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+Project Gutenberg's The Canadian Dominion, by Oscar D. Skelton
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+Title: The Canadian Dominion, a Chronicle of our Northern Neighbor
+
+Author: Oscar D. Skelton
+
+September, 2001  [Etext #2835]
+[Yes, we are about one year ahead of schedule]
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+Project Gutenberg's The Canadian Dominion, by Oscar D. Skelton
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+THIS BOOK, VOLUME 49 IN THE CHRONICLES OF AMERICA SERIES, ALLEN
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+THIS BOOK, VOLUME 49 IN THE CHRONICLES OF AMERICA SERIES, ALLEN
+JOHNSON, EDITOR, WAS DONATED TO PROJECT GUTENBERG BY THE JAMES J.
+KELLY LIBRARY OF ST. GREGORY'S UNIVERSITY; THANKS TO ALEV AKMAN.
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+
+THE CANADIAN DOMINION
+
+A CHRONICLE OF OUR NORTHERN NEIGHBOR
+
+BY OSCAR D. SKELTON
+
+NEW HAVEN: YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+TORONTO: GLASGOW, BROOK & CO.
+LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD
+OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
+1919
+Copyright, 1919, by Yale University Press
+
+PREFACE
+
+The history of Canada since the close of the French regime falls
+into three clearly marked half centuries. The first fifty years
+after the Peace of Paris determined that Canada was to maintain a
+separate existence under the British flag and was not to become a
+fourteenth colony or be merged with the United States. The second
+fifty years brought the winning of self-government and the
+achievement of Confederation. The third fifty years witnessed the
+expansion of the Dominion from sea to sea and the endeavor to
+make the unity of the political map a living reality--the
+endeavor to weld the far-flung provinces into one country, to
+give Canada a distinctive place in the Empire and in the world,
+and eventually in the alliance of peoples banded together in
+mankind's greatest task of enforcing peace and justice among
+nations.
+
+The author has found it expedient in this narrative to depart
+from the usual method of these Chronicles and arrange the matter
+in chronological rather than in biographical or topical
+divisions. The first period of fifty years is accordingly covered
+in one chapter, the second in two chapters, and the third in two
+chapters. Authorities and a list of publications for a more
+extended study will be found in the Bibliographical Note.
+
+O. D. S.
+
+QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY, KINGSTON, CANADA, July, 1919.
+
+CONTENTS
+
+I. THE FIRST FIFTY YEARS
+
+II. THE FIGHT FOR SELF-GOVERNMENT
+
+III. THE UNION ERA
+
+IV. THE DAYS OF TRIAL
+
+V. THE YEARS OF FULFILMENT
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
+
+THE CANADIAN DOMINION
+
+CHAPTER I. THE FIRST FIFTY YEARS
+
+Scarcely more than half a century has passed since the Dominion
+of Canada, in its present form, came into existence. But thrice
+that period has elapsed since the fateful day when Montcalm and
+Wolfe laid down their lives in battle on the Plains of Abraham,
+and the lands which now comprise the Dominion finally passed from
+French hands and came under British rule.
+
+The Peace of Paris, which brought the Seven Years' War to a close
+in 1763, marked the termination of the empire of France in the
+New World. Over the continent of North America, after that
+peacee, only two flags floated, the red and yellow banner of
+Spain and the Union Jack of Great Britain. Of these the Union
+Jack held sway over by far the larger domain--over the vague
+territories about Hudson Bay, over the great valley of the St.
+Lawrence, and over all the lands lying east of the Mississippi,
+save only New Orleans. To whom it would fall to develop this vast
+claim, what mighty empires would be carved out of the wilderness,
+where the boundary lines would run between the nations yet to be,
+were secrets the future held. Yet in retrospect it is now clear
+that in solving these questions the Peace of Paris played no
+inconsiderable part. By removing from the American colonies the
+menace of French aggression from the north it relieved them of a
+sense of dependence on the mother country and so made possible
+the birth of a new nation in the United States. At the same time,
+in the northern half of the continent, it made possible that
+other experiment in democracy, in the union of diverse races, in
+international neighborliness, and in the reconciliation of empire
+with liberty, which Canada presents to the whole world, and
+especially to her elder sister in freedom.
+
+In 1763 the territories which later were to make up the Dominion
+of Canada were divided roughly into three parts. These parts had
+little or nothing in common. They shared together neither
+traditions of suffering or glory nor ties of blood or trade.
+Acadia, or Nova Scotia, by the Atlantic, was an old French
+colony, now British for over a generation. Canada, or Quebec, on
+the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, with seventy thousand
+French habitants and a few hundred English camp followers, had
+just passed under the British flag. West and north lay the
+vaguely outlined domains of the Hudson's Bay Company, where the
+red man and the buffalo still reigned supreme and almost
+unchallenged.
+
+The old colony of Acadia, save only the island outliers, Cape
+Breton and Prince Edward Island, now ceded by the Peace of Paris,
+had been in British hands since 1713. It was not, however, until
+1749 that any concerted effort had been made at a settlement of
+this region. The menace from the mighty fortress which the French
+were rebuilding at that time at Louisbourg, in Cape Breton, and
+the hostility of the restless Acadians or old French settlers on
+the mainland, had compelled action and the British Government
+departed from its usual policy of laissez faire in matters of
+emigration. Twenty-five hundred English settlers were brought out
+to found and hold the town and fort of Halifax. Nearly as many
+Germans were planted in Lunenburg, where their descendants
+flourish to this day. Then the hapless Acadians were driven into
+exile and into the room they left, New Englanders of strictest
+Puritan ancestry came, on their own initiative, and built up new
+communities like those of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode
+Island. Other waves of voluntary immigration followed--Ulster
+Presbyterians, driven out by the attempt of England to crush the
+Irish woolen manufacture, and, still later, Highlanders, Roman
+Catholic and Presbyterian, who soon made Gaelic the prevailing
+tongue of the easternmost counties. By 1767 the colony of Nova
+Scotia, which then included all Acadia, north and east of Maine,
+had a prosperous population of some seven thousand Americans, two
+thousand Irish, two thousand Germans, barely a thousand English,
+and well over a thousand surviving Acadian French. In short, this
+northernmost of the Atlantic colonies appeared to be fast on the
+way to become a part of New England. It was chiefly New
+Englanders who had peopled it, and it was with New England that
+for many a year its whole social and commercial intercourse was
+carried on. It was no accident that Nova Scotia later produced
+the first Yankee humorist, "Sam Slick."
+
+With the future sister province of Canada, or Quebec, which lay
+along the St. Lawrence as far as the Great Lakes, Acadia or Nova
+Scotia had much less in common than with New England. Hundreds of
+miles of unbroken forest wilderness lay between the two colonies,
+and the sea lanes ran between the St. Lawrence, the Bay of Fundy,
+or Halifax and Havre or Plymouth, and not between Quebec and
+Halifax. Even the French settlers came of different stocks. The
+Acadians were chiefly men of La Rochelle and the Loire, while the
+Canadians came, for the most part, from the coast provinces
+stretching from Normandy and Picardy to Poitou and Bordeaux.
+
+The situation in Canada proper presented the British authorities
+with a problem new in their imperial experience. Hitherto, save
+for Acadia and New Netherland, where the settlers were few in
+numbers and, even in New Netherland, closely akin to the
+conquerors in race, religion, and speech, no colony containing
+men of European stocks had been acquired by conquest. Canada held
+some sixty or seventy thousand settlers, French and Catholic
+almost to a man. Despite the inefficiency of French colonial
+methods the plantation had taken firm root. The colony had
+developed a strength, a social structure, and an individuality
+all its own. Along the St. Lawrence and the Richelieu the
+settlements lay close and compact; the habitants' whitewashed
+cottages lined the river banks only a few arpents apart. The
+social cohesion of the colony was equally marked. Alike in
+government, in religion, and in industry, it was a land where
+authority was strong. Governor and intendant, feudal seigneur,
+bishop and Jesuit superior, ruled each in his own sphere and
+provided a rigid mold and framework for the growth of the colony.
+There were, it is true, limits to the reach of the arm of
+authority. Beyond Montreal stretched a vast wilderness merging at
+some uncertain point into the other wilderness that was
+Louisiana. Along the waterways which threaded this great No Man's
+Land the coureurs-de-bois roamed with little heed to law or
+license, glad to escape from the paternal strictness that irked
+youth on the lower St. Lawrence. But the liberty of these rovers
+of the forest was not liberty after the English pattern; the
+coureur-de-bois was of an entirely different type from the
+pioneers of British stock who were even then pushing their way
+through the gaps in the Alleghanies and making homes in the
+backwoods. Priest and seigneur, habitant and coureur-de-bois were
+one and all difficult to fit into accepted English ways. Clearly
+Canada promised to strain the digestive capacity of the British
+lion.
+
+The present western provinces of the Dominion were still the
+haunt of Indian and buffalo. French-Canadian explorers and fur
+traders, it is true, had penetrated to the Rockies a few years
+before the Conquest, and had built forts on Lake Winnipeg, on the
+Assiniboine and Red rivers, and at half a dozen portages on the
+Saskatchewan. But the "Company of Adventurers of England trading
+into Hudson's Bay" had not yet ventured inland, still content to
+carry on its trade with the Indians from its forts along the
+shores of that great sea. On the Pacific the Russians had coasted
+as far south as Mount Saint Elias, but no white man, so far as is
+known, had set foot on the shores of what is now British
+Columbia.
+
+Two immediate problems were bequeathed to the British Government
+by the Treaty of Paris: what was to be done with the unsettled
+lands between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi; and how were
+the seventy thousand French subjects in the valley of the St.
+Lawrence to be dealt with? The first difficulty was not solved.
+It was merely postponed. The whole back country of the English
+colonies was proclaimed an Indian reserve where the King's white
+subjects might trade but might not acquire land. This policy was
+not devised in order to set bounds to the expansion of the older
+colonies; that was an afterthought. The policy had its root in an
+honest desire to protect the Indians from the frauds of
+unscrupulous traders and from the encroachments of settlers on
+their hunting grounds. The need of a conciliatory, if firm,
+policy in regard to the great interior was made evident by the
+Pontiac rising in 1763, the aftermath of the defeat of the
+French, who had done all they could to inspire the Indians with
+hatred for the advancing English.
+
+How to deal with Canada was a more thorny problem. The colony had
+not been sought by its conquerors for itself. It was counted of
+little worth. The verdict of its late possessors, as recorded in
+Voltaire's light farewell to "a few arpents of snow," might be
+discounted as an instance of sour grapes; but the estimate of its
+new possessors was evidently little higher, since they debated
+long and dubiously whether in the peace settlement they should
+retain Canada or the little sugar island of Guadeloupe, a mere
+pin point on the map. Canada had been conquered not for the good
+it might bring but for the harm it was doing as a base for French
+attack upon the English colonies--"the wasps" nest must be smoked
+out." But once it had been taken, it had to be dealt with for
+itself.
+
+The policy first adopted was a simple one, natural enough for
+eighteenth-century Englishmen. They decided to make Canada* over
+in the image of the old colonies, to turn the "new subjects," as
+they were called, in good time into Englishmen and Protestants. A
+generation or two would suffice, in the phrase of Francis
+Maseres--himself a descendant of a Huguenot refugee but now
+wholly an Englishman--for "melting down the French nation into
+the English in point of language, affections, religion, and
+laws." Immigration was to be encouraged from Britain and from the
+other American colonies, which, in the view of the Lords of
+Trade, were already overstocked and in danger of being forced by
+the scarcity or monopoly of land to take up manufactures which
+would compete with English wares. And since it would greatly
+contribute to speedy settlement, so the Royal Proclamation of
+1763 declared, that the King's subjects should be informed of his
+paternal care for the security of their liberties and properties,
+it was promised that, as soon as circumstances would permit, a
+General Assembly would be summoned, as in the older colonies. The
+laws of England, civil and criminal, as near as might be, were to
+prevail. The Roman Catholic subjects were to be free to profess
+their own religion, "so far as the laws of Great Britain permit,"
+but they were to be shown a better way. To the first Governor
+instructions were issued "that all possible Encouragement shall
+be given to the erecting Protestant Schools in the said
+Districts, Townships and Precincts, by settling and appointing
+and allotting proper Quantities of Land for that Purpose and also
+for a Glebe and Maintenance for a Protestant minister and
+Protestant schoolmasters." Thus in the fullness of time, like
+Acadia, but without any Evangelise of Grand Pre, without any
+drastic policy of expulsion, impossible with seventy thousand
+people scattered over a wide area, even Canada would become a
+good English land, a newer New England.
+
+* The Royal Proclamation of 1763 set the bounds of the new
+colony. They were surprisingly narrow, a mere strip along both
+sides of the St. Lawrence from a short distance beyond the Ottawa
+on the west, to the end of the Gasps peninsula on the east. The
+land to the northeast was put under the jurisdiction of the
+Governor of Newfoundland, and the Great Lakes region was included
+in the territory reserved for the Indians.
+
+
+It is questionable whether this policy could ever have achieved
+success even if it had been followed for generations without rest
+or turning. But it was not destined to be given a long trial.
+From the very beginning the men on the spot, the soldier
+Governors of Canada, urged an entirely contrary policy on the
+Home Government, and the pressure of events soon brought His
+Majesty's Ministers to concur.
+
+As the first civil Governor of Canada, the British authorities
+chose General Murray, one of Wolfe's ablest lieutenants, who
+since 1760 had served as military Governor of the Quebec
+district. He was to be aided in his task by a council composed of
+the Lieutenant Governors of Montreal and Three Rivers, the Chief
+Justice, the head of the customs, and eight citizens to be named
+by the Governor from "the most considerable of the persons of
+property" in the province.
+
+The new Governor was a blunt, soldierly man, upright and just
+according to his lights, but deeply influenced by his military
+and aristocratic leanings. Statesmen thousands of miles away
+might plan to encourage English settlers and English political
+ways and to put down all that was French. To the man on the spot
+English settlers meant "the four hundred and fifty contemptible
+sutlers and traders" who had come in the wake of the army from
+New England and New York, with no proper respect for their
+betters, and vulgarly and annoyingly insistent upon what they
+claimed to be their rights. The French might be alien in speech
+and creed, but at least the seigneurs and the higher clergy were
+gentlemen, with a due respect for authority, the King's and their
+own, and the habitants were docile, the best of soldier stuff.
+"Little, very little," Murray wrote in 1764 to the Lords of
+Trade, "will content the New Subjects, but nothing will satisfy
+the Licentious Fanaticks Trading here, but the expulsion of the
+Canadians, who are perhaps the bravest and best race upon the
+Globe, a Race, who cou'd they be indulged with a few priviledges
+wch the Laws of England deny to Roman Catholicks at home, wou'd
+soon get the better of every National Antipathy to their
+Conquerors and become the most faithful and most useful set of
+Men in this American Empire."*
+
+* This quotation and those following in this chapter are from
+official documents most conveniently assembled in Shorn and
+Doughty, "Documents relating to the Constitutional History of
+Canada, 1759-1791", and Doughty and McArthur, "Documents relating
+to the Constitutional History of Canada, 1791-1818".
+
+
+Certainly there was much in the immediate situation to justify
+Murray's attitude. It was preposterous to set up a legislature in
+which only the four hundred Protestants might sit and from which
+the seventy thousand Catholics would be barred. It would have
+been difficult in any case to change suddenly the system of laws
+governing the most intimate transactions of everyday life. But
+when, as happened, the Administration was entrusted in large part
+to newly created justices of the peace, men with "little French
+and less honour," "to whom it is only possible to speak with
+guineas in one's hand," the change became flatly impossible. Such
+an alteration, if still insisted upon, must come more slowly than
+the impatient traders in Montreal and Quebec desired.
+
+The British Government, however, was not yet ready to abandon its
+policy. The Quebec traders petitioned for Murray's recall,
+alleging that the measures required to encourage settlement had
+not been adopted, that the Governor was encouraging factions by
+his partiality to the French, that he treated the traders with "a
+Rage and Rudeness of Language and Demeanor" and--a fair thrust in
+return for his reference to them as "the most immoral collection
+of men I ever knew"--as "discountenancing the Protestant Religion
+by almost a Total Neglect of Attendance upon the Service of the
+Church." When the London business correspondents of the traders
+backed up this petition, the Government gave heed. In 1766 Murray
+was recalled to England and, though he was acquitted of the
+charges against him, he did not return to his post in Canada.
+
+The triumph of the English merchants was short. They had jumped
+from the frying pan into the fire. General Guy Carleton, Murray's
+successor and brother officer under Wolfe, was an even abler man,
+and he was still less in sympathy with democracy of the New
+England pattern. Moreover, a new factor had come in to reenforce
+the soldier's instinctive preference for gentlemen over
+shopkeepers. The first rumblings of the American Revolution had
+reached Quebec. It was no time, in Carleton's view, to set up
+another sucking republic. Rather, he believed, the utmost should
+be made of the opportunity Canada afforded as a barrier against
+the advance of democracy, a curb upon colonial insolence. The
+need of cultivating the new subjects was the greater, Carleton
+contended, because the plan of settlement by Englishmen gave no
+sign of succeeding: "barring a Catastrophe shocking to think of,
+this Country must, to the end of Time, be peopled by the Canadian
+race."
+
+To bind the Canadians firmly to England, Carleton proposed to
+work chiefly through their old leaders, the seigneurs and the
+clergy. He would restore to the people their old system of laws,
+both civil and criminal. He would confirm the seigneurs in their
+feudal dues and fines, which the habitants were growing slack in
+paying now that the old penalties were not enforced, and he would
+give them honors and emoluments such as they had before enjoyed
+as officers in regular or militia regiments. The Roman Catholic
+clergy were already, in fact, confirmed in their right to tithe
+and toll; and, without objection from the Governor, Bishop
+Briand, elected by the chapter in Quebec and consecrated in
+Paris, once more assumed control over the flock.
+
+Carleton's proposals did not pass unquestioned. His own chief
+legal adviser, Francis Maseres, was a sturdy adherent of the
+older policy, though he agreed that the time was not yet ripe for
+setting up an Assembly and suggested some well-considered
+compromise between the old laws and the new. The Advocate General
+of England, James Marriott, urged the same course. The policy of
+1768, he contended eleven years later, had already succeeded in
+great measure. The assimilation of government had been effected;
+an assimilation of manners would follow. The excessive military
+spirit of the inhabitants had begun to dwindle, as England's
+interest required. The back settlements of New York and Canada
+were fast being joined. Two or three thousand men of British
+stock, many of them men of substance, had gone to the new colony;
+warehouses and foundries were being built; and many of the
+principal seigneuries had passed into English hands. All that was
+needed, he concluded, was persistence along the old path. The
+same view was of course strenuously urged by the English
+merchants in the colony, who continued to demand, down to the
+very eve of the Revolution, an elective Assembly and other rights
+of freeborn Britons.
+
+Carleton carried the day. His advice, tendered at close range
+during four years' absentee residence in London, from 1770 to
+1774, fell in with the mood of Lord North's Government. The
+measure in which the new policy was embodied, the famous Quebec
+Act of 1774, was essentially a part of the ministerial programme
+for strengthening British power to cope with the resistance then
+rising to rebellious heights in the old colonies. Though not, as
+was long believed, designed in retaliation for the Boston
+disturbances, it is clear that its framers had Massachusetts in
+mind when deciding on their policy for Quebec. The main purpose
+of the Act, the motive which turned the scale against the old
+Anglicizing policy, was to attach the leaders of French-Canadian
+opinion firmly to the British Crown, and thus not only to prevent
+Canada itself from becoming infected with democratic contagion or
+turning in a crisis toward France, but to ensure, if the worst
+came to the worst, a military base in that northland whose
+terrors had in old days kept the seaboard colonies circumspectly
+loyal. Ministers in London had been driven by events to accept
+Carleton's paradox, that to make Quebec British, it must be
+prevented from becoming English. If in later years the solidarity
+and aloofness of the French-Canadian people were sometimes to
+prove inconvenient to British interests, it was always to be
+remembered that this situation was due in great part to the
+deliberate action of Great Britain in strengthening
+French-Canadian institutions as a means of advancing what she
+considered her own interests in America. "The views of the
+British Government in respect to the political uses to which it
+means to make Canada subservient," Marriott had truly declared,
+"must direct the spirit of any code of laws."
+
+The Quebec Act multiplied the area of the colony sevenfold by the
+restoration of all Labrador on the east and the region west as
+far as the Ohio and the Mississippi and north to the Hudson's Bay
+Company's territory. It restored the old French civil law but
+continued the milder English criminal law already in operation.
+It gave to the Roman Catholic inhabitants the free exercise of
+their religion, subject to a modified oath of allegiance, and
+confirmed the clergy in their right "to hold, receive and enjoy
+their accustomed dues and rights, with respect to such persons
+only as shall confess the said religion." The promised elective
+Assembly was not granted, but a Council appointed by the Crown
+received a measure of legislative power.
+
+On his return to Canada in September, 1774, Carleton reported
+that the Canadians had "testified the strongest marks of Joy and
+Gratitude and Fidelity to their King and to His Government for
+the late Arrangements made at Home in their Favor." The "most
+respectable part of the English," he continued, urged peaceful
+acceptance of the new order. Evidently, however, the respectable
+members of society were few, as the great body of the English
+settlers joined in a petition for the repeal of the Act on the
+ground that it deprived them of the incalculable benefits of
+habeas corpus and trial by jury. The Montreal merchants, whether,
+as Carleton commented, they "were of a more turbulent Turn, or
+that they caught the Fire from some Colonists settled among
+them," were particularly outspoken in the town meetings they
+held. In the older colonies the opposition was still more
+emphatic. An Act which hemmed them in to the seacoast,
+established on the American continent a Church they feared and
+hated, and continued an autocratic political system, appeared to
+many to be the undoing of the work of Pitt and Wolfe and the
+revival on the banks of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi of a
+serious menace to their liberty and progress.
+
+Then came the clash at Lexington, and the War of American
+Independence had begun. The causes, the course, and the ending of
+that great civil war have been treated elsewhere in this series.*
+Here it is necessary only to note its bearings on the fate of
+Canada.
+
+* See "The Eve of the Revolution" and "Washington and His
+Comrades in Arms" (in "The Chronicles of America").
+
+
+Early in 1775 the Continental Congress undertook the conquest of
+Canada, or, as it was more diplomatically phrased, the relief of
+its inhabitants from British tyranny. Richard Montgomery led an
+expedition over the old route by Lake Champlain and the
+Richelieu, along which French and Indian raiding parties used to
+pass years before, and Benedict Arnold made a daring and
+difficult march up the Kennebec and down the Chaudiere to Quebec.
+Montreal fell to Montgomery; and Carleton himself escaped capture
+only by the audacity of some French-Canadian voyageurs, who,
+under cover of darkness, rowed his whaleboat or paddled it with
+their hands silently past the American sentinels on the shore.
+Once down the river and in Quebec, Carleton threw himself with
+vigor and skill into the defense of his capital. His generalship
+and the natural strength of the position proved more than a match
+for Montgomery and Arnold. Montgomery was killed and Arnold
+wounded in a vain attempt to carry the city by storm on the last
+night of 1775. At Montreal a delegation from Congress, composed
+of Benjamin Franklin, Samuel Chase, and Charles Carroll of
+Carrollton, accompanied by Carroll's brother, a Jesuit priest and
+a future archbishop, failed to achieve-more by diplomacy than
+their generals had done by the sword. The Canadians seemed,
+content enough to wear the British yoke. In the spring, when a
+British fleet arrived with reenforcements, the American troops
+retired in haste and, before the Declaration of Independence had
+been proclaimed, Canada was free from the last of its ten
+thousand invaders.
+
+The expedition had put Carleton's policy to the test. On the
+whole it stood the strain. The seigneurs had rallied to the
+Government which had restored their rights, and the clergy had
+called on the people to stand fast by the King. So far all went
+as Carleton had hoped: "The Noblesse, Clergy, and greater part of
+the Bourgeoisie," he wrote, "have given Government every
+Assistance in their Power." But the habitants refused to follow
+their appointed leaders with the old docility, and some even
+mobbed the seigneurs who tried to enroll them. Ten years of
+freedom had worked a democratic change in them, and they were
+much less enthusiastic than their betters about the restoration
+of seigneurial privileges. Carleton, like many another, had held
+as public opinion what were merely the opinions of those whom he
+met at dinner. "These people had been governed with too loose a
+rein for many years," he now wrote to Burgoyne, "and had imbibed
+too much of the American Spirit of Licentiousness and
+Independence administered by a numerous and turbulent Faction
+here, to be suddenly restored to a proper and desirable
+Subordination." A few of the habitants joined his forces; fewer
+joined the invaders or sold them supplies--till they grew
+suspicious of paper "Continentals." But the majority held
+passively aloof. Even when France joined the warring colonies and
+Admiral d'Estaing appealed to the Canadians to rise, they did not
+heed; though it is difficult to say what the result would have
+been if Washington had agreed to Lafayette's plan of a joint
+French and American invasion in 1778.
+
+Nova Scotia also held aloof, in spite of the fact that many of
+the men who had come from New England and from Ulster were eager
+to join the colonies to the south. In Nova Scotia democracy was a
+less hardy plant than in Massachusetts. The town and township
+institutions, which had been the nurseries of resistance in New
+England, had not been allowed to take root there. The
+circumstances of the founding of Halifax had given ripe to a
+greater tendency, which lasted long, to lean upon the mother
+country. The Maine wilderness made intercourse between Nova
+Scotia and New England difficult by land, and the British fleet
+was in control of the sea until near the close of the war. Nova
+Scotia stood by Great Britain, and was reserved to become part of
+a northern nation still in the making.
+
+That nation was to owe its separate existence to the success of
+the American Revolution. But for that event, coming when it did,
+the struggling colonies of Quebec and Nova Scotia would in time
+have become merged with the colonies to the youth and would have
+followed them, whether they remained within the British Empire or
+not. Thus it was due to the quarrel between the thirteen colonies
+and the motherland that Canada did not become merely a fourteenth
+colony or state. Nor was this the only bearing of the Revolution
+on Canada's destiny. Thanks to the coming of the Loyalists, those
+exiles of the Revolution who settled in Canada in large numbers,
+Canada was after all to be dominantly a land of English speech
+and of English sympathies. By one of the many paradoxes which
+mark the history of Canada, the very success of the plan which
+aimed to save British power by confirming French-Canadian
+nationality and the loyalty of the French led in the end to
+making a large part of Canada English. The Revolution meant also
+that for many a year those in authority in England and in Canada
+itself were to stand in fear of the principles and institutions
+which had led the old colonies to rebellion and separation, and
+were to try to build up in Canada buttresses against the advance
+of democracy.
+
+The British statesmen who helped to frame the Peace of 1783 were
+men with broad and generous views as to the future of the
+seceding colonies and their relations with the mother country. It
+was perhaps inevitable that they should have given less thought
+to the future of the colonies in America which remained under the
+British flag. Few men could realize at the moment that out of
+these scattered fragments a new nation and a second empire would
+arise. Not only were the seceding colonies given a share in the
+fishing grounds of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, which was
+unfortunately to prove a constant source of friction, but the
+boundary line was drawn with no thought of the need of broad and
+easy communication between Nova Scotia and Canada, much less
+between Canada and the far West. Vague definitions of the
+boundaries, naturally incident to the prevailing lack of
+geographical knowledge of the vast continent, held further seeds
+of trouble. These contentions, however, were far in the future.
+At the moment another defect of the treaty proved to be Canada's
+gain. The failure of Lord Shelburne's Ministry to insist upon
+effective safeguards for the fair treatment of those who had
+taken the King's side in the old colonies, condemned as it was
+not only by North and the Tories but by Fox and Sheridan and
+Burke, led to that Loyalist migration which changed the racial
+complexion of Canada.
+
+The Treaty of 1783 provided that Congress would "earnestly
+recommend" to the various States that the Loyalists be granted
+amnesty and restitution. This pious resolution proved not worth
+the paper on which it was written. In State after State the
+property of the Loyalists was withheld or confiscated anew. Yet
+this ungenerous treatment of the defeated by the victors is not
+hard to understand. The struggle had been waged with all the
+bitterness of civil war. The smallness of the field of combat had
+intensified personal ill-will. Both sides had practiced cruelties
+in guerrilla warfare; but the Patriots forgot Marion's raids,
+Simsbury mines, and the drumhead hangings, and remembered only
+Hessian brutalities, Indian scalpings, Tarleton's harryings, and
+the infamous prison ships of New York. The war had been a long
+one. The tide of battle had ebbed and flowed. A district that was
+Patriot one year was frequently Loyalist the next. These
+circumstances engendered fear and suspicion and led to nervous
+reprisals.
+
+At least a third, if not a half, of the people of the old
+colonies had been opposed to revolution. New York was strongly
+Loyalist, with Pennsylvania, Georgia, and the Carolinas closely
+following. In the end some fifty or sixty thousand Loyalists
+abandoned their homes or suffered expulsion rather than submit to
+the new order. They counted in their ranks many of the men who
+had held first place in their old communities, men of wealth, of
+education, and of standing, as well as thousands who had nothing
+to give but their fidelity to the old order. Many, especially of
+the well-to-do, went to England; a few found refuge in the West
+Indies; but the great majority, over fifty thousand in all,
+sought new homes in the northern wilderness. Over thirty
+thousand, including many of the most influential of the whole
+number (with about three thousand negro slaves, afterwards freed
+and deported to Sierra Leone) were carried by ship to Nova
+Scotia. They found homes chiefly in that part of the province
+which in 1784 became New Brunswick. Others, trekking overland or
+sailing around by the Gulf and up the River, settled in the upper
+valley of the St. Lawrence--on Lake St. Francis, on the Cataraqui
+and the Bay of Quinte, and in the Niagara District.
+
+Though these pioneers were generously aided by the British
+Government with grants of land and supplies, their hardships and
+disappointments during the first years in the wilderness were
+such as would have daunted any but brave and desperate men and
+women whom fate had winnowed. Yet all but a few, who drifted back
+to their old homes, held out; and the foundations of two more
+provinces of the future Dominion--New Brunswick and Upper
+Canada--were thus broadly and soundly laid by the men whom future
+generations honored as "United Empire Loyalists." Through all the
+later years, their sacrifices and sufferings, their ideals and
+prejudices, were to make a deep impress on the development of the
+nation which they helped to found and were to influence its
+relations with the country which they had left and with the
+mother country which had held their allegiance.
+
+Once the first tasks of hewing and hauling and planting were
+done, the new settlers called for the organization of local
+governments. They were quite as determined as their late foes to
+have a voice in their own governing, even though they yielded
+ultimate obedience to rulers overseas.
+
+In the provinces by the sea a measure of self-government was at
+once established. New Brunswick received, without question, a
+constitution on the Nova Scotia model, with a Lieutenant
+Governor, an Executive Council appointed to advise him, which
+served also as the upper house of the legislature, and an
+elective Assembly. Of the twenty-six members of the first
+Assembly, twenty-three were Loyalists. With a population so much
+at one, and with the tasks of road making and school building and
+tax collecting insistent and absorbing, no party strife divided
+the province for many years. In Nova Scotia, too, the Loyalists
+were in the majority. There, however, the earlier settlers soon
+joined with some of the newcomers to form an opposition. The
+island of St. John, renamed Prince Edward Island in 1798, had
+been made a separate Government and had received an Assembly in
+1773. Its one absorbing question was the tenure of land. On a
+single day in 1767 the British authorities had granted the whole
+island by lottery to army and navy officers and country
+gentlemen, on condition of the payment of small quitrents. The
+quitrents were rarely paid, and the tenants of the absentee
+landlords kept up an agitation for reform which was unceasing but
+which was not to be successful for a hundred years. In all three
+Maritime Provinces political and party controversy was little
+known for a generation after the Revolution.
+
+It was more difficult to decide what form of government should be
+set up in Canada, now that tens of thousands of English-speaking
+settiers dwelt beside the old Canadians. Carleton, now Lord
+Dorchester, had returned as Governor in 1786, after eight years'
+absence. He was still averse to granting an Assembly so long as
+the French subjects were in the majority: they did not want it,
+he insisted, and could not use it. But the Loyalist settlers, not
+to be put off, joined with the English merchants of Montreal and
+Quebec in demanding an Assembly and relief from the old French
+laws. Carleton himself was compelled to admit the force of the
+conclusion of William Grenville, Secretary of State for the Home
+Department, then in control of the remnants of the colonial
+empire, and son of that George Grenville who, as Prime Minister,
+had introduced the American Stamp Act of 1765: "I am persuaded
+that it is a point of true Policy to make these Concessions at a
+time when they may be received as a matter of favour, and when it
+is in Our own power to regulate and direct the manner of applying
+them, rather than to wait till they shall be extorted from us by
+a necessity which shall neither leave us any discretion in the
+form nor any merit in the substance of what We give."
+Accordingly, in 1791, the British Parliament passed the
+Constitutional Act dividing Canada into two provinces separated
+by the Ottawa River, Lower or French-speaking Canada and Upper or
+English-speaking Canada, and granting each an elective Assembly.
+
+Thus far the tide of democracy had risen, but thus far only. Few
+in high places had learned the full lesson of the American
+Revolution. The majority believed that the old colonies had been
+lost because they had not been kept under a sufficiently tight
+rein; that democracy had been allowed too great headway; that the
+remaining colonies, therefore, should be brought under stricter
+administrative control; and that care should be taken to build up
+forces to counteract the democracy which grew so rank and swift
+in frontier soil. This conservative tendency was strengthened by
+the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789.* The rulers of
+England had witnessed two revolutions, and the lesson they drew
+from both was that it was best to smother democracy in the
+cradle.
+
+* It will be remembered that in the debate on the Constitutional
+Act the conflicting views of Burke and Fox on the French
+Revolution led to the dramatic break in their lifelong
+friendship.
+
+
+For this reason the measure of representative government that had
+been granted each of the remaining British colonies in North
+America was carefully hedged about. The whole executive power
+remained in the hands of the Governor or his nominees. No one yet
+conceived it possible that the Assembly should control the
+Executive Council. The elective Assembly was compelled to share
+even the lawmaking power with an upper house, the Legislative
+Council. Not only were the members of this upper house appointed
+by the Crown for life, but the King was empowered to bestow
+hereditary titles upon them with a view to making the Council in
+the fullness of time a copy of the House of Lords. A blow was
+struck even at that traditional prerogative of the popular house,
+the control of the purse. Carleton had urged that in every
+township a sixth of the land should be reserved to enable His
+Majesty "to reward such of His provincial Servants as may merit
+the Royal favour" and "to create and strengthen an Aristocracy,
+of which the best use may be made on this Continent, where all
+Governments are feeble and the general condition of things tends
+to a wild Democracy." Grenville saw further possibilities in this
+suggestion. It would give the Crown a revenue which would make it
+independent of the Assembly, "a measure, which, if it had been
+adopted when the Old Colonies were first settled, would have
+retained them to this hour in obedience and Loyalty." Nor was
+this all. From the same source an endowment might be obtained for
+a state church which would be a bulwark of order and
+conservatism. The Constitutional Act accordingly provided for
+setting aside lands equal in value to one-seventh of all lands
+granted from time to time, for the support of a Protestant
+clergy. The Executive Council received power to set up rectories
+in every parish, to endow them liberally, and to name as rectors
+ministers of the Church of England. Further, the Executive
+Council was instructed to retain an equal amount of land as crown
+reserves, distributed judiciously in blocks between the grants
+made to settlers. Were any radical tendencies to survive these
+attentions, the veto power of the British Government could be
+counted on in the last resort.
+
+For a time the installment of self-government thus granted
+satisfied the people. The pioneer years left little leisure for
+political discussion, nor were there at first any general issues
+about which men might differ. The Government was carrying on
+acceptably the essential tasks of surveying, land granting, and
+road building; and each member of the Assembly played his own
+hand and was chiefly concerned in obtaining for his constituents
+the roads and bridges, they needed so badly. The
+English-speaking settlers of Upper Canada were too widely
+scattered, and the French-speaking citizens of Lower Canada were
+too ignorant of representative institutions, to act in groups or
+parties.
+
+Much turned in these early years upon the personality of the
+Governor. In several instances, the choice of rulers for the new
+provinces proved fortunate. This was particularly so in the case
+of John Graves Simcoe, Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada from
+1792 to 1799. He was a good soldier and a just and vigorous
+administrator, particularly wise in setting his regulars to work
+building roads such as Yonge Street and Dundas Street, which to
+this day are great provincial arteries of travel. Yet there were
+many sources of weakness in the scheme of government--divided
+authority, absenteeism, personal unfitness. When Dorchester was
+reappointed in 1786, he had been made Governor in Chief of all
+British North America. From the beginning, however, the
+Lieutenant Governors of the various provinces asserted
+independent authority, and in a few years the Governor General
+became in fact merely the Governor of the most populous province,
+Lower Canada, in which he resided.
+
+In Upper Canada, as in New Brunswick, the population was at first
+much at one. In time, however, discordant elements appeared.
+Religious, or at least denominational, differences began to cause
+friction. The great majority of the early settlers in Upper
+Canada belonged to the Church of England, whose adherents in the
+older colonies had nearly all taken the Loyalist side. Of the
+Ulster Presbyterians and New England Congregationalists who
+formed the backbone of the Revolution, few came to Canada. The
+growth of the Methodists and Baptists in the United States after
+the Revolution, however, made its mark on the neighboring
+country. The first Methodist class meetings in Upper Canada, held
+in the United Empire Loyalist settlement on the Bay of Quinte in
+1791, were organized by itinerant preachers from the United
+States; and in the western part of the province pioneer Baptist
+evangelists from the same country reached the scattered settlers
+neglected by the older churches.
+
+Nor was it in religion alone that diversity grew. Simcoe had set
+up a generous land policy which brought in many "late Loyalists,"
+American settlers whose devotion to monarchical principles would
+not always bear close inquiry. The fantastic experiment of
+planting in the heart of the woods of Upper Canada a group of
+French nobles driven out by the Revolution left no trace; but
+Mennonites, Quakers, and Scottish Highlanders contributed diverse
+and permanent factors to the life of the province. Colonel Thomas
+Talbot of Malahide, "a fierce little Irishman who hated Scotchmen
+and women, turned teetotallers out of his house, and built the
+only good road in the province," made the beginnings of
+settlement midway on Lake Erie. A shrewd Massachusetts merchant,
+Philemon Wright, with his comrades, their families, servants,
+horses, oxen, and 10,000 pounds, sledded from Boston to Montreal
+in the winter of 1800, and thence a hundred miles beyond, to
+found the town of Hull and establish a great lumbering industry
+in the Ottawa Valley.
+
+These differences of origin and ways of thought had not yet been
+reflected in political life. Party strife in Upper Canada began
+with a factional fight which took place in 1805-07 between a
+group of Irish officeholders and a Scotch clique who held the
+reins of government. Weekes, an Irish-American barrister, Thorpe,
+a puisne judge, Wyatt, the surveyor general, and Willcocks, a
+United Irishman who had become sheriff of one of the four Upper
+Canada districts, began to question the right to rule of "the
+Scotch pedlars" or "the Shopkeeper Aristocracy," as Thorpe called
+those merchants who, for the lack of other leaders, had developed
+an influence with the governors or ruled in their frequent
+absence. But the insurgents were backed by only a small minority
+in the Assembly, and when the four leaders disappeared from the
+stage,* this curtain raiser to the serious political drama which
+was to follow came quickly to its end.
+
+* Weekes was slain in a duel. Wyatt and Thorpe were suspended by
+the Lieutenant Governor, Sir Francis Gore, only to win redress
+later in England. Willcocks was dismissed from office and fell
+fighting on the American side in the War of 1812.
+
+
+In Lower Canada the clash was more serious. The French Canadians,
+who had not asked for representative government, eventually
+grasped its possibilities and found leaders other than those
+ordained for them. In the first Assembly there were many
+seigneurs and aristocrats who bore names notable for six
+generations back Taschereau, Duchesnay, Lotbiniere, Rouville,
+Salaberry. But they soon found their surroundings uncongenial or
+failed to be reelected. Writing in 1810 to Lord Liverpool,
+Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, the Governor, Sir
+James Craig, with a fine patrician scorn thus pictures the
+Assembly of his day.
+
+"It really, my Lord, appears to me an absurdity, that the
+Interests of certainly not an unimportant Colony, involving in
+them those also of no inconsiderable portion of the Commercial
+concerns of the British Empire, should be in the hands of six
+petty shopkeepers, a Blacksmith, a Miller, and 15 ignorant
+peasants who form part of our present House; a Doctor or
+Apothecary, twelve Canadian Avocats and Notaries, and four so far
+respectable people that at least they do not keep shops, together
+with ten English members compleat the List: there is not one
+person coming under the description of a Canadian Gentleman among
+them."
+
+And again:
+
+"A Governor cannot obtain among them even that sort of influence
+that might arise from personal intercourse. I can have none with
+Blacksmiths, Millers, and Shopkeepers; even the Avocats and
+Notaries who compose so considerable a portion of the House, are,
+generally speaking, such as I can nowhere meet, except during the
+actual sitting of Parliament, when I have a day of the week
+expressly appropriated to the receiving a large portion of them
+at dinner."
+
+Leadership under these conditions fell to the "unprincipled
+Demagogues," half-educated lawyers, men "with nothing to lose."
+
+But it was not merely as an aristocrat facing peasants and
+shopkeepers, nor as a soldier faced by talkers, but as an
+Englishman on guard against Frenchmen that Craig found himself at
+odds with his Assembly. For nearly twenty years in this period
+England was at death grips with France, end to hate and despise
+all Frenchmen was part of the hereditary and congenial duty of
+all true Britons. Craig and those who counseled him were firmly
+convinced that the new subjects were French at heart. Of the
+250,000 inhabitants of Lower Canada, he declared, "about 20,000
+or 25,000 may be English or Americans, the rest are French. I use
+the term designedly, my Lord, because I mean to say that they are
+in Language, in religion, in manner and in attachment completely
+French." That there was still some affection for old France,
+stirred by war and French victories, there is no question, but
+that the Canadians wished to return to French allegiance was
+untrue, even though Craig reported that such was "the general
+opinion of all ranks with whom it is possible to converse on the
+subject." The French Revolution had created a great gulf between
+Old France and New France. The clergy did their utmost to bar all
+intercourse with the land where deism and revolution held sway,
+and when the Roman Catholic Church and the British Government
+combined for years on a single object, it was little wonder they
+succeeded. Nelson's victory at Trafalgar was celebrated by a Te
+Deum in the Roman Catholic Cathedral at Quebec. In fact, as Craig
+elsewhere noted, the habitants were becoming rather a new and
+distinct nationality, a nation canadienne. They ceased to be
+French; they declined to become English; and sheltered under
+their "Sacred Charter"* they became Canadians first and last.
+
+* "It cannot be sufficiently inculcated ON THE PART OF GOVERNMENT
+that the Quebec Act is a Sacred Charter, granted by the King in
+Parliament to the Canadians as a Security for their Religion,
+Laws, and Property." Governor Sir Frederick Haldimand to Lord
+George Germaine, Oct. 25, 1780.
+
+
+The governors were not alone in this hostility to the mass of the
+people. There had grown up in the colony a little clique of
+officeholders, of whom Jonathan Sewell, the Loyalist Attorney
+General, and later Chief Justice, was the chief, full of racial
+and class prejudice, and in some cases greedy for personal gain.
+Sewell declared it "indispensably necessary to overwhelm and sink
+the Canadian population by English Protestants," and was even
+ready to run the risk of bringing in Americans to effect this
+end. Of the non-official English, some were strongly opposed to
+the pretensions of the "Chateau Clique"; but others, and
+especially the merchants, with their organ the Quebec "Mercury",
+were loud in their denunciations of the French who were
+unprogressive and who as landowners were incidentally trying to
+throw the burden of taxation chiefly on the traders.
+
+The first open sign of the racial division which was to bedevil
+the life of the province came in 1806 when, in order to meet the
+attacks of the Anglicizing party, the newspaper "Le Canadien" was
+established at Quebec. Its motto was significant: "Notre langue,
+nos institutions, et nos lois." Craig and his counselors took up
+the challenge. In 1808 he dismissed five militia officers,
+because of their connection with the irritating journal, and in
+1810 he went so far as to suppress it and to throw into prison
+four of those responsible for its management. The Assembly, which
+was proving hard to control, was twice dissolved in three years.
+Naturally the Governor's arbitrary course only stiffened
+resistance; and passions were rising fast and high when illness
+led to his recall and the shadow of a common danger from the
+south, the imminence of war with the United States, for a time
+drew all men together.
+
+
+While the foundations of the eastern provinces of Canada were
+being laid, the wildernesses which one day were to become the
+western provinces were just rising above the horizon of
+discovery. In the plains and prairies between the Great Lakes and
+the Rockies, fur traders warred for the privilege of exchanging
+with the Indians bad whiskey for good furs. Scottish traders from
+Montreal, following in the footsteps of La Verendrye and
+Niverville, pushed far into the northern wilds.* In 1788 the
+leading traders joined forces in organizing the North-West
+Company. Their great canoes, manned by French-Canadian voyageurs,
+penetrated the network of waters from the Ottawa to the
+Saskatchewan, and poured wealth into the pockets of the lordly
+partners in Montreal. Their rivalry wakened the sleepy Hudson's
+Bay Company, which was now forced to leave the shores of the
+inland sea and build posts in the interior.
+
+* It is interesting to note the dominant share taken in the trade
+and exploration of the North and West by men of Highland Scotch
+and French extraction. For an account of La Verendrye see "The
+Conquest of New France" and for the Scotch fur traders of
+Montreal see "Adventurers of Oregon" (in "The Chronicles of
+America").
+
+
+On the Pacific coast rivalry was still keener. The sea otter and
+the seal were a lure to the men of many nations. Canada took its
+part in this rivalry. In 1792, when the Russians were pressing
+down from their Alaskan posts, when the Spaniards, claiming the
+Pacific for their own, were exploring the mouth of the Fraser,
+when Captain Robert Gray of Boston was sailing up the mighty
+Columbia, and Captain Vancouver was charting the northern coasts
+for the British Government, a young North-West Company factor,
+Alexander Mackenzie, in his lonely post on Lake Athabaska, was
+planning to cross the wilderness of mountains to the coast. With
+a fellow trader, Mackay, and six Canadian voyageurs, he pushed up
+the Peace and the Parsnip, passed by way of the Fraser and the
+Blackwater to the Bella Coola, and thence to the Pacific, the
+first white man to cross the northern continent. Paddling for
+life through swirling rapids on rivers which rushed madly through
+sheer rock-bound canyons, swimming for shore when rock or sand
+bar had wrecked the precious bark canoe, struggling over
+heartbreaking portages, clinging to the sides of precipices,
+contending against hostile Indians and fear-stricken followers,
+and at last winning through, Mackenzie summed up what will ever
+remain one of the great achievements of exploration in the simple
+record, painted in vermilion on a rock in Burke Channel:
+Alexander Mackenzie, from Canada, by land, the twenty-second of
+July, one thousand seven hundred and ninety-three. The first bond
+had been woven in the union of East and West. Between the eastern
+provinces a stronger link was soon to be forged. The War of 1812
+gave the scattered British colonies in America for the first time
+a living sense of unity that transcended all differences, a
+memory of perils and of victories which nourished a common
+patriotism.
+
+The War of 1812 was no quarrel of Canada's. It was merely an
+incident in the struggle between England and Napoleon. At
+desperate grips, both contestants used whatever weapons lay ready
+to their hands. Sea power was England's weapon, and in her claim
+to forbid all neutral traffic with her enemies and to exercise
+the galling right of search, she pressed it far. France trampled
+still more ruthlessly on American and neutral rights; but, with
+memories of 1776 still fresh, the dominant party in the United
+States was disposed to forgive France and to hold England to
+strict account.
+
+England had struck at France, regardless of how the blow might
+injure neutrals. Now the United States sought to strike at
+England through the colonies, regardless of their lack of any
+responsibility for English policy. The "war hawks" of the South
+and West called loudly for the speedy invasion and capture of
+Canada as a means of punishing England. In so far as the British
+North American colonies were but possessions of Great Britain,
+overseas plantations, the course of the United States could be
+justified. But potentially these colonies were more than mere
+possessions. They were a nation in the making, with a right to
+their own development; they were not simply a pawn in the game of
+Britain and the United States. Quite aside from the original
+rights or wrongs of the war, the invasion of Canada was from this
+standpoint an act of aggression. "Agrarian cupidity, not maritime
+right, wages this war," insisted John Randolph of Roanoke, the
+chief opponent of the "war hawks" in Congress. "Ever since the
+report of the Committee on Foreign Relations came into the House,
+we have heard but one word--like the whippoorwill, but one
+eternal monotonous tone--Canada, Canada, Canada!"
+
+At the outset there appeared no question that the conquest of
+Canada could be, as Jefferson forecast, other than "a mere matter
+of marching." Eustis, the Secretary of War, prophesied that "we
+can take Canada without soldiers." Clay insisted that the Canadas
+were "as much under our command as the Ocean is under Great
+Britain's." The provinces had barely half a million people,
+two-thirds of them allied by ties of blood to Britain's chief
+enemy, to set against the eight millions of the Republic. There
+were fewer than ten thousand regular troops in all the colonies,
+half of them down by the sea, far away from the danger zone, and
+less than fifteen hundred west of Montreal. Little help could
+come from England, herself at war with Napoleon, the master of
+half of Europe.
+
+But there was another side. The United States was not a unit in
+the war; New England was apathetic or hostile to the war
+throughout, and as late as 1814 two-thirds of the army of Canada
+were eating beef supplied by Vermont and New York contractors.
+Weak as was the militia of the Canadas, it was stiffened by
+English and Canadian regulars, hardened by frontier experience,
+and led for the most part by trained and able men, whereas an
+inefficient system and political interference greatly weakened
+the military force of the fighting States., Above all, the
+Canadians were fighting for their homes. To them the war was a
+matter of life and death; to the United States it was at best a
+struggle to assert commercial rights or national prestige.
+
+The course and fortunes of the war call for only the briefest
+notice. In the first year the American plans for invading Upper
+Canada came to grief through the surrender of Hull at Detroit to
+Isaac Brock and the defeat at Queenston Heights of the American
+army under Van Rensselaer. The campaign ended with not a foot of
+Canadian soil in the invaders' hands, and with Michigan lost, but
+Brock, Canada's brilliant leader, had fallen at Queenston, and at
+sea the British had tasted unwonted defeat. In single actions one
+American frigate after another proved too much for its British
+opponent. It was a rude shock to the Mistress of the Seas.
+
+The second year's campaign was more checkered. In the West the
+Americans gained the command of the Great Lakes by rapid building
+and good sailing, and with it followed the command of all the
+western peninsula of Upper Canada. The British General Procter
+was disastrously defeated at Moraviantown, and his ally, the
+Shawanoe chief Tecumseh, one of the half dozen great men of his
+race, was killed. York, later known as Toronto, the capital of
+the province, was captured, and its public buildings were burned
+and looted. But in the East fortune was kinder to the Canadians.
+The American plan of invasion called for an attack on Montreal
+from two directions; General Wilkinson was to sail and march down
+the St. Lawrence from Sackett's Harbor with some eight thousand
+men, while General Hampton, with four thousand, was to take the
+historic route by Lake Champlain. Half-way down the St. Lawrence
+Wilkinson came to grief. Eighteen hundred men whom he landed to
+drive off a force of a thousand hampering his rear were
+decisively defeated at Chrystler's Farm. Wilkinson pushed on for
+a few days, but when word came that Hampton had also met disaster
+he withdrew into winter quarters. Hampton had found Colonel de
+Salaberry, with less than sixteen hundred troops, nearly all
+French Canadians, making a stand on the banks of the Chateauguay,
+thirty-five miles south of Montreal. He divided his force in
+order to take the Canadians in front and rear, only to be
+outmaneuvered and outfought in one of the most brilliant actions
+of the war and forced to retire. In the closing months of the
+year the Americans, compelled to withdraw from Fort George on the
+Niagara, burned the adjoining town of Newark and turned its women
+and children into the December snow. Drummond, who had succeeded
+Brock, gained control of both sides of the Niagara and retaliated
+in kind by laying waste the frontier villages from Lewiston to
+Buffalo. The year closed with Amherstburg on the Detroit the only
+Canadian post in American hands. On the sea the capture of the
+Chesapeake by the Shannon salved the pride of England.
+
+The last year of the war was also a year of varying fortunes. In
+the far West a small body of Canadians and Indians captured
+Prairie du Chien, on the Mississippi, while Michilimackinac,
+which a force chiefly composed of French-Canadian voyageurs and
+Indians had captured in the first months of war, defied a strong
+assault. In Upper Canada the Americans raided the western
+peninsula from Detroit but made their chief attack on the Niagara
+frontier. Though they scored no permanent success, they fought
+well and with a fair measure of fortune. The generals with whom
+they had been encumbered at the outset of the war, Revolutionary
+relics or political favorites, had now nearly all been replaced
+by abler men--Scott, Brown, Exert--and their troops were better
+trained and better equipped. In July the British forces on the
+Niagara were decisively beaten at Chippawa. Three weeks later was
+fought the bloodiest battle on Canadian soil, at Lundy's Lane,
+either side's victory at the moment but soon followed by the
+retirement of the invading force. The British had now outbuilt
+their opponents on Lake Ontario; and, though American ships
+controlled Lake Erie to the end, the Ontario flotilla aided
+Drummond, Brock's able successor, in forcing the withdrawal of
+Exert forces from the whole peninsula in November. Farther east a
+third attempt to capture Montreal had been defeated in the
+spring, after Wilkinson with four thousand men had failed to
+drive five hundred regulars and militia from the stone walls of
+Lacolle's Mill.
+
+Until this closing year Britain had been unable, in face of the
+more vital danger from Napoleon, to send any but trifling
+reenforcements to what she considered a minor theater of the war.
+Now, with Napoleon in Elba, she was free to take more vigorous
+action. Her navy had already swept the daring little fleet of
+American frigates and American merchant marine from the seas. Now
+it maintained a close blockade of all the coast and, with troops
+from Halifax, captured and held the Maine coast north of the
+Penobscot. Large forces of Wellington's hardy veterans crossed
+the ocean, sixteen thousand to Canada, four thousand to aid in
+harrying the Atlantic coast, and later nine thousand to seize the
+mouth of the Mississippi. Yet, strangely, these hosts fared
+worse, because of hard fortune and poor leadership, than the
+handful of militia and regulars who had borne the brunt of the
+war in the first two years. Under Ross they captured Washington
+and burned the official buildings; but under Prevost they failed
+at Plattsburg; and under Pakenham, in January, 1815, they failed
+against Andrew Jackson's sharpshooters at New Orleans.
+
+Before the last-named fight occurred, peace had been made. Both
+sides were weary of the war, which had now, by the seeming end of
+the struggle between England and Napoleon in which it was an
+incident, lost whatever it formerly had of reason. Though
+Napoleon was still in Elba, Europe was far from being at rest,
+and the British Ministers, backed by Wellington's advice, were
+keen to end the war. They showed their contempt for the issues at
+stake by sending to the peace conference at Ghent three
+commissioners as incompetent as ever represented a great power,
+Gambier, Goulburn, and Adams. To face these the United States had
+sent John Quincy Adams, Albert Gallatin, Henry Clay, James
+Bayard, and Jonathan Russell, as able and astute a group of
+players for great stakes as ever gathered round a table. In these
+circumstances the British representatives were lucky to secure
+peace on the basis of the status quo ante. Canada had hoped that
+sufficient of the unsettled Maine wilderness would be retained to
+link up New Brunswick with the inland colony of Quebec, but this
+proposal was soon abandoned. In the treaty not one of the
+ostensible causes of the war was even mentioned.
+
+The war had the effect of unifying Canadian feeling. Once more it
+had been determined that Canada was not to lose her identity in
+the nation to the south. In Upper Canada, especially in the west,
+there were many recent American settlers who sympathized openly
+with their kinsmen, but of these some departed, some were jailed,
+and others had a change of heart. Lower Canada was a unit against
+the invader, arid French-Canadian troops on every occasion
+covered themselves with glory. To the Canadians, as the smaller
+people, and as the people whose country had been the chief battle
+ground, the war in later years naturally bulked larger than to
+their neighbors. It left behind it unfortunate legacies of
+hostility to the United States and, among the governing classes,
+of deep-rooted opposition to its democratic institutions. But it
+left also memories precious for a young people--the memory of
+Brock and Macdonell and De Salaberry, of Laura Secord and her
+daring tramp through the woods to warn of American attacks, of
+Stony Creek and Lundy's Lane, Chrystler's Farm and Chateauguay,
+the memory of sacrifice, of endurance, and of courage that did
+not count the odds.
+
+Nor were the evil legacies to last for all time. Three years
+after peace had been made the statesmen of the United States and
+of Great Britain had the uncommon sense to take a great step
+toward banishing war between the neighbor peoples. The Rush-Bagot
+Convention, limiting the naval armament on the Great Lakes to
+three vessels not exceeding one hundred tons each, and armed only
+with one eighteen-pounder, though not always observed in the
+letter, proved the beginning of a sane relationship which has
+lasted for a century. Had not this agreement nipped naval rivalry
+in the bud, fleets and forts might have lined the shores and
+increased the strain of policy and the likelihood of conflict.
+The New World was already preparing to sound its message to the
+Old.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. THE FIGHT FOR SELF-GOVERNMENT
+
+The history of British North America in the quarter of a century
+that followed the War of 1812 is in the main the homely tale of
+pioneer life. Slowly little clearings in the vast forest were
+widened and won to order and abundance; slowly community was
+linked to community; and out of the growing intercourse there
+developed the complex of ways and habits and interests that make
+up the everyday life of a people.
+
+All the provinces called for settlers, and they did not call in
+vain. For a time northern New England continued to overflow into
+the Eastern Townships of Lower Canada, the rolling lands south of
+the St. Lawrence which had been left untouched by riverbound
+seigneur and habitant. Into Upper Canada, as well, many
+individual immigrants came from the south, some of the best the
+Republic had to give, merchants and manufacturers with little
+capital but much shrewd enterprise, but also some it could best
+spare, fugitives from justice and keepers of the taverns that
+adorned every four corners. Yet slowly this inflow slackened.
+After the war the Canadian authorities sought to avoid republican
+contagion and moreover the West of the United States itself was
+calling for men.
+
+But if fewer came in across the border, many more sailed from
+across the seas. Not again until the twentieth century were the
+northern provinces to receive so large a share of British
+emigrants as came across in the twenties and thirties. Swarms
+were preparing to leave the overcrowded British hives. Corn laws
+and poor laws and famine, power-driven looms that starved the
+cottage weaver, peace that threw an army on a crowded and callous
+labor market, landlords who rack-rented the Connaughtman's last
+potato or cleared Highland glens of folks to make way for sheep,
+rulers who persisted in denying the masses any voice in their own
+government--all these combined to drive men forth in tens of
+thousands. Australia was still a land of convict settlements and
+did not attract free men. To most the United States was the land
+of promise. Yet, thanks to state aid, private philanthropy,
+landlords' urging and cheap fares on the ships that came to St.
+John and Quebec for timber, Canada and the provinces by the sea
+received a notable share. In the quarter of a century following
+the peace with Napoleon, British North America received more
+British emigrants than the United States and the Australian
+colonies together, though many were merely birds of passage.
+
+The country west of the Great Lakes did not share in this flood
+of settlement, except for one tragic interlude. Lord Selkirk, a
+Scotchman of large sympathy and vision, convinced that emigration
+was the cure for the hopeless misery he saw around him, acquired
+a controlling interest in the Hudson's Bay Company, and sought to
+plant colonies in a vast estate granted from its domains. Between
+1811 and 1815 he sent out to Hudson Bay, and thence to the Red
+River, two or three hundred crofters from the Highlands and the
+Orkneys. A little later these were joined by some Swiss soldiers
+of fortune who had fought for Canada in the War of 1812. But
+Selkirk had reckoned without the partners of the North-West
+Company of Montreal, who were not prepared to permit mere herders
+and tillers to disturb the Indians and the game. The Nor'Westers
+attacked the helpless colonists and massacred a score of them.
+Selkirk retorted in kind, leading out an armed band which seized
+the Nor'Westers' chief post at Fort William. The war was then
+transferred to the courts, with heart-breaking delays and endless
+expense. At last Selkirk died broken in spirit, and most of his
+colonists drifted to Canada or across the border. But a handful
+held on, and for fifty years their little settlement on the Red
+River remained a solitary outpost of colonization.
+
+
+Once arrived in Canada, the settler soon found that he had no
+primrose path before him. Canada remained for many years a land
+of struggling pioneers, who had little truck or trade with the
+world out of sight of their log shacks. The habitant on the
+seigneuries of Lower Canada continued to farm as his grandfather
+had farmed, finding his holding sufficient for his modest needs,
+even though divided into ever narrower ribbons as le bon Dieu
+sent more and yet more sons to share the heritage. The
+English-speaking settler, equipped with ax and sickle and flail,
+with spinning wheel and iron kettle, lived a life almost equally
+primitive and self-contained. He and his good wife grew the
+wheat, the corn, and the potatoes, made the soap and the candles,
+the maple sugar and the "yarbs," the deerskin shoes and the
+homespun-cloth that met their needs. They had little to buy and
+little to sell. In spite of the preference which Great Britain
+gave Canadian grain, in return for the preference exacted on
+British manufactured goods, practically no wheat was exported
+until the close of this period. The barrels of potash and pearl-
+ash leached out from the ashes of the splendid hardwood trees
+which he burned as enemies were the chief source of ready money
+for the backwoods settler. The one substantial export of the
+colonies came, not from the farmer's clearing, but from the
+forest. Great rafts of square pine timber were floated down the
+Ottawa or the St. John every spring to be loaded for England. The
+lumberjack lent picturesqueness to the landscape and the
+vocabulary and circulated ready money, but his industry did
+little directly to advance permanent settlement or the wise use
+of Canadian resources.
+
+The self-contained life of each community and each farm pointed
+to the lack of good means of transport. New Brunswick and the
+Canadas were fortunate in the possession of great lake and river
+systems, but these were available only in summer and were often
+impeded by falls and rapids. On these waters the Indian bark
+canoe had given way to the French bateau, a square-rigged flat-
+bottomed boat, and after the war the bateau shared the honors
+with the larger Durham boat brought in from "the States."
+
+Canadians took their full share in developing steamship
+transportation. In 1809, two years after Fulton's success on the
+Hudson, John Molson built and ran a steamer between Montreal and
+Quebec. The first vessel to cross the Atlantic wholly under
+steam, the Royal William, was built in Quebec and sailed from
+that port in 1833. Following and rivaling American enterprise,
+side-wheelers, marvels of speed and luxury for the day, were put
+on the lakes in the thirties. Canals were built, the Lachine in
+1821-25, the Welland around Niagara Falls in 1824-29, and the
+Rideau, as a military undertaking, in 1826-32, all in response to
+the stimulus given by De Witt Clinton, who had begun the "Erie
+Ditch" in 1817. On land, road making made slower progress. The
+blazed trail gave way to the corduroy road, and the pack horse to
+the oxcart or the stage. Upper Canada had the honor of inventing,
+in 1835, the plank road, which for some years thereafter became
+the fashion through the forested States to the south. But at best
+neither roads nor vehicles were fitted for carrying large loads
+from inland farms to waterside markets.
+
+Money and banks were as necessary to develop intercourse as roads
+and canals. Until after the War of 1812, when army gold and army
+bills ran freely, money was rare and barter served pioneer needs.
+For many years after the war a jumble of English sovereigns and
+shillings, of Spanish dollars, French crowns, and American
+silver, made up the currency in use, circulating sometimes by
+weight and sometimes by tale, at rates that were constantly
+shifting. The position of the colonies as a link between Great
+Britain and the United States, was curiously illustrated in the
+currency system. The motley jumble of coins in use were rated in
+Halifax currency, a mere money of account or bookkeeping
+standard, with no actual coins to correspond, adapted to both
+English and United States currency systems. The unit was the
+pound, divided into shillings and pence as in England, but the
+pound was made equal to four dollars in American money; it took 1
+pound 4s. 4d. in Halifax currency to make 1 pound sterling. Still
+more curious was the influence of American banking. Montreal
+merchants in 1808 took up the ideas of Alexander Hamilton and
+after several vain attempts founded the Bank of Montreal in 1817,
+with those features of government charter, branch banks, and
+restrictions as to the proportion of debts to capital and the
+holding of real property which had marked Hamilton's plan. But
+while Canadian banks, one after another, were founded on the same
+model and throughout adhered to an asset-secured currency basis,
+Hamilton's own country abandoned his ideas, usually for the
+worse.
+
+In the social life of the cities the influence of the official
+classes and, in Halifax and Quebec, of the British redcoats
+stationed there was all pervading. In the country the pioneers
+took what diversions a hard life permitted. There were "bees" and
+"frolics," ranging from strenuous barn raisings, with heavy
+drinking and fighting, to mild apple parings or quilt patchings.
+There were the visits of the Yankee peddler with his "notions,"
+his welcome pack, and his gossip. Churches grew, thanks in part
+to grants of government land or old endowments or gifts from
+missionary societies overseas, but more to the zeal of lay
+preachers and circuit riders. Schools fared worse. In Lower
+Canada there was an excellent system of classical schools for the
+priests and professional classes, and there were numerous
+convents which taught the girls, but the habitants were for the
+most part quite untouched by book learning. In Upper Canada
+grammar schools and academies were founded with commendable
+promptness, and a common school system was established in 1816,
+but grants were niggardly and compulsion was lacking. Even at the
+close of the thirties only one child in seven was in school, and
+he was, as often as not, committed to the tender mercies of some
+broken-down pensioner or some ancient tippler who could barely
+sign his mark. There was but little administrative control by the
+provincial authorities. The textbooks in use came largely from
+the United States and glorified that land and all its ways in the
+best Fourth-of-July manner, to the scandal of the loyal elect.
+The press was represented by a few weekly newspapers; only one
+daily existed in Upper Canada before 1840.
+
+
+Against this background there developed during the period 1815-41
+a tense constitutional struggle which was to exert a profound
+influence on the making of the nation. The stage on which the
+drama was enacted was a small one, and the actors were little
+known to the world of their day, but the drama had an interest of
+its own and no little significance for the future.
+
+In one aspect the struggle for self-government in British North
+America was simply a local manifestation of a world-wide movement
+which found more notable expression in other lands. After a
+troubled dawn, democracy was coming to its own. In England the
+black reaction which had identified all proposals for reform with
+treasonable sympathy for bloodstained France was giving way, and
+the middle classes were about to triumph in the great franchise
+reform of 1832. In the United States, after a generation of
+conservatism, Jacksonian democracy was to sweep all before it.
+These developments paralleled and in some measure influenced the
+movement of events in the British North American provinces. But
+this movement had a color of its own. The growth of self-
+government in an independent country was one thing; in a colony
+owing allegiance to a supreme Parliament overseas, it was quite
+another. The task of the provinces--not solved in this period, it
+is true, but squarely faced--was to reconcile democracy and
+empire.
+
+The people of the Canadas in 1791, and of the provinces by the
+sea a little earlier, had been given the right to elect one house
+of the legislature. More than this instalment of self-government
+the authorities were not prepared to grant. The people, or rather
+the property holders among them, might be entrusted to vote taxes
+and appropriations, to present grievances, and to take a share in
+legislation. They could not, however, be permitted to control the
+Government, because, to state an obvious fact, they could not
+govern themselves as well as their betters could rule them.
+Besides, if the people of a colony did govern themselves, what
+would become of the rights and interests of the mother country?
+What would become of the Empire itself?
+
+What was the use and object of the Empire? In brief, according to
+the theory and practice then in force, the end of empire was the
+profit which comes from trade; the means was the political
+subordination of the colonies to prevent interference with this
+profit; and the debit entry set against this profit was the cost
+of the diplomacy, the armaments, and the wars required to hold
+the overseas possessions against other powers. The policy was
+still that which had been set forth in the preamble of the
+Navigation Act of 1663, ensuring the mother country the sole
+right to sell European wares in its colonies: "the maintaining a
+greater correspondence and kindness between them [the subjects
+at home and those in the plantations] and keeping them in a
+firmer dependence upon it [the mother country], and rendering
+them yet more beneficial and advantageous unto it in the further
+Imployment and Encrease of English Shipping and Seamen, and vent
+of English Woollen and other Manufactures and Commodities
+rendering the Navigation to and from the same more safe and
+cheape, and makeing this Kingdom a Staple not only of the
+Commodities of those Plantations but also of the Commodities of
+other countries and places for the supplying of them, and it
+being the usage of other Nations to keep their [plantation] Trade
+to themselves." Adam Smith had raised a doubt as to the wisdom
+of the end. The American Revolution had raised a doubt as to the
+wisdom of the means. Yet, with significant changes, the old
+colonial system lasted for full two generations after 1776.
+
+In the second British Empire, which rose after the loss of the
+first in 1783, the means to the old end were altered. To secure
+control and to prevent disaffection and democratic folly, the
+authorities relied not merely on their own powers but on the
+cooperation of friendly classes and interests in the colonies
+themselves. Their direct control was exercised in many ways. In
+last reserve there was the supreme authority of King and
+Parliament to bind the colonies by treaty and by law and the
+right to veto any colonial enactment. This was as before the
+Revolution. One change lay in the renunciation in 1778 of the
+intention to use the supreme legislative power to levy taxes,
+though the right to control the fiscal system of the colonies in
+conformity with imperial policy was still claimed and practised.
+In fact, far from seeking to secure a direct revenue, the British
+Government was more than content to pay part of the piper's fee
+for the sake of being able to call the tune. "It is considered by
+the Well wishers of Government," wrote Milnes, Lieutenant
+Governor of Lower Canada, in 1800, "as a fortunate Circumstance
+that the Revenue is not at present equal to the Expenditure." A
+further change came in the minute control exercised by the
+Colonial Office, or rather by the permanent clerks who, in
+Charles Buller's phrase, were really "Mr. Mother Country." The
+Governor was the local agent of the Colonial Office. He acted on
+its instructions and was responsible to it, and to it alone, for
+the exercise of the wide administrative powers entrusted to him.
+
+But all these powers, it was believed, would fail in their
+purpose if democracy were allowed to grow unchecked in the
+colonies themselves. It was an essential part of the colonial
+policy of the time to build up conservative social forces among
+the people and to give a controlling voice in the local
+administration to a nominated and official class. It has been
+seen that the statesmen of 1791 looked to a nominated executive
+and legislative council, an hereditary aristocracy, and an
+established church, to keep the colony in hand. British
+legislation fostered and supported a ruling class in the
+colonies, and in turn this class was to support British
+connection and British control. How this policy, half avowed and
+half unconscious, worked out in each of the provinces must now be
+recorded.
+
+
+In Upper Canada party struggles did not take shape until well
+after the War of 1812. At the founding of the colony the people
+had been very much of one temper and one condition. In time,
+however, divergences appeared and gradually hardened into
+political divisions. A governing class, or rather clique, was the
+first to become differentiated. Its emergence was slower than in
+New Brunswick, for instance, since Upper Canada had received few
+of the Loyalists who were distinguished by social position or
+political experience. In time a group was formed by the accident
+of occupation, early settlement, residence in the little town of
+York, the capital after 1794, the holding of office, or by some
+advantage in wealth or education or capacity which in time became
+cumulative. The group came to be known as the Family Compact.
+There had been, in fact, no intermarriage among its members
+beyond what was natural in a small and isolated community, but
+the phrase had a certain appositeness. They were closely linked
+by loyalty to Church and King, by enmity to republics and
+republicans, by the memory of the sacrifice and peril they or
+their fathers had shared, and by the conviction that the province
+owed them the best living it could bestow. This living they
+succeeded in collecting. "The bench, the magistracy, the high
+officials of the established church, and a great part of the
+legal profession," declared Lord Durham in 1839, "are filled by
+the adherents of this party; by grant or purchase they have
+acquired nearly the whole of the waste lands of the province;
+they are all powerful in the chartered banks, and till lately
+shared among themselves almost exclusively all offices of trust
+and profit." Fortunately the last absurdity of creating Dukes of
+Toronto and Barons of Niagara Falls was never carried through, or
+rather was postponed a full century; but this touch was scarcely
+needed to give the clique its cachet. The ten-year governorship
+of Sir Peregrine Maitland (1818-28), a most punctilious person,
+gave the finishing touches to this backwoods aristocracy.
+
+The great majority of the group, men of the Scott and Boulton,
+Sherwood and Hagerman and Allan MacNab types, had nothing but
+their prejudices to distinguish them, but two of their number
+were of outstanding capacity. John Beverley Robinson, Attorney
+General from 1819 to 1829 and thereafter for over thirty years
+Chief Justice, was a true aristocrat, distrustful of the rabble,
+but as honest and highminded as he was able, seeking his
+country's gain, as he saw it, not his own. A more rugged and
+domineering character, equally certain of his right to rule and
+less squeamish about the means, was John Strachan, afterwards
+Bishop of Toronto. Educated a Presbyterian, he had come to Canada
+from Aberdeen as a dominie but had remained as an Anglican
+clergyman in a capacity promising more advancement. His abounding
+vigor and persistence soon made him the dominant force in the
+Church, and with a convert's zeal he labored to give it exclusive
+place and power. The opposition to the Family Compact was of a
+more motley hue, as is the way with oppositions. Opposition
+became potential when new settlers poured into the province from
+the United States or overseas, marked out from their Loyalist
+forerunners not merely by differences of political background and
+experience but by differences in religion. The Church of England
+had been dominant among the Loyalists; but the newcomers were
+chiefly Methodist and Presbyterian. Opposition became actual with
+the rise of concrete and acute grievances and with the appearance
+of leaders who voiced the growing discontent.
+
+The political exclusiveness of the Family Compact did not rouse
+resentment half as deep as did. their religious, or at least
+denominational, pretensions. The refusal of the Compact to permit
+Methodist ministers to perform the marriage ceremony was not soon
+forgotten. There were scores of settlements where no clergyman of
+the Established Church of England or of Scotland resided, and
+marriages here had been of necessity performed by other
+ministers. A bill passed the Assembly in 1824 legalizing such
+marriages in the past and giving the required authority for the
+future; and when it was rejected by the Legislative Council,
+resentment flamed high. An attempt of Strachan to indict the
+loyalty of practically all but the Anglican clergy intensified
+this feeling; and the critics went on to call in question the
+claims of his Church to establishment and landed endowment.
+
+The land question was the most serious that faced the province.
+The administration of those in power was condemned on three
+distinct counts. The granting of land to individuals had been
+lavish; it had been lax; and it had been marked by gross
+favoritism. By 1824, when the population was only 150,000, some
+11,000,000 acres had been granted; ninety years later, when the
+population was 2,700,000, the total amount of improved land was
+only 13,000,000 acres. Moreover the attempt to use vast areas of
+the Crown Lands to endow solely the Anglican Church roused bitter
+jealousies. Yet even these grievances paled in actual hardship
+beside the results of holding the vast waste areas unimproved.
+What with Crown Reserves, Clergy Reserves, grants to those who
+had served the state, and holdings picked up by speculators from
+soldiers or poorer Loyalists for a few pounds or a few gallons of
+whisky, millions of acres were held untenanted and unimproved,
+waiting for a rise in value as a consequence of the toil of
+settlers on neighboring farms. Not one-tenth of the lands granted
+were occupied by the persons to whom they had been assigned. The
+province had given away almost all its vast heritage, and more
+than nine-tenths of it was still in wilderness. These speculative
+holdings made immensely more difficult every common neighborhood
+task. At best the machinery and the money for building roads,
+bridges, and schools were scanty, but with these unimproved
+reserves thrust in between the scattered shacks, the task was
+disheartening. "The reserve of two-sevenths of the land for the
+Crown and clergy," declared the township of Sandwich in 1817,
+"must for a long time keep the country a wilderness, a harbour
+for wolves, a hindrance to a compact and good neighborhood."
+
+A further source of discontent developed in the disabilities
+affecting recent American settlers. A court decision in 1824 held
+that no one who had resided in the United States after 1783 could
+possess or transmit British citizenship, with which went the
+right to inherit real estate. This decision bore heavily upon
+thousands of "late Loyalists" and more recent incomers. Under the
+instructions of the Colonial Office, a remedial bill was
+introduced in the Legislative Council in 1827, but it was a
+grudging, halfway measure which the Assembly refused to accept.
+After several sessions of quarreling, the Assembly had its way;
+but in the meantime the men affected had been driven into
+permanent and active opposition.
+
+The leaders of the movement of resistance which now began to
+gather force included all sorts and conditions of men. The
+fiercest and most aggressive were two Scotchmen, Robert Gourlay
+and William Lyon Mackenzie. Gourlay, one of those restless and
+indispensable cranks who make the world turn round, active,
+obstinate, imprudent, uncompromisingly devoted to the common good
+as he saw it, came to Canada in 1817 on settlement and
+colonization bent. Innocent inquiries which he sent broadcast as
+to the condition of the province gave the settlers an opportunity
+for voicing their pent-up discontent, and soon Gourlay was
+launched upon the sea of politics. Mackenzie, who came to Canada
+three years later, was a born agitator, fearless, untiring, a
+good hater, master of avitriolic vocabulary, and absolutely
+unpurchasable. He found his vein in weekly journalism, and for
+nearly forty years was the stormy petrel of Canadian politics.
+From England there came, among others, Dr. John Rolph, shrewd and
+politic, and Captain John Matthews, a half-pay artillery officer.
+Peter Perry, downright and rugged and of a homely eloquence,
+represented the Loyalists of the Bay of Quinte, which was the
+center of Canadian Methodism. Among the newer comers from the
+United States, the foremost were Barnabas Bidwell, who had been
+Attorney General of Massachusetts but had fled to Canada in 1810
+when accused of misappropriating public money, and his son,
+Marshall Spring Bidwell, one of the ablest and most single-minded
+men who ever entered Canadian public life. From Ireland came Dr.
+William Warren Baldwin, whose son Robert, born in Canada, was
+less surpassingly able than the younger Bidwell but equally
+moderate and equally beyond suspicion of faction or self-seeking.
+
+How were these men to bring about the reform which they desired?
+Their first aim was obviously to secure a majority in the
+Assembly, and by the election of 1828 they attained this first
+object. But the limits of the power of the Assembly they soon
+discovered. Without definite leadership, with no control over the
+Administration, and with even legislative power divided, it could
+effect little. It was in part disappointment at the failure of
+the Assembly that accounted for the defeat of the Reformers in
+1830, though four years later this verdict was again reversed.
+Clearly the form of government itself should be changed. But in
+what way? Here a divergence in the ranks of the Reformers became
+marked. One party, looking upon the United States as the utmost
+achievement in democracy, proposed to follow its example in
+making the upper house elective and thus to give the people
+control of both branches of the Legislature. Another group, of
+whom Robert Baldwin was the chief, saw that this change would not
+suffice. In the States the Executive was also elected by the
+people. Here, where the Governor would doubtless continue to be
+appointed. by the Crown, some other means must be found to give
+the people full control. Baldwin found it in the British Cabinet
+system, which gave real power to ministers having the confidence
+of a majority in Parliament. The Governor would remain, but he
+would be only a figurehead, a constitutional monarch acting, like
+the King, only on the advice of his constitutional advisers.
+Responsible government was Baldwin's one and absorbing idea, and
+his persistence led to its ultimate adoption, along with a
+proposal for an elective Council, in the Reform party's programme
+in 1834. Delay in affecting this reform, Baldwin told the
+Governor a year later, was "the great and all absorbing grievance
+before which all others sank into insignificance." The remedy
+could be applied "without in the least entrenching upon the just
+and necessary prerogatives of the Crown, which I consider, when
+administered by the Lieutenant. Governor through the medium of a
+provincial ministry responsible to the provincial parliament, to
+be an essential part of the constitution of the province." In
+brief, Baldwin insisted that Simcoe's rhetorical outburst in
+1791, when he declared that Upper Canada was "a perfect Image and
+Transcript of the British Government and Constitution," should be
+made effective in practice.
+
+The course of the conflict between the Compact and the Reformers
+cannot be followed in detail. It had elements of tragedy, as when
+Gourlay was hounded into prison, where he was broken in health
+and shattered in mind, and then exiled from the province for
+criticism of the Government which was certainly no more severe
+than now appears every day in Opposition newspapers. The conflict
+had elements of the ludicrous, too, as when Captain Matthews was
+ordered by his military superiors to return to England because in
+the unrestrained festivities of New Year's Eve he had called on a
+strolling troupe to play Yankee Doodle and had shouted to the
+company, "Hats off"; or when Governor Maitland overturned
+fourteen feet of the Brock Monument to remove a copy of
+Mackenzie's journal, the "Colonial Advocate", which had
+inadvertently been included in the corner stone.
+
+The weapons of the Reformers were the platform, the press, and
+investigations and reports by parliamentary committees. The
+Compact hit back in its own way. Every critic was denounced as a
+traitor. Offending editors were put in the pillory. Mackenzie was
+five times expelled from the House, only to be returned five
+times by his stubborn supporters. Matters were at a deadlock, and
+it became clear either that the British Parliament, which alone
+could amend the Constitution, must intervene or else that the
+Reformers would be driven to desperate paths. But before matters
+came to this pass, an acute crisis had arisen in Lower Canada
+which had its effect on all the provinces.
+
+
+In Lower Canada, the conflict which had been smoldering before
+the war had since then burst into flame. The issues of this
+conflict were more clearcut than in any of the other provinces. A
+coherent opposition had formed earlier, and from beginning to end
+it dominated the Assembly. The governing forces were outwardly
+much the same as in Upper Canada--a Lieutenant Governor
+responsible to the Colonial Office, an Executive Council
+appointed by the Crown but coming to have the independent power
+of a well-entrenched bureaucracy, and a Legislative Council
+nominated by the Crown and, until nearly the end of the period,
+composed chiefly of the same men who served in the Executive. The
+little clique in control had much less popular backing than the
+Family Compact of Upper Canada and were of lower caliber. Robert
+Christie, an English-speaking member of the Assembly, who may be
+counted an unprejudiced witness since he was four times expelled
+by the majority in that house, refers to the real rulers of the
+province as "a few rapacious, overbearing, and irresponsible
+officials, without stake or other connexion in the country than
+their interests." At their head stood Jonathan Sewell, a
+Massachusetts Loyalist who had come to Lower Canada by way of New
+Brunswick in 1789, and who for over forty years as Attorney
+General, Chief Justice, or member of Executive and Legislative
+Councils, was the power behind the throne.
+
+The opposition to the bureaucrats at first included both English
+and French elements, but the English minority were pulled in
+contrary ways. Their antecedents were not such as to lead them to
+accept meekly either the political or the social pretensions of
+the "Chateau Clique"; the American settlers in the Eastern
+Townships, and the Scotch and American merchants who were
+building up Quebec and Montreal, had called for self-government,
+not government from above. Yet their racial and religious
+prejudices were strong and made them unwilling to accept in place
+of the bureaucrats the dominance of an unprogressive habitant
+majority. The first leader of the opposition which developed in
+the Assembly after the War of 1812 was James Stuart, the son of
+the leading Anglican clergyman of his day, but he soon fell away
+and became a mainstay of the bureaucracy. His brother Andrew,
+however, kept up for many years longer a more disinterested
+fight. Another Scot, John Neilson, editor of the Quebec
+"Gazette", was until 1833 foremost among the assailants of the
+bureaucracy. But steadily, as the extreme nationalist claims of
+the French-speaking majority provoked reprisals and as the
+conviction grew upon the minority that they would never be
+anything but a minority,* most of them accepted clique rule as a
+lesser evil than "rule by priest and demagogue."
+
+* The natural increase of the French-Canadian race under British
+rule is one of the most extraordinary phenomena in social
+history. The following figures illustrate the rate of that
+increase: the number was 16,417 in 1706; 69,810 in 1765; 479,288
+in 1825; 697,084 in 1844. The population of Canada East or Lower
+Canada in 1844 was made up as follows: French Canadians, 524,244;
+English Canadians. 85,660; English, 11,895; Irish, 43,982;
+Scotch, 13,393; Americans, 11,946; born in other countries, 1329;
+place of birth not specified, 4635.
+
+
+In the reform movement in Upper Canada there were a multiplicity
+of leaders and a constant shifting of groups. In Lower Canada,
+after the defection of James Stuart in 1817, there was only one
+leader, Louis Joseph Papineau. For twenty years Papineau was the
+uncrowned king of the province. His commanding figure, his powers
+of oratory, outstanding in a race of orators, his fascinating
+manners, gave him an easy mastery over his people. Prudence did
+not hamper his flights; compromise was a word not found in his
+vocabulary. Few men have been better equipped for the agitator's
+task.
+
+His father, Joseph Papineau, though of humble birth, had risen
+high in the life of the province. He had won distinction in his
+profession as a notary, as a speaker in the Assembly, and as a
+soldier in the defense of Quebec against the American invaders of
+1775. In 1804 he had purchased the seigneury of La Petite Nation,
+far up the Ottawa. Louis Joseph Papineau followed in his father's
+footsteps. Born in 1786, he served loyally and bravely in the War
+of 1812. In the same year he entered the Assembly and made his
+place at a single stroke. Barely three years after his election,
+he was chosen Speaker, and with a brief break he held that post
+for over twenty years.
+
+Papineau did not soon or lightly begin his crusade against the
+Government. For the first five years of his Speakership, he
+confined himself to the routine duties of his office. As late as
+1820 he pronounced a glowing eulogy on the Constitution which
+Great Britain had granted the province. In that year he tested
+the extent of the privileges so granted by joining in the attempt
+of the Assembly to assert its full control of the purse; but it
+was not until the project of uniting the two Canadas had made
+clear beyond dispute the hostility of the governing powers that
+he began his unrelenting warfare against them.
+
+There was much to be said for a reunion of the two Canadas. The
+St. Lawrence bound them together, though Acts of Parliament had
+severed them. Upper Canada, as an inland province, restricted in
+its trade with its neighbor to the south, was dependent upon
+Lower Canada for access to the outer world. Its share of the
+duties collected at the Lower Canada ports until 1817 had been
+only one-eighth, afterwards increased to one-fifth. This
+inequality proved a constant source of friction. The crying
+necessity of cooperation for the improvement of the St. Lawrence
+waterway gave further ground for the contention that only by a
+reunion of the two provinces could efficiency be secured. In
+Upper Canada the Reformers were in favor of this plan, but the
+Compact, fearful of any disturbance of their vested interests,
+tended to oppose it. In Lower Canada the chief support came from
+the English element. The governing clique, as the older
+established body, had no doubt that they could bring the western
+section under their sway in case of union. But the main reason
+for their advocacy was the desire to swamp the French Canadians
+by an English majority. Sewell, the chief supporter of the
+project, frankly took this ground. The Governor, Lord Dalhousie,
+and the Colonial Office adopted his view; and in 1822 an attempt
+was made to rush a Union Bill through the British Parliament
+without any notice to those most concerned. It was blocked for
+the moment by the opposition of a Whig group led by Burdett and
+Mackintosh; and then Papineau and Neilson sailed to London and
+succeeded in inducing the Ministry to stay its hand. The danger
+was averted; but Papineau had become convinced that if his people
+were to retain the rights given them by their "Sacred Charter"
+they would have to fight for them. If they were to save their
+power, they must increase it.
+
+How could this be done? Baldwin's bold and revolutionary policy
+of making the Executive responsible to the Assembly did not seem
+within the range of practical politics. It meant in practice the
+abandonment of British control, and this the Colonial Office was
+not willing to grant. Antoine Panet and other Assembly leaders
+had suggested in 1815 that it would be well, "if it were
+possible, to grant a number of places as Councillors or other
+posts of honour and of profit to those who have most influence
+over the majority in the Assembly, to hold so long as they
+maintained this influence," and James Stuart urged the same
+tentative suggestion a year later. But even before this the
+Colonial Office had made clear its position. "His Majesty's
+Government," declared the Colonial Secretary, Lord Bathurst, in
+1814, "never can admit so novel & inconvenient a Principle as
+that of allowing the Governor of a Colony to be divested of his
+responsibility [to the Colonial Office] for the acts done during
+his administration or permit him to shield himself under the
+advice of any Persons, however respectable, either from their
+character or their Office."
+
+Two other courses had the sanction of precedent, one of English,
+the other of American example. The English House of Commons had
+secured its dominant place in the government of the country by
+its control of the purse. Why should not the Assembly do
+likewise? One obvious difficulty lay in the fact that the
+Assembly was not the sole authority in raising revenue. The
+British Parliament had retained the power to levy certain duties
+as part of its system of commercial control, and other casual and
+territorial dues lay in the right of the Crown. From 1820,
+therefore, the Assembly's main aim was twofold--to obtain control
+of these remaining sources of revenue, and by means of this power
+to bludgeon the Legislative Council and the Governor into
+compliance with its wishes. The Colonial Office made concessions,
+offering to resign all its taxing powers in return for a
+permanent civil list, that is, an assurance that the salaries of
+the chief officials would not be questioned annually. The offer
+was reasonable in itself but, as it would have hampered the full
+use of the revenue bludgeon, it was scornfully declined.
+
+The other aim of the Patriotes, as the Opposition styled
+themselves, was to conquer the Legislative Council by making it
+elective. Papineau, in spite of his early prejudices, was drawn
+more and more into sympathy with the form of democracy worked out
+in the United States. In fact, he not only looked to it as a
+model but, as the thirties wore on, he came to hope that moral,
+if not physical, support might be found there for his campaign
+against the English Government. After 1830 the demand for an
+elective Legislative Council became more and more insistent.
+
+The struggle soon reached a deadlock. Governor followed Governor:
+Lord Dalhousie, Sir James Kempt, Lord Aylmer, all in turn failed
+to allay the storm. The Assembly raised its claims each session
+and fulminated against all the opposing powers in windy
+resolutions. Papineau, embittered by continued opposition,
+carried away by his own eloquence, and steadied by no
+responsibility of office, became more implacable in his demands.
+Many of his moderate supporters--Neilson, Andrew Stuart, Quesnel,
+Cuvillier--fell away, only to be overwhelmed in the first
+election at a wave of the great tribune's hand. Business was
+blocked, supplies were not voted, and civil servants made shift
+without salary as best they could.
+
+The British Government awoke, or half awoke, to the seriousness
+of the situation. In 1835 a Royal Commission of three, with the
+new Governor General, Lord Gosford, as chairman, was appointed to
+make inquiries and to recommend a policy. Gosford, a genial
+Irishman, showed himself most conciliatory in both private
+intercourse and public discourse. Unfortunately the rash act of
+the new Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, Sir Francis Bond
+Head, in publishing the instructions of the Colonial Office,
+showed that the policy of Downing Street was the futile one of
+conciliation without concession. The Assembly once more refused
+to grant supplies without redress of grievances. The
+Commissioners made their report opposing any substantial change.
+In March, 1837, Lord John Russell, Chancellor of the Exchequer in
+the Melbourne Ministry, opposed only by a handful of Radical and
+Irish members, carried through the British Parliament a series of
+resolutions authorizing the Governor to take from the Treasury
+without the consent of the Assembly the funds needed for civil
+administration, offering control of all revenues in return for a
+permanent civil list, and rejecting absolutely the demands alike
+for a responsible Executive and for an elective Council.
+
+British statesmanship was bankrupt. Its final answer to the
+demands for redress was to stand pat. Papineau, without seeing
+what the end would be, held to his course. Younger men, carried
+away by the passions he had aroused, pushed on still more
+recklessly. If reform could not be obtained within the British
+Empire, it must be sought by setting up an independent republic
+on the St. Lawrence or by annexation to the United States.
+
+
+In Upper Canada, at the same time, matters had come to the verge
+of rebellion. Sir John Colborne had, just before retiring as
+Lieutenant Governor in 1836, added fuel to the flames by creating
+and endowing some forty-four rectories, thus strengthening the
+grip of the Anglican Church on the province. His successor, Sir
+Francis Bond Head, was a man of such rash and unbalanced judgment
+as to lend support to the tradition that he was appointed by
+mistake for his cousin, Edmund Head, who was made Governor of
+United Canada twenty years later. He appointed to his Executive
+Council three Reformers, Baldwin, Rolph, and Dunn, only to make
+clear by his refusal to consult them his inability to understand
+their demand for responsible government. All the members of the
+Executive Council thereupon resigned, and the Assembly refused
+supplies. Head dissolved the House and appealed to the people.
+
+The weight of executive patronage, the insistence of the Governor
+that British connection was at stake, the alarms caused by some
+injudicious statements of Mackenzie and his Radical ally in
+England, Joseph Hume, and the defection of the Methodists, whose
+leader, Egerton Ryerson, had quarreled with Mackenzie, resulted
+in the overwhelming defeat of the Reformers. The sting of defeat,
+the failure of the Family Compact to carry out their eleventh
+hour promises of reform, and the passing of Lord John Russell's
+reactionary resolutions convinced a section of the Reform party,
+in Upper Canada as well as in Lower Canada, that an appeal to
+force was the only way out.
+
+Toward the end of 1837 armed rebellion broke out in both the
+Canadas. In both it was merely a flash in the pan. In Lower
+Canada there had been latterly much use of the phrases of
+revolution and some drilling, but rebellion was neither
+definitely planned nor carefully organized. The more extreme
+leaders of the Patriotes simply drifted into it, and the actual
+outbreak was a haphazard affair. Alarmed by the sudden and
+seemingly concerted departure of Papineau and some of his
+lieutenants, Nelson, Brown, and O'Callaghan, from Montreal, the
+Government gave orders for their arrest. The petty skirmish that
+followed on November 16, 1837, was the signal for the rallying of
+armed habitants around impromptu leaders at various points. The
+rising was local and spasmodic. The vast body of the habitants
+stood aloof. The Catholic Church, which earlier had sympathized
+with Papineau, had parted from him when he developed radical and
+republican views. Now the strong exhortations of the clergy to
+the faithful counted for much in keeping peace, and in one view
+justified the policy of the British Government in seeking to
+purchase their favor. The Quebec and Three Rivers districts
+remained quiet. In the Richelieu and Montreal districts, where
+disaffection was strongest, the habitants lacked leadership,
+discipline, and touch with other groups, and were armed only with
+old flintlocks, scythes, or clubs. Here and there a brave and
+skillful leader, such as Dr. Jean Olivier Chenier, was thrown up
+by the evidence opened a way out of the difficult situation. A
+year later Peel and Webster, representing the two countries,
+exchanged formal explanations, and the incident was closed.
+
+In Upper Canada many a rebel sympathizer lay for months in jail,
+but only two leaders, Lount and Matthews, both brave men, paid
+the penalty of death for their failure. In Lower Canada the new
+Governor General, Lord Durham, proved more clement, merely
+banishing to Bermuda eight of the captured leaders. When, a year
+later, after Durham's return to England, a second brief rising
+broke out under Robert Nelson, it was stamped out in a week,
+twelve of the ringleaders were executed, and others were deported
+to Botany Bay.
+
+The rebellion, it seemed, had failed and failed miserably. Most
+of the leaders of the extreme factions in both provinces had been
+discredited, and the moderate men had been driven into the
+government camp. Yet in one sense the rising proved successful.
+It was not the first nor the last time that wild and misguided
+force brought reform where sane and moderate tactics met only
+contempt. If men were willing to die to redress their wrongs, the
+most easy-going official could no longer deny that there was a
+case for inquiry and possibly for reform. Lord Melbourne's
+Government had acted at once in sending out to Canada, as
+Governor General and High Commissioner with sweeping powers, one
+of the ablest men in English public life. Lord Durham was an
+aristocratic Radical, intensely devoted to political equality and
+equally convinced of his own personal superiority. Yet he had
+vision, firmness, independence, and his very rudeness kept him
+free from the social influences which had ensnared many another
+Governor. Attended by a gorgeous retinue and by some able working
+secretaries, including Charles Buller, Carlyle's pupil, he made a
+rapid survey of Upper and Lower Canada. Suddenly, after five
+crowded months, his mission ended. He had left at home active
+enemies and lukewarm friends. Lord Brougham, one of his foes,
+called in question the legality of his edict banishing the rebel
+leaders to Bermuda. The Ministers did not back him, as they
+should have done; and Durham indignantly resigned and hurried
+back to England.
+
+Three months later, however, his "Report" appeared and his
+mission stood vindicated. There are few British state papers of
+more fame or more worth than Durham's "Report". It was not,
+however, the beginning and the end of wisdom in colonial policy,
+as has often been declared. Much that Durham advocated was not
+new, and much has been condemned by time. His main suggestions
+were four: to unite the Canadas, to swamp the French Canadians by
+such union, to grant a measure of responsible government, and to
+set up municipal government. His attitude towards the French
+Canadians was prejudiced and shortsighted. He was not the first
+to recommend responsible government, nor did his approval make it
+a reality. Yet with all qualifications his "Report" showed a
+confidence in the liberating and solving power of self-government
+which was the all-essential thing for the English Government to
+see; and his reasoned and powerful advocacy gave an impetus and a
+rallying point to the movement which were to prove of the
+greatest value in the future growth not only of Canada but of the
+whole British Empire.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. THE UNION ERA
+
+The struggle for self-government seemed to have ended in deadlock
+and chaos. Yet under the wreckage new lines of constructive
+effort were forming. The rebellion had at least proved that the
+old order was doomed. For half a century the attempt had been
+made to govern the Canadas as separate provinces and with the
+half measure of freedom involved in representative government.
+For the next quarter of a century the experiment of responsible
+government together with union of the two provinces was to be
+given its trial.
+
+The union of the two provinces was the phase of Durham's policy
+which met fullest acceptance in England. It was not possible, in
+the view of the British Ministry, to take away permanently from
+the people of Lower Canada the measure of self-government
+involved in permitting them to choose their representatives in a
+House of Assembly. It was equally impossible, they considered, to
+permit a French-Canadian majority ever again to bring all
+government to a standstill. The only solution of the problem was
+to unite the two provinces and thus swamp the French Canadians by
+an English majority. Lower Canada, Durham had insisted, must be
+made "an English province." Sooner or later the French Canadians
+must lose their separate nationality; and it was, he contended,
+the part of statesmanship to make it sooner. Union, moreover,
+would make possible a common financial policy and an energetic
+development of the resources of both provinces.
+
+This was the first task set Durham's successor, Charles Poulett
+Thomson, better known as Lord Sydenham. Like Durham he was a man
+of outstanding capacity. The British Government had learned at
+last to send men of the caliber the emergency demanded. Like
+Durham he was a wealthy Radical politician, but there the
+resemblance ended. Where Durham played the dictator, Sydenham
+preferred to intrigue and to manage men, to win them by his
+adroitness and to convince them by his energy and his business
+knowledge. He was well fitted for the transition tasks before
+him, though too masterful to fill the role of ornamental monarch
+which the advocates of responsible government had cast for the
+Governor.
+
+Sydenham reached Canada in October, 1839. With the assistance of
+James Stuart, now a baronet and Chief Justice of Lower Canada, he
+drafted a union measure. In Lower Canada the Assembly had been
+suspended, and the Special Council appointed in its stead
+accepted the bill without serious demur. More difficulty was
+found in Upper Canada, where the Family Compact, still entrenched
+in the Legislative Council, feared the risk to their own position
+that union would bring and shrank from the task of assimilating
+half a million disaffected French Canadians. But with the support
+of the Reformers and of the more moderate among the Family
+Compact party, Sydenham forced his measure through. A confirming
+bill passed the British Parliament; and on February 10, 1841, the
+Union of Canada was proclaimed.
+
+The Act provided for the union of the two provinces, under a
+Governor, an appointed Legislative Council, and an elective
+Assembly. In the Assembly each section of the new province was to
+receive equal representation, though the population of Lower
+Canada still greatly exceeded that of Upper Canada. The Assembly
+was to have full control of all revenues, and in return a
+permanent civil list was granted. Either English or French could
+be used in debate, but all parliamentary journals and papers were
+to be printed in English only.*
+
+* From 1841 to 1867 the whole province was legally known as the
+"Province of Canada." Yet a measure of administrative separation
+between the old sections remained, and the terms "Canada East"
+and "Canada West" received official sanction. The older terms,
+"Lower Canada" and "Upper Canada," lingered on in popular usage.
+
+
+In June, 1841, the first Parliament of united Canada met at
+Kingston, which as the most central point had been chosen as the
+new capital. Under Sydenham's shrewd and energetic leadership a
+business programme of long-delayed reforms was put through. A
+large loan, guaranteed by the British Government, made possible
+extensive provision for building roads, bridges, and canals
+around the rapids in the St. Lawrence. Municipal institutions
+were set up, and reforms were effected in the provincial
+administration.
+
+Lord John Russell in England and Sydenham in Canada were anxious
+to keep the question of responsible government in the background.
+For the first busy months they succeeded, but the new Parliament
+contained men quite as strong willed as either and of quite other
+views. Before the first session had begun, Baldwin and the new
+French-Canadian leader, La Fontaine, had raised the issue and
+begun a new struggle in which their single-minded devotion and
+unflinching courage were to attain a complete success.
+
+Responsible government was in 1841 only a phrase, a watchword.
+Its full implications became clear only after many years. It
+meant three things: cabinet government, self-government, and
+party government. It meant that the government of the country
+should be carried on by a Cabinet or Executive Council, all
+members of Parliament, all belonging to the party which had the
+majority in the Assembly, and under the leadership of a Prime
+Minister, the working head of the Government. The nominal head,
+Governor or King, could act only on the advice of his ministers,
+who alone were held responsible to Parliament for the course of
+the Government. It meant, further, national self-government. The
+Governor could not serve two masters. If he must take the advice
+of his ministers in Canada, he could not take the possibly
+conflicting advice of ministers in London. The people of Canada
+would be the ultimate court of appeal. And finally, responsible
+government meant party government. The cabinet system presupposed
+a definite and united majority behind the Government. It was the
+business of the party system to provide that majority, to insure
+responsible and steady action, and at the same time responsible
+criticism from Her Majesty's loyal Opposition. Baldwin saw this
+clearly in 1841, but it took hard fighting throughout the forties
+to bring all his fellow countrymen to see likewise and to induce
+the English Government to resign itself to the prospect.
+
+Sydenham fought against responsible government but advanced it
+against his will. The only sense in which he, like Russell, was
+prepared to concede such liberty was that the Governor should
+choose his advisers as far as possible from men having the
+confidence of the Assembly. They were to be his advisers only, in
+fact as well as form. The Governor was still to govern, was to be
+Prime Minister and Governor in one. When Baldwin, who had been
+given a seat in the Executive Council, demanded in 1841 that this
+body should be reconstructed in such a way as to include some
+French-Canadian members and to exclude the Family Compact men,
+Sydenham flatly refused. Baldwin then resigned and went into
+opposition, but Sydenham unwillingly played into his hand. By
+choosing his council solely from members of the two Houses, he
+established a definite connection between Executive and Assembly
+and thus gave an opportunity for the discussion of the
+administration of policy in the House and for the forming of
+government and opposition parties. Before the first session
+closed, the majority which Sydenham had built up by acting as a
+party leader at the very time he was deriding parties as mere
+factions, crumbled away, and he was forced to accept resolutions
+insisting that the Governor's advisers must be men "possessed of
+the confidence of the representatives of the people." Fate ended
+his work at its height. Riding home one September evening, he was
+thrown from his horse and died from the injuries before the month
+was out.
+
+It fell to the Tory Government of Peel to choose Sydenham's
+successor. They named Sir Charles Bagot, already distinguished
+for his career in diplomacy and known for his hand in matters
+which were to interest the greater Canada, the Rush-Bagot
+Convention with the United States and the treaty with Russia
+which fixed, only too vaguely, the boundaries of Alaska. He was
+under strict injunctions from the Colonial Secretary, Lord
+Stanley, to continue Sydenham's policy and to make no further
+concession to the demands for responsible government or party
+control. Yet this Tory nominee of a Tory Cabinet, in his brief
+term of office, insured a great advance along this very path
+toward freedom. His easy-going temper predisposed him to play the
+part of constitutional monarch rather than of Prime Minister, and
+in any case he faced a majority in the Assembly resolute in its
+determination.
+
+The policy of swamping French influence had already proved a
+failure. Sydenham had given it a full trial. He had done his
+best, or his worst, by unscrupulous manipulation, to keep the
+French Canadians from gaining their fair quota of the members in
+the Union Assembly. Those who were elected he ignored. "They have
+forgotten nothing and learnt nothing by the Rebellion, " he
+declared, "and are more unfit for representative government than
+they were in 1791." This was far from a true reading of the
+situation. The French stood aloof, it is true, a compact and
+sullen group, angered by the undisguised policy of Anglicization
+that faced them and by Sydenham's unscrupulous tactics. But they
+had learned restraint and had found leaders and allies of the
+kind most needed. Papineau's place--for the great tribune was now
+in exile in Paris, consorting with the republicans and socialists
+who were to bring about the Revolution of 1848--had been taken by
+one of his former lieutenants. Louis Hippolyte La Fontaine still
+stands out as one of the two or three greatest Canadians of
+French descent, a man of massive intellect, of unquestioned
+integrity, and of firm but moderate temper. With Baldwin he came
+to form a close and lifelong friendship. The Reformers of Canada
+West, as Upper Canada was now called, formed a working alliance
+with La Fontaine which gave them a sweeping majority in the
+Assembly. Bagot bowed to the inevitable and called La Fontaine
+and Baldwin to his Council. Ill health made it impossible for him
+to take much part in the government, and the Council was far on
+the way to obtaining the unity and the independence of a true
+Cabinet when Bagot's death in 1843 brought a new turn in affairs.
+
+The British Ministers had seen with growing uneasiness Bagot's
+concessions. His successor, Sir Charles Metcalfe, a man of honest
+and kindly ways but accustomed to governing oriental peoples,
+determined to make a stand against the pretensions of the
+Reformers. In this attitude he was strongly backed both by
+Stanley and by his successor, that brilliant young Tory, William
+Ewart Gladstone. Metcalfe insisted once more that the Governor
+must govern. While the members of the Council, as individuals,
+might give him advice, it was for him to decide whether or not to
+take it. The inevitable clash with his Ministers came in the
+autumn of 1843 over a question of patronage. They resigned, and
+after months of effort Metcalfe patched up a Ministry with W. H.
+Draper as the leading member. In an election in which Metcalfe
+himself took the platform and in which once more British
+connection was said to be at stake, the Ministry obtained a
+narrow majority. But opinion soon turned, and when Metcalfe, the
+third Governor in four years to whom Canada had proved fatal,,
+went home to die, he knew that his stand had been in vain. The
+Ministry, after a precarious life of three years, went to the
+country only to be beaten by an overwhelming majority in both
+East and West. When, in 1848, Baldwin and La Fontaine were called
+to office under the new Governor General, Lord Elgin, the fight
+was won. Many years were to pass before the full implications of
+responsible government were worked out, but henceforth even the
+straitest Tory conceded the principle. Responsible government had
+ceased to be a party cry and had become the common heritage of
+all Canadians.
+
+Lord Elgin, who was Durham's son-in-law, was a man well able to
+bear the mantle of his predecessors. Yet he realized that the day
+had passed when Governors could govern and was content rather to
+advise his advisers, to wield the personal influence that his
+experience and sagacity warranted. Hitherto the stages in
+Canadian history had been recorded by the term of office of the
+Governors; henceforth it was to be the tenure of Cabinets which
+counted. Elgin ceased even to attend the Council, and after his
+time the Governor became more and more the constitutional
+monarch, busied in laying corner stones and listening to tiresome
+official addresses. In emergencies, and especially in the gap or
+interregnum between Ministries, the personality of the Governor
+might count, but as a rule this power remained latent. Yet in two
+turning points in Canadian history, both of which had to do with
+the relations of Canada to the United States, Elgin was to play
+an important part: the Annexation Movement of 1849 and the
+Reciprocity Treaty of 1854.
+
+In the struggle for responsible government, loyalty to the
+British Crown, loyalty of a superior and exclusive brand, had
+been the creed and the war cry of the Tory party. Yet in 1849 men
+saw the hotheads of this group in Montreal stoning a British
+Governor General and setting fire to the Parliament Buildings,
+while a few months later their elders issued a manifesto urging
+the annexation of Canada to the United States. Why this sudden
+shift? Simply because the old colonial system they had known and
+supported had come to an end. The Empire had been taken to mean
+racial ascendancy and trade profit. Now both the political and
+the economic pillars were crumbling, and the Empire appeared to
+have no further excuse for existence.
+
+In the past British connection had meant to many of the English
+minority in Lower Canada a means of redressing the political
+balance, of retaining power in face of a body of French-speaking
+citizens outnumbering them three or four to one. Now that support
+had been withdrawn. Britain had consented, unwillingly, to the
+setting up of responsible government and the calling to office of
+men who a dozen years before had been in arms against the Queen
+or fleeing from the province. This was gall and wormwood to the
+English. But when the Ministry introduced, and the Assembly
+passed, the Rebellion Losses Bill for compensating those who had
+suffered destruction of property in the outbreak, and when the
+terms were so drawn as to make it possible, its critics charged,
+that rebels as well as loyalists would be compensated, flesh and
+blood could bear no more. The Governor was pelted with rotten
+eggs when he came down to the House to sign the bill, and the
+buildings where Parliament had met since 1844, when the capital
+had been transferred from Kingston to Montreal, were stormed and
+burned by a street mob.
+
+The anger felt against the Ministry thus turned against the
+British Government. The English minority felt like an advance
+guard in a hostile country, deserted by the main forces, an
+Ulster abandoned to Home Ruler and Sinn Feiner. They turned to
+the south, to the other great English-speaking Protestant people.
+If the older branch of the race would not give them protection or
+a share in dominance, perhaps the younger branch could and would.
+As Lord Durham had suggested, they were resolved that "Lower
+Canada must be ENGLISH, at the expense, if necessary, of not
+being BRITISH."
+
+But it was not only the political basis of the old colonial
+system that was rudely shattered. The economic foundations, too,
+were passing away, and with them the profits of the Montreal
+merchants, who formed the backbone of the annexation movement. It
+has been seen that under this system Great Britain had aimed at
+setting up a self-contained empire, with a monopoly of the
+markets of the colonies. Now for her own sake she was sweeping
+away the tariff and shipping monopoly which had been built up
+through more than two centuries. The logic of Adam Smith, the
+experiments of Huskisson, the demands of manufacturers for cheap
+food and raw materials, the passionate campaigns of Cobden and
+Bright, and the rains that brought the Irish famine, at last had
+their effect. In 1846 Peel himself undertook the repeal of the
+Corn Laws. To Lower Canada this was a crushing blow. Until of
+late the preference given in the British market on colonial goods
+in return for the control of colonial trade had been of little
+value; but in 1848 the duties on Canadian wheat and flour had
+been greatly lowered, resulting in a preference over foreign
+grain reckoned at eighteen cents a bushel. While in appearance an
+extension of the old system of preference and protection, in
+reality this was a step toward its abandonment. For it was
+understood that American grain, imported into Canada at a low
+duty, whether shipped direct or ground into flour, would be
+admitted at the same low rates. The Act, by opening a back door
+to United States wheat, foreshadowed the triumph of the cheap
+food agitators in England. But the merchants, the millers, and
+the forwarders of Montreal could not believe this. The canal
+system was rushed through; large flour mills were built, and
+heavy investments of capital were made. Then in 1846 came the
+announcement that the artificial basis of this brief prosperity
+had vanished. Lord Elgin summed up the results in a dispatch in
+1849: "Property in most of the Canadian towns, and more
+especially in the capital, has fallen fifty per cent in value
+within the last three years. Three-fourths of the commercial men
+are bankrupt, owing to free trade. A large proportion of the
+exportable produce of Canada is obliged to seek a market in the
+United States. It pays a duty of twenty per cent on the frontier.
+How long can such a state of things endure?"
+
+In October, 1849, the leading men of Montreal issued a manifesto
+demanding annexation to the United States. A future Prime
+Minister of Canada, J. J. C. Abbott, four future Cabinet
+Ministers, John Rose, Luther Holton, D. L. Macpherson, and A. A.
+Dorion, and the commercial leaders of Montreal, the Molsons,
+Redpaths, Torrances, and Workmans, were among the signers.
+Besides Dorion, a few French Canadians of the Rouge or extreme
+Radical party joined in. The movement found supporters in the
+Eastern Townships, notably in A. T. Galt, a financier and
+railroad builder of distinction, and here and there in Canada
+West. Yet the great body of opinion was unmistakably against it.
+Baldwin and La Fontaine opposed it with unswerving energy, the
+Catholic Church in Canada East denounced it, and the rank and
+file of both parties in Canada West gave it short shrift. Elgin
+came out actively in opposition and aided in negotiating the
+Reciprocity Treaty with the United States which met the economic
+need. Montreal found itself isolated, and even there the revival
+of trade and the cooling of passions turned men's thoughts into
+other channels. Soon the movement was but a memory, chiefly
+serviceable to political opponents for taunting some signer of
+the manifesto whenever he later made parade of his loyalty. It
+had a more unfortunate effect, however, in leading public opinion
+in the United States to the belief for many years that a strong
+annexationist sentiment existed in Canada. Never again did
+annexation receive any notable measure of popular support. A
+national spirit was slowly gaining ground, and men were
+eventually to see that the alternative to looking to London for
+salvation was not looking to Washington but looking to
+themselves.
+
+
+In the provinces by the sea the struggle for responsible
+government was won at much the same time as in Canada. The
+smaller field within which the contest was waged gave it a bitter
+personal touch; but racial hostility did not enter in, and the
+British Government proved less obdurate than in the western
+conflicts. In both Nova Scotia and New Brunswick little
+oligarchies had become entrenched. The Government was
+unprogressive, and fees and salaries were high. The Anglican
+Church had received privileges galling to other denominations
+which surpassed it in numbers. The "powers that were" found a
+shrewd defender in Haliburton, who tried to teach his fellow
+Bluenoses through the homely wit of "Sam Slick" that they should
+leave governing to those who had the training, the capacity, and
+the leisure it required. In Prince Edward Island the land
+question still overshadowed all others. Every proposal for its
+settlement was rejected by the influence of the absentee
+landlords in England, and the agitation went wearily on.
+
+In Nova Scotia the outstanding figure in the ranks of reform was
+Joseph Howe. The son of a Loyalist settler, Howe early took to
+his father's work of journalism. At first his sympathies were
+with the governing powers, but a controversy with a brother
+editor, Jotham Blanchard, a New Hampshire man who found radical
+backing among the Scots of Pictou, gave him new light and he soon
+threw his whole powers into the struggle on the popular side.
+Howe was a man lavishly gifted, one of the most effective orators
+America has produced, fearing no man and no task however great,
+filled with a vitality, a humor, a broad sympathy for his fellows
+that gave him the blind obedience of thousands of followers and
+the glowing friendship of countless firesides. There are still
+old men in Nova Scotia whose proudest memory is that they once
+held Howe's horse or ran on an errand for a look from his kingly
+eye.
+
+Howe took up the fight in earnest in 1835. The western demand for
+responsible government pointed the way, and Howe became, with
+Baldwin, its most trenchant advocate. In spite of the determined
+opposition of the sturdy old soldier Governor, Sir Colin
+Campbell, and of his successor, Lord Falkland, who aped Sydenham
+and whom Howe threatened to "hire a black man to horse-whip," the
+reformers won. In 1848 the first responsible Cabinet in Nova
+Scotia came to power.
+
+In New Brunswick the transition to responsible government came
+gradually and without dramatic incidents or brilliant figures on
+either side. Lemuel Wilmot, and later Charles Fisher, led the
+reform ranks, gradually securing for the Assembly control of all
+revenues, abolishing religious inequalities, and effecting some
+reform in the Executive Council, until at last in 1855 the
+crowning demand was tardily conceded.
+
+
+From the Great Lakes to the Atlantic the political fight was won,
+and men turned with relief to the tasks which strife and faction
+had hindered. Self-government meant progressive government. With
+organized Cabinets coordinating and controlling their policy the
+provinces went ahead much faster than when Governor and Assembly
+stood at daggers drawn. The forties and especially the fifties
+were years of rapid and sound development in all the provinces,
+and especially in Canada West. Settlers poured in, the scattered
+clearings; widened until one joined the next, and pioneer
+hardships gave way to substantial, if crude, prosperity.
+Education, notably under the vigorous leadership of Egerton
+Ryerson in Canada West, received more adequate attention. Banks
+grew and with them all commercial facilities increased.
+
+The distinctive feature of this period of Canadian development,
+however, was the growth of canals and railroads. The forties were
+the time of canal building and rebuilding all along the lakes and
+the St. Lawrence to salt water. Canada spent millions on what
+were wonderful works for their day, in the hope that the St.
+Lawrence would become the channel for the trade of all the
+growing western States bordering on the Great Lakes. Scarcely
+were these waterway improvements completed when it was realized
+they had been made largely in vain. The railway had come and was
+outrivaling the canal. If Canadian ports and channels were even
+to hold their own, they must take heed of the enterprise of all
+the cities along the Atlantic coast of the United States, which
+were promoting railroads to the interior in a vigorous rivalry
+for the trade of the Golden West. Here was a challenge which must
+be taken up. The fifties became the first great railway era of
+Canada. In 1850 there were only sixty-six miles of railway in all
+the provinces; ten years later there were over two thousand.
+Nearly all the roads were aided by provincial or municipal bonus
+or guarantee. Chief among the lines was the Grand Trunk, which
+ran from the Detroit border to Riviere du Loup on the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence, and which, though it halted at that eastern terminus in
+the magnificent project of connecting with the railways of the
+Maritime Provinces, was nevertheless at that time the longest
+road in the world operating under single control.
+
+The railways brought with them a new speculative fever, a more
+complex financial structure, a business politics which shaded
+into open corruption, and a closer touch with the outside world.
+The general substitution of steam for sail on the Atlantic during
+this period aided further in lessening the isolation of what had
+been backwoods provinces and in bringing them into closer
+relation with the rest of the world.
+
+
+It was in closer relations with the United States that this
+emergence from isolation chiefly manifested itself. In the
+generation that followed the War of 1812 intercourse with the
+United States was discouraged and was remarkably insignificant.
+Official policy and the memories of 1783 and 1812 alike built up
+a wall along the southern border. The spirit of Downing Street
+was shown in the instructions given to Lord Bathurst, immediately
+after the close of the war, to leave the territory between
+Montreal and Lake Champlain in a state of nature, making no
+further grants of land and letting the few roads which had been
+begun fall into decay thus a barrier of forest wilderness would
+ward off republican contagion. This Chinese policy of putting up
+a wall of separation proved impossible to carry through, but in
+less extreme ways this attitude of aloofness marked the course of
+the Government all through the days of oversea authority.
+
+The friction aroused by repeated boundary disputes prevented
+friendly relations between Canada and the United States. With
+unconscious irony the framers of the Peace of 1783 had prefaced
+their long outline of the boundaries of the United States by
+expressing their intention "that all disputes which might arise
+in future on the subject of the boundaries of the said United
+States may be prevented." So vague, however, were the terms of
+the treaty and so untrustworthy were the maps of the day that
+ultimately almost every clause in the boundary section gave rise
+to dispute.
+
+As settlement rolled westward one section of the boundary after
+another came in question. Beginning in the east, the line between
+New Brunswick and New England was to be formed by the St. Croix
+River. There had been a St. Croix in Champlain's time and a St.
+Croix was depicted on the maps, but no river known by that name
+existed in 1783. The British identified it with the Schoodic, the
+Americans with the Magaguadavic. Arbitration in 1798 upheld the
+British in the contention that the Schoodic was the St. Croix but
+agreed with the Americans in the secondary question as to which
+of the two branches of the Schoodic should be followed. A similar
+commission in 1817 settled the dispute as to the islands in
+Passamaquoddy Bay.
+
+More difficult, because at once more ambiguous in terms and more
+vitally important, was the determination of the boundary in the
+next stage westward from the St. Croix to the St. Lawrence. The
+British position was a difficult one to maintain. In the days of
+the struggle with France, Great Britain had tried to push the
+bounds of the New England colonies as far north as might be,
+making claims that would hem in France to the barest strip along
+the south shore of the St. Lawrence. Now that she was heir to the
+territories and claims of France and had lost her own old
+colonies, it was somewhat embarrassing, but for diplomats not
+impossible, to have to urge a line as far south as the urgent
+needs of the provinces for intercommunication demanded. The
+letter of the treaty was impossible to interpret with certainty.
+The phrase, "the Highlands which divide those rivers that empty
+themselves into the river St. Lawrence from those which fall into
+the Atlantic Ocean," meant according to the American reading a
+watershed which was a marshy plateau, and according to the
+British version a range of hills to the south which involved some
+keen hairsplitting as to the rivers they divided. The intentions
+of the parties to the original treaty were probably much as the
+Americans contended. From the standpoint of neighborly adjustment
+and the relative need for the land in question, a strong case in
+equity could be made out for the provinces, which would be cut
+asunder for all time if a wedge were driven north to the very
+brink of the St. Lawrence.
+
+As lumbermen and settlers gathered in the border area, the risk
+of conflict became acute, culminating in the Aroostook War in
+1838-39, when the Legislatures of Maine and New Brunswick backed
+their rival lumberjacks with reckless jingoism. Diplomacy failed
+repeatedly to obtain a compromise line. Arbitration was tried
+with little better success, as the United States refused to
+accept the award of the King of the Netherlands in 1831. The
+diplomats tried once more, and in 1842 Daniel Webster, the United
+States Secretary of State, and Lord Ashburton, the British
+Commissioner, made a compromise by which some five thousand miles
+of the area in dispute were assigned to Great Britain and seven
+thousand to the United States. The award was not popular on
+either side, and the public seized eagerly on stories of
+concealed "Red Line" maps, stories of Yankee smartness or of
+British trickery. Webster, to win the assent of Maine, had
+exhibited in the Senate a map found in the French Archives and
+very damaging to the American claim. Later it appeared that the
+British Government also had found a map equally damaging to its
+own claims. The nice question of ethics involved, whether a
+nation should bring forward evidence that would tell against
+itself, ceased to have more than an abstract interest when it was
+demonstrated that neither map could be considered as one which
+the original negotiators had used or marked.*
+
+* See "The Path, of Empire", by Carl Russell Fish (in "The
+Chronicles of America").
+
+
+The boundary from the St. Lawrence westward through the Great
+Lakes and thence to the Lake of the Woods had been laid down in
+the Treaty of 1783 in the usual vague terms, but it was
+determined in a series of negotiations from 1794 to 1842 with
+less friction and heat than the eastern line had caused. From the
+Lake of the Woods to the Rockies a new line, the forty-ninth
+parallel, was agreed upon in 1818. Then, as the Pacific Ocean was
+neared, the difficulties once more increased. There were no
+treaties between the two countries to limit claims beyond the
+Rockies. Discovery and settlement, and the rights inherited from
+or admitted by the Spaniards to the south and by the Russians to
+the north, were the grounds put forward. British and Canadian fur
+traders had been the pioneers in overland discovery, but early in
+the forties thousands of American settlers poured into the
+Columbia Valley and strengthened the practical case for their
+country. "Fifty-four forty or fight"--in other words, the calm
+proposal to claim the whole coast between Mexico and
+Alaska--became the popular cry in the United States; but in face
+of the firm attitude of Great Britain and impending hostilities
+with Mexico, more moderate counsels ruled. Great Britain held out
+for the Columbia River as the dividing line, and the United
+States for the forty-ninth parallel throughout. Finally, in 1846,
+the latter contention was accepted, with a modification to leave
+Vancouver Island wholly British territory. A postscript to this
+settlement was added in 1872, when the German Emperor as
+arbitrator approved the American claim to the island of San Juan
+in the channel between Vancouver Island and the mainland.*
+
+* See "The Path of Empire".
+
+
+With the most troublesome boundary questions out of the way, it
+became possible to discuss calmly closer trade relations between
+the Provinces and the United States. The movement for reciprocal
+lowering of the tariffs which hampered trade made rapid headway
+in the Provinces in the late forties and early fifties. British
+North America was passing out of the pioneer, self-sufficient
+stage, and now had a surplus to export as well as townbred needs
+to be supplied by imports. The spread of settlement and the
+building of canals and railways brought closer contact with the
+people to the south. The loss of special privileges in the
+English market made the United States market more desired. In
+official circles reciprocity was sought as a homeopathic cure for
+the desire for annexation. William Hamilton Merritt, a Niagara
+border business man and the most persistent advocate of closer
+trade relations, met little difficulty in securing almost
+unanimous backing in Canada, while the Maritime Provinces lent
+their support.
+
+It was more difficult to win over the United States. There the
+people showed the usual indifference of a big and prosperous
+country to the needs or opportunities of a small and backward
+neighbor. The division of power between President and Congress
+made it difficult to carry any negotiation through to success.
+Yet these obstacles were overcome. The depletion of the fisheries
+along the Atlantic coast of the United States made it worth
+while, as I.D. Andrews, a United States consul in New Brunswick,
+urged persistently, to gain access to the richer grounds to the
+north and, if necessary, to offer trade concessions in exchange.
+At Washington, the South was in the saddle. Its sympathies were
+strongly for freer trade, but this alone would not have counted
+had not the advocates of reciprocity convinced the Democratic
+leaders of the bearing of their policy on the then absorbing
+issue of slavery. If reciprocity were not arranged, the argument
+ran, annexation would be sure to come and that would mean the
+addition to the Union of a group of freesoil States which would
+definitely tilt the balance against slavery for all time. With
+the ground thus prepared, Lord Elgin succeeded by adroit and
+capable diplomacy in winning over the leaders of Congress as well
+as the Executive to his proposals. The Reciprocity Treaty was
+passed by the Senate in August, 1854, and by the Legislatures of
+the United Kingdom, Canada, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick,
+and Nova Scotia in the next few months, and of Newfoundland in
+1855. This treaty provided for free admission into each country
+of practically all the products of the farm, forest, mine, and
+fishery, threw open the Atlantic fisheries, and gave American
+vessels the use of the St. Lawrence and Canadian vessels the use
+of Lake Michigan. The agreement was to last for ten years and
+indefinitely thereafter, subject to termination on one year's
+notice by either party.
+
+To both countries reciprocity brought undoubted good. Trade
+doubled and trebled. Each country gained by free access to the
+nearest sources of supply. The same goods figured largely in the
+traffic in both directions, the United States importing grain and
+flour from Canada and exporting it to the Maritime Provinces. In
+short the benefits which had come to the United States from free
+and unfettered trade throughout half a continent were now
+extended to practically a whole continent.
+
+Yet criticism of the new economic regime was not lacking. The
+growth of protectionist feeling in both countries after 1857
+brought about incidents and created an atmosphere which were
+dangerous to the continuance of close trade relations. In 1858
+and 1859 the Canadian Government raised substantially the duties
+on manufactured goods in order to meet the bills for its lavish
+railway policy. This increase hit American manufacturers and led
+to loud complaints that the spirit of the Reciprocity Treaty had
+been violated. Alexander T. Galt, Canadian Minister of Finance,
+had no difficulty in showing that the tariff increases were the
+only feasible sources of revenue, that the agreement with the
+United States did not cover manufactures, and that the United
+States itself, faced by war demands and no longer controlled by
+free trade Southerners, had raised duties still higher. The
+exports of the United States to the Provinces in the reciprocity
+period were greater, contrary to the later traditions, than the
+imports. On economic grounds the case for the continuance of the
+reciprocity agreement was strong, and probably the treaty would
+have remained in force indefinitely had not the political
+passions roused by the Civil War made sanity and neighborliness
+in trade difficult to maintain.
+
+
+When the Civil War broke out, the sympathies of Canadians were
+overwhelmingly on the side of the North. The railway and freer
+trade had been bringing the two peoples closer together, and time
+was healing old sores. Slavery was held to be the real issue, and
+on that issue there were scarcely two opinions in the British
+Provinces.
+
+Yet in a few months sympathy had given way to angry and
+suspicious bickering, and the possibility of invasion of Canada
+by the Northern forces was vigorously debated. This sudden shift
+of opinion and the danger in which it involved the provinces were
+both incidents in the quarrel which sprang up between the United
+States and Great Britain. In Britain as in Canada, opinion, so
+far as it found open expression, was at first not unfriendly to
+the North. Then came the anger of the North at Great Britain's
+legitimate and necessary, though perhaps precipitate, action in
+acknowledging the South as a belligerent. This action ran counter
+to the official Northern theory that the revolt of the Southern
+States was a local riot, of merely domestic concern, and was held
+to foreshadow a recognition of the independence of the
+Confederacy. The angry taunts were soon returned. The ruling
+classes in Great Britain made the discovery that the war was a
+struggle between chivalrous gentlemen and mercenary
+counterhoppers and cherished the hope that the failure of the
+North would discredit, the world over, the democracy which was
+making uncomfortable claims in England itself. The English
+trading classes resented the shortage of cotton and the high
+duties which the protectionist North was imposing. With the
+defeat of the Union forces at Bull Run the prudent hesitancy of
+aristocrat and merchant in expressing their views disappeared.
+The responsible statesmen of both countries, especially Lincoln
+and Lord John Russell, refused to be stampeded, but unfortunately
+the leading newspapers served them ill. The "Times", with its
+constant sneers and its still more irritating patronizing advice,
+and the New York "Herald", bragging and blustering in the frank
+hope of forcing a war with Britain and France which would reunite
+South and North and subordinate the slavery issue, did more than
+any other factors to bring the two countries to the verge of war.
+
+In Canada the tendency in some quarters to reflect English
+opinion, the disappointment in others that the abolition of
+slavery was not explicitly pledged by the North, and above all
+resentment against the threats of the "Herald" and its followers,
+soon cooled the early friendliness. The leading Canadian
+newspaper, for many years a vigorous opponent of slavery, thus
+summed up the situation in August, 1861:
+
+"The insolent bravado of the Northern press towards Great Britain
+and the insulting tone assumed toward these Provinces have
+unquestionably produced a marked change in the feelings of our
+people. When the war commenced, there was only one feeling, of
+hearty sympathy with the North, but now it is very different.
+People have lost sight of the character of the struggle in the
+exasperation excited by the injustice and abuse showered upon us
+by the party with which we sympathized."*
+
+* Toronto "Globe", August 7, 1861.
+
+
+The Trent affair brought matters to a sobering climax.* When it
+was settled, resentment lingered, but the tension was never again
+so acute. Both Great Britain and in Canada the normal sympathy
+with the cause of the Union revived as the war went on. In
+England the classes continued to be pro-Southern in sympathy, but
+the masses, in spite of cotton famines, held resolutely to their
+faith in the cause of freedom. After Lincoln's emancipation of
+the slaves, the view of the English middle classes more and more
+became the view of the nation. In Canada, pro-Southern sentiment
+was strong in the same classes and particularly in Montreal and
+Toronto, where there were to be found many Southern refugees,
+some of whom made a poor return for hospitality by endeavoring to
+use Canada as a base for border raids. Yet in the smaller towns
+and in the country sympathy was decidedly on the other side,
+particularly after the "Herald" had ceased its campaign of
+bluster and after Lincoln's proclamation had brought the moral
+issue again to the fore. The fact that a large number of
+Canadians, popularly set at forty thousand, enlisted in the
+Northern armies, is to be explained in part by the call of
+adventure and the lure of high bounties, but it must also be
+taken to reflect the sympathy of the mass of the people.
+
+* See "Abraham Lincoln and the Union", by Nathaniel W. Stephenson
+(in "The Chronicles of America").
+
+
+In the United States resentment was slower in passing. While the
+war was on, prudence forbade any overt act. When it was over, the
+bill for the Alabama raids and the taunts of the "Times" came in.
+Great Britain paid in the settlement of the Alabama claims.*
+Canada suffered by the abrogation of the Reciprocity Treaty at
+the first possible date, and by the connivance of the American
+authorities in the Fenian raids of 1866 and 1870. Yet for Canada
+the outcome was by no means ill. If the Civil War did not bring
+forth a new nation in the South, it helped to make one in the far
+North. A common danger drew the scattered British Provinces
+together and made ready the way for the coming Dominion of
+Canada.
+
+*See "The Day of the Confederacy", by Nathaniel W. Stephenson;
+and "The Path of Empire" (in "The Chronicles of America").
+
+
+It was not from the United States alone that an impetus came for
+the closer union of the British Provinces. The same period and
+the same events ripened opinion in the United Kingdom in favor of
+some practical means of altering a colonial relationship which
+bad ceased to bring profit but which had not ceased to be a
+burden of responsibility and risk.
+
+The British Empire had its beginning in the initiative of private
+business men, not in any conscious policy of state. Yet as the
+Empire grew the teaching of doctrinaires and the example of other
+colonial powers had developed a definite policy whereby the
+plantations overseas were to be made to serve the needs of the
+nation at home. The end of empire was commercial profit; the
+means, the political subordination of the colonies; the debit
+entry, the cost of the military and naval and diplomatic services
+borne by the mother country. But the course of events had now
+broken down this theory. Britain, for her own good, had abandoned
+protection, and with it fell the system of preference and
+monopoly in colonial markets. Not only preference had gone but
+even equality. The colonies, notably Canada, which was most
+influenced by the United States, were perversely using their new
+found freedom to protect their own manufacturers against all
+outsiders, Britain included. When Sheffield cutlers, hard hit by
+Canada's tariff, protested to the Colonial Secretary and he
+echoed their remonstrance, the Canadian Minister of Finance, A.
+T. Galt, stoutly refused to heed. "Self-government would be
+utterly annihilated," Galt replied in 1860, "if the views of the
+Imperial Government were to be preferred to those of the people
+of Canada. It is therefore the duty of the present government
+distinctly to affirm the right of the Canadian legislature to
+adjust the taxation of the people in the way they deem best -
+even if it should unfortunately happen to meet the disapproval of
+the Imperial Ministry." Clearly, if trade advantage were the
+chief purpose of empire, the Empire had lost its reason for
+being.
+
+With the credit entry fading, the debit entry loomed up bigger.
+Hardly had the Corn Laws been abolished when Radical critics
+called on the British Government to withdraw the redcoat
+garrisons from the colonies: no profit, no defense. Slowly but
+steadily this reduction was effected. To fill the gaps, the
+colonies began to strengthen their militia forces. In Canada only
+a beginning had been made in the way of defense when the Trent
+episode brought matters to a crisis. If war broke out between the
+United States and Great Britain, Canada would be the battlefield.
+Every Canadian knew it; nothing could be clearer. When the danger
+of immediate war had passed, the Parliament of Canada turned to
+the provision of more adequate defense. A bill providing for a
+compulsory levy was defeated in 1862, more on personal and party
+grounds than on its own merits, and the Ministry next in office
+took the other course of increasing the volunteer force and of
+providing for officers' training. Compared with any earlier
+arrangements for defense, the new plans marked a great advance;
+but when judged in the light of the possible necessity of
+repelling American invasion, they were plainly inadequate. A
+burst of criticism followed from England; press and politicians
+joined in denouncing the blind and supine colonials. Did they not
+know that invasion by the United States was inevitable? "If the
+people of the North fail," declared a noble lord, "they will
+attack Canada as a compensation for their losses; if they
+succeed, they will attack Canada in the drunkenness of victory."
+If such an invasion came, Britain had neither the power nor the
+will, the "Times" declared, to protect Canada without any aid on
+her part; not the power, for "our empire is too vast, our
+population too small, our antagonist too powerful"; not the will,
+for "we no longer monopolize the trade of the colonies; we no
+longer job their patronage." To these amazing attacks Canadians
+replied that they knew the United States better than Englishmen
+did. They were prepared to take their share in defense, but they
+could not forget that if war came it would not be by any act of
+Canada. It was soon noted that those who most loudly denounced
+Canada for not arming to the teeth were the Southern
+sympathizers. "The 'Times' has done more than its share in
+creating bad feeling between England and the United States,"
+declared a Toronto newspaper, "and would have liked to see the
+Canadians take up the quarrel which it has raised . . . . We have
+no idea of Canada being made a victim of the Jefferson Bricks on
+either side of the Atlantic."
+
+The question of defense fell into the background when the war
+ended and the armies of the Union went back to their farms and
+shops. But the discussion left in the minds of most Englishmen
+the belief that the possession of such colonies was a doubtful
+blessing. Manchester men like Bright, Liberals like Gladstone and
+Cornewall Lewis, Conservatives like Lowe and Disraeli, all came
+to believe that separation was only a question of time. Yet honor
+made them hesitate to set the defenseless colonies adrift to be
+seized by the first hungry neighbor.
+
+At this juncture the plans for uniting all the colonies in one
+great federation seemed to open a way out; united, the colonies
+could stand alone. Thus Confederation found support in Britain as
+well as a stimulus from the United States. This, however, was not
+enough. Confederation would not have come when it did--and that
+might have meant it would never have come at all--had not party
+and sectional deadlock forced Canadian politicians to seek a
+remedy in a wider union.
+
+At first all had gone well with the Union of 1841. It did not
+take the politicians long to learn how to use the power that
+responsible government put into their hands. After Elgin's day
+the Governor General fell back into the role of constitutional
+monarch which cabinet control made easy for him. In the forties,
+men had spoken of Sydenham and Bagot, Metcalfe and Elgin; in the
+fifties, they spoke of Baldwin and La Fontaine, Hincks and
+Macdonald and Cartier and Brown, and less and less of the
+Governors in whose name these men ruled. Politics then attracted
+more of the country's ablest men than it does now, and the party
+leaders included many who would have made their mark in any
+parliament in the world. Baldwin and La Fontaine, united to the
+end, resigned office in 1851, believing that they had played
+their part in establishing responsible government and feeling out
+of touch with the radical elements of their following who were
+demanding further change. Their place was taken in Canada West by
+Hincks, an adroit tactician and a skilled financier, intent on
+railway building and trade development; and in Canada East by
+Morin, a somewhat colorless lieutenant of La Fontaine.
+
+But these leaders in turn soon gave way to new men; and the
+political parties gradually fell into a state of flux. In Canada
+West there were still a few Tories, survivors of the Family
+Compact and last-ditch defenders of privilege in Church and
+State, a growing number of moderate Conservatives, a larger group
+of moderate Liberals, and a small but aggressive extreme left
+wing of "Clear Grits," mainly Scotch Presbyterians, foes of any
+claim to undue power on the part of class or clergy. In Canada
+East the English members from the Townships, under A. T. Galt,
+were ceasing to vote as a unit, and the main body of
+French-Canadian members were breaking up into a moderate Liberal
+party, and a smaller group of Rouges, fiery young men under the
+leadership of Papineau, now returned from exile, were crusading
+against clerical pretensions and all the established order.
+
+The situation was one made to the hand of a master tactician. The
+time brought forth the man. John A. Macdonald, a young Kingston
+lawyer of Tory upbringing, or "John A.", as generation after
+generation affectionately called him, was to prove the greatest
+leader of men in Canada's annals. Shrewd, tactful, and genial,
+never forgetting a face or a favor, as popular for his human
+frailties as for his strength, Macdonald saw that the old party
+lines drawn in the days of the struggle for responsible
+government were breaking down and that the future lay with a
+union of the moderate elements in both parties and both sections.
+He succeeded in 1854 in bringing together in Canada West a strong
+Liberal-Conservative group and in effecting a permanent alliance
+with the main body of French-Canadian Liberals, now under the
+leadership of Cartier, a vigorous fighter and an easy-going
+opportunist. With the addition of Galt as the financial expert,
+these allies held power throughout the greater part of the next
+dozen years. Their position was not unchallenged. The Clear Grits
+had found a leader after their own heart in George Brown, a
+Scotchman of great ability, a hard hitter and a good hater--
+especially of slavery, the Roman Catholic hierarchy, and "John
+A." Through his newspaper, the Toronto "Globe", he wielded a
+power unique in Canadian journalism. The Rouges, now led by A. A.
+Dorion, a man of stainless honor and essentially moderate temper,
+withdrew from. their extreme anticlerical position but could not
+live down their youth or make head against the forces of
+conservatism in their province. They did not command many
+votes in the House, but every man of them was an orator, and they
+remained through all vicissitudes a power to reckon with.
+
+Step by step, under Liberal and under Liberal Conservative
+Governments, the programme of Canadian Liberalism was carried
+into effect. Self-government, at least in domestic affairs, had
+been attained. An effective system of municipal government and a
+good beginning in popular education followed. The last link
+between Church and State was severed in 1854 when the Clergy
+Reserves were turned over to the municipalities for secular
+purposes, with life annuities for clergymen who had been
+receiving stipends from the Reserves. In Lower Canada the
+remnants of the old feudal system, the rights of the seigneurs,
+were abolished in the same year with full compensation from the
+state. An elective upper Chamber took the place of the appointed
+Legislative Council a year later. The Reformers, as the Clear
+Grits preferred to call themselves officially, should perhaps
+have been content with so much progress. They insisted, however,
+that a new and more intolerable privilege had arisen--the
+privilege which Canada East held of equal representation in the
+Legislative Assembly long after its population had fallen behind
+that of Canada West.
+
+The political union of the two Canadas in fact had never been
+complete. Throughout the Union period there were two leaders in
+each Cabinet, two Attorney Generals, and two distinct judicial
+systems. Every session laws were passed applying to one section
+alone. This continued separation had its beginning in a clause of
+the Union Act itself, which provided that each section should
+have equal representation in the Assembly, even though Lower
+Canada then had a much larger population than Upper Canada. When
+the tide of overseas immigration put Canada West well in the
+lead, it in its turn was denied the full representation its
+greater population warranted. First the Conservatives, and later
+the Clear Grits, took up the cry of "Representation by
+Population." It was not difficult to convince the average Canada
+West elector that it was an outrage that three French-Canadian
+voters should count as much as four English-speaking voters.
+Macdonald, relying for power on his alliance with Cartier, could
+not accept the demand, and saw seat after seat in Canada West
+fall to Brown and his "Rep. by Pop." crusaders. Brown's success
+only solidified Canada East against him, until, in the early
+sixties, party lines coincided almost with sectional lines.
+Parties were so closely matched that the life of a Ministry was
+short. In the three years ending in 1864 there were two general
+elections and four Ministries. Political controversy became
+bitterly personal, and corruption was spreading fast.
+
+Constant efforts were made to avert the threatened deadlock.
+Macdonald, who always trusted more to personal management than to
+constitutional expedients, won over one after another of the
+opponents who troubled him, and thus postponed the day of
+reckoning. Rival plans of constitutional reform were brought
+forward. The simplest remedy was the repeal of the union, leaving
+each province to go its own way. But this solution was felt to be
+a backward step and one which would create more problems than it
+would solve. More support was given the double majority
+principle, a provision that no measure affecting one section
+should be passed unless a majority from that section favored it,
+but this method broke down when put to a practical test. The
+Rouges, and later Brown, put forward a plan for the abolition of
+legislative union in favor of a federal union of the two Canadas.
+This lacked the wide vision of the fourth suggestion, which was
+destined to be adopted as the solution, namely, the federation of
+all British North America.
+
+Federal union, it was urged, would solve party and sectional
+deadlock by removing to local legislatures the questions which
+created the greatest divergence of opinion. The federal union of
+the Canadas alone or the federal union of all British North
+America would either achieve this end. But there were other ends
+in view which only the wider plan could serve. The needs of
+defense demanded a single control for all the colonies. The
+probable loss of the open market of the United States made it
+imperative to unite all the provinces in a single free trade
+area. The first faint stirrings of national ambition, prompting
+the younger men to throw off the leading strings of colonial
+dependence, were stimulated by the vision of a country which
+would stretch from sea to sea. The westward growth of the United
+States and the reports of travelers were opening men's eyes to
+the possibilities of the vast lands under the control of the
+Hudson's Bay Company and the need of asserting authority over
+these northern regions if they were to be held for the Crown.
+Eastward, also, men were awaking to their isolation. There was
+not, in the Maritime Provinces, any popular desire for union with
+the Canadas or any political crisis compelling drastic remedy,
+but the need of union for defense was felt in some quarters, and
+ambitious politicians who had mastered their local fields were
+beginning to sigh for larger worlds to conquer.
+
+It took the patient and courageous striving of many men to make
+this vision of a united country a reality. The roll of the
+Fathers of Confederation is a long and honored one. Yet on that
+roll there are some outstanding names, the names of men whose
+services were not merely devoted but indispensable. The first to
+bring the question within the field of practical politics was A.
+T. Galt, but when attempt after attempt in 1864 to organize a
+Ministry with a safe working majority had failed, it was George
+Brown who proposed that the party leaders should join hands in
+devising some form of federation. Macdonald had hitherto been a
+stout opponent of all change but, once converted, he threw
+himself into the struggle, with energy. He never appeared to
+better advantage than in the negotiations of the next few years,
+steering the ship of Confederation through the perilous shoals of
+personal and sectional jealousies. Few had a harder or a more
+important task than Cartier's-reconciling Canada East to a
+project under which it would be swamped, in the proposed federal
+House, by the representatives of four or five English-speaking
+provinces. McDougall, a Canada West Reformer, shared with Brown
+the credit for awakening Canadians to the value of the Far West
+and to the need of including it in their plans of expansion.
+D'Arcy McGee, more than any other, fired the imagination of the
+people with glowing pictures of the greatness and the limitless
+possibilities of the new nation. Charles Tupper, the head of a
+Nova Scotia Conservative Ministry which had overthrown the old
+tribune, Joseph Howe, had the hardest and seemingly most hopeless
+task of all; for his province appeared to be content with its
+separate existence and was inflamed against union by Howe's
+eloquent opposition; but to Tupper a hard fight was as the breath
+of his nostrils. In New Brunswick, Leonard Tilley, a man of less
+vigor but equal determination, led the struggle until
+Confederation was achieved.
+
+It was in June, 1864, that the leaders of the Parliament of
+Canada became convinced that federation was the only way out. A
+coalition Cabinet was formed, with Sir Etienne Tache as nominal
+Premier, and with Macdonald, Brown, Cartier, and Galt all
+included. An opening for discussing the wider federation was
+offered by a meeting which was to be held in Charlottetown,
+Prince Edward Island, of delegates from the three Maritime
+Provinces to consider the formation of a local union. There, in
+September, 1864, went eight of the Canadian Ministers. Their
+proposals met with favor. A series of banquets brought the plans
+before the public, seemingly with good results. The conference
+was resumed a month later at Quebec. Here, in sixteen working
+days, delegates from Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince
+Edward Island, and also from Newfoundland, thirty-three in all,
+after frank and full deliberation behind closed doors, agreed
+upon the terms of union. Macdonald's insistence upon a
+legislative union, wiping out all provincial boundaries, was
+overridden; but the lesson of the conflict between the federal
+and state jurisdiction in the United States was seen in
+provisions to strengthen the central authority. The general
+government was empowered to appoint the lieutenant governors of
+the various provinces and to veto any provincial law; to it were
+assigned all legislative powers not specifically granted to the
+provinces; and a subsidy granted by the general government in
+lieu of the customs revenues resigned by the provinces still
+further increased their dependence upon the central authority.
+
+It had taken less than three weeks to draw up the plan of union.
+It took nearly three years to secure its adoption. So far as
+Canada was concerned, little trouble was encountered. British
+traditions of parliamentary supremacy prevented any direct
+submission of the question to the people; but their support was
+clearly manifested in the press and on the platform, and the
+legislature ratified the project with emphatic majorities from
+both sections of the province. Though it did not pass without
+opposition, particularly from the Rouges under Dorion and from
+steadfast supporters of old ways like Christopher Dunkin and
+Sandfield Macdonald, the fight was only halfhearted. Not so,
+however, in the provinces by the sea. The delegates who returned
+from the Quebec Conference were astounded to meet a storm of
+criticism. Local pride and local prejudice were aroused. The
+thrifty maritime population feared Canadian extravagance and
+Canadian high tariffs. They were content to remain as they were
+and fearful of the unknown. Here and there advocates of
+annexation to the United States swelled the chorus. Merchants in
+Halifax and St. John feared that trade would be drawn away to
+Montreal. Above all, Howe, whether because of personal pique or
+of intense local patriotism, had put himself at the head of the
+agitation against union, and his eloquence could still play upon
+the prejudices of the people. The Tilley Government in New
+Brunswick was swept out of power early in 1865. Prince Edward
+Island and Newfoundland both drew back, the one for eight years,
+the other to remain outside the fold to the present day. In Nova
+Scotia a similar fate was averted only by Tupper's Fabian
+tactics. Then the tide turned. In New Brunswick the Fenian Raids,
+pressure from the Colonial Office, and the blunders of the
+anti-Confederate Government brought Tilley back to power on a
+Confederation platform a year later. Tupper seized the occasion
+and carried his motion through the Nova Scotia House. Without
+seeking further warrant the delegates from Canada, Nova Scotia,
+and New Brunswick met in London late in 1866, and there in
+consultation with the Colonial Office drew up the final
+resolutions. They were embodied in the British North America Act
+which went through the Imperial Parliament not only without
+raising questions but even without exciting interest. On July 1,
+1867, the Dominion of Canada, as the new federation was to be
+known, came into being. It is a curious coincidence that the same
+date witnessed the establishment of the North German Bund, which
+in less than three years was to expand into the German Empire.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. THE DAYS OF TRIAL
+
+The federation of the four provinces was an excellent
+achievement, but it was only a beginning on the long, hard road
+to nationhood. The Fathers of Confederation had set their goal
+and had proclaimed their faith. It remained for the next
+generation to seek to make their vision a reality. It was still
+necessary to make the Dominion actual by bringing in all the
+lands from sea to sea. And when, on paper, Canada covered half a
+continent, union had yet to be given body and substance by
+railway building and continuous settlement. The task of welding
+two races and many scattered provinces into a single people would
+call for all the statesmanship and prudence the country had to
+give. To chart the relations between the federal and the
+provincial authorities, which had so nearly brought to shipwreck
+the federal experiment of Canada's great neighbor, was like
+navigating an unknown sea. And what was to be the attitude of the
+new Dominion, half nation, half colony, to the mother country and
+to the republic to the south, no one could yet foretell.
+
+The first problem which faced the Dominion was the organization
+of the new machinery of government. It was necessary to choose a
+federal Administration to guide the Parliament which was soon to
+meet at Ottawa, the capital of the old Canada since 1858 and now
+accepted as the capital of the larger Canada. It was necessary
+also to establish provincial Governments in Canada West,
+henceforth known as Ontario and in Canada East, or Quebec. The
+provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were to retain their
+existing provincial Governments.
+
+There was no doubt as to whom the Governor General, Lord Monck,
+should call to form the first federal Administration. Macdonald
+had proved himself easily the greatest leader of men the four
+provinces had produced. The entrance of two new provinces into
+the union, with all the possibilities of new party groupings and
+new personal alliances it involved, created a situation in which
+he had no rival. His great antagonist, Brown, passed off the
+parliamentary stage. When he proposed a coalition to carry
+through federation, Brown had recognized that he was sacrificing
+his chief political asset, the discontent of Canada West. But he
+was too true a patriot to hesitate a moment on that score, and in
+any case he was sufficiently confident of his own abilities to
+believe that he could hold his own in a fresh field. In this
+expectation he was deceived. No man among his contemporaries
+surpassed him in sheer ability, in fearless honesty, in vigor of
+debate, but he lacked Macdonald's genial and supple art of
+managing men. And with broad questions of state policy for the
+moment out of the way, it was capacity in managing men that was
+to count in determining success. Never afterward did Brown take
+an active part in parliamentary life, though still a power in the
+land through his newspaper, the Toronto "Globe", which was
+regarded as the Scotch Presbyterian's second Bible. Of the other
+leaders of old Canada, Cartier with failing health was losing his
+vigor and losing also the prestige with his party which his solid
+Canada East majority had given him; Galt soon retired to private
+business, with occasional incursions into diplomacy; and McGee
+fell a victim in 1868 to a Fenian assassin. From the Maritime
+Provinces the ablest recruit was Tupper, the most dogged fighter
+in Canadian parliamentary annals and a lifelong sworn ally of
+Macdonald.
+
+It was at first uncertain what the grouping of parties would be.
+Macdonald naturally wished to retain the coalition which assured
+him unquestioned mastery, and the popular desire to give
+Confederation a good start also favored such a course. In his
+first Cabinet, formed with infinite difficulty, with provinces,
+parties, religions, races, all to consider in filling a limited
+number of posts, Macdonald included six Liberal ministers out of
+thirteen, three from Ontario, and three from the Maritime
+Provinces. Yet if an Opposition had not existed, it would have
+been necessary to create one in order to work the parliamentary
+machine. The attempt to keep the coalition together did not long
+succeed. On the eve of the first federal election the Ontario
+Reformers in convention decided to oppose the Government, even
+though it contained three of their former leaders. In the
+contest, held in August and September, 1867, Macdonald triumphed
+in every province except Nova Scotia but faced a growing
+Opposition party. Under the virtual leadership of Alexander
+Mackenzie, fragments of parties from the four provinces were
+united into a single Liberal group. In a few years the majority
+of the Liberal rank and file were back in the fold, and the
+Liberal members in the Cabinet had become frankly Conservative.
+Coalition had faded away.
+
+
+Within six years after Confederation the whole northern half of
+the continent had been absorbed by Canada. The four original
+provinces comprised only one-tenth of the area of the present
+Dominion, some 377,000 square miles as against 3,730,000 today.
+The most easterly of the provinces, little Prince Edward Island,
+had drawn back in 1865, content in isolation. Eight years later
+this province entered the fold. Hard times and a glimpse of the
+financial strength of the new federation had wrought a change of
+heart. The solution of the century-old problem of the island,
+absentee landlordism, threatened to strain the finances of the
+province; and men began to look to Ottawa for relief. A railway
+crisis turned their thoughts in the same direction. The
+provincial authorities had recently arranged for the building of
+a narrow-gauge road from one end of the island to the other. It
+was agreed that the contractors should be paid 5000 pounds a mile
+in provincial debentures, but without any stipulation as to the
+total length, so that the builders caused the railway to meander
+and zigzag freely in search of lower grades or long paying
+stretches. In 1873, which was everywhere a year of black
+depression, it was found that these debentures, which were
+pledged by the contractors to a local bank for advances, could
+not be sold except at a heavy loss. The directors of the bank
+were influential in the Government of the province. It was not
+surprising, therefore, that the government soon opened
+negotiations with Ottawa. The Dominion authorities offered
+generous terms, financing the land purchase scheme, and taking
+over the railway. Some of the islanders made bitter charges, but
+the Legislature confirmed the agreement, and on July 1, 1873,
+Prince Edward Island entered Confederation.
+
+While Prince Edward Island was deciding to come in, Nova Scotia
+was straining every nerve to get out. There was no question that
+Nova Scotia had been brought into the union against its will. The
+provincial Legislature in 1866, it is true, backed Tupper. But
+the people backed Howe, who thereupon went to London to protest
+against the inclusion of Nova Scotia without consulting the
+electors, but he was not heeded. The passing of the Act only
+redoubled the agitation. In the provincial election of 1867, the
+anti-Confederates carried thirty-six out of thirty-eight seats.
+In the federal election Tupper was the only union candidate
+returned in nineteen seats contested. A second delegation was
+sent to London to demand repeal. Tupper crossed the ocean to
+counter this effort and was successful. Then he sought out Howe,
+urged that further agitation was useless and could only bring
+anarchy or, what both counted worse, a movement for annexation to
+the United States, and pressed him to use his influence to allay
+the storm. Howe gave way; unfortunately for his own fame, he went
+further and accepted a seat in the federal Cabinet. Many of his
+old followers kept up the fight, but others decided to make a
+bargain with necessity. Macdonald agreed to give the province
+"better terms," and the Dominion assumed a larger part of its
+debt. The bitterness aroused by Tupper's high-handed procedure
+lingered for many a day; but before the first Parliament was
+over, repeal had ceased to be a practical issue.
+
+Union could never be real so long as leagues of barren, unbroken
+wilderness separated the maritime from the central provinces.
+Free intercourse, ties of trade, knowledge which would sweep away
+prejudice, could not come until a railway had spanned this
+wilderness. In the fifties plans had been made for a main trunk
+line to run from Halifax to the Detroit River. This ambitious
+scheme proved too great for the resources of the separate
+provinces, but sections of the road were built in each province.
+As a condition of Confederation, the Dominion Government
+undertook to fill in the long gaps. Surveys were begun
+immediately; and by 1876, under the direction of Sandford
+Fleming, an engineer of eminence, the Intercolonial Railway was
+completed. It never succeeded in making ends meet financially,
+but it did make ends meet politically. In great measure it
+achieved the purpose of national solidification for which it was
+mainly designed.
+
+Meanwhile the bounds of the Dominion were being pushed westward
+to the Pacific. The old province of Canada, as the heir of New
+France, had vague claims to the western plains, but the Hudson's
+Bay Company was in possession. The Dominion decided to buy out
+its rights and agreed, in 1869, to pay the Company 300,000 pounds
+for the transfer of its lands and exclusive privileges, the
+Company to retain its trading posts and two sections in every
+township. So far all went well. But the Canadian Government, new
+to the tasks of empire and not as efficient in administration as
+it should have been, overlooked the necessity of consulting the
+wishes and the prejudices of the men on the spot. It was not
+merely land and buffalo herds which were being transferred but
+also sovereignty over a people.
+
+In the valley of the Red River there were some twelve thousand
+metis, or half-breeds, descendants of Indian mothers and French
+or Scottish fathers. The Dominion authorities intended to give
+them a large share in their own government but neglected to
+arrange for a formal conference. The metis were left to gather
+their impression of the character and intentions of the new
+rulers from indiscreet and sometimes overbearing surveyors and
+land seekers. In 1869, under the leadership of Louis Riel, the
+one man of education in the settlement, able but vain and
+unbalanced, and with the Hudson's Bay officials looking on
+unconcerned, the metis decided to oppose being made "the colony
+of a colony." The Governor sent out from Ottawa was refused
+entrance, and a provisional Government under Riel assumed
+control. The Ottawa authorities first tried persuasion and sent a
+commission of three, Donald A. Smith (afterwards Lord
+Strathcona), Colonel de Salaberry, and Vicar General Thibault.
+Smith was gradually restoring unity and order, when the act of
+Riel in shooting Thomas Scott, an Ontario settler and a member of
+the powerful Orange order, set passions flaring. Mgr. Tache, the
+Catholic bishop of the diocese, on his return aided in quieting
+the metis. Delegates were sent by the Provisional Government to
+Ottawa, and, though not officially recognized, they influenced
+the terms of settlement. An expedition under Colonel Wolseley
+marched through the wilderness north of Lake Superior only to
+find that Riel and his lieutenants had fled. By the Manitoba Act
+the Red River country was admitted to Confederation as a
+self-governing province, under the name of Manitoba, while the
+country west to the Rockies was given territorial status. The
+Indian tribes were handled with tact and justice, but though for
+the time the danger of armed resistance had passed, the embers of
+discontent were not wholly quenched.
+
+The extension of Canadian sovereignty beyond the Rockies came
+about in quieter fashion. After Mackenzie had shown the way,
+Simon Fraser and David Thompson and other agents of the NorthWest
+Company took up the work of exploration and fur trading. With the
+union of the two rival companies in 1821, the Hudson's Bay
+Company became the sole authority on the Pacific coast. Settlers
+straggled in slowly until, in the late fifties, the discovery of
+rich placer gold on the Fraser and later in the Cariboo brought
+tens of thousands of miners from Australia and California, only
+to drift away again almost as quickly when the sands began to
+fail.
+
+Local governments had been established both in Vancouver Island
+and on the mainland. They were joined in a single province in
+1866. One of the first acts of the new Legislature was to seek
+consolidation with the Dominion. Inspired by an enthusiastic
+Englishman, Alfred Waddington, who had dreamed for years of a
+transcontinental railway, the province stipulated that within ten
+years Canada should complete a road from the Pacific to a
+junction with the railways of the East. These terms were
+considered presumptuous on the part of a little settlement of ten
+or fifteen thousand whites; but Macdonald had faith in the
+resources of Canada and in what the morrow would bring forth. The
+bargain was made; and British Columbia entered the Confederation
+on July 1, 1871.
+
+East and West were now staked out. Only the Far North remained
+outside the bounds of the Dominion and this was soon acquired. In
+1879 the British Government transferred to Canada all its rights
+and claims over the islands in the Arctic Archipelago and all
+other British territory in North America save Newfoundland and
+its strip of Labrador. From the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from
+the forty-ninth parallel to the North Pole, now all was Canadian
+soil.
+
+
+Confederation brought new powers and new responsibilities and
+thrust Canada into the field of foreign affairs. It was with slow
+and groping steps that the Dominion advanced along this new path.
+Then--as now--for Canada foreign relations meant first and
+foremost relations with her great neighbor to the south. The
+likelihood of war had passed. The need for closer trade relations
+remained. When the Reciprocity Treaty was brought to an end, on
+March 17, 1866, Canada at first refrained from raising her tariff
+walls. "The provinces," as George Brown declared in 1874,
+"assumed that there were matters existing in 1865-66 to trouble
+the spirit of American statesmen for the moment, and they waited
+patiently for the sober second thought which was very long in
+coming, but in the meantime Canada played a good neighbor's part,
+and incidentally served her own ends, by continuing to grant the
+United States most of the privileges which had been given under
+the treaty free navigation and free goods, and, subject to a
+license fee, access to the fisheries."
+
+It was over these fisheries that friction first developed.*
+Canadian statesmen were determined to prevent poaching on the
+inshore fisheries, both because poaching was poaching and because
+they considered the fishery privileges the best makeweight in
+trade negotiations with the United States. At first American
+vessels were admitted on payment of a license fee; but when, on
+the increase of the fee, many vessels tried to fish inshore
+without permission, the license system was abolished, and in 1870
+a fleet of revenue cruisers began to police the coast waters.
+American fishermen chafed at exclusion from waters they had come
+to consider almost their own, and there were many cases of
+seizure and of angry charge and countercharge. President Grant,
+in his message to Congress in 1870, denounced the policy of the
+Canadian authorities as arbitrary and provocative. Other issues
+between the two countries were outstanding as well. Canada had a
+claim against the United States for not preventing the Fenian
+Raids of 1866; and the United States had a much bigger bill
+against Great Britain for neglect in permitting the escape of the
+Alabama. Some settlement of these disputed matters was necessary;
+and it was largely through the activities of a Canadian banker
+and politician, Sir John Rose, that an agreement was reached to
+submit all the issues to a joint commission.
+
+* See "The Path of Empire".
+
+
+Macdonald was offered and accepted with misgivings a post as one
+of the five British Commissioners. He pressed the traditional
+Canadian policy of offering fishery for trade privileges but
+found no backing in this or other matters from his British
+colleagues, and he met only unyielding opposition from the
+American Commissioners. He fell back, under protest, on a
+settlement of narrower scope, which permitted reciprocity in
+navigation and bonding privileges, free admission of Canadian and
+Newfoundland fish to United States markets and of American
+fishermen to Canadian and Newfoundland waters, and which provided
+for a subsidiary commission to fix the amount to be paid by the
+United States for the surplus advantage thus received. The Fenian
+Raids claims were not even considered, and Macdonald was angered
+by this indifference on the part of his British colleagues. "They
+seem to have only one thing in their minds, " he reported
+privately to Ottawa, "that is, to go home to England with a
+treaty in their pocket, settling everything, no matter at what
+cost to Canada." Yet when the time came for the Canadian
+Parliament to decide whether to ratify the fishery clauses of the
+Treaty of Washington in which the conclusions of the commission
+were embodied, Macdonald, in spite of the unpopularity of the
+bargain in Canada, "urged Parliament" to accept the treaty,
+accept it with all its imperfections, to accept it for the sake
+of peace and for the sake of the great Empire of which we form a
+part." The treaty was ratified in 1871 by all the powers
+concerned; and the stimulus to the peaceful settlement of
+international disputes given by the Geneva Tribunal which
+followed* justified the subordination of Canada's specific
+interests.
+
+* See "The Path of Empire"
+
+
+A change in party now followed in Canada, but the new Government
+under Alexander Mackenzie "was as fully committed as the
+Government of Sir John Macdonald to the policy of bartering
+fishery for trade advantage. Canada therefore proposed that
+instead of carrying out the provisions for a money settlement,
+the whole question should be reopened. The Administration at
+Washington was sympathetic. George Brown was appointed along with
+the British Ambassador, Sir Edward Thornton, to open
+negotiations. Under Brown's energetic leadership a settlement of
+all outstanding issues was drafted in 1874, which permitted
+freedom of trade in natural and in most manufactured products for
+twenty-one years, and settled fishery, coasting trade,
+navigation, and minor boundary issues. But diplomats proposed,
+and the United States Senate disposed. Protectionist feeling was
+strong at Washington, and the currency problem absorbing, and
+hence this broad and statesmanlike essay in neighborliness could
+not secure an hour's attention. This plan having failed, the
+Canadian Government fell back on the letter of the treaty. A
+Commission which consisted of the Honorable E. H. Kellogg
+representing the United States, Sir Alexander T. Galt
+representing Canada, and the Belgian Minister to Washington, M.
+Delfosse, as chairman, awarded Canada and Newfoundland $5,500,000
+as the excess value of the fisheries for the ten years the
+arrangement was to run. The award was denounced in the United
+States as absurdly excessive; but a sense of honor and the
+knowledge that millions of dollars from the Alabama award were
+still in the Treasury moved the Senate finally to acquiesce,
+though only for the ten-year term fixed by treaty. In Canada the
+award was received with delight as a signal proof that when left
+to themselves Canadians could hold their own. The prevailing view
+was well summed up in a letter from Mackenzie to the Canadian
+representative on the Halifax commission, written shortly before
+the decision: "I am glad you still have hopes of a fair verdict.
+I am doubly anxious to have it, first, because we are entitled to
+it and need the dollars, and, second, because it will be the
+first Canadian diplomatic triumph, and will justify me in
+insisting that we know our neighbors and our own business better
+than any Englishmen."
+
+Mackenzie's insistence that Canada must take a larger share in
+the control of her foreign affairs was too advanced a stand for
+many of his more conservative countrymen. For others, he did not
+go far enough. The early seventies saw the rise of a short-lived
+movement in favor of Canadian independence. To many independence
+from England seemed the logical sequel to Confederation; and the
+rapid expansion of Canadian territory over half a continent
+stimulated national pride and national self-consciousness Opinion
+in England regarding Canadian independence was still more
+outspoken. There imperialism was at its lowest ebb. With scarcely
+an exception, English politicians, from Bright to Disraeli, were
+hostile or indifferent to connection with the colonies, which had
+now ceased to be a trade asset and had clearly become a military
+liability.
+
+But no concrete problem arose to make the matter a political
+issue. In England a growing uneasiness over the protectionist
+policies and the colonial ambitions of her European rivals were
+soon to revive imperial sentiment. In Canada the ties of
+affection for the old land, as well as the inertia fostered by
+long years of colonial dependence, kept the independence movement
+from spreading far. For the time the rising national spirit found
+expression in economic rather than political channels. The
+protectionist movement which a few years later swept all Canada
+before it owed much of its strength to its claim to be the
+national policy.
+
+
+But it was not imperial or foreign relations that dominated
+public interest in the seventies. Domestic politics were
+intensely absorbing and bitterly contested. Within five years
+there came about two sudden and sweeping reversals of power.
+Parties and Cabinets which had seemed firmly entrenched were
+dramatically overthrown by sudden changes in the personal factors
+and in the issues of the day. In the summer of 1872 the second
+general election for the Dominion was held. The Opposition had
+now gained in strength. The Government had ceased to be in any
+real sense a coalition, and most of the old Liberal rank and file
+were back in the party camp. They had found a vigorous leader in
+Alexander Mackenzie.
+
+Mackenzie had come to Canada from Scotland in 1842 as a lad of
+twenty. He worked at his trade as a stonemason, educated himself
+by wide reading and constant debating, became a successful
+contractor and, after Confederation, had proved himself one of
+the most aggressive and uncompromising champions of Upper Canada
+Liberalism. In the first Dominion Parliament he tacitly came to
+be regarded as the leader of all the groups opposed to the
+Macdonald Administration. He was at the same time active in the
+Ontario Legislature since, for the first five years of
+Confederation, no law forbade membership in both federal and
+provincial Parliaments, and the short sessions of that blessed
+time made such double service feasible. Here he was aided by two
+other men of outstanding ability, Edward Blake and Oliver Mowat.
+Blake, the son of a well-to-do Irishman who had been active in
+the fight for responsible government, became Premier of Ontario
+in 1871 but retired in 1872 when a law abolishing dual
+representation made it necessary for him to choose between
+Toronto and Ottawa. His place was taken by Mowat, who for a
+quarter of a century gave the province thrifty, honest, and
+conservatively progressive government.
+
+In spite of the growing forces opposed to him Macdonald triumphed
+once more in the election of 1872. Ontario fell away, but Quebec
+and the Maritime Provinces stood true. A Conservative majority of
+thirty or forty seemed to assure Macdonald another five-year
+lease of power. Yet within a year the Pacific Scandal had driven
+him from office and overwhelmed him in disgrace.
+
+The Pacific Scandal occurred in connection with the financing of
+the railway which the Dominion Government had promised British
+Columbia, when that province entered Confederation in 1871, would
+be built through to the Pacific coast within ten years. The
+bargain was good politics but poor business. It was a rash
+undertaking for a people of three and a half millions, with a
+national revenue of less than twenty million dollars, to pledge
+itself to build a railway through the rocky wilderness north of
+Lake Superior, through the trackless plains and prairies of the
+middle west, and across the mountain ranges that barred the
+coast. Yet Macdonald had sufficient faith in the country, in
+himself, and in the happy accidents of time--a confidence that
+won him the nickname of "Old Tomorrow"--to give the pledge. Then
+came the question of ways and means. At first the Government
+planned to build the road. On second thoughts, however, it
+decided to follow the example set by the United States in the
+construction of the Union Pacific and Southern Pacific, and to
+entrust the work to a private company liberally subsidized with
+land and cash. Two companies were organized with a view to
+securing the contract, one a Montreal company under Sir Hugh
+Allan, the foremost Canadian man of business and the head of the
+Allan steamship fleet, and the other a Toronto company under D.
+L. Macpherson, who had been concerned in the building of the
+Grand Trunk. Their rivalry was intense. After the election of
+1872 a strong compromise company was formed, with Allan at the
+head, and to this company the contract was awarded.
+
+When Parliament met in 1872, a Liberal member, L. S. Huntington,
+made the charge that Allan had really been acting on behalf of
+certain American capitalists and that he had made lavish
+contributions to the Government campaign fund in the recent
+election. In the course of the summer these charges were fully
+substantiated. Allan was proved by his own correspondence, stolen
+from his solicitor's office, to have spent over $350,000, largely
+advanced by his American allies, in buying the favor of
+newspapers and politicians. Nearly half of this amount had been
+contributed to the Conservative campaign fund, with the knowledge
+and at the instance of Cartier and Macdonald. Macdonald, while
+unable to disprove the charges, urged that there was no
+connection between the contributions and the granting of the
+charter. But his defense was not heeded. A wave of indignation
+swept the country; his own supporters in Parliament fell away;
+and in November, 1873, he resigned. Mackenzie, who was summoned
+to form a new Ministry, dissolved Parliament and was sustained by
+a majority of two to one.
+
+Mackenzie gave the country honest and efficient administration.
+Among his most important achievements were the reform of
+elections by the introduction of the secret ballot and the
+requirement that elections should be held on a single day instead
+of being spread over weeks, a measure of local option in
+controlling the liquor traffic, and the establishment of a
+Canadian Supreme Court and the Royal Military College--the
+Canadian West Point. But fate and his own limitations were
+against him. He was too absorbed in the details of administration
+to have time for the work of a party leader. In his policy of
+constructing the Canadian Pacific as a government road, after
+Allan had resigned his charter, he manifested a caution and a
+slowness that brought British Columbia to the verge of secession.
+But it was chiefly the world-wide depression that began in his
+first year of office, 1873, which proved his undoing. Trade was
+stagnant, bankruptcies multiplied, and acute suffering occurred
+among the poor in the larger cities. Mackenzie had no solution to
+offer except patience and economy; and the Opposition were freer
+to frame an enticing policy. The country was turning toward a
+high tariff as the solution of its ills. Protection had not
+hitherto been a party issue in Canada, and it was still uncertain
+which party would take it up. Finally Mackenzie, who was an
+ardent free trader, and the Nova Scotia wing of his party
+triumphed over the protectionists in their own ranks and made a
+low tariff the party platform. Macdonald, who had been prepared
+to take up free trade if Mackenzie adopted protection, now boldly
+urged the high tariff panacea. The promise of work and wages for
+all, the appeal to national spirit made by the arguments of
+self-sufficiency and fully rounded development, the desire to
+retaliate against the United States, which was still deaf to any
+plea for more liberal trade relations, swept the country. The
+Conservative minority of over sixty was converted into a still
+greater majority in the general election of 1878, and the leader
+whom all men five years before had considered doomed, returned to
+power, never to lose it while life lasted.
+
+The first task of the new Government, in which Tupper was
+Macdonald's chief supporter, was to carry out its high tariff
+pledges. "Tell us how much protection you want, gentlemen," said
+Macdonald to a group of Ontario manufacturers, "and we'll give
+you what you need." In the new tariff needs were rated almost as
+high as wants. Particularly on textiles, sugar, and iron and
+steel products, duties were raised far beyond the old levels and
+stimulated investment just as the world-wide depression which had
+lasted since 1873 passed away. Canada shared in the recovery and
+gave the credit to the well-advertised political patent medicine
+taken just before the turn for the better came. For years the
+National Policy or "N.P.," as its supporters termed it, had all
+the vogue of a popular tonic.
+
+The next task of the Government was to carry through in earnest
+the building of the railway to the Pacific. For over a year
+Macdonald persisted in Mackenzie's policy of government
+construction but with the same slow and unsatisfactory results.
+Then an opportunity came to enlist the services of a private
+syndicate. Four Canadians, Donald A. Smith, a former Hudson's Bay
+Company factor, George Stephen, a leading merchant and banker of
+Montreal, James J. Hill and Norman W. Kittson, owners of a small
+line of boats on the Red River, had joined forces to revive a
+bankrupt Minnesota railway.* They had succeeded beyond all
+parallel, and the reconstructed road, which later developed into
+the Great Northern, made them all rich overnight. This success
+whetted their appetite for further western railway building and
+further millions of rich western acres in subsidies. They met
+Macdonald and Tupper half way. By the bargain completed in 1881
+the Canadian Pacific Railway Company undertook to build and
+operate the road from the Ottawa Valley to the Pacific coast, in
+return for the gift of the completed portions of the road (on
+which the Government spent over $37,000,000), a subsidy of
+$25,000,000 in cash, 25,000,000 selected acres of prairie land,
+exemption from taxes, exemption from regulation of rates until
+ten per cent was earned, and a promise on the part of the
+Dominion to charter no western lines connecting with the United
+States for twenty years. The terms were lavish and were fiercely
+denounced by the Opposition, now under the leadership of Edward
+Blake. But the people were too eager for railway expansion to
+criticize the terms. The Government was returned to power in 1882
+and the contract held.
+
+* See "The Railroad Builders", by John Moody (in "The Chronicles
+of America").
+
+
+The new company was rich in potential resources but weak in
+available cash. Neither in New York nor in London could purse
+strings be loosened for the purpose of building a road through
+what the world considered a barren and Arctic wilderness. But in
+the faith and vision of the president, George Stephen, and the
+ruthless energy of the general manager, William Van Horne,
+American born and trained, the Canadian Pacific had priceless
+assets. Aided in critical times by further government loans, they
+carried the project through, and by 1886, five years before the
+time fixed by their contract, trains were running from Montreal
+to Port Moody, opposite Vancouver.
+
+A sudden burst of prosperity followed the building of the road.
+Settlers poured into the West by tens of thousands, eastern
+investors promoted colonization companies, land values soared,
+and speculation gave a fillip to every line of trade. The middle
+eighties were years of achievement, of prosperity, and of
+confident hope. Then prosperity fled as quickly as it had come.
+The West failed to hold its settlers. Farm and factory found
+neither markets nor profits. The country was bled white by
+emigration. Parliamentary contest and racial feud threatened the
+hard-won unity. Canada was passing through its darkest hours.
+
+During this period, political friction was incessant. Canada was
+striving to solve in the eighties the difficult question which
+besets all federations--the limits between federal and provincial
+power. Ontario was the chief champion of provincial rights. The
+struggle was intensified by the fact that a Liberal Government
+reigned at Toronto and a Conservative Government at Ottawa, as
+well as by the keen personal rivalry between Mowat and Macdonald.
+In nearly every constitutional duel Mowat triumphed. The accepted
+range of the legislative power of the provinces was widened by
+the decisions of the courts, particularly of the highest court of
+appeal, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in England.
+The successful resistance of Ontario and Manitoba to Macdonald's
+attempt to disallow provincial laws proved this power, though
+conferred by the Constitution, to be an unwieldy weapon. By the
+middle nineties the veto had been virtually abandoned.
+
+More serious than these political differences was the racial feud
+that followed the second Riel Rebellion. For a second time the
+Canadian Government failed to show the foresight and the sympathy
+required in dealing with an isolated and backward people. The
+valley of the Saskatchewan, far northwest of the Red River, was
+the scene of the new difficulty. Here thousands of metis, or
+French half-breeds, had settled. The passing of the buffalo,
+which had been their chief subsistence, and the arrival of
+settlers from the East caused them intense alarm. They pressed
+the Government for certain grants of land and for the retention
+of the old French custom of surveying the land along the river
+front in deep narrow strips, rather than according to the
+chessboard pattern taken over by Canada from the United States.
+Red tape, indifference, procrastination, rather than any illwill,
+delayed the redress of the grievances of the half-breeds. In
+despair they called Louis Riel back from his exile in Montana.
+With his arrival the agitation acquired a new and dangerous
+force. Claiming to be the prophet of a new religion, he put
+himself at the head of his people and, in the spring of 1885,
+raised the flag of revolt. His military adviser, Gabriel Dumont,
+an old buffalo hunter, was a natural-born general, and the
+half-breeds were good shots and brave fighters. An expedition of
+Canadian volunteers was rushed west, and the rebellion was put
+down quickly, but not without some hard fighting and gallant
+strokes and counterstrokes.
+
+The racial passions roused by this conflict, however, did not
+pass so quickly. The fate to be meted out to Riel was the burning
+question. Ontario saw in him the murderer of Scott and an
+ambitious plotter who had twice stirred up armed rebellion.
+Quebec saw in him a man of French blood, persecuted because he
+had stood up manfully for the undoubted rights of his kinsmen.
+Today experts agree that Riel was insane and should have been
+spared the gallows on this if on no other account. But at the
+moment the plea of insanity was rejected. The Government made up
+for its laxity before the rebellion by severity after it; and in
+November, 1885, Riel was sent to the scaffold. Bitterness rankled
+in many a French-Canadian heart for long years after; and in
+Ontario, where the Orange order was strongly entrenched, a
+faction threatened "to smash Confederation into its original
+fragments" rather than submit to "French domination."
+
+Racial and religious passions, once aroused, soon found new fuel
+to feed upon. Honore Mercier, a brilliant but unscrupulous leader
+who had ridden to power in the province of Quebec on the Riel
+issue, roused Protestant ire by restoring estates which had been
+confiscated at the conquest in 1763 to the Jesuits and other
+Roman Catholic authorities, in proportions which the act provided
+were to be determined by "Our Holy Father the Pope." In Ontario
+restrictions began to be imposed on the freedom of
+French-Canadian communities on the border to make French the sole
+or dominant tongue in the schoolroom. A little later the
+controversy was echoed in Manitoba in the repeal by a determined
+Protestant majority of the denominational school privileges
+hitherto enjoyed by the Roman Catholic minority.
+
+Economic discontent was widespread. It was a time of low and
+falling prices. Farmers found the American market barred, the
+British market flooded, the home market stagnant. The factories
+stimulated by the "N. P." lacked the growing market they had
+hoped for. In the West climatic conditions not yet understood,
+the monopoly of the Canadian Pacific, and the competition of the
+States to the south, which still had millions of acres of free
+land, brought settlement to a standstill. From all parts of
+Canada the "exodus" to the United States continued until by 1890
+there were in that country more than one-third as many people of
+Canadian birth or descent as in Canada itself.
+
+
+It was not surprising that in these extremities men were prepared
+to make trial of drastic remedies. Nor was it surprising that it
+was beyond the borders of Canada itself that they sought the
+unity and the prosperity they had not found at home. Many looked
+to Washington, some for unrestricted trade, a few for political
+union. Others looked to London, hoping for a revival of the old
+imperial tariff preferences or for some closer political union
+which would bring commercial advantages in its train.
+
+The decade from 1885 to 1895 stands out in the record of the
+relations of the English-speaking peoples as a time of constant
+friction, of petty pin pricks, of bluster and retaliation. The
+United States was not in a neighborly mood. The memories of 1776,
+of 1812, and of 1861 had been kept green by exuberant comment in
+school textbooks and by "spread-eagle" oratory. The absence of
+any other rivalry concentrated American opposition on Great
+Britain, and isolation from Old World interests encouraged a
+provincial lack of responsibility. The sins of England in Ireland
+had been kept to the fore by the agitation of Parnell and Davitt
+and Dillon; and the failure of Home Rule measures, twice in this
+decade, stirred Irish-American antagonism. The accession to power
+of Lord Salisbury, reputed to hold the United States in contempt,
+and later the foolish indiscretion of Sir Lionel Sackville-West,
+British Ambassador at Washington, in intervening in a guileless
+way in the presidential election of 1888, did as much to nourish
+ill-will in the United States as the dominance of Blaine and
+other politicians who cultivated the gentle art of twisting the
+tail of the British lion.
+
+Protection, with the attitude of economic warfare which it
+involved and bred, was then at its height. Much of this hostility
+was directed against Canada, as the nearest British territory.
+The Dominion, on its part, while persistently seeking closer
+trade relations, sometimes sought this end in unwise ways. Many
+good people in Canada were still fighting the War of 1812. The
+desire to use the inshore fishery privileges as a lever to force
+tariff reductions led to a rigid and literal enforcement of
+Canadian rights and claims which provoked widespread anger in New
+England. The policy of discrimination in canal tolls in favor of
+Canadian as against United States ports was none the less
+irritating because it was a retort in kind. And when United
+States customs officials levied a tax on the tin cans containing
+fish free by treaty, Canadian officials had retaliated by taxing
+the baskets containing duty-free peaches.
+
+The most important specific issue was once more the northeastern
+fisheries. As a result of notice given by the United States the
+fisheries clauses of the Treaty of Washington ceased to operate
+on July 1, 1885. Canada, for the sake of peace, admitted American
+fishing vessels for the rest of that season, though Canadian fish
+at once became dutiable. No further grace was given. The Canadian
+authorities rigidly enforced the rules barring inshore fishing,
+and in addition denied port privileges to deep-sea fishing
+vessels and forbade American boats to enter Canadian ports for
+the purpose of trans-shipping crews, purchasing bait, or shipping
+fish in bond to the United States. Every time a Canadian fishery
+cruiser and a Gloucester skipper had a difference of opinion as
+to the exact whereabouts of the three-mile limit, the press of
+both countries echoed the conflict. Congress in 1887 empowered
+the President to retaliate by excluding Canadian vessels and
+goods from American ports. Happily this power was not used.
+Cleveland and Secretary of State Bayard were genuinely anxious to
+have the issue settled. A joint commission drew up a
+well-considered plan, but in the face of a presidential election
+the Senate gave it short shrift. Fortunately, however, a modus
+vivendi was arranged by which American vessels were admitted to
+port privileges on payment of a license. Healing time, a
+healthful lack of publicity, changing fishing methods, and
+Canada's abandonment of her old policy of using fishing
+privileges as a makeweight, gradually eased the friction.
+
+Yet if it was not the fishing question, there was sure to be some
+other issue--bonding privileges, Canadian Pacific interloping in
+western rail hauls, tariff rates, or canal tolls-to disturb the
+peace. Why not seek a remedy once for all, men now began to ask,
+by ending the unnatural separation between the halves of the
+continent which God and geography had joined and history and
+perverse politicians had kept asunder?
+
+The political union of Canada and the United States has always
+found advocates. In the United States a large proportion, perhaps
+a majority, of the people have until recently considered that the
+absorption of Canada into the Republic was its manifest destiny,
+though there has been little concerted effort to hasten fate. In
+Canada such course of action has found much less backing. United
+Empire Loyalist traditions, the ties with Britain constantly
+renewed by immigration, the dim stirrings of national sentiment,
+resentment against the trade policy of the United States, have
+all helped to turn popular sentiment into other channels. Only at
+two periods, in 1849, and forty years later, has there been any
+active movement for annexation.
+
+In the late eighties, as in the late forties, commercial
+depression and racial strife prepared the soil for the seed of
+annexation. The chief sower in the later period was a brilliant
+Oxford don, Goldwin Smith, whose sympathy with the cause of the
+North had brought him to the United States. In 1871, after a
+brief residence at Cornell, he made his home in Toronto, with
+high hopes of stimulating the intellectual life and molding the
+political future of the colony. He so far forsook the strait
+"Manchester School" of his upbringing as to support Macdonald's
+campaign for protection in 1878. But that was the limit of his
+adaptability. To the end he remained out of touch with Canadian
+feeling. His campaign for annexation, or for the reunion of the
+English-speaking peoples on this continent, as he preferred to
+call it, was able and persistent but moved only a narrow circle
+of readers. It was in vain that he offered the example of
+Scotland's prosperity after her union with her southern neighbor,
+or insisted that Canada was cut into four distinct and unrelated
+sections each of which could find its natural complement only in
+the territory to the south. Here and there an editor or a minor
+politician lent some support to his views, but the great mass of
+the people strongly condemned the movement. There was to be no
+going back to the parting of the ways: the continent north of
+Mexico was henceforth to witness two experiments in democracy,
+not one unwieldy venture.
+
+Commercial union was a half-way measure which found more favor. A
+North American customs union had been supported by such public
+men as Stephen A. Douglas, Horace Greeley, and William H. Seward,
+by official investigators such as Taylor, Derby, and Larned, and
+by committees of the House of Representatives in 1862, 1876,
+1880, and 1884. In Canada it had been endorsed before
+Confederation by Isaac Buchanan, the father of the protection
+movement, and by Luther Holton and John Young. Now for the first
+time it became a practical question. Erastus Wiman, a Canadian
+who had found fortune in the United States, began in 1887 a
+vigorous campaign in its favor both in Congress and among the
+Canadian public. Goldwin Smith lent his dubious aid, leading
+Toronto and Montreal newspapers joined the movement, and Ontario
+farmers' organizations swung to its support. But the agitation
+proved abortive owing to the triumph of high protection in the
+presidential election of 1888; and in Canada the red herring of
+the Jesuits' Estates controversy was drawn across the trail.
+
+Yet the question would not down. The political parties were
+compelled to define their attitude. The Liberals had been
+defeated once more in the election of 1887, where the continuance
+of the National Policy and of aid to the Canadian Pacific had
+been the issue. Their leader, Edward Blake, had retired
+disheartened. His place had been taken by a young Quebec
+lieutenant, Wilfrid Laurier, who had won fame by his courageous
+resistance to clerical aggression in his own province and by his
+indictment of the Macdonald Government in the Riel issue. A
+veteran Ontario Liberal, Sir Richard Cartwright, urged the
+adoption of commercial union as the party policy. Laurier would
+not go so far, and the policy of unrestricted reciprocity was
+made the official programme in 1888. Commercial union had
+involved not only absolute free trade between Canada and the
+United States but common excise rates, a common tariff against
+the rest of the world, and the division of customs and excise
+revenues in some agreed proportion. Unrestricted reciprocity
+would mean free trade between the two countries, but with each
+left free to levy what rates it pleased on the products of other
+countries.
+
+When in 1891 the time came round once more for a general
+election, it was apparent that reciprocity in some form would be
+the dominant issue. Though the Republicans were in power in the
+United States and though they had more than fulfilled their high
+tariff pledges in the McKinley Act, which hit Canadian farm
+products particularly hard, there was some chance of terms being
+made. Reciprocity, as a form of tariff bargaining, really fits in
+better with protection than with free trade, and Blaine,
+Harrison's Secretary of State, was committed to a policy of trade
+treaties and trade bargaining. In Canada the demand for the
+United States market had grown with increasing depression. The
+Liberals, with their policy of unrestricted reciprocity, seemed
+destined to reap the advantage of this rising tide of feeling.
+Then suddenly, on the eve of the election, Sir John Macdonald
+sought to cut the ground from under the feet of his opponents by
+the announcement that in the course of a discussion of
+Newfoundland matters the United States had taken the initiative
+in suggesting to Canada a settlement of all outstanding
+difficulties, fisheries, coasting trade, and , on the basis of a
+renewal and extension of the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854. This
+policy promised to meet all legitimate economic needs of the
+country and at the same time avoid the political dangers of the
+more sweeping policy. Its force was somewhat weakened by the
+denials of Secretary Blaine that he had taken the initiative or
+made any definite promises. As the election drew near and
+revelations of the annexationist aims of some supporters of the
+wider trade policy were made, the Government made the loyalty cry
+its strong card. "The old man, the old flag, and the old policy,"
+saved the day. In Ontario and Quebec the two parties were evenly
+divided, but the West and the Maritime Provinces, the "shreds and
+patches of Confederation," as Sir Richard Cartwright, too ironic
+and vitriolic in his speech for political success, termed them,
+gave the Government a working majority, which was increased in
+by-elections.
+
+Again in power, the Government made a formal attempt to carry out
+its pledges. Two pilgrimages were made to Washington, but the
+negotiators were too far apart to come to terms. With the triumph
+of the Democrats in 1899. and the lowering of the tariff on farm
+products which followed, there came a temporary improvement in
+trade relations. But the tariff reaction and the silver issue
+brought back the Republicans and led to that climax in
+agricultural protection, the Dingley Act of 1897, which killed
+among Canadians all reciprocity longings and compelled them to
+look to themselves for salvation. Although Canadians were anxious
+for trade relations, they were not willing to be bludgeoned into
+accepting one-sided terms. The settlement of the Bering Sea
+dispute in 1898 by a board of arbitration, which ruled against
+the claims of the United States but suggested a restriction of
+pelagic sealing by agreement, removed one source of friction.
+Hardly was that out of the way when Cleveland's Venezuela message
+brought Great Britain and the United States once more to the
+verge of war. In such a war Canadians knew they would be the
+chief sufferers, but in 1895, as in 1862, they did not flinch and
+stood ready to support the mother country in any outcome. The
+Venezuela episode stirred Canadian feeling deeply, revived
+interest in imperialism, and ended the last lingering remnants of
+any sentiment for annexation. As King Edward I was termed "the
+hammer of the Scots," so McKinley and Cleveland became "the
+hammer of the Canadians," welding them into unity.
+
+
+While most Canadians were ceasing to look to Washington for
+relief, an increasing number were looking once more to London.
+The revival of imperial sentiment which began in the early
+eighties, seemed to promise new and greater possibilities for the
+colonies overseas. Political union in the form of imperial
+federation and commercial union through reciprocal tariff
+preferences were urged in turn as the cure for all Canada's ills.
+Neither solution was adopted. The movement greatly influenced the
+actual trend of affairs, but there was to be no mere turning back
+to the days of the old empire.
+
+The period of laissez faire in imperial matters, of Little
+Englandism, drew to a close in the early eighties. Once more men
+began to value empire, to seek to annex new territory overseas,
+and to bind closer the existing possessions. The world was
+passing through a reaction destined to lead to the earth-shaking
+catastrophe of 1914. The ideals of peace and free trade preached
+and to some degree practiced in the fifties and sixties were
+passing under an eclipse. In Europe the swing to free trade had
+halted, and nation after nation was becoming aggressively
+protectionist. The triumph of Prussia in the War of 1870 revived
+and intensified military rivalry and military preparations on the
+part of all the powers of Europe. A new scramble for colonies and
+possessions overseas began, with the late comers nervously eager
+to make up for time lost. In this reaction Britain shared.
+Protection raised its head again in England; only by tariffs and
+tariff bargaining, the Fair Traders insisted, could the country
+hold its own. Odds and ends of territory overseas were annexed
+and a new value was attached to the existing colonies. The
+possibility of obtaining from them military support and trade
+privileges, the desirability of returning to the old ideal of a
+self-contained and centralized empire, appealed now to
+influential groups. This goal might be attained by different
+paths. From the United Kingdom came the policy of imperial
+federation and from the colonies the policy of preferential trade
+as means to this end.
+
+In 1884 the Imperial Federation League was organized in London
+with important men of both parties in its ranks. It urged the
+setting up in London of a new Parliament, in which the United
+Kingdom and all the colonies where white men predominated would
+be represented according to population. This Parliament would
+have power to frame policies, to make laws, and to levy taxes for
+the whole Empire. To the colonist it offered an opportunity to
+share in the control of foreign affairs; to the Englishman it
+offered the support of colonies fast growing to power and the
+assurance of one harmonious policy for all the Empire. Both in
+Britain and overseas the movement received wide support and
+seemed for a time likely to sweep all before it. Then a halt
+came.
+
+Imperial federation had been brought forward a generation too
+late to succeed. The Empire had been developing upon lines which
+could not be made to conform to the plans for centralized
+parliamentary control. It was not possible to go back to the
+parting of the ways. Slowly, unconsciously, unevenly, yet
+steadily, the colonies had been ceasing to be dependencies and
+had been becoming nations. With Canada in the vanguard they had
+been taking over one power after another which had formerly been
+wielded by the Government of the United Kingdom. It was not
+likely that they would relinquish these powers or that
+self-governing colonies would consent to be subordinated to a
+Parliament in London in which each would have only a fragmentary
+representation.
+
+The policy of imperial cooperation which began to take shape
+during this period sought to reconcile the existing desire for
+continuing the connection with the mother country with the
+growing sense of national independence. This policy involved two
+different courses of action: first, the colonies must assert and
+secure complete self-government on terms of equality with the
+United Kingdom; second, they must unite as partners or allies in
+carrying out common tasks and policies and in building up
+machinery for mutual consultation and harmonious action.
+
+It was chiefly in matters of trade and tariffs that progress was
+made in the direction of self-government. Galt had asserted in
+1859 Canada's right to make her own tariffs, and Macdonald twenty
+years later had carried still further the policy of levying
+duties upon English as well as foreign goods. That economic point
+was therefore settled, but it was a slower matter to secure
+control of treaty-making powers. When Galt and Huntington urged
+this right in 1871 and when Blake and Mackenzie pressed it ten
+years later, Macdonald opposed such a demand as equivalent to an
+effort for independence. Yet he himself was compelled to change
+his conservative attitude. After 1877 Canada ceased to be bound
+by commercial treaties made by the United Kingdom, unless it
+expressly desired to be included. In 1879 Galt was sent to Europe
+to negotiate Canadian trade agreements with France and Spain; and
+in the next decade Tupper carried negotiations with France to a
+successful conclusion, though the treaty was formally concluded
+between France and Britain. By 1891 the Canadian Parliament could
+assert with truth that "the self-governing colonies are
+recognized as possessing the right to define their respective
+fiscal relations to all countries." But Canada as yet took no
+step toward assuming a share in her own naval defense, though the
+Australasian colonies made a beginning, along colonial rather
+than national lines, by making a money contribution to the
+British navy.
+
+The second task confronting the policy of imperial cooperation
+was a harder one. For a partnership between colony and mother
+country there were no precedents. Centralized empires there had
+been; colonies there had been which had grown into independent
+states; but there was no instance of an empire ceasing to be an
+empire, of colonies becoming self-governing states and then
+turning to closer and cooperative union with one another and with
+the mother country.
+
+Along this unblazed trail two important advances were made. The
+initiative in the first came from Canada. In 1880 a High
+Commissioner was appointed to represent Canada in London. The
+appointment of Sir Alexander Galt and the policy which it
+involved were significant. The Governor-General had ceased to be
+a real power; he was becoming the representative not of the
+British Government but of the King; and, like the King, he
+governed by the advice of the responsible ministers in the land
+where he resided. His place as the link between the Government of
+Canada and the Government of Britain was now taken in part by the
+High Commissioner. The relationship of Canada to the United
+Kingdom was becoming one of equality not of subordination.
+
+The initiative in the second step came from Britain, though
+Canada's leaders gave the movement its final direction. Imperial
+federationists urged Lord Salisbury to summon a conference of the
+colonies to discuss the question they had at heart. Salisbury
+doubted the wisdom of such a policy but agreed in 1887 to call a
+conference to discuss matters of trade and defense. Every
+self-governing colony sent representatives to this first Colonial
+Conference; but little immediate fruit came of its sessions. In
+1894 a second Conference was held at Ottawa, mainly to discuss
+intercolonial preferential trade. Only a beginning had been made,
+but already the Conferences were coming to be regarded as
+meetings of independent governments and not, as the
+federationists had hoped, the germ of a single dominating new
+government. The Imperial Federation League began to realize that
+it was making little progress and dissolved in 1893.
+
+Preferential trade was the alternative path to imperial
+federation. Macdonald had urged it in 1879 when he found British
+resentment strong against his new tariff. Again, ten years later,
+when reciprocity with the United States was finding favor in
+Canada, imperialists urged the counterclaims of a policy of
+imperial reciprocity, of special tariff privileges to other parts
+of the Empire. The stumbling-block in the way of such a policy
+was England's adherence to free trade. For the protectionist
+colonies preference would mean only a reduction of an existing
+tariff. For the United Kingdom, however, it would mean a complete
+reversal of fiscal policy and the abandonment of free trade for
+protection in order to make discrimination possible. Few
+Englishmen believed such a reversal possible, though every trade
+depression revived talk of "fair trade" or tariffs for bargaining
+purposes. A further obstacle to preferential trade lay in the
+existence of treaties with Belgium and Germany, concluded in the
+sixties, assuring them all tariff privileges granted by any
+British colony to Great Britain or to sister colonies. In 1892
+the Liberal Opposition in Canada indicated the line upon which
+action was eventually to be taken by urging a resolution in favor
+of granting an immediate and unconditional preference on British
+goods as a step toward freer trade and in the interest of the
+Canadian consumer.
+
+Little came of looking either to London or to Washington. Until
+the middle nineties Canada remained commercially stagnant and
+politically distracted. Then came a change of heart and a change
+of policy. The Dominion realized at last that it must work out
+its own salvation.
+
+In March, 1891, Sir John Macdonald was returned to office for the
+sixth time since Confederation, but he was not destined to enjoy
+power long. The winter campaign had been too much for his
+weakened constitution, and he died on June 6, 1891. No man had
+been more hated by his political opponents, no man more loved by
+his political followers. Today the hatred has long since died,
+and the memory of Sir John Macdonald has become the common pride
+of Canadians of every party, race, and creed. He had done much to
+lower the level of Canadian politics; but this fault was forgiven
+when men remembered his unfailing courage and confidence, his
+constructive vision and fertility of resource, his deep and
+unquestioned devotion to his country.
+
+The Conservative party had with difficulty survived the last
+election. Deprived of the leader who for so long had been half
+its force, the party could not long delay its break-up. No one
+could be found to fill Macdonald's place. The helm was taken in
+turn by J. J. C. Abbott, "the confidential family lawyer of the
+party," by Sir John Thompson, solid and efficient though lacking
+in imagination, and by Sir Mackenzie Bowell, an Ontario veteran.
+Abbott was forced to resign because of ill health; Thompson died
+in office; and Bowell was forced out by a revolt within the
+party. Sir Charles Tupper, then High Commissioner in London, was
+summoned to take up the difficult task. But it proved too great
+for even his fighting energy. The party was divided. Gross
+corruption in the awarding of public contracts had been brought
+to light. The farmers were demanding a lower tariff. The leader
+of the Opposition was proving to have all the astuteness and the
+mastery of his party which had marked Macdonald and a courage in
+his convictions which promised well. Defeat seemed inevitable
+unless a new issue which had invaded federal politics, the
+Manitoba school question, should prove more dangerous to the
+Opposition than to the forces of the Government.
+
+The Manitoba school question was an echo of the racial and
+religious strife which followed the execution of Riel and in
+which the Jesuits' Estates controversy was an episode. In the
+early days of the province, when it was still uncertain which
+religion would be dominant among the settlers, a system of
+state-aided denominational schools had been established. In 1890
+the Manitoba Government swept this system away and replaced it by
+a single system of non-sectarian and state-supported schools
+which were practically the same as the old Protestant schools.
+Any Roman Catholic who did not wish to send his children to such
+a school was thus compelled to pay for the maintenance of a
+parochial school as well as to pay taxes for the public schools.
+A provision of the Confederation Act, inserted at the wish of the
+Protestant minority in Quebec, safeguarded the educational
+privileges of religious minorities. A somewhat similar clause had
+been inserted in the Manitoba Act of 1870. To this protection the
+Manitoba minority now appealed. The courts held that the province
+had the right to pass the law but also that the Dominion
+Government had the constitutional right to pass remedial
+legislation restoring in some measure the privileges taken away.
+The issue was thus forced into federal politics.
+
+A curious situation then developed. The leader of the Government,
+Sir Mackenzie Bowell, was a prominent Orangeman. The leader of
+the Opposition, Wilfrid Laurier, was a Roman Catholic. The
+Government, after a vain attempt to induce the province to amend
+its measure, decided to pass a remedial act compelling it to
+restore to the Roman Catholics their rights. The policy of the
+Opposition leader was awaited with keen expectancy. Strong
+pressure was brought upon Laurier by the Roman Catholic hierarchy
+of Quebec. Most men expected a temporizing compromise. Yet the
+leader of the Opposition came out strongly and flatly against the
+Government's measure. He agreed that a wrong had been done but
+insisted that compulsion could not right it and promised that, if
+in power, he would follow the path of conciliation. At once all
+the wrath of the hierarchy was unloosed upon him, and all its
+influence was thrown to the support of the Government. Yet when
+the Liberals blocked the Remedial Bill by obstructing debate
+until the term of Parliament expired, and forced an election on
+this issue in the summer of 1896, Quebec gave a big majority to
+Laurier, while Manitoba stood behind the party which had tried to
+coerce it. The country over, the Liberals had gained a decisive
+majority. The day of new leaders and anew policy had dawned at
+last.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. THE YEARS OF FULFILMENT
+
+Wilfrid Laurier was summoned to form his first Cabinet in July,
+1896. For eighteen years previous to that time the Liberals had
+sat in what one of their number used to call "the cold shades of
+Opposition." For half of that term Laurier had been leader of the
+party, confined to the negative task of watching and criticizing
+the administration of his great predecessor and of the four
+premiers who followed in almost as many years. Now he was called
+to constructive tasks. Fortune favored him by bringing him to
+power at the very turn of the tide; but he justified fortune's
+favor by so steering the ship of state as to take full advantage
+of wind and current. Through four Parliaments, through fifteen
+years of office, through the time of fruition of so many
+long-deferred hopes, he was to guide the destinies of the nation.
+
+Laurier began his work by calling to his Cabinet not merely the
+party leaders in the federal arena but four of the outstanding
+provincial Liberals--Oliver Mowat, Premier of Ontario, William S.
+Fielding, Premier of Nova Scotia, Andrew G. Blair, Premier of New
+Brunswick, and, a few months later, Clifford Sifton of Manitoba.
+The Ministry was the strongest in individual capacity that the
+Dominion had yet possessed. The prestige of the provincial
+leaders, all men of long experience and tested shrewdness,
+strengthened the Administration in quarters where it otherwise
+would have been weak, for there had been many who doubted whether
+the untried Liberal party could provide capable administrators.
+There had also been many who doubted the expediency of making
+Prime Minister a French-Canadian Catholic. Such doubters were
+reassured by the presence of Mowat and Fielding, until the Prime
+Minister himself had proved the wisdom of the choice. There were
+others who admitted Laurier's personal charm and grace but
+doubted whether he had the political strength to control a party
+of conflicting elements and to govern a country where different
+race and diverging religious and sectional interests set men at
+odds. Here again time proved such fears to be groundless. Long
+before Laurier's long term of office had ended, any distrust was
+transformed into the charge of his opponents that he played the
+dictator. His courtly manners were found not to hide weakness but
+to cover strength.
+
+The first task of the new Government was to settle the Manitoba
+school question. Negotiations which were at once begun with the
+provincial Government were doubtless made easier by the fact that
+the same party was in power at Ottawa and at Winnipeg, but it was
+not this fact alone which brought agreement. The Laurier
+Government, unlike its predecessor, did not insist on the
+restoration of separate schools. It accepted a compromise which
+retained the single system of public schools, but which provided
+religious teaching in the last half hour of school and, where
+numbers warranted, a teacher of the same faith as the pupils. The
+compromise was violently denounced by the Roman Catholic
+hierarchy but, except in two cities, where parochial schools were
+set up, it was accepted by the laity.
+
+With this thorny question out of the way, the Government turned
+to what it recognized as its greatest task, the promotion of the
+country's material prosperity. For years industry had been at a
+standstill. Exports and imports had ceased to expand; railway
+building had halted; emigrants outnumbered immigrants. The West,
+the center of so many hopes, the object of so many sacrifices,
+had not proved the El Dorado so eagerly sought by fortune hunters
+and home builders. There were little over two hundred thousand
+white men west of the Great Lakes. Homesteads had been offered
+freely; but in 1896 only eighteen hundred were taken up, and less
+than a third of these by Canadians from the East. The stock of
+the Canadian Pacific was selling at fifty. All but a few had
+begun to lose faith in the promise of the West.
+
+Then suddenly a change came. The failure of the West to lure
+pioneers was not due to poverty of soil or lack of natural
+riches: its resources were greater than the most reckless orator
+had dreamed. It was merely that its time had not come and that
+the men in charge of the country's affairs had not thrown enough
+energy into the task of speeding the coming of that time. Now
+fortune worked with Canada, not against it. The long and steady
+fall of prices, and particularly of the prices of farm products,
+ended; and a rapid rise began to make farming pay once more. The
+good free lands of the United States had nearly all been taken
+up. Canada's West was now the last great reserve of free and
+fertile land. Improvements in farming methods made it possible to
+cope with the peculiar problems of prairie husbandry. British
+capital, moreover, no longer found so ready an outlet in the
+United States, which was now financing its own development; and
+it had suffered severe losses in Argentine smashes and Australian
+droughts. Capital, therefore, was free to turn to Canada.
+
+But it was not enough merely to have the resources; it was
+essential to display them and to disclose their value. Canada
+needed millions of men of the right stock, and fortunately there
+were millions who needed Canada. The work of the Government was
+to put the facts before these potential settlers. The new
+Minister of the Interior, Clifford Sifton, himself a western man,
+at once began an immigration campaign which has never been
+equaled in any country for vigor and practical efficiency. Canada
+had hitherto received few settlers direct from the Continent.
+Western Europe was now prosperous, and emigrants were few. But
+eastern Europe was in a ferment, and thousands were ready to
+swarm to new homes overseas.
+
+The activities of a subsidized immigration agency, the North
+Atlantic Trading Company, brought great numbers of these peoples.
+Foremost in numbers were the Ruthenians from Galicia. Most
+distinctive were the Doukhobors or Spirit Wrestlers of Southern
+Russia, about ten thousand of whom were brought to Canada at the
+instance of Tolstoy and some English Quakers to escape
+persecution for their refusal to undertake military service. The
+religious fanaticism of the Doukhobors, particularly when it took
+the form of midwinter pilgrimages in nature's garb, and the
+clannishness of the Ruthenians, who settled in solid blocks, gave
+rise to many problems of government and assimilation which taught
+Canadians the unwisdom of inviting immigration from eastern or
+southern Europe. Ruthenians and Poles, however, continued to come
+down to the eve of the Great War, and nearly all settled on
+western lands. Jewish Poland sent its thousands who settled in
+the larger cities, until Montreal had more Jews than Jerusalem
+and its Protestant schools held their Easter holidays in
+Passover. Italian navvies came also by the thousands, but mainly
+as birds of passage; and Greeks and men from the Balkan States
+were limited in numbers. Of the three million immigrants who came
+to Canada from the beginning of the century to the outbreak of
+the war, some eight hundred thousand came from continental
+Europe, and of these the Ruthenians, Jews, Italians, and
+Scandinavians were the most numerous.
+
+It was in the United States that Canada made the greatest efforts
+to obtain settlers and that she achieved the most striking
+success. Beginning in 1897 advertisements were placed in five or
+six thousand American farm and weekly newspapers. Booklets were
+distributed by the million. Hundreds of farmer delegates were
+given free trips through the promised land. Agents were appointed
+in each likely State, with sub-agents who were paid a bonus on
+every actual settler. The first settlers sent back word of
+limitless land to be had for a song, and of No. 1 Northern Wheat
+that ran thirty or forty bushels to the acre. Soon immigration
+from the States began; the trickle became a trek; the trek, a
+stampede. In 1896 the immigrants from the United States to Canada
+had been so few as not to be recorded; in 1897 there were 2000;
+in 1899, 12,000; in the fiscal year 1902-03, 50,000; and in
+1912-13, 139,000. The new immigrants proved to be the best of
+settlers; nearly all were progressive farmers experienced in
+western methods and possessed of capital. The countermovement
+from Canada to the United States never wholly ceased, but it
+slackened and was much more than offset by this northward rush.
+Nothing so helped to confirm Canadian confidence in their own
+land and to make the outside world share this high estimate as
+this unimpeachable evidence from over a million American
+newcomers who found in Canada, between 1897 and 1914, greater
+opportunities than even the United States could offer. The
+Ministry then carried its propaganda to Great Britain.
+Newspapers, schools, exhibitions were used in ways which startled
+the stolid Englishman into attention. Circumstances played into
+the hands of the propagandists, who took advantage of the flow of
+United States settlers into the West, the Klondike gold fields
+rush, the presence of Laurier at the Jubilee festivities at
+London in 1897, Canada's share in the Boer War. British
+immigrants rose to 50,000 in 1903-04, to 120,000 in 1907-08, and
+to 150,000 in 1912-13. From 1897 to the outbreak of the war over
+1,100,000 Britishers came to Canada. Three out of four were
+English, the rest mainly Scotch; the Irish, who once had come in
+tens of thousands and whose descendants still formed the largest
+element in the English-speaking peoples of Canada, now sent only
+one man for every twelve from England. The gates of Canadian
+immigration, however, were not thrown open to all comers. The
+criminal, the insane and feeble-minded, the diseased, and others
+likely to become public charges, were barred altogether or
+allowed to remain provisionally, subject to deportation within
+three years. Immigrants sent out by British charitable societies
+were subjected, after 1908, to rigid inspection before leaving
+England. No immigrant was admitted without sufficient money in
+his purse to tide over the first few weeks, unless he were going
+to farm work or responsible relatives. Asiatics were restricted
+by special regulations. Steadily the bars were raised higher.
+
+Not all the 3,000,000 who came to Canada between 1897 and 1914
+remained. Many drifted across the border; many returned to their
+old homes, their dreams fulfilled or shattered; yet the vast
+majority remained. Never had any country so great a task of
+assimilation as faced Canada, with 3,000,000 pouring into a
+country of 5,000,000 in a dozen years. Fortunately the great bulk
+of the newcomers were of the old stocks.
+
+Closely linked with immigration in promoting the prosperity of
+the country were the land policy and the railway policy of the
+Administration. The system of granting free homesteads to
+settlers was continued on an even more generous scale. The 1800
+entries for homesteads in 1896 had become 40,000 ten years later.
+In 1906 land equal in area to Massachusetts and Delaware was
+given away; in 1908 a Wales, in 1909 five Prince Edward Islands,
+and in 1910 and 1911 a Belgium, a Netherlands, and two
+Montenegros passed from the state to the settler. Unfortunately
+not every homesteader became an active farmer, and production,
+though mounting fast, could not keep pace with speculation.
+
+Railway building had almost ceased after the completion of the
+Canadian Pacific system. Now it revived on a greater scale than
+ever before. In the twenty years after 1896 the miles in
+operation grew from 16,000 to nearly 40,000. Two new
+transcontinentals were added, and the older roads took on a new
+lease of life. At the end of this period of expansion, only the
+United States, Germany, and Russia had railroad mileage exceeding
+that of Canada. Much of the building was premature or duplicated
+other roads. The scramble for state aid, federal and provincial,
+had demoralized Canadian politics. A large part of the notes the
+country rashly backed, by the policy of guaranteeing bond issues,
+were in time presented for payment. Yet the railway policies of
+the period were broadly justified. New country was opened to
+settlers; outlets to the sea were provided; capital was obtained
+in the years when it was still abundant and cheap; the whole
+industry of the country was stimulated; East was bound closer to
+West and depth was added to length.*
+
+* During the Great War it became necessary for the Federal
+Government to take over both the National Transcontinental,
+running from Moncton in New Brunswick to Winnipeg, and the
+Canadian Northern, running from ocean to ocean, and to
+incorporate both, along with the Intercolonial, in the Canadian
+National Railways, a system fourteen thousand miles in length.
+
+
+The opening of the West brought new prosperity to every corner of
+the East. Factories found growing markets; banks multiplied
+branches and business; exports mounted fast and imports faster;
+closer relations were formed with London and New York financial
+interests; mushroom millionaires, country clubs, city slums,
+suburban subdivisions, land booms, grafting aldermen, and all the
+apparatus of an advanced civilization grew apace. A new
+self-confidence became the dominant note alike of private
+business and of public policy.
+
+With industrial prosperity, political unity became assured.
+Canada became more and more a name of which all her sons were
+proud. Expansion brought men of the different provinces together.
+The Maritime Provinces first felt fully at one with the rest of
+Canada when Vancouver and Winnipeg rather than Boston and New
+York called their sons. Even Ontario and Quebec made some advance
+toward mutual understanding, though clerical leaders who sought
+safety for their Church in the isolation of its people,
+imperialists who drove a wedge between Canadians by emphasizing
+Anglo-Saxon racial ties, and politicians of the baser sort
+exploiting race prejudice for their own gain, opened rifts in a
+society already seamed by differences of language and creed. In
+the West unity was still harder to secure, for men of all
+countries and of none poured into a land still in the shaping.
+The divergent interests of the farming, free trade West and of
+the manufacturing, protectionist East made for friction.
+Fortunately strong ties held East and West together. Eastern
+Canadians or their sons filled most of the strategic posts in
+Government and business, in school and church and press in the
+West. Transcontinental railways, chartered banks with branches
+and interests in every province, political parties organizing
+their forces from coast to coast, played their part. Much had
+been accomplished; but much remained to be done. With this
+background of rapid industrial development and growing national
+unity, Canada's relations with the Empire, with her sister
+democracy across the border, and with foreign states, took on new
+importance and divided interest with the changes in her internal
+affairs.
+
+From being a state wherein the mother country exercised control
+and the colonies yielded obedience the Empire was rapidly being
+transformed into a free and equal partnership of independent
+commonwealths under one king. Out of the clash of rival theories
+and conflicting interests a new ideal and a new reality had
+developed. The policy of imperial cooperation--the policy whereby
+each great colony became independent of outside control but
+voluntarily acted in concert with the mother country and the
+sister states on matters of common concern--sought to reconcile
+liberty and unity, nationhood and empire, to unite what was most
+practicable in the aims of the advocates of independence and the
+advocates of imperial federation. The movement developed
+unevenly. At the outbreak of the Great War, it was still
+incomplete. The ideal was not always clearly or consciously held
+in the Empire itself and was wholly ignored or misunderstood in
+Europe and even in the United States. Yet in twenty years' space
+it had become dominant in practice and theory and had built up a
+new type of political organization, a virtual league of nations,
+fruitful for the future ordering of the world.
+
+The three fields in which this new policy was worked out were
+trade, defense, and political organization. Canada had asserted
+her right to control her tariff and commercial treaty relations
+as she pleased. Now she used this freedom to offer, without
+asking any return in kind, tariff privileges to the mother
+country. In the first budget brought down by the Minister of
+Finance in the Laurier Cabinet, William S. Fielding, a reduction,
+by instalments, of twenty-five per cent in tariff duties was
+offered to all countries with rates as low as Canada's--that is,
+to the United Kingdom and possibly to the Netherlands and New
+South Wales. The reduction was meant both as a fulfilment of the
+Liberal party's free trade pledges and as a token of filial good
+will to Britain. It was soon found that Belgium and Germany, by
+virtue of their special treaty rights, would claim the same
+privileges as Britain, and that all other countries with most
+favored nation clauses could then demand the same rates. This
+might serve the free trade aims of the Fielding tariff but would
+block its imperial purpose. If this purpose was to be achieved,
+these treaties must be denounced. To effect this was one of the
+tasks Laurier undertook in his first visit to England in 1897.
+
+The Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, celebrating the sixtieth
+anniversary of her reign, was made the occasion for holding the
+third Colonial Conference. It was attended by the Premiers of all
+the colonies. Among them Wilfrid Laurier, or Sir Wilfrid as he
+now became, stood easily preeminent. In the Jubilee festivities,
+among the crowds in London streets and the gatherings in court
+and council, his picturesque and courtly figure, his unmistakable
+note of distinction, his silvery eloquence, and, not least, the
+fact that this ruler of the greatest of England's colonies was
+wholly of French blood, made him the lion of the hour. In the
+Colonial Conference, presided over by Joseph Chamberlain, the new
+Colonial Secretary, Laurier achieved his immediate purpose. The
+British Government agreed to denounce the Belgian and German
+treaties, now that the preference granted her came as a free gift
+and not as part of a bargain which involved Britain's abandonment
+of free trade. The other Premiers agreed to consider whether
+Canada's preferential tariff policy could be followed.
+Chamberlain in vain urged defense and political policies designed
+to centralize power in London. He praised the action of the
+Australian colonies in contributing money to the British navy but
+could get no promise of similar action from the others. He urged
+the need of setting up in London an imperial council, with power
+somewhat more than advisory and likely "to develop into something
+still greater," but for this scheme he elicited little support.
+After the Conference Sir Wilfrid visited France and in ringing
+speeches in Paris did much to pave the way for the good
+understanding which later developed into the entente cordiale.
+
+The glitter and parade of the Jubilee festivities soon gave way
+to a sterner phase of empire. For years South Africa had been in
+ferment owing to the conflicting interests of narrow, fanatical,
+often corrupt Boer leaders, greedy Anglo-Jewish mining magnates,
+and British statesmen-Rhodes, Milner, Chamberlain--dominated by
+the imperial idea and eager for an "all-red" South Africa.
+Eventually an impasse was reached over the question of the rights
+and privileges of British subjects in the Transvaal Republic. On
+October 9, 1899, President Kruger issued his fateful ultimatum
+and war began.
+
+What would be Canada's attitude toward this imperial problem? She
+had never before taken part in an overseas war. Neither her own
+safety nor the safety of the mother country was considered to be
+at stake. Yet war had not been formally declared before a demand
+arose among Canadians that their country should take a hand in
+rescuing the victims of Boer tyranny. The Venezuela incident and
+the recent Jubilee ceremonies had fanned imperialist sentiment.
+The growing prosperity was increasing national pride and making
+many eager to abandon the attitude of colonial dependence in
+foreign affairs. The desire to emulate the United States, which
+had just won more or less glory in its little war with Spain, had
+its influence in some quarters. Belief in the justice of the
+British cause was practically universal, thanks to the skillful
+manipulation of the press by the war party in South Africa.
+Leading newspapers encouraged the campaign for participation.
+Parliament was not in session, and the Government hesitated to
+intervene, but the swelling tide of public opinion soon warranted
+immediate action. Three days after the declaration of war an
+order in council was passed providing for a contingent of one
+thousand men. Other infantry battalions, Mounted Rifles, and
+batteries of artillery were dispatched later. Lord Strathcona,
+formerly Donald Smith of the Canadian Pacific syndicate, by a
+deed recalling feudal days, provided the funds to send overseas
+the Strathcona Horse, roughriders from the Canadian West. In the
+last years of the war the South African Constabulary drew many
+recruits from Canada. All told, over seven thousand Canadians
+crossed half the world to share in the struggle on the South
+African veldt.
+
+The Canadian forces held their own with any in the campaign. The
+first contingent fought under Lord Roberts in the campaign for
+the relief of Kimberley; and it was two charges by Canadian
+troops, charges that cost heavily in killed and wounded, that
+forced the surrender of General Cronje, brought to bay at
+Paardeberg. One Canadian battery shared in the honor of raising
+the siege of Mafeking, where Baden-Powell was besieged, and both
+contingents marched with Lord Roberts from Bloemfontein to
+Pretoria and fought hard and well at Doornkop and in many a
+skirmish. Perhaps the politic generosity of the British leaders
+and the patriotic bias of correspondents exaggerated the
+importance of the share of the Canadian troops in the whole
+campaign; but their courage, initiative, and endurance were
+tested and proved beyond all question. Paardeberg sent a thrill
+of pride and of sorrow through Canada.
+
+The only province which stood aloof from wholehearted
+participation in the war was Quebec. Many French Canadians had
+been growing nervous over the persistent campaign of the
+imperialists. They exhibited a certain unwillingness to take on
+responsibilities, perhaps a survival of the dependence which
+colonialism had bred, a dawning aspiration toward an independent
+place in the world's work, and a disposition to draw tighter
+racial and religious lines in order to offset the emphasis which
+imperialists placed on Anglo-Saxon ties. Now their sympathies
+went out to a people, like themselves an alien minority brought
+under British rule, and in this attitude they were strengthened
+by the almost unanimous verdict of the neutral world against
+British policy. Laurier tried to steer a middle course, but the
+attacks of ultra-imperialists in Ontario and of
+ultra-nationalists in Quebec, led henceforward by a brilliant and
+eloquent grandson of Papineau, Henri Bourassa, hampered him at
+every turn. The South African War gave a new unity to
+English-speaking Canada, but it widened the gap between the
+French and English sections.
+
+The part which Australia and New Zealand, like Canada, had taken
+in the war gave new urgency to the question of imperial
+relations. English imperialists were convinced that the time was
+ripe for a great advance toward centralization, and they were
+eager to crystallize in permanent institutions the imperial
+sentiment called forth by the war. When, therefore, the fourth
+Colonial Conference was summoned to meet in London in 1902 on the
+occasion of the coronation of Edward VII, Chamberlain urged with
+all his force and keenness a wide programme of centralized
+action. "Very great expectations," he declared in his opening
+address, "have been formed as to the results which may accrue
+from our meeting." The expectations, however, were doomed to
+disappointment. He and those who shared his hopes had failed to
+recognize that the war had called forth a new national
+consciousness in the Dominions, as the self-governing colonies
+now came to be termed, even more than it had developed imperial
+sentiment. In the smaller colonies, New Zealand, Natal, Cape of
+Good Hope, the old attitude of colonial dependence survived in
+larger measure; but in Canada and in Australia, now federated
+into commonwealths, national feeling was uppermost.
+
+Chamberlain brought forward once more his proposal for an
+imperial council, to be advisory at first and later to attain
+power to tax and legislate for the whole Empire, but he found no
+support. Instead, the Conference itself was made a more permanent
+instrument of imperial cooperation by a provision that it should
+meet at least every four years. The essential difference was that
+the Conference was merely a meeting of independent Governments on
+an equal footing, each claiming to be as much "His Majesty's
+Government" as any other, whereas the council which Chamberlain
+urged in vain would have been a new Government, supreme over all
+the Empire and dominated by the British representatives.
+Chamberlain then suggested more centralized means of defense,
+grants to the British navy, and the putting of a definite
+proportion of colonial militia at the disposal of the British War
+Office for overseas service. The Cape and Natal promised naval
+grants; Australia and New Zealand increased their contributions
+for the maintenance of a squadron in Pacific waters; but Canada
+held back. The smaller colonies were sympathetic to the militia
+proposal; but Canada and Australia rejected it on the grounds
+that it was "objectionable in principle, as derogating from the
+powers of self-government enjoyed by them, and would be
+calculated to impede the general improvement in training and
+organization of their defense forces." Chamberlain's additional
+proposal of free trade within the Empire and of a common tariff
+against all foreign countries found little support. That each
+part of the Empire should control its own tariff and that it
+should make what concessions it wished on British imports, either
+as a part of a reciprocal bargain or as a free gift, remained a
+fixed idea in the minds of the leaders of the Dominions.
+Throughout the sessions it was Laurier rather than Chamberlain
+who dominated the Conference.
+
+Balked in his desire to effect political or military
+centralization, Chamberlain turned anew to the possibilities of
+trade alliance. His tariff reform campaign of 1903, which was a
+sequel to the Colonial Conference of 1902, proposed that Great
+Britain set up a tariff, incidentally to protect her own
+industries and to have matter for bargaining with foreign powers,
+but mainly in order to keep the colonies within her orbit by
+offering them special terms. In this way the Empire would become
+once more self-sufficient. The issue thus thrust upon Great
+Britain and the Empire in general was primarily a contest between
+free traders and protectionists, not between the supporters of
+cooperation and the supporters of centralization. On this basis
+the issue was fought out in Great Britain and resulted in the
+overwhelming victory of free trade and the Liberal party, aided
+as they were by the popular reaction against the jingoist policy
+which had culminated in the war. When the fifth Conference, now
+termed Imperial instead of Colonial, met in 1907, there was much
+impassioned advocacy of preference and protection on the part of
+Alfred Deakin of Australia and Sir L.S. Jameson of the Cape; but
+the British representatives stuck to their guns and, in Winston
+Churchill's phrase, the door remained "banged, barred, and
+bolted" against both policies. At this conference Laurier took
+the ground that, while Canada would be prepared to bargain
+preference for preference, the people of Great Britain must
+decide what fiscal system would best serve their own interests. A
+consistent advocate of home rule, he was willing, unlike some of
+his colleagues, from the other Dominions, to let the United
+Kingdom control its own affairs.
+
+The defense issue had slumbered since the Boer War. Now the
+unbounded ambitions of Germany gave it startling urgency. It was
+about 1908 that the British public first became seriously alarmed
+over the danger involved in the lessening margin of superiority
+of the British over the German navy. The alarm was echoed
+throughout the Dominions. The Kaiser's challenge threatened the
+safety not only of the mother country but of every part of the
+Empire. Hitherto the Dominions had done little in the way of
+naval defense, though they had one by one assumed full
+responsibility for their land defense. The feeling had been
+growing that they should take a larger share of the common
+burden. Two factors, however, had blocked advance in this
+direction. The British Government had claimed and exercised full
+control of the issues of peace and war, and the Dominions were
+reluctant to assume responsibility for the consequences of a
+foreign policy which they could not direct. The hostility of the
+British Admiralty, on strategic and political grounds, to the
+plan of local Dominion navies, had prevented progress on the most
+feasible lines. The deadlock was a serious one. Now the imminence
+of danger compelled a solution. Taking the lead in this instance
+in the working out of the policy of colonial nationalism,
+Australia had already insisted upon abandoning the barren and
+inadequate policy of making a cash contribution for the support
+of a British squadron in Australasian waters and had established
+a local navy, manned, maintained, and controlled by the
+Commonwealth. Canada decided to follow her example. In March,
+1909, the Canadian House of Commons unanimously adopted a
+resolution in favor of establishing a Canadian naval service to
+cooperate in close relation with the British navy. During the
+summer a special conference was held in London attended by
+ministers from all the Dominions. At this conference the
+Admiralty abandoned its old position; and it was agreed that
+Australia and Canada should establish local forces, cruisers,
+destroyers, and submarines, with auxiliary ships and naval bases.
+
+When the Canadian Parliament met in 1910, Sir Wilfrid Laurier
+submitted a Naval Service Bill, providing for the establishment
+of local fleets, of which the smaller vessels were to be built in
+Canada. The ships were to be under the control of the Dominion
+Government, which might, in case of emergency, place them at the
+disposal of the British Admiralty. The bill was passed in March.
+In the autumn two cruisers, the Rainbow and the Niobe, were
+bought from Britain to serve as training ships. In the following
+spring a naval college was opened at Halifax, and tenders were
+called for the construction, in Canada, of five cruisers and six
+destroyers. In June, 1911, at the regular Imperial Conference of
+that year, an agreement was reached regarding the boundaries of
+the Australian and Canadian stations and uniformity of training
+and discipline.
+
+Then came the reciprocity fight and the defeat of the Government.
+No tenders had been finally accepted, and the new Administration
+of Premier Borden was free to frame its own policy.
+
+The naval issue had now become a party question. The policy of a
+Dominion navy, a policy which was the logical extension of the
+principles of colonial nationalism and imperial cooperation which
+had guided imperial development for many years, was attacked by
+ultra-imperialists in the English-speaking provinces as
+strategically unsound and as leading inevitably to separation
+from the Empire. It was also attacked by the Nationalists of
+Quebec, the ultra-colonialists or provincialists, as they might
+more truly be termed, under the vigorous leadership of Henri
+Bourassa, as yet another concession to imperialism and to
+militarism. In November, 1910, by alarming the habitant by
+pictures of his sons being dragged away by naval press gangs, the
+Nationalists succeeded in defeating the Liberal candidate in a
+by-election in Drummond-Arthabaska, at one time Laurier's own
+constituency. In the general election which followed in 1911, the
+same issue cost the Liberals a score of seats in Quebec.
+
+When, therefore, the new Prime Minister, Sir Robert Borden, faced
+the issue, he endeavored to frame a policy which would suit both
+wings of his following. In 1912 he proposed as an emergency
+measure to appropriate a sum sufficient to build three
+dreadnoughts for the British navy, subject to recall if at any
+time the Canadian people decided to use them as the nucleus of a
+Canadian fleet. At the same time he undertook to submit to the
+electorate his permanent naval policy, as soon as it was
+determined. What that permanent policy would be he was unwilling
+to say, but the Prime Minister made clear his own leanings by
+insisting that it would take half a century to form a Canadian
+navy, which at best would be a poor and weak substitute for the
+organization the Empire already possessed. The contribution to
+the British navy satisfied the ultra-imperialists, while the
+promise of a referendum and the call for money alone, and not
+men, appealed to the Nationalist wing. Under the impetuous
+control of its new head, Winston Churchill, the British Admiralty
+showed that it had repented its brief conversion to the Dominion
+navy policy, by preparing an elaborate memorandum to support
+Borden's proposals, and also by formulating plans for imperial
+flying squadrons to be supplied by the Dominions, which made
+clear its wish to continue the centralizing policy permanently.
+The Liberal Opposition vigorously denounced the whole dreadnought
+programme, advocating instead two Canadian fleet units somewhat
+larger than at first contemplated. Their obstruction was overcome
+in the Commons by the introduction of the closure, but the
+Liberal majority in the Senate, on the motion of Sir George Ross,
+a former Premier of Ontario, threw out the bill by insisting that
+it should not be passed before being "submitted to the judgment
+of the country." This challenge the Government did not accept.
+Until the outbreak of the war no further steps were taken either
+to arrange for contribution or to establish a Canadian navy,
+though the naval college at Halifax was continued, and the
+training cruisers were maintained in a half-hearted way.
+
+In the Imperial Conference of 1911, one more attempt was made to
+set up a central governing authority in London. Sir Joseph Ward,
+of New Zealand, acting as the mouthpiece of the imperial
+federationists, urged the establishment, first of an Imperial
+Council of State and later of an Imperial Parliament. His
+proposals met no support. "It is absolutely impracticable," was
+Laurier's verdict. "Any scheme of representation--no matter what
+you call it, parliament or council--of the overseas Dominions,
+must give them so very small a representation that it would be
+practically of no value," declared Premier Morris of
+Newfoundland. "It is not a practical scheme," Premier Fisher of
+Australia agreed; "our present system of responsible government
+has not broken down." "The creation of some body with centralized
+authority over the whole Empire," Premier Botha of South Africa
+cogently insisted, "would be a step entirely antagonistic to the
+policy of Great Britain which has been so successful in the past
+. . . . It is the policy of decentralization which has made the
+Empire--the power granted to its various peoples to govern
+themselves." Even Premier Asquith of the United Kingdom declared
+the proposals "fatal to the very fundamental conditions on which
+our empire has been built up and carried on."
+
+Stronger than any logic was the presence of Louis Botha in the
+conferences of 1907 and 1911. On the former occasion it was only
+five years since he had been in arms against Great Britain. The
+courage and vision of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman in granting
+full and immediate self-government to the conquered Boer
+republics had been justified by the results. Once more freedom
+proved the only enduring basis of empire. Botha's task in
+attempting to make Boer and Briton work together, first in the
+Transvaal, and, after 1910, in the Union of South Africa, had not
+been an easy one. Attacked by extremists from both directions, he
+faced much the same difficulties as Laurier, and he found in
+Laurier's friendship, counsel, and example much that stood him in
+good stead in the days of stress to come.
+
+
+Not less important than the relations with the United Kingdom in
+this period were the relations with the United States. The
+Venezuela episode was the turning point in the relations between
+the United States and the British Empire. Both in Washington and
+in London men had been astounded to find themselves on the verge
+of war. The danger passed, but the shock awoke thousands to a
+realization of all that the two peoples had in common and to the
+need of concerted effort to remove the sources of friction. Then
+hard on the heels of this episode followed the Spanish-American
+War.* Not the least of its by-products was a remarkable
+improvement in the relations of the English-speaking nations. The
+course of the war, the intrigues of European courts to secure
+intervention on behalf of Spain, and the lining up of a British
+squadron beside Dewey in Manila Bay when a German Admiral
+blustered, revealed Great Britain as the one trustworthy friend
+the United States possessed abroad. The annexation of the
+Philippines and the definite entry of the United States upon
+world politics broke down the irresponsible isolation which
+British ministers had found so much of a barrier to diplomatic
+accommodations. With John Hay and later Elihu Root at the State
+Department, and Lansdowne and Grey at the Foreign Office in
+London, there began an era of good feeling between the two
+countries.
+
+* See "The Path of Empire".
+
+
+Ottawa and Washington were somewhat slower in coming to terms.
+Many difficulties can arise along a three thousand mile border,
+and with a people so sure of themselves as the Americans were at
+this period and a people so sensitive to any infringements of
+their national rights as the Canadians were, petty differences
+often loomed large. The Laurier Government, therefore, proposed
+shortly after its accession to power in 1896 that an attempt
+should be made to clear away all outstanding issues and to effect
+a trade agreement. A Joint High Commission was constituted in
+1898. The members from the United States were Senator Fairbanks,
+Senator Gray, Representative Nelson Dingley, General Foster, J.A.
+Kasson, and T.J. Coolidge of the State Department. Great
+Britain was represented by Lord Herschell, who acted as chairman,
+Newfoundland by Sir James Winter, and Canada by Sir Wilfrid
+Laurier, Sir Richard Cartwright, Sir Louis Davies, and John
+Charlton, M.P.
+
+The Commission held prolonged sittings, first at Quebec and later
+at Washington, and reached tentative agreement on nearly all of
+the troublesome questions at issue. The bonding privileges on
+both sides the border were to be given an assured basis; the
+unneighborly alien labor laws were to be relaxed; the Rush-Bagot
+Convention regarding armament on the Great Lakes was to be
+revised; Canadian vessels were to abandon pelagic sealing in
+Bering Sea for a money compensation; and a reciprocity treaty
+covering natural products and some manufactures was sketched out.
+Yet no agreement followed. One issue, the Alaska boundary, proved
+insoluble, and as no agreement was acceptable which did not cover
+every difference, the Commission never again assembled after its
+adjournment in February, 1899.
+
+
+The boundary between Alaska and the Dominion was the only bit of
+the border line not yet determined. As in former cases of
+boundary disputes, the inaccuracies of map makers, the
+ambiguities of diplomats, the clash of local interests, and
+stiff-necked national pride made a settlement difficult. In 1825
+Russia and Great Britain had signed a treaty which granted Russia
+a long panhandle strip down the Pacific coast. With the purchase
+of Alaska in 1867 the United States succeeded to Russia's claim.
+With the growth of settlement in Canada this long barrier down
+half of her Pacific coast was found to be irksome. Attempt after
+attempt to have the line determined only added to the stock of
+memorials in official pigeonholes. Then came the discovery of
+gold in the Klondike in 1896, and the question of easy access by
+sea to the Canadian back country became an urgent one. Canada
+offered to compromise, admitting the American title to the chief
+ports on Lynn Canal, Dyea and Skagway, if Pyramid Harbor were
+held Canadian. She urged arbitration on the model the United
+States had dictated in the Venezuela dispute. But the United
+States was in possession of the most important points. Its people
+believed the Canadian claims had been trumped up when the
+Klondike fields were opened. The Puget Sound cities wanted no
+breach in their monopoly of the supply trade to the north. The
+only concession the United States would make was to refer the
+dispute to a commission of six, three from each country, with the
+proviso that no area settled by Americans should in any event
+pass into other bands. Canada felt that arbitration under these
+conditions would either end in deadlock, leaving the United
+States in possession, or in concession by one or more of the
+British representatives, and so declined to accept the proposed
+arrangement.
+
+Finally, in 1903, agreement was reached between London and
+Washington to accept the tribunal proposed by the United States,
+which in turn withdrew its veto on the transfer of any settled
+area. Canada's reluctant consent was won by a provision that the
+members of the tribunal should be "impartial jurists of repute,"
+sworn to render a judicial verdict. When Elihu Root, Senator
+Lodge, and Senator Turner were named as the American
+representatives, Ottawa protested that eminent and honorable as
+they were, their public attitude on this question made it
+impossible to consider them "impartial jurists." The Canadian
+Government in return nominated three judges, Lord Alverstone,
+Lord Chief Justice of England, Sir Louis Jette, of Quebec, and
+Mr. Justice Armour, succeeded on his death by A. B. Aylesworth, a
+leader of the Ontario bar. The tribunal met in London, where the
+case was thoroughly argued.
+
+The Treaty of 1825 had provided that the southern boundary should
+follow the Portland Canal to the fifty-sixth parallel of latitude
+and thence the summits of the mountains parallel to the coast,
+with the stipulation that if the summit of the mountains anywhere
+proved to be more than ten marine leagues from the ocean, a line
+drawn parallel to the windings of the coast not more than ten
+leagues distant should form the boundary. Three questions arose:
+What was the Portland Canal? Did the treaty assure Russia an
+unbroken strip by making the boundary run round the ends of deep
+inlets? Did mountains exist parallel to the coast within ten
+leagues' distance? In October these questions received their
+answer. Lord Alverstone and the three American members decided in
+favor of the United States on the main issues. The two Canadian,
+representatives refused to sign the award and denounced it as
+unjudicial and unwarranted.
+
+The decision set Canada aflame. Lord Alverstone was denounced in
+unmeasured terms. From Atlantic to Pacific the charge was echoed
+that once more the interests of Canada had been sacrificed by
+Britain on the altar of Anglo-American friendship. The outburst
+was not understood abroad. It was not, as United States opinion
+imagined, merely childish petulance or the whining of a poor
+loser. It was against Great Britain, not against the United
+States, that the criticism was directed. It was not the decision,
+but the way in which it was made, that roused deep anger. The
+decision on the main issue, that the line ran back of even the
+deepest inlets and barred Canada from a single harbor, though
+unwelcome, was accepted as a judicial verdict and has since been
+little questioned. The finding that the boundary should follow
+certain mountains behind those Canada urged, but short of the ten
+league line, was attacked by the Canadian representatives as a
+compromise, and its judicial character is certainly open to some
+doubt. But it was on the third finding that the thunders broke.
+The United States had contended that the Portland Channel of the
+treaty makers ran south of four islands which lay east of Prince
+of Wales Island, and Canada that it ran north of these islands.
+Lord Alverstone, after joining in a judgment with the Canadian
+commissioners that it ran north, suddenly, without any conference
+with them, and, as the wording of the award showed, by agreement
+with the United States representatives, announced that it ran
+where no one had ever suggested it could run, north of two and
+south of two, thus dividing the land in dispute. The islands were
+of little importance even strategically, but the incontrovertible
+evidence that instead of a judicial finding a political
+compromise had been effected was held of much importance. After a
+time the storm died down, but it revealed one unmistakable fact:
+Canadian nationalism was growing fully as fast as Canadian
+imperialism.
+
+The relations between Canada and the United States now came to
+show the effect of increasingly close business connections. The
+northward trek of tens of thousands of American farmers was under
+way. United States capitalists began to invest heavily in farm
+and timber lands. Factory after factory opened a Canadian branch.
+Ten years later these investments exceeded six hundred millions.
+In the West, James J. Hill was planning the expansion of the
+Great Northern system throughout the prairie provinces and was
+securing an interest in the great Crow's Nest Pass coal fields.
+Tourist travel multiplied. The two peoples came to know each
+other better than ever before, and with knowledge many prejudices
+and misunderstandings vanished. Canada's growing prosperity did
+not merely bring greater individual intercourse; it made the
+United States as a whole less patronizing in its dealings with
+its neighbor and Canada less querulous and thin-skinned.
+
+In this more favorable temper many old issues were cleared off
+the slate. The northeastern fisheries question, revived by a
+conflict between Newfoundland and the United States as to treaty
+privileges, was referred to the Hague Court in 1909. The verdict
+of the arbitrators recognized a measure of right in the
+contentions of both sides. A detailed settlement was prescribed
+which was accepted without demur in the United States,
+Newfoundland, and Canada alike. Pelagic sealing in the North
+Pacific was barred in 1911 by an international agreement between
+the United States, Great Britain, Japan, and Russia. Less success
+attended the attempt to arrange joint action to regulate and
+conserve the fisheries of the Great Lakes and the salmon
+fisheries of the Pacific, for the treaty drawn up in 1911 by the
+experts from both countries failed to pass the United States
+Senate.
+
+But the most striking development of the decade was the
+businesslike and neighborly solution found for the settlement of
+the boundary waters controversy. The growing demands for the use
+of streams such as the Niagara, the St. Lawrence, and the Sault
+for power purposes, and of western border rivers for irrigation
+schemes, made it essential to take joint action to reconcile not
+merely the conflicting claims from the opposite sides of the
+border but the conflicting claims of power and navigation and
+other interests in each country. In 1905 a temporary waterways
+commission was appointed, and four years later the Boundary
+Waters Treaty provided for the establishment of a permanent Joint
+High Commission, consisting of three representatives from each
+country, and with authority over all cases of use, obstruction,
+or diversion of border waters. Individual citizens of either
+country were allowed to present their case directly before the
+Commission, an innovation in international practice. Still more
+significant of the new spirit was the inclusion in this treaty of
+a clause providing for reference to the Commission, with the
+consent of the United States Senate and the Dominion Cabinet, of
+any matter whatever at issue between the two countries. With
+little discussion and as a matter of course, the two democracies,
+in the closing years of a full century of peace, thus made
+provision for the sane and friendly settlement of future
+line-fence disputes.
+
+The chief barrier to good relations was the customs tariff.
+Protectionism, and the attitude of which it was born and which it
+bred in turn, was still firmly entrenched in both countries.
+Tariff bars, it is true, had not been able to prevent the rapid
+growth of trade; imports from the United States to Canada had
+grown especially fast and Canada now ranked third in the list of
+the Republic's customers. Yet in many ways the tariff hindered
+free intercourse. Though every dictate of self-interest and good
+sense demanded a reduction of duties, Canada would not and did
+not take the initiative. Time and again she had sought
+reciprocity, only to have her proposals rejected, often with
+contemptuous indifference. When Sir Wilfrid Laurier announced in
+1900 that there would be no more pilgrimages to Washington, he
+voiced the almost unanimous opinion of a people whose pride had
+been hurt by repeated rebuffs.
+
+Meanwhile protectionist sentiment had grown stronger in Canada.
+The opening of the West had given an expanding market for eastern
+factories and had seemingly justified the National Policy. The
+Liberals, the traditional upholders of freer trade, after some
+initial redemptions of their pledges, had compromised with the
+manufacturing interests. The Conservatives, still more
+protectionist in temper, voiced in Parliament little criticism of
+this policy, and the free trade elements among the farmers were
+as yet unorganized and inarticulate. Signs of this protectionist
+revival, which had in it, as in the seventies, an element of
+nationalism, were many. A four-story tariff was erected. The
+lowest rates were those granted the United Kingdom; then came the
+intermediate tariff, for the products of countries giving Canada
+special terms; next the general tariff; and, finally, the surtax
+for use against powers discriminating in any special degree
+against the Dominion. The provinces one by one forbade the export
+of pulp wood cut on Crown Lands, in order to assure its
+manufacture into wood pulp or paper in Canada. The Dominion in
+1907 secured the abrogation of the postal convention made with
+the United States in 1875 providing for the reciprocal free
+distribution of second class mail matter originating in the other
+country. This step was taken at the instance of Canadian
+manufacturers, alarmed at the effect of the advertising pages of
+United States magazines in directing trade across the line. Yet
+even with such developments, the Canadian tariff remained lower
+than its neighbor's.
+
+In the United States the tendency was in the other direction.
+With the growth of cities, the interests of the consumers of
+foods outweighed the influence of the producers. Manufacturers in
+many cases had reached the export stage, where foreign markets,
+cheap food, and cheap raw materials were more necessary than a
+protected home market. The "muckrakers" were at the height of
+their activity; and the tariff, as one instrument of corruption
+and privilege, was suffering with the popular condemnation of all
+big interests. United States newspapers were eager for free wood
+pulp and cheaper paper, just as Canadian newspapers defended the
+policy of checking export. It was not surprising, therefore, that
+reciprocity with Canada, as one means of increasing trade and
+reducing the tariff, took on new popularity. New England was the
+chief seat of the movement, with Henry M. Whitney and Eugene N.
+Foss as its most persistent advocates. Detroit, Chicago, St.
+Paul, and other border cities were also active.
+
+Official action soon followed this unofficial campaign. Curiously
+enough, it came as an unexpected by-product of a further
+experiment in protection, the Payne-Aldrich tariff. For the first
+time in the experience of the United States this tariff
+incorporated the principle of minimum and maximum schedules. The
+maximum rates, fixed at twenty-five per cent ad valorem above the
+normal or minimum rates, were to be enforced upon the goods of
+any country which had not, before March 10, 1910, satisfied the
+President that it did not discriminate against the products of
+the United States. One by one the various nations demonstrated
+this to President Taft's satisfaction or with wry faces made the
+readjustments necessary. At last Canada alone remained. The
+United States conceded that the preference to the United Kingdom
+did not constitute discrimination, but it insisted that it should
+enjoy the special rates recently extended to France by treaty. In
+Canada this demand was received with indignation. Its tariff
+rates were much lower than those which the United States imposed,
+and its purchases in that country were twice as great as its
+sales. The demand was based on a sudden and complete reversal of
+the traditional American interpretation of the most favored
+nation policy. The President admitted the force of Canada's
+contentions, but the law left him no option. Fortunately it did
+leave him free to decide as to the adequacy of any concessions,
+and thus agreement was made possible at the eleventh hour. At the
+President's suggestion a conference at Albany was arranged, and
+on the 30th of March a bargain was struck. Canada conceded to the
+United States its intermediate tariff rates on thirteen minor
+schedules--chinaware, nuts, prunes, and whatnot. These were
+accepted as equivalent to the special terms given France, and
+Canada was certified as being entitled to minimum rates. The
+United States had saved its face. Then to complete the comedy,
+Canada immediately granted the same concessions to all other
+countries, that is, made the new rates part of the general
+tariff. The United States ended where it began, in receipt of no
+special concessions. The motions required had been gone through;
+phantom reductions had been made to meet a phantom
+discrimination.
+
+This was only the beginning of attempts at accommodation. The
+threat of tariff war had called forth in the United States loud
+protests against any such reversion to economic barbarism.
+President Taft realized that he had antagonized the growing
+low-tariff sentiment of the country by his support of the
+Payne-Aldrich tariff and was eager to set himself right. A week
+before the March negotiations were concluded, a Democratic
+candidate had carried a strongly Republican congressional
+district in Massachusetts on a platform of reciprocity with
+Canada. The President, therefore, proposed a bold stroke. He made
+a sweeping offer of better trade relations. Negotiations were
+begun at Ottawa and concluded in Washington. In January, 1911,
+announcement was made that a broad agreement had been effected.
+Grain, fruit, and vegetables, dairy and most farm products, fish,
+hewn timber and sawn lumber, and several minerals were put on the
+free list. A few manufactures were also made free, and the duties
+on meats, flour, coal, agricultural implements, and other
+products were substantially reduced. The compact was to be
+carried out, not by treaty, but by concurrent legislation. Canada
+was to extend the same terms to the most favored nations by
+treaty, and to all parts of the British Empire by policy.
+
+For fifty years the administrations of the two countries had
+never been so nearly at one. More difficulty was met with in the
+legislatures. In Congress, farmers and fishermen, standpat
+Republicans and Progressives hostile to the Administration, waged
+war against the bargain. It was only in a special session, and
+with the aid of Democratic votes and a Washington July sun, that
+the opposition was overcome. In the Canadian Parliament, after
+some initial hesitation, the Conservatives attacked the proposal.
+The Government had a safe majority, but the Opposition resorted
+to obstruction; and late in July, Parliament was suddenly
+dissolved and the Government appealed to the country.
+
+When the bargain was first concluded, the Canadian Government had
+imagined it would meet little opposition, for it was precisely
+the type of agreement that Government after Government,
+Conservative as well as Liberal, had sought in vain for over
+forty years. For a day or two that expectation was justified.
+Then the forces of opposition rallied, timid questioning gave way
+to violent denunciation, and at last agreement and Government
+alike were swept away in a flood of popular antagonism.
+
+One reason for this result was that the verdict was given in a
+general election, not in a referendum. The fate of the Government
+was involved; its general record was brought up for review; party
+ambitions and passions were stirred to the utmost. Fifteen years,
+of office-holding had meant the accumulation of many scandals, a
+slackening in administrative efficiency, and the cooling by
+official compromise of the ardent faith of the Liberalism of the
+earlier day. The Government had failed to bring in enough new
+blood. The Opposition fought with the desperation of fifteen
+years of fasting and was better served by its press.
+
+Of the side issues introduced into the campaign, the most
+important were the naval policy in Quebec and the racial and
+religious issue in the English-speaking provinces. The Government
+had to face what Sir Wilfrid Laurier termed "the unholy alliance"
+of Roman Catholic Nationalists under Bourassa in Quebec and
+Protestant Imperialists in Ontario. In the French-speaking
+districts the Government was denounced for allowing Canada to be
+drawn into the vortex of militarism and imperialism and for
+sacrificing the interests of Roman Catholic schools in the West.
+On every hand the naval policy was attacked as inevitably
+bringing in its train conscription to fight European wars a
+contention hotly denied by the Liberals. The Conservative
+campaign managers made a working arrangement with the
+Nationalists as to candidates and helped liberally in circulating
+Bourassa's newspaper, Le Devoir. On the back "concessions" of
+Ontario a quieter but no less effective campaign was carried on
+against the domination of Canadian politics by a French Roman
+Catholic province and a French Roman Catholic Prime Minister. In
+vain the Liberals appealed to national unity or started back
+fires in Ontario by insisting that a vote for Borden meant a vote
+for Bourassa. The Conservative-Nationalist alliance cost the
+Government many seats in Quebec and apparently did not frighten
+Ontario.
+
+Reciprocity, however, was the principal issue everywhere except
+in Quebec. Powerful forces were arrayed against it. Few
+manufactures had been put on the free list, but the argument that
+the reciprocity agreement was the thin edge of the wedge rallied
+the organized manufacturers in almost unbroken hostile array. The
+railways, fearful that western traffic would be diverted to
+United States roads, opposed the agreement vigorously under the
+leadership of the ex-American chairman of the board of directors
+of the Canadian Pacific, Sir William Van Horne, who made on this
+occasion one of his few public entries into politics. The banks,
+closely involved in the manufacturing and railway interests,
+threw their weight in the same direction. They were aided by the
+prevalence of protectionist sentiment in the eastern cities and
+industrial towns, which were at the same stage of development and
+in the same mood as the cities of the United States some decades
+earlier. The Liberal fifteen-year compromise with protection made
+it difficult in a seven weeks' campaign to revive a desire for
+freer trade. The prosperity of the country and the cry, "Let well
+enough alone," told powerfully against the bargain. Yet merely
+from the point of view of economic advantage, the popular verdict
+would probably have been in its favor. The United States market
+no longer loomed so large as it had in the eighties, but its
+value was undeniable. Farmer, fisherman, and miner stood to gain
+substantially by the lowering of the bars into the richest market
+in the world. Every farm paper in Canada and all the important
+farm organizations supported reciprocity. Its opponents,
+therefore, did not trust to a direct frontal attack. Their
+strategy was to divert attention from the economic advantages by
+raising the cry of political danger. The red herring of
+annexation was drawn across the trail, and many a farmer followed
+it to the polling booth.
+
+From the outset, then, the opponents of reciprocity concentrated
+their attacks on its political perils. They denounced the
+reciprocity agreement as the forerunner of annexation, the
+deathblow to Canadian nationality and British connection. They
+prophesied that the trade and intercourse built up between the
+East and the West of Canada by years of sacrifice and striving
+would shrivel away, and that each section of the Dominion would
+become a mere appendage to the adjacent section of the United
+States. Where the treasure was, there would the heart be also.
+After some years of reciprocity, the channels of Canadian trade
+would be so changed that a sudden return to high protection on
+the part of the United States would disrupt industry and a mere
+threat of such a change would lead to a movement for complete
+union.
+
+This prophecy was strengthened by apposite quotations showing the
+existing drift of opinion in the United States. President Taft's
+reference to the "light and imperceptible bond uniting the
+Dominion with the mother country" and his "parting of the ways"
+speech received sinister interpretations. Speaker Champ Clark's
+announcement that he was in favor of the agreement because he
+hoped "to see the day when the American flag will float over
+every square foot of the British North American possessions" was
+worth tens of thousands of votes. The anti-reciprocity press of
+Canada seized upon these utterances, magnified them, and
+sometimes, it was charged, inspired or invented them. Every
+American crossroads politician who found a useful peroration in a
+vision of the Stars and Stripes floating from Panama to the North
+Pole was represented as a statesman of national power voicing a
+universal sentiment. The action of the Hearst papers in sending
+pro-reciprocity editions into the border cities of Canada made
+many votes--but not for reciprocity. The Canadian public proved
+that it was unable to suffer fools gladly. It was vain to argue
+that all men of weight in the United States had come to
+understand and to respect Canada's independent ambitions; that in
+any event it was not what the United States thought but what
+Canada thought that mattered; or that the Canadian farmer who
+sold a bushel of good wheat to a United States miller no more
+sold his loyalty with it than a Kipling selling a volume of verse
+or a Canadian financier selling a block of stock in the same
+market. The flag was waved, and the Canadian voter, mindful of
+former American slights and backed by newly arrived Englishmen
+admirably organized by the anti-reciprocity forces, turned
+against any "entangling alliance." The prosperity of the country
+made it safe to express resentment of the slights of half a
+century or fear of this too sudden friendliness.
+
+The result of the elections, which were held on September 21,
+1911, was the crushing defeat of the Liberal party. A Liberal
+majority of forty-four in a house of two hundred and twenty-one
+members was turned into a Conservative majority of forty-nine.
+Eight cabinet ministers went down to defeat. The Government had a
+slight majority in the Maritime Provinces and Quebec, and a large
+majority in the prairie West, but the overwhelming victory of the
+Opposition in Ontario, Manitoba, and British Columbia turned the
+day.
+
+The appeal to loyalty revealed much that was worthy and much that
+was sordid in Canadian life. It was well that a sturdy national
+self-reliance should be developed and expressed in the face of
+American prophets of "manifest destiny," and that men should be
+ready to set ideals above pocket. It was unfortunate that in
+order to demonstrate a loyalty which might have been taken for
+granted economic advantage was sacrificed; and it was disturbing
+to note the ease with which big interests with unlimited funds
+for organizing, advertising, and newspaper campaigning, could
+pervert national sentiment to serve their own ends. Yet this was
+possibly a stage through which Canada, like every young nation,
+had to pass; and the gentle art of twisting the lion's tail had
+proved a model for the practice of plucking the eagle's feathers.
+
+
+The growth of Canada brought her into closer touch with lands
+across the sea. Men, money, and merchandise came from East and
+West; and with their coming new problems faced the Government of
+the Dominion. With Europe they were trade questions to solve, and
+with Asia the more delicate issues arising out of oriental
+immigration.
+
+In 1907 the Canadian Government had established an intermediate
+tariff, with rates halfway between the general and the British
+preferential tariffs, for the express purpose of bargaining with
+other powers. In that year an agreement based substantially on
+these intermediate rates was negotiated with France, though
+protectionist opposition in the French Senate prevented
+ratification until 1910. Similar reciprocal arrangements were
+concluded in 1910 with Belgium, the Netherlands, and Italy. The
+manner of the negotiation was as significant as the matter. In
+the case of France the treaty was negotiated in Paris by two
+Canadian ministers, W.S. Fielding and L.P. Brodeur, appointed
+plenipotentiaries of His Majesty for that purpose, with the
+British Ambassador associated in what Mr. Arthur Balfour termed a
+"purely technical" capacity. In the case of the other countries
+even this formal recognition of the old colonial status was
+abandoned. The agreement with Italy was negotiated in Canada
+between "the Royal Consul of Italy for Canada, representing the
+government of the Kingdom of Italy, and the Minister of Finance
+of Canada, representing His Excellency the Governor General
+acting in conjunction with the King's Privy Council for Canada."
+The conclusions in these later instances were embodied in
+conventions, rather than formal treaties.
+
+With one country, however, tariff war reigned instead of treaty
+peace. In 1899 Germany subjected Canadian exports to her general
+or maximum tariff, because the Dominion refused to grant her the
+preferential rates reserved for members of the British Empire
+group of countries. After four years' deliberation Canada
+eventually retaliated by imposing on German goods a special
+surtax of thirty-three and one-third per cent. The trade of both
+countries suffered, but Germany's, being more specialized, much
+the more severely. After seven years' strife, Germany took the
+initiative in proposing a truce. In 1910 Canada agreed to admit
+German goods at the rates of the general--not the
+intermediate--tariff, while Germany in return waived her protest
+against the British preference and granted minimum rates on the
+most important Canadian exports.
+
+Oriental immigration had been an issue in Canada ever since
+Chinese navvies had been imported in the early eighties to work
+on the government sections of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Mine
+owners, fruit farmers, and contractors were anxious that the
+supply should continue unchecked; but, as in the United States,
+the economic objections of the labor unions and the political
+objections of the advocates of a "White Canada" carried the day.
+
+Chinese immigration had been restricted in 1885 by a head tax of
+$50 on all immigrants save officials, merchants, or scholars; in
+1901 this tax was doubled; and in 1904 it was raised to $500. In
+each case the tax proved a barrier only for a year or two, when
+wages would rise sufficiently to warrant Orientals paying the
+higher toll to enter the Promised Land. Japanese immigrants did
+not come in large numbers until 1906, when the activities of
+employment companies brought seven thousand Japanese by way of
+Hawaii. Agitators from .the Pacific States fanned the flames of
+opposition in British Columbia, and anti-Chinese and
+anti-Japanese riots broke out in Vancouver in 1907. The Dominion
+Government then grappled with the question. Japan's national
+sensitiveness and her position as an ally of Great Britain called
+for diplomatic handling. A member of the Dominion Cabinet,
+Rodolphe Lemieux, succeeded in 1907 in negotiating at Tokio an
+agreement by which Japan herself undertook to restrict the number
+of passports issued annually to emigrants to Canada.
+
+The Hindu migration, which began in 1907, gave rise to a still
+more delicate situation. What did the British Empire mean, many a
+Hindu asked, if British subjects were to be barred from British
+lands? The only reply was that the British Government which still
+ruled India no longer ruled the Dominions, and that it was on the
+Dominions that the responsibility for the exclusion policy must
+rest. In 1909 Canada suggested that the Indian Government itself
+should limit emigration, but this policy did not meet with
+approval at the time. Failing in this measure, the Laurier
+Government fell back on a general clause in the Immigration Act
+prohibiting the entrance of immigrants except by direct passage
+from the country of origin and on a continuous ticket, a rule
+which effectually barred the Hindu because of the lack of any
+direct steamship line between India and Canada. An
+Order-in-Council further required that immigrants from all
+Asiatic countries must possess at least $200 on entering Canada.
+The Borden Government supplemented these restrictions by a
+special Order-in-Council in 1913 prohibiting the landing of
+artisans or unskilled laborers of any race at ports in British
+Columbia, ostensibly because of depression in the labor market.
+The leaders of the Hindu movement, with apparently some German
+assistance, determined to test these restrictions. In May, 1914,
+there arrived at Vancouver from Shanghai a Japanese ship carrying
+four hundred Sikhs from India. A few were admitted, as having
+been previously domiciled in Canada; the others, after careful
+inquiry, were refused admittance and ordered to be deported.
+Local police were driven away from the ship when attempting to
+enforce the order, and the Government ordered H.M.C.S. Rainbow
+to intervene. By a curious irony of history, the first occasion
+on which this first Canadian warship was called on to display
+force was in expelling from Canada the subjects of another part
+of the British Empire. Further trouble followed when the Sikhs
+reached Calcutta in September, 1914, for riots took place
+involving serious loss of life and later an abortive attempt at
+rebellion. Fortunately there were good prospects that the Indian
+Government would in future accept the proposal made by Canada in
+1909. At the Imperial Conference of 1917, where representatives
+of India were present for the first time, it was agreed to
+recommend the principle of reciprocity in the treatment of
+immigrants, India thus being free to save her pride by imposing
+on men from the Dominions the same restrictions the Dominions
+imposed on immigrants from India.
+
+
+But all these dealings with lands across the sea paled into
+insignificance beside the task imposed on Canada by the Great
+War. In the sudden crisis the Dominion attained a place among the
+nations which the slower changes of peace time could scarcely
+have made possible in decades.
+
+When the war party in Germany and Austria-Hungary plunged Europe
+into the struggle the world had long been fearing, there was not
+a moment's hesitation on the part of the people of Canada. It was
+not merely the circumstance that technically Canada was at war
+when Britain was at war that led Canadians to instant action. The
+degree of participation, if not the fact of war, was wholly a
+matter for the separate Dominions. It was the deep and abiding
+sympathy with the mother country whose very existence was to be
+at stake. Later, with the unfolding of Germany's full designs of
+world dominance and the repeated display of her callous and
+ruthless policies, Canada comprehended the magnitude of the
+danger threatening all the world and grimly set herself to help
+end the menace of militarism once for all.
+
+On August 1, 1914, two days before Belgium was invaded, and three
+days before war between Britain and Germany had been declared,
+the Dominion Government cabled to London their firm assurance
+that the people of Canada would make every sacrifice necessary to
+secure the integrity and honor of the Empire and asked for
+suggestions as to the form aid should take. The financial and
+administrative measures the emergency demanded were carried out
+by Orders-in-Council in accordance with the scheme of defense
+which only a few months before had been drawn up in a "War Book".
+Two weeks later, Parliament met in a special four day session and
+without a dissenting voice voted the war credits the Government
+asked and conferred upon it special war powers of the widest
+scope. The country then set about providing men, money, and
+munitions of war.
+
+The day after war was declared, recruiting was begun for an
+expeditionary force of 21,000 men. Half as many more poured into
+the camp at Valcartier near Quebec; and by the middle of October
+this first Canadian contingent, over 30,000 strong, the largest
+body of troops which had ever crossed the Atlantic, was already
+in England, where its training was to be completed. As the war
+went on and all previous forecasts of its duration and its scale
+were far outrun, these numbers were multiplied many times. By the
+summer of 1917 over 400,000 men had been enrolled for service,
+and over 340,000 had already gone overseas, aside from over
+25,000 Allied reservists.
+
+Naturally enough it was the young men of British birth who first
+responded in large numbers to the recruiting officer's appeal. A
+military background, vivid home memories, the enlistment of
+kinsmen or friends overseas, the frequent slightness of local
+ties, sent them forth in splendid and steady array. Then the call
+came home to the native-born, and particularly to Canadians of
+English speech. Few of them had dreamed of war, few had been
+trained even in militia musters; but in tens of thousands they
+volunteered. From French-speaking Canada the response was slower,
+in spite of the endeavors of the leaders of the Opposition as
+well as of the Government to encourage enlistment. In some
+measure this was only to be expected. Quebec was dominantly
+rural; its men married young, and the country parishes had little
+touch with the outside world. Its people had no racial sympathy
+with Britain and their connection with France had long been cut
+by the cessation of immigration from that country. Yet this is
+not the complete explanation of that aloofness which marked a
+great part of Quebec. Account must be taken also of the
+resentment caused by exaggerated versions of the treatment
+accorded the French-Canadian minority in the schools of Ontario
+and the West, and especially of the teaching of the Nationalists,
+led by Henri Bourassa, who opposed active Canadian participation
+in the war. Lack of tact on the part of the Government and
+reckless taunts from extremists in Ontario made the breach
+steadily wider. Yet there were many encouraging considerations.
+Another grandson of the leader of '37, Talbot Papineau, fell
+fighting bravely, and it was a French-Canadian battalion, Les
+Vingt Deuxiemes, which won the honors at Courcelette.
+
+When the war first broke out, no one thought of any but voluntary
+methods of enlistment. As the magnitude of the task came home to
+men and the example of Great Britain had its influence, voices
+began to be raised in favor of compulsion. Sir Robert Borden, the
+Premier, and Sir Wilfrid Laurier alike opposed the suggestion.
+Early in 1917 the adoption of conscription in the United States,
+and the need of reenforcements for the Canadian forces at the
+front led the Prime Minister, immediately after his return from
+the Imperial Conference in London, to bring down a measure for
+compulsory service. He urged in behalf of this course that the
+need for men was urgent beyond all question; that the voluntary
+system, wasteful and unfair at best, had ceased to bring more
+than six or seven thousand men a month, chiefly for other than
+infantry ranks; and that only by compulsion could Quebec be
+brought to shoulder her fair share and the slackers in all the
+provinces be made to rise to the need. It was contended, on the
+other hand, that great as was the need for men, the need for
+food, which Canada could best of all countries supply, was
+greater still; that voluntary recruiting had yielded over four
+hundred thousand men, proportionately equivalent to six million
+from the United States, and was slackening only because the
+reservoir was nearly drained dry; and that Quebec could be
+brought into line more effectively by conciliation than by
+compulsion.
+
+The issue of conscription brought to an end the political truce
+which had been declared in August, 1914. The keener partisans on
+both sides had not long been able to abide on the heights of
+non-political patriotism which they had occupied in the first
+generous weeks of the war. But the public was weary of party
+cries and called for unity. Suggestions of a coalition were made
+at different times, but the party in power, new to the sweets of
+office, confident of its capacity, and backed by a strong
+majority, gave little heed to the demand. Now, however, the
+strong popular opposition offered to the announcement of
+conscription led the Prime Minister to propose to Sir Wilfrid
+Laurier a coalition Government on a conscription basis. Sir
+Wilfrid, while continuing to express his desire to cooperate in
+any way that would advance the common cause, declined to enter a
+coalition to carry out a programme decided upon without
+consultation and likely, in his view, to wreck national unity
+without securing any compensating increase in numbers beyond what
+a vigorous and sympathetic voluntary campaign could yet obtain.
+
+For months negotiations continued within Parliament and without.
+The Military Service Act was passed in August, 1917, with the
+support of the majority of the English-speaking members of the
+Opposition. Then the Government, which had already secured the
+passage of an Act providing for taking the votes of the soldiers
+overseas, forced through under closure a measure depriving of the
+franchise all aliens of enemy birth or speech who had been
+admitted to citizenship since 1902, and giving a vote to every
+adult woman relative of a soldier on active service. Victory for
+the Government now appeared certain. Leading English-peaking
+Liberals, particularly from the West, convinced that conscription
+was necessary to keep Canada's forces up to the need, or that the
+War Times Election Act made opposition hopeless, decided to
+accept Sir Robert Borden's offer of seats in a coalition Cabinet.
+
+In the election of December, 1917, in which passion and prejudice
+were stirred as never before in the history of Canada, the
+Unionist forces won by a sweeping majority. Ontario and the West
+were almost solidly behind the Government in the number of
+members elected, Quebec as solidly against it, and the Maritime
+Provinces nearly evenly divided. The soldiers' vote, contrary to
+Australian experience, was overwhelmingly for conscription. The
+Laurier Liberals polled more civilian votes in Ontario, Quebec,
+Alberta, and British Columbia, and in the Dominion as a whole,
+than the united Liberal party had received in the Reciprocity
+election of 1911. The increase in the Unionist popular vote was
+still greater, however, and gave the Government fifty-eight per
+cent of the popular vote and sixty-five per cent of the seats in
+the House. Confidence in the administrative capacity of the new
+Government, the belief that it would be more vigorous in carrying
+on the war, the desire to make Quebec do its share, the influence
+of the leaders of the Western Liberals and of the Grain Growers'
+Associations, wholesale promises of exemption to farmers, and the
+working of the new franchise law all had their part in the
+result. Eight months after the Military Service Act was passed,
+it had added only twenty thousand men to the nearly five hundred
+thousand volunteers; but steps were then taken to cancel
+exemptions and to simplify the machinery of administration. Some
+eighty thousand men were raised under conscription, but the war,
+so far as Canada was concerned, was fought and won by volunteers.
+
+"The self-governing British colonies," wrote Bernhardi before the
+war, "have at their disposal a militia, which is sometimes only
+in process of formation. They can be completely ignored so far as
+concerns any European theater of war." This contemptuous forecast
+might have been justified had German expectations of a short war
+been fulfilled. Though large and increasing sums had in recent
+years been spent on the Canadian militia and on a small permanent
+force, the work of building up an army on the scale the war
+demanded had virtually to be begun from the foundation. It was
+pushed ahead with vigor, under the direction, for the first three
+years, of the Minister of Militia, General Sir Sam Hughes. Many
+mistakes were made. Complaints of waste in supply departments and
+of slackness of discipline among the troops were rife in the
+early months. But the work went on; and when the testing time
+came, Canada's civilian soldiers held their own with any veterans
+on either side the long line of trenches.
+
+It was in April, 1915, at the second battle of Ypres--or, as it
+is more often termed in Canada, St. Julien or Langemarck--that
+the quality of the men of the first contingent was blazoned
+forth. The Germans had launched a determined attack on the
+junction of the French and Canadian forces, seeking to drive
+through to Calais. The use, for the first time, of asphyxiating
+gases drove back in confusion the French colonial troops on the
+left of the Canadians. Attacked and outflanked by a German army
+of 150,000 men, four Canadian brigades, immensely inferior in
+heavy artillery and tortured by the poisonous fumes, filled the
+gap, hanging on doggedly day and night until reenforcements came
+and Calais was saved. In sober retrospection it was almost
+incredible that the thin khaki line had held against the
+overwhelming odds which faced it. A few weeks later, at Givenchy
+and Festubert, in the same bloody salient of Ypres, the Canadian
+division displayed equal courage with hardly equal success. In
+the spring of 1916, when the Canadian forces grew first to three
+and then to four divisions, heavy toll was taken at St. Eloi and
+Sanctuary Wood.
+
+When they were shifted from the Ypres sector to the Somme, the
+dashing success at Courcelette showed them as efficient in
+offense as in defense. In 1917 a Canadian general, Sir Arthur
+Currie, three years before only a business man of Vancouver, took
+command of the Canadian troops. The capture of Vimy Ridge, key to
+the whole Arras position, after months of careful preparation,
+the hard-fought struggle for Lens, and toward the close of the
+year the winning of the Passchendaele Ridge, at heavy cost, were
+instances of the increasing scale and importance of the
+operations entrusted to Currie's men.
+
+In the closing year of the war the Canadian corps played a still
+more distinctive and essential part. During the early months of
+1918, when the Germans were making their desperate thrusts for
+Paris and the Channel, the Canadians held little of the line that
+was attacked. Their divisions had been withdrawn in turn for
+special training in open warfare movements, in close cooperation
+with tanks and air forces. When the time came to launch the
+Allied offensive, they were ready. It was Canadian troops who
+broke the hitherto unbreakable Wotan line, or Drocourt-Queant
+switch; it was Canadians who served as the spearhead in the
+decisive thrust against Cambrai; and it was Canadians who
+captured Mons, the last German stronghold taken before the
+armistice was signed, and thus ended the war at the very spot
+where the British "Old Contemptibles" had begun their dogged
+fight four years before.
+
+Through all the years of war the Canadian forces never lost a gun
+nor retired from a position they had consolidated. Canadians were
+the first to practice trench raiding; and Canadian cadets
+thronged that branch of the service, the Royal Flying Corps,
+where steady nerves and individual initiative were at a premium.
+In countless actions they proved their fitness to stand shoulder
+to shoulder with the best that Britain and France and the United
+States could send: they asked no more than that. The casualty
+list of 220,000 men, of whom 60,000 sleep forever in the fields
+of France and Flanders and in the plains of England, witnesses
+the price this people of eight millions paid as its share in the
+task of freeing the world from tyranny.
+
+The realization that in a world war not merely the men in the
+trenches but the whole nation could and must be counted as part
+of the fighting force was slow in coming in Canada as in other
+democratic and unwarlike lands. Slowly the industry of the
+country was adjusted to a war basis. When the conflict broke out,
+the country was pulling itself together after the sudden collapse
+of the speculative boom of the preceding decade. For a time men
+were content to hold their organization together and to avert the
+slackening of trade and the spread of unemployment which they
+feared. Then, as the industrial needs and opportunities of the
+war became clear, they rallied. Field and factory vied in
+expansion, and the Canadian contribution of food and munitions
+provided a very substantial share of the Allies' needs. Exports
+increased threefold, and the total trade was more than doubled as
+compared with the largest year before the war.
+
+The financing of the war and of the industrial expansion which
+accompanied it was a heavy task. For years Canada had looked to
+Great Britain for a large share alike of public and of private
+borrowings. Now it became necessary not merely to find at home
+all the capital required for ordinary development but to meet the
+burden of war expenditure, and later to advance to Great Britain
+the funds she required for her purchase of supplies in Canada.
+The task was made easier by the effective working of a banking
+system which had many times proved its soundness and its
+flexibility. When the money market of Britain was no longer open
+to overseas borrowers, the Dominion first turned to the United
+States, where several federal and provincial loans were floated,
+and later to her own resources. Domestic loans were issued on an
+increasing scale and with increasing success, and the Victory
+Loan of 1918 enrolled one out of every eight Canadians among its
+subscribers. Taxation reached an adequate basis more slowly.
+Inertia and the influence of business interests led the
+Government to cling for the first two years to customs and excise
+duties as its main reliance. Then excess profits and income taxes
+of steadily increasing weight were imposed, and the burdens were
+distributed more fairly. The Dominion was able not only to meet
+the whole expenditure of its armed forces but to reverse the
+relations which existed before the war and to become, as far as
+current liabilities went, a creditor rather than a debtor of the
+United Kingdom.
+
+It was not merely the financial relations of Canada with the
+United Kingdom which required readjustment. The service and the
+sacrifices which the Dominions had made in the common cause
+rendered it imperative that the political relations between the
+different parts of the Empire should be put on a more definite
+and equal basis. The feeling was widespread that the last
+remnants of the old colonial subordination must be removed and
+that the control exercised by the Dominions should be extended
+over the whole field of foreign affairs.
+
+The Imperial Conference met in London in the spring of 1917. At
+special War Cabinet meetings the representatives of the Dominions
+discussed war plans and peace terms with the leaders of Britain.
+It was decided to hold a Conference immediately after the end of
+the war to discuss the future constitutional organization of the
+Empire. Premier Borden and General Smuts both came out strongly
+against the projects of imperial parliamentary federation which
+aggressive organizations in Britain and in some of the Dominions
+had been urging. The Conference of 1917 recorded its view that
+any coming readjustment must be based on a full recognition of
+the Dominions as autonomous nations of an imperial commonwealth;
+that it should recognize the right of the Dominions and of India
+to an adequate voice in foreign policy; and that it should
+provide effective arrangements for continuous consultation in all
+important matters of common concern and for such concerted action
+as the several Governments should determine. The policy of
+alliance, of cooperation between the Governments of the equal and
+independent states of the Empire, searchingly tested and amply
+justified by the war, had compelled assent.
+
+The coming of peace gave occasion for a wider and more formal
+recognition of the new international status of the Dominions. It
+had first been proposed that the British Empire should appear as
+a unit, with the representatives of the Dominions present merely
+in an advisory capacity or participating in turn as members of
+the British delegation. The Dominion statesmen assembled in
+London and Paris declined to assent to this proposal, and
+insisted upon representation in the Peace Conference and in the
+League of Nations in their own right. The British Government,
+after some debate, acceded, and, with more difficulty, the
+consent of the leading Allies was won. The representatives of the
+Dominions signed the treaty with Germany on behalf of their
+respective countries, and each Dominion, with India, was made a
+member of the League. At the same time only the British Empire,
+and not any of the Dominions, was given a place in the real organ
+of power, the Executive Council of the League, and in many
+respects the exact relationship between the United Kingdom and
+the other parts of the Empire in international affairs was left
+ambiguous, for later events and counsel to determine. Many French
+and American observers who had not kept in close touch with the
+growth of national consciousness within the British Empire were
+apprehensive lest this plan should prove a deep-laid scheme for
+multiplying British influence in the Conference and the League.
+Some misunderstanding was natural in view not only of the
+unprecedented character of the Empire's development and polity,
+but of the incomplete and ambiguous nature of the compromise
+affected at Paris between the nationalist and the imperialist
+tendencies within the Empire. Yet the reluctance of the British
+imperialists of the straiter sect to accede to the new
+arrangement, and the independence of action of the Dominion
+representatives at the Conference, as in the stand of Premier
+Hughes of Australia on the Japanese demand for recognition of
+racial equality and in the statement of protest by General Smuts
+of South Africa on signing the treaty, made it clear that the
+Dominions would not be merely echoes. Borden and Botha and Smuts,
+though new to the ways of diplomacy, proved that in clear
+understanding of the broader issues and in moderation of policy
+and temper they could bear comparison with any of the leaders of
+the older nations.
+
+
+The war also brought changes in the relations between Canada and
+her great neighbor. For a time there was danger that it would
+erect a barrier of differing ideals and contrary experience. When
+month after month went by with the United States still clinging
+to its policy of neutrality, while long lists of wounded and dead
+and missing were filling Canadian newspapers, a quiet but deep
+resentment, not without a touch of conscious superiority,
+developed in many quarters in the Dominion. Yet there were others
+who realized how difficult and how necessary it was for the
+United States to attain complete unity of purpose before entering
+the war, and how different its position was from that. of Canada,
+where the political tie with Britain had brought immediate action
+more instinctive than reasoned. It was remembered, too, that in
+the first 360,000 Canadians who went overseas, there were 12,000
+men of American birth, including both residents in Canada and men
+who had crossed the border to enlist. When the patience of the
+United States was at last exhausted and it took its place in the
+ranks of the nations fighting for freedom, the joy of Canadians
+was unbounded. The entrance of the United States into the war
+assured not only the triumph of democracy in Europe but the
+continuance and extension of frank and friendly relations between
+the democracies of North America. As the war went on and Canada
+and the United States were led more and more to pool their united
+resources, to cooperate in finance and in the supply of coal,
+iron, steel, wheat, and other war essentials, countless new
+strands were woven into the bond that held the two countries
+together. Nor was it material unity alone that was attained; in
+the utterances of the head of the Republic the highest
+aspirations of Canadians for the future ordering of the world
+found incomparable expression.
+
+Canada had done what she could to assure the triumph of right in
+the war. Not less did she believe that she had a contribution to
+make toward that new ordering of the world after the war which
+alone could compensate her for the blood and treasure she had
+spent. It would be her mission to bind together in friendship and
+common aspirations the two larger English-speaking states, with
+one of which she was linked by history and with the other by
+geography. To the world in general Canada had to offer that
+achievement of difference in unity, that reconciliation of
+liberty with peace and order, which the British Empire was
+struggling to attain along paths in which the Dominion had been
+the chief pioneer. "In the British Commonwealth of Nations,"
+declared General Smuts, "this transition from the old legalistic
+idea of political sovereignty based on force to the new social
+idea of constitutional freedom based on consent, has been
+gradually evolving for more than a century. And the elements of
+the future world government, which will no longer rest on the
+imperial ideas adopted from the Roman law, are already in
+operation in our Commonwealth of Nations and will rapidly develop
+in the near future." This may seem an idealistic aim; yet, as
+Canada's Prime Minister asked a New York audience in 1916, "What
+great and enduring achievement has the world ever accomplished
+that was not based on idealism?"
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
+
+For the whole period since 1760 the most comprehensive and
+thorough work is "Canada and its Provinces", edited by A. Shortt
+and A. G. Doughty, 23 vols. (1914). W. Kingsford's "History of
+Canada", 10 vols. (1887-1898), is badly written but is an ample
+storehouse of material. The "Chronicles of Canada" series
+(1914-1916) covers the whole field in a number of popular
+volumes, of which several are listed below. F. X. Garneau's
+"Histoire du Canada" (1845-1848; new edition, edited by Hector
+Garneau, 1913-), the classical French-Canadian record of the
+development of Canada down to 1840, is able and moderate in tone,
+though considered by some critics not sufficiently appreciative
+of the Church.
+
+Of brief surveys of Canada's history the best are W. L. Grant's
+"History of Canada" (1914) and H. E. Egerton's "Canada" (1908).
+
+The primary sources are abundant. The Dominion Archives have made
+a remarkable collection of original official and private papers
+and of transcripts of documents from London and Paris. See D. W.
+Parker, "A Guide to the Documents in the Manuscript Room at the
+Public Archives of Canada" (1914). Many of these documents are
+calendared in the "Report on Canadian Archives" (1882 to date),
+and complete reprints, systematically arranged and competently
+annotated, are being issued by the Archives Branch, of which A.
+Shortt and A. G. Doughty, "Documents Relating to the
+Constitutional History of Canada", 1759-1791, and Doughty and
+McArthur, "Documents Relating to the Constitutional History of
+Canada", 1791-1818, have already appeared. A useful collection of
+speeches and dispatches is found in H. E. Egerton and W. L.
+Grant, "Canadian Constitutional Development" (1907), and W. P. M.
+Kennedy has edited a somewhat larger collection, "Documents of
+the Canadian Constitution", 1759-1915 (1918). The later Sessional
+Papers and Hansards or Parliamentary Debates are easily
+accessible. Files of the older newspapers, such as the Halifax
+"Chronicle" (1820 to date, with changes of title), Montreal
+"Gazette" (1778 to date), Toronto "Globe" (1844 to date),
+"Manitoba Free Press" (1879 to date), Victoria "Colonist" (1858
+to date), are invaluable. "The Dominion Annual Register and
+Review", ed. by H. J. Morgan, 8 vols. (1879-1887) and "The
+Canadian Annual Review of Public Affairs", by John Castell
+Hopkins (1901 to date), are useful for the periods covered.
+
+For the first chapter, Sir Charles P. Lucas, "A History of
+Canada", 1765-1812 (1909) and A. G. Bradley, "The Making of
+Canada" (1908) are the best single volumes. William Wood, "The
+Father of British Canada" ("Chronicles of Canada", 1916), records
+Carleton's defense of Canada in the Revolutionary War; and Justin
+H. Smith's "Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony" (1907) is a
+scholarly and detailed account of the same period from an
+American standpoint. Victor Con's "The Province of Quebec and the
+Early American Revolution" (1896), with a review of the same by
+Adam Shortt in the "Review of Historical Publications Relating to
+Canada", vol. 1 (University of Toronto, 1897), and C. W. Alvord's
+"The Mississippi Valley in British Politics", 2 vols. (1917)
+should be consulted for an interpretation of the Quebec Act. For
+the general reader, W. S. Wallace's "The United Empire Loyalists"
+("Chronicles of Canada", 1914) supersedes the earlier Canadian
+compilations; C. H. Van Tyne's "The Loyalists in the American
+Revolution" (1902) and A. C. Flick's "Loyalism in New York during
+the American Revolution" (1901) embody careful researches by two
+American scholars. The War of 1812 is most competently treated by
+William Wood in "The War with the United States" ("Chronicles of
+Canada", 1915); the naval aspects are sketched in Theodore
+Roosevelt's "The Naval War of 1812" (1882) and analyzed
+scientifically in A. T. Mahan's "Sea Power in its Relations to
+the War of 1812" (1905).
+
+For the period, 1815-1841, W. S. Wallace's "The Family Compact"
+("Chronicles of Canada", 1915) and A. D. De Celles's "The
+Patriotes of '37" ("Chronicles of Canada", 1916) are the most
+concise summaries. J. C. Dent's "The Story of the Upper Canadian
+Rebellion" (1885) is biased but careful and readable. "William
+Lyon Mackenzie", by Charles Lindsey, revised by G. G. S. Lindsey
+(1908), is a sober defense of Mackenzie by his son-in-law and
+grandson. Robert Christie's "A History of the Late Province of
+Lower Canada", 6 vols. (1848-1866) preserves much contemporary
+material. There are few secondary books taking the anti-popular
+side: T. C. Haliburton's "The Bubbles of Canada" (1839) records
+Sam Slick's opposition to reform; C. W. Robinson's "Life of Sir
+John Beverley Robinson" (1904) is a lifeless record of the
+greatest Compact leader. Lord Durham's "Report on the Affairs of
+British North America" (1839; available in Methuen reprint, 1902,
+or with introduction and notes by Sir Charles Lucas, 3 vols.,
+1912) is indispensable. For the Union period there are several
+political biographies available. G. M. Wrong's "The Earl of
+Elgin" (1905), John Lewis's "George Brown" (1906), W. L. Grant's
+"The Tribune of Nova Scotia" ("Chronicles of Canada", 1915), J.
+Pope's "Memoirs of the Right Honourable Sir John Alexander
+Macdonald", 2 vols. (1894), J. Boyd's "Sir George Etienne
+Cartier" (1914), and O. D. Skelton's "Life and Times of Sir A. T.
+Galt" (1919), cover the political developments from various
+angles. A. H. U. Colquhoun's "The Fathers of Confederation"
+("Chronicles of Canada", 1916) is a clear and impartial account
+of the achievement of Confederation; while M. O. Hammond's
+"Canadian Confederation and its Leaders" (1917) records the
+service of each of its chief architects.
+
+For the years since Confederation biographies again give the most
+accessible record. Sir John S. Willison's "Sir Wilfrid Laurier
+and the Liberal Party" (1903) is the best political biography yet
+written in Canada. Sir Richard Cartwright's Reminiscences (1912)
+reflects that statesman's individual and pungent views of
+affairs, while Sir Charles Tupper's "Recollections of Sixty
+Years" (1914) and John Castell Hopkins's "Life and Work of Sir
+John Thompson" (1895) give a Conservative version of the period.
+Sir Joseph Pope's "The Day of Sir John Macdonald" ("Chronicles of
+Canada", 1915), and O. D. Skelton's "The Day of Sir Wilfrid
+Laurier" ("Chronicles of Canada", 1916) between them cover the
+whole period briefly. L. J. Burpee's "Sandford Fleming" (1915) is
+one of the few biographies dealing with industrial as distinct
+from political leaders. Imperial relations may be studied in G.
+R. Parkin's "Imperial Federation, the Problem of National Unity"
+(1892) and in L. Curtis's "The Problem of the Commonwealth"
+(1916), which advocate imperial federation, and in R. Jebb's "The
+Britannic Question; a Survey of Alternatives" (1913), J. S.
+Ewart's "The Kingdom Papers" (1912-), and A. B. Keith's "Imperial
+Unity and the Dominions" (1916), which criticize that solution
+from different standpoints. The "Reports" of the Imperial
+Conferences of 1887, 1894, 1897, 1902, 1907, 1911, 1917, are of
+much value. Relations with the United States are discussed
+judiciously in W. A. Dunning's "The British Empire and the United
+States" (1914). Phases of Canada's recent development other than
+political are covered best in the volumes of "Canada and its
+Provinces", a History of the Canadian people and their
+institutions, edited by A. Shortt and A. G. Doughty.
+
+A useful guide to recent books dealing with Canadian history will
+be found in the annual "Review of Historical Publications
+Relating to Canada", published by the University of Toronto (1896
+to date).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Canadian Dominion, by Oscar D. Skelton
+
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