D. With illustrations. London, 1862, 8vo. + +---- Second edition. With illustrations. London, 1877, 8vo. + +The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants. By C. D. [From the Journal +of the Linnean Society.] London, 1865, 8vo. + +---- Second edition, revised. With illustrations. London, 1875, 8vo. + +The Variation of Animals and Plants under domestication, by C. D. With +illustrations. 2 vols. London, 1868, 8vo. + +---- Second edition, revised. Fourth thousand. With illustrations. 2 +vols. London, 1875, 8vo. + +---- Second edition, revised. Fifth thousand. With illustrations. 2 +vols. London, 1885, 8vo. + +The Descent of Man, and Selection in relation to Sex. By C. D. With +illustrations. 2 vols. London, 1871, 8vo. + +---- Second edition, revised and augmented. Tenth thousand. London, +1874, 8vo. + +---- Second edition, revised and augmented. Seventeenth thousand. +London, 1883, 8vo. + +The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. By C. D. With +photographic and other illustrations. London, 1872, 8vo. + +Insectivorous Plants. By C. D. With illustrations. London, 1875, 8vo. + +The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom. By +C. D. London, 1876, 8vo. + +The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the same Species. By C. D. +With illustrations. London, 1877, 8vo. + +The Power of Movement in Plants. By C. D., assisted by Francis Darwin. +With illustrations. London, 1880, 8vo. + +The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms, with +observations on their habits. By C. D. With illustrations. London, 1881, +8vo. + +---- Fifth thousand (corrected). London, 1881, 8vo. + +---- Sixth thousand (corrected). London, 1882, 8vo. + + + + +II. MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS. + + +For private distribution. The following pages contain extracts from +letters addressed to Professor Henslow by C. Darwin, Esq., printed for +private distribution among the Members of the Cambridge Philosophical +Society in consequence of the geological notices which they contain, +etc. [Cambridge, 1835.] 8vo. + +Note sur la découverte de quelques Ossemens Fossiles dans l'Amérique du +Sud. + + _Annal. Sci. Nat._ 2nd Ser. (Zoology). Tom. vii., 1837, pp. 319, 320. + +Notes upon the Rhea Americana. + + _Zool. Soc. Proc._, vol. v., 1837, pp. 35, 36. + +Remarks upon the Habits of the Genera Geospiza, Camarhynchus, Cactornis, +and Certhidea of Gould. + + _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1837, p. 49. + +Sur trois Espèces du Genre Felis. + + _L'Institut._ Tom. vi., 1838, No. 235, pp. 210, 211. + +On the formation of Mould (1837). + + _Geol. Soc. Proc._, vol. ii., 1838, pp. 574-576; + _Geol. Soc. Trans._, vol. v., 1840, pp. 505-510; + _Froriep, Notizen._ Bd. vi., 1838, col. 180-183. + +Observations of proofs of recent elevation on the Coast of Chili, made +during the survey of H.M.S. "Beagle," commanded by Capt. Fitzroy (1837). + + _Geol. Soc. Proc._, vol ii., 1838, pp. 446-449. + +A sketch of the deposits containing extinct Mammalia in the +neighbourhood of the Plata (1837). + + _Geol. Soc. Proc._, vol. ii., 1838, pp. 542-544; + _Ann. Sci. Nat._ Tom. vii., (Zool.) 1837, pp. 319, 320. + +On certain areas of elevation and subsidence in the Pacific and Indian +Oceans, as deduced from the study of coral formations (1837). + + _Geol. Soc. Proc._, vol. ii., 1838, pp. 552-554; + _Froriep, Notizen._ Bd. iv., 1838, col. 100-103. + +Geological Notes made during a survey of the East and West Coasts of +South America in the years 1832, 1833, 1834, and 1835; with an account +of a transverse section of the Cordilleras of the Andes between +Valparaiso and Mendoza. + + _Geol. Soc. Proc._, vol. ii., 1838, pp. 210-212. + +Origin of saliferous deposits. Salt Lakes of Patagonia and La Plata. + + _Geol. Soc. Jour._, vol. ii. (pt. 2), 1838, pp. 127, 128. + +On the connexion of certain volcanic phenomena, and on the formation of +mountain chains, and the effects of continental elevations. + + _Geol. Soc. Proc._, vol. ii., 1838, pp. 654-660; + _Geol. Soc. Trans._, vol. v., 1840, pp. 601-632; + _Poggendorff, Annal._ Bd. lii., 1841, pp. 484-496. + +Monographia Chalciditum, by Francis Walker. (Vol. ii., Species collected +by C. Darwin.) London, 1839, 8vo. + +Note on a rock seen on an iceberg in 16° South Latitude. + + _Geog. Soc. Jour._, vol. ix., 1839, pp. 528, 529. + +Ueber die Luftschifferei der Spinnen. + + _Froriep, N. Not._ Bd. lxxvii., No. 222, 1839, pp. 23, 24. + +Observations on the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy, and of other parts of +Lochaber in Scotland, with an attempt to prove that they are of marine +origin. + + _Phil. Trans._, 1839, pp. 39-82; + _Edinb. New Phil. Jour._, vol. xxvii., 1839, pp. 395-403. + +On a remarkable bar of Sandstone off Pernambuco, on the coast of Brazil. + + _Phil. Mag._, vol. xix., 1841, pp. 257-260. + +Notes on the effects produced by the ancient glaciers of +Caernarvonshire, and on the Boulders transported by floating ice. + + _Edinb. New Phil. Jour._, vol. xxxiii., 1842, pp. 352, 353. + +On the distribution of the erratic boulders, and on the contemporaneous +unstratified deposits of South America (1841). + + _Geol. Soc. Proc._, vol. iii., 1842, pp. 425-430; + _Geol. Soc. Trans._, vol. vi., 1842, pp. 415-432. + +The structure and distribution of Coral Reefs. + + _Geog. Soc. Jour._, vol. xii., 1842, pp. 115-119; + _Poggendorff, Annal._ Bd. lxiv., 1845, pp. 563-613; + _Edinb. New Phil. Jour._, vol. xxxiv., 1843, pp. 47-50. + +Observations on the structure and propagation of the genus Sagitta. + + _Ann. Nat. Hist._ Tom. xiii., 1844, pp. 1-6; + _Ann. Sc. Nat._ (Zool.) Tom. i., 1844, pp. 360-365; + _Froriep, Notizen._ Bd. xxx., 1844, col. 1-6. + +Brief descriptions of several Terrestrial Planariæ and of some +remarkable Marine species, with an account of their habits. + + _Ann. Nat. Hist._, vol. xiv., 1844, pp. 241-251. + +An Account of the Fine Dust which often falls on vessels in the Atlantic +Ocean. + + _Geol. Soc. Jour._, vol. ii., 1846, pp. 26-30. + +On the Geology of the Falkland Islands. + + _Geol. Soc. Jour._, vol. ii., 1846, pp. 267-274. + +On the Transportal of Erratic Boulders from a lower to a higher level. + + _Geol. Soc. Jour._, vol. iv., 1848, pp. 315-323. + +A Manual of Scientific Inquiry; prepared for the use of Her Majesty's +Navy, and travellers in general. Edited by Sir John F. W. Herschel. +London, 1849, 8vo. + + This work, which has run through several editions, consists of a + series of papers by various writers. Charles Darwin wrote "Geology," + pp. 156-195. + +On British Fossil Lepadidæ. + + _Geol. Soc. Jour._, vol. vi., 1850, pp. 439, 440. + +Analogy of the structure of some Volcanic Rocks with that of Glaciers. + + _Edinb. Royal Soc. Proc._ vol. ii., 1851, pp. 17, 18. + +On the power of icebergs to make rectilinear uniformly-directed grooves +across a submarine undulatory surface. + + _Phil. Mag._, vol. x., 1855, pp. 96-98. + +On the action of Sea-water on the germination of Seeds (1856). + + _Linn. Soc. Jour._, vol. i., 1857 (Bot.), pp. 130-140. + +On the agency of Bees in the Fertilisation of Papilionaceous Flowers, +and on the crossing of Kidney Beans. + + _Ann. Nat. Hist._, vol. ii., 1858, pp. 459-465; + _Gardeners' Chronicle_, 1857, pp. 725, and 1858, pp. 824, 844. + +On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of +Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. By C. D. and Alfred +Wallace. + + _Jour. Proc. Linn. Soc._, vol iii., 1859, pp. 45-62. + +On the variation of organic beings in a state of nature; on the natural +means of selection; on the comparison of domestic races and true +species. + + _Linn. Soc. Jour._, vol iii., 1859, (Zool.) pp. 46-53; + _Halle, Zeitschr. Gesell. Nat._ Bd. xvi., 1860, pp. 425-459. + +Fertilisation of _Vincas_. + + _Gardeners' Chronicle_, 1861, pp. 552, 831, 832. + +On the Two Forms, or Dimorphic Condition, in the species of Primula, +and, on their remarkable Sexual Relations. + + _Linn. Soc. Jour._, vol. vi., 1862 (Bot.), pp. 77-96. + +On the three remarkable sexual forms of Catasetum tridentatum, an Orchid +in the possession of the Linnean Society. + + _Linn. Soc. Jour._, vol. vi., 1862 (Bot.), pp. 151-157. + +Observations sur l'hétéromorphisme des fleurs et ses conséquences pour +fécondation. + + _Annal. Sci. Nat._ Tom. xix., 1863, (Bot.) pp. 204-255. + +On the thickness of the Pampean formation, near Buenos Ayres. + + _Geol. Soc. Jour._, vol. xix., 1863, pp. 68-71. + +On the existence of two forms, and on their reciprocal sexual relation, +in several species of the genus Linum. + + _Linn. Soc. Jour._, vol. vii. (Bot.), 1863, pp. 69-83. + +On the so-called "Auditory sac" of Cirripedes. + + _Nat. Hist. Review_, 1863, pp. 115, 116. + +On the sexual relations of the three forms of Lythrum Salicaria (1864). + + _Linn. Soc. Jour._, vol. viii., 1865, (Bot.) pp. 169-196; + _Archives Sci. Phys. Nat._ Tom. xxiii., 1865, pp. 69-72. + +On the movements and habits of Climbing Plants (1865). + + _Linn. Soc. Jour._, vol. ix., 1867, (Bot.) pp. 1-118; + _Flora_, vol. xlix., 1866, pp. 241-252, 273-282, 321-325, 337-345, + 375-378, 385-398. + +Queries about Expression for Anthropological Inquiry. + + _Report of Smithsonian Institution_ for 1867, p. 324. + +Note on the Common Broom (Cytisus Scoparius). + + _Linn. Soc. Jour._, vol ix., 1867 (Bot.), p. 358. + +On the character and hybrid-like nature of the offspring from the +illegitimate unions of dimorphic and trimorphic plants. + + _Linn. Soc. Jour._, vol. x., 1869 (Bot.), pp. 393-437. + +On the specific difference between Primula veris, _Brit. Fl._ (_var._ +officinalis, _Linn._), P. vulgaris, _Brit. Fl._ (_var._ acaulis, +_Linn._) and P. elatior, _Jacq._ and on the hybrid nature of the common +Oxlip. With supplementary remarks on naturally-produced hybrids in the +genus Verbascum. + + _Linn. Soc. Jour._, vol. x., 1869 (Bot.), pp. 437-454. + +De la variation des animaux et des plantes sous l'action de la +domestication. (_Transl._) + + _Archives Sci. Phys. Nat._ Tom. xxxiv., 1869, pp. 41-66. + +The Fertilisation of Winter-flowering Plants. + + _Nature_, vol. i., 1869, p. 85. + +Notes on the Fertilisation of Orchids. + + _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._, vol. iv., 1869, pp. 141-159. + +Note on the habits of the Pampas Woodpecker: Colaptes campestris. + + _Zool. Soc. Proc._, 1870, pp. 705, 706. + +Pangenesis. + + _Nature_, vol. iii., 1871, pp. 502, 503. + +Fertilisation of _Leschenaultia_. + + _Gardeners' Chronicle_, 1871, p. 1166. + +Origin of certain Instincts. + + _Nature_, vol. vii., 1873, pp. 417, 418. + +On the males and complemental males of certain Cirripedes, and on +rudimentary structures. + + _Nature_, vol. viii., 1873, pp. 431-433. + +Perception in the lower animals. + + _Zoologist_, vol. viii., 1873, pp. 3488-3489; + _Nature_, vol. vii., 1878, p. 360. + +Fertilisation of the Fumariaceæ. + + _Nature_, vol. ix., 1874, p. 460. + +Flowers of the Primrose destroyed by birds. + + _Nature_, vol. ix., 1874, p. 482; vol. x., p. 24. + +Sexual Selection in relation to Monkeys. + + _Nature_, vol. xv., 1876, pp. 18, 19. + +Testimonial to Mr. Darwin. Evolution in the Netherlands. Letter of Mr. +Darwin. + + _Nature_, vol. xv., 1877, pp. 410-412. + +A Biographical Sketch of an Infant. + + _Mind_, vol. ii. (No. 7, July 1877), pp. 285-294. + Les Débuts de l'intelligence; Esquisse biographique d'un petit enfant, + _Revue Scientifique_, tom. 13, 1877, pp. 25-29. + +The Contractile Filaments of the Teasel. + + _Nature_, vol. xvi., 1877, p. 339. + +Fritz Müller on Flowers and Insects. + + _Nature_, vol. xvii., 1877, p. 78. + +Note on Fertilisation of Plants. + + _Gardeners' Chronicle_, 1877, p. 246. + +Transplantation of Shells. + + _Nature_, vol. xviii., 1878, p. 120. + +Flowers and their unbidden guests, from the German of Dr. A. Kerner. +With a prefatory letter by C. D. London, 1878, 8vo. + +Erasmus Darwin. By Ernst Krause. Translated from the German by W. S. +Dallas. With a preliminary notice by Charles Darwin. London, 1879, 8vo. + + Originally appeared in "Kosmos." Charles Darwin wrote the life, pp. + 1-127 for the English edition, which on the publication of the work in + book form in Germany (1880) was translated and appears in that + edition, pp. 1-72. A copy of this work in the Library of the British + Museum contains MS. Notes by Samuel Butler. + +Fritz Müller on a Frog having Eggs on its back: on the Abortion of the +Hairs on the Legs of certain Caddis Flies, etc. + + _Nature_, vol. xix., 1879, pp. 462-464. + +Rats and Water Casks. + + _Nature_, vol. xix., 1879, p. 481. + +Fertility of Hybrids from the Common and Chinese Goose. + + _Nature_, vol. xxi., 1880, p. 207. + +The Sexual Colours of certain Butterflies. + + _Nature_, vol. xxi., 1880, p. 237. + +The Omari Shell Mounds. + + _Nature_, vol. xxi., 1880, pp. 561, 562. + +Sir Wyville Thomson on Natural Selection. + + _Nature_, vol. xxiii., 1880, p. 32. + +Black Sheep. + + _Nature_, vol. xxiii., 1880, p. 103. + +Movements of Plants. + + _Nature_, vol. xxiii., 1881, p. 409. + +Mr. Darwin on Vivisection. + + _Nature_, vol. xxiii., 1881, p. 583. + +The Movements of Leaves. + + _Nature_, vol. xxiii., 1881, pp. 603, 604. + +Inheritance. + + _Nature_, vol. xxiv., 1881, p. 257. + +Leaves injured at night by free radiation. + + _Nature_, vol. xxiv., 1881, p. 459. + +On the Bodily and Mental Development of Infants. + + _Nature_, vol. xxiv., 1881, p. 565. + +Studies in the Theory of Descent, by August Weismann. Translated and +edited by K. Meldola, with a prefatory notice by Charles Darwin. 3 pts., +London, 1882, 8vo. + +The parasitic habits of Molothrus. + + _Nature_, vol. xxv., 1882, pp. 51, 52. + +The action of Carbonate of Ammonia on the roots of certain plants. + + _Linn. Soc. Jour._ (Bot.), vol. xix., 1882, pp. 239-261; + abstract by Mr. Francis Darwin in _Nature_, vol. xxv., 1882, pp. 489-490. + +The action of Carbonate of Ammonia on Chlorophyll Bodies. + + _Linn. Soc. Jour._ (Bot.), vol. xix., 1882, pp. 262-284; + abstract by Mr. Francis Darwin in _Nature_, vol. xxv., 1882, pp. 489, + 490. + +On the dispersal of freshwater bivalves. + + _Nature_, vol. xxv., 1882, pp. 529, 530. + +On the Modification of a Race of Syrian Street Dogs by means of Sexual +Selection. By Dr. Van Dyck. With a preliminary notice by Charles Darwin. + + _Proc. of the Zool. Soc. of London_, 1882, pp. 367-370. + +Mental Evolution in Animals. By George John Romanes. With a posthumous +essay on Instinct, by Charles Darwin. London, 1883, 8vo. + +Mémoire inédit sur l'instinct. + + _Revue Scientifique_, tom. vi., 1883, pp. 749, 750. + +The Fertilisation of Flowers. By Prof. Hermann Mueller. Translated and +edited by D'Arcy W. Thompson. With a preface by Charles Darwin. London, +1883, 8vo. + +Notes on Parasites collected by C. D., by T. Spencer Cobbold. + + _Jour. Linn. Soc._ (Zoology), vol. xix., 1885, pp. 174-178. + + + + +III.--APPENDIX. + +BIOGRAPHY, CRITICISM, ETC. + + +The European Literature upon Charles Darwin and his Works is so +extensive that it is only possible to give a selection. + +Adams, W. H. Davenport.--Master Minds in Art, Science, and Letters. +London, 1886, 8vo. + + Charles Darwin, with portrait, pp. 251-276. + +Allen, Grant.--The Evolutionist at Large. [Reprinted from the _St. +James's Gazette_.] London, 1881, 8vo. + +---- English Worthies. Edited by Andrew Lang. Charles Darwin, by G. A. +London, 1885, 8vo. + +Argyll, Duke of.--The Reign of Law. London, 1867, 8vo. + + References to Charles Darwin. + +---- The Unity of Nature. London, 1884, 8vo. + + Numerous references to Charles Darwin. + +Armstrong, R. A.--Modern Sermons. No. 3. Charles Darwin, by the Rev. R. +A. Armstrong. Manchester [1885], 8vo. + +Aveling, Edward B.--The Student's Darwin. (_International Library of +Science and Freethought_, vol. ii.) London, 1881, 8vo. + +---- Darwinism and Small Families. London, 1882, 8vo. + +---- The Religious Views of Charles Darwin. London, 1883, 8vo. + +Baildon, Henry B.--The Spirit of Nature, being a series of +interpretative essays on the history of matter from the atom to the +flower. London, 1880, 8vo. + +Balfour, Francis M.--A Treatise on Comparative Embryology, 2 vols. +London, 1880-1, 8vo. + +Bateman, Frederic.--Darwinism tested by language; with a preface by +Edward Meyrick Goulburn, Dean of Norwich. London, 1877, 8vo. + +Bennett, A. W.--The Theory of Natural Selection from a mathematical +point of view. (Read before section D of the British Association, at +Liverpool, Sept. 20, 1870.) + +Bennett, D. M.--The World's Sages, Infidels, and Thinkers. New York, +1876, 8vo. + + Darwin, pp. 846-848. + +Benson, Lawrence S.--Philosophic Reviews. Darwin answered; or, Evolution +a myth, etc. New York, 1875, 8vo. + +Bentham, George.--"Addresses of George Bentham, President, read at the +meetings of the Linnean Society, 1862-1873." + +Berkeley, Hon. G. C. Grantley F.--Fact against Fiction. With some +remarks on Darwin. 2 vols. London, 1874, 8vo. + +Bernardo, D. di.--Il Darwinismo e le specie animali. Siena, 1881, 8vo. + +Bianconi, J. Joseph.--La Théorie Darwinienne et la Création dite +Indépendante. Bologne, 1874, 8vo. + +Biological Society of Washington.--Proceedings of the Biological Society +of Washington. With the addresses read on the occasion of the Darwin +Memorial Meeting, May 12, 1882. Washington, 1882, 8vo. + + With vol. xxv. of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. The + addresses delivered on the occasion were-- + Introductory by Theodore Gill; + Biographical Sketch by William H. Dall; + The Philosophic Bearings of Darwinism, by John W. Powell; + Darwin's Investigations on the relation of Plants and Insects, by C. + V. Riley; + Darwin as a Botanist, by L. F. Ward; + Darwin on Emotional Expression, by F. Baker; + a Darwinian Bibliography, by F. W. True. + +Blind, Mathilde.--Shelley's View of Nature contrasted with Darwin's. +London, 1886, 8vo. + + Only 25 copies of this lecture were printed for private distribution. + +Boase, Henry S.--A few words on Evolution and Creation, etc. London, +1832, 8vo. + +Braubach, W.--Religion, Moral, und Philosophie der Darwin'schen +Artlehre. Neuwied, 1869, 8vo. + +Bree, C. R.--Species not Transmutable, nor the result of secondary +causes. Being a critical examination of Mr. Darwin's work entitled +"Origin and Variation of Species." London [1860], 8vo. + +---- An Exposition of Fallacies in the Hypothesis of Mr. Darwin. London, +1872, 8vo. + +Büchner, Ludwig.--Sechs Vorlesungen über die Darwin'sche Theorie, etc. +Leipzig, 1868, 8vo. + +---- Conférences sur la Théorie Darwinienne de la Transmutation des +Espèces, etc. Leipzig, 1869, 8vo. + +Butler, Samuel.--Evolution, old and new; or, the theories of Buffon, Dr. +Erasmus Darwin, and Lamarck, as compared with that of Mr. Charles +Darwin. London, 1879, 8vo. + +---- Second edition. London, 1882, 8vo. + +---- Unconscious Memory, etc. London, 1880, 8vo. + +---- Luck or Cunning, as the main means of organic modification? An +attempt to throw additional light upon the late Mr. Charles Darwin's +Theory of Natural Selection. London, 1887, 8vo. + +Candolle, Alphonse de.--Histoire des Sciences et des Savants depuis deux +Siècles, suivie d'autres études sur des sujets scientifiques, en +particulier sur la Sélection dans l'Espèce Humaine. Genève, 1873, 8vo. + +---- Darwin considéré au point de vue des causes de son succès et de +l'importance de ses travaux. Deuxième édition. Genève, 1882, 8vo. + +Canestrini, Giovanni.--La Teoria dell' Evoluzione esposta ne' suoi +fondamenti come introduzione alla lettura delle opere del Darwin e de' +suoi seguaci. Torino, 1877, 8vo. + +Carlyle, Rev. Gavin.--The Battle of Unbelief. London, 1878, 8vo. + + Darwinianism and Man, pp. 149-173. + +Carneri, B.--Sittlichkeit und Darwinismus. Wien, 1871, 8vo. + +Cartoon Portraits.--Cartoon Portraits and Biographical Sketches of Men +of the Day. London, 1873, 4to. + + C. R. Darwin, F.R.S., pp. 6 and 7. + +Cattell, Charles C.--Is Darwinism Atheistic? (_The Atheistic Platform_, +No. viii.) London, 1884, 8vo. + +Celakovsky, Ladislav.--Uvahy Prirodov[)e]decké o Darwinov[)e] Theorii, +etc. V Praze, 1877, 8vo. + +Cleland, John.--Evolution, Expression, and Sensation, etc. Glasgow, +1881, 8vo. + +Cobbe, Frances Power.--Darwinism in Morals, and other Essays. London, +1872, 8vo. + +Collins, Mortimer.--Pen Sketches by a Vanished Hand; from the papers of +the late Mortimer Collins. 2 vols. London, 1879, 8vo. + + Darwinism, vol. ii., pp. 51-61. + +Conn, H. W.--Evolution of To-day, etc. New York, 1886, 8vo. + +Cook, Joseph.--Boston Monday Lectures. Heredity, etc. London, 1881, 8vo. + + Darwin's Theory of Pangenesis, pp. 59-79; + Darwin on the Origin of Conscience, pp. 80-99. + +Cooper, Thomas.--Evolution, the Stone Book, and the Mosaic Record of +Creation. London, 1878, 8vo. + +---- Thoughts at fourscore, and earlier. A Medley. London, 1885, 8vo. + + Charles Darwin and the Fallacies of evolution, pp. 132-162; + The Origin of Species, pp. 322-334. + +Cope, E. D.--Origin of the Fittest. London, 1887, 8vo. + +Cunningham, J. T.--The Round Table Series. (No. 5.) Charles Darwin, +Naturalist. Edinburgh, 1886, 8vo. + +Curtis, George T.--Creation or Evolution? A Philosophical Inquiry. +London, 1887, 8vo. + +Darwin, Charles R.--The Darwinian Theory of the Transmutation of Species +examined by a Graduate of the University of Cambridge. Second edition. +London, 1868, 8vo. + +---- The Fall of Man: or, the Loves of the Gorillas. A popular +scientific lecture upon the Darwinian Theory of Development by Sexual +Selection. By a Learned Gorilla. Edited by the author of "The New Gospel +of Peace." [Illustrated.] New York, 1871, 8vo. + +---- Our Blood Relations; or, the Darwinian Theory. London, 1872, 8vo. + +---- Stammen wir von den Affen ab? [Being a reply to Darwin's Origin of +Species.] Dresden, 1872, 8vo. + +---- The Fall of Man; an answer to Mr. Darwin's "Descent of Man," +being a complete refutation, by common sense arguments, of the Theory of +the Development of the human race by means of natural selection. London, +1873, 8vo. + +---- The Darwinian Theory examined. London, 1878, 8vo. + +---- Bondige uiteenzetting van het Darwinisme voor leeken in de +natuurwetenschappen. Deventer, 1878, 8vo. + +---- What Mr. Darwin saw in his voyage round the world in the ship +"Beagle." [Illustrated.] New York [1879], 8vo. + +---- Die Grundlehren der wahren Naturreligion nach Darwin und Haeckel. +Berlin, 1881, 8vo. + +---- Darwinism stated by Darwin himself. Characteristic passages from +the writings of C. D., selected and arranged by N. Sheppard. New York, +1884, 8vo. + +Daubeny, Charles.--Remarks on the final causes of the Sexuality of +Plants, with particular reference to Mr. Darwin's work on the Origin of +Species. Oxford, 1860, 8vo. + +---- Miscellanies: being a collection of Memoirs and Essays, etc. 2 +vols. Oxford, 1867, 8vo. + + Remarks on the Final Causes of the Sexuality of Plants, etc., vol. + ii., pp. 85-107. + +Davey, Samuel.--Darwin, Carlyle, and Dickens, with other essays. London +[1876], 8vo. + +Davies, Charles M.--Mystic London; or, phases of occult life in the +Metropolis. London, 1875, 8vo. + + "Darwinism on the Devil," pp. 179-197. + +Diman, Jeremiah Lewis.--The Theistic Argument as effected by recent +theories. A course of lectures delivered at the Lowell Institute in +Boston. [Edited, with a preface, by G. P. Fisher.] Boston, 1881, 8vo. + +Dixon, Charles.--Evolution without Natural Selection; or, the +Segregation of Species without the aid of the Darwinian Hypothesis. +London, 1885, 8vo. + +Dodel, _afterwards_ Dodel-Port, Arnold. Die neuere Schöpfungsgeschichte +nach dem gegenwärtigen Stande der Naturwissenschaften, etc. Leipzig, +1875, 8vo. + +Draper, Professor.--"On the Intellectual Development of Europe, +considered with reference to the views of Mr. Darwin and others, that +the Progression of Organisms is determined by Law." Paper read at the +Oxford Meeting of the British Association, 1860, with discussion. +(_Gardeners' Chronicle_, Aug. 6, 1860, pp. 713, 714.) + +Dreher, Eugen.--Der Darwinismus und seine Consequenzen in +wissenschaftlicher und socialer Beziehung. Halle, 1882, 8vo. + +Drury, John B.--Veddes Lectures, 1883. Truths and Untruths of Evolution. +New York [1884], 8vo. + +Dubois-Reymond, Emil.--Darwin _versus_ Galiani. Berlin, 1876, 8vo. + +---- Friedrich II. in Englischen Urtheilen. Darwin und Kopernicus, etc. +Leipzig, 1884, 8vo. + +Ducasse, Félix.--Étude historique et critique sur le Transformisme, etc. +Paris, 1876, 8vo. + +Dumont, Léon A.--Haeckel et la théorie de l'évolution en Allemagne. +Paris, 1873, 8vo. + +Duval, Mathias.--Le Darwinisme. Paris, 1886, 8vo. + +Dykes, Rev. J. Oswald.--Problems of Faith, a contribution to present +controversies, being a third series of Lectures to Young Men, etc. With +a preface by the Rev. J. O. D. London, 1875, 8vo. + +---- Disputed Questions of Belief; being Lectures to Young Men, etc. +London, 1874, 8vo. + + Evolution: An Exposition and Critique by the Rev. H. S. Paterson, pp. + 183-252. + +Elam, Charles.--Winds of Doctrine: being an examination of the modern +theories of automatism and evolution. London, 1876, 8vo. + +Encyclopædia Americana.--The Encyclopædia Americana, etc. New York, +1885, 4to. + + Articles Darwin and Darwinism, vol. ii., pp. 542-555. + +Encyclopædia Britannica.--The Encyclopædia Britannica. Ninth edition. +Vol 8. Edinburgh, 1877, 4to. + + The article _Evolution_ by Professor Huxley and James Sully. + +Ercolani, Luigi.--Darwinismo. Reggio, Calabria, 1882, 8vo. + +Essays.--English Essays. Hamburg, 1869, 12mo. + + Mr. Darwin's Theories, vol. ii., pp. 108-138. Reprinted from the + _Westminster Review_, January 1869. + +Fawcett, Henry.--On the Method of Mr. Darwin in his Treatise on the +Origin of Species. (_Report of the 31st Meeting of the British +Association_, 1861, p. 141.) London, 1862, 8vo. + +Fée, A.--Le Darwinisme, ou Examen de la Théorie relative à l'origine des +espèces. Paris, 1864, 8vo. + + Appeared originally in the _Gazette Hebdomadaire de Médecine et de + Chirurgie_, 1864. + +Ferrière, Émile.--Le Darwinisme. Paris, 1872, 8vo. + +Ferris, Benjamin G.--A new theory of the Origin of Species. New York, +1883, 8vo. + +Fiske, John.--Darwinism, and other Essays. London, 1879, 8vo. + +---- Another edition. Boston [U.S.], 1885, 8vo. + +---- Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, based on the Doctrine of Evolution, +etc. 2 vols. London, 1874, 8vo. + + Numerous references to Charles Darwin. + +---- Excursions of an Evolutionist. London, 1884, 8vo. + + In memoriam: Charles Darwin, pp. 337-369. + +---- The Destiny of Man viewed in the light of his Origin. Boston +[U.S.], 1884, 8vo. + +---- The Idea of God as affected by modern knowledge. London, 1885, 8vo. + +Flourens, M. J. P.--Examen du livre de M. Darwin sur l'origine des +espèces. Paris, 1864, 12mo. + +Flower, Professor W. H. On Palæontological Evidence of Gradual +Modification of Animal Forms, read at the Royal Institution of Great +Britain, April 25, 1873 (_Journal of the Royal Institution_). + +Force, M. F.--Pre-historic Man. Darwinism and Deity. The Mound Builders. +Cincinnati, 1873, 8vo. + +Galton, Francis.--Hereditary Genius: an inquiry into its laws and +consequences. London, 1869, 8vo. + + References to C. D. + +---- English Men of Science: their nature and nurture. London, 1874, +8vo. + + References to C. D. + +---- Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development. London, 1883, +8vo. + + References to C. D. + +Geology.--Geology and its Teaching, especially as it relates to the +Development Theory as propounded in "Vestiges of Creation" and Darwin's +"Origin of Species." Reprinted from the "Leeds Express." London, 1861, +12mo. + +Gibson, Rev. Charles B.--Philosophy, Science, and Revelation. Second +edition. London, 1874, 8vo. + +Goblet d'Alviella, Count Eugène.--The Contemporary Evolution of +Religious Thought in England, America, and India. Translated by J. +Moden. London, 1885, 8vo. + +Graham, William.--The Creed of Science, religious, moral, and social. +London, 1881, 8vo. + +Gray, Asa.--Natural Selection not inconsistent with Natural Theology. A +free examination of Darwin's Treatise on the Origin of Species and of +its American Reviewers. London, 1861, 8vo. + + Appeared originally in the _Atlantic Monthly_ for July, August, and + October, 1860. + +---- Darwiniana: Essays and Reviews pertaining to Darwinism. New York, +1876, 8vo. + +Greaves, C. A.--The Science of Life; and Darwin's Hypothesis. Two +lectures. London [1873], 8vo. + +Haeckel, Ernst H. P. A.--Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. +Allgemeine Grundzüge der organischen Formen-Wissenschaft, mechanisch +begründet durch die von Charles Darwin, etc. 2 Bde. Berlin, 1866, 8vo. + +---- Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte, etc. Berlin, 1868, 8vo. + +---- Die heutige Entwickelungslehre im Verhältnisse zur +Gesammtwissenschaft. Stuttgart, 1877, 8vo. + +---- Gesammelte populäre Vorträge aus dem Gebiete der +Entwickelungslehre. Bonn, 1878-79, 8vo. + +---- Anthropogenie, oder Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen, etc. +Leipzig, 1874, 8vo. + +---- The Evolution of Man, etc. From the German of E. H. [With plates.] +2 vols. London, 1879, 8vo. + +---- Ziele und Wege der heutigen Entwickelungsgeschichte. Jena, 1875, +8vo. + +---- Die Naturanschauung von Darwin, Goethe, und Lamarck. Jena, 1882, +8vo. + +---- The Pedigree of Man: and other Essays, by E. Haeckel. Translated +from the German by Edward B. Aveling. (_International Library of Science +and Freethought_, vol. 6.) London, 1883, 8vo. + +Hall, A. Wilford.--The Problem of Human Life,... with a review of +Darwin, Huxley, etc. Revised edition. New York, 1880, 8vo. + +Hallier, Ernst.--Darwin's Lehre und die Specification. Hamburg, 1865, +8vo. + +Hartmann, C. R. E. von.--Wahrheit und Irrthum im Darwinismus. Berlin, +1875, 8vo. + +---- Darwinismus und Thierproduction. München, 1876, 8vo. + +---- Le Darwinisme, traduit de l'Allemand par Georges Guéroult. Paris, +1877, 8vo. + +Hartsen, F. A.--Darwin en de Godsdienst. Eene populaire uiteenzetting +van het Darwinisme, etc. Leyden, 1869, 8vo. + +Heller, Karl B.--Darwin und der Darwinismus. Wien, 1869, 8vo. + +Henslow, George.--The Theory of Evolution of living things, and the +application of the principles of evolution to religion considered as +illustrative of the "Wisdom and Beneficence of the Almighty." London, +1873, 8vo. + +---- The Fertilisation of Plants: a lecture [on D.'s +Cross-and-Self-Fertilisation of Plants] delivered 8th March, 1877. +(_Transactions of the Watford Nat. Hist. Soc._ Vol. i., 1878, pp. +201-210.) + +Hertwig, R.--Gedächtnissrede auf Charles Darwin. Königsberg, 1883, 4to. + +Hertzka, Theodor.--Die Urgeschichte der Erde und des Menschen, I. +Vorlesung über die Darwin'sche Theorie, etc. Pest, 1871, 8vo. + +Hicks, L. E.--A Critique of Design-Arguments, etc. New York, 1883, 8vo. + + Darwinism and Design, pp. 308-330. + +Hodge, Charles.--What is Darwinism? London, 1874, 8vo. + +Hoffmann, Hermann.--Untersuchungen zur Bestimmung des Werthes von +Species und Varietät, etc. Giessen, 1869, 8vo. + +Huber, Johannes.--Die Lehre Darwin's kritisch betrachtet von Dr. J. H. +München, 1871, 8vo. + +Humiecki, M.--Darwinizm. Lwów, 1878, 8vo. + +Huxley, Thomas Henry.--Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. London, +1863, 8vo. + +---- Lay Sermons, Addresses, and Reviews. London, 1870, 8vo. + + The Origin of Species, pp. 280-327. Reprinted from the _Westminster + Review_, April 1860; + Criticisms on "The Origin of Species," pp. 328-350. Reprinted from the + _Natural History Review_, 1864. + +---- Critiques and Addresses. London, 1873, 8vo. + + Mr. Darwin's Critics, pp. 251-302. Reprinted from the _Contemporary + Review_, 1871. + +---- Science and Culture, and other Essays. London, 1881, 8vo. + + The Coming of Age of the "Origin of Species," pp. 310-324. + +Jacoby, Paul.--Études sur la Sélection dans ses rapports avec l'hérédité +chez l'homme, etc. Paris, 1881, 8vo. + +Jaeger, Gustav.--Die Darwin'sche Theorie und ihre Stellung zu Moral und +Religion. Stuttgart [1869], 8vo. + +---- In Sachen Darwin's insbesondere contra Wigand. Stuttgart, 1874, +8vo. + +James, Constantin.--Du Darwinisme, ou l'homme-singe. Paris, 1877, 8vo. + +Johns, Rev. B. G.--Moses, _not_ Darwin: a sermon. London, 1871, 8vo. + +Kalischer, S.--Teleologie und Darwinismus. Berlin, 1878, 8vo. + +Kirby, W. F.--Evolution and Natural Theology. London, 1883, 8vo. + + Darwin and his Critics, pp. 50-68. + +Kirk, Rev. John.--The Doctrine of Creation according to Darwin, Agassiz +and Moses. London, 1869, 8vo. + +Kleinenberg, Nicolaus.--Carlo Darwin e l'opera sua. Discorso +commemorativo letto nell' aula della R. Università di Messina il 21 +Maggio 1882. Messina, 1882, 8vo. + +Klönne, B. H.--Onze Voorouders volgens de Theorie van Darwin en het +Darwinisme van Winkler. Met gravuren. 'S Hertogenbosch, 1869, 8vo. + +Kölliker, Albrecht.--Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen und der höheren +Thiere, etc. Leipzig, 1861, 8vo. + +---- Zweite Auflage. Leipzig, 1879, 8vo. + +Kramer, Paul.--Theorie und Erfahrung. Beiträge zur Beurtheilung des +Darwinismus. Halle a/S., 1877. 8vo. + +Krause, Ernest.--Erasmus Darwin und seine Stellung in der Geschichte der +Descendenz-Theorie. Mit seinem Lebens- und Charakterbilde von C. Darwin. +Leipzig, 1880, 8vo. + + References to C. D.'s family. Originally appeared in _Kosmos_. The + life by C. D. is a translation from the English edition (1879). + +---- Erasmus Darwin.--Translated from the German by W. S. Dallas. With a +preliminary notice by C. Darwin. Portrait and woodcuts. London, 1879, +8vo. + + The Life by C. D. pp. 1-127. There is a copy of this work in the + Library of the British Museum which contains MS. Notes by Samuel + Butler. + +---- Charles Darwin und sein Verhältnis zu Deutschland. (_Gesammelte +Kleinere Schriften_, Bd., 1.) Leipzig, 1885, 8vo. + +Laing, F. H.--Essays on Religion and Literature. By various writers. +Edited by Henry Edward, Archbishop of Westminster. Third Series. London, +1874, 8vo. + + Darwinism brought to Book, by the Rev. F. H. Laing, pp. 257-283. + +Laing, Sidney Herbert.--Darwinism Refuted. An Essay on Mr. Darwin's +Theory of "The Descent of Man." London, 1871, 8vo. + +Lanessan, J. L. de.--Étude sur la Doctrine de Darwin. La lutte pour +l'existence et l'association pour la lutte. Paris, 1881, 8vo. + +Lankester, Edwin Ray.--Degeneration: a chapter in Darwinism. (_Nature +Series._) London, 1880, 8vo. + +Lecomte, A.--La Darwinisme et l'origine de l'homme. Paris, 1873, 12mo. + +Le Conte, Joseph.--Religion and Science: a series of Sunday Lectures on +the relation of natural and revealed religion, etc. London, 1874, 8vo. + +Le Hon, H.--L'Homme Fossile en Europe, etc. (Appendice-Abrégé de la +Théorie de Darwin ou Transformisme, traduit de l'Italien du Prof. +Omboni). Deuxième édition. Bruxelles, 1868, 8vo. + +Lessona, Michele.--Carlo Darwin. Roma, 1883, 8vo. + +---- Commemorazione di Carlo Darwin (_Atti della R. Accad. delle Scienze +di Torino_, vol. xviii., 1882, pp. 709-718). Torino, 1882, 8vo. + +Lewes, George Henry.--Problems of Life and Mind. Three Series. London, +1874-79, 8vo. + +Lichthorn, C.--Die Erforschung der physiologischen Naturgesetze der +menschlichen Geistestätigkeit auf der Grundlage der neuesten grossen +Entdeckungen Dubois-Reymond's, Darwin's und Häckel's über die organische +Natur, etc. Breslau, 1875, 8vo. + +Liddon, H. P.--The Recovery of St. Thomas: a sermon preached in St. +Paul's Cathedral, April 23, 1882, with a prefatory note on the late Mr. +Darwin. London, 1882, 8vo. + +Lindsay, William Lander.--Mind in the Lower Animals in health and +disease. 2 vols. London, 1879, 8vo. + +Löwenthal, Eduard.--Herr Schleiden und der Darwin'sche +Arten-Entstehungs-Humbug. Berlin, 1864, 8vo. + +Lyell, Sir Charles.--Life, Letters, and Journals of Sir Charles Lyell, +Bart. Edited by his sister-in-law, Mrs. Lyell. 2 vols. London, 1881, +8vo. + + Contains a number of Letters to C. D. + +Lyon, W. P.--Homo _versus_ Darwin: a judicial examination of statements +recently published by Mr. Darwin regarding "The Descent of Man." Second +edition. London [1872], 8vo. + +---- Third edition. London [1873], 8vo. + +M'Cann, Rev. James.--Anti-Darwinism: with Professor Huxley's reply. +Glasgow, 1869, 8vo. + +McCarthy, Justin.--A History of Our Own Times. A new edition. 4 vols. +London, 1882, 8vo. + + Charles Darwin, vol. iv., pp. 286-288. + +Maclaren, James.--A Critical Examination of some of the principal +arguments for and against Darwinism. London, 1876, 8vo. + +---- Natural Theology in the Nineteenth Century. London, 1878, 8vo. + +Mäklin, F. W.--Allmänna betraktelser öfver den Darwinska +descendenslärens förhållande till ochmed de organiska formernas och +isynnerhet djurens geografisk utbredning. Helsingfors, 1882, 8vo. + +Mantegazza, Paolo.--Commemorazione di Carlo Darwin. Discorso del +Professor P. M. Firenze, 1882, 8vo. + +Martins, C.--La théorie de l'évolution en histoire naturelle. Paris, +1876, 8vo. + +Maschi, Luigi.--Confutazione delle Dottrine Transformistiche di Huxley, +Darwin, etc. Parma, 1874, 8vo. + +Menza, Antonino.--Il Concetto Scientifico di Darwin sviluppato dalla +Filosofia Positiva. Saggio critico di A. M. Catania, 1882, 8vo. + +Meteyard, Eliza.--A group of Englishmen (1795 to 1815), being records of +the younger Wedgwoods and their friends. London, 1871, 8vo. + + Numerous references to the Darwin family. + +Meyer, A. B.--Charles Darwin und Alfred Russel Wallace. Ihre ersten +Publicationen über die "Entstehung der Arten" nebst einer Skizze ihres +Lebens und einem Verzeichniss ihrer Schriften. Erlangen, 1870, 8vo. + +Miall, L. C.--The Life and Works of Charles Darwin; a lecture delivered +to the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, on February 6, 1883. +Leeds, 1883, 8vo. + +Michelis, Fr.--Die Naturwissenschaftliche Unhaltbarkeit der Darwinschen +Hypothese. Heidelberg, 1885, 8vo. + +Mivart, Saint George.--On the Genesis of Species. London, 1871, 8vo. + +---- Men and Apes, an exposition of structural resemblances bearing upon +questions of affinity and origin. London, 1873, 8vo. + +---- Contemporary Evolution. An essay on some recent social changes. +London, 1876, 8vo. + +---- Nature and Thought; an introduction to a Natural Philosophy. +London, 1882, 8vo. + +---- Second edition. London, 1885, 8vo. + +Moleschott, Jacob.--Carlo Roberto Darwin. Commemorazione pronunziata a +nome degli studenti dell' Università di Roma, 25 di Giugno, 1882. +Torino, 1882, 8vo. + +---- Karl Robert Darwin.--Denkrede gehalten im Collegio Romano im Namen +der Studirenden der Hochschule zu Rom von Jacob Moleschott. Giessen, +1883, 8vo. + +Morris, Rev. F. O.--Difficulties of Darwinism. Read before the British +Association at Norwich and Exeter, in 1868 and 1869, etc. London, 1869, +8vo. + +---- All the Articles of the Darwin Faith. London [1882], 8vo. + +Moss, Arthur B.--Darwin against Moses. London [1885], 8vo. + +Müller, Aug.--Ueber die erste Entstehung organischer Wesen und deren +Spaltung in Arten. Berlin, 1866, 8vo. + +Müller, F. Max.--Lectures on the Science of Language, etc. Two Series. +London, 1861-64, 8vo. + + Several editions. + +---- Chips from a German Workshop. 4 vols. London, 1867-75, 8vo. + + My reply to Mr. Darwin, vol. iv., pp. 433-472; reprinted from the + Contemporary Review, Jan. 1875. + +---- The Science of Thought. London, 1887, 8vo. + +Müller, Fritz.--Für Darwin. Leipzig, 1864, 8vo. + +---- Facts and Arguments for Darwin. Translated from the German by W. S. +Dallas. London, 1869, 8vo. + +Müller, Hermann.--Anwendung der Darwinschen Lehre auf Bienen. Berlin, +1872, 8vo. + +---- Die Befruchtung der Blumen durch Insekten und die gegenseitigen +Anpassungen beider, etc. Leipzig, 1873, 8vo. + +---- The Fertilisation of Flowers. Translated and edited by D'Arcy W. +Thompson, with a preface by C. Darwin. With illustrations. London, 1883, +8vo. + +---- Alpenblumen, ihre Befruchtung, durch Insekten und ihre Anpassungen +an dieselben. Mit Abbildungen, etc. Leipzig, 1881, 8vo. + +Nature Series.--Charles Darwin. Memorial notices reprinted from +"Nature." [With a portrait on steel by C. H. Jeens.] London, 1882, 8vo. + + Contents-- + Introductory Notice, by T. H. Huxley; + Life and Character, by G. J. Romanes; + Work in Geology, by Archibald Geikie; + Work in Botany, by W. T. T. Dyer; + Work in Zoology, by G. J. Romanes; + Work in Psychology, by G. J. Romanes. + +Neaves, Lord.--The Descent of Man. A continuation of an old Song. Air, +"Greensleeves" (_Darwin loquitur_). (Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, +vol. 109, 1871, pp. 517-519.) + +---- Songs and Verses, social and scientific. Edinburgh, 1868, 8vo. + + The Origin of Species, pp. 1-4; + The Darwinian Era of Farming, pp. 8, 9. + +Nicholson, H. Alleyne.--On the hearing of certain palæontological facts +upon the Darwinian Theory of the Origin of Species, and on the general +doctrine of Evolution. (_Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria +Institute_, vol. ix., 1876, pp. 207-231; Discussion on preceding, pp. +231-236.) + +O'Neill, T. Warren.--The Refutation of Darwinism; and the Converse +Theory of Development. Philadelphia, 1880, 8vo. + +Ormathwaite, Lord.--Astronomy and Geology compared. London, 1872, 8vo. + + Remarks on the Theories of Mr. Darwin and Mr. Buckle, pp. 67-111. + +Page, David.--Strictures upon the lectures--on the subject, +"Man--whence? where? whither?" and an exposure of the Darwinian +Development Theory, etc. Edinburgh, 1867, 8vo. + +Parker, W. Kitchen.--On Mammalian Descent: the Hunterian Lectures for +1884. London, 1885, 8vo. + +Pascoe, Francis P.--Notes on Natural Selection and the Origin of +Species. London, 1884, 8vo. + +Patané, Agostino.--Il Darwinismo (a proposito dell 'opera--Di Bernardo). +Acireale, 1882, 8vo. + +Patterson, Robert.--The Errors of Evolution. An examination of the +nebular theory, geological evolution, the origin of life, and Darwinism. +London, 1885, 8vo. + +Pawlicki, Stefan.--Czlowiek i Malpa. Ostatnie Slowo Darwina. Lwów, 1872, +8vo. + +Peebles, J. M.--The Conflict between Darwinism and Spiritualism. Boston, +1876, 12mo. + +Pelzeln, August von.--Bemerkungen gegen Darwin's Theorie vom Ursprung +der Spezies. Wien, 1861, 8vo. + +Perrier, Edmond.--La Philosophie Zoologique avant Darwin. Paris, 1884, +8vo. + +Pfaff, Friedrich.--Die Theorie Darwin's und die Thatsachen der Geologie. +Frankfort, a.M., 1876, 8vo. + +Polo y Peyrolon, Manuel.--Parentesco entre el hombre y el Mono. +Observaciones contra el Transformismo Darvinista en general y +especialmente contra el orígen símio, etc. Madrid, 1878, 8vo. + +Portanova, Gennaro.--Errori e delirii del Darwinismo. Napoli, 1872, 8vo. + +Porter, J. L.--Science and Revelation: their destructive provinces. With +a review of the theories of Tyndall, Huxley, Darwin, and Herbert +Spencer. Belfast, 1874, 8vo. + +Powell, B. H. Baden.--Creation and its Records, etc. London, 1886, 8vo. + +Pratt, John H.--The Descent of Man, in connection with the Hypothesis of +Development. A lecture, etc. London, 1871, 8vo. + +Prel, Karl F. du.--Der Kampf um's Dasein am Himmel. Die Darwin'sche +Formel nachgewiesen in der Mechanik der Sternenwelt. Berlin, 1874, 8vo. + +Properzi, Geremia.--Un poco di buon senso, ovvero saggio di un esame +critico popolare delle teorie pedagogiche di P. Siciliani e delle +materialistiche dei Büchner, Darwin, etc. Genova, 1882, 8vo. + +Psychosis.--Our Modern Philosophers, Darwin, Bain, and Spencer, or the +Descent of Man, Mind and Body. A rhyme [on C. R. Darwin's "Descent of +Man," etc.], with reasons, essays, notes and quotations. By Psychosis. +London, 1884, 8vo. + +Punch.--Punch. London, 1871, 1877, 1882, 4to. + + Our Family Tree (6 verses), vol. 60, 1871, p. 105; + Darwin and Pickwick (3 verses), p. 145; + The Development of Dress (6 verses), p. 197; + A Darwinian Ballad (4 verses), p. 234; + The Origin of Darwinism, vol. 61, p. 69; + A Darwinian Development (6 verses), p. 110; + Darwinian Spiritualism, p. 196; + Punch to Dr. Darwin (8 verses), vol. 73, 1877, p. 241; + Memorial Poem (6 lines), vol. 82, 1882, p. 203. + +Pusey, S. E. B. Bouverie.--Permanence and Evolution; an inquiry unto the +supposed mutability of animal types. London, 1882, 8vo. + +Quadri, Achille.--Note alla Teoria Darwiniana. Bologna, 1869, 8vo. + +Quatrefages de Bréau, A. de.--Charles Darwin et ses précurseurs +Français; étude sur le Transformisme. Paris, 1870, 8vo. + +R., G.--The Three Barriers: notes on Mr. Darwin's "Origin of Species." +Edinburgh, 1861, 8vo. + +Rade, E.--Charles Darwin und seine Deutschen Anhänger im Jahre 1876. +Strassburg, 1877, 8vo. + +Ragusa, C. F.--Saggio critico sul Darwinismo, etc. Napoli, 1878, 8vo. + +Renooz, C. M.--L'origine des animaux. Théorie réfutant celle de M. +Darwin. Paris, 1883, 12mo. + +Reus y Bahamonde, Emilio.--Estudios sobre Filosofía de la Creacion, etc. +Madrid, 1876, 8vo. + +Richardson, George.--On the spirit in which scientific studies should be +pursued, with remarks on the Darwinian theory of Evolution. A lecture, +etc. London, 1872, 8vo. + +Rolle, Friedrich.--Charles Darwin's Lehre von der Entstehung der Arten +im Pflanzen- und Thierreich, etc. Frankfurt am Main, 1863, 8vo. + +---- Der Mensch, seine Abstammung und Gesittung im Lichte der +Darwin'schen Lehre, etc. Frankfurt am Main, 1866, 8vo. + +Romanes, George John.--Animal Intelligence. (_International Scientific +Series_, vol. xli.) London, 1882, 8vo. + +---- The Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution. (_Nature Series._) +London, 1882, 8vo. + +---- Mental Evolution in Animals. With a posthumous essay on Instinct by +Charles Darwin. London, 1883, 8vo. + + Numerous references to C. D. + +---- Physiological Selection; an additional suggestion on the Origin of +Species. (_Journal of the Linnean Society_, vol. 19, 1885, pp. 337-411.) + +Ross, James.--The Graft Theory of Disease, being an application of Mr. +Darwin's Hypothesis of Pangenesis to the explanation of the phenomena of +the Zymotic Diseases. London, 1872, 8vo. + +Rossi, D. C.--Le Darwinisme et les générations spontanées, ou réponse +aux réfutations de MM. P. Flourens, de Quatrefages, etc. Paris, 1870, +12mo. + +Roux, Wilhelm.--Ueber die Leistungsfähigkeit der Principien der +Descendenzlehre zur Erklärung der Zweckmässigkeiten des thierischen +Organismus. Breslau, 1880, 8vo. + +---- Der Kampf der Theile im Organismus, etc. Leipzig, 1881, 8vo. + +Royer, Clémence.--Darwinisme. (_Dictionnaire Encyclopédique des Sciences +Médicales_, vol. xxv., pp. 698-767.) Paris, 1880, 8vo. + +Rütimeyer, L.--Die Grenzen der Thierwelt. Eine Betrachtung zu Darwin's +Lehre. Basel, 1868, 8vo. + +St. Clair, George.--Darwinism and Design; or, Creation by Evolution. +London, 1873, 8vo. + +Schleicher, August.--Die Darwinsche Theorie und die Sprachwissenschaft. +Weimar, 1863, 8vo. + +---- Darwinism tested by the Science of Language. Translated from the +German, with preface and additional notes, by Dr. Alex. V. W. Bikkers. +London, 1869, 8vo. + +Schmid, Rudolf.--Die Darwin'schen Theorien und ihre Stellung zur +Philosophie, Religion und Moral. Stuttgart, 1876, 8vo. + +---- The Theories of Darwin, and their relation to philosophy, religion, +and morality. Translated from the German, by G. A. Zimmermann. With an +introduction by the Duke of Argyll. Chicago, 1883, 8vo. + +Schmidt, Eduard Oscar.--Das Alter der Menschheit und das Paradies. Zwei +Vorträge von O. S. und Franz Unger. Wien, 1866, 8vo. + +---- Descendenzlehre und Darwinismus. Leipzig, 1873, 8vo. + +---- The Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism (_International Scientific +Series_). London, 1875, 8vo. + +---- Descendance et Darwinisme. Paris, 1875, 8vo. + +---- Darwinismus und Socialdemocratie. Bonn, 1878, 8vo. + +Schneider, G. H.--Der thierische Wille, etc. Leipzig [1880], 8vo. + +Schultze, Fritz.--Kant und Darwin. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der +Entwicklungslehre. Jena, 1875, 8vo. + +Schumann, Richard.--Darwinismus und Kirche. Potsdam, 1874, 8vo. + +Seidlitz, Georg.--Die Darwin'sche Theorie. Dorpat, 1871, 8vo. + +---- Beiträge zur Descendenz-Theorie. Leipzig, 1876, 8vo. + +Semper, Carl.--The natural conditions of existence as they affect animal +life. With maps and woodcuts. (_International Scientific Series_, vol. +xxxi.) London, 1881, 8vo. + +Simon, Léon.--De l'Origine des Espèces, en particulier du système +Darwin: conférences, etc. Paris, 1865, 8vo. + +Simonin, Amédée H.--Psychologie Humaine. Histoire de la Psychologie, +etc. Paris, 1879, 8vo. + + Darwin et le Darwinisme, pp. 418-443. + +Spencer, Herbert.--First Principles. London, 1862, 8vo. + +---- The Principles of Biology. 2 vols. London, 1864, 8vo. + +Spengel, J. W.--Die Darwinsche Theorie. Berlin, 1872, 8vo. + +---- Die Fortschritte des Darwinismus. Cöln, 1874, 8vo. + +Stebbing, Thomas R. R.--Darwinism. A lecture delivered before the +Torquay Natural History Society, February 1, 1869. London, 1869, 8vo. + +---- Darwinism.--The Noachian Flood. A lecture delivered before the +Torquay Natural History Society, January 31, 1870. London, 1870, 8vo. + +---- Essays on Darwinism. London, 1871, 8vo. + +Stephen, Leslie.--Essays on Freethinking and Plain speaking. London, +1873, 8vo. + + Darwinism and Divinity, pp. 72-109. + +---- Life of Henry Fawcett. London, 1885, 8vo. + + Charles Darwin, pp. 98-102 and 239. + +Strümpell, Ludwig.--Die Geisteskräfte der Menschen verglichen mit denen +der Thiere. Ein Bedenken gegen Darwin's Ansicht über denselben +Gegenstand. Leipzig, 1878, 8vo. + +Suckling, H.--Anti-Darwin: or some reasons for not accepting his +hypothesis. By the author of "Ceylon, ancient and modern" [H. Suckling]. +Twickenham, 1884, 16mo. + +Swift, Edmund.--Evolution and Natural Selection in the Light of the New +Church, etc. London, 1879, 8vo. + +Tefft, Benjamin F.--Evolution and Christianity; or, an answer to the +Development Infidelity of modern times. Boston [U.S.], 1885, 8vo. + +Thomson, George.--Evolution and Involution. London, 1880, 8vo. + +Traill, H. D.--The new Lucian, being a series of Dialogues of the Dead. +London, 1884, 8vo. + + Lucretius, Paley, and Darwin, pp. 287-312. + +True, Frederick W.--A Darwinian Bibliography. (_Smithsonian +Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. xxv., 1883, pp. 92-101.) + +Twemlow, Maj.-Gen. George.--Facts and fossils adduced to prove the +Deluge of Noah and mollify the transmutation system of Darwin, etc. +London [1868], 8vo. + +Tyndall, John.--Fragments of Science. 2 vols. London, 1879, 8vo. + +Vadalà-Papale, G.--Darwinismo Naturale e Darwinismo Sociale. Torino, +1882, 8vo. + +Vianna De Lima, Arthur.--Exposé sommaire des Théories Transformistes de +Lamarck, Darwin et Haeckel. Paris, 1885, 12mo. + +Virchow, Rudolph.--Die Freiheit der Wissenschaft im modernen Staat, etc. +Berlin, 1877, 8vo. + +---- The Freedom in Science in the Modern State. Translated from the +German. London, 1878, 8vo. + +Wagner, A.--Zur Feststellung des Artbegriffes. München, 1861, 8vo. + +Wagner, Carl.--Stammt der Mensch vom Affen ab? Stuttgart, 1879, 8vo. + +Wagner, Moritz.--Die Darwin'sche Theorie und das Migrationsgesetz der +Organismen. Leipzig, 1868, 8vo. + +---- The Darwinian Theory and the Law of the Migration of Organisms. +Translated from the German of M. W. by James L. Laird. London, 1873, +8vo. + +Wainwright, Samuel.--Scientific Sophisms. A review of current theories +concerning Atoms, Apes, and Men. London, 1881, 8vo. + +Walford, Edward.--Portraits of Men of Eminence in Literature, Science, +and Art, etc. London, 1866, 8vo. + + Charles Robert Darwin, with portrait, vol. v., pp. 49-52. + +Wallace, Alfred Russel.--Natural Selection--Mr. Wallace's reply to Mr. +Bennett. (_Nature_, vol. iii, 1870, pp. 49, 50.) + +---- Contributions to the theory of Natural Selection. A series of +essays. London, 1871, 8vo. + +Ward, Lester F.--Dynamic Sociology, or applied Social Science, etc. 2 +vols. New York, 1883, 8vo. + +Weidenhammer, R.--Die landwirthschaftliche Thierzucht, als Argument der +Darwin'schen Theorie. Stuttgart, 1864, 8vo. + +Weismann, August.--Über die Berechtigung der Darwin'schen Theorie. +Leipzig, 1868, 8vo. + +---- Studien zur Descendenz-Theorie. Leipzig, 1875, etc., 8vo. + +---- Studies in the Theory of Descent. Translated and edited by R. +Meldola, with a prefatory notice, by Charles Darwin. 3 pts. London, +1880-82, 8vo. + +Werner, Hermann.--Ueber Darwin's Theorie von der Entstehung der Arten +und der Abstammung des Menschen. Elberfeld, 1876, 8vo. + +Weygoldt, G. P.--Darwinismus, Religion, Sittlichkeit, etc. Leiden, 1878, +8vo. + +Wieser, Johann.--Mensch und Thier ... mit Rücksicht auf die Darwin'sche +Descendenzlehre. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1875, 8vo. + +Wiesner, Julius.--Das Bewegungsvermögen der Pflanzen. Eine kritische +Studie über das gleichnamige Werk von Charles Darwin. ["On the movements +and habits of Climbing Plants."] Wien, 1881, 8vo. + +Wigand, Albert.--Der Darwinismus und die Naturforschung Newtons und +Cuviers. 3 Bde. Braunschweig, 1874, 8vo. + +Wilberforce, Samuel.--Essays contributed to the Quarterly Review. 2 +vols. London, 1874, 8vo. + + Darwin's Origin of Species (July 1860), vol. i., pp. 52-103. + +Wilson, Andrew.--Leisure-Time Studies, chiefly Biological. London, 1879, +8vo. + + References to Charles Darwin. + +---- Chapters on Evolution. London, 1883, 8vo. + + Numerous references to Charles Darwin. + +---- Studies in Life and Sense. With thirty-six illustrations. London, +1887, 8vo. + +Winn, J. M.--Darwin. Reprinted from The Journal of Psychological +Medicine, vol. viii., part 2. London [1883], 8vo. + +---- Modern Pseudo-Philosophy. London [1878], 8vo. + +Woodall, Edward.--Transactions of the Shropshire Archæological and +Natural History Society. Vol. viii., 1885. Shrewsbury [1885], 8vo. + + Contains a paper on Charles Darwin, contributed by Edward Woodall, + pp. 1-64, with a portrait and illustrations. + +---- Charles Darwin. A paper contributed to the Transactions of the +Shropshire Archæological Society. London [1884], 8vo. + +Worsley-Benison, H. W. S.--Charles Darwin. [Reprinted from the Journal +of Microscopy and Natural Science.] Bath, 1886, 8vo. + +Wright, Chauncey.--Darwinism: being an examination of Mr. St. George +Mivart's Genesis of Species. [Reprinted from the 'North American +Review,' July 1871, with additions.] London, 1871, 8vo. + +Yates, E. H.--Celebrities at Home. Reprinted from "The World." London, +1877, 8vo. + + Mr. Darwin at Down. Second series, pp. 223-230. + +Yorke, J. F.--Notes on Evolution and Christianity. London, 1882, 8vo. + +Young, J. R.--Modern Scepticism, viewed in relation to Modern Science; +more especially in reference to the doctrines of Colenso, Huxley, Lyell, +and Darwin, etc. London, 1865, 8vo. + +Zacharias, Otto.--Zur Entwicklungstheorie. Jena, 1876, 8vo. + +---- Charles R. Darwin und die culturhistorische Bedeutung seiner +Theorie vom Ursprung der Arten. Berlin, 1882, 8vo. + + +MAGAZINE ARTICLES. + +Darwin, Charles Robert. + + --Unsere Zeit, by J. Schönemann, Bd. 7, 1863, pp. 699-718. + --Ergänzungsblätter zur Kenntniss der Gegenwart, by J. B. Carus, + Bd. 3, 1868, pp. 46-48. + --Every Saturday, with portrait, vol. 10, p. 347. + --Eclectic Magazine, with portrait, vol. 13, N.S., 1871, pp. 757, 758. + --Appleton's Journal of Literature, with portrait, vol. 3, 1870, + pp. 439-441. + --Penn Monthly Magazine, vol. 2, 1871, pp. 469-472. + --Once a Week, with portrait, vol. 9, third series, 1872, pp. 520-523. + --Popular Science Monthly, with portrait, vol. 2, 1873, pp. 497, 498. + --Nature, with portrait, by Asa Gray, vol. 10, 1874, pp. 79-81; + same article, Popular Science Monthly, vol. 5, 1874, pp. 475-480; + American Naturalist, vol. 8, 1874, pp. 473-479. + --Dublin University Magazine, with portrait, vol. 2, N.S., 1878, + pp. 154-163. + --Men of Mark, with portrait, third series, 1878. + --Times, April 21, 1882. + --American Journal of Science, by Asa Gray, vol. 24, 1882, pp. 453-463. + --Wesleyan Methodist Magazine, by W. Spiers, vol. 105, 1882, + pp. 488-494. + --Saturday Review, April 22, 1882, pp. 481, 482. + --Athenæum, April 29, 1882, pp. 541, 542, and May 13, pp. 604, 605. + --Academy, by Grant Allen, April 29, 1882, pp. 306, 307. + --Journal of Botany, by A. W. Bennett, vol. 11, N.S., 1882, + pp. 165-168. + --Atlantic Monthly, by John Fiske, vol. 49, 1882, pp. 835-845. + --American Naturalist, vol. 16, 1882, pp. 487-490. + --Dial, by David S. Jordan, vol. 3, 1882, pp. 2-4. + --Zoologist, vol. 6, third series, 1882, pp. 193-196. + --Unsere Zeit, by J. Victor Carus, Bd. 2, 1882, pp. 200-226. + --Spectator, 1882, pp. 525, 526, 557, 558. + --Inquirer, by W. Binns, May 6, 1882, pp. 297, 298. + --Nature, vol. 26, 1882, pp. 49-51, 73-75, 97-100, 145-147, 169-171, + reprinted in _Nature Series_, 1882. + --Geological Magazine, vol. 9, N.S., 1882, pp. 239, 240. + --Journal of Microscopy, by H. W. S. Worsley-Benison, vol. 5, 1886, + pp. 69-92; reprinted same year. + +---- _and Chemistry._ Christian Scientific Magazine, by Andrew Taylor, +April 1887. + +---- _and Copernicus._ Nature, by Du Bois Reymond, vol. 27, 1883, +pp. 557, 558. + +---- _and Evolution._ Church Quarterly Review, vol. 14, 1882, +pp. 347-367. + +---- _and Galiani._ Popular Science Monthly, by Prof. Emil du +Bois-Reymond, vol. 14, 1879, pp. 409-425. + +---- _and Haeckel._ Popular Science Monthly, by Professor Huxley, +vol. 6, 1875, pp. 592-598. + +---- _and his Teachings._ Quarterly Journal of Science, illustrated, +vol. 3, 1866, pp. 151-176. + +---- _and Pangenesis._ Scientific Opinion, vol. 2, 1869, +pp. 365-367, 391-393, 407, 408. + + --Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. 5, 1868, pp. 295-313. + +---- _Pangenesis as applied to the faculty of memory._ Journal of +Anthropology, by Alfred Sanders, Oct. 1870, pp. 144-149. + +---- _and Philosophy._ Contemporary Review, by Sir A. Grant, vol. 17, +1871, pp. 275-281; same article, Littell's Living Age, vol. 109, 1871, +pp. 626-631. + +---- _e la Filosofia del Secolo XIX._ Rivista Europea, by C. Bizzozero, +vol. 29, 1882, pp. 5-34. + +---- _and Spencer, Huxley, and Tyndall._ Dickinson's Theological Annual, +by George B. Cheever, 1875, pp. 418-441. + +---- _Animals and Plants under Domestication._ Boston Review, by C. R. +Bliss, vol. 9, 1869, pp. 453-462. + + --Student and Intellectual Observer, vol. 1, 1868, pp. 179-188. + --Westminster Review, vol. 35, N.S., 1869, pp. 207-227. + --Harper's New Monthly Magazine, vol. 36, 1867, pp. 58-63. + --Nuova Antologia, by P. Mantegazza, tom. 8, 1868, pp. 70-98. + --Das Ausland, No. 10, 1868, pp. 217-224; + No. 11, pp. 246-251, and 281-286. + +---- _Answered._ Penn Monthly Magazine, vol. 6, 1875, pp. 368-372. + +---- _as a Botanist._ Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, by Lester +F. Ward, vol. 25, 1883, pp. 81-86. + +---- _as a Horticulturist._ Gardeners' Chronicle, with portrait, March +6th, 1875, pp. 308, 309. + +---- _before the French Academy._ Nature, vol. 2, 1870, pp. 261, 298, +and 309. + + --Das Ausland, 1870, pp. 855-857. + +---- _Biography of._ Biograph, vol. 6, 1881, pp. 525-529. + + --Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, by William H. Dall, vol. 25, + 1883, pp. 56-59. + +---- _Contributions to Philosophy._ Smithsonian Miscellaneous +Collections, by John W. Powell, vol. 25, 1883, pp. 60-70. + +---- _Critics on._ Contemporary Review, by T. H. Huxley, vol. 18, 1871, +pp. 443-476; reprinted in Critiques and Addresses, by Huxley, 1873. + +---- _et ses Critiques._ Revue des Deux Mondes, by Auguste Laugel, tome +74, sêconde période, 1868, pp. 130-156. + +---- _und seine Gegner._ Aus Ausland, 1871, pp. 88-91. + +---- _Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom._ American +Journal of Science, by Asa Gray, vol. 13, 3rd Series, 1877, pp. 125-141. + + --Nature, by W. T. Thiselton Dyer, vol. 15, 1877, pp. 329-332. + +---- _Debt of Science to._ Illustrated. Century, by Alfred R. Wallace, +vol. 25, 1883, pp. 420-432. + +---- _Descent of Man._ Academy, by Alfred R. Wallace, vol. 2, 1871, +pp. 177-183. + + --Athenæum, March 4, 1871, pp. 275-277. + --Saturday Review, vol. 31, 1871, pp. 276, 277, and 315, 316. + --All the Year Round, vol. 5, N.S., 1871, pp. 445-450. + --Nature, by P. H. Pye-Smith, vol. 3, 1871, pp. 442-444, and 463-465. + --Revue des Deux Mondes, by R. Radau, vol. 95, 1871, pp. 675-690. + --Monthly Religious Magazine, vol. 45, p. 501. + --Southern Review, vol. 9, 1871, pp. 733-738. + --Lutheran Quarterly, by C. Thomas, vol. 2, pp. 213, etc., and 346, etc. + --Nation, by B. G. Wilder, vol. 12, 1871, pp. 258-260. + --Month, by A. Weld, vol. 15, 1871, pp. 71-101. + --Old and New, vol. 3, 1871, pp. 594-600. + --Quarterly Journal of Psychological Society, vol. 5, 1871, pp. 550-566. + --British and Foreign Evangelical Review, by J. R. Leebody, vol. 21, + 1872, pp. 1-35. + --Edinburgh Review, vol. 134, 1871, pp. 195-235. + --Quarterly Review, vol. 131, 1871, pp. 47-90; + same article, Eclectic Magazine, vol. 14, N.S., pp. 385-404, 605-611; + Littell's Living Age, vol. 23, 4th series, pp. 67-90. + --Canadian Monthly, by H. Alleyne Nicholson, vol. 1, 1872, pp. 35-45. + --Westminster Review, vol. 42, N.S., 1872, pp. 378-400. + --Baptist Quarterly, by E. Nisbet, vol. 7, 1873, pp. 204-227. + --Brownson's Quarterly Review, July, 1873, pp. 340-352. + --Journal of Speculative Philosophy, by J. H. Pepper, vol. 10, 1876, + pp. 134-141. + --Charing Cross, by J. C. Hodgson, vol. 6 N.S., 1878, pp. 254-266. + +---- _Doctrine of._ Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, by Theodore +Gill, vol. 25, 1883, pp. 47-55. + +---- _Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals._ St. Paul's +Magazine, by Henry Holbeach, vol. 12, 1873, pp. 190-211. + + --Edinburgh Review, vol. 137, 1873, pp. 492-528; + same article, Littell's Living Age, vol. 118, 1873, pp. 3-23. + --Academy, by Anton Dohrn, vol. 4, 1873, pp. 209-212. + --Athenæum, Nov. 9 and 16, 1872, pp. 591 and 631, 632. + --Saturday Review, vol. 34, 1872, pp. 633-635. + --Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, by Frank Baker, vol. 25, 1883, + pp. 87-92. + --Revue Scientifique, by A. Bain, vol. 7, 1874, pp. 433-441. + +---- _Facts and Fancies of._ Good Words, by David Brewster, 1862, +pp. 3-9. + +---- _His Biographers and his Traducer._ Journal of Science, vol. 5, 3rd +series, 1883, pp. 203-210. + +---- _His Mistake._ Catholic World, vol. 39, 1884, pp. 289-300. + +---- _His Work in Entomology._ Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, +vol. 25, 1883, pp. 70-81. + +---- _Hypotheses of._ Fortnightly Review, by G. H. Lewes, vol. 9, 1868, +pp. 353-373, 611-628, and vol. 10, pp. 61-80, 492-509. + +---- _Hypothesis and Design in Nature._ Dickinson's Theological Annual, +by George F. White, 1877, pp. 404-419. + +---- _Insectivorous Plants._ Nature, by Alfred W. Bennett, vol. 12, +1875, pp. 207-209, and 228-231. + +---- _Life and Work._ Modern Review, by W. B. Carpenter, vol. 3, 1882, +pp. 500-524. + + --Canadian Monthly, vol. 8, N.S., 1882, pp. 540-542. + +---- _On a Future State._ Spectator, 1882, p. 1249. + +---- _On Coral Reefs._ Nature, by James D. Dana, vol. 10, 1874, +pp. 408-410. + + --Nature, by John Murray, vol. 22, 1880, pp. 351-354. + --Proc. of the Royal Society, Edinb., by John Murray, vol. 10, + pp. 505-518 [abstract]. + +---- _On Earth Worms._ Fraser's Magazine, by F. A. Paley, vol. 25, N.S., +1882, pp. 46-53. + + --Nature, by George J. Romanes, vol. 24, 1881, pp. 563-556. + --Academy, by H. N. Moseley, vol. 20, 1881, pp. 313, 314. + --Athenæum, Oct. 15, 1881, pp. 499, 500. + --Saturday Review, vol. 52, 1881, pp. 578, 579. + +---- _On His Travels._ Penn Monthly, by R. E. Thompson, vol. 2, 1871, +pp. 562-572. + +---- _On Orchids._ + + --Weldon's Register, by W. B. Tegetmeier, 1862, pp. 38, 39. + --Popular Science Review, vol. 1, N.S., 1877, pp. 174-180. + --Edinburgh New Philosophical Magazine, vol. 16, N.S., 1862, + pp. 277-285. + --Das Ausland, No. 29, 1862, pp. 681-685. + --Das Ausland, No. 13, 1865, pp. 294-297, and No. 14, pp. 319-322. + +---- _Origin of Species._ + + --Saturday Review, vol. 8, 1859, pp. 775, 776. + --Athenæum, Nov. 19, 1859, pp. 659, 660. + --Quarterly Review, by S. Wilberforce, vol. 108, 1860, pp. 225-264. + --Edinburgh Review, vol. 111, 1860, pp. 487-532. + --Atlantic Monthly, by A. Gray, vol. 6, 1860, pp. 109-116, and 229-239. + --Westminster Review, by T. H. Huxley, vol. 17, N.S., 1860, pp. 541-570. + --American Journal of Science, reprinted in Lay Sermons, etc. 1860, by + A. Gray, vol. 79, 1860, pp. 153-184. + --National Review, vol. 10, 1860, pp. 188-214. + --North British Review, vol. 32, 1860, pp. 455-486; + vol. 46, 1867, pp. 277-318. + --Christian Examiner, by J. A. Lowell, vol. 68, 1860, pp. 449-464. + --British Quarterly Review, vol. 31, 1860, pp. 398-421; + same article, Eclectic Magazine, vol. 50, pp. 331-345. + --Eclectic Review, vol. 3, N.S., 1860, pp. 217-242. + --Chambers's Journal, vol. 12, 1860, pp. 388-391. + --London Review, vol. 14, pp. 281-308. + --American Presbyterian Review, vol. 20, pp. 349, etc. + --Macmillan's Magazine, by Henry Fawcett, vol. 3, 1860, pp. 81-92. + --Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol. 2, N.S., 1860, pp. 280-289. + --Revue des Deux Mondes, by A. Laugel, tom. 26, 1860, pp. 644-671. + --Christian Observer, vol. 60, 1860, pp. 561-574. + --Canadian Journal, vol. 5, N.S., pp. 367, etc. + --Canadian Journal, by W. Hincks, vol. 8, N.S., pp. 390, etc. + --American Journal of Science, vol. 80, by F. Bowen, 1860, pp. 226-239. + --North American Review, vol. 90, 1860, pp. 474-506. + --Register of Literature, Aug. 1860, pp. 1-7. + --Das Ausland, No. 5, 1860, pp. 97-101, 135-140; + No. 4, 1867, pp. 73-80; + No. 3, 1870, pp. 59-62. + --Revue Germanique, by E. Claperède, tom. 16, 1861, pp. 523-559, and + tom. 17, pp. 232-263. + --Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool, + by H. H. Higgins, No. 15, 1861, pp. 42-49, and pp. 135-140. + --Methodist Quarterly Review, by W. C. Wilson, vol. 43, 1861, + pp. 605-627. + --American Quarterly Church Review, vol. 17, 1865, pp. 169-198. + --Revue des Deux Mondes, by George Pouchet, tom. 85, 1870, pp. 691-703. + --Revue des Deux Mondes, by A. de Quatrefages; + vol. 78, 1868, pp. 832-860, _Les Précurseurs Français de Darwin_; + vol. 79, pp. 208-240, _La Théorie de Darwin_; + vol. 80, pp. 64-95 and 397-452, _Discussion des Théories + Transformistes_; + vol. 80, pp. 638-672, _Théories de la Transformation progressive et + de la Transformation brusque_; + _Origine Simienne de l'homme_. + --Fortnightly Review, by G. H. Lewes, vol. 9, 1868, pp. 353-373, and + 611-628. + --Nation, by B. G. Wilder, vol. 12, 1871, pp. 199-201. + --Month, by A. Weld, vol. 4, N.S., 1871, pp. 71-101. + --Monthly Religious Magazine, vol. 50, pp. 496, etc. + --Nature, by A. W. Bennett, vol. 5, 1872, pp. 318, 319. + +---- ---- _Agassiz' Views of the Origin of Species._ Proceedings of +Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool, by C. Collingwood, No. +15, 1861, pp. 81-99. + +---- ---- _A Characterisation of the Origin of Species._ Journal of +Science, by Oswald Dawson, vol. 7, 3rd Ser., 1885, pp. 441-458. + +---- ---- _Criticisms on the Origin of Species._ Natural History Review, +by T. H. Huxley, vol. 4, 1864, pp. 566-580; reprinted in Lay Sermons, 1870. + +---- ---- _Coming of Age of the Origin of Species._ Nature, by T. H. +Huxley, vol. 22, 1880, pp. 1-4; + same article, Popular Science Monthly, vol. 17, 1880, pp. 337-344. + +---- _Philosophy of Language._ Fraser's Magazine, by Professor Max +Müller, vol. 7, N.S., 1873, pp. 525-541 and 659-678, and vol. 8, N.S., +pp. 1-24; + same article, Eclectic Magazine, vol. 18, N.S., pp. 75-88, 148-163, +and 257-275. + +---- ---- _Max Müller on._ Proceedings of Literary and Philosophical +Society of Liverpool, No. 27, 1873, pp. xli-liii. + +---- _Phrenological Delineation of._ Phrenological Magazine, with +portrait, vol. 1, 1880, pp. 89-92. + +---- _Power of Movement in Plants._ Saturday Review, vol. 51, 1881, +pp. 57, 58. + + --Edinburgh Review, vol. 153, 1881, pp. 497-514. + --Academy, by George Henslow, vol. 19, 1881, pp. 120-122. + --Athenæum, Dec. 18, 1880, pp. 817, 818. + --Journal of Botany, vol. 10, 1881, pp. 375-381. + --Nation, by Asa Gray, Jan. 6 and 13, 1876; + reprinted in Darwiniana, by Asa Gray, 1876. + --Dial, by David S. Jordan, vol. 1, 1881, pp. 255-257. + +---- _Reminiscence of._ Harper's New Monthly Magazine (portrait), by +James D. Hague, vol. 69, 1884, pp. 759-763. + +---- _Studies in._ American Church Review, by J. F. Garrison, vol. 27, +1875, pp. 197-218. + +---- _Testimonial to, in the Netherlands._ American Naturalist, vol. 11, +1877, pp. 295-300. + +---- _Theories of._ Dial, by A. L. Chapin, vol. 3, 1882, pp. 168, 169. + +---- _Theory of Instinct._ Nineteenth Century, by G. F. Romanes, vol. 16, +1884, pp. 434-450. + +---- _Works of._ Westminster Review, N.S., vol. 62, 1882, pp. 85-121. + +_Darwinian Eden._--Overland Monthly, by M. G. Upton, vol. 7, 1871, pp. +159-166. + +_Darwinian Idea._--Every Saturday, vol. 10, pp. 414, etc. + +_Darwinism._ + + --Christian Examiner, by J. A. Lowell, vol. 68, 1860, pp. 449-464. + --Dublin Review, vol. 48, 1860, pp. 50-81. + --Unitarian Review, by W. H. Furness, vol. 5, p. 291, etc. + --Unitarian Review, by L. J. Livermore, vol. 3, p. 237, etc. + --Morgenblatt, 1862, pp. 1-6, 31-36. + --Unsere Zeit, by M. J. Schleiden, Jahr. 5, pp. 50-71, and 258-277. + --Eclectic Review, vol. 4, N.S. 1863, pp. 337-345. + --Gazette Hebdomadaire de Médecine et de Chirurgie, by Dr. Fée 1864, + pp. 289-292, 321-323, 337-342, 353-357, 409-413, 427-432, 481-484. + --Ergänzungsblätter zur Kenntniss der Gegenwart, Bd. 1. 1866, by G. + Jaeger, pp. 291-294; + Bd. 4, 1869, by J. Huber, pp. 607-615, 670-678, 728-739. + --Atlantic Monthly, by C. J. Sprague, vol. 18, 1866, pp. 415-425. + --New Englander, by W. N. Rice, vol. 26, 1867, pp. 603-635. + --Student and Intellectual Observer, vol. 1, 1868, pp. 179-188. + --Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists' Society, by Charles Jecks, + vol. 3, N.S., pp, 107-113. + --American Quarterly Church Review, vol. 21, 1870, pp. 524-536. + --Das Ausland, by M. Wagner, 1871, pp. 289-293, 322-327, 343-347, + 535-540, 559-564, 865-870, 891-894, 913-918, 946-948, 1057-1061, + 1081-1085. + --Bibliotheca Sacra, by F. Gardiner, vol. 29, 1872, pp. 240-289. + --Transatlantic, vol. 1, 1872, pp. 139-146. + --Catholic World, by F. Smith, vol. 17, 1873, pp. 641-655. + --Southern Review, vol. 12, 1873, pp. 406-423. + --Old and New, by George M. Kellogg, vol. 8, 1873, pp. 283-292. + --Baptist Quarterly, by E. Nisbet, vol. 7, 1873, pp. 69-87, and 204-227. + --Congregational Review, by S. Adams, vol. 11, pp. 233, etc., 338, etc. + --New Englander, by L. T. Adams, vol. 33, 1874, pp. 741-769. + --Old and New, by G. Axford, vol. 6, pp. 655-663. + --Scribner's Monthly, by J. B. Drury, vol. 10, 1875, pp. 348-360. + --Tinsleys' Magazine, by W. H. Penning, vol. 19, 1876, pp. 515-523. + --Bibliotheca Sacra, by G. F. Wright, vol. 33, 1876, pp. 656-694. + --Catholic World, by J. Bayne, vol. 26, 1878, pp. 496-511. + --Atlantic Monthly, by William James, vol. 46, 1880, pp. 441-459. + --Nature, by George J. Romanes, Feb, 1887, pp. 362-364. + +---- _Analogies with Calvinism Bibliotheca Sacra_, by Geo. F. Wright, +vol. 37, 1880, pp. 48-76. + +---- _and Agassiz._ Popular Science Monthly, by John Fiske, vol. 3, +1873, pp. 692-705. + +---- _and Chemistry._ Christian Science Magazine, by A. Taylor, April +1887. + +---- _and Christianity._ Lakeside Monthly, by E. O. Haven, vol. 7, 1872, +pp. 302-318. + + --Baptist Magazine, vol. 74, 1882, pp. 245-253. + +---- _Man in, and in Christianity._ American Church Review, vol. 24, +1872, pp. 288-299. + +---- _and Design, St. Clair on._ Dublin Review, vol. 23, N.S., 1874, pp. +232-240. + +---- _and Divinity._ Fraser's Magazine, by Leslie Stephen, vol. 5, N.S., +1872, pp. 409-421; + same article, Popular Science Monthly, vol. 1, 1872, pp. 188-202. + +---- _and its Effects upon Religious Thought._ Jour. of the Trans. of +the Victoria Institute, by C. R. Bree, vol. 7, 1874, pp. 253-570. + +---- ---- Discussion on preceding, pp. 270-285. + +---- _and Language._ North American Review, by W. D. Whitney, vol. 119, +1874, pp. 61-88. + + --Das Ausland, No. 17, 1864, pp. 397-399. + +---- _and Language, Schleicher on._ Nature, by Max Müller, vol. 1, 1870, +pp. 256-259. + +---- _and Morality._ Canadian Monthly, by John Watson, vol. 10, 1876, +pp. 319-326. + + --Spectator, 1867, pp. 1255, 1256. + +---- _and National Life._ Nature, vol. 1, 1869, pp. 183, 184. + +---- _and Religion._ Macmillan's Magazine, vol. 24, 1871, pp. 45-51; + same article, Eclectic Magazine, vol. 14, N.S., 1871, pp. 25-31, and + Littell's Living Age, vol. 109, 1871, pp. 621-626. + +---- _and Schopenhauer._ Journal of Anthropology, by Dr. D. Asher, Jan. +1871, pp. 312-332. + +---- _An Exegesis of, by Oswald Dawson._ Journal of Science, vol. 6, 3rd +series, 1884, pp. 725-738. + +---- _Application of, to Flowers and the Insects which visit them._ +American Naturalist, by E. Muller, vol. 5, 1871, pp. 271-297. + +---- _Attitude of Working Naturalists towards._ Nation, by Asa Gray, +vol. 17, 1873, pp. 258-261; reprinted in Darwiniana, by Asa Gray, 1876. + +---- _Bateman on._ Dublin Review, vol. 31, N.S., 1878, pp. 139-152. + + --Nation, by J. Fiske, vol. 27, 1878, pp. 367, 368. + +---- _Credibility of._ Jour. of the Trans. of the Victoria Institute, by +Geo. Warington, vol. 2, 1867, pp. 39-62. + + ---- ---- Reply to preceding Paper, by James Reddie, vol. 2, 1867, pp. + 63-85. + + ---- ---- Discussion on same, pp. 85-125. + +---- _Dangers of._ Popular Science Monthly, vol. 15, 1879, pp. 68-71. + +---- _Deduction from._ Nature, by W. Stanley Jevons, vol. 1, 1870, pp. +231, 232. + +---- _Development Theory in._ Das Ausland, No. 14, 1863, pp. 325-331. + +---- _Difficulties of._ Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. 12, 1875, pp. +322-336. + +---- _Ethical Aspect of._ Canadian Monthly, by J. Watson, vol. 11, 1878, +pp. 638-644. + +---- _Fallacies of, Dr. Bree on._ Dublin Review, vol. 23, N.S., 1874, +pp. 240-246. + + --Nature, by Alfred R. Wallace, vol. 5, 1872, pp. 237-239. + +---- _Fiske on._ Nature, vol. 20, 1879, pp. 575, 576. + +---- _Frolic in Space._ Lakeside, by J. M. Binckley, vol. 8, pp. 446, etc. + +---- _Gray's Darwiniana._ Nation, by H. W. Holland, vol. 23, 1876, +pp. 358, 359. + +---- _Great Difficulty of._ Nature, by L. S. Beale, vol. 5, 1872, +pp. 63, 64. + +---- _Haeckel's Reply to Virchow._ Nation, by H. T. Finck, vol. 28, 1879, +pp. 320-322. + +---- _Historic Development of._ Baptist Quarterly, by G. W. Samson, +vol. 11, 1877, pp. 29-38. + +---- _Infallibility in._ Dublin University Magazine, vol. 6, N.S., 1880, +pp. 641-669. + +---- _in Germany._ North American Review, by C. L. Brace, vol. 110, 1870, +pp. 284-299. + + --Nation, by C. Wright, vol. 21, 1875, pp. 168-170. + --Anthropological Review, vol. 6, 1868, pp. 21-26. + +---- _in Morals._ Canadian Monthly, by J. A. Allen, vol. 11, 1878, +pp. 490-501. + + --Theological Review, by F. P. Cobbe, vol. 8, 1871, pp. 167-192. + +---- _Its Value as a Cosmological Theory._ Cape Monthly Magazine, by the +Rev. J. Turnbull, vol. 11, N.S. 1875, pp. 184-188 and 212-225. + +---- _Last Attack on._ Nature, by A. R. Wallace, vol. 6, 1872, +pp. 237-239. + +---- _Latest Development of._ London Quarterly Review, vol. 57, 1882, +pp. 371-391. + +---- _Missing Links in._ Gentleman's Magazine, by Andrew Wilson, 1879, +pp. 298-320. + +---- _Mivart on._ Dublin Review, vol. 16, N.S., 1871, pp. 482-486. + +---- _My Cousin the Gorilla._ Tinsley's Magazine, vol. 8, 1871, +pp. 395-399, and vol. 9, pp. 135-140. + +---- _New York "Nation" on, in Germany._ Popular Science Monthly, vol. 8, +1876, pp. 235-240. + +---- _Relation of, to other branches of Science._ Longman's Magazine, by +Robert S. Bell, vol. 3, 1884, pp. 76-92. + +---- _Ridiculous._ Lutheran Quarterly, by W. Streissguth, vol. 5, +pp. 404, etc. + +---- _Science against._ University Quarterly, by J. Moore, vol. 35, pp. +186, etc. + +---- _Some Popular Misconceptions of._ Proc. of the Literary and Phil. +Soc. of Liverpool, by S. Fletcher-Williams, No. 36, 1882, pp. 133-156. + +---- _Strictures on._ Anthropological Journal, by H. H. Howorth, vol. 2, +1873, pp. 21-40; + vol. 3, pp. 208-229; + vol. 4, pp. 101-121. + +---- _Studies in._ American Church Review, by J. F. Garrison, vol. 27, +1875, pp. 197-218. + +---- _tested by recent researches in language._ Jour. of the Trans. of +the Victoria Institute, by Fred. Bateman, vol. 7, 1874, pp. 73-95. + +---- _Theological Import of._ Christian Observer, vol. 73, p. 623, etc. + +---- _Triumph of._ North American Review, by J. Fiske, vol. 124, 1877, +pp. 90-106. + +---- _True and False in._ Journal of Speculative Philosophy, by E. von +Hartmann, vol. 11, 1877, pp. 244-251, and 392-399; + vol. 12, pp. 138-145; + vol. 13, pp. 139-150. + +---- versus _Philosophy_. Southern Review, vol. 13, 1873, pp. 253-273. + +---- _What is?_ Nation, by A. Gray, vol. 18, 1874, pp. 348-351; +reprinted in _Darwiniana_, by Asa Gray, 1876. + + + + +IV.--CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF WORKS. + + +Journal of Researches 1839 + +Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs 1842 + +Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands visited + during the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle 1844 + +Geological Observations on South America 1846 + +Monograph on the Fossil Lepadidæ 1851 + +Monograph of the Cirripedia 1851-54 + +Monograph of the Fossil Balanidæ 1854 + +On the Origin of Species 1859 + +On the Various Contrivances by which Orchids are fertilised 1862 + +Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants 1865 + +The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication 1868 + +The Descent of Man 1871 + +The Expression of the Emotions 1872 + +Insectivorous Plants 1875 + +The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the + Vegetable Kingdom 1876 + +The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the same Species 1877 + +The Power of Movement in Plants 1880 + +The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms 1881 + + + + + * * * * * + + + The Canterbury Poets. + + Edited by William Sharp. + + WITH INTRODUCTORY NOTICES BY VARIOUS CONTRIBUTORS + + +In SHILLING Monthly Volumes, Square 8vo. 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Davy's powerful and pathetic story, 'Jack Dudley's Wife,' +has been published by Mr. Walter Scott, London, in a shilling volume. +The tale is written with excellent skill, and succeeds in holding the +interest well up from first to last."--_Scotsman._ + + * * * * * + + POLICE SERGEANT C. 21: + THE STORY OF A CRIME. + + By REGINALD BARNETT. + +"The latest and most notable addition to the ranks of detective +story-tellers is Mr. Reginald Barnett, whose 'Police Sergeant C. 21' +(Walter Scott), although constructed on the familiar Gaborian system, is +nevertheless a work of far higher merit than any of its English +predecessors. Mr. Barnett has imagination and considerable graphic +power. He has conceived a plot of singular complication, which he works +out with much skill."--_Table._ + + * * * * * + + Oak-Bough and Wattle-Blossom + _STORIES AND SKETCHES BY AUSTRALIANS IN ENGLAND._ + + Edited by A. PATCHETT MARTIN. + + * * * * * + + Vane's Invention: An Electrical Romance + + By R. J. CHARLETON. + + + London: WALTER SCOTT, 24 Warwick Lane, Paternoster Row. + + + * * * * * + + + + + 100th THOUSAND. + + _CROWN 8vo, 440 PAGES, PRICE ONE SHILLING_ + + + THE WORLD OF CANT + + +"_Daily Telegraph._"--"Decidedly a book with a purpose." + +"_Scotsman._"--"A vigorous, clever, and almost ferocious exposure, in +the form of a story, of the numerous shams and injustices." + +"_Newcastle Weekly Chronicle._"--"Trenchant in sarcasm, warm in +commendation of high purpose.... A somewhat _remarkable book_." + +"_London Figaro._"--"It cannot be said that the author is partial; +clergymen and Nonconformist divines, Liberals and Conservatives, lawyers +and tradesmen, all come under his lash.... The sketches are worth +reading. Some of the characters are portrayed with considerable skill." + +"May the Lord deliver us from all Cant: may the Lord, whatever else He +do or forbear, teach us to look facts honestly in the face, and to +beware (with a kind of shudder) of smearing them over with our +despicable and damnable palaver into irrecognisability, and so +falsifying the Lord's own Gospels to His unhappy blockheads of Children, +all staggering down to Gehenna and the everlasting Swine's-trough, for +want of Gospels. + +"O Heaven! it is the most accursed sin of man: and done everywhere at +present, on the streets and high places at noonday! Verily, seriously I +say and pray as my chief orison, May the Lord deliver us from +it."--_Letter from Carlyle to Emerson._ + + + London: WALTER SCOTT, 24 Warwick Lane, Paternoster Row. + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's note: + +Corrected typographical errors: + +Page | original word | correction +--------+-----------------------------+------------------------ +172 | sketch | Sketch + " | infant | Infant +174 | round | Round +ii | 4° | 4to +vii | pp. | p. +ix | Selection | Sélection +x | Hæckel | Haeckel +xi | wissenchaftlicher | wissenschaftlicher +xiii | Entwickelungs-geschichte | Entwickelungsgeschichte +xiv | Universitá | Università + " | Verhältniss | Verhältnis +xvi | förtallande | förhållande + " | 8v | 8vo. + " | Unhaltbarkheit | Unhaltbarkeit +xviii | Descent of of | Descent of +xix | un | im + " | {blank} 698-767 | pp. 698-767 +xx | Especès | Espèces +xxi | Wissenchaft | Wissenschaft +xxiii | Kentniss | Kenntniss +xxvi | pp. pp. | pp. +xxvii | Francais | Français +xxviii | Ergänzungsblatter | Ergänzungsblätter + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIFE OF CHARLES DARWIN*** + + +******* This file should be named 28380-8.txt or 28380-8.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/8/3/8/28380 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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