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diff --git a/28012.txt b/28012.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ad19b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/28012.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15161 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Quarterly Review, No. 17, +March 1831, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The American Quarterly Review, No. 17, March 1831 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 6, 2009 [EBook #28012] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN QUARTERLY *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Josephine Paolucci +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + + + + +THE AMERICAN QUARTERLY REVIEW. + +No. XVII. + +MARCH, 1831. + +_Philadelphia:_ +CAREY & LEA. + +SOLD IN PHILADELPHIA BY E. L. CAREY & A. HART. +NEW-YORK, BY G. & C. & H. CARVILL. + +_LONDON:_--R. J. KENNETT, 59 GREAT QUEEN STREET. +_PARIS:_--A. & W. GALIGNANI, RUE VIVIENNE. + + + + +AMERICAN QUARTERLY REVIEW. + +No. XVII. + +MARCH, 1831. + + + + +ART. I.--_France in 1829-30._ By LADY MORGAN. _Author of_ "_France in +1816_," "_Italy_," _&c. &c. &c._ 2 vols. J. & J. Harper: New-York. + + +It was that solemn hour of the night, when, in the words of the poet, +"creation sleeps;"--a silence as of the dead reigned amid the streets +and alleys of the great city of Dublin, interrupted, ever and anon, only +by the solitary voice of the watchman, announcing the time, and the +prospects of fair or foul weather for the ensuing day. Even the noise of +carriages returning from revels and festive scenes of various kinds, was +no longer heard-- + + "The diligence of trades and noiseful gain, + And luxury more late, asleep were laid: + All was the night's:" + +All! save the inhabitants of one mansion, situated in Kildare street, +who were still invading nature's rest. Why were they alone up and +stirring? Why were they debarred from taking their needful repose, and +obliged to employ the time which should have been devoted to it, in +active occupation? The reason is easily understood. Early in the +morning, the master and mistress were to set off on a trip to Paris, and +there was no small quantity of "packing up" yet to be done. Trunks +innumerable lay scattered about a romantically furnished bed-chamber; +some were partly filled with different articles of female habiliment; +others seemed to be appropriated to literary purposes, and books without +number, and of all descriptions, were lying around them--here was a pile +of novels, amongst which, the titles of "The Novice of St. Dominick," +"Ida of Athens," "The Wild Irish Girl," &c. &c. could be +discerned--there was a heap of "Travels," composed of "Italy," "France +in 1816," and others:--a couple of volumes, entitled "Life and Times of +Salvator Rosa," were reposing in graceful dignity on the open lid of a +portmanteau. Several maids were exerting all their activity to get every +thing properly arranged; all was bustle and preparation. + +Adjoining the chamber was a boudoir, furnished likewise in the most +romantic manner, in which sat a lady of even a more romantic appearance +than that of either of the apartments. How shall we describe her? She +certainly (we must tell the truth, and shame you know whom) did not seem +to be of that delightful age, in which a due regard to veracity would +allow us to apply to her the line of the poet, "Le printemps dans sa +fleur sur son visage est peint." Her cheeks, to be sure, were deeply +tinged with a roseate hue, but it was not that with which nature loves +to paint the face of spring; the colour proved too palpably, that it had +been placed there by the exercise of those "curious arts" with which the +sex are enabled to revive dim charms, "and triumph in the bloom of +fifty-five." Her dress was romantic in the extreme. Of the unity of +_time_, at all events, it was in direct violation, for its "gay rainbow +colours," and modish arrangement, were out of all keeping with her +matronly age. One would easily have inferred from it that she was fully +impressed with the conviction, that the years which had glided over her +head, were not of the old-fashioned kind that contain twelve months, or +at least, that she did not consider the lapse of time as at all +calculated to impair the attractions of her physiognomy, however +prejudicial its effect might be upon the faces of the rest of the female +part of the creation. In her countenance there was such an expression of +blended affectation and self-complacency, that it was impossible to look +upon it without feeling an inclination to smile. She was sitting near a +prettily ornamented writing-desk, surmounted by a mirror (in which, by +the way, she always found her greatest admirer), with her head reclining +on her open hand, her elbow resting on a volume which bore on its back +the appropriate title of "The Book of the Boudoir," and her eyes +directed, we need hardly say where,--for who does not love to be +admired? Her _reflections_ were suddenly disturbed by a knock at the +door, which she answered by an "Entrez!" "_Ah, Sir Charles, c'est +vous_," she lisped, as the door opened, and a person in male attire +entered, "_eh bien_, is every thing _pret_ for our _voyage_?" "Yes, my +dear"--we presume, from this appellation, that the gentleman was her +_caro sposo_, as she might say,--"or at least every thing will be ready +shortly; but let me essay again to dissuade you from this foolish +expedition"--"_de grace_, Sir Charles, _ayez pitie de moi_; do not +pester me with your _betises_; I am determined to _faire une autre +visite_ to my _cher_ Paris, so that all you may say will be _tout a +fait inutile_." "Well," sighed the _caro sposo_, "just as you please," +and he returned to direct the "packing up," while she began to revel in +the anticipations of triumphs, both personal and intellectual, which she +intended to gain in the fashionable and literary capital of the world. +Alas! "oft expectation fails, and most oft there where most it +promises." + +Who is this lady? Had she lived in the days of Juvenal, it might have +been supposed that he had her in his eye, when he drew, in his sixth +satire, the picture of the "greatest of all plagues"--had her existence +been cast in the time of the prince of French comic writers, she would +undoubtedly have been presumed to be the prototype of the heroine in one +of his most exquisite comedies; we need hardly say, therefore, that she +is, in the words of Boileau, "_une precieuse_, + + "Reste de ces esprits jadis si renommes + Que d'un coup de son art Moliere a diffames." + +Pity, then, kind reader, pity the lot of the unfortunate gentleman whom +we have just introduced to your acquaintance. A further account of this +dame may prove not unacceptable. + +Her father was an honest actor, accustomed to afford great delight to +those deities who inhabit the one shilling galleries of English and +Irish theatres, and to receive, himself, vast gratification from +worshipping at the shrine of Bacchus. The daughter having given early +indications of quickness and pertness, came to be considered quite a +genius by her family and friends, whose natural partiality soon induced +her to entertain the same opinion. Determined, accordingly, not to hide +her light under a bushel, she made her appearance before the world as an +authoress, from which it may very reasonably be inferred that she had +not yet attained the years of discretion. Her _debut_, of course, was as +a wanderer in the realms of imagination, alias, a novel-writer, and in +this capacity she continued to make the public stare for a series of +years. We say stare, for we can find no more appropriate word for +expressing the feelings which her fictions are calculated to excite. +With plots of almost incomprehensible absurdity, they combine a style +more inflated than any balloon in which Madame Blanchard ever sailed +through the regions of air--a language, or rather jargon, composed of +the pickings of nearly every idiom that ever did live, or is at present +in existence, and sentiments which would be often of a highly +mischievous tendency, if they were not rendered ridiculous by the manner +in which they are expressed. The singularity of these productions +excited a good deal of sensation, and, if we believe her own words, she +was placed by them "in a _definite_ rank among authors, and in no +undistinguished circle of society." In some of the principal journals, +however, the lady was severely taken to task, at the same time that she +was counselled to obtain for herself a partner in weal and wo, by which +she might be brought down from her foolish vagaries, to the sober +realities of domestic duty. Wonderful to relate, she followed the advice +of those whom her vanity must have taught her to consider as her +bitterest foes, namely critics,--and as + + "Nought but a genius can a genius fit, + A wit herself, Amelia weds a wit." + +This wit was a regular knight of the pestle and mortar--a physician, +whose pills and draughts had acquired for him the enviable right of +placing that dignified appellation, Sir, before his Christian name, by +which our authoress became entitled to be addressed as "Your Ladyship," +as much as if she had married an Earl or a Marquis. Oh! how delighted +the ci-devant plain "Miss" must have been at hearing the servants say to +her, "Yes, my lady,"--"No, my lady."--The year in which the ceremony was +performed that gave her a lord and master, we cannot precisely +ascertain; but as the happy pair favoured the capital of France with +their presence in 1816, it may not be unreasonable to suppose, that they +went there to spend the honeymoon. Miraculous as are the changes which +matrimony sometimes operates, it was powerless in its influence upon her +Ladyship's propensities, and, consequently, not very long after +returning to her "_maison bijou_" in Dublin, she put forth a quarto! +with the magnificent title of "France." There are phenomena in the +physical world, in the moral world, in the intellectual world, but this +book was a phenomenon that beat them all. It was absolutely wonderful +how so much ignorance, nonsense, vanity, and folly, could be compressed +within the compass even of a quarto. All the sense that could be +discerned in it, was contained in four or five essays, upon Love, Law +and Physic, and Politics, contributed by Sir the husband. Being anxious +that "France" should have a companion, she subsequently made an +expedition to the land of the Dilettanti, in company with the dear man +who had made her, "she _trusts_, a respectable, and she is _sure_, a +happy mistress of a family," and forthwith "Italy" appeared to sustain +her well-earned reputation for qualities, which she has the singular +felicity of possessing without exciting envy. But her "never ending, +still beginning" pen, was not satisfied with two volumes as the fruits +of her Italian campaigning, especially as there happened to be a goodly +quantity of memoranda in the "diary" which had not yet been turned to +any use. Some subject, therefore, was to be hit upon for another +publication, in which they could be inserted, when beat out into a +sizeable shape; and what could be better adapted for that purpose than +the biography of a great Italian artist? The life of poor Salvator Rosa +was, in consequence, attempted. Just think of making one of the +greatest geniuses that ever lived, a peg to hang notes upon! The next +offspring of her Ladyship's brain, was, we believe, another novel, which +was as like its predecessors as possible. In the period that elapsed +between this birth, and the moment in which we have had the honour of +introducing her to our readers, her literary family was increased by +another child, with the delightful name of "The Book of the Boudoir." + +We hope we have not been understood as meaning to insinuate, that +because her Ladyship is the mother of a couple of dozen of volumes, she +is on that account a _precieuse ridicule_. This was far, very far from +our intention. None can take more pleasure than ourselves in rendering +all homage to genuine female talent, employed for useful and honourable +purposes, or be more willing to acknowledge the peculiar excellence by +which its productions are frequently marked. Were it our pleasant duty +at present to notice the works of an Edgeworth, a Hemans, a Mitford, a +Sedgwick, or of any others of that fair and brilliant assemblage, who +reflect so great a lustre upon the literature of this age, we should use +language as eulogistic as their warmest admirers could desire. But we +have to do now with a person of a very different description from those +bright ornaments of their sex--with one in whose mind, whatever flowers +Nature may originally have planted, have been almost completely choked +by the rank weeds of ignorance, presumption, frivolity, and vanity +beyond measurement--who, in a list of works as long, to use one of her +own delicate illustrations, as "Leporello's catalogue of Don Juan's +mistresses," has given little or no aid to the cause of virtue +generally, or evinced the slightest anxiety to improve and benefit her +sex, but has devoted all her faculties to the erection of an altar on +which she might worship herself, and only herself--who has even afforded +cause, by the frequently extreme levity of her expressions, for the +charge of lending countenance to licentiousness and impiety--whose +writings, in fine, are calculated to inflict serious injury upon the +tastes, the understandings, and the hearts of her youthful female +readers, by accustoming them to a vicious and ridiculous style, by +filling their minds with false and perverted sentiments and wrong +impressions upon some of the most important matters, and by setting +before them the example of a woman who boasts of being a member of no +undistinguished circle of society, and yet constantly violates those +laws of delicacy and refinement, the full observance of which is +indispensable for every female who aspires to the name and character of +a lady. + +Pale Aurora began now to appear, "_Tiphoni croceum linquens cubile_," in +vulgar parlance, day began to break. Behold our couple setting forth on +their Parisian expedition. Some months afterwards, the "_maison +bijou_," in Kildare street, again was illumined by the presence of our +fair traveller, whose pen was soon mended, dipped in ink, and busily +employed. In due time its labours were brought to a termination, and two +goodly volumes were ushered into the light of day, purporting to contain +an account of "France in 1829-30." These are the identical volumes which +it is our design in this article to notice. + +"_Facit indignatio versus_," exclaimed the old Roman satirist, and +"indignation makes us write," would we exclaim, in assigning our motives +for devoting a number of our pages to "France in 1829-30," could we for +a moment be persuaded that our readers would credit the assertion. It +seems to us, that we already behold every one of them smiling in +derision, and giving an incredulous shake of the head, at the bare idea +of a cold-blooded reviewer being actuated by indignant feelings to place +his critical lance in rest, and run a course against an unfortunate +author. We must, nevertheless, be permitted to protest, that we do feel +a considerable quantity of very honest and virtuous indignation against +the trash last put forth by _Miladi_--quite as much, we are sure, as +impelled Juvenal to the composition of his searing satires. We may be +told, however, that we are waging battle with a lady, and that we should +be upon our guard not to give fresh cause for the exclamation, that "the +age of chivalry is gone." A lady, true; but, when in your boasted "age +of chivalry," persons of her sex buckled on armour and rushed into the +_melee_, were they spared by the courteous knights with whom they +measured swords? Did not Clorinda receive her death wound from the hand +of Tancred? And why should the Amazon who wields the pen, be more gently +dealt with than she who meddles with cold iron? In literature, as in +war, there is no distinction of sex. We hope, therefore, we shall not be +accused of ungallant, or anti-chivalric bearing, on account of the blows +we may inflict upon the literary person of a most daring Thalestris, +especially as her vanity is a panoply of proof. + +In her preface, Lady M. says, that a second work on France from her pen +could only be justified by the novelty of its matter, or by the merit of +its execution. Then do we pronounce this second work, this "France in +1829-30," to be the most unjustifiable imposition on the good nature of +the reading community that ever was practised. Its matter is nothing +more nor less than Miladi herself; and is she a novelty? Something less +than half a century ago, her Ladyship undoubtedly was a novelty, and one +too of an extraordinary kind. As to the "merit of its execution," it is +quite sufficient to know that it is the work of Lady Morgan, to form an +idea of that requisite for its "justification." Out of thine own mouth +have we condemned thee. The fact is, that "France in 1829-30," is +almost, the counterpart of "France in 1816," and the same remarks may +be made concerning it which we have already applied to the latter. All +the information we could discover we had obtained from it on finishing +its perusal, was that its author had improved in neither wisdom, +knowledge, nor modesty, since her first visit to the land after which +both of these productions have been christened. France! and what right +have they to that name? Would it not induce one to suppose, that their +author had at least travelled through the greater portion of that +beautiful country, and eked out a number of her pages from the notes, +such as they might be, made during the tour? And yet her Ladyship, on +both occasions, went to Paris by the high road of Calais, remained in +the capital a few months, and then returned by another high road. Even +"Paris in 1816," "Paris in 1829-30," would be titles with which these +publications would possess scarcely more affinity, than that by which +children, on whom the preposterous fondness of their parents has +bestowed the high-sounding appellations of warriors and monarchs, are +connected with those worthies. Their only appropriate names would be, +"Lady Morgan in 1816," "Lady Morgan in 1829-30;" for what information do +they give about France or Paris, and what information do they _not_ give +about Lady Morgan? they even let us into the secrets of her Ladyship's +wardrobe. It was Paris that saw Lady Morgan, and not Lady Morgan that +saw Paris, in the same way as, according to Dr. Franklin, it was +Philadelphia that took Sir William Howe, and not Sir William Howe that +took Philadelphia. + +To collect materials for a book of travels, it is necessary to be all +eyes and ears with regard to every thing but one's self. Her Ladyship, +however, was just the reverse throughout the whole period of her absence +from Kildare street,--it seems always to have been her object to +attract, and not to bestow, attention. In the volumes before us, it is +her perpetual endeavour to win admiration by making known the admiration +she entertains for herself, as well as that which she supposes she +excites in others. They are consequently, in great measure, filled with +what was said to Lady Morgan, and what Lady Morgan did and said during +her last visit to Paris. While discoursing about anything else than +herself, she appears to be on thorns until she gets back to that all +absorbing subject, and no matter what is the title of the chapter, she +generally contrives, by hook or by crook, to bring herself into it as +the main object of interest. The poor reader is thus often sadly +disappointed in the expectations he may form of deriving pleasure or +information from various parts of her work, in consequence of the +promises held out by their "headings." He almost always eventually +discovers, that however he may have been induced to anticipate a meeting +with other persons or matters, it is still "Monsieur Tonson come +again." We must confess, that it is rather too bad to be _Morbleued_ in +this way; though it is but fair to acknowledge, that her Ladyship is not +an intentional tormentor, like the malicious wags by whom the +unfortunate Frenchman was teased out of house and home. On the contrary, +her design is one altogether consonant to the general benevolence of her +character. It is to give pleasure; and as her greatest delight arises +from the contemplation of herself, she has presumed, naturally enough if +we may believe the philosophers, that the same cause will produce the +same effect upon the rest of the world. All her pictures, therefore, +like those of the painter who doated upon his mistress to such a degree +as to introduce her face into every one of his works, contain the object +of her idolatry, either prominently in the foreground, or so ingeniously +placed in the background, as to be quite as well fitted to draw +attention.--But it is time to follow her in some of her peregrinations. + +On a certain day of the year 1829, which she has not had the goodness to +designate, she arrived at Calais. She was accompanied by an Irish +footman,--not, we presume, the "_illiterate literatus_," whom she has +immortalized in her first "France,"--and by a person whom she once or +twice alludes to in her volumes; first, by acknowledging her obligations +to a "Sir C. M." for some articles which had been contributed by him to +swell the dimensions of her work; and, secondly, by mentioning that +somebody sent a "flask of genuine _potteen_," to her Ladyship's great +delight, "with Mr. Somebody's compliments to Sir C. M." As there is an +individual designated once or twice also as "my husband," we have shrewd +suspicions that he and this Sir C. M. are one and the same being. The +first thing that Miladi does at Calais, is to experience a "burst of +agreeable sensations;" and the next, to feel a considerable degree of +surprise at being delighted again with that renowned place--renowned for +having been several times visited by Lady Morgan, besides other minor +causes of celebrity, such as its sieges, and its having been the place +where Yorick commenced his sentimental journey; but these have been +completely forgotten since the year 1816. After her "little heart" had +been fluttered by those agreeable and wonderful sensations, the nature +of its palpitations was unfortunately changed by the indignation with +which it was filled on her discovering "how English" every thing +appeared. "English carpets, and English cleanliness; English delf and +English damask," with various other _Englishiana_, gave such a John Bull +aspect to the room of the hotel into which she was ushered, that she was +on the point of swooning, when her ears were suddenly assailed by a loud +sound--Gracious heavens! What noise is that? Her delicate little head +is in a twinkling thrust out of the window, and she beholds,--oh horror +of horrors--she beholds a mail-coach, built on the regular English plan, +cantering into the yard, with all its concomitants completely _a +l'Anglaise_--"horses curvetting, and not a hair turned--a whip that +'tips the silk' like a feather--'ribbons,' not ropes--a coachman, all +capes and castor--a guard that cries 'all right,'" and who was at that +moment puffing most manfully into a "reg'lar mail-coach horn." This was +too much, and her Ladyship would inevitably have been driven distracted, +or, at least, have gone into hysterics, had not a most delicious idea +interposed its aid, and she exclaimed, "What luck to have written _my_ +France, while France was still so French!"--and what luck, say we, to +have so commodious a safety-valve as vanity, by means of which to let +off the superabundant steam of one's ire! + +Now, as to her Ladyship's having written her "France," while _France_ +was still "so French," this we do not deny; but we do deny that _her_ +France itself is "so French." It would be an affair of some considerable +difficulty, in our humble opinion, to find any thing French either about +it or the "France" we are now reviewing, except their titles, and +innumerable scraps of the French language, not unfrequently so expressed +and so applied that they would do honour to Mrs. Malaprop herself. + +Lady M.'s fondness for generalizing, has led her to relate this +apparition of the "Bang-up" in such a way as would induce any one who +did not know better, to suppose that the "Coach" had entirely superseded +the "Diligence" upon the French roads. Truly would such a change be a +cause of regret; for the traveller in France would thus be deprived of a +fruitful source of amusement. But we have the pleasure of announcing, +for the satisfaction of such of our readers as may entertain the design +of paying a visit to that country, that the coach which Lady Morgan saw, +was the only vehicle of the kind with which her eyes could have been +annoyed. We speak _understandingly_ on the subject, as we happened to be +in France about the same time as her Ladyship. This coach, which, if we +recollect aright, was called the Telegraph, and not the "Bang-up," was a +speculation of some Englishman, who ran it for a short time between +Boulogne and Calais, but without much success. The old national vehicle +had too strong a hold upon the affections of the most national people in +the world, to be pushed from the field by any foreign opponent, and the +slow, sure, and comfortable Diligence kept on the even tenor of its way, +while the dashing, rapid Telegraph arrived prematurely at the end of its +journeying. + +We do not deem ourselves competent to decide upon so momentous a subject +as the respective merits of the English and French stages, to give them +our technical appellation; but it may be remarked as perhaps somewhat +singular, that with regard to comfort--a matter respecting which the +French are as noted for their general heedlessness as the English are +for their almost uniform concern--the Diligence can lay claim to +unquestionable superiority over the coach. On the other hand, the coach +is constructed in such a way as to possess far greater facilities for +rapidity of locomotion,--a quality which it might be supposed the quick +vivacious temperament of the French would especially prize in their +conveyances. As to appearance also, the English vehicle is certainly a +good deal better off than the French. Nothing, indeed, that a stranger +may have heard or read about the latter, can prepare him for it +sufficiently, to prevent him on first beholding it from giving way to +something more than a smile. It is not, however, so much the mere +machine itself that operates upon his risible faculties, as the whole +equipage, or _atalage_,--the scare-crow horses, that seem to have been +once the property of the keeper of some museum by whom their bones have +been linked together and covered with skin as well as they might be, +without inserting something between as a substitute for flesh; the +non-descript gear by which these living anatomies are kept together and +attached to the vehicle, composed of rope, leather, iron, steel, brass, +and every thing else that could by any possibility be used for the +purpose; the queer-looking postillion, with his long cue, huge boots, +and pipe, all combine with the grotesque appearance of the Diligence +itself, to form an _ensemble_ irresistibly ludicrous. + +What a difference, too, there is in the facility with which they get +"under weigh." One crack of the coachman's whip, causes his fine animals +to give "a long pull, a strong pull, and a pull together," and away you +whirl in an instant. But the traveller in France does not find starting +so easy a matter. He gets into the Diligence; every thing seems ready. +The passengers are all in their places, and have saluted each other with +true French politeness, except some gruff John Bull sitting in a corner +seat and eyeing his associates with mingled scorn and distrust--the five +or six apologies for horses are standing in an attitude of the greatest +patience, waiting for the signal to make an attempt at putting one foot +before the other--the _conducteur_, a person who has the supreme +direction of the movements of the Diligence, is in his place on the +top--the boots in which the legs of the postillion are buried, are +dangling on both sides of the wheel horse on the left--crack! goes his +whip--a jingling sound responds, caused by the endeavours of the +"cattle" to advance--"mais que diable"--crack! crack! crack!--something +like motion is experienced, when there is a sudden stop, and the +conducteur is seen descending from his eminence, muttering sundry +expressions of no very gentle nature--"what the devil's the matter now," +growls a more than bass voice out of one window--"qu'est ce que c'est, +conducteur," simultaneously demand a treble and a tenor from another +window--"rien, Madame," the answer is always addressed to the lady, +"rien du tout," he replies whilst endeavouring to repair some part of +the "rigging" that could not stand the efforts of the poor beasts to +move from their position. At length, however, you get fairly under +weigh, with about a four knot breeze, and continue to make some progress +for an hour or two amidst a noise caused by the rumbling of the vehicle, +the creaking, jingling, rattling, and clanking, of the _atalage_, the +unceasing crack of the whip, and the chattering of your companions, to +which the sounds at Babel were music. The movement then becomes +_adagio_, and soon afterwards the conducteur's voice is heard, begging +the passengers in all parts of the vehicle to descend. Wondering what is +the matter, you get out with the rest, and find the cause of this +commotion to be a _grande Montagne_--anglice, a little hill--in mounting +which, the tender care that is taken of the animals upon the road, +however much the state of their flesh shows it is diminished in the +stable, renders it indispensable that they should be relieved of every +possible weight. To this inconvenience you are subjected on approaching +almost every little elevation, the like of which in England or the +United States, would not cause the slightest diminution of speed. But it +must be confessed, that occasionally, a hill is to be passed of a +magnitude which the steeds could never surmount without diminishing +their load, and then the notice that is said to have been affixed to one +of the Diligences, may very well be appended to all. "MM. les voyageurs, +sont pries, quand ils descendent, de ne pas aller plus vite que la +voiture:" passengers are requested, when they descend, not to go faster +than the vehicle. A most necessary request! La Fontaine, when he wrote +the fable in which he gives an account of a vehicle ascending a steep +eminence, and the exertions of a fly to assist the horses, must have +just returned from some excursion in a Diligence, during which he was +witness to the creeping, toiling, panting of the animals pulling it up a +hill. Pauvres diables! as the women are constantly exclaiming, a fly +might really lend them some aid in their efforts. About every eight +miles, fresh horses are in readiness, but the change is rarely for the +better,--for the worse it cannot be. + +It is only on the road that the postillions drive slowly; when they +enter a town it is a sort of signal for them to dash on at a furious +rate, notwithstanding the danger of going rapidly through streets which +are little better than alleys, and in which there are no side-pavements +to mark the limits for pedestrians. We never before experienced such +philanthropic alarm for the safety of our fellow-mortals, as on the +evening of our arrival in Paris, whilst whirling at a furious rate +through its narrow streets, which were thronged with people, when it was +so dark that their ears alone could give them warning to get out of the +way. No accident, however, occurred. The French drivers, it must be +confessed, though not very elegant or stylish "whips," are very sure; +they contrive to guide the immense Diligences through the crowded +labyrinths of a large city with wonderful safety, notwithstanding the +swiftness with which they generally pass through them, and the loose +manner in which the horses are linked together. + +But where did we leave our Ladyship? Oh, with her head out of the window +of the hotel, saying something about _her_ France and the other France. +We really beg her pardon for keeping her so long in such a situation, +and hasten to relieve her from it, by placing her, together with Sir C. +M. and the Irish footman, in a,--but here again we are at fault. She has +not had the kindness to inform us what was the species of conveyance +that she consecrated to eternal veneration by employing for her journey +to Paris, and as we have neither time nor space for an adequate +investigation of this important point, we must leave it to be mooted by +other commentators, contenting ourselves with the knowledge that the +illustrious trio arrived safely at the capital. + +On reaching the hotel in the Rue de Rivoli, which she had resolved upon +immortalizing by residing in it during her sojourn in Paris, she was +again fearfully agitated by that dreadful fondness for things English, +in France, by which her nervous system had before been so greatly +discomposed. Woful to relate, she was received by "a smart, dapper, +English-innkeeper-looking landlord," and conducted to apartments "which +were a box of boudoirs, as compact as a Chinese toy." "There were +carpets on every floor, chairs that were moveable, mirrors that +reflected, sofas to sink on, footstools to stumble over; in a word, all +the incommodious commodities of my own cabin in Kildare street." Poor +Miladi! this was really too provoking, to have all the trouble and +expense of journeying from Dublin to see just what was to be seen there; +but no matter, it will serve for the subject of some twenty pages in +your intended book. But then the change, so trying to the nerves of a +romantic lady, which had taken place since 1816. In that year, she +remembered, on driving into the paved court of the hotel d'Orleans, she +had seen "an elderly gentleman, sitting under the shelter of a vine, and +looking like a specimen of the restored emigration. His white hair, +powdered and dressed _a l'oiseau royale_; his Persian slippers and _robe +de chambre, a grand ramage_, (we hope, reader, you have a French +dictionary near you) spoke of principles as old as his toilet. He was +reading, too, a loyal paper, loyal, at least, in those days,--the +_Journal des Debats._ Bowing, as we passed, he consigned us, with a +graceful wave of the hand, to the care of Pierre, the _frotteur_. I took +him for some fragment of a _duc et pair_ of the old school; but, on +putting the question to _the frotteur_, who himself might have passed +for a _figurante_ at the opera, he informed us that he was '_Notre +bourgeois_,' the master of the hotel." It is quite wonderful to us how +Miladi could have survived to relate so shocking a metamorphosis. Ovid +has nothing half so strange and heart-rending. + +The instances we have mentioned are far from being the only ones in +which her Ladyship was "put out of sorts" by the Anglomania, which, she +would make us believe, is operating at present as great a revolution in +the social, as was effected in '98 in the political condition of France. +All along the road from Calais to Paris, she sees nothing but "youths +galloping their horses in the cavalry costume of Hyde Park," "smart gigs +and natty dennets," "cottages of gentility, with white walls and green +shutters, and neat offices, rivalling the diversified orders of the +Wyatvilles of Islington and Highgate," in short, nothing but "English +neatness and propriety on every side," with one terrible exception, +however, "an Irish jaunting car!" of which she chanced, to her infinite +dismay, to catch a glimpse. The second appearance that she makes in the +streets of Paris, is for the purpose of buying some "_bonbons_, +_diablotins en papillotes_, _Pastilles de Nantes_, and other sugared +prettinesses," for which Parisian confectioners are so renowned. +Accordingly, she goes into a shop where she supposes that "fanciful +idealities, sweet nothings, candied epics and eclogues in spun sugar, so +light, and so perfumed as to resemble (was there ever such nonsense) +congealed odours, or a crystallization of the essence of sweet flowers," +are to be sold, but on inquiry she is told by a "demoiselle behind the +counter, as neat as English muslin and French (what a wonder it wasn't +English) _tournure_ could make her," that 'we sell no such a ting,' but +that she might have 'de cracker, de bun, de plom-cake, de spice +gingerbread, de mutton and de mince pye, de crompet and de muffin, de +gelee of de calves foot, and de apple dumplin.' Reader, Lady Morgan "was +struck dumb!" She purchased a bundle of crackers, "hard enough to +_crack_ the teeth of an elephant," and hurried from the shop. But +misfortunes never come single, and her ladyship, though an exception to +most other general rules, was not destined to prove the correctness of +that one in this instance, for just as she was escaping from the place +where she had experienced the serious inconvenience of being "struck +dumb," she was struck in another way--viz. on the left cheek, by the +explosion of a bottle of "Whitbread's entire," the consequence of which +was, that the exterior of her head became covered with precisely the +same thing with which its interior is filled--"froth."-- + +Foaming with rage and brown-stout, her Ladyship was hastening home as +fast as her "little feet" could carry her, when a perfumer's shop +"caught the most acute of all her senses."--What a delightful mode, by +the way, her ladyship has, of imparting knowledge _en passant_, as it +were; here we have the important information communicated to us, that +her "acutest sense" is situated in her nose, just because she happened +to pass by a perfumery store; but what a nose her ladyship's nose must +be, since it is endowed with more wonderful faculties than her eyes, +which possess such miraculous powers as to enable her to see things in +France perceptible by no other mortal optics! But to proceed with our +dismal story. Her ladyship's olfactory nerves, as we have already +mentioned, having made her aware of the proximity of a perfumer's shop, +she was induced to go into it by the desire of procuring something which +might relieve them from the torture produced by the exhalations of +'Whitbread's entire.' But here again she was doomed to disappointment. +She asked for various "_eaux_, _essences_, and _extraits_," and was +presented with bottles of "_lavendre vatre_, _honey vatre_, and _tief +his vinaigre_;" she asked for _savons_, and was shown cakes of "_Vindsor +soap_," and "_de Regent's vashball_." In an agony of despair, she rushes +from the shop, first taking care, however, to "gather up her purse and +reticule," and soon arrives at her--alas! English furnished apartments. +After stumbling over a footstool, and being incommoded by other +"incommodious commodities," she at length sinks exhausted upon a sofa, +just opposite to a "mirror that reflected." But what other singular +looking object, besides Miladi's face, is it that forms a subject of +that glass's reflections, and is lying on a table just behind her? It is +a little basket, the contents of which her ladyship soon begins to +investigate,--and what do you suppose she finds?--"A flask of _genuine +potteen_!!" This time she is struck loquacious, and she shrieks out, +"this is too much! was it for this we left the snugness and economical +comfort of our Irish home, and encountered the expensive inconveniencies +of a foreign journey, in the hope of seeing nothing British, 'till the +threshold of that home should be passed by our feet;'--to meet at every +step with all that taste, health, and civilization (exemplified by +'lavendre vatre,' 'vindsor soap,' and 'a flask of _potteen_,') we cry +down at home, as cheap and as abundant abroad," &c. &c. The piercing key +on which her Ladyship pitched her voice while declaiming this +magnificent soliloquy, brought Sir C. M., the Irish footman, and the +English-looking landlord into the room, in a terrible flurry. "My +dearest dear what is the matter?"--"Och! my leddy, what is it now that +ails you?"--"_Ah! madame, mille pardons, qu'est ce que c'est?_" +simultaneously issue from the mouths of the three worthies. "Avaunt! get +out of my sight, you _maudit imitateur_; and you Sir Charles, _et vous_, +Patrick, see that _tout est prepare_ for returning to Dublin _dans +l'heure meme_," meekly responds Miladi. But a sudden change comes over +her countenance--sudden as that which took place in the aspect of Juno +when she beheld the waves raised to the very heavens by the power of +Neptune, and supposed that they had overwhelmed the bark which carried +AEneas and his companions, the objects of her eternal hatred. She smiled, +as the face of Nature smiles when the clouds that have long covered it +with gloom, have disappeared before the potent influence of the +"glorious orb that gives the day," and at length she rapturously cried +out, "How lucky to have written _my_ France, while France was still so +French!"--Lady Morgan was herself again. + +Now we beg leave to observe, that this Anglomania bugbear, by which her +ladyship pretends to have been so much distressed, is the merest piece +of nonsense and affectation in the world. We will not be so ungallant as +to suppose that Lady Morgan has intentionally related what is not +altogether so true as might be, but she has been accustomed for such a +length of time to roam about the varied realms of fancy, that it would +be impossible for her ever to descend to the flat regions of fact. +Besides, as we have already stated, she has been gifted with powers of +vision more surprising than those of the lynx or the seer--the first can +only see through a stone, the second can only see things which may exist +at a future day, when they will be visible to every one else--but she +sees things existing at present, that defy the ken of all other animals, +rational and irrational. While reading her account of the English +vehicles, English cottages, &c. &c. which she observed in her journey +from Calais to Paris, we could not help asking ourselves, where were our +eyes during the time we travelled that road? We are satisfied, however, +that they were in their right place, and tolerably well employed; and +that if they did not encounter the signs of Anglomania mentioned by her +Ladyship, it was because these were to be perceived by no one but +herself. Wide indeed is the difference between travelling in France and +England! The poet Grey, in one of his charming letters, affirms, that in +the former country it would be the finest in the world, were it not for +the terrible state of the inns; but it must have greatly deteriorated +there, or have improved in his native isle since his time, for there can +not be the slightest question as to the superior delights of journeying +in the latter at present. The inns in France are still bad enough, in +all conscience, and offer but a dreary welcome to one who has been +accustomed to the neatness and comforts of English hostels. There are, +however, various other particulars of importance for a traveller's +enjoyment, which Shakspeare's "sea-walled garden" furnishes in by far +the greater abundance. In France the roads are comparatively much +inferior, and the general appearance of the country is less pleasing. +You meet there with few or none of those detached farm-houses, with +their little dependencies of cottages, which everywhere greet the eye in +England, bespeaking the honest and well-conditioned yeoman, and +presenting a picture of prosperity and contentment,--the villages +through which you pass, mostly wear a decayed and squalid +appearance--the magnificent country-seats, with their parks and other +appurtenances, whose frequent recurrence in England constitutes so rich +a feast for the gaze of the stranger, are rarely rivalled in France--the +landscape here, also, is much seldomer able to borrow that venerable +grace and romantic charm which the remains of feudal ages alone can +lend. This last circumstance is one greatly to be regretted; for perhaps +the most exquisite gratification to be derived from travelling through a +country, where for centuries civilization in a greater or less degree +has exercised sway, arises from the contemplation of the various +monuments of by-gone days, some slowly mouldering into dust, others +still proudly defying the assaults of the great destroyer. The mind +dwells upon them with a species of pensive delight, and that peculiar +charm which their association with the fictions and annals of times past +inspires. It would seem, that France should be especially rich in the +relics of that feudalism of which for a long time it was the chief seat, +but a reason for their scantiness may be found in the policy which +caused Louis XI., and which was subsequently pursued by Richelieu, and +completed by Louis le Grand, to call the nobles from their estates, +where they exercised almost sovereign authority, to the capital, and +convert them into mere hangers on of the court--in the destructive +hostilities which have almost incessantly desolated the kingdom--and +especially in the determined war that was made upon castles by the +patriots of the Revolution. These, at all events, are the causes which +Sir Walter Scott, in his "Paul's Letters to his Kinsfolk," assigns for +the circumstance we are lamenting. The first one of them had also been +previously intimated by that worthy personage, the father of Tristram +Shandy,--"Why are there so few palaces and gentlemen's seats, (he would +ask with some emotion, as he walked across the room,) throughout so many +delicious provinces in France? Whence is it that the few remaining +_chateaux_ amongst them are so dismantled, so unfurnished, and in so +ruinous and desolate a condition?--Because, sir, (he would say,) in that +kingdom no man has any country-interest to support:--the little interest +of any kind which any man has anywhere in it, is concentrated in the +court, and the looks of the Grand Monarch; by the sunshine of whose +countenance, or the clouds which pass across it, every Frenchman lives +or dies." This, however, is certainly not the case with Frenchmen of the +present day. + +But the principal drawback upon the pleasure of travelling in France, is +decidedly the multitude of mendicants by whom you are continually +annoyed, and whose miserable appearance offends the eye, while it +sickens the heart. Scarcely ever does the vehicle stop without being +immediately surrounded by the most distressing objects that the mind can +conceive, in such numbers as to render it impossible for any one except +the possessor of Fortunatus's or Rothschild's purse, to bestow alms, +however inconsiderable, upon them all. A humane individual, who should +attempt to do it, with a pocket of but moderate dimensions, would soon +be reduced to the necessity of enrolling himself in the mendicant band, +and crying out with the rest of them, in their peculiar tone, "_Donnez +un sous, a un pauvre malheureux, pour l'amour de Dieu, et de la Sainte +Vierge_." "Give a sous to a poor unfortunate, for the love of God and of +the Holy Virgin." The crowds of these beggars upon the French roads, +lead the stranger to apprehend that in Paris they will swarm to such an +extent as to mar in a degree the pleasure of his residence there; he is, +however, agreeably disappointed at finding in his perambulations through +its streets, that they are completely free from them, in consequence of +the admirable regulations of the police. It is worthy of remark, that +the reverse of this is the case in England. There the roads and villages +rarely afford cause for the tear of compassion, or the exclamation of +disgust, elicited by scenes of misery; but in walking about London, one +must be made of sterner stuff than was sentimental Yorick, who can avoid +endeavouring to repeat "Psha! with an air of carelessness," at almost +every step, after being obliged to refuse infinitely stronger claims +upon charity than those which were advanced by the poor Franciscan. + +We have thus enumerated most of the reasons why travelling in England is +preferable to that in France, yet there is one circumstance to be +remarked in favour of the latter, which almost counterbalances every +consideration of an unfavourable kind. We allude to the facility with +which a stranger can make acquaintance with his fellow passengers, in +the "gay, smiling land of social mirth and ease." In England he may +journey from Plymouth to Berwick without speaking more than ten words to +any persons who chance to be his companions in the coach, or hearing ten +words spoken by them if they happen not to know each other; but in a +French public conveyance, only a short time elapses before all its +occupants are as much at ease, and upon as good terms with each other, +as if they were familiar acquaintances. Many a pleasant hour have we +spent in a diligence, in consequence of the conversations we have fallen +into with individuals whom we have there encountered, some of which were +of a highly ludicrous character. We shall never forget a series of +interrogatories put to us by a loquacious fellow next to whom we were +seated in the diligence in going from Rouen to Paris, and who was about +as ignorant as he was garrulous. Hearing us say, in answer to a question +of another person, that we were from the United States, he asked us how +we liked Italy; and on our telling him we had never been there, inquired +with a face of great surprise, whether the United States was not on the +other side of Italy? After endeavouring to give him an idea of the +situation of our country, he asked successively, if we had crossed the +ocean in a steam-boat, if the United States belonged to England or to +France, and if Philadelphia was not the place where the great revolt of +the Negroes took place. But we must return to her Ladyship, with the +wish that she would contrive to render her company more agreeable, that +we might have less temptation to wander from her at this rate. + +With regard to the English furniture of her Ladyship's apartments, and +the English confectionaries and perfumeries which gave rise to the +memorable adventures we have related above, we may remark that it may +have been so ordained by fate that she should light upon one of the very +few hotels, one of the very few confectionary shops, and one of the very +few perfumery stores in Paris, in which matters are ordered in the +English style; but to give us to understand, in consequence, that all +the hotels are furnished in the same way, and that _bonbons_, +_extraits_, &c. are not to be procured, is like the proceeding of the +Hon. Frederick de Roos, R. N. who affirms, in his sapient work on the +United States, that all the inhabitants in Philadelphia take tea on the +steps before their doors in summer evenings, because, forsooth, he saw a +family sitting on those of the house in which they lived, in order to +enjoy a July twilight. + +One of the first things that her Ladyship does on the morning subsequent +to her arrival, is to give notice to her friends of that important +event,--a gratuitous piece of kindness altogether, as it seems to us, +for it must doubtless have been announced by as many portentous signs as +accompanied the birth of Owen Glendower. Nevertheless, in order to make +assurance doubly sure, she despatched 'cards to some, and notes to +others, after the Parisian fashion,' but previously indulged in a very +pretty sentimental fit. This was caused by the first name that met her +eye as she opened her 'old Paris visiting book for 1818'--that of Denon, +"the page, minister, and _gentilhomme de la chambre_ of Louis XV., the +friend of Voltaire, the intimate of Napoleon, the traveller and +historian of Modern Egypt, the director of the _Musee_ of France," &c. +&c., who, we are informed, used always to be so particularly delighted +with her Ladyship's visits to Paris, that he was wont to hail them with +his hand, and welcome them with a cordial smile. Alas! death had +overtaken him, notwithstanding his friendship with Lady Morgan; and she +could no longer expect his salutations. "Other hands were now extended, +other smiles beamed now as brightly; but his were dimmed for ever!" How +kind her Ladyship is! Fearing her readers might be distressed by the +idea, that, in consequence of the decease of Denon, she might have been +in some want of welcoming, she has taken the precaution of setting them +at ease upon that point, by the above ingenious sentence. In mentioning +the reasons of her intimacy with Denon, she employs language of a very +singular kind, which, if maliciously interpreted to the letter, might +subject her to uncomfortable remarks, though we are sure it is nothing +but an effusion of gurgling vanity. It is an instance, however, to what +a degree that sentiment, when extreme, gets the better of all sense of +propriety and decorum. She says, that even if Denon had not been such a +person as she describes him, "still, _he suited me, I suited him_. There +was between us that sympathy, in spite of the disparity of years and +talents, which, whether in trifles or essentials,--between the frivolous +or the profound,--makes the true basis of _those ties, so sweet to bind, +so bitter to break_!" It is well for Sir Charles Morgan's peace of mind, +that he is acquainted, as he must be, with his wife's frivolity and +egotism. How, indeed, he could have allowed her to come before the world +with such phraseology in her mouth, we cannot imagine, unless on the +supposition that he is such a husband as La Bruyere has described. "_Il +ne sert dans sa famille qu' a montrer l'exemple, d'un silence timide et +d'une parfaite soumission. Il ne lui est du ni douaire ni conventions; +mais a cela pres, et qu'il n'accouche pas, il est la femme, et elle le +mari._" + +After her Ladyship had "shuddered," and "felt as if she was throwing +earth upon Denon's grave whilst drawing her pen across his precious and +historical name," she spent about half an hour in weeping, "like a fair +flower surcharged with dew," over the names of others of her departed +friends, Guinguene, Talma, Langlois, Lanjuinais, &c., until she +fortunately recollected that the climate of Paris is one that "developes +a sensibility prompt, not deep." Lucky thought! She immediately threw +down the visiting-book, threw up the window to let in the climate, wiped +from her eyes the tears "which parted thence, as pearls from diamonds +dropp'd," and began to think of "all that death had left her, of the +'greater still behind,'--of friends, each in his way, a specimen of that +genius and virtue, which, in all regions, and in all ages, make the _ne +plus ultra_ of human excellence." Admire the delicacy of the method by +which Miladi lets us into the secret of her being a _ne plus ultra_; it +is not by a bold assertion, but by a modest inuendo. She keeps company +with _ne plus ultras_--birds of the same feather flock together--ergo, +she is a _ne plus ultra_ herself. And so she is, but in her own way. +"_Il y a malheureusement_," observes a French writer of the present day +"_plus d'une maniere de se rendre celebre_,"--"there is, unfortunately, +more than one method of becoming celebrated,"--and as this writer is an +acquaintance of Lady Morgan, we are half inclined to think he committed +that sentence to paper after returning from a visit to _her_ +Celebrityship. + +We may as well cite here a few more instances of her ingenuity in +communicating, obliquely, how distinguished a personage she is,--a +quality she possesses in a degree that we do not recollect ever to have +seen rivalled. We copy _verbatim_. + + "The other day I dined in the Chaussee d'Antin, in that house + where it is always such a privilege to dine; where the wit of + the host, like the _menus_ of his table, combines all that is + best in French or Irish peculiarity; _and where the society is + chosen with reference to no other qualities than merit and + agreeability_." + +Speaking of the weekly assemblies at an eminent individual's house, at +which she was a constant attendant, she says, they + + "Are among the most select and remarkable in Paris. + Inaccessible to _commonplace mediocrity and pushing + pretension_, their visitor must be _ticketted_ in some way or + another" (by writing a "France," or an "Italy," for instance,) + "to obtain a presentation." + +With regard to another circle of which she was a large segment, she +observes,-- + + "It is sufficient to have merit, agreeability, or the claims of + old acquaintance to belong to it, but, truth to tell, it is + still so far exclusive, that what Madame Roland calls + _l'universelle mediocrite_, gains no admission there." + +Again:-- + + "I happened one night at Gen. La Fayette's to say that I should + remain at home on the following morning, and the information + brought us a numerous circle of morning visitors; others + dropped in by chance, and some by appointment. From twelve till + four, my little salon was a congress composed of the + representatives of every vocation of arts, letters, science, + _bon ton_," (the Congress of Vienna was nothing to this,) "and + philosophy, in which, as in the Italian opera-boxes of Milan + and Naples, the comers and goers succeeded each other, as the + narrow limits of the space required that the earliest visitor + should make room for the last arrival." + +We might fill pages with similar specimens of her modesty, but we must +proceed. + +The notes and cards being all despatched, authentic intelligence is at +length diffused throughout Paris of her arrival, and such a commotion is +forthwith excited as had never been seen even in that city of +commotions, since the time the Giraffe made her entree into it, and said +to the gaping multitude, "_Mes amis, il n'y a qu'une bete de plus._" +Perhaps the sensation might be excepted which was created by "Messieurs +les Osages," the American deputation whose "France" has not yet, we +believe, appeared in either hemisphere. The Rue de Rivoli was instantly +crowded with "old friends" and "intimate acquaintances," _ne plus +ultras_ included, besides various others anxious for the honour of an +introduction, all striving who should get first into the "_Hotel de la +Terrasse_;" and such was the press of visits, dinner-parties, suppers, +balls, &c. &c. that for a period her Ladyship could not, as she says, +"find leisure to register a single impression for her own amusement, or +haply for that of a world, which, it must be allowed, is not very +difficult to amuse." In this sentiment we request leave, before going +further, to record our unqualified concurrence, and also to state, that +we know of no one from whom it could proceed with more propriety and +weight than from Miladi. It has been, doubtless, expressed before, by +various other book-makers, but never, we feel confident, by one whose +career affords fuller evidence of its correctness, or who could adduce +more forcible proofs in support of it, should they be required. In such +case, the simple fact need only be cited, that "France in 1830" is the +work of the same hand which indited "Ida of Athens," some twenty years +previous, and which, during that interval, has furnished the world +almost annually, with quartos, octavos, or duodecimos. + +The accounts that her Ladyship gives of the various festive +entertainments of which she partook, constitute the matter of a large +number of her pages. If it be true, however, that in order to observe +well, one ought to screen one's self from observation, she could have +had little opportunity of obtaining acquaintance with the constitution +of French society; for, if we believe her own story, there was no social +assemblage of any kind to which she went, where she was not the observed +of every one, the centre of attraction, the nucleus of excellence. And +what information is to be derived from her relation of a ball here, or a +_soiree_ there, beyond the very interesting, highly important, and most +credible intelligence, that as soon as the announcement of Lady Morgan's +name falls upon the ears of the company, everything else is forgotten; a +dead silence instantaneously takes place of the conversational hum that +before prevailed; all eyes are directed towards the door; LADY MORGAN +ENTERS; a buzz of admiration succeeds; she advances with a dignified air +towards the hostess, or rather the hostess runs eagerly forward to meet +her; she drops a romantic curtesy; she sits down; and thenceforward +nothing is thought of by any of the guests but Miladi, and the pearls +that fall from her lips. As the French are fond of forming _queues_, or +files, for the purpose of avoiding confusion, when there is any great +earnestness among a large collection of persons with regard to any +object of curiosity, we can imagine the whole assemblage falling into +one as soon as she takes her seat, and thus enjoying, each in turn, the +coveted delight.--But we mistake; other information respecting French +society is communicated, unwittingly however, by her Ladyship. It is +this: that they are as fond of ridicule in 1830, as they were in 1816, +and as they have ever been. We have little difficulty in believing, that +her Ladyship received a vast deal of attention in Paris; still, we must +confess, that it appears to us impossible not to be convinced, from her +own story, that it was owing to a very different reason from the one to +which it is attributed by her self-love. If there is any feature in the +French character peculiarly salient or prominent, it is the love of +ridicule. "Take care," said a lady to her son, who was on the eve of +departure for his travels, "of the Inquisition at Madrid, of the mob at +London, and of ridicule at Paris." Nothing that is at all calculated to +excite an ironical smile or a sarcastic remark, escapes a "fasting +Monsieur's" observation, and even the greatest virtues and genius, if +combined with any quality which can afford matter for a joke, will +scarcely prevent their possessor from being made a laughing-stock. +Napoleon was so well aware of this propensity of his subjects, that he +was prevented by it from placing his own figure in the car which +surmounts the triumphal arch erected between the Court of the Tuileries +and the Place du Carousal, being apprehensive that the wags would avail +themselves of the opportunity thus afforded of punning at his +expense--_le char le tient_--_le charlatan_. What a delectable tit-bit, +consequently, for this appetite of the Parisians, must be a darling +little philosopher in petticoats, (not quite sexagenary,) who dabbles in +all sciences and arts, and is at the same time a pretender to the pretty +affectations and hoydenish manners of a youthful belle! Such a person, +especially if she possess that happy opinion of herself, which prevents +her from having the slightest suspicion that she can be the object of +anything but admiration with all, is regarded by them as a legitimate +subject for a _mystification,_ which, in our vernacular, means +_hoax_,--_elle se prete au ridicule_, as they say, she lends herself, as +it were, to ridicule; and to be convinced that they know how to take +consummate advantage of the loan, it is only necessary to glance over +"France in 1830." Every one who does so will, we feel confident, +understand in the same manner as ourselves, the meaning of that +"brilliant welcome," which Miladi, with so much complacency, informs us +she received "in the capital of European intellect." From beginning to +end, these volumes afford almost continued specimens of perfection in +the art of "quizzing," and may therefore be particularly indicated to +such as are anxious to acquire proficiency in that way. We are glad +that we have at length discovered a description of persons to whom we +can conscientiously recommend the work we are reviewing, as calculated +to afford desirable information. + +There is another cause, besides this fondness for ridicule, to which the +_mystification_ of her Ladyship may be attributed. Whoever is at all +acquainted with her writings, must be aware that she pretends to be a +great republican, and to entertain a most orthodox horror of royalism +and the appendages thereof, and that she has called the royalist party +in France all the hard names she could find in the most approved +collection of opprobrious epithets. This circumstance, it is easy to +imagine, may have excited a slight desire of revenge in the breasts of +some of the younger members of that party. + +In her very preface, we have an evidence of her having been the victim +of as well concerted and admirably conducted a hoax, as was ever played +off upon any one--it surpasses that which was put upon poor Malvolio in +"Twelfth Night." After making the remark upon which we have already +commented, that a second work on France from her pen could "alone be +justified by the novelty of its matter, or by the merit of its +execution," she says-- + + "It may serve, however, as an excuse, and an authentication of + the attempt, that I was called to the task by some of the most + influential organs of public opinion, in that great country. + They relied upon my impartiality (for I had proved it, at the + expense of proscription abroad, and persecution at home); and, + desiring only to be represented as they are, they deemed even + my humble talents not wholly inadequate to an enterprise whose + first requisite was the honesty that tells the truth, the whole + truth, and nothing but the truth." + +Oh you wicked wags! If the abolition of capital punishment be effected +in France, we hope you will be specially excepted as unworthy of mercy +for this cruel plot to make Miladi Morgan expose herself thus to the +sneers of an ill-natured world. We think we see you in conclave, +laughing and joking over an epistle you have just concocted and signed +with the names of half a dozen of the leaders of the liberals, in which +her Ladyship is earnestly conjured to cross the Irish and the English +channels and hasten to Paris, in order to dispel by the effulgence of +her intellectual rays, the mists and darkness that the fiend of ultraism +had spread over the political horizon. Seriously speaking, we cannot +divine any other than this or a similar manner of accounting for her +Ladyship's assertion, that "she was called to the task by some of the +most influential organs of public opinion in France;"--she would not +certainly affirm what she knew to be false, and the idea that she did +receive a bona fide request of the above purport from such individuals, +is too absurd to command belief for a moment. Would any one in his +senses, who is "desirous of being represented as he is," put in +requisition the pencil of an artist by which he would be sure to be +caricatured? + +The "persecution at home," that her Ladyship affects to have suffered, +refers, we suppose, to sundry articles in the Quarterly Review and other +Journals, in which she was rather roughly handled. We all know, however, +what a pleasant thing it is to deem ourselves the objects of +persecution, when it does not interfere with our profit--it is a +flattering unction we love to lay to the soul, as it seems to augment +our importance--and Miladi appears to have been highly delighted with +the persecutions she has encountered. She is continually alluding to the +attacks of the Quarterly, and whenever an opportunity occurs, favours us +with extracts from them, and now and then she slips in some satirical +observation concerning herself from the _Journal des Debats_. The +different manner in which she has been treated by the Edinburgh and +Quarterly Reviews, is an exemplification of the potent influence which +party spirit exercises over those journals. In the latter, one or two of +her works have been criticised with overwhelming power, and in a tone +and spirit superlatively bitter. In the former, on the contrary, she is +spoken of with studied lenity, although the Reviewer is obliged to +confess that he is not one of her particular admirers, and seems to be +perpetually restraining himself from indulging in the language of +raillery and sarcasm. We need hardly add that the political principles +which her Ladyship professes to entertain, are the main cause of this +discrepancy. For our own part, we conscientiously believe that the +English journal has not gone half so far beyond the truth as its Scotch +rival has fallen short of it, in their respective strictures. With +regard to the republican bursts of Lady Morgan, we cannot help +suspecting that there is more affectation and cant in them than +sincerity:--she is too anxious to let it be known that she is caressed +every where by the _ne plus ultras_ of aristocracy and rank, as well as +by those of intellect, and, at the same time, there is too much parade +and ostentatious vehemence in her explosions against the royalist party. + +As to the other article which her Ladyship says she has received in +exchange for her _impartiality!_--"proscription abroad,"--we feel pretty +confident that it exists no where but in her own imagination. There it +has, doubtless, been engendered by the malice of some ultra in disguise, +who has made her Ladyship believe, that the Emperor of Austria, the +Grand Signior, the King of Owyhee, and the other despots of the earth, +have forbidden, on pain of racking, roasting, and every kind of torture, +the importation of her books into their dominions, lest these should be +revolutionized by them forthwith. Heaven defend us! we are very much +afraid that Lady Morgan will set this world of ours on fire, somewhere +about the time when it comes in contact with the comet. It is not mere +supposition on our part that her Ladyship deems herself an object of +dread to the Austrian government at least;--read what she says apropos +of the entree of its ambassador into a ball-room where she was making +all the lamps and candles hide their diminished heads. "When his +Austrian excellence was announced, how I started, with all the weight of +Aulic proscription on my head! The representative of the long-armed +monarch of Hapsburg so near me,--of him, who, could he only once get his +fidgetty fingers on my _little_ neck, would give it a twist, that would +save his custom-house officers all future trouble of breaking carriages +and harassing travellers, in search of the pestilent writings of 'Ladi +Morgan.' I did not breathe freely, till his excellency had passed on +with his glittering train, into the illumined conservatory, and was lost +in a wilderness of flowering shrubs and orange trees." Ought not this +ambassador to be recalled for his negligence, his want of loyalty, in +not attempting to get his fingers about Miladi's 'little neck,' in order +to restore his Imperial master to peace and tranquillity of mind? Poor +Francis! still are you doomed to be _fidgetty_ on your throne. We think +we see you receiving intelligence of the appearance of this last +emanation from Ladi Morgan's untiring pen--a mortal paleness overspreads +your face, as Metternich rushes into your presence with terror depicted +in his countenance, articulating only "Ladi Morgan, Ladi Morgan," having +just obtained himself a knowledge of the dreadful fact from an almost +breathless courier--in an agony of suspense you gaze wildly at your +faithful counsellor, until he has recovered composure sufficient to +unfold to you the whole tale of horror. It is told! The monarch in whose +hands are the lives of fifty millions of subjects, lies himself, to all +appearance, deprived of existence. But see! he revives--his lips +move--what are the words which fall faintly upon the ears of the +bewildered attendants who have been called into the apartment by the +cries of the prime minister? They are words of malediction, of the same +purport as those which Henry II. of England uttered against his +servants, for their want of zeal in allowing him to be so long tormented +by Thomas a Becket, and which caused that prelate's death. But alas! for +your repose, Imperial Caesar, it is not so easy at the present day, as in +former times, for de Luces and de Morevilles to gratify the vengeful +wishes of their masters, and Lady Morgan yet breathes the breath of life +(although it is true she did not do it "freely," according to her own +account, while in the vicinity of your ambassador in Paris,) to keep +your nervous system in disorder, and for the continued vexation of the +rational part of the reading world. + +Multifarious are the other instances we might cite of the manner in +which her simple Ladyship was _mystified_ by the ironical propensities +of some, and the malicious ultraism of others, during her visit to Paris +in 1829-30. "There are certain characters," observes M. Jouy, "who may +be considered as the scourges of whatever is ridiculous (_les fleaux du +ridicule_;) they discover it under whatever form it may be hid, and +pitilessly immolate it with the weapon of irony," and into the hands of +persons of this merciless tribe she seems to have been perpetually +falling. We must content ourselves, however, with referring to but one +example more; a conversation between herself and a young Frenchman, +about Romanticism and Classicism, which she has detailed in her first +volume. This is a subject, which, as every one must know, has set all +Paris by the ears, and attracts almost as much attention there as the +overthrow of one dynasty and the creation of another. Lady Morgan, of +course, is a thorough-going _romantique_, and demonstrates the greater +excellence of the school of which she deems herself the chief support +and brightest ornament, in pretty much the same way as the superiority +of modern writers over the ancients used to be proved by the advocates +of the former, viz. by two methods, reason and example, the first of +which they derived from their own taste, and the second from their own +works. At the time she was delivered of her quarto about France in 1810, +Paris was still immersed in classical darkness, and it may therefore be +fairly inferred that the romantic light with which it has since been +illumined, radiated from that same tome. What can be more natural? When +she left France, "the word '_Romanticism_' was unknown (or nearly so) in +the circles of Paris; the writers _a la mode_, whether ultra or liberal, +were, or thought themselves to be, supporters and practisers of the old +school of literature;" in the interval of her absence she published a +work in which she told the Parisians that Racine was no poet, and gave +them other valuable information of the kind, calculated to dispel their +classical infatuation:--when she returned, every thing was changed; +poets and prosers were vieing with each other in gloriously offending +against all rules and canons; Romanticism, in short, was, as she +asserts, completely the order of the day. The classical wrath of one man +was the source of unnumbered woes to ancient Greece, and why may not the +romantic wrath of one woman--a woman too, who keeps autocrats and +sultans _fidgetty_ on their thrones, be the cause of a change in the +literature of a country? This change, at all events, however it may have +been operated, seems to have inspired her with additional courage in her +assaults, and additional fury in her anathemas upon the poor French +authors whom the ignorant world has hitherto been in the habit of +regarding as objects of admiration. She now asserts, in "France in +1829-30," that the whole classic literature of that country is "feeble +and unuseful," nay, even fitted to "enervate and degrade;" and in a +wonderfully luminous chapter about modern literature, she has shown as +clearly as Hudibras could have proved by "force of argument" that "a +man's no horse," that Classicism is the ally of despotism, and that it +was the policy of arbitrary power to encourage a fondness for the +ancient authors! + +Fiercely romantic, however, as her Ladyship is, she is mild as a cooing +dove in comparison with the male interlocutor in the famous conversation +to which we have alluded. This personage completely out-herods Herod; +but that he was an ultra in disguise, endeavouring to make her Ladyship +write down absurdities, is a conviction which 'fire and water could not +drive out of' us;--even she, herself, at one period of the dialogue, can +not help doubting whether she "is or is not the subject of what in +England is called a hoax, and in France a _mystification_," and when +_she_ doubts upon such a point, it would be extremely difficult for any +one else not to deem it a matter of certainty. Had we space sufficient, +we should transcribe the whole of this colloquy, as it deserves +repetition; but we can only give a small specimen of it for the +amusement of our readers. The gentleman having informed Miladi, that +Racine, Corneille, and Voltaire, are "dethroned monarchs," and no longer +tolerated at the Theatre, she asks him what is to be seen or heard +there, to which he answers:-- + + "'Our great historic dramas, written not in pompous + Alexandrines, but in prose, the style of truth, the language of + life and nature, and composed boldly, in defiance of Aristotle + and Boileau. Their plot may run to any number of acts, and the + time to any number of nights, months, or years; or if the + author pleases, it may take in a century, or a millennium: and + then, for the place, the first scene may be laid in Paris, and + the last in Kamschatka. In short, France has recovered her + literary liberty, and makes free use of it.' + + "'_Oui da!_' I rejoined, a little bothered, and not knowing + well what to say, but still looking very wise, 'In fact, then, + you take some of those liberties, that you used to laugh at, in + our poor Shakspeare?' + + "'Your _poor_ Shakspeare! your divine, immortal Shakspeare, the + idol of new France!--you must see him played _textuellement_ at + the _Francais_, and not in the diffuse and feeble parodies of + Ducis.' + + "'Shakspeare played _textuellement_ at the _Francais_!" I + exclaimed--'_O, par exemple!_' + + "'Yes, certainly. Othello is now in preparation; and Hamlet and + Macbeth are stock pieces. But even your Shakspeare was far from + the truth, the great truth, that the drama should represent the + progress, development, and accomplishment of the natural and + moral world, without reference to time or locality. Unknown to + himself, his mighty genius was mastered by the fatal prejudices + and unnatural restrictions of the _perruques_ of antiquity. + Does nature unfold her plots in five acts? or confine her + operations to three hours by the parish clock?' + + "'Certainly not, Monsieur; but still....' + + "'_Mais, mais, un moment, chere Miladi._ The drama is one great + illusion of the senses, founded on facts admitted by the + understanding, and presented in real life, past or present. + When you give yourself up to believe that Talma was Nero, or + Lafont Britannicus, or that the Rue Richelieu is the palace of + the Caesars, you admit all that at first appears to outrage + possibility. Starting, then, from that point, I see no + absurdity in the tragedy, which my friend Albert de S---- says + he has written for the express purpose of trying how far the + neglect of the unities may be carried. The title and subject of + this piece is "the Creation," beginning from Chaos (and what + scenery and machinery it will admit!) and ending with the + French revolution; the scene, infinite space; and the time, + according to the Mosaic account, some 6000 years.' + + "'And the protagonist, Monsieur? Surely you don't mean to + revive the allegorical personages in the mysteries of the + middle ages?' + + "'_Ah ca! pour le protagoniste, c'est le diable._ He is the + only contemporaneous person in the universe that we know of, + whom in these days of _cagoterie_ we can venture to bring on + the stage, and who could be perpetually before the scene, as a + protagonist should be. He is particularly suited, by our + received ideas of his energy and restlessness, for the + principal character. The devil of the German patriarch's + _Faust_ is, after all, but a profligate casuist; and the high + poetical tone of sublimity of Milton's Satan is no less to be + avoided in a delineation that has truth and nature for its + inspiration. In short, the devil, the true romantic devil, must + speak, as the devil would naturally speak, under the various + circumstances in which his immortal ambition and ceaseless + malignity may place him. In the first act, he should assume the + tone of the fallen hero, which would by no means become him + when in corporal possession of a Jewish epileptic, and + bargaining for his _pis aller_ in a herd of swine. Then again, + as a leader of the army of St. Dominick, he should have a + fiercer tone of bigotry, and less political _finesse_, than as + a privy councillor in the cabinet of the Cardinal de Richelieu. + At the end of the fourth act, as a guest at the table of Baron + Holbach, he may even be witty; while as a minister of police, + he should be precisely the devil of the schoolmen, leading his + victim into temptation, and triumphing in all the petty + artifices and verbal sophistries of a bachelor of the Sorbonne. + But as the march of intellect advances, this would by no means + be appropriate; and before the play is over, he must by turns + imitate the _patelinage_ of a Jesuit _a robe courte_, the + pleading of a procureur general, the splendid bile of a deputy + of the _cote droit_, and should even talk political economy + like an article in the 'Globe.' But the author shall read you + his piece--'_La Creation! drame Historique et Romantique_, in + six acts, allowing a thousand years to each act. _C'est l'homme + marquant de son siecle._'' + + "'But,' said I, 'I shall remain in Paris only a few weeks, and + he will never get through it in so short a time.' + + "'_Pardonnez moi, madame_, he will get through it in six + nights--the time to be actually occupied by the performance; an + act a night, to be distributed among the different theatres in + succession, beginning at the _Francais_ and ending at the + _Ambigu_.'" + +It is here that her Ladyship begins to doubt whether this romantic +gentleman was not hoaxing her, and certes it was time; but 'melt and +disperse ye spectre doubts!' an attempt to hoax Lady Morgan, impossible! +They do quickly pass away, and the conversation is pursued in the same +strain, until "Monsieur de ---- one of the conscript fathers of +classicism" is announced. No sooner has his name passed the lips of the +servant, than the romantic gentleman snatches up his hat, and endeavours +to make an exit from the room, in as much consternation as if the +"protagonist" himself were about to appear. But Monsieur de ---- the +classicist, enters before he can escape; "he draws up." The two then +"glanced cold looks at each other, bowed formally, and the romanticist +retired, roughing his wild locks, and panting like a hero of a tragedy." +What a picture! We venture to affirm, however, that had an attentive +observer been present, he would have seen something like a wink or a +covert glance passing between the two worthies as they enacted the above +scene, which might have led him to suspect that they knew each other +better than Miladi supposed: it was only on the previous evening, be it +stated, on her own authority, that she had made the acquaintance of the +romanticist, whom she describes as having "something of an exalte in his +air, in his open shirt collar, black head, and wild and melancholy +look." The dialogue that ensues with the classicist after the +disappearance of the other, is quite as ridiculous as the foregoing one, +and quite as well calculated to give her Ladyship a fit of the "doubts," +though it does not appear that she suffered by them a second time. We +may mention, before leaving this subject, that when the romanticist told +her, in the extract we have just made, that Othello was in preparation +for the _Theatre Francais_, he told her truth; but, if we are not very +much mistaken, the other piece of information he communicated--that +Hamlet and Macbeth are stock-tragedies at that theatre--could only have +been related by a gentleman of great fertility of imagination. Othello, +we know, was actually performed, and went off tolerably well until the +final scene, but then the nerves of the Frenchmen were put to a trial +they could not by any possibility endure. The sight of a Moor and an +Infidel, endeavouring to smother a lady and a Christian, so completely +aroused all the gallant and religious sensibilities of the audience, +that shouts of _terrible, abominable_, resounded from every part of the +house, and Monsieur Othello was (theatrically) damned for his +wickedness. As far as we know, he never showed his copper-coloured +visage again at the _Theatre Francais_, but contented himself +thenceforward with running after poor Desdemona, and stabbing her behind +the scene at the opera, where this minor exhibition of cruelty is +tolerated in consideration of the _roulades_, with which he smooths her +passage into the other world. + +Speaking of theatres puts us in mind, as the story-tellers say, of a +remark made by her Ladyship in the chapter she has devoted to the +theatres of Paris, which we wish to notice. She says, "it is strange, +that among the many men of genius who have treated the subject of the +unities, none should have clearly laid it down, that the great object of +dramatic composition is the satisfaction of the audience, no matter by +what means." What a fine thing it is to be endowed with uncommon powers +of original thought! It is so delightful to be able to belie the +assertion, that it is too late now to think of propounding any new idea, +every thing having already been said that can be said about any thing! +Here, ye croakers about modern degeneracy, here is something that should +cover you with confusion and shame. Lady Morgan, after having read all, +aye, all, that has been written about a certain subject by all the +"many men of genius" who have treated it--which it would only require +the lifetime of a Methuselah to do--has discovered an idea relating to +it, which is to be found in none of the works of those "many men of +genius," and this she has revealed for the edification and astonishment +of the world, in the sentence we have quoted above. How every lover of +new ideas now living, should bless his stars for having cast his +existence in the same period as that of her Ladyship! It is, however, +our melancholy duty, to be obliged to deprive our generation of the +glory which would be shed upon it by such an intellectual invention as +the foregoing. Though it has undoubtedly never been adverted to in any +way, since she so asserts the fact, by any of the "many men of genius" +who have exercised their minds upon the topic of the unities, yet by a +singular chance we have fallen upon something very much like it in the +petty effusions of two or three subordinate scribblers, who have +presumed to hint at what was not excogitated by their betters. One of +those effusions is a paper called a "Preface to Shakspeare," written +about fifty years ago, as we have discovered, after long research and a +great deal of trouble, by a certain Samuel Johnson, who dubbed himself +Doctor, and published likewise, if our investigations have informed us +rightly, other works, under the titles of "The Rambler," "Rasselas," +"Biographies of the British Poets," &c., and tradition even says that he +attempted a dictionary of the English language. Another of those +effusions is an "Essay upon the Drama," by a person called Walter Scott, +who, it is affirmed, is still in the land of the living, but where he +dwelleth, and what other productions he hath printed, we have been able +to obtain no clue for finding out. It must indeed be confessed, that +neither of those individuals has so "clearly laid it down" as her +Ladyship, that the audience should be pleased, "_no matter by what +means_," though they certainly have intimated that its gratification +ought to be one of the principal objects of a dramatic author. They were +foolish enough to think, that to pander to the tastes of an audience, if +corrupt and vitiated, is paltry, is despicable; that to consult its +inclinations when at war with sound taste or proper decorum, is to do +the work of those who are influenced only by a love of sordid gain, +reckless of every pure and elevated feeling--that "the end of all +writing is to instruct, the end of all poetry, _to instruct by +pleasing_." This is the difference between the sentiment of the authors +and that of the authoress; but were that same Samuel Johnson now alive, +sooner than maintain an opinion in any the slightest manner at variance +with one expressed by her Ladyship, he would,--as he was ready to do, +according to his own avowal, when asserting something that was denied by +persons scarcely more important than himself,--"sink down in +reverential silence, as AEneas withdrew from the defence of Troy, when he +saw Neptune shaking the wall, and Juno heading the besiegers." + +We do not wish to insinuate that her Ladyship has derived any advantage +from consulting the pages of either the Preface or the Essay to which we +have alluded. By no means. Nothing would be more unjust; for how could +she be indebted for any thing to what may be contained in a couple of +insignificant pamphlets, whose scarcity is such, that we might almost +suppose our copies of them to be the only ones in existence? How they +came into our hands, is a point we leave for elucidation to those who +find pleasure or profit in unravelling mysteries. There is, to be sure, +a wonderful similitude throughout, between her reflections upon the +classical and romantic drama, and those which may be read in the Essay; +but this circumstance must unquestionably be considered one of those +"remarkable coincidences" that every now and then prompt the cry of "a +miracle!" It must, else, be accounted for, by supposing that the author +of the Essay is gifted with a power over future operations of mind, +similar to that which was possessed over future events, by the wizard +who warned Lochiel against the fatal day at Culloden, and that he is +thus enabled, by his "mystical lore," to make + + "Coming _ideas_ cast their shadow before." + +Seriously, however, the observations of her Ladyship on this head, +furnish as nice an instance of plagiarism as we recollect. The best of +the matter is, that after filling nearly a couple of pages with remarks, +amongst which not a single original idea is to be found, save perhaps +the rather novel one, that "in Macbeth the interest is suspended at the +death of Duncan, and does not revive until that of the tyrant is at +hand;" she winds up with saying, "obvious as this train of reasoning +appears, _it has been overlooked equally by the opponents and the +sticklers for the old canons of criticism_; a lamentable instance of the +influence of authority, and of the spirit of party, on the judgments of +the most cultivated minds." This is a sample of modest assurance in +perfection. There is another "remarkable coincidence" in these volumes, +between the biography they contain of General Lafayette, and an article +about "the Nation's Guest" in a number of the North American Review for +1825. But we leave it to our contemporary to take her Ladyship to task +for this appropriation of his property. + +In our foregoing remarks we have confined ourselves, in great measure, +to some of those portions of the volumes before us, which are most +susceptible of ridicule, though we have adverted to only a few even of +those--there are others, however, that would require a graver tone. The +sickly sentimentalism about Ninon de l'Enclos, La Valliere, Madame +d'Houdetot, and other strumpets--such "free" conversations as those +which are detailed at page 138, in the first volume, and page 108, in +the second; especially as they were held in the presence of a young +girl, her Ladyship's niece, who was doubtless one of the chief causes +why so many gentlemen came "_pour faire leurs hommages_" to the +aunt--and various expressions upon matters appertaining to religion, +deserve reprehension in no measured terms. But we have not space enough +at our disposal to bestow any further notice upon these, or to glance at +other parts of "France in 1829-30," although we have reaped but a small +portion of the harvest which it contains. + +And this is the writer who pretends to enlighten the world upon the +"state of society" in one of the greatest countries of the earth! This +is the work by means of which she flatters herself that such an object +is to be effected,--and this too, (_proh pudor!_) is the kind of work +that can be republished in our country with a certainty of success! +Should the fact come to the knowledge of posterity, what will be thought +of the literary taste of this generation? We have, however, a cause for +consolation--if that can be termed consolation which ministers only to +selfish vanity, and is a source of pain to every better feeling--in the +assurance that the literary history of future times, judging from the +experience of the past, will present similar instances of depravity of +intellectual appetite. We wonder now, how our ancestors could have +relished what we regard with indifference if not with disgust, in the +same way that our taste in some respects will be a matter of surprise +with our descendants, and as theirs will be with those by whom they may +be succeeded on the stage of life. Every age, since books have been +written and books have been read, has furnished, and we may therefore +assert, every age will furnish, reason upon reason for making the remark +of the philosophic author of the "Caracteres," that not to hazard +sometimes a great deal of nonsense, is to manifest ignorance of the +public taste--"_c'est ignorer le gout du peuple, que de ne pas hasarder +quelquefois de grandes fadaises_." We do not wish to deny that Lady +Morgan has been gifted with a modicum of talent; even in the work before +us, there is occasional evidence of natural ability, which, had it been +properly cultivated and modestly employed, might have earned for her +honourable fame. But what advantage--we speak, of course, with reference +to reputation; as to pecuniary profit we have no doubt that she has +found her account in her '_fadaises_,' or else they would not have been +multiplied to such an extent--what advantage, we ask, has she derived +from her faculty of scribbling, except that she has made herself pretty +widely known, and ridiculed wherever she is known? Presumptuous +ignorance, and overweening conceit, have, in her case, completely +_nullified_, nay worse, have converted into a curse, in some respects, +what was intended every way for a blessing. If Lady Morgan would forego +her mongrel idiom, and use the English language; if she would confine +herself to subjects with which she has some acquaintance; if she would +substitute a simple in the stead of her inflated style; and above all, +if she could forget herself, she might write tolerably well; but there +are too many _ifs_ to render it probable, or even possible, that the +defects to which they relate will ever be overcome. This being the case, +we take leave of you, Miladi, not with the _au revoir_ of which you are +so fond, but with the parting salutation of Louis the Fourteenth to +James the Second, when sending him with an army to recover his forfeited +crown, "Adieu, and may we never meet again." + + + + +ART. II.--_Physiologie des Passions, ou nouvelle Doctrine des Sentimens +Moraux_; par J. L. ALIBERT. Chapitre XI. de l'Ennui. _Physiology of the +Passions; or a New Theory of Moral Sentiments._ Chap. XI. of Ennui. + + +This book is neither exact nor eloquent. The thoughts are not precise; +the expressions are vague; and, of consequence, the reasonings of no +value. The attempts at rich displays of imaginative power are contrasted +with a want of invention; and illustrative stories, of feeble execution, +are lavished abundantly in lieu of physiological facts. The volumes are +too insipid to cheat an idle hour of its weariness; they rather engender +fatigue than relieve it. The author will never enter the true elysium of +glory; he has not substance enough to proceed straight up the ascent; +but will certainly be "blown transverse into the devious air." Like most +of the literature of the day, this new Theory of Moral Sentiments is +essentially transient. It will pass, like anti-masonry, without +producing an era. + +Yet the chapter on Ennui is tolerably sensible. It is neither brilliant +nor acute; but gives a superficial sketch of that state of being with +considerable accuracy. To be sure, it is not from a Frenchman, that the +best account of ennui should be expected. Of all nations of Europe, the +French have the least of it, though they invented the word; while the +Turks, with their untiring gravity, their lethargic dignity, their blind +fatalism, their opium-eating, and midnight profligacies, have +undoubtedly the largest share. But the Turks are only philosophers in +practice; the theory they leave to others. Now next to the Turks, the +English suffer most from ennui. Do but hear the account which their +finest poetical genius of the present century gives of himself, when he +was hardly of age. + + "With pleasure drugged he almost longed for wo, + And e'en for change of scene would seek the shades below." + +The complaints of a young man in the bloom of life and the vigour of +early hope, cannot excite much sympathy. But he interests all our +feelings, when in the fullest maturity to which Lord Byron was permitted +to attain, he still draws from his own bosom the appalling picture of +unalleviated feelings, and describes the horrors of permanent ennui, in +language that was doubtless but the mournful echo of an unhappy mind. + + "'Tis time this heart should be unmoved, + Since others it has ceased to move; + Yet, though I cannot be beloved, + Still let me love. + + My days are in the yellow leaf; + The flowers and fruits of love are gone; + The worm, the canker, and the grief, + Are mine alone. + + The fire that in my bosom preys + Is like to some volcanic isle; + No torch is kindled at his blaze-- + A funeral pile. + + The hope, the fears, the jealous care, + The exalted portion of the pain + And power of love I cannot share, + But wear the chain." + +Such was the harassed state of Lord Byron's mind, at the epoch of his +life which seemed to promise a crowded abundance of exciting sensations. +He had hastened to the consecrated haunts of classic associations; he +was struggling for honour on the parent soil of glory; he was surrounded +by the stir and tumult of barbarous warfare; he had the consciousness, +that the eyes of the civilized world were fixed upon his actions; he +professed to feel the impulse of enthusiasm in behalf of liberty; and +yet there was not irritation enough in the new and busy life of a +soldier, to overcome his apathy, and restore him to happy activity. He +only sought to give away his breath on the field, and to take his rest +in a soldier's grave. + +The literature of the day is essentially transient. The rapid +circulation of intelligence enriches the public mind by imparting and +diffusing every discovery; and the active spirit of man, quickened by +the easy possession of practical knowledge, rightly claims the instant +distribution of useful truth. But with this is connected a feverish +excitement for novelty. The world, in the earliest days of which +accounts have reached us, followed after the newest strains; and now +the lessons of former ages, though they have a persuasive eloquence for +the tranquil listener, are as blank and as silent as the grave to the +general ear. The voice of the past, all musical as it is with the finest +harmonies of human intelligence, is lost in the jangling din of +temporary discussions. Philosophy steals from the crowd, and hides +herself in retirement, awaiting a better day; true learning is +undervalued, and almost disappears from among men. It would seem, as +though the wise men of old frowned in anger on the turbulence of the +petty passions, and withdrew from the noisy and contentious haunts, +where wisdom has no votaries, and tranquillity no followers. In the days +of ancient liberty, the public places rung with the nervous eloquence of +sublime philosophy; and the streets of Athens offered nothing more +attractive than the keen discussions, the piercing satire, and the calm +philanthropy of Socrates. But now it is politics which rules the city +and the country; the times of deep reflection, of slowly maturing +thought, are past; and now that erudition is a jest, ancient learning an +exploded chimera, and elaborated eloquence known chiefly by +recollection, the ample gazette runs its daily career, and heralds, in +ephemeral language, the deeds of the passing hours. The age of +accumulated learning is past, and every thing is carried along the +rushing current of public economy, or of private business.--Life is +divided between excited passions and morbid apathy. + +And is this current so strong, that it cannot be resisted? Are we borne +without hope of rest upon the ebbing tide? Can we never separate +ourselves from the theory, and with the coolness of an observer, watch +the various emotions, motives, and passions by which the human world is +moulded and swayed? Can we not trace the influence of the changes and +chances of this mortal state on the character and minds of mortal men? + +Life is a pursuit. The moralists, who utter their heathenish oracles in +the commonplace complaints of a heathenish discontent, tell us, that we +are born but to pursue, and pursue but to be deceived. They say, that +man in his career after earthly honours, is like the child that chases +the gaudy insect; the pursuit idle; the object worthless. They tell us, +that it is but a deceitful though a deceptive star, which beams from the +summit of the distant hill; advance, and its light recedes; ascend, and +a higher hill is seen beyond, and a wider space is yet to be traversed. +And they tell us, that this is vanity; this the worthlessness of human +desire; this the misery and desolation of the human heart. But how +little do they know of the throbbings of that heart! How poorly have +they studied the secrets of the human breast! How imperfectly do they +understand the feebleness and the strength of man's fortitude and will! +If the bright object still gleams in the horizon, if the brilliancy of +glory is still spread on the remotest hill, if the distant sky is still +invested with the delicate hues of promise, and the gentle radiance of +hope, pursuit remains a pleasure; and the pilgrim, ever light-hearted, +passes heedlessly over the barren wastes, and climbs with cheerful +ardour each rugged mountain. But suppose that brilliant star to be +blotted out of the sky; suppose the lustre of the horizon to have faded +into the dank and gloomy shades of a cloudy evening; suppose the pursuit +to be now without an object, and the blood which hope had sent merrily +through the veins, to gather and curdle round the desponding heart. Then +it is, that life is abandoned to persecuting fiends, and the springs of +joy are poisoned by the demons of listlessness. + +The scholar and the Christian have theirs guarantied against despair. +The desire for intelligence is never satisfied but with the attainment +of that wisdom which passes all understanding; and the eye discerning +the bright lineaments of its perfect exemplar, can set no limits to the +sacred passion, which recognises the connexion of the human mind with +the divine, and places before itself a career of advancement, to which +time itself can never prescribe bounds. But it is not with these high +questions that we are at present engaged. We have thrown open the book +of human life; we are to read there of this world and its littleness, of +the springs of present action, of the relief of present restlessness. + +We have said, that the pursuit of a noble object is in itself a +pleasure. It is to the mind which holds up no definite object to its +wishes, that the universe seems deficient in the means of happiness, and +joy becomes a prey to the fiend of ennui. + +Let us develop this principle more accurately. Let us examine into the +nature of _ennui_, and fix with exactness its true signification. Let us +see if it be a principle of action widely diffused. Let us ascertain the +limits of its power; let us trace its influences on individual +character. Perhaps the investigation may lead us to a more intimate +acquaintance with our nature. + +_Ennui_ is the desire of activity without the fit means of gratifying +the desire. It presupposes an acknowledgment of exertion as a duty, and +a consciousness of the possession of powers suited to making an +exertion. It is itself a state of idleness, yet of disquiet. It is +inert, yet discontented. + +Such is ennui in itself. In its effects, it embraces a large class of +human actions, and its influences are widely spread throughout every +portion of mental or physical effort. To trace these effects, and to +prescribe their limits, will be a part of our object; at present we +would observe, that wherever a course of conduct is the result of +physical want, of a passion for intelligence, a zeal for glory, or to +sum up a great variety of theories in one, of a just and enlightened +self-love, there there is no trace of ennui. But when the primary +motives of human conduct have failed of their effect, and the mind has +become a prey to listlessness, the career, then pursued, let it be what +it may, is to be ascribed to the pain of ennui. When the mind gnaws upon +itself, we have ennui; the course which is pursued to call the mind from +this self-destructive process, is to be ascribed to the influence of +that passion. + +Are our definitions indistinct? Let us attempt illustration. When the +several powers and affections of man are, in the usual course of +existence, called into healthy exercise, on objects sufficient to +interest and satisfy them; this is happiness. When those powers and +affections are exercised by objects sufficient to excite them in their +highest degree, but where, being thus excited, there exists no harmony +between the mind and its pursuits, where the affections are aroused +without being soothed, where the chime is rung, but rung discordantly, +there is misery. Where the powers of the mind are vigorous but +unoccupied; where there exist a restless craving, an inquiet mobility, +yet without any definite purpose or commensurate object, there is ennui. + +The state of mind is strongly delineated in the language of the sacred +writer.-- + + "I looked on all the works that my hands had wrought, and on + the labour that I had laboured to do; and behold all was vanity + and vexation of spirit, and there was no profit under the sun. + And I turned myself to behold wisdom, and madness, and folly; + for what can the man do that cometh after the king? Even that + which hath already been done. Then I saw that wisdom excelleth + folly, as far as light excelleth darkness. The wise man's eyes + are in his head; but the fool walketh in darkness; and I + perceived also, that one event happeneth to them all. Then I + said in my heart, As it happeneth to the fool, so it happeneth + even to me; and why was I then more wise? Then I said in my + heart, that this also is vanity. For there is no remembrance of + the wise more than of the fool for ever; seeing that which now + is, in the days to come shall all be forgotten. And how dieth + the wise man? As the fool. Therefore, I hated life; because the + work that is wrought under the sun is grievous unto me; for all + is vanity and vexation of spirit." + +Or, to take an example from the earliest monument of Grecian genius. +Achilles, in the pride of youth, engaged in his favourite profession of +arms, making his way to an immortality secured to him by the voice of +his goddess mother, sure to gain the victory in any contest, and +selecting for his reward the richest spoils and the fairest maid. +Achilles, the heroic heathen, was then fully and satisfactorily +employed, and according to his semi-barbarous notions of joy and right, +was happy within his own breast, and was happy in the world around him. +When the same youthful warrior was insulted by the leader under whose +banners he had rallied, when the private recesses of his tent were +invaded, and his domestic peace disturbed, his mind was strongly +agitated by love, anger, hatred, the passion for strife, and the intense +effort at forbearance; and though there was here room enough for +activity, there was nothing but pain and misery. But when the dispute +was over, and the pupil of the Centaur, trained for strife, and victory, +and glory, separated from the army, and gave himself up to an inactive +contemplation of the struggle against Troy, his mind was abandoned to +the sentiment of discontent, and his passions were absorbed in the +morbid feeling of ennui. Homer was an exact painter of the human +passions. The picture which he draws of Achilles,[1] receiving the +subsequent deputation from the Greeks, illustrates our subject exactly. +It was in vain for the hero to attempt to sooth his mind with the +melodies of the lyre; his blood kindled only at the music of war; it was +idle for him to seek sufficient pleasure in celebrating the renown of +heroes; this was but a vain effort to quell the burning passion for +surpassing them in glory. He listens to the deputation, not tranquilly, +but peevishly. He charges them with duplicity, and avows that he loathes +their king like the gates of hell.[2] He next reverts to himself: The +warrior has no thanks, he exclaims in the bitterness of +disappointment--"The coward and the brave man are held in equal honour." +Nay, he goes further, and quarrels with providence and fixed +destiny.--"After all, the idler, and the man of many achievements, each +must die."[3] To-morrow, he adds, his vessels shall float on the +Hellespont. The morning dawned; but the ships of Achilles still lingered +near the banks of the Scamander. The notes of battle sounded, and his +mind was still in suspense between the fiery impulse for war and the +haughty reserve of revenge. + +When Bruce found himself approaching the sources of the Nile, a thousand +sentiments of pride rushed upon his mind; it seemed to him, that destiny +had marked out for him a more fortunate and more glorious career, than +for any European, kings or warriors, conquerors or travellers, that had +ever attempted to penetrate into the interior of Africa. This was a +moment of exultation and triumphant delight. But when that same +traveller had actually reached the ultimate object of his research, he +has himself recorded the emotions which were awakened within him. At the +fountain-head of the Nile, Bruce was almost a victim to sentimental +ennui. + +In this anecdote of the Abyssinian traveller, we have an example of the +rapidity with which ennui treads on the heels of triumph, and banishes +the feelings of exulting joy. We will cite another, where misery was +followed and consummated by ennui. The most eloquent of the Girondists +was Vergniaud. It was he that in the spirit of prophecy compared the +French revolution to Saturn, since it was about to devour successively +all its children, and finally to establish despotism with its attendant +calamities. The rivalship of the Mountain in the Convention, the +unsuccessful attack on Robespierre, the trial and condemnation of Louis +XVI., the defection of Dumourier and its consequences, had doubtless +roused the mind of the fervent but unsuccessful orator to the highest +efforts which the decline of power, and the consciousness of wavering +fortunes, and the menace of utter ruin, patriotism, honour, and love of +life, could call forth. At last came the day, fraught with horrors, when +the clamours of a despotic and inexorable mob, claimed of the convention +Vergniaud and his associates, the little refuse of republican sincerity, +to be the victims of their fiendish avidity for blood. Who will doubt, +that during that fearful session the mind of Vergniaud was agitated in +the extreme, that the highest possible excitement called him into the +highest possible activity? Here there was no room for listlessness, and +quite as little for happiness. The guarantees of order were failing, and +the friends of order were to be buried under the same ruins with the +remains of regular legislative authority. Vergniaud retired from the +scenes where the foulest of the dogs of war were howling for their prey, +and when Gregoire found him out in his hiding-place, the republican +orator, though robbery and massacre were triumphant in the city, was +discovered reading Tacitus. Why? From affectation? Surely not; +Gregoire's visit was unexpected. From cool philosophy? still less, for +it was the season of peril for an irritable man. The studies of +Vergniaud on that day were the studies of one suffering from ennui. + +Ennui was the necromancer which conjured up the ghost of Caesar on the +eve of the battle of Philippi. And when Brutus esteemed that battle +lost, which in truth had been won, he had yet to wrestle with that +unseen enemy, and enter on a new contest, where he was sure to be +overthrown. The execution of Madame Roland was a scene, as far as she +was concerned, of intense and unmitigated suffering; but when Brutus +dared to despair of virtue, the atrocious sentiment was dictated, not by +the spirit that had dared to plan the liberties of the world, but by the +demon of ennui, which in an evil hour had possessed himself of the +patriot's soul. + +Finally, for we have surely made ourselves intelligible, if it is +possible for us to do so--the timid lover, whose affections are moved, +yet not tranquillized, who gazes with the eyes of fondness on an object +that seems to be of a higher world, and admires as the stars are +admired, which are acknowledged to be beautiful yet are never possessed; +the timid lover, neither wholly doubting, nor wholly hoping, the sport +alternately of joy and of sorrow, full of thought and full of longing, +feeling the sentiment of rapture yield to the faintness of uncertain +hope, is half his time a true personification of ennui. + +That ennui is a principle of action widely diffused, will hardly be +denied by any careful observer of human nature. No individual can +conscientiously claim to have been always and wholly free from its +influences, except where there has been a life springing from the purest +sources, sanctified by the early influence of religious motives, and +protected from erroneous judgments by the constant exercise of a +healthful understanding. For the rest, though few are constantly +afflicted with it as an incurable evil, there are still fewer who are +not at times made to suffer from its influence. It stretches its heavy +hand on the man of business and the recluse; it makes its favourite +haunts in the city, but it chases the aspirant after rural felicity, +into the scenes of his rural listlessness; it makes the young +melancholy, and the aged garrulous; it haunts the sailor and the +merchant; it appears to the warrior and to the statesman; it takes its +place in the curule chair, and sits also at the frugal board of old +fashioned simplicity. You cannot flee from it; you cannot hide from it; +it is swifter than the birds of passage, and swifter than the breezes +that scatter clouds. It climbs the ship of the restless who long for the +suns of Europe; it jumps up behind the horseman who scours the woods of +Michigan; it throws its scowling glances on the attempt at present +enjoyment; it scares the epicurean from his voluptuousness, and when the +ascetic has finished his vow, it compels him once more to repeat the +tale of his beads. + +To the influence of ennui must be traced the passion for strong +excitement. When life has become almost stagnant, when the ordinary +course of events has been unable to excite any strong interest, ennui +assumes a terrific power over the mind, and clamours for emotion, though +that emotion is to be purchased by scenes of horror and of crime. "What +a magnificent spectacle," said the Parisian mob, "how interesting a +spectacle to see a woman of the wit and courage of Madame Roland on the +scaffold!" And it is precisely the same power, which excites the +sensitive admirer of works of fiction to ransack the shelves of a +library for works of thrilling and "painful" interest. + +To the same kind of restless curiosity we have to ascribe the passionate +declamations of the tragic actor, and the splendid music of the opera; +the cunning feats of the village conjuror, and the lascivious pantomime +of the city ballet-dancers; the disgusting varieties of bull-fights, and +the celebrated feats of pugilism; the locomotive zeal of the great +pedestrians, and the perfect quiescence of the "pillar saints." + +The habits of ancient Rome illustrate most clearly the extent to which +this passion for strong sensations may hurry the public mind into +extravagances, and repress every sentiment of sympathy and generosity. +Ambition itself is not so reckless of human life as _ennui_; clemency is +the favourite attribute of the former; but ennui has the tastes of a +cannibal, and the sight of human blood, shed for its amusement, makes it +greedy after a renewal of the dreadful indulgence. No one need be +informed, that the shows of ancient gladiators were attended by an +infinitely more numerous throng than is ever gathered by any modern +spectacle. And let it not be supposed, that the life of one of these +combatants was the more safe, because it depended on the interposition +of the Roman fair. The fondness for murderous exhibitions finally raged +with such vehemence, that they were at length introduced as an +attraction at a banquet, and the guests, as they reclined at table in +the luxury of physical ease, have been wet by the life-blood from the +veins of the wounded gladiators. + + Quinetiam exhilarare viris convivia caede + Mos olim, et miscere epulis spectacula dira + Certantum ferro, saepe et super ipsa cadentum + Pocula, _respersis non parco sanguine mensis_. + +Time would fail us were we to illustrate the various horrors which +attended these amusements, designed to entertain the most refined +population of Rome. Time would fail us were we to enumerate the various +classifications in the art of murder on the stage, the signals which +were made by the multitude in token of relenting clemency, the more +usual signal, made by virgins and matrons, demanding the continuance of +the combat unto death. Do we not call Titus the delight of the human +race? Do we not praise his commonplace puerility, _perdidi diem_, the +exclamation of conceit, rather than of manliness? And yet it was this +philanthropist, this favourite of humanity, who caused the vast +amphitheatre to be erected, as it were a monument to all ages of the +barbarous civilization of the capital of his empire. And as to the +numbers who appeared on these occasions, do we suppose it was a pair? or +a score? We will not ask after the horrors commended and consummated by +a Tiberius or a Caligula. Was not Trajan a moderate prince? Was he not +disposed to introduce habits of a reasonable industry? Yet the active +Trajan kept up a succession of games to cheat the population of Rome of +ennui, during a hundred and twenty-three days, in which time ten +thousand gladiators were decked for sacrifice. + +Thus the vehemence of this passion is evident from the atrocity of the +resources by which its cravings are satisfied. We may also remark, that +superstition itself, interwoven as it is with all the fears and +weaknesses of humanity, subjects the human mind to a bondage less severe +and less permanent than that of the terrific craving after something to +dissipate the weariness of the heart. At Rome the sacrifices to the +heathen deities were abolished before the games of the gladiators were +suppressed; it was less difficult to take from the priests their spoils, +from the altars their victims, from the prejudices of the people their +religious faith, than to rescue from ennui the miserable wretches whose +lives were to be the sport of the idle. The laws already forbade the +offering the bull to Jove, when the poet still had to pray that none +might perish in the city under the condemnation of pleasure, + + Nullus in urbe cadat, cujus sit poena voluptas. + +Philosophy itself offers no guarantee against the common infirmities of +listlessness. Many a stoic has resisted the attacks of external evils +with an exemplary fortitude; and has yet failed in his encounters with +time. Strange indeed that time should be an encumbrance to a sage! +Strange indeed, that, when life is so short, and philosophy boundless, +and time a gift of the most precious nature, dealt out to us in +successive moments, a possession which is most coveted, and can the +least be hoarded, which comes, but never returns, which departs as soon +as given, and is lost even in the receiving,--strange indeed that such a +gift, so precious, so transient, so fleeting, should ever press severely +upon a philosopher! + +And yet wisdom is no security against ennui. The man who made Europe +ring with his eloquence, and largely contributed to the spirit of +republican enthusiasm, wasted away for months in a state of the most +foolish languor, under the idea that he was dying of a polypus at his +heart.[4] Nay, this philosopher, who presumed to believe himself skilled +in the ways of man, and an adept in the character of women, who dared to +expound religion and proposed to reform Christianity, who committed and +confessed the meanest actions,--and yet, as if in the presence of the +Supreme Arbiter of life and before the tribunal of Eternal Justice, +arrogated to himself an equality with the purest in the innumerable +crowd of immortal souls,--he, the proud one, would so far yield to +ennui, as to put the final and eternal welfare of his soul at issue on +the throw of a stone. La Harpe, no correct writer, nor sound critic, +affirms, that Rousseau undertook to decide the question of a +Superintending Providence by throwing stones at a tree. That would have +been not merely an imbecile but a blasphemous act. As the case stood, +Jean Jacques must be acquitted of any charge worse than that of +excessive and even ridiculous weakness. "_Je m'en vais_," he says to +himself, "_je m'en vais jeter cette pierre contre l'arbre qui est +vis-a-vis de moi: si je le touche, signe de salut; si je le marque, +signe de damnation._" + +But Jean Jacques passes for an inspired madman. What shall we say to the +temperate Spinoza, whose life was not variegated by the brightness of +domestic scenes, and who, being cut off from active life and from social +love, necessarily encountered a void within himself. It was his +favourite resource against the visits of ennui, to catch spiders and +teach them to fight; and when he had so far made himself master of the +nature of these animals, that he could get them as angry as game cocks, +he would, all thin and feeble as he was, break out into a roar of +laughter, and chuckle to see his champions engage, as if they, too, were +fighting for honour. + +Poor Spinoza! It may indeed be questioned, whether his whole philosophy +was not a sort of pastime with him. It may be, that after all he was +ingenious because he could not be quiet, and wrote his attacks on +religion from a want of something to do. At any rate it has fared +strangely with his works. The world had well nigh become persuaded, that +Spinoza was but a name for a degraded atheism, and now we have him +zealously defended, and in fact we have seen him denominated a saint.[5] +So near are extremes: the ridiculous borders on the sublime; and the +same man is denounced as a parricide of society, and again extolled as a +model of sanctity. + +But we have a stronger example than either of these. The very +philosopher, who first declared experience to be the basis of knowledge, +and found his way to truth through the safe places of observation, gives +in his own character some evidences of participation in the common +infirmity. He said very truly, that there is a foolish corner even in +the wise man's brain. Yet, if there has ever appeared on earth, a man +possessed of reason in its highest perfection, it was Aristotle. He had +the gift of seeing the forms of things, undisturbed by the confusing +splendour of colours; his mind, like the art of sculpture, represented +objects with the most precise outlines and exact images; but the world +in his mind was a colourless world. He understood and has explained the +secrets of the human heart, the workings of the human passions; but he +performs all these moral dissections with the coolness of an anatomist, +engaged in a delicate operation. The nicety of his distinctions, and his +deep insight into the nature of man, are displayed without passion, +while his constant effort after the discovery of new truth, never for +one moment betrays him into mysticism, or tempts him to substitute +shadows for realities. One would think, that such a philosopher was the +personification of self-possession; that his unruffled mind would always +dwell in the serene regions of intelligence; that his step would be on +the firm ground of experience; that his progress to the sublime temple +of truth and of fame, would have been ever secure and progressive; that +happiness itself would have blessed him for his tranquil and +dispassionate devotedness to exalted pursuits. + +But perhaps the clear perception of the realities of life is not the +secret source of contentment. Many a scholar has shrunk from the contest +of transient interests, and sought happiness rather in the world of +contemplation; and perhaps the studies of antiquity derive a part of +their charm, from their affording us a place of refuge against the +clamours and persecutions which belong to present rivalries. If the view +of human nature, adopted by a large portion of our theologians, is a +just one, the heart must recoil with horror from the true consideration +of the human world in its natural unmitigated depravity, and throw +itself rather into the hopes that belong to the future, and the mercies +that attach to the Supreme Intelligence, for relief against the apathy +which so cold a contemplation of unmingled evil might naturally produce. + +In the mouth of Pindar, life might be called a dream, and it would but +pass for the effusion of poetic melancholy. But when the sagacious +philosopher asserts it, that all hope is but the dream of waking man, a +latent discontent broken from the concealment of an unsatisfied +curiosity, a baffled pursuit; when his mind had arrived at that state, +nothing but its remarkable vigour could have preserved him from settled +gloom. + +Again the venerable sage examined into the sources of happiness. It does +not consist, he affirms, in voluptuous pleasures, for they are +transient, brutalizing, and injurious to the mind; nor in public +honours, for they depend on those who bestow them, and it is not +felicity to be the recipient of an uncertain bounty; nor yet does +happiness consist in riches, for the care of them is but a toil; and if +they are expended, it is plainly a proof, that contentment is sought for +in the possession of other things. In the view of the Stagyrite, +happiness consists in the pursuit of knowledge, and in the practice of +virtue, under the auspices of mind, and nature, and fortune. He that is +intelligent, and young, and handsome, and vigorous, and rich, is alone +the happy man. Did the world need the sublime wisdom, the high mental +endowment of the Stagyrite, to learn, that neither the poor, nor the +dull, nor the aged, nor the sick, can share in the highest bounty of +the Universal Father? When it is remembered that Aristotle was favoured +above all his contemporaries in intellectual gifts, we ask the reader to +draw an inference as to the state of his mind, which still demanded the +beauties of personal attractions, and the lavish liberality of fortune. + +When asked what is the most transient of fleeting things, the +philosopher made but a harsh answer, in naming "gratitude;" but his mind +must have been sadly a prey to ennui, when he could exclaim, "my +friends! there are no friends." + +He could not be content to sit or stand, when he gave lessons in moral +science, but walked to and fro in constant restlessness; and, indeed, if +tradition reports rightly, he could not wait the will of Heaven for his +release from weariness, but in spite of all his sublime philosophy, and +all his expansive genius, he was content to die as the fool dieth. + +But ennui kills others beside philosophers. It is not without example, +that men have committed suicide, because they have attained their utmost +wishes. The man of business, finding himself possessed of a sufficient +fortune, retires from active life; but the habit of action remains, and +becomes a power of terrific force. In such cases, the sufferer sits away +listless hours of intense suffering; the mind preys upon itself, and +sometimes madness ensues, sometimes suicide is committed. + +Saul went out to find his father's asses. With the humble employment he +seems to have been reasonably pleased, and probably made search with a +light heart and an honest one. But, seeking asses, he found a kingdom; +and contentment fled when possession was full. In him, the reproofs of +conscience and discontent with the world produced a morbid melancholy, +and pain itself would have been to him a welcome refuge from ennui. + +We detect the same subtle spirit at work, in the slanders in which +gossips find relief. Truth is not exciting enough to those who depend on +the characters and lives of their neighbours for all their amusement; +and if a story is told of more than common interest, ennui is sure to +have its joy in adding a few embellishments. If time did not hang heavy, +what would become of scandal? Time, the common enemy, must be passed, as +the phrase is, and the phrase bears its own commentary; and since the +days of gladiators are passed, where can be the harm of blackening the +reputation of the living? To the pusillanimous and the idle, scandal is +the condiment of life; and while back-biting furnishes their +entertainment abroad, domestic quarrelling fills up the leisure hours at +home. It is a pretty general rule, that the _medisante_ is a termagant +in her household; and, as for our own sex, depend upon it, in nine cases +out of ten, the evil tongue belongs to a disappointed man. In the tenth +case, the man is an _imbecile_. + +Fashion, also, in its excess, is but a relief against ennui; and it is +rather strong evidence of the universal prevalence of listlessness, that +a change in dress at Paris, can, within a few months, be imitated in St. +Louis. Yet, in the young and the fair, a milder sentiment influences +conduct. In them, the latent consciousness of beauty, the charm of an +existence that is opening in the fulness of its attractions, the +becoming loveliness of innocence and youth, the simple cheerfulness of +inexperience, lead to a modest and decorous display. Broadway, the +unrivalled Broadway, is not without its loungers; yet the young and the +gay are not discontented ones. They move in the strength of their own +beauty, like the patriot statesman, neither shunning, nor yet courting +admiration; and tripping along the brilliant street, half coveting half +refusing attention, + + "They feel that they are happier than they know." + +From Broadway we pass to the crowded haunts of business. Is there ennui +there? Do the money changers grow weary of profits? Is business so dull +that bankers have nothing to do? Are doubtful notes so uncommon, that +there is no latitude for shaving? Have the underwriters nothing at sea +to be anxious about? Do the insurers on life omit to look after those +who have taken out policies, and exhort them to temperance and exercise? +These are all busy enough; too much engaged, and too little romantic to +be much moved by sentimental regrets. But there are those, who plunge +headlong into affairs from the restlessness of their nature, and who +hurry into bold speculations, because they cannot endure to be idle. +Now, business, like poetry, requires a tranquil mind. But there are +those, who venture upon the career of business, under the impulse of +ennui. How shall the young and haughty heirs of large fortunes rid +themselves of their time, and acquit themselves in the eye of the public +of their imagined responsibilities? One writes a tale for the Souvenirs, +another speculates in the stocks. The former is laughed at, yet hoards +an estate; the latter is food for hungry sharks. Then comes bankruptcy; +sober thought repels the fiend that had been making a waste of life, or +the same passion drives its possessor to become a busy body and zealot +in the current excitement of the times; or absolute despair, ennui in +its intensity, leads to insanity. + +For the mad house, too, as well as the debtor's gaol, is in part peopled +by the same blighting power, and nature recovers itself from a state of +languid apathy, only by the terrific excitement of frenzy. Or a passion +for suicide ensues; the mind revels in the contemplation of the grave, +and covets the aspect of the countenance of death as the face of a +familiar friend. The mind invests itself in the sombre shades of a +melancholy longing after eternal rest--a longing which is sometimes +connected with unqualified disbelief, and sometimes associates itself +with an undefined desire of a purely spiritual existence. + +We might multiply examples of the very extensive prevalence of that +unhappy languor of which we are treating. Let us aim rather at observing +the limit of its power. + +It was a foolish philosophy, which believed in ennui as an evidence and +a means of human perfectibility. The only exertions which it is capable +of producing, are of a subordinate character. It may give to passion a +fearful intensity, consequent on a state of moral disease; but human +virtue must be the result of far higher causes. The exercise of +principle, the generous force of purified emotions, cheerful desire, and +willing industry, are the parents of real greatness. If we look through +the various departments of public and of intellectual action, we shall +find the mark of inferiority upon every thing which has sprung from +ennui. In philosophy, it might produce the follies of Cynic oddity, but +not the sublime lessons of Pythagoras or Socrates. In poetry, it may +produce effusions from persons of quality, devoid of wit, but it never +could have pointed the satire of Pope. In the mechanic arts it may +contrive a balloon, but never could invent a steam-boat. In religion, it +stumbles at a thousand knotty points in metaphysical theology, but it +never led the soul to intercourse with heaven, or to the contemplation +of divine truth. + +The celebrated son of Philip was a man of exalted genius; and political +wisdom had its share in his career. Ennui could never have produced +Macedonia's madman, but it may well put in its claim to the Swede. Or +let us look rather for a conqueror, who dreamed that he had genius to +rival Achilles, and yet never had a settled plan of action. The famous +king of Epirus has seemed to be an historical puzzle, so uncertain was +his purpose, so wavering his character. Will you know the whole truth +about him? Pyrrhus was an _ennuye_. + +When a painter, in the pursuit of his vocation, is obliged to give a +likeness of a person that has neither beauty nor soul, he may perhaps +draw figures in the air, or spoil his picture by an inconsiderate +flourish of his pencil. He dislikes his task, and his work will show it. + +When a poet writes a song for hire, or solely to be sung to some +favourite air, it is more than probable his verses will be languid, and +his meaning doubtful. Thus, for example,-- + + "The smiles of joy, the tears of wo + Deceitful shine, deceitful flow." + +This is sheer nonsense. Joy smiles in good earnest, and many an aching +heart knows too well the deep truth of distress. + +The fervent eloquence of true piety springs from conviction, and reaches +the heart; but we have sometimes listened to a dull sermon, which +proceeded from weariness more than from zeal, and belonged to ennui more +than to the stirring action of eloquent religion. The lawyer, too, is +sometimes overborne in his plea by disgust with his work, and in his +tiresome repetitions you may plainly see how he loathes-- + + "To drudge for the dregs of men, + And scrawl strange words with the barbarous pen." + +The life of Napoleon, in its busiest period, presents a remarkable +instance of ennui. While the allies were collecting around him in their +utmost strength, he was himself wavering in his purposes, and reluctant +to decide on the retreat to Leipsic. Strange, that at such a time he +should have given way to an overwhelming and almost childish languor. +Yet an eyewitness relates, "I have seen him at that time, seated on a +sofa, beside a table on which lay his charts, totally unemployed, unless +in scribbling mechanically large letters on a sheet of white paper." +Such was the power of ennui over Napoleon, at a time, when, in his own +language, nothing but a thunderbolt could save him. + +It is dangerous for a man of superior ability to find himself thrown +upon the world without some regular employment. The restlessness +inherent in genius being thus left undirected by any permanent +influence, frames for itself occupations out of accidents. Moral +integrity sometimes falls a prey to this want of fixed pursuits; and the +man who receives his direction in active life from the fortuitous +impulse of circumstances, will be very apt to receive his principles +likewise from chance. Genius, under such guidance, attains no noble +ends; but resembles rather a copious spring, conveyed in a falling +aqueduct; where the waters continually escape through the frequent +crevices, and waste themselves ineffectually on their passage. The law +of nature is here, as elsewhere, binding; and no powerful results ever +ensue from the trivial exercise of high endowments. The finest mind, +when thus destitute of a fixed purpose, passes away without leaving +permanent traces of its existence; losing its energy by turning aside +from its course, it becomes as harmless and inefficient as the +lightning, which, of itself irresistible, may yet be rendered powerless +by a slight conductor. + +These remarks apply perhaps in some measure even to Leibnitz, whose +sublime intelligence and mental activity were the wonder of his age. He +attained a celebrity of reputation, but hardly a contented spirit; at +times he descended to the consideration of magnitudes infinitely small, +and at times rose to the belief that he heard the universal harmony of +nature; for years he was devoted to illustrating the antiquities of the +family of a petty prince; and then again he assumed the sublime office +of defending the perfections of Providence. Yet with all this variety of +pursuit, the great philosopher was hardly to be called a happy man; and +it almost fills us with melancholy to find, that the very theologian who +would have proved this to be absolutely the best of all possible worlds, +died after all of chagrin. + +Yet the name of Leibnitz is one which should rather excite unmingled +admiration; for the rich endowments of Heaven distinguished him as one +of the most favoured in that intellectual superiority which is the +choicest gift of God. Our subject is more fully illustrated in the case +of a less gifted, though a notorious man; one whose qualities have been +recently held up to admiration, yet for whom we find it impossible to +conceive sentiments of respect. We mean Lord Bolingbroke. + +His talents as a writer have secured to him a very distinguished place +in the literature of England; and his political services, during the +reign of Queen Anne, have rendered him illustrious in English history. +But though he was possessed of wit, eloquence, family, wealth, and +opportunity, he never displayed true dignity of character, nor real +greatness of soul. He seemed to have no fixed principles of action; and +to have loved contest more than victory. Wherever there was strife, +there you might surely expect to meet St. John; and his public career +almost justifies the inference, that apostacy (if indeed a man who has +no principles can be called an apostate) would have seemed to him, after +his defeat, a moderate price for permission to appear again in the +lists. But as he had always coveted power with an insatiable avidity, he +never could rest long enough to acquire it. On the stormy sea of public +life, he was for ever struggling to be on the topmost wave; but the +waves receded as fast as he advanced; and fate seemed to have destined +him to waste his life in fruitless efforts and as fruitless changes. + +In early life he sought distinction by his debaucheries; and from the +accounts of his biographer, it would seem, that he succeeded in becoming +the most daring profligate in London. Tired of the excess of +dissipation, he attempted the career of politics, and found his way into +Parliament under the auspices of the whigs. When politics failed, he put +on the mask of a metaphysician. Tired of that costume, he next attempted +to play the farmer. Dissatisfied with farming, he wrote political +pamphlets. Still discontented with his condition in the world, he strove +to undermine the basis of religion. + +He began public life as a whig; but as the tories were in the ascendant, +he rapidly ripened into a tory; he ended his political career by +deserting the tories and avowing the doctrines of staunch and +uncompromising whigs. He tried libertinism, married life, politics, +power, exile, restoration, the House of Commons, the House of Lords, the +city, the country, foreign travel, study, authorship, metaphysics, +infidelity, farming, treason, submission, dereliction,--but ennui held +him with a firm grasp all the while, and it was only in the grave that +he ceased from troubling. + +To an observer who peruses his writings with this view of his character, +many of his expressions of wise indifference and calm resignation, have +even a ludicrous aspect. The truth breaks forth from all his attempts at +disguise. The philosopher's robes could not hide the stately wrecks of +his political passions. They say, that round Vesuvius, the lava of +former eruptions has so entirely resolved itself into soil, that +vineyards thrive on the black ruins of the volcano; and that the ancient +devastation could hardly be recognised, except for an occasional dark +mass, which, not yet decomposed, frowns here and there over the +surrounding fertility. Something like this was true of St. John; he +believed his ambition extinct, and attempted to gather round its ruins +all the beauties and splendour of contented wisdom; but his nature was +still ungovernably fierce; and to the last, his passions lowered angrily +on the quiet scenes of his literary retirement. + +There is no clue to his character, except in supposing him to have been +under the influence of ennui, which was perpetually terrifying him into +the grossest contradictions. He could not be said to have had any +principles, or to have belonged to any party; and to whatever party he +rallied, he was sure to become utterly faithless. He was not less false +to the Pretender than to the King, to Ormond than to Walpole. He was +false to the tories and false to the whigs; he was false to his country, +for he attempted to involve her in civil war; and false to his God, for +he combated religion. He was not swayed by a passion for glory, for he +did not pursue it steadily,--nor by a passion for power, for he +quarrelled with the only man by whose aid he could have maintained it. +He was rather driven to and fro by a wild restlessness, which led him +into gross contradictions "for his sins." Nor was his falsehood without +its punishment. What could be more pitifully degrading, than for one who +had been a successful British minister of state, and had displayed in +the face of Europe his capacity for business and his powers of +eloquence, to have finally stooped to accept a seat in the Pretender's +cabinet, where pimps and prostitutes were the prime agents and +counsellors? + +There exists a very pleasant letter from Pope, giving an account of +Bolingbroke's rural occupations, during his country life in England, +after the reversal of his attainder. He insisted on being a farmer; and +to prove himself so, hired a painter to fill the walls of his parlour +with rude pictures of the implements of husbandry. The poet describes +him between two haycocks, watching the clouds with all the apparent +anxiety of a husbandman; but to us it seems, that his mind was at that +time no more in the skies than when he quoted Anaxagoras, and declared +heaven to be the wise man's home. His heart clung to earth, and to +earthly strife; and his uneasiness must at last have become deplorably +wretched, since he could consent to pick up stale arguments against +Christianity, and leave a piece of patchwork, made up of the shreds of +other men's scepticism, as his especial legacy to posterity, in proof of +the masterly independence of his mind. + +Thus we have endeavoured to explain the nature of that apathy which is +worse than positive pain, and which impels to greater madness than the +fiercest passions,--which kings and sages have not been able to resist, +nor wealth nor pleasures to subdue. We have described ennui as a power +for evil rather than for good; and we infer, that it was an absurd +philosophy which classed it among the causes of human superiority, and +the means of human improvement. It is the curse pronounced upon +voluptuous indolence and on excessive passion; on those who decline +active exertion, and thus throw away the privileges of existence; and on +those who live a feverish life, in the constant frenzy of stimulated +desires. There is but one cure for it: and that is found in moderation; +the exercise of the human faculties in their natural and healthful +state; the quiet performance of duty, in meek submission to the +controlling Providence, which has set bounds to our achievements in +setting limits to our power. Briefly: our ability is limited by +Heaven--our desires are unlimited, except by ourselves--ennui can be +avoided only by conforming the passions of the human breast to the +conditions of human existence. + +In pursuing this investigation, which we now bring to a close, we have +not attempted to exhaust the subject; we refer it rather to the calm +meditations of others, who will find materials enough within themselves. +And lest the impatient should throw aside our essay with the disgust of +satiety, or the persevering should by our prolixity be vexed with the +very spirit which we would rather teach them to exorcise, we here take a +respectful leave, with our sincerest wishes, that life may be to the +reader a succession of pleasant emotions, and death a resting place +neither coveted nor feared. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] Iliad, ix. 187-190. + +[2] Iliad, ix. 310-320. + +[3] Iliad. Pope renders this--Alike regretted in the dust he lies. But +it is an expression of discontent with destiny, which sets a common +limit to life, and not to men, whose regrets may be unequal. + +[4] Jean Jacques Rousseau. Confessions, p. 1. l. vi. + +[5] We remember perfectly well the beginning of an apostrophe to the +Jewish philosopher; "Du _heiliger_ Spinoza." Herder, too, has a good +deal to say in defence of him. + + + + +ART. III.--_Travels in Kamtchatka and Siberia; with a Narrative of a +Residence in China._ By PETER DOBELL. 2 vols. 12mo. 1830. + + +Mr. Dobell, the author of these volumes, is an American gentleman, who +formerly resided in the city of Philadelphia, where he was known as an +enterprising and intelligent merchant. Commercial business led him to +make several voyages, beyond the Cape of Good Hope; and circumstances at +length induced him to prolong his residence in Asia. He established +himself at Canton, where he lived for some years, and undertook, from +time to time, trading expeditions to various ports on the shore of the +Pacific Ocean. In the course of these, frequent opportunities were +afforded of noticing the manners, country, and state of society in +China, superior to such as occur to ordinary travellers; and much too of +the remote people of Eastern Russia, who are very little known to those +inhabiting the civilized portions of the world. These voyages were +succeeded by more than one journey across the country to St. Petersburg, +in which he observed, with an attentive eye and inquisitive disposition, +the extensive regions forming the _penetralia_ of that vast empire. His +intelligence and exertions were noticed and rewarded by the confidence +of the government, who conferred on him the office of Consul at some +Eastern port, and he was subsequently raised to the post of "Counsellor +of the court" of his Imperial Majesty, a rank which he still retains, +having probably relinquished the intention of returning to his own +country. + +The account of China, which, in the natural order, would form the first +portion of his narrative, is comprised in a sort of supplement to the +travels in Siberia, and contains in a more compendious form, a good +sketch of the manners and state of society in that singular country. The +means of observation, and of obtaining information, are indeed greatly +diminished, by the well known jealousy of the Chinese towards strangers, +and the extreme vanity and exaggeration with which they speak of +themselves and their country; but the pursuits of Mr. Dobell, together +with the recurrence of the opportunities by which he profited, give to +his account a considerable degree of novelty, and certainly entitle it +to more than ordinary confidence. + +On his first arrival at Canton, he was struck with the new and +interesting scene that presented itself. Islands, hills, canals, and +rivers, were scattered around. The verdure was lively, the population +excessive, the vegetation and general appearance of the country totally +different from those he had elsewhere beheld, and the waters glittered +with innumerable fleets of boats of various sizes and descriptions. The +boatmen and pilots addressed him in a language which he afterwards +found to prevail extensively at Canton, and which was called English; it +is, in truth, a bad dialect of that language, the composition and +pronunciation of which are so curious and difficult, that a residence of +a year or two is necessary for its acquisition. None of the Chinese, +rich or poor, understand those who speak plain English. The first +intercourse of a foreigner with the natives, displays that imposition +and venality which are more strongly exhibited, during every month of +his residence among them. He is at once surrounded by persons, called +_compradors_, who offer their assistance in supplying him with +provisions of every description; they serve him without wages, although +they are obliged to pay the Mandarins for the privilege of affording +their generous aid to strangers; the consequence is, they take especial +care to remunerate themselves handsomely at the expense of those to whom +they extend their kindness. Besides this, as they bribe the custom-house +officers, they are able to offer many facilities, and to carry on an +extensive contraband commerce. Those officers are sent to a vessel +immediately on her arrival, and their boats, called hoppoo-boats are +constantly attached to her stern while she remains in port; their +consciences, however, are easily satisfied by the liberality of the +comprador, and they pass their time in smoking, sleeping, and playing at +cards; indeed, if any extraordinary smuggling is desired to be +accomplished, they protect the offender against the officious +interference of other officers: they keep shops on board of their boats, +where they exercise their expertness in cheating, and, as every thing is +sold by weight, it is necessary to weigh for yourself what you buy, to +avoid the tricks which they always endeavour to play. + +Undoubtedly, the venality of the Chinese has been increased by the +introduction of commerce from beyond the Cape of Good Hope; but there is +no doubt also, that its existence is of very old date, and that it is +owing to the nature and conduct of the government, more than to the +character of the people. There are so many prohibitions and enormous +duties to tempt their prevailing passion, avarice, that vast numbers +engage in the contraband trade, as being the most profitable; moderate +duties, and freedom of importation, would destroy the temptation, and +render smuggling dangerous and unprofitable; at present it has become an +organized system of plunder, protected by the Mandarins themselves. + + "The opium trade," says Mr. Dobell, "with the exception of ten + chests of that pernicious drug, that are allowed to be imported + into Macao, for medicinal purposes, is entirely conducted by + smugglers. In defiance of an annual edict from the Emperor, + making it death to smuggle opium, the enormous quantity of + nearly _four thousand chests_ is imported every year to Macao + and Whampoa; the greater part, however, goes to the former + place. When I inform my readers that each chest weighs a + _pecul_, that is to say, 133-1/3 English pounds, and that it + sells for twelve to fifteen hundred, and sometimes two thousand + Spanish dollars a chest, they may form some judgment of the + value and extent of smuggling in China. It is a business that + all the inferior Mandarins, and some of the higher ones, their + protectors, are engaged in; so that opium is carried through + the streets of Macao, in the most bare-faced manner, in the + open day. The opium dealers at Whampoa, formerly took it away + by night, but latterly I have seen them go to the ship, with + the linguist of the Whampoa custom-house officer, and take it + out in the day time. Sixty Spanish dollars is the bribe paid + for each chest of opium sold at Macao; and if it goes to + Canton, it pays sixty more on its arrival there. Large boats + armed, and having from thirty to forty men, called opium boats, + ply between Macao and Canton, when that market offers an + advantage in price. These boats carry this drug, and are + sanctioned by the custom-house officers, who, of course, + receive for this business likewise, a good bribe." + +The only attempts made to suppress this practice, are on the initiation +into office of new _foo-yunes_, or governors, who have not yet perfectly +learned the established usages, or who have not been propitiated by the +necessary gratuities. In these cases, a terrible revolution occurs in +the peaceful and quiet frauds of the smugglers; their shops are broken +up, their property confiscated without mercy, and all the terrors of the +law invoked upon the persons of such, who indeed are few, as have not +alertness and foresight enough to keep out of the way. This excess of +virtue does not endure long however; and the liberal generosity of the +traders generally contrives, in a month, to overcome the scruples of the +most resolute. + + "During my residence, however," says Mr. Dobell, "a _foo-yune_ + arrived, who proved incorruptible, and he almost destroyed the + smugglers, as well as the profits of his colleagues; which + latter, becoming tired of his persecutions, united together, + and by their intrigues had him advanced to a much higher + station. Being a man of talent, he got another step again in a + short time, and at length came back to Canton as Tsan-tuk or + viceroy. The opium dealers and smugglers were greatly alarmed, + shut up their shops, and secreted themselves for some time. It + appeared their fears were groundless. This artful man, who + formerly persecuted them from political motives, to insure his + advancement, was now as mild and propitious as possible. Having + arrived at an elevated station, with the certainty of rising + still higher, he sought to enrich himself, in order to be more + sure of gratifying his ambition. Accordingly, he proved kind to + his colleagues, and polite to Europeans; and by his affability + of deportment, contrived to amass the largest fortune that ever + fell to the share of a viceroy of Canton. He was afterwards + made a member of the emperor's council at Pekin." + +The robbery of the government, if conducted with sufficient skill and +boldness, seems to be as successful as smuggling--indeed, it is a maxim +with those in power, never to risk a defeat, and that it is best to +accomplish their ends, by a crafty and cautious delay until a favourable +moment for executing them arrives. The salt trade is one of the most +lucrative, important, and extensive, and is conducted entirely under +special licenses from Mandarins, appointed by the crown. Some years +since, the pirates on the coast intercepted the salt-junks, and +compelled the monopolists to negotiate with them, and pay a certain sum +for the safe passage of every vessel. After a while, this intercourse +led to a regular trade, by which the captains of the salt-junks supplied +the pirates with arms and ammunition, and the government discovering it, +an entire stop was put to the salt trade. The pirates, however, were not +to be so easily frightened or defeated; their admiral, Apo-Tsy, +forthwith commenced an offensive warfare; assembled an immense fleet of +junks and a force of upwards of twenty thousand men, invaded the country +near Macao, cut all the ripe rice, and carried it off, as well as a +great number of women, whom he presented to his followers. In vain did +the viceroy attack the piratical fleet,--he was defeated in every +engagement, and the affair was only terminated by making Apo-Tsy +governor of the province of Fokien, and pardoning all his followers! +Matters however did not stop here; in some of his battles, Apo-Tsy had +taken prisoner an admiral nearly related to the heir to the crown, and +cut off his head; as soon as the relative ascended the throne, he +despatched a polite message to the governor of Fokien, to say, that the +laws of the empire required blood for blood, and that his excellency's +head was therefore required instead of the admiral's. There was no +excuse to be made, and the twenty thousand pirates were no longer at +hand, so that Apo-Tsy's head was conveyed to Pekin. + +This salt trade is very extensive; no less than twenty thousand tons of +shipping being occupied in it alone. Indeed the great commerce of the +Chinese appears to be that carried on by their own junks to the +Indo-Chinese islands. One of these vessels will carry a cargo of from +three to five thousand dollars value, in earthenware, silks, nankeens, +ironmongery, tea, and other productions and manufactures of the Chinese. +They have settlements on all these islands, and are certainly invaluable +colonists, as they have sufficiently proved wherever they are +established. They work the mines, plant cotton, make indigo and sugar, +and acquire large fortunes among the slothful and careless Malays. +Though they intermarry with these people, they never adopt their habits +or religion, but remain, as well as their descendants, a distinct race; +and wherever found, their settlements present a complete miniature +picture of China. It is indeed a gross error to consider China a country +wholly agricultural and manufacturing; on the contrary, the Chinese are +one of the most commercial nations of the globe. It is true, they affect +themselves to hold the trade which they carry on with distant nations, +as comparatively unimportant, and assert that with the contiguous +islands to be infinitely more lucrative; yet this is to be ascribed to +their habit of decrying other countries; and it is not to be doubted +that the revenue derived from the commerce they thus contemn, is very +great. The importations into Canton from England, America, Holland, +France, Sweden, Denmark, Manilla, and India, in European and American +ships, in money and merchandise, must be annually from thirty to forty +millions of dollars. The bad policy which occasions the immense +contraband trade in opium, deprives the government of duties, annually, +to the amount of four or five millions of dollars. Their commercial +system with foreigners, shows a great deal of deep cunning, but it is +repulsive to wisdom and good policy, and by no means calculated to +afford them the advantages they might derive from that intercourse. + +The highly wrought principles and moral maxims, which abound in the +writings of the lawgivers and philosophers of China, have been sometimes +cited to prove the existence of a superior system of institutions and +laws. Theoretical speculations, vanity, and self adulation, are one +thing; wise administration, and practical justice, are another. The +doctrines of Confucius are worthy to be placed with those of Solon; the +rescripts of the celestial emperor, abound in common-places of unbending +integrity and the sternest equity; but notwithstanding all this, the +morals of the people are debased, the very foundations of virtue are +sapped by bribery and corruption, with all their concomitant vices; the +sword of justice is arrested; and license is widely given to the +violation of public and private rights. Some instances of this +unblushing venality are mentioned by Mr. Dobell. + + "By the law of homicide, life must atone for life; and, if a + person dies suddenly, the master of the house is treated in the + same manner as if he had been guilty, until he proves the fact. + This keeps the Chinese always on their guard, and ready to + deceive the mandarins, or to bribe them, if necessity should + require. A person of my acquaintance related to me, that he had + a large garden, where there were some nice fruits, which were + often stolen; and although his servants had frequently watched, + they could not detect the offender. He therefore determined to + watch with them; and, having armed himself with a pike, + accompanied his two servants in the night, to try and detect + the thief. Not long after he had placed himself at his post, he + saw a naked man approach the trees near where he stood. He + called to him to stand still or he would kill him. The fellow, + frightened at this summons, made off with all speed; and the + master of the house, seeing him about to escape, threw his pike + at him, which killed him on the spot. He was much alarmed at + the accident; but recollecting himself, he promised his + servants a handsome present to keep the affair secret; and with + their assistance, threw the dead body over the wall, into his + neighbour's garden. This, too, was managed in so careful + manner, as to render it impossible to discover whence the body + came. His neighbour, who was a very rich tea-merchant, felt no + less alarmed than astonished, on the following morning, when + his servants informed him that a dead man had been found in the + garden, who to all appearance had been murdered. The story soon + reached the mandarin of the district, who proceeded, in all due + form, to execute the duties of his office, and examine the + body; not a little delighted to have to deal with such a man as + the rich tea-merchant. A corpse found in this way cannot be + touched or removed until the police-mandarin of the district + comes and inquires into the manner of the person's death; and + if there is any thing suspicious, he will not suffer the dead + man to be taken away, before he has had some satisfactory + proofs of the cause of his death. As none such could be + elicited from the merchant, who, conscious of his innocence, + thought the mandarin could do him no harm, the latter + commenced a regular process, and made him daily visits, besides + sending for him frequently, and thus perplexed him exceedingly. + All this time the dead man was left in the garden, which being + near the house, and the body beginning to putrefy, such an + odour was caused as became almost insupportable. At length, the + merchant, overpowered by the bad smell, and alarmed by the + measures the mandarin was preparing to prove him culpable, was + happy to compromise the affair, and have the dead body removed, + on paying the sum of four thousand five hundred Spanish + dollars!" + +Nor was this the end of the adventure, which reminds one of the story of +the Little Hunch-back, in the Arabian Nights Entertainments:-- + + "A few years after, the person who put the dead man into the + merchant's garden, had himself a disagreeable affair, though it + cost him less trouble and money to get rid of it. In the street + where he lived, and not far from his house, was an eating house + for the lower classes. A beggar, who had been half-starved, + receiving from some compassionate person enough to purchase + himself a very ample repast, repaired to this eating house, and + called for several things at the same moment, which he ate most + voraciously. The owner of the eating house requested him to + stop a while before he ate again, as he perceived it must have + been some time since he had satisfied his hunger. The beggar, + however, would not listen to reason; he demanded food for his + money till it was all expended, and then dropped down dead. + This happened towards evening; and when the host perceived that + it was dark, he and his servants took up the dead mendicant, + and placed him at the door of the person before mentioned. On + the following morning, the beggar-mandarin of the district came + to him, and was very troublesome, declaring the beggar had been + killed by some of his family, and that he should institute a + process against him immediately. The accused, however, had the + good fortune to find a witness, who had seen the keeper of the + eating house and his servants put the body at his door. + Although the beggar-mandarin could now do nothing against him + in law, he refused to take the corpse away; and he was obliged + to pay him two hundred dollars to have it removed before it + became offensive. No doubt he got a good fee likewise from the + master of the eating house." + +The accounts we have of the population of China, greatly exaggerate it +in the opinion of Mr. Dobell. The persons by whom these statements are +given, have been generally ambassadors, missionaries and others, who +were, from political motives, as well as convenience of travelling, +conducted in boats on the canals and rivers which intersect the richest, +best cultivated and most populous parts of the empire. But it is +ridiculous to calculate the number of inhabitants, by assuming, as the +basis, the population of a square league so settled, and to imagine that +all the land is equally well cultivated. The truth is, that all the rice +grounds of the empire--and the whole population eats rice--would be +utterly insufficient to afford the necessary quantity, for any thing +approaching to the numbers which it is currently asserted to contain. + +The system of husbandry, too, is defective, though the cultivators of +the soil are industrious; about Canton and Macao, they transplant every +stalk of rice by hand with great regularity, and make two crops in the +year; one in July, the other in October. In the cultivation of +vegetables of all sorts, they are not surpassed by any nation of the +globe. Rents are usually paid in cattle, hogs, fowls, rice, and the +various productions of the soil, and the tenure is a species of feudal +one, derived primarily from the emperor, who is considered theoretically +as the actual proprietor of all the soil.[6] Fruits are so plentiful, +that there is less attention paid to them than in colder climates; +almost every month of the year has its peculiar fruits; but those most +esteemed are the oranges, mangoes, and lichees. Of the productions of +the soil, however, that most prized by foreigners, as well as most used +and esteemed in China, is tea. To the history of this celebrated plant, +Mr. Dobell has devoted a whole chapter, but we confess that we have +found it less perspicuous, except as to the commercial value of the +various qualities offered for sale, than we desired or expected, after +the opportunities of observation which he possessed. We infer, that he +agrees with the prevailing opinion, that there is but one species of the +tea plant. He speaks of four _stocks_, by which he seems to mean the +varieties arising from a difference of cultivation, soil, or +temperature. These four stocks are _Bohea_, _Ankay_, _Hyson_, and +_Singlo_--names derived from the places in which they are particularly +cultivated. From the two former are prepared what we call _black_ teas, +from the two latter _green_ teas. According to the season at which the +leaves are gathered, and the manner in which they are subsequently +prepared, is the excellence of each kind. Of _black_ teas, the Bohea +kinds are superior to the Ankay; thus, the simplest or commonest sort of +the first, sells at Canton for twelve to fourteen taels per pecul,[7] of +the other for eight to ten; and the finest sort of the first, Bohea +Pecho, brings from forty to one hundred and twenty taels; but of the +latter, Ankay Pecho, only thirty-two to forty-two taels. In like manner +of _green_ teas, the Hyson kinds are superior to the Singlo; thus the +commonest sort of the first, called Hyson Skin, sells for twenty-six to +thirty taels, while that of the latter, called Singlo Skin, sells at +twenty-two to twenty-five taels; and the finest sort of the first, or +Hyson Gunpowder, brings eighty to one hundred and twenty taels, while +Singlo Gunpowder brings only fifty to eighty taels. As the subject is +one of considerable interest, we have condensed into a short table the +comparative qualities and values of the different kinds of teas, so far +as we can do so from the remarks of Mr. Dobell:--the value is reduced to +our own currency, and the quantity to our own weights; the price is that +of the Canton market. + +_Black Teas._ + +Common Bohea, 21 dollars per 133-1/3 pounds +Bohea Congou, 33 " " " +Bohea Campoi, 34 " " " +Bohea Souchong, 60 " " " +Bohea Pecho, 133 " " " +Common Ankay, 15 " " " +Ankay Congou, 27 " " " +Ankay Campoi, 38 " " " +Ankay Souchong, 41 " " " +Ankay Pecho, 61 " " " + +_Green Teas._ + +Hyson Skin, 46 dollars per 133-1/3 pounds +Hyson Young-hyson, 63 " " " +Hyson, 91 " " " +Hyson Gunpowder, 166 " " " +Singlo Skin, 39 " " " +Singlo Young-hyson, 47 " " " +Singlo Hyson, 78 " " " +Singlo Gunpowder, 108 " " " + +Tea is the common beverage of all classes, and is always drunk warm, +even in the hottest weather, and at all hours of the day. It is prepared +by putting a small quantity of the leaves in a fine porcelain cup; +boiling water is then poured on it, and it is covered immediately with +another cup fitting closely: as soon as the flavour of the tea is +slightly extracted, it is sipped hot, as it is, great strength being +avoided; the cup is then filled again with boiling water, until all the +flavour of the herb is exhausted. Mechanics and labourers, who cannot +afford to drink it in this manner, draw it in a large block-tin tea-pot, +cased with wood, and having cotton wool put between the wood and the +vessel to preserve the warmth longer. The extreme heat of the tea, as +preferred by the Chinese, is one of the causes, perhaps, that tend to +produce the relaxation, weakness of digestion, and languor of nerve, +with which they are much afflicted. + +The perfection of many of the mechanic arts in China, which cannot be +denied in some instances, results less from any scientific skill, than +from the laboured experience of ages brought slowly to a certain point. +Beyond that, no discoveries of modern knowledge have led them. Thus, the +brightness and permanence of colouring in their silk manufactures, are +not produced by any secret mordents or process, but derived from a very +nice experience of the climate, and certain concurrent circumstances. +For instance, great numbers of persons are employed, so that great +rapidity in the execution of the process is assured. The north wind, +called Pak-fung, is the only period at which the silks are dried. And +when they are packed up for exportation, great care is taken to avoid a +time when there is the slightest dampness. + +Nothing has ever been more exaggerated, than the state of civilization +and social advancement among the Chinese. They are, in general, a +frugal, sober, and industrious people; but the accounts of their +government, sciences, religion, public institutions, and improvement in +morals and arts, are both false and ridiculous. The administration of +public affairs, is such as would disgrace any country on the globe; and +the code of laws which is expressed in such high flown metaphors, and +boasts such wonderful wisdom in its doctrines, serves, in truth, but as +a cloak to hide injustice and oppression. In former times, the mandarins +or nobles were said to be chosen from amongst the best of the nation, by +wise men sent for that purpose by the emperor; at present, money wins +its way more easily than talent or virtue, to the hearts of these +electors. The poorer classes live in a state of extreme wretchedness; +their houses are low, confined, and filthy, and they crowd together in +great numbers; on the coasts, those who live in boats,--and they are +stated to amount at Canton to sixty or eighty thousand souls,--have much +cleaner and more commodious habitations. There is said to be more +deformity among them than among any other people; and all classes are +subject to the complaints which result from debauchery and the use of +opium. In the latter, they appear to find an almost inexpressible +delight. The Chinese have no surgeons, and are almost totally ignorant +of anatomy; the first physicians of Canton, have none but the most +confused notions of the circulation of the blood; they believe it flows +differently on the right and left sides of the body, and they therefore +feel both pulses when they visit a patient. + +At Canton, during the summer months, the thermometer varies from 82 deg. to +92 deg.. There is but little frost in winter, and not much rain. The streets +are only made for foot passengers. The mandarins ride in sedan-chairs of +large size, with glass windows, carried on the shoulders of four, six, +ten, or twelve men; several fellows run before with whips, which they +apply without mercy to any one obstructing the way; others beat gongs to +warn the crowd; whilst some cry out, with a shrill voice, like the +howling of dogs. The Chinese, indeed, though supposed to be a grave +nation, are remarkably fond of personal display; few countries abound +more with fops. The dress of an exquisite is very expensive, being +composed of the most costly crapes or silks; his boots or shoes are of a +particular shape, and made of the richest black satin of Nankin, with +soles of a certain height; his knee caps are elegantly embroidered; his +cap and button are of the neatest cut; his pipes elegant and +high-priced; his tobacco of the best manufacture of Fokien; an English +gold watch; a tooth-pick hung at his button, with a string of valuable +pearls; and a fan from Nankin, scented with _chulan_ flowers--such are +his personal appointments. He is attended by servants in costly +liveries; and, when he meets an acquaintance, his studied manners and +ceremonial are as carefully displayed, as the airs of the most +accomplished dandy in Christian countries. + +All amusements are anxiously sought after. Theatrical exhibitions +constantly take place after dinner in the houses of the rich. Cards and +dice abound every where. Besides these, they have many other sports and +games of chance, peculiar to the country. Cricket fighting and quail +fighting are very common. To make two male crickets fight, they are +placed in an earthen bowl, about five or eight inches in diameter; the +owner of each, tickles his cricket with a feather, which makes them both +run round the bowl different ways, frequently jostling one another as +they pass. After several meetings in this way, they at length become +exasperated, and fight with great fury until they literally tear each +other limb from limb. + +Quails for fighting are prepared with great care. Every one has a +separate keeper, who has his bird confined in a small bag, which he +carries with him wherever he goes. The poor prisoner is rarely permitted +to see the light, except when he is fed, or it is deemed necessary for +his health; he is then held by the keeper on his hand, sometimes for +hours. When two quails are brought to fight, they are placed in a thing +like a large sieve, in the centre of a table, round which the spectators +stand to witness the battle and make their bets. Some grains of millet +seed are put into the sieve, and the quails are taken from the bags and +placed near it, opposite to each other. If they are birds of courage, +the moment one begins to eat he is attacked by the other, and they fight +hard for a few minutes. The quail that is beaten flies up, and the +conqueror remains to eat the seed. The best fights seldom last more than +five minutes. Immense sums of money are lost and won on them, for they +are very uncertain; sometimes one quail has been known to win several +hundred battles, and then suddenly to be beaten by a new and untutored +bird. + +Next to quail fighting, the flower-boats occupy most of a Chinese +gentleman's leisure hours. They are the residence of women, generally of +agreeable conversation and lively manners, but not of the purest +character. The vessels are so called, from having the sides, windows, +and doors, carved in flowers, and painted green and gilded. They are +divided into rooms, which are well ventilated and fitted up with +verandas, galleries, and all the conveniences of comfort, luxury, and +dissipation. The gentlemen go to them in the afternoon; parties are +formed; they all sit round a large table, well furnished, and eat, +drink, sing, and play, until morning. It is said that from forty to +fifty thousand dollars are spent daily in the flower-boats of Canton. By +an ancient custom, the Hong-merchants there, when making their contracts +for tea, (which is generally done a year in advance,) are obliged to +invite the persons with whom they wish to contract, to partake of a +repast in one of those boats. The bargain is always easy in proportion +to the sumptuousness and splendour of the supper, during which it is +concluded; and although very expensive, is fully repaid by the +advantages gained in the contract. + +When a Chinese gives a ceremonious dinner, it is done with great +splendour. Several days before, a large red paper is sent to the guests, +on which the invitation is written in the politest terms of the +language. On the day preceding the party, another invitation is sent on +rose coloured paper, to remind them of it, and to ascertain whether they +are coming. Again, on the next day, a short time before the hour +appointed, the invitation is repeated, to inform them that the feast is +prepared and awaits them. A great number of dishes are served on small +ebony tables, and dressed in the most piquant manner; there are several +courses; and, in addition to various wines, cordials of a fiery nature +are offered from time to time. When two persons wish to pledge one +another, they leave the tables, go into the middle of the room, and take +care to place the cups to their lips exactly at the same instant. They +are not apt to become intoxicated. Between the courses they rise from +the table and walk about. The most expensive delicacy they can offer is +_birds' nest soup,_ with pigeons' or plovers' eggs floating on it. The +birds' nests, so used, are formed of a mucilage supposed to be collected +from certain weeds floating on the sea, by the swallows of the Indian, +Chinese, and Pacific oceans; some of the best come from Batavia and the +Nikobar Islands; they are sold by weight, and a catty (one pound and +three quarters) of the best parts, sells for the enormous price of +forty-five to sixty dollars. + +The Chinese do not appear to be governed by fixed and solid principles +of religion, such as the Christian faith, produced by conviction or +reason. They have a superstitious reverence for certain ceremonies, +rights, and ancient customs, which have prevailed for ages; and these +serve, in many respects, to cover various vices and habits which are +prevalent. They seem, however, to believe in a Supreme Being, called the +_Great Joss_, or _Yook-Chee_, represented only to the mind, and not +allowing his image to be made on earth; and they say, should any one be +rash enough to make a statue of him, he would be immediately struck +dead. He is, however, described on paper, holding the little finger of +his right hand across the first joint of the middle finger, the +fore-finger resting on the point of the little finger, and the third +finger bent round it, whilst the thumb is also bent upwards, a very +curious and difficult position to place the fingers in. They believe +that when he opens his hand, the world and mankind are to be destroyed; +and they consider all the other deities and spirits, to whom, however, +they do not pay a very great adoration, as sent by him to the world. +These are supposed to preside over rain, crops, dreams, &c., and have +various attributes, which it would require volumes to explain. The +Chinese have no regular priesthood, supported by the government; it +depends on voluntary contributions and endowments of the rich; it has +its monasteries, where numbers of both sexes devote themselves to +celibacy; but, in general, it seems, as a body, to have less influence +than in most countries. In all rich families, there is a shing-shang, or +astrologer, who is consulted on all occasions; he is the tutor, and +generally the writer; and thus becomes a man of much importance. The +funerals are objects of great attention; and, where it is possible, +great expense is bestowed on them; every care is taken to choose a lucky +spot for interment, and the tombs are made very splendid. + +These are a few of the facts we have noted with regard to the Chinese, +in perusing Mr. Dobell's volumes; and but a very few. Those who are +desirous to obtain a fuller account of the country, manners, and state +of society of that singular people, than our limited space will permit +us to give, may turn to them with great profit. He has evidently devoted +much attention to the collection of information; and, resulting as it +does, from the observations of a number of years, with an opportunity of +correcting and comparing accounts and impressions, received at various +times and under various circumstances, we believe that just and great +reliance may be placed on it. We must now leave China, however, and +follow him on his expedition to the north of Asia. + +Leaving Canton, and proceeding along the western shore of the Pacific +ocean, he landed at the harbour of St. Peter and St. Paul, on the 25th +of August, 1812. He describes the bay of the Avatcha, which forms the +port, as forty versts in circumference, encompassed by forest-covered +mountains and extensive meadows. It is so capacious and safe, that large +fleets may securely lie there; and it affords a combination of +picturesque beauty, grandeur, and security, rarely equalled in other +parts of the globe. Immense tracts of low ground extend along the outlet +of the river Avatcha, which present the appearance of having been banked +out in former times, to prevent their being overflowed. So numerous, +indeed, are these embankments, and so far beyond the necessities or +ability of such a population as the present, to erect, that they are by +many of the inhabitants supposed to be natural mounds. This conjecture, +however, Mr. Dobell was convinced was incorrect, from repeated +observation. + + "Evident marks remain," he observes, "where the earth has been + dug out and thrown up; the holes, which were very deep, are now + ponds, whilst the shallower ones have been filled up with soft + mud, and have a thick surface of turf upon them, resembling + what is called a shaking bog. There is no doubt of their being + the work of man; but when and how it was performed was what I + could not discover. The Kamtchatdales themselves could have had + no inducement to undertake such a laborious task; as, when they + were first known, they had neither horned cattle nor horses. + They were probably made after the conquest of that country by + the Russians, when domestic animals were introduced; as they + are evidently intended to preserve the low lands for hay and + pasture. This has been so well accomplished, that the greater + part of them are still actually in good order." + +After passing a few days at Avatcha, and gratifying the inhabitants with +a ball on board of his vessel, Mr. Dobell set out, on the first of +September, for Nijna Kamtchatsk, a town seven hundred and fifty miles +distant, the residence of the governor, whom it was necessary for him to +see, in order to make the commercial arrangements he desired. He +ascended the Avatcha river, the banks of which are for the most part +composed of fine meadow land, or hills thickly covered with birch. Early +on the following day, the party left their boats, and proceeded on +horseback over two or three very steep mountains, and amid clouds of +mosquitoes, which tormented them exceedingly. The houses at which they +stopped, from time to time, were in general black, smoky, and dirty, but +the inhabitants kind and hospitable beyond measure, though poor. The +universal food is fish--men, dogs, bears, wolves, and birds of prey, all +live upon them, and indeed they abound, in quantities fully sufficient +to supply all; they are seen in the streams sporting about by thousands, +and even the shores are covered with dead ones thrown up by the current. + +The dwelling of the Kamtchatdales is of two kinds--for the summer and +the winter. The former, which is called a _ballagan,_ is a building of a +conical form, composed of poles fourteen or fifteen feet long, laid up +from the edge of a circle, ten or twelve feet in diameter, the tops +meeting at the centre, and tied there by ozier twigs or ropes. The +outside of these is covered with birch or pine bark, over which there is +sometimes a thatching of coarse grass, fastened down by other poles and +oziers. This kind of hut is generally erected in the centre of a square +platform, elevated ten or twelve feet, upon large posts planted deep in +the ground. Poles are again placed in rows under the building and +between the posts, where they dry their fish, which the hut serves to +cover from the weather, as well as to store and preserve them when +dried. The door of the ballagan is always opposite to the water; the +fire-place on a bed of earth outside, at one corner of the platform. A +large piece of timber, with notches cut in it instead of steps, and +placed against the platform at an angle of forty-five degrees, is the +method of ascending and descending, particularly unsafe and inconvenient +for those not accustomed to so uncouth a staircase. + +The winter house, or _jourta_, is a sort of subterranean dwelling. It +generally consists of a frame of timber, put into a square hole four or +five feet deep, and within the frame a quantity of stakes are set close +together, inclining a little inwards, and the earth thrown against them. +The stakes are left round on the outside, but hewn within, and the top +is framed over in the same manner and arched and supported by +stanchions. In the centre of the roof is a square hole, which serves the +double purpose of a door and a chimney, the inhabitants passing in or +out by means of a piece of timber with notches cut in it, such as we +have before described. The top and sides of the jourta are covered +outside with a quantity of earth and sodded. At one end, there is a +large hole with a stopper to it, which is opened when the oven is +heating, to force the smoke out at the door. When once heated, and the +stopper closed, jourtas are warm, and, were it not for the smoke, would +be comfortable. The description of such subterranean habitations, and of +the lives led by these rude people during their long and bitter winters, +cannot be read without reviving in the memory those lines of Virgil, +which describe a race similar in all respects--even to the acid liquors +they distil; but dwelling in regions far less remote from the warm skies +of Italy.-- + + "Ipsi in defossis specubus secura sub alta + Otia agunt terra; congestaque robora, totasque + Advolvere focis ulmos, ignique dedere. + Hic noctem ludo ducunt, et pocula laeti + Fermento atque acidis imitantur vitea sorbis. + Talis hyperboreo septem subjecta trioni + Gens effraena virum Riphaeo tunditur Euro + Et pecudum fulvis velantur corpora setis." + +The increase of civilization, wealth, and intercourse with other +nations, has however effected a great change in the mode of life among +this remote people. Cottages, made generally of logs, are substituted +for these ruder mansions, especially in the neighbourhood of the +sea-ports; and a traveller occasionally meets with much that reminds him +of fairer climes, and a state of society less primitive. + + "On reaching Sherrom, a cottage was pointed out to us as the + habitation of the Toyune, the outward appearance of which was + too engaging not to excite anticipations of good cheer within. + As it was a low building, I put my head into one of the windows + that was open, and was quite surprised to see so neat and + clean a dwelling in that country. The name of the owner, who + was Toyune of Sherrom, was Conon Merlin. He and his wife were + absent fishing, but we were not less hospitably received by his + daughter and daughter-in-law, two clean dressed pretty young + women, who welcomed us with their smiles, and made us imagine, + that, instead of Kamtchatka, we had got into the land of + enchantment. Every thing about them seemed in unison with their + appearance. The tables and stools were of poplar white as snow; + no vermin was to be seen on the walls, which were hewn smooth + and whitened; and the whole presented a picture of neatness, + cleanliness, and comfort, such as we had not yet seen in + Kamtchatka. In fifteen minutes after our arrival, a refreshing + cup of tea was prepared, with fresh butter, cream, and milk; + and their being served up in so neat a manner, made them taste + more delicious than usual. Our hostess being a well-behaved + young woman, we requested her to do the honours of the table, + which she performed with the utmost cheerfulness and + politeness, just as if she had been bred in a city. In the + evening the old Toyune and his wife returned from fishing, and + seemed quite overjoyed to see us, as such guests, they said, + were not common; and they certainly took uncommon pains to + treat and to please us. The old man appeared between sixty and + seventy years of age, with a long white beard and moustachios, + which, added to a mild, sensible, and prepossessing + countenance, gave him a most sage and respectable appearance, + and personified to my imagination the wise enchanter whose name + he bore. Conon Merlin had been educated by the famous Mr. + Evashkin, a Russian nobleman, who was banished to Kamtchatka + during the reign of Catharine II., and is since dead; but who + was well known to former travellers in Kamtchatka. Our Toyune, + therefore, could write and read Russian well, knew most of the + dialects of Kamtchatka, and was certainly the most intelligent + man I ever met among the natives." + +On the morning of the 13th, soon after leaving the village of Klutchee, +they beheld the majestic volcano of Klootchefsky, rearing its awful and +flaming head far above the clouds. This huge mountain, towering to the +skies, is a perfect cone, decreasing gradually from its enormous base to +the summit; its top is whitened by perpetual snow, and the flame and +smoke, for ever issuing from its crater, are seen shading the sky at the +distance of many miles. Sometimes quantities of ashes are thrown out, so +fine as to impregnate the atmosphere, and be inhaled in breathing; and, +it is said, that occasionally a white clammy substance, resembling, +perhaps, the honey dew elsewhere observed, has flowed from the crater, +sweet to the taste, and very adhesive when touched. Altogether, this +mountain is one of the most picturesque and sublime of the volcanoes +described by travellers, though from its remote situation it has been, +and probably long will be, visited but by few. + +Mr. Dobell reached Nijna Kamtchatsk on the 14th of September, and was +most kindly received and treated by the governor, General Petrowsky, +with whom he made all the arrangements he desired, and, after a visit of +six days, returned to St. Peter and St. Paul. He describes the town of +Nijna Kamtchatsk as one of eighty or ninety houses, and between four and +five hundred inhabitants. Its situation is not good, the ground being +low and moist. It is on the bank of the river Kamtchatka, about +thirty-five versts from the sea. Since the period we allude to, the +seat of government has been removed to St. Peter and St. Paul, and the +town has lost nearly all its population, there being but five or six +families left there. + +On his way back he again visited his kind host, the Toyune of Sherrom, +whom he found laying in his winter stock of provisions, which offered a +good example of the economy, wants, and supplies of a Kamtchatdale +family. He assured Mr. Dobell that himself and his sons had killed +twelve bears, eleven mountain sheep, several reindeer, a large number of +geese, ducks, and tiel, and a few swans and pheasants. "In November," +said he, "we shall catch many hares and partridges; and I have one +thousand fresh salmon, lately caught, and now frozen for our winter's +stock. Added to this, in my cellar there is a good supply of cabbages, +turnips, and potatoes, with various sorts of berries, and about thirty +poods of sarannas, the greater part of which we have stolen from the +field mice, who collect them in large quantities for the winter." In the +spring, the Kamtchatdales supply themselves with the skins of the hair +seals and other sea animals, from whose fat also they obtain oil. The +hunting of these is therefore a matter of no small importance, and +carries many of the Kamtchatdales down to the coast. It is accompanied +with great fatigue and occasional risk. + + "The Toyune of Malka," says Mr. Dobell, "related to me a + curious adventure that occurred to him and two of his friends. + They repaired in the latter part of April to their usual + hunting place, where they found the sea still covered with ice + for a considerable extent. Each had a sledge and five dogs, and + although the wind blew strongly off shore, they did not + hesitate to go on the ice in search of seals, as it seemed + firmly attached to the shore, and they observed some + Kamtchatdales hunting on it farther up the coast. They + discovered some seals at a considerable distance out, and + repaired thither to kill them. Already had they killed two, and + were preparing to tie them with thongs on their sledges, when + one of the party, who staid a little behind, came to them of a + sudden, crying that the ice was moving, and that all the other + Kamtchatdales had gone to the shore! This news alarmed them so + much, that they left their seals on the ice, and seating + themselves on their sankas or sledges, pushed their dogs at + full speed to regain the shore. Unfortunately they arrived too + late; the ice had already separated from the land to the extent + of a hundred yards; and as it began to break into pieces, they + were obliged to return to the part that appeared to them the + strongest and thickest. As the wind now blew extremely hard, + they were soon driven out to sea, where the swell being very + heavy, the ice began to break again all round them, leaving + them at last on a solid clump, from forty to fifty feet in + circumference, that was of great thickness and kept entire. + They were now out of sight of land, driven before a gale of + wind and a heavy sea, and their icy vessel rolled so dreadfully + that they had much difficulty to keep themselves on its + surface. However, being furnished with ostals, (poles pointed + with iron,) they made holes and planted them firmly in the ice; + and then tied themselves, their dogs, and sankas, fast to them. + Without this precaution, the Toyune said they would all have + been thrown into the sea. They were sea-sick and disheartened; + but nevertheless, said Spiridon, (the Toyune,) 'I had hopes, + and I told my comrades I thought we should be thrown on some + coast.' It was now two days they had been at sea, and towards + evening the wind abated a little, the weather cleared off, and + they saw land not far off, which one of them, who had been + formerly at the Kurile islands, knew to be Poromochin, and + they now fully expected to be drifted on its shores. However, + as the night approached, the wind changed to the very opposite + direction, and blew even more violently than before. The clump + of ice was tossed about in a most uneasy manner, and several + times the ostals and the thongs were in danger of being broken + by the violent concussion of the waves against the ice. + + "All that night and all the next day the storm continued with + unceasing violence. On the morning of the fourth day, before + daylight, they found that their clump had been driven amongst + other cakes of ice, and was closely surrounded on all sides. + When the day broke, how great was their joy and astonishment to + perceive themselves near the land, and within about twenty + versts of the place whence they had been driven! They had + suffered much from thirst, as they found the ice salt as well + as the water. Not having either eaten or drunk during all the + time, they found themselves so weak that they had the greatest + difficulty in preparing their sledges, and in getting from the + ice to the land. The moment they landed, they offered up their + prayers and thanks to God. Spiridon charged his companions not + to eat snow or drink much water at a time, although they were + almost dying with thirst; as they could soon get to an ostrog + that was only about twenty or thirty versts distant. They had + not proceeded far before Spiridon saw the tracks of some + reindeer; he therefore made his companions stop, and, taking + his gun, walked gently round a high bluff on the coast, whither + the deer had gone, and had the good fortune to shoot one of + them. His companions no sooner heard the noise of the gun than + they came to him. They cut the throat of the deer immediately, + and drank his blood while warm. Spiridon said that they felt + their strength revived almost immediately after drinking the + blood. Having given some of the meat to the dogs, they rested + themselves about an hour, and then set off for the ostrog, + where they arrived safely. One of them, who indulged too much + in eating at first, died a short time after; the other two + survived; but Spiridon said he had ever since been afflicted + with a complaint in his breast and shortness of breath." + +On the 21st of October the winter set in, and made the travelling much +more difficult and uncomfortable. The cold, however, in Kamtchatka, is +by no means so severe as is generally supposed. About the sea coast, the +thermometer rarely passes 15 deg. to 20 deg. of Reaumur, and in the interior, +seldom exceeds 20 deg. to 25 deg.; and even this but for a short time. The +ordinary cold is about 8 deg. to 10 deg.. + +After remaining nearly three months at St. Peter and St. Paul, Mr. +Dobell set out on his expedition to Russia. He left the former place on +the 15th of January, with the determination to proceed along the +Aleuters or north-east coast of the peninsula of Kamtchatka, thence +cross over to Kammina at the head of the sea of Ochotsk, and proceed +along the eastern shore of that large bay to the town of Ochotsk itself. +He was accompanied by two Chinese servants, and proceeded in sledges +drawn by dogs. He had frequent occasions to confirm the sentiments he +had previously entertained of the hospitable and honest character of the +inhabitants of the peninsula of Kamtchatka; and he found the climate and +natural resources of the country far superior to what he had been led to +expect. He combats the opinion, long prevalent, that it is a barren and +desolate country, depopulated of the aborigines through the extreme +poverty of its resources; and contends that few parts of the world would +more amply repay the industry of the inhabitants, if well peopled and +wisely governed. + +The dogs displayed all the sagacity, perseverance, and swiftness for +which they have been celebrated by travellers in northern regions, and +he had frequent opportunities of observing the instinct or skill with +which they pursued their way in the midst of the most violent storms, +when every trace of the road had disappeared. He gives them a decided +preference over the reindeer, though he states that the latter are more +fleet, when put to their full speed. They are not docile however. When +the snows are deep, and the roads difficult, if the reindeer be pressed +to exert himself he becomes restive and stubborn, and neither beating +nor coaxing will move him. He will lie down and remain in one spot for +several hours, until hunger presses him forward; and if at the second +attempt he is again embarrassed, he will lie down and perish in the snow +for want of food. Reindeer consequently require a great deal of care and +management, and should never be treated too roughly, or they become +totally unmanageable. Besides, great attention must be paid to them in +summer, and their pastures often changed, or they contract diseases and +die fast. + +At Veyteway, the most northern point on the eastern coast visited by Mr. +Dobell, he found a Toyune who had come a hundred and fifty versts, from +motives of curiosity, to meet him. Though he had never before seen any +one adopting the customs of civilized life, he behaved with great +propriety, and did not seem in the least embarrassed. Some of the trunks +which were covered with lackered leather and full of brass nails, +excited his astonishment, and indeed proved a fund of amusement for the +natives on all the road. Bets were made constantly as to the number of +nails on each trunk, and they were counted over and over, a hundred +times, with the greatest care. From this point Mr. Dobell struck across +the peninsula, and reached Kammina, at the head of the sea of Ochotsk, +on the 24th of March. + +In proceeding southwardly along the coast, the hardiness of his dogs was +strongly put to the test. An insufficient supply of provisions had been +laid in, and some time before they reached Igiga, the first town where a +fresh stock could be obtained, they were reduced to an allowance of half +a fish each, daily. When the dried fish were consumed, they were fed on +reindeer meat and biscuit, of which but a very small supply was left; +but it refreshed and strengthened them, so that one of the party, whose +dogs were strongest, was enabled to go on more rapidly to Igiga, to beg +from the commandant assistance and food for the rest of the party. When +the poor creatures who were left perceived the dogs coming to assist +them, nothing could exceed their joy. They sprang into the air, barked +aloud, and set forward with such eagerness to meet them, that restraint +was impossible. When they came up, they jumped and fawned upon them, and +licked them with an expression of pleasure and satisfaction which it was +impossible to mistake. As they approached the town, it was utterly in +vain to hold them back, they set off at full speed, and if it had not +been for the assistance of several of the inhabitants, who ran and +caught hold of them, the sledges would have been upset, and every thing +broken to pieces. + +Leaving Igiga, Mr. Dobell continued his journey by Yamsk and Towisk, +through the country of the Tongusees. He found these people active, +persevering, and obliging; those whom he employed performing every sort +of service with cheerfulness. They are men of small stature, slightly +made, and resembling the northern Chinese in features. Their +countenances generally were indicative of a tractable mild disposition, +and bore a strong Asiatic cast of character, which is indeed found +amongst all the natives throughout Siberia. Their fidelity, however, was +not on an equality with their other good characteristics, as our +travellers had soon an opportunity of learning, by an event which placed +their lives in most imminent peril. The provisions laid in at Towisk +were nearly consumed, and the time at which they should have reached the +next town had arrived, when the native guides confessed that they had +mistaken the road, and there was every prospect of the whole party +perishing in the desert. What were the feelings of Mr. Dobell, when +awaking one morning, in this situation, he found that the Tongusees were +no longer with him; the rascals had gone off in the night, not leaving a +single deer for food, and deserting a party of five in number, all +strangers, on one of the highest mountains of Siberia, in a wild and +uninhabited country! In this emergency Mr. Dobell displayed great +firmness, resolution, and all the energy and resources of an experienced +traveller; indeed the portion of his volumes which contains the account +of his escape from the perilous situation in which he was left, and of +the sufferings he endured, and the expedients to which he was obliged to +resort, is peculiarly and highly interesting. With the aid of a partial +map of Kamtchatka, and a pocket compass, he set out to regain the sea +coast, from which they were, as he supposed, not very far distant. +Leaving all their clothes, and every article with which they could +possibly dispense, they put the rest of their baggage on two sleds, +which they dragged with them. They limited their nourishment to the +least possible quantity of food, drinking tea, of which they had a small +supply, twice in twenty-four hours, and in the morning taking some thin +rice water, with a small lump of chocolate each, to make it palatable. +They were obliged to construct bridges of logs over numerous rivulets, +swelled with the snows, which crossed their path, and they were exposed +to a succession of furious storms. On the twentieth day they arrived at +what they supposed a long narrow lake, and determined there to pass the +night. Having left his companions to make what preparations for so doing +their wretched situation afforded, Mr. Dobell went to examine the lake. +On approaching the bank, he discovered two small ducks, quite near the +shore, and had the good fortune to shoot them both at one shot. "Running +to the water to pick them up," he says, "God only knows the +inexpressible joy that filled my heart, at beholding the water move, and +finding that we were on the banks of a large river." They all set to +work actively the next day, and had soon completed a raft on which they +embarked, and trusted themselves to the current to reach the ocean, so +long and eagerly desired. + + "We had" says Mr. Dobell, "a most unpleasant time, but anxious + to arrive at the ocean, would not lie by--particularly as the + stream increased greatly in rapidity, and hurried us along with + considerable swiftness. About one o'clock on the 10th of June, + although we were nearly in the middle of the river, which was + here upwards of a verst wide, we were suddenly seized by a + whirlpool, and in spite of our utmost efforts, having nothing + but poles to guide the raft, were drawn violently towards the + left bank, and forced under some large trees which had been + undermined by the water and hung over the surface of the + stream, the roots still holding them fast to the shore. I + perceived the danger to which we were exposed, and called out + to every one to lie flat on his face and hold fast to the + baggage. The branches were so thick it was impossible for all + to escape, and there being barely room to admit the raft under + them, they swept off the two Chinese, the Karaikee, my tin-box + with all my papers and valuables, our soup-kettle, &c. Nothing + now remained but a small tea-kettle, and a few other things + that happened to be tied fast with thongs. The Karaikee and one + of the Chinese seized hold of the branches that swept them off, + and held their heads above water, but the youngest of the + Chinese having floated away with the current, the Cossack and + myself had the greatest difficulty in paddling the raft up to + him. We came just in time to poke our poles down after him as + he sunk for the third time, which he fortunately seized, and we + drew him upon the raft half drowned. As the current was running + at the rate of six or seven miles an hour, we were carried more + than half a verst down before we gained the shore; the other + Chinese and the Karaikee crying out for assistance. I ran up + the shore as quickly as possible, taking a long pole with me, + and leaving the Cossack to take care of the raft and the young + Chinese. When I arrived at the spot, my Chinese cook informed + me he had seized my tin-box with one hand, and was so tired of + holding with the other, that if I did not come soon to his + assistance he must leave it to the mercy of the current. Whilst + I attempted to walk out on the body of the tree whose branches + they were holding, one of the roots broke and very nearly + separated it from the shore; I was therefore obliged to jump + off and stride to one that was nearly two feet under water, + hauling myself along by the branches of the others, and at + length I got near enough to give the Chinese the pole. He + seized fast hold and I pulled him between two branches, + enabling him to get a leg over one and keep his body above + water. Thus placed he tied the tin-box with his handkerchief to + the pole, and I got it safely ashore. I was now obliged to + return and assist the Karaikee, who held by some branches far + out, and where there were no others near enough for him to + reach in order to draw himself in. After half an hour's labour + I got them both on the bank, neither of them knowing how to + swim, and both much exhausted by the cold, and the difficulty + of holding so long against a rapid current." + +They continued for several days longer buffeting with the stream, and +exposed to all the inclemencies of the weather. Their food depended on +the scanty supplies of wild fowl they could shoot, and their stock of +cooking utensils was reduced to a small tea-kettle and the lid of the +tin box saved by the Chinese. + +Between two and three o'clock in the afternoon of the seventh day since +they had embarked on board their frail vessel, and nearly a month since +they had been deserted on the mountains by the treacherous Tongusees, +they found themselves in a fine wide channel, with a moderate current, +and on a beach not far below descried a man and two boys mending a +canoe. The effect the sight of human beings had upon them was deeply +interesting. Every soul shed tears of joy, and when the natives +approached to assist them in landing, they were unable for some minutes +to reply to their inquiries, and could only answer by hasty signs. The +elder person proved to be a Yakut who had seen Mr. Dobell before; as +soon as he recognised him, he sprung into the raft, clasped him in his +arms, and shed tears in abundance, exclaiming "thank God, thank God! you +are all saved!" He informed them that the Tongusees having returned and +confessed their treachery, an old chief living near Towisk had +despatched his son with a party in search of them, but that every one +there had given them up for lost, knowing how difficult it was to +procure food on those deserted plains and mountains in the spring of the +year. The miraculous escape of the party, after having been left in such +a wilderness, was indeed a matter of surprise to every one; and they had +particular reason to rejoice in having taken the route they did, as they +found on inquiry that had they pursued any other they must infallibly +have perished. + +After remaining three days with the hospitable people whom they so +fortunately encountered, and recovering their baggage which had been +left on the mountain, by means of the party sent in search of them from +Towisk, they resumed their journey, and reached Ochotsk without further +accident, on the 4th of July. + +Ochotsk, the capital of the Russian province of the same name, which +embraces the most easterly portion of that vast empire, is a town +composed of between two and three hundred houses, and about two thousand +inhabitants. It is situated in north latitude 59 deg. 20' 22", and east +longitude from Greenwich 143 deg. 20' 23", on a small island or sand bank, +three versts and three hundred paces in length, and two hundred in +breadth, where the town stands. The admiralty, marine stores, magazines, +and workshops, were examined by Mr. Dobell, and found to be disposed in +perfectly good order, and prepared for service in the best possible +manner. In the admiralty, there are a school, and shops for coopers, +turners, and blockmakers. There are also large forges, ropewalks, and +all the establishments necessary for a complete naval arsenal. Whilst +Mr. Dobell was there, a large cable was prepared for the frigate Diana, +in the course of four or five days, and appeared quite as well made as a +European cable. The flour magazines are large, and well supplied by +Yakut convoys, which constantly arrive and discharge their loads there. +These convoys consist generally of ten to thirteen horses, having seldom +more than two men to take care of them. Each horse carries on his back +six pood weight of rye flour, packed in two leathern bags, called in +Russian _sumas_, impenetrable to all sorts of weather, and extremely +convenient for carriage, hanging one on each side of the horse. These +bags are of green hide, without the hair; the flour is forced as tightly +as possible into them while they are damp, and when dry the surface is +as hard as stone. On opening them, the flour, for about half an inch +deep, is attached in a hard cake to the bag, and, if originally good, is +preserved in a very perfect state, and will keep for a great length of +time. Some of them have been known to remain all the winter under the +snow without being damaged; nor does it seem possible to carry over land +this important article of life, by any other method so safely and +conveniently as in sumas. Notwithstanding, however, all the attention +which is thus exhibited on the part of the Russian government to make +Ochotsk a complete and valuable naval station; and the care paid to its +arrangement and furnishing supplies, there yet exists an insuperable +obstacle to all their efforts, from the fact that it has not a good +port. No vessel of any great burthen, carrying guns, can enter or be +wintered there, without incurring the risk of being bilged by the ice of +the river Ochota, which flows into or forms the harbour. + +On the 19th of July Mr. Dobell left Ochotsk. He now turned inland, and +leaving the shores of the Pacific ocean, directed his course westerly to +Yakutsk, which was distant six hundred and fifty miles. He was +accompanied a short distance by a young officer named Ivan Ivanovitch +Kruz, who was forest-master at the first station called Maitah, +fifty-four versts off. Such a companion was not less unexpected than +agreeable, in so remote a corner of the world. He was a very good +botanist, and understood French and Latin; a modest, sensible, genteel +young man, and what must appear a little singular, perfectly happy and +satisfied with his situation. Even in those wild regions he filled up +his leisure hours with study and the chase, and said that he never found +the time hang heavy on his hands. + +On the road they met many convoys of horses carrying provisions to +Ochotsk; and were obliged to keep a strict watch, in order to guard +against the depredations of the Yakuts, by whom they were conducted. +These people are in the habit of stealing horses for food, whenever a +good opportunity offers on the road, being fonder of horse flesh than of +any other. When they get possession of a horse, they contrive to decamp +suddenly, and ride several versts off, where they kill the animal, bury +his bones, and conceal the flesh in their bags, before the person robbed +discovers the theft. They are men generally of small stature, light, and +very active when they choose to exert themselves; indefatigable on the +road, and surpassing every other people in conducting and taking care of +horses. In features they resemble strongly the Chinese of Nankin. The +Tongusees, on the other hand, bear a striking resemblance to the Tartars +who conquered China. The Yakuts and Tongusees however wear very much the +same costume. The hair of the women, which hangs in two or three braids +behind, is stuck over with small copper or silver plates, more or less +rich in proportion to the fortune of the wearer. Sometimes a silver or +copper plate is placed on the forehead. They occasionally wear a close +cap, adorned likewise with plates and beads, and often ornament their +boots with beads of various colours, having much the appearance of the +work on the wampum belts of our Indians. The dress of the Tongusee men +is a close coat, fitting tight round the body, with skirts reaching half +way down the legs, and resembling a frock coat. It is composed of deer +or dog skin, with the hair inward. In very cold weather they wear a +shorter coat over this, as well as parkas and kokclankas or riding +coats, which are nothing more than loose jackets or cloaks of skin, with +sleeves reaching below the knees. The Yakut dress is made in the same +way, but usually of horse or cow hide. + +On the 25th, the party crossed the ridge of mountains which extends from +the great central chain of Asia, towards the north-east, and divides the +waters falling into the sea of Ochotsk, from those flowing through the +more central parts of Siberia, towards the west and the north. On the +western side of the ridge they passed a large lake, the source of the +river Udama, surrounded by mountains, and three or four versts in +length. The Udama is a fine river, and though not abounding either with +fish or water in summer, is plentifully supplied with both in spring and +autumn, and then navigable for boats of a considerable size. It falls +into the Maia; the Maia into the Aldan; the Aldan into the Lena, one of +whose branches ascends to within three hundred and fifty versts of +Irkutsk, and which flows into the Northern ocean. A navigation is thus +afforded through the very centre of Siberia for more than two thousand +miles. It is also well adapted to the introduction of steam navigation; +and flat bottomed boats drawing little water might be successfully used +on most of these streams during a considerable portion of the year. The +adoption of such a system would tend immensely to the improvement of a +vast country, where the population is thin, but of which the natural +resources and advantages are very great. It is a mistake to suppose, as +is usually done, that it is an ungrateful wilderness, fit only for the +reception of criminals, or the home of wandering savages; no where is +nature more profusely grand and magnificent than in Siberia; and she has +offered many attractions to human industry and improvement in those +remote regions. It cannot be denied that there are some parts totally +incorrigible, owing to the severity of climate, bad soil, and other +causes; but there is ample testimony that by far the largest portion of +that country possesses resources, soil, and climate, very superior to +what is generally believed, and that it would advance rapidly if well +governed and better peopled. + +On the 5th of August Mr. Dobell reached the river Aldan, one of the +principal tributaries of the Lena, and found it a very deep stream, +about a verst and a half wide, abounding with fish. On the western shore +he saw several jourtas beautifully situated, and on inquiry was informed +they contained a colony of banished men, sent there by order of the +government. They appeared very well off, having comfortable houses, with +cattle, an abundant supply of fish, and good pastures, so that they +could never suffer from want, unless too indolent to secure the +necessaries of life. They call themselves Possellencies or colonists, +but are stiled Neshchastnie Loodie, or unfortunate people, by the +natives, who avoid, even by a name, to remind them of their unhappy +fate. + + "Banishment, then," remarks Mr. Dobell, "to such a country as + Siberia, is certainly no such terrible infliction, except to a + Russian, who, perhaps, of all beings upon earth, possesses the + strongest attachment to the soil on which he grows--taking root + like the trees that surround him, and pining when transplanted + to another spot, even though it should be a neighbouring + province, better than his own. Too much praise cannot be + bestowed on the humane system adopted by the Russian government + in saving the lives of criminals without distinction, and + transporting them to Siberia, to augment the population of a + fine country, much in want of inhabitants, where their morals + are strictly watched, and where they soon become useful, good + people. Death, in fact, is so transitory a punishment, that + unless a man has religion, and a perfect idea of rewards and + penalties in a world to come, it may have no terrors for him, + nor will its anticipation ever prevent the commission of crimes + so well as the idea of banishment and long suffering. I would + not be thought to be the advocate of cruelty; on the contrary, + I warmly espouse the principle of producing a perfect + contrition and change of sentiments and actions in the + criminal, ere we send him into the presence of his God. To + bring about this in an effectual manner, and be satisfied it + springs from a thorough conviction of his error, we must not + confine him in chains, with a priest praying at his side, until + the moment he is launched into eternity. He should be made, as + he generally is in Siberia, so far a free agent, as to have the + power of again doing wrong; else his firmness and resolution + are never put to the test; nor can that repentance be called + sincere, which springs from the imperious necessity of + immediately making his peace with his offended God, before + whose awful tribunal his merciless government sends him + suddenly to appear, with all his crimes fresh upon him. There + are certainly instances in Siberia, where convicts have again + committed crimes, and some of them even murder, and such are + confined to the mines for life; but there are few examples of + this sort, and the majority of the convicts acquire habits of + industry and good conduct superior to the same class of people + in Russia. Having seen the good effects of the Russian penal + code, what I say on the subject is no more than what truth and + justice demand; and I wish, that for humanity's sake, so bright + an example, which sheds a ray of unsullied glory on her + sovereignty, may be followed with equal success by every nation + of the earth." + +The route of Mr. Dobell continued to lead him through the country of the +Yakuts, a pastoral and industrious people, sufficient in numbers to +relieve his mind from the painful idea that so fine a country should be +destitute of inhabitants. Their whole attention is turned to the rearing +of horned cattle and horses. Milk, prepared in various ways, is their +principal sustenance; fish and water-fowl they obtain in abundance, +except in the depth of winter; but pigs, sheep, or poultry, are never +seen. On the 14th of August, he descended into an immense and fertile +plain, through which he beheld the noble Lena flowing along, and reached +the town of Yakutsk early in the evening. + +This town was, at that time, composed of two hundred and seventy houses, +and two thousand five hundred Russian inhabitants, besides a very +considerable population of Yakuts, in and about it; since then, however, +it is much increased and improved in every way. As regards climate, it +is in winter the coldest spot in all Siberia, the frost often exceeding +40 deg. of Reaumur; the average heat of summer is not beyond 16 deg., though +there are periods at which it is as hot as in the torrid zone. The +public buildings are well constructed, and kept in excellent order. +There is an ancient citadel of wood, built by the Cossacks nearly two +hundred years ago, which still forms a strong and good defence; and +affords evidence of the courage, perseverance, and intelligence, of the +conquerors of Siberia, who, with a handful of men, could erect such a +fortress in the heart of an enemy's country, and during their daily +attacks. + +At Yakutsk, Mr. Dobell fell into the track of the carrying trade over +land, which is pursued to so immense an extent through the Russian +empire. The equipage, consisting of the pack-saddles, mats, girths, &c., +is the manufacture of the Yakuts themselves, for the most part, and +though exceedingly light, is not so constructed as to enable the horse +to carry his burthen with ease. From this circumstance, great numbers of +horses are lost in their long journeys. The Yakuts, however, are +themselves excellent grooms, and, in general, kind and attentive to +their animals. They seldom beat them, and many instances are exhibited +of strong attachment between them. It is so much so, that a herd of +horses will not proceed without their master, should he stop and leave +them. They are turned out to feed at night, and are always collected in +the morning by hallooing to them. Should any of them get out of +hearing, the Yakut jumps on one of the others, who is sure to find his +companions in a very short time. When the Yakut calls, the first horse +that hears answers by neighing, and immediately the whole herd begin to +neigh and run to the keeper. + +Mr. Dobell speaks of the society of Yakutsk as hospitable, kind, and +gay. He was at several balls; found the belles well-mannered, and their +dress, like that of their fair countrywomen farther west, an object of +peculiar study. He describes the ceremonies of a Siberian wedding, which +may amuse the votaries of Hymen, whose matrimonial customs are varied by +half the circumference of the globe. + + "In the evening, the Governor waited on me, and invited me to + accompany him to a house, to see a ceremony performed, + previously to a wedding that was to take place the next day. We + repaired to the house, where we found a large party of + gentlemen and ladies assembled. The bride and her attendants + occupied one end of the room, near a large table, on which were + placed fruits, cakes, wines, &c. Tea and coffee were then + served. Afterwards, I was called to look at a procession from + an opposite building or store, called in this country an + _anbar_, where every sort of provisions, effects, &c. are kept. + I saw several low, four-wheeled vehicles, each drawn by a + single ox, loaded with furniture, bedding, clothing, &c. &c. + for the new married couple. Lights were carried before them, + and a number of young girls, assembled near the door of the + anbar, sang in concert, as each vehicle was loaded with the + effects of the bride. This ended, the party returned to the + house, when dancing commenced, and was kept up with spirit the + whole night. Before quitting the house, the parents of the + young bridegroom requested me to come the following morning, + and witness the ceremony of his taking leave of them, + previously to his going to church. At twelve o'clock, on the + 22d, we attended at the father's house, where a number of the + friends of the bridegroom were collected: several large tables + were laid for dinner, and at the principal one, near the + images, which in a Russian house are always at the eastern + corner of the room, sat the bridegroom and his attendants. A + female relative, representing the bride, was placed in the + chair on the left hand of the bridegroom; and the father and + mother sat at the opposite side of the table. Three dishes of + cold meat were placed before the principal attendant, and wine + and watky being at the same time handed round, he cut a large + cross on the first one, placing it aside; then the second, then + the third, in the same way; and, at the cutting of each, wine + and watky were handed round to the company, who rose, and drank + to the wedding party. Nothing was eaten, this being merely a + ceremony to prepare the feast for the young couple when they + should return from the church. After this, the bridegroom went + round to the opposite side of the table, holding the image of + the Virgin in his hand, and crossed himself on his knees, and + bowed his head three times to the ground, before his father, + who, when he rose, took the image from him, kissed him, and + crossed him with it on his head. The same homage was paid to + his mother, on which she delivered the image to another person, + who preceded the bridegroom and his party to the church, where + they met the bride and her attendants; and the couple were then + led to the altar, and united in the holy bands of wedlock, by + the Protopope, or Chief of the Clergy. The ceremony resembles + that of the Catholic church, except that, towards the close, + the priest places a hymeneal crown on the heads of the man and + woman, and they walk three times round a table, where lie the + cross and the Bible. This part of the proceeding is regarded as + alternately binding them in strict allegiance to each other + during the rest of their lives. There are also two rings used, + which are exchanged, from the man to the woman, during the + ceremony. The whole party now returned to the house of the + bridegroom's father, where a repast was prepared for them, + resembling all large entertainments of this sort. The healths + of the principal persons of the place were drunk, and followed + by a salute of three guns after each toast. The evening was + crowned with an illumination, and a ball, at which, as a + stranger, I had the honour of leading off the bride." + +At Yakutsk Mr. Dobell embarked in a large covered boat on the Lena, +which he ascended on his way to Irkutsk. He left the former place on the +29th of August, being drawn by horses, with the assistance of six +peasants, whom he hired to go fifteen hundred versts to Kiringee, and +who were employed at places where it was difficult for the horses. The +banks of the river were varied and picturesque; sometimes steep cliffs +and uncouth heaps of rock, in the most fantastic shapes, rose to a great +height; sometimes the shores sloped away into mountains covered with +thick forests of pine and spruce. + +On the 5th of October he arrived at Olekma, a town six hundred versts +above Yakutsk, in latitude 60 deg. 22', and east longitude 89 deg. 15' from St. +Petersburg. He found it to contain four or five hundred inhabitants. It +was, in former times, the place whence the Cossacks set out, when they +waged their wars against the Chinese, and carried their depredations as +far as the Amour. It is said, that three hundred and fifty of these +barbarian warriors were once besieged in a fortress by twenty-two +thousand Chinese, and held out against them a whole year, until a +capitulation was agreed upon, at a period when their force was reduced +to one hundred and fifty men. + +At Olekma, the season had become so cold, and there was so much floating +ice in the Lena, as to render it impossible to proceed any longer by +water. The road lay along the shores of the river, frequently obstructed +by half frozen torrents rushing into it, and occasionally cut off by +points and precipices which compelled the party to venture on the ice. + + "At Matcha, I found a clean, comfortable dwelling, and a + hospitable reception from the hostess, an old woman, who said + she had been seventeen years in Siberia, having been sent by + the Government from Archangel, to assist in increasing the + population; but she thanked God, at the same time, that she had + not been banished for misconduct. She told me she had always + lived much better than she did in Russia, and had been so + happily situated as to have never felt a wish to return. Having + received from her a fine fat fowl, some cream, vegetables, &c. + I asked her in the morning what I must pay for them. She + replied, 'a little tea and sugar, a piece of soap, and above + all, a few glasses of watky--though I would not have you + suppose I am addicted to liquor, for I only take a little now + and then to preserve my health.' Her emaciated frame and sallow + countenance belied her assertion. Complying with her request, I + begged her to preserve her health by using as little of the + spirit as possible, as it often had the opposite effect to that + of assisting the health. She laughed, and drinking a bumper to + my advice, wished me a safe journey." + +Passing Veeteem and Kiringee, two considerable towns on the Lena, Mr. +Dobell found the country improve gradually, and the post-houses +throughout comfortable, clean, and convenient; much more so than could +have been expected in remote Siberia. The horses were also furnished +with great alacrity, and the inhabitants generally were kind and +hospitable. On the 30th of October he passed Katchuk, the place where +all the merchandise is embarked in the spring for Yakutsk and other +towns on the Lena. The river is generally free enough from ice by the +5th to the 12th of May, and but fourteen days are required for the +voyage. From Katchuk to Irkutsk, the road leaves the Lena, and passes +through a fine extensive plain, bounded on either side by well +cultivated hills, and having villages and farm houses dispersed over it +in all directions. This plain is principally inhabited by a horde called +Burettas, who are, for the most part, Christians, and have taken to +agriculture with a great deal of industry and zeal. The richer class +live in log houses, but the great part dwell in cabins, similar to the +winter jourtas of the more eastern hordes. Their clothing consists of a +pelisse of dressed goat or sheep skin, with the wool inside, trimmed +with fur, and painted in black and white stripes round the shoulders. + +Irkutsk, the capital of eastern Siberia, is in latitude 52 deg. 16' 41", and +east longitude from St. Petersburg, 73 deg. 51' 48". It is built on the +margin of the river Angarra, and contains a population now probably +exceeding twenty thousand souls. The markets are good, the society is +pleasant, and a traveller finds in the very heart of Siberia almost all +the luxuries of life. In visiting the public works, the governor took +Mr. Dobell to an immense brick building, where he found the workshops of +the exiles. + + "In that large range, one sees joiners, carpenters, + carriage-makers, saddlers, blacksmiths, and in short, all sorts + of tradesmen, busily occupied, and all provided with + comfortable apartments, clean clothing, and wholesome food. + From this we passed to the cloth factory, the contemplation of + which afforded me much pleasure, when I recollected that those + beings before me, who were once the victims of depravity, + exhibited no longer any thing to inspire me with the idea of + their having been criminals. All was gaiety and cheerfulness. + There I saw men, women, and children, all industriously + employed in weaving, spinning, carding, picking wool, &c. They + were arranged in several large, clean, warm, and comfortable + apartments; and they really appeared as contented as any + labourers I ever saw; for they looked fat and healthy. + + "The cloth is made from the wool and hair of the Buretta sheep, + camels, and goats. It stands the Government in about a rouble + the arshin, and sells for two roubles. This profit, after + paying the expenses of the manufactory, leaves a surplus that + is used to furnish the hospitals, and for other laudable + purposes. Such an institution does honour to any country; nor + can there be a more praiseworthy application of the industry of + those exiles than that which operates to relieve the sick, the + fatherless, and the widow. + + "There is every reason to conclude, from the examples which + have been furnished by those countries which have adopted this + system, that the idea of confinement and hard labour is a more + powerful preventive of the commission of crimes than the fear + of death." + +At the public ship yard, Mr. Dobell saw a brig on the stocks, destined +to navigate the Baikal. The vessels generally used on that sea are built +on its shores, on account of the difficulty of ascending against the +current of the Angarra. Those belonging to the government are employed +principally to carry convicts and stores to Nerchinsk, where there are +mines of silver, gold, and precious stones, as well as a fine grain +country. The neighbourhood of Irkutsk is fertile and prolific, and the +population increasing. The climate is the mildest of Siberia, the +thermometer of Reaumur seldom exceeding 30 deg. to 34 deg. of cold, and that but +for short intervals. + +On the 25th of November, having taken leave of his hospitable +acquaintances, Mr. Dobell left Irkutsk on his journey towards St. +Petersburg. He had fresh occasion to notice the kindness and simplicity +of the people, which his subsequent visits to the country tended to +confirm. On one occasion, at the village of Krasnoyesk, in this +province, he took, at the recommendation of the governor, instead of the +usual Cossack guides, two soldiers, one a grenadier of the guards of the +regiment of Moscow, and the other of the Semenofsky, who, having been +allowed a certain time to go and see their friends in Siberia, from whom +they had been absent eleven years, were anxious to return to St. +Petersburg, and had not money to hire a conveyance. + + "They had travelled from Russia on foot, near five thousand + versts, to see their relations. The elder of the two had a wife + and two children. He related to me that when he returned to his + family, his wife, who knew him immediately, was so frightened + that she fell into a swoon; and it was nearly an hour before + she recovered her senses. His parting with his wife and + children again affected us exceedingly; but he seemed to bear + it with firmness, and said, 'God bless you, put your trust in + God: I shall return to you.' Both those men, but particularly + the married one, were the most faithful, obedient, well-behaved + men I ever saw, and proved of infinite service to me on the + road, as I travelled not with the post-horses, but with those + of the common peasants. This gives me an opportunity of + expatiating again on the moral and religious character of the + Siberians, as well as their intelligence, generosity, and + hospitality. I found on the road, even amongst the peasants, a + sympathy, a kindness and attention to the wants of my family + and myself, and a disinterestedness, that I have no where else + experienced. Many times it occurred that we lodged in a house + for the night, were furnished with bread, milk, cream, and a + supper for four servants, and I had a difficulty to make the + man of the house accept of a couple of roubles. The demand was + fifty to seventy kopeks; and sometimes payment was refused + altogether. I met a carrier who was conveying goods from Tumen + to Tomsk, a distance of about one thousand five hundred versts, + for two and a half roubles per pood! On questioning him, how he + could possibly afford to take merchandise at so cheap a rate, + he said, 'the people of my country are kind and hospitable. I + live about Tomsk, so that I must return thither; and I get a + man and a horse found a whole day for fifteen kopeks.' The + grenadier also assured me that the only expense his journey on + foot to see his family had cost him, was about twenty-five + roubles; and those were spent between St. Petersburg and + Ecatherineburg. 'After getting fairly into Siberia,' said he, + 'no one would ever receive a kopek from me for either food or + lodging.' + + "After we got into Russia, and began to suffer certain + impositions which are put upon travellers on the great roads in + every country, he would often exclaim, 'God be with me and my + beloved Siberia! There people have their consciences and their + hearts in the right place!'" + +Tomsk is fifteen hundred versts from Irkutsk, and four thousand five +hundred from St. Petersburg, being in latitude 56 deg. 29' 6", and longitude +54 deg. 50' 6" from the latter place. Its population is about ten thousand. +It has many manufactories, and a number of handsome houses, with a +pleasant though small society. After leaving it, the traveller passes +the vast and fertile plain of Baraba, where he is whirled along at the +rate of two hundred and seventy versts a day. + +The first place of importance which he reaches after crossing it, is +Tobolsk, the chief town of the province of that name, and formerly of +Siberia. Its latitude is 55 deg. 11' 14", and its longitude 37 deg. 46' 14" east +from St. Petersburg, from which, and from Irkutsk, it is distant three +thousand versts. Fourteen years ago its population amounted to thirty +thousand inhabitants, since when it has in all probability very much +increased. Its manufactories are numerous; its society is agreeable, and +gives evidence of the same hospitality which is witnessed so generally +and so gratefully by the traveller, in those remote regions; but has it +not in its very name a charm to the reader who peruses an account of it, +in its connexion with those incidents, fictitious or true, which have +been formed into one of the most simple, beautiful, and touching tales, +that have ever flowed from the imagination or the heart? + +From Tobolsk, Mr. Dobell passed rapidly through the surrounding district +of the same name, visited Ecatherineburg, where he admired, so far +beyond the ordinary limits of the arts, works in marble, agate, and +precious stones, which would have done honour to Italian artists; and +arriving at the geographical boundary that divides Siberia from Russia, +closes the narrative of his travels, which we would willingly have seen +continued to the gates of the imperial capital of the north. + + "I assure the reader," he says at the close of his truly + interesting account, "that in my humble attempt to describe + what I have seen and experienced, I have been governed by no + partial motives whatever. On the contrary, I have laboured to + represent every object faithfully as it has affected my senses. + I am, however, conscious at the same time, that it requires an + abler pen than mine to delineate adequately the sublime and + majestic works of nature in the regions I have been describing, + and to portray them to the imagination in all their simplicity, + beauty, and grandeur. Siberia does not possess the climate of + Italy, nor the luxurious productions of India; but she + possesses a fertile soil, a climate much better than is + generally believed, and natural resources of the highest value; + and she presents to the traveller such a magnificent picture of + natural objects, as is no where to be equalled except on the + immense continent of America. There is no longer any doubt but + the greater part of her territory is susceptible of high + cultivation, having a strong fertile soil, covered with superb + forests, and intersected by fine rivers, or watered by numerous + lakes, many of which may fairly be called seas. + + "The race of men produced there, are uncommonly tall, stout, + and robust; certainly the best looking people I have ever seen, + particularly those of the Western parts. My readers will now, I + am sure, agree with me, that this country, hitherto considered + the _Ultima Thule_, or the _finis mundi_, has been highly + gifted by its Creator, and only wants population and + improvement to render it the most valuable portion of his + Imperial Majesty's dominions." + +FOOTNOTES: + +[6] The old English lawyers puzzled themselves greatly in tracing the +origin of the feudal tenures. The truth is, they may be found in the +incipient stages of society in nearly every nation. They existed, in +fact, in Hindostan, China, and many other countries, for centuries +before the time of the _comites_ of the German princes, mentioned by +Tacitus, who are supposed to have founded them. The services of the +tenant varied according to the character and condition of the +people--the principle was every where the same. + +[7] The tael is $1.66; the pecul, 133-1/3 pounds. + + + + +ART. IV.--_Precis de la Geographie Universelle ou Description de toutes +les parties du Monde, sur un plan Nouveau D'apres les grandes divisions +Naturelles du Globe, &c._ Par MALTE-BRUN: Bruxelles, 1829. + + +We place at the head of our article, which we mean to devote to Physical +Geography, the title of the latest edition that we have seen of the +great work of Malte-Brun. This, which has already become well known to +our American public in translation, has received some additions from its +Belgian editors, but has not been fully brought up to the present state +of Science, nor does it contain all the new discoveries which have been +made in that part, namely, physical geography, to which our attention is +more immediately directed. We shall, however, endeavour to supply these +deficiencies so far as lies in our power. + +Physical geography stands in immediate connexion with subjects which +have already been presented to the readers of this journal, namely with +Celestial Mechanics,[8] and with the Phenomena of our Atmosphere.[9] It +shall be our endeavour to proceed from the facts laid down in the first +of the two articles to which we have referred, to the more particular +consideration of the state, the structure, and the condition of the +globe we inhabit. + +The earth is a planet of the solar system, the third in distance from +the sun, revolving upon its own axis, and around that central body +attended by a satellite; circumstances which affect in a most important +manner the phenomena that are observed upon its surface. Composed of +material substances that mutually attract each other, each particle of +which has a greater or less centrifugal force in proportion to its +distance from the axis of rotation, it has a figure that is consistent +with a state of equilibrium under the joint action of these two forces, +and which is such as would have been assumed by a fluid body actuated by +them. The figure that fulfils these conditions is an oblate spheroid, +the axis of the generating ellipse coinciding with the polar diameter of +the body. Had the earth a figure absolutely spherical, or less flattened +than is consistent with the conditions of equilibrium, the ocean, by +which so large a part of its surface is covered, would have arranged +itself in a meniscoid zone around its equatorial regions; were the +figure, on the other hand, one of greater oblateness, the waters would +have been divided and accumulated at either pole, leaving the +equatorial regions dry. But did its figure fulfil the conditions of +equilibrium, the fluid mass would tend to distribute itself equally over +the whole surface, unless prevented by irregularities in the solid mass. +The last is the actual state of things; the ocean occupies a bed formed +of cavities, lying below the mean surface of the spheroid, and the land +presents to us those asperities and elevations, which rise, although to +a comparatively small height, above the general level. + +Was then the earth originally in a fluid state, and has it assumed its +present form under the strict action of mechanical laws, on a body of +that class? are the bed of the ocean and the continents merely crusts +formed upon the surface of a liquid globe? Does the interior still +remain liquid, or has the induration proceeded until the whole internal +mass has become solid? Nay, may not the interior be hollow, as we have +recently seen gravely maintained, and heard sage legislatures recommend +to the public attention? + +Mathematical investigations of incontrovertible evidence, show us that +were the earth of equal density throughout, the flattening at the poles +would be 1/234 of the equatorial diameter; that in the hypothetical case +of infinite density at the centre, and infinite rarity at the surface, +the flattening would be no more than 1/578; while, were the surface more +dense than the interior, or did a cavity exist within, the oblateness +must be greater than 1/234. Actual measurements of portions of the +surface, the variation in the length of the pendulum which beats seconds +in different latitudes, and the effect of the earth's figure on the +lunar motions, show us that the earth cannot be flattened more than +1/289, nor less than 1/312, or may, at a mean, be considered as a +spheroid, whose polar and equatorial diameters are in the relation of +299 to 300. + +Astronomers have ascertained the deflection of plumb lines from the +vertical, by the action of mountains. The attraction of a projecting +mass of known bulk and density, with one whose bulk alone is known, is +thus determined, and hence the density of the latter may be calculated. + +Even comparatively small masses of matter may be placed under such +circumstances at the surface of the earth, that their mutual action can +be observed uninfluenced by the preponderating attraction of the earth, +and thus a new means of comparison obtained. + +The pendulum whose vibrations ought to vary according to a definite law, +as we recede from the surface of the earth, has that law affected by the +elevated ground on which it is placed, and here again a comparison may +be instituted between the general and local attractions. + +All these modes of investigation concur in, and confirm the general +result, that the mean density of the earth is about five times as great +as that of water. Now as a great portion of the surface is composed of +that fluid, and as the general density of the land is little more than +twice as great as that of water, it follows incontestably that the +interior of the earth is far more dense than its outer covering. + +All material substances are capable of assuming, under proper +modifications of latent heat, either the solid, the liquid, or the +gaseous form; yet all are beyond doubt composed of atoms, solid, hard, +and incapable of further division. Under their own mutual attraction +these particles tend to unite, and cohere in solid masses, and to this +attractive force the repulsive power of heat is constantly opposed, +tending to prevent their aggregation, and retaining them, according to +its intensity, in the gaseous or liquid form. + +The heat necessary to maintain these states of existence in bodies, may +be produced in various ways. Our usual experience leads us to consider +it as more generally arising from two causes, radiation from the sun, +and the chemical action causing combustion. The former could never have +produced the temperature known to exist at present upon the surface of +the globe, for the earth radiates as well as the sun, and is constantly +throwing off heat into the surrounding space. We know that these two +actions have for twenty centuries exactly balanced each other, and that +the mean temperature of the earth has neither increased nor diminished +in all that period. Had the solar radiation been, previously to that +epoch, in excess, it must at the more recent periods, counted backwards, +have been but slightly so, and ages unnumbered must have elapsed, before +the state of equilibrium which now exists could have been reached. The +earth too, at distant periods, must have been colder than at present, +while that the contrary is true is shown by numerous observations. + +Neither could chemical action have had any great agency in establishing +the present temperature of the earth. The substances which burn are but +a small portion of the crust of the earth, and their combustion, if all +fired at a time, would cause no perceptible effect on the sensible heat +of the surface of our globe. Were combustible bodies even infinitely +more abundant, the supporters are insufficient to keep up their +combustion for any length of time, without sensible diminution, and this +would be the case, even were the whole of the oxygen that now exists as +a component of the waters of the ocean added to their present amount. It +is indeed possible that the outer shell of the earth, which is no more +than a crust of oxidated matter, may have existed at first in the +metallic state, but that crust has long intervened, and prevented any +contact between the air or ocean, and the metallic bases of the earths, +that in this case must lie beneath. + +In spite of these obvious objections to their theory, some geologists +have madly fancied to themselves a great internal fire, maintained by +actual combustion, a fancy but little more rational than that which +seeks, in the present order of things, precipitation from some vast +quantity of a liquid menstruum, every trace of whose existence has now +vanished. + +There is, however, yet another source of heat, if indeed solar heat be +not a mere case of its general action, far more general and universal, +which has its origin in the bodies themselves, and has no reference to +any extrinsic cause. All bodies are sensibly heated when condensed, and +lose sensible heat when they expand, so that their temperatures vary +with the greater or less distance of their particles. The atmosphere of +the earth furnishes a marked illustration of this fact. Of nearly +uniform chemical composition throughout, its elastic nature, conflicting +with its gravity, renders it more dense in its lower than in its higher +regions. The former are in consequence warmer than the latter, and the +mean temperature of our climates is in fact due to this character of our +atmosphere. But this mean temperature could not be maintained, were not +that of the earth itself in harmony with it. The surface might, no +doubt, be cooled or heated by the adjacent air, but the heat, if given +out from an earth warmer than the atmosphere, would be rapidly replaced +from within, and a constant accumulation ensue in the air, while, if the +earth were cooler, a diminution, equally constant, of the temperature of +the atmosphere, must take place. The earth is, however, itself subject +to the same law. All the materials of which it is composed, are capable +of compression, in a greater or less degree, and of being heated by +compression. The tendency of all material substances to the centre of +attraction, loads the parts nearest to that centre with the whole weight +of the superincumbent mass. And in the depth of four thousand miles, +which intervenes between the centre and the surface, the heat must be +far more than equal to that obtained by the compound blow-pipe or +galvanic deflagrator, under whose intense energies the most refractory +substances liquefy. Hence it may be inferred as a fact, as certain as +any in physical science, that the interior of the earth is at present in +a state resembling igneous fusion, not produced, however, by any of the +more familiar sources of heat, but by the intense pressure the upper +masses exert upon those nearer to the centre. + +Here, then, we find the reason of the earth's having assumed a figure +consistent with the equilibrium of a fluid mass, whose particles are +endued with a mutual attraction, and which has a motion around an axis. + +Let us suppose all the particles which now constitute the earth, to have +been originally disseminated throughout a vast space, and to have +approached their common centre of gravity by the force of mutual +attraction; the consideration thus caused would have produced the state +of intense heat that is now kept up within by pressure; and the +conducting power of the bodies would have propagated the heat nearly +equal throughout the mass. The surface would then have existed in a +liquid state as well as that beneath. But as the radiation from the +surface of a heated body is in exact proportion to its temperature, this +cause of cooling would have been intense, and a crust must soon have +formed upon the outer surface; this crust would have increased in +thickness so long as the heat thrown off by radiation exceeded that +received from the sun. When this state of equilibrium was finally +attained, all the great phenomena which a body thus heated could +exhibit, would cease, and the subsequent changes would become due only +to forces such as we now see acting upon the surface, or would be the +completion of actions commenced during the previous state. + +We know, from astronomical investigations, that this state of +equilibrium has existed for upwards of twenty centuries, while analogy +would lead us to infer that it must have been attained at no long period +after the last great catastrophe to which our planet was subjected. + +Let us now see whether the fact of the interior of the globe being more +intensely heated than its surface, can be inferred in any other manner +than from the course of reasoning whose principles are here cited. The +feeble power of man, feeble at least compared to the size of the globe +he inhabits, has been able to penetrate to but small depths in its outer +shell, but even at these small depths, an increase of temperature has +been remarked, and so frequently and carefully observed, as to leave no +doubt of its being a general law. This increase, too, appears exactly +consistent with that which it might be inferred ought to take place. But +we, even to the present day, occasionally see the igneous fluid from +beneath forced up to the surface, and spreading from volcanic craters +over great regions. Observation shows us that at remote epochs such +phenomena were much more frequent than at present. We want no more +positive proofs that the interior of the earth is still intensely +heated, and that the bed of the ocean and the solid land are mere crusts +formed upon the surface of a mass in a state analogous to that of +igneous fusion. + +Were the surface, as we have inferred it must have been, ever itself +intensely heated, the volatile and gaseous matters which now constitute +our atmosphere and oceans, must have united to form an atmosphere of far +greater extent than it is at present. The aqueous matter rising into +regions where the rarity of the air would cause cold sufficient to +condense it, would have been in a state of constant motion, boiling in +the lower regions, being precipitated in the higher, and acting most +energetically to promote the general cooling. And so soon as the surface +became cooler than 212 deg., the water would begin to settle upon its +surface, forming at first lakes in its basins or cavities, and finally +extending itself into one vast ocean, covering the whole or parts of the +solid crust according to its greater or less degree of uniformity. + +The conversion of the igneous liquid surface into solid matter, could +only have taken place in successive shells or concentric layers; hence +would arise a stratified character. And as the cooling proceeded, +lowering the mean temperature of the whole mass, a consequent diminution +of bulk must have taken place, according to the well known law of +expansion by heat and contraction on cooling. Such diminution in bulk +must have broken the strata into fragments, through the fissures of +which, according to the laws of hydrostatics, the fluid mass beneath +would rise until the equilibrium of rotation would have been obtained, +and the strata, originally concentric, would be dislocated and turned in +every possible direction, pierced with veins and dikes of all possible +magnitude, from slender threads to mountain masses, caused by the +cooling and consolidation of the rising fluid, and occasionally +spreading in overlying currents, congealed and fixed in ridges and +chains. These veins and dykes would present different characters, +according to the dates of their elevation. If raised at a period when +the surface was still of high temperature, they must have crystallized +slowly, and in a perfect manner; at diminished temperatures, the +crystallization would be less complete; if raised into the mass of +ocean, they would assume one character; if coming in contact with air, +another. A breaking of the bed of the ocean, and bringing its waters in +contact with the liquid mass beneath, might produce consequences +extending in their action to districts of the globe, the most remote +from those in which the convulsion occurred; for the water, rising into +vapour, would tend to extend itself in one uniform atmosphere over the +whole surface of the globe, and might be precipitated in unusual +abundance wherever causes of condensation existed. Thus, partial, or +even total deluges, may have occurred, great portions of the ocean being +hurried in vapour from its bed, and precipitated upon the land whose +temperature is not affected by the distant catastrophe. + +The waters might, in some cases, flow directly back to the ocean, in +others might accumulate in basins and form lakes, fresh at first, and +gradually becoming saline. These in turn might burst their bounds, +carrying ruin and devastation in their course, or might by evaporation +be dried up, and be again filled by a recurrence of the original cause +of supply. + +Such violent and rapid action would finally be exhausted by the gradual +cooling of the earth, but the outer crust would still press on the +igneous fluid beneath, and although far less liable to rupture, its +fluid action might yet enable it to force its way occasionally to the +surface, but at distant intervals, and with diminished energy. Now, a +new series of phenomena must occur, similar to the more familiar of +those we see acting at present; at first more intense, but finally, when +the state of equilibrium of temperature is reached, exactly such as we +now find them both in kind and in energy. + +To see how far such a view of what might have occurred, under the action +of well known causes, in case of a certain original order of things, is +correct, let us examine the appearances our globe actually presents. + +To a systematized and general examination, it presents the appearance of +a great ocean, covering about three-fourths of its whole surface, and +surrounding two great, and a number almost infinite of smaller islands. +The two great islands are the old and the new continents; the largest of +those that remain is New-Holland. To exhibit this great ocean in its +most general aspect, take an artificial globe, raise the south pole 50 deg. +above the horizon, and bring New-Zealand to the meridian. The hemisphere +above the horizon will now be wholly of water, with the exception of the +southern part of South America on the one side, and New-Holland, with +the Indian archipelago, on the other. These bear, when united, but a +small proportion to the entire hemisphere. The opposite hemisphere +contains more land than water; and when it is in its turn placed above +the horizon, the Atlantic will be seen lying almost wholly on the +western side of the meridian, and forming, with the Arctic ocean, a +species of channel, narrowing from the latitude of the Cape of Good Hope +towards the northern pole, and communicating with the great ocean which +lies principally in the opposite hemisphere by Behring's straits. On +this hemisphere are also seen parts of the Pacific and Indian oceans, +which are considerably more than equal in surface to the lands which +project into the opposite one. + +If we turn our attention to the land, we find it unequal in its surface; +and although compared with the whole diameter of the earth, the +inequalities be very small, yet, compared with our own stature, they +often present an imposing magnitude. These greater elevations are +mountains; and we find them sometimes united in chains, sometimes +isolated, and at other times uniting to form elevated plains or table +lands. These table lands sometimes slope outwards, at others they are +surrounded by eminences that prevent the efflux of the waters, or only +admit them to pass through apertures made by their own action. Upon our +continent, table lands of the latter description are to be found of +great magnitude, entering as parts of the great system of the +Cordilleras or Andes; in Europe they are rare, but in Tartary, Persia, +and in central Africa, they occur, forming regions of great extent. In +general, the greater part of the mountains of a continent appear to have +a connexion more or less obvious; it has even been conceived that they +form the skeleton upon which the rest of the land has been deposited, +and which has determined the form of the continent. Thus we speak +habitually of chains of mountains. Mountains, however, do not always +present a continuous ridge, from which the peaks or more elevated +summits rise, but occasionally, the groups we call chains, are composed +of separate mountains divided by valleys; such are the mountains of +Scotland, of Sweden, and Norway; and such is the general structure of +the chain of mountains called in the state of New-York the Highlands, of +whose connexion and grouping we shall hereafter speak. + +This being understood, namely, that by a chain or ridge of mountains we +do not necessarily intend a continuous elevation, the term may be +conveniently used in order to express the configuration of mountains. +These chains surround or border upon greater or less basins, which are +each distinguished by the name of the principal stream that conveys its +surface waters to the ocean, or they may, as has been stated, envelop a +table land, whence there is no issue for the waters, or no more than a +mere passage sufficient to afford them an outlet. Even if a map contain +no expression of the position of mountains, we can, by mere inspection +of the courses of rivers, determine the lines in which the chains are +directed, and, from the size of the rivers, judge in some measure of the +elevation of the district. Thus, on inspection of the map of Europe, we +find four of its greatest rivers rising at no great distance from each +other, the Rhine, the Rhone, the Danube, and the Po; here, then, we +might infer a great elevation, and here we accordingly find its highest +mountains, the Alps. In another part of this continent, we see the +Dwina, the Nieper, and the Volga, diverge from points not far distant +from each other, and here accordingly we find an elevated table land, +two hundred miles in length by fifty in breadth, marked however by no +mountain summits. In central Asia, we see a vast space inclosed by lines +joining the sources of a number of mighty rivers, the Indus, the Ganges, +the Barrampooter, the Irrawaddy, the Houng Ha, and Kiang Ku, the Amour, +the Lena, the Yermisir, and the Oby; accordingly, here we find the +greatest table land surrounded by the highest mountains of the globe. +Still, however, the instance we have cited of the rivers of Russia +shows, that the land whence great rivers take their rise, is not +necessarily mountainous; in this case the ascent is almost +imperceptible, and the summit offers the aspect of a level and marshy +plain. Such also occurs in the famous boundary between the United +States and Canada, where the highlands that figured in two successive +treaties have disappeared, and in their supposed place has been found a +series of swamps. + +Attempts have been made to arrange the chains of mountains into +connected systems. Of these the most successful is that of Malte-Brun. + + "If we draw a line from the centre of Thibet, across Chinese + Mongolia towards Ochotsk, and thence towards Cape Tchutscki, + the eastern promontory of Asia, this line will in general + coincide with a great chain of mountains which runs from the + south-west to the north-east, and which every where descends + rapidly towards the Indian and Pacific oceans, while on the + contrary, it extends itself towards the Frozen ocean in high + plains and secondary hills. It is probable that we may some day + refer to the same rule the chain of Lapata, called the backbone + of the world, in Africa; at any rate this chain runs from the + Cape of Good Hope to that of Gardafui, in a direction + south-east and north-west, and therefore in nearly the same + direction as the great chain of Asia, but we are ignorant of + the disposition of the slopes of these mountains. We may regard + the mountains of the Happy Arabia, which are both steep and + lofty, as the link that connects the mountains of Lapata with + the table lands and mountains of Persia, which proceed from the + mountains of Thibet. + + "If we follow the western coasts of America, from Behring's + straits, which hardly form a sensible interruption, to Cape + Horn, we find an uninterrupted chain of mountains. From time to + time this chain retires a little into the interior, but more + frequently it immediately borders upon the great ocean, in + immense cliffs, and often by frightful precipices. On the other + side of it, the manner in which the lakes discharge themselves, + and the direction of the great rivers, show sufficiently, that + the surface of America inclines gently towards the Atlantic + ocean. + + "It results from a combination of these observations, that the + greatest chains of mountains on our globe, are ranged in an arc + of a circle around the great ocean, and the sea of India; that + they seem to present rapid descents towards the immense basin + they surround, and gentle slopes on their opposite sides; in + fine, from the Cape of Good Hope to Behring's straits, and + thence to Cape Horn, the eye of the most timid observer cannot + fail to see some trace of an arrangement, as surprising from + its uniformity, as from the vast extent of ground which it + embraces. + + "Let us pause for an instant to consider this great fact of + physical geography. If we conceive ourselves placed in New + South Wales, with our face turned towards the north, we have + America on our right hand, Africa and Asia on our left. These + continents, which we hardly before ventured to approach in our + imagination, considered in this point of view, form a + consistent system, whose structure, as far as we are acquainted + with it, presents in its great features an astonishing + symmetry. A chain of enormous mountains surrounds an enormous + basin; this basin, divided into two by a vast collection of + islands, often bathes with its waves the feet of this great + primary chain of the earth." + +In this chain lie the greatest mountains of the globe. One peak of the +Himmalayah rises nearly five miles above the level of the sea; another +has a height of 25,500 feet; and a third of 22,217 feet. In South +America are Soratu, in height 25,250 feet. + + Illimani, 24,000 + Chimborazo, 21,400 + +not to mention Antisana, Mauflos, Chillau, Cotopaxi, all of which exceed +in height any mountains that do not lie in this great system. Nay, did +not the great Volcano of Owyhee enter into the order with a height of +18,000 feet, the list of those surpassing the other mountains of the +globe, might be very much extended. + +We shall have occasion hereafter to speak of the volcanic energies still +exerted in this vast stony girdle, and shall therefore confine ourselves +strictly to mere external form. + +The arms and branches of mountain chains enclose as has been seen, +basins marked by rivers which convey their surface waters to the ocean. +The rains which fall on the sides of mountains and hills, unite in +torrents and streams, which follow the lines of most rapid slope in +their course to the sea. + +The greater rivers mark the lowest part of a principal basin, on each +side of which, at a greater or less distance, are to be found rising +grounds, themselves hollowed out into lateral secondary basins, +containing courses of water less considerable than the first, into which +they cast themselves, and whose branches they are. The borders of these +secondary basins are again hollowed out into basins of a third order, +whose slopes also contain water courses less considerable than the +preceding, into which they in turn discharge themselves. This +ramification continues until we reach the smallest ravines of the +boundary mountains, and the map appears, as it were, covered with a net +work of rivers and lesser streams. The great valley of the Mississippi +and Missouri, forms perhaps the most striking instance of this sort, +upon the surface of our globe. + +Rivers and streams are constantly exerting a mechanical action on the +surfaces over which they run; abrading and tearing off fragments even of +the hardest rocks, they roll them in their course until the velocity +becomes insufficient to transport them farther. At diminished velocities +they move fragments of less size, down to the smallest pebbles; at still +less velocities, they transport sand, and finally earthy matter, in the +most minute division. These are deposited in succession in positions +corresponding to the rapidity of the stream, and hence the beds of +rivers present at each of their different sections, materials of +magnitude and quality corresponding to the rate at which the stream +usually flows. The increase in the magnitude of streams, due to violent +rains and the melting of the snows, changes the position of the +substances that compose their bed, and the more easily suspended +materials are often held until the stream actually meets the ocean. In +such sudden increases, the streams often overflow their usual banks, and +make their deposits laterally, until the constant succession of such +deposits raises the adjacent ground high enough to set bounds to the +further spreading of the stream. This deposit is remarkable for its +taking place in greatest quantity close to the usual bed of the stream; +and thus it speedily opposes natural dykes to its own redundant waters. +This action is most conspicuous at points where marked changes take +place either permanently or periodically in the rapidity of running +water: when streams descend from mountains into lines of less descent, a +deposit uniformly takes place, forming _flats_ or _intervals_, as they +are styled in the United States, of which we have such beautiful +instances in the valleys of the Connecticut and Mohawk, and that part of +the Hudson near Albany; again, where rivers meet the sea, they are +interrupted in their course by the rise of the tides of the ocean, and +here again deposits take place, sometimes forming shoals and banks in +the ocean itself; at other times, bars and obstructions at their own +mouths; and again, deltas of solid land, constantly encroaching upon the +sea. This action, which is continually going forward, is called +alluvial. The delta of greatest fame, and from which the others have +derived their generic name, is that of the Nile; this we have evidence, +almost historic, to prove to be wholly the gift of the river. And if it +no longer increase as rapidly as in former ages, the cause is obvious, +for the alluvion has been pushed so far forward as to meet a strong +current that sweeps along the African coast, and must carry off much of +the earth the Nile discharges into the Mediterranean. The great rivers +of Asia and of America carry still greater quantities of solid matter, +but we have not the same distant traditions to refer to for the amount +of the increase they have caused; still, however, we know that the mouth +of the Mississippi has been advanced into the Gulf of Mexico several +leagues since the settlement of Louisiana; and that islands of great +extent are frequently formed, in the course of a single year, by the +deposits of the Ganges. + +We however find traces of aqueous action far more extensive and powerful +than those which are now taking place under our eyes by fluviatile +action. There is no part of the globe that has been examined, which does +not show that it has been subjected to the action of water, in floods +far more powerful than any we now are in the habit of seeing. Every +where, except in the case of rocky cliffs, and steep mountains, or where +we see obvious evidence of a recent elevation, we find the surface +strewn with the deposits of water: boulders of greater or less size, +beds of gravel, sand, and clay, form the present outer coating of the +greatest part of the land. These deposits were long confounded with the +alluvial, but have at length been proved, by incontrovertible evidence, +to be the results of an action, which if not contemporaneous, must have +been universal. We have seen an able attempt to show that this species +of deposit did not take place at one and the same period, but was merely +the general consequence of similar causes acting at different epochs. +Our impression, we must however confess to be, that the action was not +only co-extensive with the globe, but contemporaneous. It at any rate +exhibits proofs the most satisfactory, that the last great and +extensive change which our earth has undergone, was effected by the +agency of water, in a state of rapid and violent motion. Ascribing this +deposit to a single flood, it has been styled diluvial. + +There are cases where alluvial deposits rest upon the diluvium, and from +the depth of these it has been attempted to calculate the time that has +elapsed since the former of these actions was resumed. The diluvium has +also been found in caverns lying upon an ancient stalagmite, and covered +again with a new formation of that modification of carbonate of lime. +The thickness of the latter deposit has also been made the basis of a +calculation, and although neither of these methods is to be considered +as approaching to an accuracy more perfect than some hundreds of years, +the two methods confirm each other in the general result, which is, +that, at a date not more remote than fifty or sixty centuries, there +must have taken place a total submersion of all the land, except, +perhaps, the tops of high mountains, did they then exist. We have in the +sacred volume, a record of such a catastrophe, the flood of Noah, and +from that time to the present, no convulsion, equally extensive in its +influence, has devastated the globe. Have not then the geologists who +have seen in these indications the convincing evidence of that +occurrence, been warranted in their inference, of the identity of an +event pointed out by undeniable physical evidence, with one recorded in +a history to which one of the most confirmed sceptics has recently +admitted the merit of truth? + +The diluvial deposits are found not only in the lower grounds, but on +the tops and sides of lofty mountains; we have ourselves noted them +distinctly characterized at high elevations upon the Kaatskills; they +are found among the Alps at Valorsine, 6000 feet above the level of the +sea, and in another place at more than 7000 feet. The excavations made +in the extension of the city of New-York at Corlaer's Hook, have laid +open a vast mass of diluvium, and afforded means for studying it with +great facility. It in fact presented the appearance of a great cabinet +of specimens of primitive and transition rocks, and it was possible in +many cases to determine the very mountain whence the fragments had been +torn. The most remarkable boulder, for instance, of a weight of at least +an hundred tons, was distinctly recognisable as identical in every +respect with the granitic syenite of Schooley's mountain, distant at +least forty miles. Others had no known type nearer than Connecticut, in +the opposite direction, while the gneiss and mica slate of the island of +New-York, with their various embedded minerals, the serpentine and many +of the magnesian minerals of Hoboken, with sandstone and trap of the +Pallisadoc range, were distinctly recognisable. In this great +excavation, where a region of a mile square was wholly removed, to a +depth, in many places, of thirty feet, no animal remains, as far as can +be learnt, were detected; thus marking a most important difference +between these deposits and those of the Old continent. Such is the +remark of an intelligent geologist, whom we are proud to reckon as our +_collaborateur_, and to whom that branch of Natural History is under no +small obligations. + + "Fragments of granite and other primitive rocks, cast here and + there upon stratified formations, and interpersed in + diluvium,[10] present a fact as certain as it is astonishing. + All the chains of Mount Jura, all the mountains that precede + the Alps, the hills and plains of Germany and Italy, are strewn + with blocks of granite, often of a great dimension, and always + of a composition as pure, and as perfect a crystallization, as + the granites of the higher Alps. The same phenomenon is + repeated in the plains of Russia, of Poland, of Prussia, of + Denmark, and of Sweden. From Holstein to Eastern Prussia, + diluvial[11]grounds, sand and clay, are covered with an immense + number of blocks of granite. Near the island of Usedom, several + points of granite rock rise from the bottom of the Baltic. We + see in like manner, Scania and Jutland so filled with these + fragments, that they construct of them enclosures, houses and + churches. In the Lymfiord, a gulf of Jutland, and at some + places on the western side of that peninsula, great points of + granite rise from the bottom of the waters. But what is still + more remarkable, is to see immense masses of granite lying on + the tops of Roeduburg and Osmond, which are more than 6000 + feet in height, and are therefore among the highest mountains + in the North of Europe." + +Beneath the diluvial deposit, we find beds and strata of substances of +different character, and which appear on a cursory view to be involved +in inextricable confusion. Long and careful examination has at length +been efficient in ascertaining that in this apparent disorder are to be +seen the traces of an order, as perfect as that of any other mechanism +of nature, and of a succession of changes by which the earth has been +finally fitted for the habitation of man. These strata have been finally +arranged into five distinct classes, differing in their characters and +position. These have been so fully described in a former article in this +Journal, by the distinguished associate whom we have already quoted, +that no more remains for us to say, than what is merely necessary to +keep up the connexion of our subject. + +These stratified rocks or formations are remarkable for the regular +order in which they succeed and overlie each other, furnishing distinct +and indisputable evidence of their having been formed in succession. The +first set of strata, which are never covered by any of the others, and +hence are conceived to be of most recent formation, lie inclined at a +small angle to the horizon. In many cases they do not assume the +character of rocks, but although distinctly stratified, are often soft +and friable, presenting beds of marle and clay, and thick deposits of +sand. In some cases their appearance is so similar to diluvial or even +alluvial deposits, that they might be mistaken for them, were it not +for their more regular stratification. These are the tertiary formations +of the German school, the superior order of Coneybeare and Philips. + +Issuing from beneath these, and forming in their turn a considerable +portion of the surface of the earth, rising occasionally into +considerable hills, are strata of less uniform and regular inclination, +forming basins and cavities in which the tertiary deposits are often +found to lie, curved to conform to the bottoms of these basins. + +The third and fourth series issue in their turn from beneath the +preceding, as does the fifth from beneath the fourth. Each is marked in +succession, by a greater degree of confusion or distortion in the +stratification, until the last, which is apparently upheaved and thrown +about without any regularity, its strata being occasionally found in +positions almost vertical. Not only is the succession of the five +different orders of rocks constant, but so is that in which the several +rocks of each series overlie each other. This regularity of succession +is, however, subject to this law; namely, that rocks of particular +orders, or even the whole order itself, may be wanting in particular +districts; thus, tertiary formations may be directly upon the lower +order, and the second, third, and fourth, may not be present; or any one +of the higher orders may lie directly upon any one of those we have +stated to be inferior to it; but it has never been observed that the +arrangement itself has been inverted, or that a rock which is in one +place inferior, becomes, in its turn, superior in another. + +The fifth, or inferior order, is uniformly found beneath one or all of +the others; and, we may infer, that it in fact underlies the whole +surface of the globe, forming not only the foundation of the solid land, +but the original bottom on which the present bed of the sea is +deposited. The rocks that compose this series are all highly crystalline +in their character, are mostly composed of substances wholly or nearly +insoluble in water, are wholly devoid of organic remains, and are in +fact such substances as might be supposed to have been formed by slow +cooling, from a state of igneous fusion. Is it then assuming too much to +infer, that they are in fact the crust which has been first formed upon +the surface of the earth, intensely heated by its own condensation, +under the action of the gravitating force, that, communicated to it by +the hand of the Creator, determined its figure, and still maintains its +equilibrium. We do not include in this class, as is usually done, the +crystalline rocks not stratified, as we conceive them to have been +formed in another manner, to which we shall hereafter refer. All the +four higher series of strata show, in the most evident manner, that +their formation has been due to the action of water; the grauwacke is, +perhaps, the only rock that exists among them, in which the question +could, even on simple inspection of specimens, appear doubtful; but this +rock lies at the base of the old red sandstone, and upon the limestone +of the submedial order, or transition, as it is styled by the +Wernerians, and is equally regular in its stratification with either; we +cannot, therefore, admit any other cause of its formation than what is +common to them. + +Some of these strata are obviously mechanical, others chemical deposits; +thus, the sandstones and conglomerates are certainly the products of the +disintegration of older rocks by a violent abrasion of running water, +and have settled when the currents have ceased to flow; all calcareous +rocks, except the limestones of the inferior or fifth order, the +primitive of Werner, on the other hand, appear to have been products of +chemical precipitation; while there are a few cases, as in the beds of +rock salt, where the deposit must have been due to evaporation. + +Of all these rocks and formations, the primitive, as has already been +stated, and the sandstones, are wholly devoid of organic remains. And +even the last rule is to be received as not wholly free from exception; +for vegetable impressions have been found, as we are credibly informed, +in sandstone, at Nyack on the Hudson, and near Belleville in New-Jersey, +besides some other similar cases we shall hereafter note. All the other +strata present a greater or less abundance of the traces of the organic +kingdoms, from the slate, which lies lowest of the fourth order, to the +most recent beds of the tertiary, and to so much of the diluvium as has +been examined in the old continent. And although in the isolated case of +the diluvium at New-York, no fossil remains have been found, we are yet +unprepared to admit this as more than an exception, and are inclined to +think that the remains of the mastodon, for instance, must be diluvian, +or pre-diluvian. In this opinion, however, we know that we are opposed +by high authority, and therefore do not express it without hesitation. + + "Organized fossil remains belong to three different classes: + the remains that have preserved their natural state, at least + in part; petrifactions; and impressions. + + "The remains of the first class are principally bones, and even + entire skeletons, which, after having been stripped of the skin + and flesh that covered them, have remained, some buried in the + earth, others hidden in deep caverns. They are, sometimes, + calcined in whole or in part, without having lost their + configuration; they at others preserve, not only their texture, + but even some traces of their hair and skin. They are also + occasionally seen covered with a calcareous crust. + + "Petrifactions, to use this word in its familiar sense, include + all stony bodies that have the figure of an organized body. + There are cases in which a strong solution has penetrated into + a cavity formed by an organic body that has disappeared. Then + the strong substance has occupied the cavity that has been left + empty, and has taken the external form of the body that + formerly existed there. If this body were, for instance, a + branch or trunk of a tree, the stone will have at its surface + its knots and asperities; but within, it will present all the + characters of a true stone; it will be no more, to use the + language of Hauy, than the statue of the substance that it has + replaced. + + "At other times, a vegetable or animal substance, while + undergoing decomposition in a successive manner, and by obvious + degrees, is pressed by the petrifying liquid that already + surrounds it. As soon as an organic particle has disappeared, + its place is occupied by one of stone." + + * * * * * + + "Metallized bodies, and those which have been changed into + bitumen or carbon, belong to this system of formation; thus, + the turquoises, for instance, are the teeth of a great marine + animal; a metallic substance has penetrated them, and has + gradually replaced the softer parts of the bones. + + "Impressions are often found between the plates of slaty rocks; + they are relievos or intaglios representing the skeletons of + animals, particularly fish, leaves, seeds, and entire plants, + of which the most common kind belong to the forus." + +The impressions of vegetables are most abundant in the shales that +accompany coal formations; those of leaves and branches are the most +common, but there are a few instances in which they retain the delicate +structure of the flowers. All analogy leads to the inference, that those +now found in temperate climates, are of such a character as could only +exist in tropical regions; and when, as in some of the newer formations, +the species are identical with those which now exist, the living type is +only found within the torrid zone. A still more curious fact, is their +identity in similar formations in different parts of the world. At the +present day, the same soil in Pennsylvania and England produces plants +of very different characters, and those which are native to each are of +wholly distinct genera and species, while the fossils that accompany the +coal in the two countries are precisely similar. But even those brought +by Parry from the polar region of Melville island, are identical with +those of England, and of course with those of this distant part of the +same hemisphere in which the former are formed, although the character +of the climate is so diverse. At the epoch of the coal formation, there +existed plants, of genera, which, in temperate climates, at present +rarely rise to more than a few inches in height, and which were at that +remote period of enormous size. Thus, the forus must have attained the +height of from fifty to sixty feet. At present, the forus assume the +size of a tree only in the very warmest climates, and even there, are +far inferior in magnitude to those of the coal formation. Now, it is +well known, that the large size of the living species is due to great +and constant heat, and copious moisture. Hence we may fairly infer that +similar circumstances existed even at Melville island, where, at the +present time, for the greater part of the year, the thermometer is below +the freezing point. + +As further instances of the same kind, we may quote the following facts. +Faujas St. Fond found, in a marly slate, covered by lava, in France, the +tree cotton, the liquid amber styrax, the cassia fistula, and other +plants of tropical regions. The same observer found the fruit of the +arcea palm near Cologne. The elastic bitumen of Derbyshire in England, +is identical with the caoutchouc, which now grows only in the warmer +parts of South America; and the amber of Prussia appears to be a fossil +gum, similar to the Copal. + +Among the more recent in formation of fossil vegetables, are the +bituminized woods; these are often buried to great depths by diluvian +action, but are never found in perfect rock. The most remarkable +instance of this kind is at Bovey-Heathfield, in England, and beneath is +found the retinasphaltum, that seems to be no more than the expressed +viscorous juice of the trees. Coal is a similar formation, but due to a +more ancient period. The mines of Pennsylvania occasionally furnish +specimens, in which the fibre of the wood is as distinctly visible as in +recently prepared charcoal. However these vast beds may have been +formed, no doubt whatever can exist in respect to their vegetable +origin. + +Among animal remains found in the fossil state, shells and zoophytes are +the most abundant. They form the principal parts of rocks which often +occupy considerable districts. They are most frequent in calcareous +strata, from the transition limestones to the highest of the marles. A +remarkable fact is observed in respect to these shells, and the other +fossils which accompany them; those which are found in the oldest, or +transition formations, are more different from those that now exist, +than those in the more modern deposits. Thus the transition limestones +and slates contain terrebratulites, with encrinites, pentacrinites, and +trilobites; in those of the submedial and medial series we find +belemnites and the cornu ammonis; many of which are extinct genera, and +some of which are of families that are no longer found living on our +globe, while even where the genus is now to be met with, the species at +least has become extinct; while in the latest of the tertiary or +superior formations, we find ostracites, pectinites, buccinites, +chamites, and many other genera that are still abundant, and even types +of living species. + +By far the greater part of the animals whose remains are found in the +older strata are aquatic, and the vast extents over which they are +distributed, show, that the waters must at one time have covered a very +great proportion of what is now dry land. Nor has this change been +produced by any gradual subsidence, for we find no coincidence in the +levels of those portions of the land that contain similar fossils; some +for instance are still lower than the level of the present ocean; +others, again, of similar character, rest upon the tops or sides of the +highest mountains. In Europe, the tops of the highest of the Pyrenees, +rising 11000 feet above the level of the sea, are of limestone, +containing numerous fossil remains, while Humboldt found a rock, +similarly characterized, among the Andes, at the height of 14000 feet. + +The ancient philosophers, who, in other departments of physical science, +were far behind the moderns, seem in this alone to have pursued a +process of inductive reasoning, which led to results far more accurate +than any attained by the moderns, until within a very few years. The +dogmatism which determined to find in every fossil aquatic remain a +proof of the particular Noachic deluge, and the timidity of those whose +researches had made them better informed, left the world wholly in the +dark as to the real inferences to be drawn from a study of the structure +of the earth; but what modern geologist could better express what are +now admitted opinions, than the words which the Roman poet puts in the +mouth of Pythagoras. + + "Vidi ego, quod quondam fuerat solidissima tellus, + Esse Fretum. Vidi factas ex aequore terras: + Et procul a pelago conchae jacuere marinae; + Et vetus inventa est in montibus anchora summis. + Quodque fuit campus, vallem decursus aquarum + Fecit: et eluvie mons est deductus in aequor: + Eque paludosa siccis humus aret arenis; + Quaeque sitim tulerant, stagnata paludibus hument. + Hic fontes Natura novos emisit, at illie + Clausit: et antiquis concussa tremoribus orbis + Flumina prosiliunt; aut exaecata resident." + +The order in which fossil remains are found to succeed each other in the +successive formations that are to be traced from the oldest rocks to the +diluvial deposit, are well illustrated in the words of a late +distinguished philosopher, whom we shall quote. + + "In those strata which are deepest, and which must consequently + be supposed to be the earliest deposited, forms, even of + vegetable life, are rare; shells and vegetable remains are + found the next in order; the bones of fishes and oviparous + reptiles exist in the following class; the remains of birds, + with those of the same genera mentioned before, in the next + order; those of quadrupeds of extinct species in a still more + recent class; and it is only in the loose and slightly + consolidated strata of gravel and sand, and which are usually + called diluvial formations, that the remains of animals such as + now people the globe are found, with others of extinct species. + But in none of these formations, whether called secondary, + tertiary, or diluvial, have the remains of man, or any of his + works, been discovered: and whoever dwells upon this subject, + must be convinced that the present order of things, and the + comparatively recent existence of man as the master of the + globe, are as certain as the destruction of a former and + different order, and the extinction of a number of living + forms, which have types in being. In the oldest secondary + strata there are no remains of such animals as now belong to + the surface; and in the rocks which may be regarded as most + recently deposited, these remains occur but rarely, and with + abundance of distinct species;--there seems, as it were, a + gradual approach to the present system of things, and a + succession of destructions and creations preparatory to the + existence of man." + +We have stated that the zoophytes and shell-fish have left the most +numerous fossil remains. Those of other families are not however rare. +Fish, for instance, are found in great abundance, near Glarus in +Switzerland, in clay slate; in Germany, at Papenheim, in a slaty marle, +in the cupriferous slate of Eisleben, in the fetid limestone of +Oehningen. They are also found in Egypt, and we have specimens of the +same sort from Lyria, in a limestone apparently belonging to the oolitic +or Jura formation. China and the coast of Coromandel have also fossils +of this sort, but by far the greatest quantity have been procured from +Mount Bolea, near Verona. A splendid suite from the last locality are to +be seen in the Gibbs' Cabinet at New-Haven. Besides the impressions of +entire fish, separate portions are very abundant, and perhaps the most +frequent of these are the teeth of sharks, which are sometimes of a +magnitude vastly greater than those of any living species. Animals of +the class of amphibia appear not to have existed until after the aera +that gave birth to fish. The oldest are probably the tortoises, of which +a specimen has been found in sandstone near Berlingen. They have also +been found in England, in the Netherlands near Brussels, at Aix in +Provence, and in the quarries near Paris. The most remarkable fossils of +this class belong, however, to the lizard family. Of these the most +remarkable are the plesiosaurus, the megalosaurus, the iguanodon, and +the crocodile of Maestricht, all belonging to extinct species. + +The marine animals that are met with in a fossil state, are in great +part foreign to the climates in which they are found buried. It has been +shown that the fish of Bolea have their nearest living prototypes in the +seas of Otaheite. The perpites of Gothland have been supposed to be +petrifactions of the medusae of India. The madrepores, so abundant in +Russia and in the frozen deserts of Siberia, only live now in seas +within the tropics. Shells analogous to a great part of those found +fossil in England, are only to be seen in the Atlantic, in a living +state, on the coasts of Florida and Cuba. A shell-formed fossil at Havre +is only to be met with recent at Amboyna. + +Of the shells found in Italy, fossil in the sub Appenine hills, many are +common to the Mediterranean and the Indian oceans. But while those in +the fossil slate and the recent specimens from the tropics correspond in +size, individuals of the same species from the Mediterranean are +dwarfish and degenerate. + +Thus then the remains of aquatic and amphibious animals appear to +confirm the conclusion drawn from vegetable fossils, that a climate of +temperature as elevated as that now found in the tropics, once extended +into high northern latitudes. It has been seen that the fossil remains +and impressions of shells have been found at great heights upon the +sides, and even upon the tops of mountains; and that in the older of the +strata no trace is to be found of any but aquatic animals. Thus before +our existing mountains and the minerals they contain had arisen above +the general surface; before diluvial and alluvial deposits, or even the +great formations of sandstone and conglomerate had arisen from their +disintegration, the globe was covered, in a great degree, and as it +appears from considerations we have not space to enter into, by various +successive eruptions, with waters, sometimes fresh, sometimes saline. +These waters have, it could be readily made to appear, often rested long +on the surface in a quiet state, after having been in violent agitation; +and long ages of tranquillity have been succeeded and closed by +convulsions of the most violent character. + +In all the regularly stratified formations, animals of the mammiferous +or cetaceous classes are wholly wanting; at least we have no proof that +can be relied upon of any having been found in formations which took +place prior to the last great deluge, that covered so much of the land +with diluvium. In this last formation, however, they are often found in +great abundance. Some of them are of recent, others of extinct species. +Among the most remarkable of the latter are, the palaeotherium, and +anoplotherium, found near Paris; the megalonyx, an animal of the sloth +genus, but of the size of an ox, found in Virginia; a still larger +sloth, called the megatherium, found near Buenos Ayres; the fossil +elephant, as different from the living elephants of India or Africa, as +the horse is from the ass, and which has been found in Europe, in Asia, +and in America. The mastodon, of which several species have been +discovered on the banks of the Hudson, in Kentucky, in Louisiana, in the +plains of Quito, in France, and finally on the borders of the Irrawaddy. + +The bones of rhinoceroses, bears, elephants, and hyaenas, have been found +mixed in confusion in caverns; and it has been shown by Buckland that +the latter animal had inhabited these caverns, and drawn thither the +carcasses of the others as his prey, in one of the most perfect +inductive arguments which has been produced, since Bacon propounded the +rules of that species of reasoning. + + "The moveable earths that fill the bottoms of valleys, and + which cover the surface of great plains, have furnished us in + the above two orders, of pachidermata and elephants, the bones + of twelve species, to wit: one rhinoceros, two hippopotami, two + tapirs, an elephant, and six mastodons. All these twelve + species are now absolutely extinct in the climates in which + their bones are found. The mastodons alone may be considered as + forming a separate genus, now unknown, but closely approaching + to the elephant. All the others belong to genera now existing + in the torrid zone. Three of these living genera are now found + only in the ancient continent, to wit: the rhinoceros, the + hippopotami, and the elephant; the fourth, that of the tapirs, + only exist in the new. The distribution of the fossil species + is different; the tapirs have been found only upon the old + continent, while elephants have been discovered in the new." + +The fossil species, although belonging to known and existing _genera_, +are essentially different in _species_ from those which now live upon +the earth. The former are not mere varieties, but have marked specific +differences. This at least is beyond all doubt in respect to the +smaller of the hippopotami, and the gigantic tapir, as well as the +fossil rhinoceros, and is extremely probable in respect to the elephant +and the smaller tapir. If there be any question of the fact, it is only +in respect to the greater hippopotamus. + + "These different bones are buried in all different places in + beds that resemble each other. They are often mixed + indiscriminately with those of other animals, identical with + those which exist at present. These beds are generally + moveable, sandy, or marly, and always within a short distance + of the surface. It is therefore probable that these bones have + been enveloped by the last catastrophe of the globe. In a great + number of places, they are accompanied by the accumulated + spoils of marine animals; in other places, but these are less + numerous, the remains of marine animals are not found, and + sometimes the sand or marle that covers them contains only + fresh-water shells. Although a small number of shells attached + to fossil bones indicate that, they have remained some time + under water, yet is there no authentic account of their having + been found covered with regular stony beds, filled with marine + remains, nor, in consequence, is there any proof of the sea + having made a long and peaceable stay above them. + + "The catastrophe that has covered them, would appear then to + have been a great marine inundation, of no long duration, were + it not that they are found upon the tops of high mountains, + whither the waters of our present ocean could never have + reached in their most violent agitations. On the other hand, + these bones presenting no appearance of having been rolled, + being occasionally only fractured, as the remains of our + present domestic animals may occasionally be, and being + sometimes found in entire skeletons, and accumulated as if in a + common cemetery, demonstrate that the living beings to which + they have belonged, must have met their fate in the very parts + of the globe in which we now find the fossil monuments of their + existence." + +All the animals of which we have particularly spoken, are of genera now +only found in the torrid zone, and the abundance of food which their +great size would have caused them to require, renders their existence in +numbers only possible in a warm climate. Their remains are, however, +found in almost polar regions, whence we obtain a third link in the +chain of evidence, that before the last great catastrophe to which the +globe was subjected, its surface must have been warmer than at present. + +We have seen in a former place, that such a change of temperature may +have gradually occurred in consequence of a cooling of the external +surface of the globe by an excess of its radiation above the quantity of +heat received from the sun. The final cooling of its solid crust, down +to the mean temperature at which we now find it, might, as is obvious, +have been effected by a great irruption of waters, like that of which we +have distinct evidence in the diluvial deposits, and the animal remains +upon its surface. From that time, a state of equilibrium in the action +of solar and terrestrial radiation having been attained, while the mean +temperature still continues to depend upon the internal structure and +nature of the globe, the distribution of heat upon the surface, and the +vicissitudes of the seasons, have been solely influenced by the varying +relation between these two radiations, which if equal to each other in +their total amounts, differ in every different latitude, for every +successive day in the year, and during each varying hour of the day. + +It has been attempted to explain this change that has unquestionably +taken place in the temperature of climate, by conceiving a change in the +situation of the earth's axis. This hypothesis, however, is shown to be +untenable by the calculations of physical astronomy: no other cause then +remains but an actual change in the condition of the earth itself. + +The most remarkable of all the phenomena which the earth presents, are +the great changes of weight that have taken place in identical +formations which must have arisen from the prevalence of water, and +therefore nearly if not exactly upon the same level. The primitive or +lowest stratified rocks, probably had not water for their cause; still, +however, they must have been in the fluid state, and these are not only +found beneath all other rocks, and in the lowest places to which the +industry of man has penetrated, but they also rise and form the greatest +part in bulk of many of the highest mountains; indeed, if we except +volcanic mountains, of all the more elevated masses. The transition and +secondary formations are subject to similar although less changes of +level, rising, as has been seen, to the tops of the Pyrenees, and to +even a greater height on the sides of the Andes. The tertiary or +superior formations are found in Italy and Sicily, forming mountains +several thousand feet in height, while the latest of all, the diluvial +with its embedded mammalia, exists in the lofty table land of Quito. The +inference is irresistible, that we do not now find these deposits at the +levels where they were left by the ocean, as in the case of the +primitive rocks by their own crystallization from a fluid state, but +that they have been altered in their positions by actions of a character +totally distinct from that by which they were originally formed. + +This inference is still further confirmed by the great and sudden +changes of level that are frequently to be seen in similar strata, +faults, as they are styled by miners, in which the same bed has its +level sometimes changed hundreds, nay even thousands of feet. These +faults, if in greatest abundance in the more ancient rocks, are to be +found even in the newest, and sometimes affect several formations +incumbent on each other, of ages the most different. Thus, then, we have +distinct and conclusive evidence, that as we inferred from theory, the +solid crust of the globe has been shattered and fractured repeatedly, +and at all the different epochs of its history. This fracturing and +cracking we have shown, must, in conformity with strict mechanical laws, +have been attended with the rise of the molten liquid from beneath, +which ought in some cases to have formed veins and dykes, in the places +where the fractures occurred. It is however possible, that the rise of +the fluid from beneath, may not have taken place where the pressure +occurred; but it would then have been compelled by hydrostatic pressure, +to issue at some other point, breaking and tearing the weaker parts of +the solid crust, in order to afford itself a vent. + +The latter class of phenomena are still in action, and we have evident +traces of their occurrence in all the different stages of the world's +existence; of the former it will also be seen there is conclusive +evidence. + +The visible effects of a subterranean heat, are most frequently met with +at the present day in the form of volcanoes. Of these, there are not +only a great number in activity, but there are still more that have been +certainly active since the last great change that the surface of the +earth has undergone. + +That part of the great group of mountains which we have before +described, which lies in the new continent, contains many active +volcanoes, and others but recently extinct. Terra del Fuego, as its very +name imports, is the seat of many; Chili has several; in Peru are to be +noted Arequipa, Pichinca, and Cotapaxi; while Chimborazo is obviously +one that has become extinct at a period not remote. Passing the Isthmus +of Panama, we find the volcanoes of Guatimala and Nicaragua almost +infinite in number. In Mexico, are Orezaba, Popocatepetl, and Jorullo; +the last of which first rose from beneath the surface in 1759. +California has five active volcanoes; and we know, from the observations +of La Perouse and Cook, that they also exist along the north-western +coast of America. Mount St. Elias, in particular, was seen in a state of +eruption. These mountains connect those of Mexico with the volcanoes of +the Aleutian islands and of the peninsula of Alaska, which continue the +system towards Kamtschatka, in which peninsula there are three of great +violence. We have seen some proofs, that there are active volcanoes to +the north-west of China, but none now exist in Thibet; and the action +that once took place there has sought new vents, in regions more near to +the present bed of the ocean. Thus, Japan has eight volcanoes, Formosa +several, and, in proceeding to the south, the land of volcanic action +widens, and becomes of immense extent. It embraces the Philippine, +Marian, and Molucca islands, Java, Sumatra, Queen Charlotte's islands, +and the New-Hebrides. The active volcanoes of Europe and western Asia +are few in number; but those that are extinct form a great system, in +which the active ones are included, and which seems to spread in the +form of a belt, from the Caspian sea to the Atlantic. Volcanic action +still occurs on the shores of the Caspian. In the chain of Elburg is a +lofty mountain that still emits smoke, and around whose base are several +distinct craters. Syria and Palestine abound in volcanic appearances, of +which the great crater that has swallowed up the waters of the Jordan, +and forms the Dead sea, is the most remarkable. Greece and the Grecian +Archipelago have been, almost within historic times, the seat of a +volcanic action, of great extent and violence, and which has not wholly +exhausted itself. In Sicily, AEtna has burnt for 3300 years, and is yet +surrounded by extinct craters of more ancient date. The Lipari islands +are wholly volcanic. Vesuvius, that had long before intermitted its +eruptions, and broke forth again in the great one that destroyed +Herculaneum and Pompeii, is not the only volcanic mountain of Naples. An +extinct one of much greater size is to be found near Roccafina. The +catacombs of Rome are excavated in lava, and Tuscany contains strong +evidences of volcanic action. Volcanic indications can be traced near +Padua, Verona, and Vicenza, extending into Dalmatia. A district of +Hungary was suspected of containing the seeds of subterranean fire, and +the suspicion has been confirmed by an actual eruption. Germany and +Bohemia contain a great number of extinct volcanoes, as does the south +of France, and particularly Auvergne. In Spain, too, the proofs of a +volcanic agency are clear and decisive. + +Greenland and Iceland present a third group of volcanoes; in the latter +island, a single volcano was in a state of continuous eruption for five +or six years. The Azores, the Canaries and Madeiras, also contain +numerous volcanoes, both active and extinct, as do the Caribbean +islands. + +In comparing together volcanoes that are in present activity, and others +in which the crater and the streams of emitted lava are too distinct to +permit a doubt of their having arisen from the same cause, differences +are observed that only have arisen from great differences in the +circumstances under which the eruption has taken place. In many of the +ancient volcanoes, we find the emitted streams are arranged in prismatic +forms, constituting basalt, and frequently passing into what under other +circumstances would be styled _trap_ by the Wernerians. Now, we know +that when streams of lava enter the sea, they spontaneously assume the +prismatic structure. Hence we may infer, that these ancient volcanoes +originally gave vent to their craters beneath the level of the sea, at a +time when the rocks through which they penetrated, and over which their +streams have passed, were beds of the primitive ocean. The trap rocks +themselves may have been formed in a similar manner, by upward pressure +of the igneous fluid beneath, through the veins and fissures formed on +the breaking of the solid crust. Trap traverses, in dykes of unknown +depth, many formations, and is occasionally seen forming beds between +successive strata. It frequently occurs in faults, and sometimes in +extensive overlying masses. Close observation, and a just course of +analogy, lead to the irresistible conclusion, that all the trap rocks, +however situated or arranged, grow out of the same great cause, the +rising of the liquid interior of the earth to its surface. An action +sometimes taking place through veins and fissures in the solid crust, +and sometimes by the eruption of volcanoes, both occurring during the +pressure of water upon the surface. One of the most extensive groups of +trap-rocks is to be seen in the north-eastern part of the state of +New-Jersey. The Hudson is bordered for nearly forty miles by a great +ridge of columnar rock, lying upon sandstone. When this is surveyed with +an eye to its analogy to volcanic action, it appears as if it were the +outpourings of a crater, whose basin is now occupied by the lake in +which the Hackensack river takes its rise, and whence a great stream of +lava has run over the sandstone rock, as far as the strait that +separates Staten Island from the main land. The two Newark mountains are +ridges of the same description, of even greater extent; other smaller +ridges of the same kind are also distinctly visible, and the whole of +this last system appears to have proceeded from a crater now filled by +the alluvion of the Passaic, but which is bordered by a ridge still +occupying two-thirds of a circle, and showing conclusive marks of +igneous action, that goes by the name of the Hook mountain. The +phenomenon of a dyke of trap is well exhibited in the quarries near +Hartford in Connecticut, where this rock has been laid bare for a +considerable depth, as it rises through a sandstone rock, instead of +overlying it, as it is seen to do on the Hudson. + +The trap-rocks, which are, generally speaking, of the character called +by mineralogists greenstone, vary in this district of New-Jersey, from a +compact basalt of homogeneous structure, to one of regular and distinct +crystallization, not distinguishable in hand specimens from primitive +syenite. A rock of this last character is to be found in the mountain +that extends from Morristown to Mount Kemble, which is columnar in its +structure, but almost identical, in mere external characters, with +stratified rocks of gneiss containing hornblende, that are found in the +primitive ridges within a few miles. + +Thus then the older volcanic rocks gradually pass in character into +those which, under the general name of granitic, form the apparent +nucleus of gneiss and mica slate mountains, and penetrate them, and the +primitive limestones, in veins. One of the best instances of veins of +granite with which we are acquainted, are those which occur in the +quarries of white marble at Kingsbridge, which are traversed in every +direction by thin veins of a rock, principally composed of a white fetid +felspar, mixed with spangles of silvery mica, and small grains of +quartz, interspersed with occasional masses of tourmaline. The famous +locality of chrysoberyl, beryl, and other interesting minerals, at +Haddam, in Connecticut, is said to occur in a granitic vein passing +through strata of gneiss. + +In all these cases we cannot fail to see evidence of igneous eruptions, +taking place, however, under circumstances widely different from those +of our present terrestrial volcanoes, or of the submarine craters of +more remote dates, but which can be readily explained by supposing, +either that the penetration took place when the surface of the earth was +so intensely heated as to admit of the injected veins being slowly +cooled, and therefore more perfectly crystallized; or that the issuing +mass was so great as to retain its heat for a great length of time. + +It might at first sight appear difficult to explain how volcanic +energies should still continue in activity, now that the mean +temperature of the earth has become constant, and the outer crust can be +no longer subject to the shrinking, and consequent cracking which it +must have undergone while cooling. The phenomena that attend volcanic +eruptions furnish a full explanation of this, for they are attended in +almost all cases with the evolution of great quantities of gaseous +matters, and steam, which must therefore exist in a state of intense +compression, and at elevated temperatures, in the mass whence the +volcanic flood issues. Their elastic energies are sufficient to account +for all the striking effects that attend the action of volcanoes. + +The earthquake is a phenomenon connected with volcanic eruptions, and +arising from the same great cause; but while the latter are confined to +certain mountains, and restricted within narrow limits at the present +day, an earthquake is sometimes found to prevail over a very large +portion of the earth's surface. To omit the more usual phenomena of +earthquakes, we shall speak of but one, which has in some cases been +observed, that throws a great light upon the manner in which the +stratified rocks have had their levels changed, and been dislocated and +distorted in the manner we now find them. We allude to the sudden +raising of countries of greater or less extent. Of this we shall quote +three several instances from a paper of Arago's. + + "During the night of the 28th September 1759, a district of + three or four square miles, situated in the Intendency of + Valladolid, in Mexico, was raised up, like an inflated bladder. + The limits where the elevation ceased may still be determined + at the present day, by the fracture of the strata. At these + limits the elevation of the ground above its primitive level, + or that of the surrounding plain, is no more than thirty-seven + feet; but towards the centre of the lifted district, the total + elevation is not less than five hundred feet. + + "This phenomenon had been preceded by earthquakes that lasted + nearly two months; but when the catastrophe occurred, all + seemed tranquil; it was announced only by a horrible + subterranean noise, that took place at the moment when the + ground was lifted. Thousands of little cones, of from six to + ten feet in height, called by the natives ovens, arose in every + direction; finally six great projections were suddenly formed + along a great crevice lying in a north-east and south-west + direction, all of which were elevated from 1200 to 1600 feet + above the adjacent plains. The greatest of these small + mountains has become a true volcano, that of _Jorullo_, and + vomits forth lava. + + "It will be seen that the most evident and well characterized + volcanic phenomena accompanied the catastrophe of Jorullo; that + they were perhaps its cause; but this did not prevent an + extensive plain, old and well consolidated, upon which the + sugar-cane and indigo were cultivated, from being, in our own + days, suddenly raised far above its primitive level. The escape + of inflamed matter, the formation of the ovens and of the + volcano of Jorullo, far from having contributed to produce this + effect, must on the contrary have lessened it; for all these + openings must have acted like safety valves, and permitted the + elevating cause to have dissipated itself, whether it were a + gas or a vapour. If the ground had opposed a greater + resistance; if it had not given way in so many points, the + plain of Jorullo, instead of becoming a simple hill five + hundred feet in height, might have acquired the relief of the + neighbouring summits of the Cordilleras. + + "The circumstances that attended the formation of a new island + near Santorin, in the Greek Archipelago, seem to me also well + fitted to prove that subterranean fires not only contribute to + elevate mountains by the aid of ejections furnished by the + craters of volcanoes, but that they also sometimes lift the + already consolidated crust of the globe. + + "On the 18th and 22d May 1707, there were slight shocks of an + earthquake at Santorin. + + "On the 23d, at sun-rise, there was seen between the great and + little Rameni (two small islands) an object that was taken for + the hull of a shipwrecked vessel. Some sailors proceeded to the + spot, and on their return reported, to the great surprise of + the whole population, that it was a rock that had risen from + the waves. In this spot the sea had formerly a depth of from + 400 to 500 feet. + + "On the 24th, many persons visited the new island, and + collected upon its surface large oysters that had not ceased to + adhere to the rock. The island was seen sensibly to increase in + size. + + "From the 23d May until the 13th or 14th June, the island + gradually increased in extent and elevation, without agitation + and without noise. On the 13th June it might be about half a + mile in circuit, and from 20 to 25 feet in height. Neither + flame nor smoke had issued from it. + + "From the first appearance of the island, the water near its + shores had been troubled; on the 15th June it became almost + boiling. + + "On the 16th, seventeen or eighteen black rocks rose from the + sea between the new island and the little Rameni. + + "On the 17th they had considerably increased in height. + + "On the 18th smoke arose from them, and great subterranean + noises were heard for the first time. + + "On the 19th all the black rocks had united and formed a + continuous island, totally distinct from the first; flames, + columns of ashes, and red-hot stones arose from it. + + "The volcanic phenomena still continued on the 23d May 1708. + The black island, a year after its appearance, was five miles + in circuit, a mile in breadth, and more than 200 feet in + height. + + "On the 19th November 1822, at a quarter past ten in the + evening, the cities of Valparaiso, Melipilla, Quillota, and + Casa Blanca, in Chili, were destroyed by a terrible earthquake + that lasted three minutes. The following day several observers + discovered that the coast, for an extent of thirty leagues, had + been visibly elevated, for upon a coast where the tide never + rises higher than five or six feet, any rise in the land is + easily detected. + + "At Valparaiso, near the mouth of the Coucon, and to the north + of Quintero, rocks were seen in the sea, near the bank, that no + person had before perceived. A vessel that had been stranded on + the coast, and whose wreck had been visited by the curious, in + boats, at low water, was left, after the earthquake, perfectly + dry. In traversing the shore of the sea, for a considerable + distance near Quintero, Lord Cochran, and Mrs. Maria Graham, + found that the water, even at high tide, did not reach rocks, + on which oysters, muscles, and shells still adhered, the + animals inhabiting which, recently dead, were in a state of + putrefaction. Finally the whole banks of the lake of Quintero, + which communicates with the sea, had evidently mounted + considerably above the level of the water, and in this locality + the fact could not escape the least attentive observers. + + "At Valparaiso the country appeared to be raised about three + feet, near Quintero about four. It has been pretended, that at + a distance of a mile inland, the rise had been more than six + feet; but I do not know the particulars of the measures that + led to this last inference. + + "In this case there was no volcanic eruption, no lava poured + forth, no stones or ashes projected, into the atmosphere, and + unless it be maintained that the level of the ocean have + fallen, it must be admitted that the earthquake of 19th. + November 1822, has raised the whole of Chili. Now the last + consequence is inevitable, for a change of level in the ocean + would have manifested itself equally along the whole extent of + the coast of America, while nothing of the kind was observed in + the ports of Peru, such as Paytu and Callao. + + "If this discussion had not already carried us so far, the + preceding observations, from which it results, that in a few + hours, and by the effect of a few shocks of an earthquake, an + immense extent of country rose above its former level, might + have been compared with those which show, that there exists in + Europe, a great country (Sweden and Norway) whose level is also + rising, but in a gradual manner, and by a cause that acts + unceasingly, but which cause is unknown." + +Thus, then, to whatever portion of the earth's surface we turn our eyes, +we find the proofs of igneous action; our existing volcanoes, protruding +themselves through the newer stratified formations, and even the +diluvium, being in some cases more recent in their origin than the last +great catastrophe to which the earth has been subjected; those of more +ancient date forcing their way through the upper and lower secondary and +transition formations, which are also cut and intersected by dykes of +trap, while granite from the size of mountain masses down to their +veins, has upheaved and penetrated the oldest stratified rocks. We also +find great extents of country rising, sometimes gradually, sometimes +suddenly, above their former level. + +Mountains, then, are not the nucleus on which our continents and islands +have been deposited, but are of subsequent origin, and have in their +rise elevated the land to such a height as to be no longer accessible to +the waters of the ocean. We may, even by examining through what strata +the mountains have been raised, or those which compose their sides and +crests when the elevating agent has not pierced through to the surface, +infer the geological age which gave them birth. A research of this sort +has been recently attempted and conducted with great ability by M. E. De +Beaumont. + +We shall quote an abstract of his reasoning from the "_Annuaire,"_ for +1830, in the words of Arago, which will also serve to illustrate various +other points upon which we have touched. + + "Among the formations of so many different kinds that form the + crust of our globe, there is a class which has been called + sedimentary (_terrains de sediment_). Those formations to which + this name is properly applied, are composed wholly, or in part, + of _detritus_, carried by water like the mud of our rivers, or + the sands of the beaches of the sea. These sands, in a state + of greater or less division, and agglutinated by siliceous or + calcareous cements, form the rocks called sandstones. + + "Certain calcareous formations may also be reckoned in the same + class, even when they are wholly soluble, as is however rare, + in nitric acid; for the fragments of shells which they contain, + show, in another and perhaps better manner, that their + formation has also taken place in the bosom of the waters. + + "Sedimentary formations are always composed of successive + layers, that are very distinctly marked. The more recent of + them may be arranged into four great divisions, which, in the + order of their antiquity, are + + "The oolitic series or limestone of Jura; + + "The system of greensand and chalk; + + "The tertiary series; and finally + + "The diluvian deposits. + + "Although all these formations have been deposited by water, + and although they may all be found in the same locality lying + upon each other, the passage from the one to the other is never + made by insensible gradations. A sudden and marked change is + always to be perceived in the physical nature of the deposit, + and in that of the organized beings whose remains are found in + it. Thus it is evident, that between the epoch at which the + limestone of Jura was deposited, and that of the precipitation + of the system of greensand and chalk which covers it, there has + been upon the surface of the globe a complete change in the + state of things. The same may be said of the epoch that + separates the precipitation of the chalk from that of the + tertiary formations; as it is also evident that in every place + the state or nature of the liquid, whence the earths were + precipitated, must have changed completely between the time of + the formation of the tertiary strata, and that of the diluvium. + + "These considerable variations, sudden, and not gradual, in the + nature of the successive deposits formed by the waters, are + considered by geologists as the effects of what they call '_The + Revolutions of the Globe_.' And even although it is very + difficult to say exactly in what these revolutions consisted, + their occurrence is not the less certain on that account. + + "I have spoken of the chronological order in which these + different sedimentary strata have been deposited: I must + therefore state that this order has been determined by + following, without interruption, each different formation, to + those regions in which it could be ascertained beyond question, + and over a great horizontal space, that some particular layer + was above some other. Natural excavations, such as the cliffs + that border the sea, common wells, and Artesian fountains, with + the excavation of canals, have furnished powerful aid in this + inquiry. + + "I have already remarked, that all these sedimentary formations + are stratified. In level countries, as might be expected, the + disposition of the layers is nearly horizontal. In approaching + mountainous countries, this horizontality, generally speaking, + ceases; finally, on the sides of mountains, some of these + layers are very much inclined; they even sometimes attain a + vertical direction. + + "May not the inclined deposits that we see upon the slopes of + mountains, have been deposited in inclined or vertical + positions? Or is it not more natural to suppose, that they + originally formed horizontal beds, like the contemporaneous + beds of the same nature with which the plains are covered, and + that they have been lifted up and assumed new directions at the + moment of the elevation of the mountains on whose sides they + rest? + + "As a general principle, it does not appear impossible that the + crests of mountains may have been incrusted _in place_, and in + their actual position, by sedimentary deposits, since we daily + see the vertical sides of vessels, in which waters charged with + sulphate of lime evaporate, covered with a saline crust, whose + thickness is continually augmented; but the question before us + does not present this general aspect, for it is merely required + to determine whether the _known_ sedimentary formations can + have been thus deposited. To this question we must reply in the + negative, as can be shown by two species of considerations, + wholly different from each other. + + "Incontestable geological observations have shown, that the + calcareous layers which constitute the summits of Buet in + Savoy, and Mount Perden in the Pyrenees, elevated 11,000 or + 12,000 feet above the level of the sea, have been formed at the + same time with the chalk of the cliffs that border the British + channel. If the mass of water whence these strata were + precipitated had risen 11,000 or 12,000 feet, the whole of + France would have been covered, and analogous deposits must + have existed upon all heights not exceeding 9,000 or 10,000 + feet; now, it is found, on the contrary, that in the north of + France, where these deposits appear to have undergone little + change, the chalk never reaches a height of more than 600 feet + above the level of the present sea. They present precisely the + disposition of a deposit formed in a basin filled with a liquid + whose level has never reached any points that are at the + present day elevated more than 600 feet. + + "I pass to the second proof, borrowed from Saussure, and which + appears even more convincing. + + "Sedimentary formations often contain pebbles rounded by + attrition, and of a figure more or less elliptical. In the + places where the stratification is horizontal, the longer axes + of these pebbles are all horizontal, for the same reason that + an egg cannot stand upon its point. But where the strata are + inclined at an angle of 45 deg., the greater axes of many of these + pebbles form this same angle with the horizon; and when the + layers become vertical, the greater axes of many of the pebbles + become vertical also. + + "This observation, in respect to the position of the axes of + the pebbles, _demonstrates,_ that the sedimentary formations + have not been deposited in the position they now occupy; they + have been raised in a greater or less degree, when the + mountains, whose sides they cover, have arisen from the bosom + of the earth. + + "This being proved, it is evident that these sedimentary + formations, whose strata present themselves upon the slopes of + mountains, in inclined or vertical directions, existed before + these mountains arose. The formations of the same class that + are prolonged horizontally, until they meet the same slopes, + must be on the contrary of a date posterior to the formation of + the mountain; for it cannot be conceived, that, in rising from + the mass of the earth, it should not have elevated at the same + time all previously existing strata. + + "Let us introduce proper names into the general and simple + theory which we have developed, and the discovery of M. de + Beaumont will be announced. + + "Of the four species of sedimentary formations that we have + distinguished, three, and these are the uppermost, the nearest + to the surface of the globe, or the most modern, extend in + horizontal layers, from the Cote d'Or and from Forez, to the + mountains of Saxony; and only one, which is the oolite or + limestone of Jura, shows itself elevated within this district. + + "Therefore the Hartz, the Cote d'Or, and Mount Pilus of Forez, + have risen from the globe since the formation of the Jura + oolite, and before the deposit of the three other formations. + + "On the slopes of the Pyrenees and Appennines, two of the + formations are raised up, namely, the oolite and the greensand + and chalk; the tertiary formations, and the diluvium that + covers them, have preserved their primitive horizontality. The + Pyrenees and Appennines are, therefore, more modern than the + limestone of Jura, and the greensand which they have raised, + and more ancient than the tertiary strata and the diluvium. + + "The western Alps, and among them Mount Blanc, have, like the + Pyrenees, raised the limestone of Jura, and the greensand, but, + in addition, they have also raised the tertiary formations; the + diluvium is alone horizontal in the vicinity of these + mountains. + + "The date of the elevation of Mount Blanc must, therefore, + inevitably be placed between the epoch of the formation of the + tertiary strata and the diluvium. + + "Finally, upon the sides of the central Alps, (Mount St. + Gothard,) and of the mountains of Ventorix and Liberon, near + Avignon, no one of the sedimentary formations is horizontal; + all the four have been raised up. When these mountains arose, + the diluvium itself must have already been deposited." + + "The sedimentary formations appear, from their nature, and the + regular disposition of their layers, to have been deposited in + times of tranquillity. Each of these formations being + characterized by a particular system of organized beings, both + vegetable and animal, it is indispensable to suppose, that + between the epochs of tranquillity, corresponding to the + precipitation of two of these overlying formations, there must + have been a great physical revolution upon the globe. We now + know that these revolutions have consisted in, or at least been + characterized by, the raising of a system of mountains. The two + first liftings-up pointed out by M. de Beaumont, not being by + any means the greatest of the four he has succeeded in + classing, it will be seen that we cannot infer that the globe, + in growing older, becomes less fit to experience this species + of catastrophe, and that the present period of tranquillity may + not be terminated like those that have preceded it, by the + elevation of some immense mountain chain." + +M. de Beaumont next attempted, by a fancied arrangement of zones and +parallels to great circles, to classify the mountains he had not an +opportunity of examining, with those in respect to which he had obtained +the above satisfactory conclusions. We fear, however, that he has +proceeded to theorize too speedily, and before he had obtained a +sufficient number of facts. We are certain, that in respect to the great +Alleghany group of the United States, which he classes with the Pyrenees +and Appennines, he must be mistaken, for no formations later than the +transition limestone are to be found in their vicinity. In respect to +the highlands of the state of New-York, and their branch of primitive +rocks, which extends along the Hudson to the island of New-York, the +sandstone of New-Jersey appears to continue horizontally until it +reaches their bases, and no rocks appear to have been raised on the +south-eastern side of the highlands, which are the easternmost of the +five parallel ridges of the Alleghanies, older than the slate; but on +their north-western side the transition limestone appears to have been +raised. They therefore are older than any mountains examined by M. de +Beaumont, and were we to hazard a conjecture, we should class them with +the Grampians of Scotland, and the mountains of Wales, in both of which +slate is the only rock of the transition series that appears to have +been elevated. + +To complete our subject, it would be necessary that we should enter into +a discussion of the manner in which the ocean is now acting, by its +currents and tides, to distribute and deposit in its bed the sediment +which rivers and streams are constantly hurrying into it; and that we +should form some estimate, from what occurs within our reach, of the +effects produced in these deposits by the vast number of organized +beings that must people them, the deposits of vegetable matter, and the +exuviae, of animals. Such discussion would, however, be in a considerable +degree purely conjectural, and we therefore shall not enter into it. It +is sufficient to say, that formations analogous to those which the +elevation of the continents has exposed to our view, must be now taking +place in the bed of the ocean, whence they may be in their turn raised, +to task the ingenuity of future races of reasoning beings. + + * * * * * + +Inquiries into the history of the changes which our earth has undergone, +as they lead with infallible evidence to the proof of an existence of +this globe at a period almost infinitely more remote than that at which +man became its inhabitant, have been stigmatized as impious. The +intolerant theologian, adhering with pertinacity to his own system of +interpretation, fulminates anathemas against all who find in natural +appearances convincing evidence, that the earth was not suddenly and by +a single fiat called into existence in the exact, state in which we now +find it. Timid geologists have bent to the storm, and have endeavoured +to reconcile natural appearances with the arbitrary interpretations that +have been deduced from scripture. But neither is the inquiry itself less +holy than any of those which consider natural phenomena, exhibiting in +their progress convincing proofs of infinite wisdom and power in the +Creator, justifying the ways of God to man; nor is any one of the +results of the inquiry in the slightest degree opposed to the texts of +the sacred volume. The impiety rests with the interpreter, and not with +the physical inquirer. The former unwisely links to his spiritual belief +an interpretation at variance with natural appearances; and the latter, +if he do not inquire for himself, and believe on the evidence of the +former, that the truth or falsehood of the two distinct propositions are +inseparably connected, must, as he sees the one to be inconsistent, +hesitate with respect to the other. Some geologists, then, may have been +sceptics; but could the secrets of the heart be laid open, we cannot +help believing, that those who have most earnestly endeavoured to +reconcile the phenomena we know to exist, with the interpretation of +scripture, from which they appear to vary, have been at bottom the least +sincere in their religious faith. + +For ourselves, we see no difficulties, no discrepancies between the +record of direct revelation, and the sublime passages of the book of +nature. We believe that "in the beginning God created the heavens and +the earth;" that he called at once into existence the whole material +world; but we also believe that he then impressed matter with laws, +under the action of which that material world must maintain its +existence, and secure its permanence, until the same almighty power +shall annihilate it. We are not of those who judge of the works of the +Deity from the conditions of the works which can alone be effected by +the power of man. However perfect or complete be human mechanism, it can +only move by the application of some power inherent in matter; did not +an elastic spring expand itself after being coiled, the chronometer +would be a dead and lifeless mass; did not fluids obey the force of +gravitation, and currents in the atmosphere the expansive power of heat, +the water-wheel and wind-mill would be useless; did not water form +vapour at elevated temperatures, and condense when cooled, the still +more powerful agency of steam would be wanting. Not only are machines of +no value unless impelled by natural agents, but they themselves are +subject to rapid decay, and require perpetual attention. Such is not the +case with the machinery of the universe; its motions are perpetually +varying, but yet in their variations invariable; continually oscillating +on each side of mean rates, yet never losing or gaining in intensity. +Such too is the case on the surface of our globe; the seasons +alternately clothe the forests with verdure, and strip them of their +leaves; seed time and harvest recur with invariable precision; the whole +of existing vegetables perish, and animals die and decay, yet the race +is perpetuated. Shall we set bounds to the exertion of almighty power, +and say, that races, that families, that species and genera, nay that +whole natural kingdoms may not in their turn decay and die, after +providing for the repeopling of the earth by new inhabitants? The +catastrophes of our planet are not yet at an end; the time will and must +come, as we may guess from natural appearances, and as we find predicted +in scripture, when the heavens shall be rolled up like a scroll, and the +earth shall melt with fervent heat; and in the new system of +appearances, the new heaven and earth shall succeed--the corruptible +bodies that are now sown in dishonour, shall be raised in honour and +incorruptible. + +The present surface of our globe is to our limited views slowly +changing; to him who compares time with the immeasurable duration that +has preceded and must succeed our existence, it is rapidly hastening to +apparent ruin. The waters raised from the ocean, falling in greatest +abundance on the land, tear and wear away the surface, and deposit it in +the bed of the sea. Deltas form at the mouths of rivers by this action; +the basin of the ocean is gradually elevated, and, in addition, islands +and archipelagos are raised from its bed. The surface of the sea is for +the present lessening under the influence of these causes, but the time +must come, unless it be prevented by some catastrophe, when the ocean +must in its turn encroach upon the land, when the plains and valleys +shall become bays and gulfs, or even unite in continuous expanses of +water, and the greater mountains alone, diminished in bulk by continued +abrasion, shall stand as islands in the vast abyss. The earth would then +again be without form and void of inhabitants, as it was before the +creation of man. Such, however, will not be the termination of the +present order of things; we are taught to look for this in an igneous +eruption, the source of which now slumbers almost quiescent beneath our +feet. + +Not only does revelation, but science, teach us that the earth must have +been covered with water, and void of animate life, previous to its +becoming the habitation of man. But they read their scriptures +differently from us who think that this state of things was the actual +beginning. There is no necessary connexion between the first verse of +Genesis and the succeeding. The beginning of the existence of matter, +and the state of vacuity and darkness whence the present order of things +emerged, may have been, so far as the text is concerned, and were, as we +know from appearances, separated from each other by unnumbered ages. + +Neither is it necessary that we accept the literal meaning of the +passage, and conceive the Deity speaking with human voice, and calling +creation forth by audible fiat. The voice of the Deity is that unheard +and silent command which nature hears and obeys throughout all his +works. The pious and sincere believer sees an overruling providence +preserving him in kindness when it saves him from shipwreck, or +chastening him in mercy when it deprives him of friends or relations, as +distinctly as if he beheld the prince of the air stayed in his furious +course, or the angel of destruction taking his visible stand beside the +pillow of departing life. No miracles are necessary to him who sees in +the rising and setting of the sun, in the order and beauty of the +universe, in the absolute perfection of its mechanical laws, in his own +fearful and wonderful structure, the evidence of infinite wisdom in +design, and infinite power in execution; and the examination of the +structure and character of our globe, is as well calculated as any other +physical study to exhibit in full and brilliant light these attributes +of the Deity. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[8] See American Quarterly, Vol. V. + +[9] See American Quarterly, Vol. III. + +[10] Our author has "alluvion." + +[11] Alluvial in our author. + + + + +ART. V.--AUTO-BIOGRAPHY OF THIEVES. + + +1.--_The American Trenck; or the Memoirs of Thomas Ward, now in +confinement in the Baltimore Jail, under a sentence of ten years' +imprisonment for robbing the United States Mail._ Baltimore. 18mo: 1829. + +2.--_Memoirs of James Hardy Vaux, a Swindler and Thief, now transported +to New South Wales, for the second time, and for life. Written by +himself._ London. 18mo: 1829. + +3.--_Memoirs of Vidocq, principal Agent of the French Police, until_ +1827, _and since, Proprietor of the Paper Manufactory at St. Maude. +Written by himself. Translated from the French._ London. 4 vols. 18mo: +1829. + + +"One half of the world does not know how the other half lives:"--so says +the adage, and says truly. Men of reading, however, who direct their +attention to biography, and especially to auto-biography, and who +combine with their reading attention to the varied pursuits of mankind, +may attain tolerably correct notions of the habits, modes of reasoning, +and peculiarities of others, though living in evidently different +stations, and engaged in occupations the most various. In this view, the +volumes above announced are valuable. They furnish a remarkably clear +insight of the ways and actings of professional thieves, and of the men +with whom they often become connected,--police officers and jailers. But +what assurance have we, it may be inquired, that they speak the truth? +How can the evidence of such characters be received? These queries must +be answered by considering several particulars. In the first place, +then, the verity of a narrative may be partly established by its +coherence and probability. When the events related have a manifest +correspondence with each other, and are such as may be credited, we +necessarily attach to them a degree of belief, which we cannot extend to +those of an opposite character. The evidence from this source is, +however, exceedingly imperfect, since many narratives, almost entirely +fictitious, appear so natural, as to impose upon the reader with all the +strength of unvarnished truth. Robinson Crusoe has deceived thousands, +and Damberger's Travels in Africa were not suspected to be otherwise +than true, for a considerable time after their publication; but they +were at length proved to be a complete fabrication. Accordingly, in +judging of doubtful works, we must resort to additional means; one of +which is a comparison of works of a similar description with each other. + +When an account appears to be too wonderful for credence, we are, of +course, disposed to rank the author with romance-writers; but when we +find that divers accounts, equally extraordinary, are related by others +as happening under similar circumstances, we then begin to suppose that +we may have judged erroneously. Captain Riley's Narrative of his +Captivity in Africa was rejected by many as half-fictitious: his +sufferings were greater than human nature could bear, and the Arabs of +the desert could never lead the life described. But since it has been +found that the sufferings undergone by the crew of the French frigate, +the Medusa, were no less horrible, and of the same kind, and that +Clapperton and others who have subsequently crossed the Sahara, +confirmed his statements respecting the Arabs,--he has been regarded +very differently. And it may be supposed, that if Sir Walter Scott had +known of the remarkable confirmation given by Benyouski, to Drury's +account of Madagascar, he would not have expressed his doubts of the +latter's veracity.[12] When writers, unacquainted with each other's +productions, are found, by incidental allusions, to agree in minute +particulars, the evidence is almost irrefutable. Paley has made an +admirable use of this species of proof in his _Horae Paulinae_. + +Another mode of judging of an author's credibility is sometimes +furnished, by learning whether any of his alleged facts have been +contradicted by persons acquainted with them, especially if they are +such as these persons would be glad to contradict. If a person is +charged with being an accomplice in a crime, and he fails to rebut the +accusation, we may infer that he is unable to do so. Or, if the narrator +give place and date to certain memorable transactions, which, if false, +might easily be shown to be so, a similar inference may be deduced, when +it can be shown that others are interested in such exposure. + +Now, on bringing the works under notice to these different tests, we +shall have tolerably strong presumptive evidence of their being, in the +main, worthy of credence. Vaux's Memoirs contain nothing that may not be +credited on the score of probability, while the circumstances detailed +are remarkably coherent; they seem to arise naturally from each other. +Vidocq's, on the contrary, contain so many marvellous escapes from +prisons, so many perils from contests with ruffians and bravoes, and +such varied turns of fortune, that the reader is necessitated to +ask,--can this be true? Here, however, both Vaux and Ward offer him some +assistance; the similarity of their accounts, though destitute of so +many wonders, corroborating the probability of his. The three narratives +are quite in keeping. We find in each the same restlessness, the same +blind passion impelling to deeds of vice and desperation, and the same +proofs of treachery amongst their companions. Each, too, has furnished +so many means of detection, by names of persons, dates, and places, +that,--no attempt at refutation having been made by persons +implicated,--we are to believe that they must, at any rate, contain much +that is true. Neither Ward's nor Vidocq's Memoirs are so connected as +Vaux's; but in Ward's case, this may be attributed to a want of +scholarship, as he is evidently an ignorant man; and in Vidocq's, to a +fondness for the marvellous, in consequence of which he has introduced +many episodes. These episodes, accordingly, detract from the merit of +the work, considered as a veritable narrative, they being garnished with +more of the romantic than the regular account of his own performances. + +After all, a degree of suspicion will attach to each of them, from the +consideration that they are all avowed liars. If, indeed, there was +proof, either external or internal, that they had become reformed +characters, and, of course, abhorrers of deceit, we might value their +self-condemnation as evidence of truth; for what man of moral feeling +would proclaim that he had been an habitual liar, except conscious that +the avowal was incumbent on him to substantiate the truth? This was done +by Bunyan, the author of the Pilgrim's Progress, and by Cowper, the +truly Christian poet:--they are respected accordingly. But in these +narratives, except a little cant in Ward's, we find nothing approaching +to a sense of shame or remorse. Vidocq, like Homer's Ulysses, has a lie +ready for every occasion, and appears, like that hero, to regard himself +as "the man for wisdom's various arts renowned." Vaux is almost equal to +him in this respect, and exults in the success of his deceptions. If +cunning were wisdom, Ulysses, Vidocq, and Vaux, would form a trio of +eminently wise men. But this sort of wisdom, how much soever valued by +pagans, must be regarded by Christians, enlightened by the Gospel, as +utterly unjustifiable, even when employed as a means for the attainment +of some good; since they are never to do evil that good may come. +Accordingly, those persons who make lies their refuge, must be liable to +be doubted, even when they speak the truth. Still, it is possible, that +a man's conscience may be so obdurate, as not to perceive the pravity of +mendacity, when exercised for his supposed benefit, while he yet retains +a regard for truth when engaged in relating his exploits to others. +This, we think, is partly the case with our heroes. Their acknowledgment +of their disregard of truth, while prosecuting illegal measures, is, +indeed,--so inconsistent is human nature,--some guarantee for the +fidelity of their narratives. A solitary vice is a thing unknown; as +Lillo expresses it, in his tragedy of George Barnwell,--"One vice as +naturally begets another, as a father begets a son." Who, then, could +believe a practised villain, if he professed himself untainted by +mendacity? But if, after a plain avowal of his constant resort to it, we +find nothing contradictory in his relation, we may reasonably yield a +qualified assent to it; since, as Lord Bacon remarks in his Essays, +which "come home to men's business and bosoms," a liar had need possess +a good memory to prevent his contradicting himself. Where he is +consistent throughout a long narrative, the natural deduction is, that +he has mainly depended on his memory, rejecting, for the occasion, his +temptation to beguile.[13] + +After these preliminary considerations, the relevancy of which is +obvious, we proceed to furnish our readers with a few extracts; not +doubting, that to such of them as lead domestic, retired lives, it will +afford gratification to learn something of the ways of others, who are +entirely opposite in their habits,--as opposite as the two electric +poles, and, like them, "repelling and repelled." One of the most +observable points in these volumes, is the contamination of jails. When +men are thrown together in a place where reputation is valueless, they +have no inducement to conceal their vices. What is the consequence? They +delight in recounting to each other their nefarious exploits: thus +conscience is more and more corrupted, and the young and inexperienced +are initiated into the skilful manoeuvres of adepts. Whoever has read +the _first_ edition of Ellwood's Life, (for the subsequent editions do +not contain the passage,) may remember the amusing account he has given +of the state of the common side of Newgate in the reign of Charles II. +Ellwood was imprisoned in that persecuting reign, for adherence to his +religious convictions as a Quaker, and had an opportunity of becoming +acquainted with the ordinary behaviour and conversation of thieves in +jail. He saw and lamented the evils incident to a promiscuous assemblage +of old and young, of hardened villains and juvenile delinquents; but the +remedy was reserved for the present age. That the remedy ought not to +have been so long deferred, will be evident to every one who attends to +Vaux's account of his first incarceration. + + "On entering the gates of the gloomy receptacle to which I was + now consigned, and which, on many accounts, has not been + unaptly named the Bastile, the sensations I felt may be more + easily felt than described. Besides that this was the first + prison I had ever entered, every thing around me had an air of + unspeakable horror. After being viewed and reviewed by the + surly Cerberuses of this earthly Hell, I was conducted up some + stairs to a long gallery, or passage, six feet wide, having on + either side a number of dismal cells, each about six feet by + nine, formed entirely of stone, but having a small grated + window near the roof, at the further end, which admitted a + gloomy light, and overlooked a yard, in which other prisoners + were confined; there was also a similar grate over the door; + but, owing to their height, both these apertures were very + difficult of access. The cells on the other side the passage + were exactly similar, but overlooking another yard, and the + doors were immediately opposite to each other. The only + furniture of these dreary apartments was an iron bedstead, on + which were a bed, blanket, and rug, but all of the coarsest + kind. My conductor having given me a pitcher of water, without + vouchsafing a word, locked the door, and left me in utter + darkness. + + "In order to amuse my mind during this solitary week, I climbed + up to the grated aperture over the door of my cell, and + listened to the conversation of the neighbouring prisoners; + and, from their discourse, I acquired a more extensive + knowledge of the various modes of fraud and robbery, which, I + now found, were reduced to a regular system, _than I should + have done in seven years, had I continued at large_. I was + indeed astonished at what I heard; and I clearly perceived + that, instead of expressing contrition for their offences, + their only consideration was, how to proceed with more safety, + but increased vigour, in their future depredations. And here I + was struck with the fallacious notions entertained by the + projectors of this prison, which was reputed to be upon the + plan of the benevolent and immortal Howard, who had recommended + the confinement of offenders in separate cells, in order to + prevent the effects of evil communication among persons who had + not all attained an equal degree of depravity. This object, + however, was not effected here; for, being within hearing of + each other, they could, by sitting up over the door as I have + described, converse each with his opposite neighbour, and even + form a line of communication, where the discourse became + general, from one end of the gallery to the other. As a proof + of what I have advanced, I knew several of the prisoners, then + confined with me in this passage, who were at that time but + striplings, and novices in villainy, and who, after several + years continuance in their evil courses, at length became + notorious offenders, and, having narrowly escaped a shameful + death, are now prisoners for life in this colony." + +As this subject is of great importance, we shall give a few more +extracts connected with it. Crime, as Mr. Buxton has shown in his +valuable Inquiry, is promoted, instead of being repressed, by such +indiscriminate association. Corruption spreads by it, as surely as +decomposition is assisted by heat and moisture. Ward thus describes the +Baltimore jail:-- + + "About this time, I was ordered by the sheriff to be put into + the criminal apartment, along with untried prisoners, hardened + offenders, debtors, and among characters of the most abandoned + and vicious stamp;--men of all nations and all colours. Among + this mass of vile and depraved men, I had to take up my abode. + There was no example of moral rectitude here exhibited _but + that of my own_! No restraint was put by our keepers, on their + profane and vile language and conduct. Every one indulged to an + excess in every species of the most disgusting practices, + profaning and scandalizing every thing holy." + +Vidocq's description of the Bagne at Brest, corresponds with the +above:-- + + "The Bagne is situated in the bosom of the bay; piles of guns, + and two pieces of cannon, mounted at the gates, pointed out to + me the entrance, into which I was introduced, after having been + examined by the two guards of the establishment. The boldest of + the condemned, however hardened, have confessed, that it is + impossible to express the emotions of horror, excited by the + first appearance of this abode of wretchedness. Every room + contains twenty night camp couches, called bancs (benches,) on + which lie six hundred fettered convicts, in long rows, with + red garbs, heads shorn, eyes haggard, dejected countenances, + whilst the perpetual clank of fetters conspires to fill the + soul with horror. But this impression on the convict soon + passes away, who, feeling that he has here no reason to blush + at the presence of any one, soon identifies himself with his + situation. That he may not be the butt of the gross jests and + filthy buffoonery of his fellows, he affects to participate in + them; and soon, in tone and gesture, this conventional + depravity gets hold of his heart. Thus, at Anvers, an ex-bishop + experienced, at first, all the outpourings of the riotous jests + of his companions; they always addressed him as _monseigneur_, + and asked his blessing in their obscenities; at every moment + they constrained him to profane his former character by + blasphemous words, and, by dint of reiterating these impieties, + he contrived to shake off their attacks. At a subsequent + period, he became the public-house keeper at the Bagne, and was + always styled _monseigneur,_ but he was no longer asked for + absolution, for he would have answered with the grossest + blasphemies." + +To complete the picture, we shall now transcribe Vaux's account of his +being on board a prison-ship, with what he witnessed there.-- + + "I had now a new scene of misery to contemplate; and, of all + the shocking scenes I had ever beheld, this was the most + distressing. There were confined in this floating dungeon, + nearly six hundred men, most of them double ironed; and the + reader may conceive the horrible effects arising from the + continual rattling of chains, the filth and vermin naturally + produced by such a crowd of miserable inhabitants, the oaths + and execrations constantly heard amongst them; and above all, + from the shocking necessity of associating and communicating + more or less with so depraved a set of beings. On arriving on + board, we were all immediately stripped, and washed in large + tubs of water; then, after putting on each a suit of coarse + slop-clothing, we were ironed and sent below; our own clothes + being taken from us, and detained, till we could sell, or + otherwise dispose of them, as no person is exempted from the + obligation to wear the ship-dress. On descending the hatchway, + no conception can be formed of the scene which presented + itself. I shall not attempt to describe it; but nothing short + of a descent to the infernal regions, can be at all worthy of a + comparison with it. I soon met with many of my old Botany Bay + acquaintances, who were all eager to offer me their friendship + and services; that is, with a view to rob me of what little I + had; for, in this place, there is no other motive or subject + for ingenuity. All former friendships and connexions are + dissolved; and a man here will rob his best benefactor, or even + messmate, of an article worth one half-penny. If I were to + attempt a full description of the miseries endured in these + ships, I could fill a volume; but I shall sum up all by + stating, that, besides robbery from each other, which is as + common as cursing and swearing, I witnessed, among the + prisoners themselves, during the twelvemonth I remained with + them, one deliberate murder, for which the perpetrator was + executed at Maidstone, and one suicide." + +These horrible accounts must, we suppose, convince every one of the +necessity of keeping criminals separate from each other. In vain do you +hope by classification, labour, discipline, and moral instruction, to +reclaim men from their vices in prison, so long as you allow them to +associate freely together. No compromise will do, short of preventing +their conversing with each other. Whether solitary confinement, as +practised in Pennsylvania, or public labour in silence, as in New-York, +be the better mode of punishment, may admit of argument; but that either +is incomparably superior to promiscuous intercourse, is unquestionable. +And we do conjure magistrates and legislators in every part of the +United States, to rouse themselves from apathy on this momentous +subject. It is due to their country and to posterity, to strive to +remove an evil, which, like the Upas, extends its pestiferous influence +in every direction. Let them reflect that the object of punishing +criminals is to protect society. This object may be promoted by the +reformation of the transgressor; but if he is placed in a situation +where contagion is inevitable, the punishment, however severe, is not +conducive to that result. A severe punishment may, indeed, be +influential in deterring others from pursuing similar courses; but if +he, on obtaining his release, instead of being disposed to conform to +regularity of conduct, is only determined to practise more skilfully the +very crime that was the cause of his commitment; or if, from his moral +sense being deadened, in consequence of having heard others boast of +their villainous exploits, he is ready to engage in new and more +desperate attempts, the influence which his punishment may have had on +others, is in danger of being overbalanced. What, in such a case, does +society gain by the severity of the law? Is it not clear, that all the +expense, trouble, and loss of time attendant on the prosecution, are +almost fruitlessly bestowed? And here, it is impossible not to lament +the accumulated evils arising from the slow operation of law. A man is +charged, perhaps innocently, with petty larceny. The tribunal before +which he is to be arraigned is not in session; accordingly, unable to +procure bail, he is committed to jail, there to lie for three, or +perhaps six months, and all the time uncertain whether he is to be +acquitted or condemned. In the mean time, his character has deteriorated +while his enjoyment has been abridged. Can such a method be consistent +with civilization? Would it not be preferable, at the hazard of some +injustice, to revert to the summary process of barbarism? Can it be +right, that a magistrate shall be empowered to incarcerate a man for +months, while he is debarred from pronouncing definitively on his guilt +or innocence? There is an incongruity in all this, of which savages +might be ashamed. We trust that the time is approaching when a better +system will be established. Consolatory is it to consider, that in +various countries of Europe, as well as in America, the subject of +prison discipline, and of criminal jurisprudence, occupies the attention +of philanthropists and statesmen to a degree never before witnessed, as +from their simultaneous exertions much good may be anticipated. One of +the causes assigned by Dr. Robertson and other historians, for the +resuscitation of Europe from the intellectual degradation of the middle +ages, is the discovery at Amalfi, in the twelfth century, of the +Pandects of Justinian. Would it not then be irrational to conclude, that +the improvements now taking place in law, will not be followed by a +correspondent amelioration in society, since it is obvious that a much +higher degree of civilization is attainable by man, than any country has +yet exhibited? + +To those who wish for information on the subject of prison discipline, +we recommend a perusal of the correspondence between Mr. R. Vaux of +Philadelphia, and Mr. Roscoe of Liverpool; also of the account of the +Auburn prison contained in Captain Hall's travels in the United States. +In reference to the latter work, it gives us satisfaction to say, that +the chapter referred to is unexceptionable. We wish we could say as much +for the rest. + +We now proceed to furnish some specimens of the modes of life which +thieves and swindlers fall into, that our _honest_ readers may have an +opportunity of contrasting them with their own. In so doing, they will +doubtless congratulate themselves on the possession of moral principle, +satisfied that predatory propensities would have disturbed that calm +which belongs only to virtue. The following is Ward's account of his +first act of dishonesty.-- + + "Finding it impossible, as I thought, to withstand the + impetuosity of my inclinations and desires for freedom and + pleasure, I resolved, even against my better judgment, to leave + Mr. Pusey and seek my fortune. My hopes were raised to the + highest and most pleasing prospects of independence, ease, and + affluence; and having in my earliest life cultivated the + principle, that in all cases which require secrecy, we should + never divulge to a friend what we wish to conceal from an + enemy, I concealed my intentions from every body, determining + to embrace the first opportunity favourable for prosecuting my + first, long-cogitated, and, as I thought, exceedingly cunning + plan. Accordingly, during the autumn of 1806, on a Sabbath + afternoon, I determined to execute my scheme. Near home, there + was a store kept by Mr. Kinsey, in copartnership with Mr. + Pusey. I was on terms of the greatest harmony and friendship + with Mr. Kinsey; and, taking advantage of this confidence, I + had ascertained where his cash was kept. I entered the store, + and found no difficulty in obtaining every cent. All the family + being from home, I concluded to let the house take care of + itself, as, having done thus much, I must inevitably make my + departure. Having saddled Mr. Pusey's best horse, I mounted, + and, with saddle-bags and clothing, started from the house. + Being certain I should be pursued as soon as the robbery was + discovered, I thought it would be proper to take a course, on + which I could most advantageously travel by night as well as by + day. I accordingly took my way towards Lancaster; but about + four miles from home, I was seen by some person who knew me. + Now I was likely to be defeated in all my calculations. At + dark, I arrived at Witmer's Bridge, within two miles of + Lancaster, having ridden sixteen miles in two hours. I stopt + there only a few minutes to water and feed my horse, and, + remounting, I rode to near daylight next morning, when I + arrived at Anderson's Ferry on the Susquehanna. There I was + detained some time by the negligence of the boatmen; and I had + not proceeded more than half way across the river, when I heard + the horn blow as a signal for them to hurry back. Although I + trembled at the dread sound and alarm of the approach of my + pursuers, I vainly hoped it was impossible for them to be so + close after me. However, I determined now that I would give + them every trouble, let them take me or not. I did not stop for + breakfast, and as I had ridden the whole night, my horse became + fatigued and slow, so that about noon I was overtaken by + another horseman, whom I found to be my own cousin. He desired + me to stop immediately and return, he himself having been + suspected of the very act I had committed. As my horse was + tired down, I sprang with all my might, to secure myself by + taking to the woods. Here again my hopes were frustrated; for + my foot caught in the stirrup, and I was forced to yield to + superior strength. On our way back, he explained the cause of + his overtaking me. Having ridden his horse down, he had hired + fresh ones at regular distances. This mode of pursuit I had not + thought of; but, alas! I was told of it now, when it was too + late! Every measure that I had thought most fitly adapted for + my clearance, seemed now only to aggravate my folly. Shame for + my guilt filled my mind with the keenest remorse. + + Mr. Pusey sent for a constable, and informed me I must go to + jail. Attended by the constable, and another as an assistant, I + started with a heavy heart. We travelled on foot, and very + slowly, so that when night came on, we had eight or nine miles + yet to go. The constable being negligent, permitted me at times + to be twenty or thirty yards from him; and of these + opportunities I designed to avail myself. Accordingly, on + reaching a place where the road made a short turn, I dashed + from them into the bushes, where I hid myself. After they had + passed me unnoticed, I cut a large club, and travelled my own + way a short distance, when I met a man who eyed me in a + scrutinizing manner. I immediately asked him, whether he had + seen a fellow running that way from the constables who were + taking him to jail? He answered that he had, and that he + believed I was the very fellow! 'Well,' said I, 'if you think + so, you are welcome to take me.' But fearing my large club, he + left me to pursue my journey. Travelling a little distance, I + came to a tavern, and looking through the window, saw the + constable and his assistant eating their supper. Their horses + resting under a shed, I was about to take one; but seeing a + barn at a short distance from me, I abandoned my intention. I + went into it, and retired to rest for the night. I arose next + morning after a refreshing sleep, and pursued my journey to my + father's, and arrived at Strasburgh about breakfast time. On + entering the tavern, I saw an elderly lady who had lived with + Mr. Pusey. She asked me how I was, and where I was going? I + told her to visit my parents. She answered, that she really + believed I was running away! Apprehensive of danger, I resumed + my journey towards my father's, and on the road I met him. From + my relation of the affair, he gave it as his opinion that it + would be imprudent in me to return again; for he had not the + least doubt that I should be arrested, and dealt with according + to my offence; so, after remaining at his house a short time, I + bent my course to Reading. I confidently believe, to this very + day, that if I had not escaped punishment for this crime, I + never should have committed another in my whole life." + +Another of his escapes we shall here insert, premising that he had been +apprehended for stealing a horse. + + "He brought with him a blacksmith, who had a load of chains + upon his shoulder. The smith put a collar round my neck, and + shackles on my ankles. Between these was a small chain for the + purpose of making me fast to any thing by a padlock. Mounted on + horseback, this chain was passed to the one attached to my + collar, and there locked; besides this I was hand-cuffed. Thus + equipped, we repaired towards Georgia, through a country mostly + inhabited by Indians. On arriving within two days' journey of + home, we took lodging at a public house, the first we had seen. + Dismounting, my chain was in part wrapped round one of my legs, + and the others around my neck. In this situation we took supper + with the family, and sat a considerable time after the table + was removed. As it was determined we should remain here for the + night, which was dark and rainy, I had hopes that I could some + way or other make my escape. Having called to a servant to + bring me a basin of water to wash my feet, I took care to wind + the chain closely around my leg. I then asked her to open the + front door for me, as though I intended only to throw out the + dirty water; this I did, and finding there were no fears of my + going out, I walked a few times across the floor. This gave me + a chance to put on my hat unnoticed, when, taking the advantage + of a minute, I dashed out and jumped the yard fence; but in so + doing, I lost my hat. Having no time to lose, I made a straight + course from the house. I soon heard them all in confusion, and + saw some of them out of doors with a light. The landlord having + a large dog, they brought him in pursuit of me. He took my + track, and had nigh taken me when I just reached a creek, into + the waters of which I waded some distance, turning with the + stream from the place I entered at. Here I stood, leg deep, for + some time, hearing all their conclusions respecting me. + Thinking I had crossed there, they gave me up, and returned to + the house again. I immediately made my retreat from a place + surrounding and threatening me with so many dangers. After + running and walking about four miles, fatigued and lost, I lay + down and slept till morning. I then steered my course across + the country, avoiding houses and settlements, hoping to see + some slaves in the fields to help me to take off my irons, but + could see none. Near noon, I came in sight of an old house + which I discovered was inhabited. I approached it at the side + where there was no window. I went to a wagon, and taking from + it an iron bolt and a linchpin, I made to the woods, where, + with much difficulty, I succeeded in extricating myself from my + collar and chains. I placed them in a pile at the root of a + large tree, near which I lay down and slept till evening, being + afraid to travel in the day-time. At dark I arose, and made my + way towards South Carolina, walking the whole night, and by + morning was thirty miles from where I started. My greatest + difficulty was having no hat. Coming, however, to a river, I + saw a bridge that crossed it a little below me. I went on it, + and stood leaning over its wall, till I saw a traveller coming + the other way. As soon as he approached me, I told him, with + much concern, that I had met with bad luck; for I had just been + looking over the wall when my hat fell off, and went rapidly + down the stream, the sides of which were so dangerous I could + not possibly get it again:--would he be so kind as to tell me + where I could buy another? He told me he would conduct me to a + store; I went with him and purchased one." + +The life of a thief is one of perpetual anxiety, yet with many it +becomes a sort of passion. The earnings of honest industry, even when +sufficient to keep them in comfort, are not sufficient to keep them +satisfied. The recollection of dangers escaped, the chance of similar +fortune again, the prurience of activity,--all urge to a renewal of +their lawless pursuits; and as a thoroughbred sportsman despises the +practice of catching game by snares, deeming it unworthy of a skilful +marksman, so, we suspect, do thieves regard the reward of industry, when +compared with the booty of a dangerous encounter. In Vaux's Memoirs we +find much to lead us to this conclusion. Several times was he well +settled in the way of obtaining, not only an honest livelihood, but of +participating in elegancies, luxuries, and agreeable society. Still, as +if impelled by destiny, he continually risked the loss of all, to +gratify his bad propensity. Ward, on the contrary, had been perpetually +unfortunate in realizing his visionary hopes; he was entreated by his +wife to forsake his evil courses; but it was all in vain. "Resorting +occasionally," he says, "to the company of some adepts in crime, _it +seemed to afford me pleasure_." And in the narratives of the other two, +we find evident delight manifested at the success of a hazardous, +fraudulent undertaking, while the guilt of the action, and the pain and +misery it may have occasioned, are overlooked or lightly regarded, just +as a military hero, exulting in a victory, laments the loss of neither +friends nor foes. Human happiness, in truth, is connected in the minds +of different persons with the most opposite deeds and qualities. +Diogenes in his tub, and Alexander at the head of an army, was each +pursuing his gratification; and who shall decide which was the more +successful? Hume, in one of his Essays, remarks, that there is no +question that a boarding-school miss has often experienced as exquisite +delight on finding herself the idol of a ball-room, as an orator when +receiving the rapturous applauses of a delighted audience; and Colley +Gibber says, that on hearing an old actor express admiration at one of +his early performances on the stage, he felt so proud of the +commendation, that he doubted whether "Alexander himself, or Charles +XII., when at the head of their first victorious armies, could feel a +greater transport in their bosoms." After reading this, some may perhaps +think that Pope's epigram on Cibber[14] was not unmerited; but when they +consider that thieves feel a similar exultation, they may rather be +inclined to pity poor human nature. In exemplification of what we have +advanced, we request attention to the following extract from Vaux. Some +of his acquaintances in Newgate had informed him that Mr. Bilger, a +jeweller and goldsmith, was a _good flat_. + + "About 5 o'clock in the evening, I entered his shop, dressed in + the most elegant style, having a valuable gold watch and + appendages, a gold eye-glass, &c. I had posted my old friend + and aid-de-camp, Bromley, at the door, in order to be in + readiness to act as circumstances might require, and + particularly to watch the motions of Mr. Bilger and his + assistants on my quitting the premises. On my entrance, Mrs. + Bilger issued from a back parlour behind the shop, and politely + inquiring my business, I told her I wished to see Mr. Bilger; + she immediately rang a bell, which brought down her husband + from the upper apartments. He saluted me with a low bow, and + handed me a seat. I was glad to find no other person in the + shop, Mrs. Bilger having again retired. I now assumed the air + of a Bond-street lounger, and informed Mr. Bilger, that I had + been recommended by a gentleman of my acquaintance to deal with + him, having occasion for a very elegant diamond ring, and + requested to see his assortment. Mr. Bilger expressed his + concern that he happened not to have a single article of that + description by him, but if I could without inconvenience call + again, he would undertake in one hour to procure me a selection + from his working-jeweller, to whom he would immediately + despatch a messenger. I affected to feel somewhat disappointed; + but, looking at my watch, after a moment's reflection, I said, + 'Well, Mr. Bilger, I have an appointment at the Cannon + coffee-house, which requires my attendance, and if you will, + without fail, have the articles ready, I may probably look in a + little after six.' This he promised faithfully to do, declaring + how much he felt obliged by my condescension; and I sauntered + out of the shop, Mr. Bilger attending me in the most obsequious + manner to the outer door. After walking a short distance, + Bromley tapped me on the shoulder, and inquired what conduct I + meant next to pursue; for he had viewed my proceedings through + a glass-door in the shop, and saw that I had not executed my + grand design. I related to Bromley the result of my + conversation with Mr. Bilger, and added that I meant to retire + to the nearest public-house, where we could enjoy a pipe and a + glass of negus, until the expiration of the hour to which I had + limited myself. We accordingly regaled ourselves at a very snug + house, nearly opposite Bilger's, until about half after six, + when I again repaired to the scene of action, leaving Bromley, + as at first, posted at the door. Mr. Bilger received me with + increased respect, and producing a small card box, expressed + his sorrow that his workman had only been enabled to send three + rings for my inspection, but that if they were not to my taste, + he should feel honoured and obliged in taking my directions for + having one made, and flattered himself he should execute the + order to my satisfaction. I proceeded to examine the rings he + produced, one of which was marked sixteen guineas, another nine + guineas, and the third six guineas. They were all extremely + beautiful; but I affected to consider them as too paltry, + telling Mr. Bilger that I wanted one to present to a lady, and + that I wished to have a ring of greater value than the whole + three put together, as a few guineas would not be an object in + the price. Mr. Bilger's son, who was also his partner, now + joined us, and was desired by his father to sketch a draught in + pencil of some fancy rings, agreeable to the directions I + should give him. The three rings I had viewed, were now removed + to the end of the counter next the window, and I informed the + young man that I wished to have something of a cluster, a large + brilliant in the centre, surrounded with smaller ones; but + repeated my desire that no expense might be spared to render + the article strictly elegant, and worthy a lady's acceptance. + The son having sketched a design of several rings on a card, I + examined them with attention, and appeared in doubt which to + prefer, but desired to see some loose diamonds, in order to + form a better idea of the size, &c. of each ring described in + the drawing. Mr. Bilger, however, declared he had not any by + him. It is probable he spoke truth, or he might have lost such + numbers by showing them, as to deter him from exhibiting them + in future. Without having made up my mind on the subject, I now + requested to see some of his most fashionable brooches, or + shirt-pins. Mr. Bilger produced a show-glass, containing a + great variety of articles in pearl, but he had nothing of the + kind in diamonds. I took up two or three of the brooches, and + immediately _sunk_ a very handsome one, marked three guineas, + in my coat sleeve. I next purloined a beautiful clasp for a + lady's waist, consisting of stones set in gold, which had the + appearance and brilliancy of real diamonds, but marked only + four guineas. I should probably have gone still deeper, but at + this moment a lady coming in, desired to look at some + ear-rings, and the younger Mr. Bilger immediately quitted his + father to attend upon her at the other end of the shop. It + struck me that now was my time for a decisive stroke. The card + containing the diamond rings, procured from the maker, lying + very near the show-glass I was viewing, and many small articles + irregularly placed round about them, the candles not throwing + much light on that particular spot, and Mr. Bilger's attention + being divided between myself and the lady, to whom he + frequently addressed himself, I suddenly took the three rings + from the card, and committed them to my sleeve, to join the + brooch and lady's clasp; but had them so situated, that I + could, in a moment, have released and replaced them on the + counter, had an inquiry been made for them. I then looked at my + watch, and observing that I was going to the theatre, told Mr. + Bilger that I would not trouble him any further, as the + articles before me were too tawdry and common to please me, but + that I would put the card of draughts in my pocket-book, and if + I did not meet with a ring of the kind I wanted, before Monday + or Tuesday, I would certainly call again, and give him final + directions. I was then drawing on my gloves, being anxious to + quit the shop while I was well; but Mr. Bilger, who seemed + delighted with the prospect of my custom, begged so earnestly + that I would allow him to show me his brilliant assortment of + gold watches, that I could not refuse to gratify him, though I + certainly incurred a great risk by my compliance. I therefore + answered,--'Really, Mr. Bilger, I am loath to give you that + unnecessary trouble, as I have, you may perceive, a very good + watch already, in point of performance; though it cost me a + mere trifle, only twenty guineas; but it answers my purpose as + well as a more valuable one. However, as I may probably, before + long, want an elegant watch for a lady, I dont care if I just + run my eye over them.' Mr. Bilger replied, that the greater + part of his stock were fancy watches, adapted for ladies, and + he defied all London united, to exhibit a finer collection. He + then took from his window a show-glass, containing about thirty + most beautiful watches, some ornamented with pearls or + diamonds, others elegantly enamelled, or chased in the most + delicate style. They were of various prices, from thirty to one + hundred guineas, and the old gentleman, rubbing his hands with + an air of rapture, exclaimed,--'There they are, sir,--a most + fashionable assortment of goods; allow me to recommend them; + they're all a-going, sir--all a-going.' I smiled inwardly at + the latter part of this speech, and thought to myself,--'I wish + they were going, with all my heart, along with the diamond + rings.' I answered, they were certainly very handsome, but I + would defer a minute inspection of them till my next visit, + when I should have more time to spare. These watches were + ranged in exact order, in five parallel lines, and between each + watch was placed a gold seal or other trinket appertaining to a + lady's watch. It was no easy matter, therefore, to take away a + single article without its being instantly missed, unless the + economy of the whole had been previously deranged. I contrived, + however, to displace a few of the trinkets, on pretence of + admiring them, and ventured to secrete one very rich gold seal, + marked six guineas. I then declared I could stay no longer, as + I had appointed to meet a party at the theatre; but that I + would certainly call again in a few days, and lay out some + money in return for the trouble I had given. Mr. Bilger + expressed his thanks in the most respectful terms, and waited + upon me to the door, where he took leave of me with a low + _conge, a la mode de France_, of which country he was a native. + I now put the best foot foremost, and having gained a remote + street, turned my head, and perceived Bromley at my heels, who + seized my hand, congratulating me on my success, and + complimenting me on the address I had shown in this exploit; + for he had witnessed all that passed, and knew that I had + succeeded in my object, by the manner in which I quitted the + shop. He informed me that Mr. Bilger had returned to his + counter, and without attending to the arrangement of the + articles thereon, had joined his son, who was still waiting + upon the lady, and that he, Bromley, had finally left them both + engaged with her." + +Who can fail to perceive, in the above narrative, the satisfaction of +the author in displaying his adroitness? His vanity seems to be as much +gratified, as if he had been relating some performance meriting +approbation. The feeling of shame is altogether alien to him. And thus, +by Vidocq's account, it always is with thieves, they glorying as much in +detailing their successful exploits, as if no ignominy could attach to +them. Amongst his confederates too, and all of the same class, his +reputation is proportionate to his daring and skill. Of this, take the +following instance related by Vidocq.-- + + "The incredible effrontery of Beaumont, almost surpasses + belief. Escaped from the Bagne at Rochefort, where he was + sentenced to pass twelve years of his life, he came to Paris, + and scarcely had he arrived there, where he had already + practised, when, by way of getting his hand in, he committed + several trifling robberies, and when, by these preliminary + steps, he had proceeded to exploits more worthy of his ancient + renown, he conceived the project of stealing a treasure. No + one will imagine that this was in the Central Office, now the + Prefecture of Police!! It was already pretty difficult to + procure impressions of the keys, but he achieved the first + difficulty, and soon had in his possession all the means of + effecting an opening; but to open was nothing; it was necessary + to open without being perceived, to introduce himself without + fear of being disturbed, to work without witnesses, and go out + again freely. Beaumont, who had calculated all the difficulties + that opposed him, was not dismayed. He had remarked that the + private room of the chief officer, M. Henry, was nigh to the + spot where he proposed to effect his entrance; he espied the + propitious moment, and wished sincerely that some circumstance + would call away so dangerous a neighbour for some time, and + chance was subservient to his wishes. One morning, M. Henry was + obliged to go out. Beaumont, sure that he would not return that + day, ran to his house, put on a black coat, and in that + costume, which, in those days, always announced a magistrate, + or public functionary, presents himself at the entrance of the + Central Office. The officer to whom he addressed himself, + supposed of course that he was at least a commissary. On the + invitation of Beaumont, he gave him a soldier, whom he placed + as sentinel at the entrance to the narrow passage which leads + to the depot, and commanded not to allow any person to pass. No + better expedient could be found for preventing surprise. Thus + Beaumont, in the midst of a crowd of valuable objects, could, + at his leisure, and in perfect security, choose what best + pleased him; watches, jewels, diamonds, precious stones, &c. He + chose those which he deemed most valuable, most portable, and + as soon as he had made his selection, he dismissed the sentinel + and disappeared. + + "This robbery could not be long concealed, and the following + day was discovered. Had thunder fallen on the police, they + would have been less astonished than at this event. To + penetrate to the very sanctuary! The holy of holies! The fact + appeared so very extraordinary, that it was doubted. Yet it was + evident that a robbery had taken place, and to whom was it to + be attributed? All the suspicions fell on the clerks, sometimes + on one, sometimes on another, when Beaumont, betrayed by a + friend, was apprehended, and sentenced a second time. The + robbery he had committed might be estimated at some hundred + thousand francs, the greater part of which were found on him. + + "Beaumont enjoyed amongst his confraternity a colossal + reputation; and even now, when a rogue boasts of his lofty + exploits,--'Hold your tongue,' they say, 'you are not worthy to + untie the shoe-strings of Beaumont!' In effect, to have robbed + the police was the height of address." + +We now proceed to make the reader acquainted with the habits and +exertions of police-officers, who perform exploits equal in craft and +danger to those of thieves. In order to detect the latter, they often +resort to the vilest places, and associate with the vilest of mankind; +assume various characters and occupations; and sometimes, +perhaps,--stimulated by the hope of reward,--lead others to commit +crimes in order to entrap them. Vidocq, however, professes in every case +to have acted without any desire to entice. He says that he himself +never proposed any scheme of robbery; but took care to concur in such as +were proposed by others. This declaration must, we suppose, be received +with some qualification, as without an occasional suggestion, he would +probably have been suspected in his designs. Be that as it may, he was +eminently successful in securing villains; for having practised villainy +himself, he knew their ways and devices, thus verifying the propriety of +the maxim,--"Set a thief to catch a thief." Some of the convicts at +Botany Bay make the best police-officers. Of this we have an instance +in Barrington, the famous London pick-pocket, who rendered such +essential services to the colony, that in his old age he was pensioned +by the government. By what means Vidocq, after all his devotion, came to +lose his office, he has not mentioned; an omission rather singular, +which lays his character open to suspicion, especially as he has given +the circumstances that first led him to offer himself to the police. +These circumstances it may be proper to glance at, as they exhibit a +view of the dangers attendant on a lawless course of life. + + "At this period, it seemed as if the whole world was leagued + against me; I was compelled to draw my purse-strings at every + moment, and for whom? For creatures who, looking on my + liberality as compulsory, were prepared to betray me as soon as + I ceased to be a certain source of reliance. When I went home + from my wife's, I had still another proof of the wretchedness + affixed to the state of a fugitive galley-slave. Annette and my + mother were in tears. During my absence, two drunken men had + asked for me, and on being told that I was from home, they had + broke forth in oaths and threats, which left me no longer in + doubt of the perfidy of their intentions. By the description + which Annette gave me of these two individuals, I easily + recognised Blondy, and his comrade, Deluc. I had no trouble in + guessing their names; and besides, they had left an address, + with a formal injunction to send them forty francs, which was + more than enough to disclose to me who they were, as there were + not in Paris any other persons who could send me such an + intimation. I was obedient, very obedient; only in paying my + contribution to these two scoundrels, I could not help letting + them know how inconsiderately they had behaved. 'Consider what + a step you have taken,' said I to them; 'they know nothing at + my house, and you have told them all. My wife, who carries on + the concern in her name, will perhaps turn me out, and then I + must be reduced to the lowest ebb of misery.'--'Oh! you can + come and rob with us,' answered the two rascals. I endeavoured + to convince them, how much better it was to owe an existence to + honest toil, than to be in incessant fears from the police, + which, sooner or later, catches all malefactors in its nets. I + added, that one crime generally leads to another; that he would + risk his neck who ran straight towards the guillotine; and the + termination of my discourse was, that they would do well to + renounce the dangerous career on which they had entered. 'Not + so bad!' cried Blondy, when I had finished my lecture, 'not so + bad.' 'But can you, in the mean time, point out to us any + apartment that we can ransack? We are, you see, like Harlequin, + and have more need of cash than advice;' and they left me, + laughing deridingly at me. I called them back, to profess my + attachment to them, and begged them not to call again at my + house. 'If that is all,' said Deluc, 'we will keep from + that.'--'Oh yes, we'll keep away,' added Blondy, 'since that is + unpleasant to your mistress.' But the latter did not stay away + long: the very next day, at night-fall, he presented himself at + my ware-house, and asked to speak to me privately. I took him + into my own room. 'We are alone?' said he to me, looking round + at the room in which we were; and when he was assured that he + had no witnesses, he drew from his pocket eleven silver forks, + and two gold watches, which he placed on a stand. 'Four hundred + francs for this would not be too much--the silver plate and the + gold watches.--Come, tip us the needful.'--'Four hundred + francs!' said I, alarmed at so abrupt a total,--'I have not so + much money.'--'Never mind; go and sell the goods.'--'But if it + should be known!'--'That's your affair; I want the ready; or if + you like it better, I'll send you customers from the + police-office;--you know what a word would do;--come, + come,--the cash, the chink, and no gammon.' I understood the + scoundrel but too well: I saw myself denounced, dragged from + the state in which I had installed myself, and led back to the + Bagne. I counted out the four hundred francs." + +Considering the danger in which Vidocq was placed, his offer to serve +the police was judicious. What could be more trying than to lie at the +mercy of rascals? Obliged to be continually supplying them with +hush-money, and yet always afraid of being betrayed by them, he was in +perpetual torment; but, his services once accepted by the police, all +this was at an end. He must have felt himself like a man escaped from a +wreck, and from the horrors of contending elements; like Ulysses, to +whom we have before compared him, when, having accepted the mantle +offered him by Leucothea, he reached the friendly shore of Pheacia. Like +him, too, his toils were to be renewed. He had enemies to cope with and +subdue, and who required to be encountered with as much subtlety and +resolution as Penelope's suitors. The following is his account of his +first capture.-- + + "One morning I was hastily summoned to attend the chief of the + division. The matter in hand was to discover a man named + Watrin, accused of having fabricated and put in circulation + false money and bank-notes. The inspectors of the police had + already arrested Watrin, but, according to custom, had allowed + him to escape. M. Henry gave me every direction which he deemed + likely to assist me in the search after him; but, + unfortunately, he had only gleaned a few simple particulars of + his usual habits and customary haunts. Every place he was known + to frequent was freely pointed out to me; but it was not very + likely he would be found in those resorts, which prudence would + call upon him carefully to avoid: there remained, therefore, + only a chance of reaching him by some bye-path. When I learnt + that he had left his effects in a furnished house, where he + once lodged, on the boulevard of Mont Parnasse, I took it for + granted, that, sooner or later, he would go there in search of + his property; or, at least, that he would send some person to + fetch it from thence; consequently I directed all my vigilance + to this spot; and after having reconnoitred the house, I lay in + ambush in its vicinity, night and day, in order to keep a + watchful eye upon all comers and goers. This went on for nearly + a week, when, weary of not observing any thing, I determined + upon engaging the master of the house in my interest, and to + hire an apartment of him, where I accordingly established + myself with Annette, certain that my presence could give rise + to no suspicion. I had occupied this post for about fifteen + days, when, one evening, at eleven o'clock, I was informed that + Watrin had just come, accompanied by another person. Owing to a + slight indisposition, I had retired to bed earlier than usual; + however, at this news I rose hastily, and descended the + staircase by four stairs at a time; but whatever diligence I + might use, I was only just in time to catch Watrin's companion; + him I had no right to detain, but I made myself sure that I + might, by intimidation, obtain further particulars from him. I + therefore seized him, threatened him, and soon drew from him a + confession, that he was a shoemaker, and that Watrin lived with + him, No. 4, _Rue des Mauvais Garcons_. This was all I wanted to + know: I had only time to slip an old great coat over my shirt, + and, without stopping to put on more garments, I hurried on to + the place thus pointed out to me. I reached the house the very + instant that some person was quitting it: persuaded that it was + Watrin, I attempted to seize him; he escaped from me, and I + darted after him up a staircase; but at the moment of grasping + him, a violent blow, which struck my chest, drove me down + twenty stairs. I sprung forward again, and that so quickly, + that, to escape from my pursuit, he was compelled to return + into the house through a sash-window. I then knocked loudly at + the door, summoning him to open it without delay. This he + refused to do. I then desired Annette, who had followed me, to + go in search of the guard; and, whilst she was preparing to + obey me, I counterfeited the noise of a man descending the + stairs. Watrin, deceived by this feint, was anxious to satisfy + himself whether I had actually gone, and softly put his head + out of the window, to observe if all was safe. This was exactly + what I wanted. I made a vigorous dart forwards, and seized him + by the hair of his head: he grasped me in the same manner, and + a desperate struggle took place: jammed against the + partition-wall which separated us, he opposed me with a + determined resistance. Nevertheless, I felt that he was growing + weaker; I collected all my strength for a last effort; I + strained every nerve, and drew him nearly out of the window + through which we were struggling; one more trial, and the + victory was mine; but in the earnestness of my grasp, we both + rolled on the passage floor, on to which I had pulled him. To + rise, snatch from his hands the shoemaker's cutting knife with + which he had armed himself, to bind him and lead him out of the + house, was the work of an instant. Accompanied only by Annette, + I conducted him to the prefecture, where I received the + congratulations, first of M. Henry, and afterwards those of the + prefect of police, who bestowed on me a pecuniary recompense." + +The next account we shall transcribe, is one of his freeing the +community of a receiver of stolen goods. This man had been long watched +by the police; but all attempts to convict him had failed. Accordingly +M. Henry was desirous that Vidocq should use his endeavours, which he +readily did as follows. + + "Posted near the house of the suspected dealer in stolen + property, I watched for his going out; and, following him when + he had gone a few steps down the street, addressed him by a + different name to his own. He assured me I was mistaken; I + protested to the contrary; he insisted upon it I was deceived; + and I affected to be equally satisfied of his identity, + declaring my perfect recognition of his person, as that of a + man who, for some time, had been sought after by the police + throughout Paris and its environs. 'You are grossly mistaken,' + replied he warmly; 'my name is so and so, and I live in such a + street.' 'Come, come, friend,' said I, 'excuses are useless; I + know you too well to part with you so easily.' 'This is too + much,' cried he, 'but, at the next police station, I shall + probably be able to meet with those who can convince you, that + I know my own name better than you seem to do.' This was + exactly the point at which I wished to arrive. 'Agreed,' said + I, and we bent our steps to the neighbouring guard-house. We + entered, and I requested him to show me his papers; he had none + about him. I then insisted upon his being searched, and, on his + person, were found three watches, and twenty-five double + Napoleons, which I caused to be laid aside till he should be + examined before a magistrate. These things had been wrapped in + a handkerchief, which I contrived to secure, and, after having + disguised myself as a messenger, I hastened to the house of + this receiver of stolen goods, and demanded to speak with his + wife. She, of course, had no idea of my business, or knowledge + of my person, and seeing several persons besides herself + present, I signified to her, that my business being of a + private nature, it was important that I should speak to her + alone; and in token of my claims to her confidence, produced + the handkerchief, and inquired whether she recognised it? + Although still ignorant of the cause of my visit, her + countenance became troubled, and her whole person was much + agitated, as she begged me to let her hear my business. 'I am + concerned,' replied I, 'to be the bearer of unpleasant news; + but the fact is, your husband has just been arrested, every + thing found on his person has been seized, and, from some words + which he happened to overhear, he suspects he has been + betrayed; he therefore wishes you to remove out of the house + certain things, you are aware would be dangerous to his safety + if found on the premises. If you please, I will lend you a + helping hand, but I must forewarn you that you have not one + moment to lose.' The information was of the first importance. + The sight of the handkerchief, and the description of the + objects it had served to envelope, removed from her mind every + doubt as to the truth of the message I had brought her; and she + easily fell into the snare I had laid to entrap her. She + thanked me for the trouble I had taken, and begged I would go + and engage three hackney coaches, and return to her with as + little delay as possible. I left the house to execute my + commission, but on the road, I stopped to give one of my people + instructions to keep the coaches in sight, and to seize them, + with their contents, directly I should give the signal. The + vehicles drew up to the door, and, upon re-entering the house, + I found things in a high state of preparation for removing. The + floor was strewed with articles of every description; + time-pieces, candelabra, Etruscan vases, cloths, cachemires, + linen, muslin, &c. All these things had been taken from a + closet, the entrance to which was cleverly concealed by a large + press, so skilfully contrived, that the most practised eye + could not have discovered the deception. I assisted in the + removal, and, when it was completed, the press having been + carefully replaced, the woman begged of me to accompany her, + which I did; and no sooner was she in one of the coaches, ready + to start, than I suddenly pulled up the window, and, at this + previously concerted signal, we were immediately surrounded by + the police. The husband and wife were tried at the assizes, + and, as may be easily conceived, were overwhelmed beneath the + weight of an accusation, in support of which there existed a + formidable mass of convicting testimony." + +We must extract one more account from Vidocq, to show the desperate +hazards which police-officers sometimes run, in capturing criminals; +hazards which, when surmounted, they naturally exult in. Information had +been received at the police-office, that one Fossard, who had several +times effected escapes from jail, was living with his mistress in a +certain district of Paris; that the windows of his apartment had yellow +curtains; and that a hump-backed seamstress lived in the same house. +This was very indefinite; for neither the street, nor the number of the +house was known, and curtains might be changed. However, Vidocq was not +deterred from undertaking a search; accordingly, disguised as an +old-fashioned gentleman, he began the enterprise. He went from street to +street; ascended staircase after staircase till his limbs ached; called +at the doors of scores of seamstresses, but no hump-backed damsel +appeared;--all were as straight as arrows! Not more ardently, he says, +did Don Quixote pant for Dulcinea, than he for Humpina. Days rolled on +unsuccessfully: he began to despair. At length he resolved to change his +measures, and, instead of clambering up flights of steps, to station +himself near the stand of a gossiping milk-woman, and watch her +customers. Numbers of women came to buy their milk in the morning, but +not one adorned with the delectable hump. At length, in the evening, he +caught sight of one whose back had the desired ornament. He followed her +from the milk-woman's to the grocer's, from the grocer's to the +tripe-shop, and, finally, to her home; but when he got there, no yellow +curtains were to be seen. What was to be done? He resolved to speak to +her at all events; so, feigning himself to be a deserted husband, he +inquired of her whether Fossard and his mistress were occupants of any +part of the house? Her reply was disheartening:--they had quitted their +lodgings, and were gone, she knew not where. Still, the case did not +appear hopeless. He had employed a porter to carry his goods, and might +not that porter be found? A new search was requisite, and it terminated +successfully, by his tracing Fossard to a vintner's. Considering, then, +that it was advisable to have the vintner on his side, he called on him +in his usual dress, and informed him, from the police, that his lodgers +meditated robbing him. He and his wife were in consternation at the +intelligence; but Vidocq having pacified them, arranged his plans. The +grand difficulty to be overcome, arose from Fossard's always carrying a +loaded pistol in his hand, and which, they knew from his character, he +would assuredly discharge at the first man that laid hands on him. Here +Vidocq must tell his own tale, we premising, that Fossard's mistress +styled herself Madame Hazard.-- + + "At an early hour, on the 29th of December, I betook myself to + my station. It was desperately cold; the watch was a protracted + one, and the more painful as we had no fire. Motionless, + however, and my eyes fixed against a small hole in the shutter, + I kept my post. At last, about three o'clock, he went out. I + followed gladly, and recognised him; for, up to that period, I + had my doubts. Certain now of his identity, I wished, at that + moment, to put into execution the order for his apprehension; + but the officer who was with me, said he saw the terrible + pistol. That I might authenticate the fact, I walked quickly + and passed Fossard, and then returning, saw clearly that the + agent was right. To attempt to arrest him would have been + useless, and I resolved to defer it. On the 31st of December, + at eleven o'clock, when all my batteries were charged and my + plans perfect, Fossard returned, and, without distrust, + ascended the staircase shaking with cold; and, twenty minutes + after, the disappearance of the light indicated that he was in + bed. The moment had now arrived. The commissary and gend'armes, + summoned by me, were waiting at the nearest guard-house until I + should call them, and then enter quietly. We deliberated on the + most effectual mode of seizing Fossard, without running the + risk of being killed or wounded; for they were persuaded, that, + unless surprised, this robber would defend himself desperately. + My first thought was, to do nothing till daybreak, as I had + been told that Fossard's companion went down very early to get + the milk; we should then seize her, and, after having taken the + key from her, we should enter the room of her lover; but might + it not happen that, contrary to his usual custom, he might go + out first? This reflection led me to adopt another expedient. + The vintner's wife, in whose favour, as I was told, M. Hazard + was much prepossessed, had one of her nephews at her house, a + lad about ten years of age, intelligent beyond his years, and + the more desirous of getting money, as he was a Norman. I + promised him a reward, on condition that, under pretence of his + aunt's being taken suddenly ill, he should go and beg Madame + Hazard to give him some Eau de Cologne. I desired the little + chap to assume the most piteous tone he could; and was so well + satisfied with the specimen he gave me, that I began to + distribute the parts to my performers. The denouement was near + at hand. I made all my party take off their shoes, doing the + same myself, that we might not be heard whilst going up stairs. + The little snivelling pilot was in his shirt; he rang the + bell;--no one answered: again he rang;--'Who's there,' was + heard.--'It is I Madame Hazard; it is Louis: my poor aunt is + very bad, and begs you will be so very obliging as to give her + a little Eau de Cologne.--Oh! she is dying!--I have got a + light.' The door was opened; and scarcely had Madame Hazard + presented herself, when two powerful gend'armes seized on her, + and fastened a napkin over her mouth to prevent her crying out. + At the same instant, with more rapidity than the lion when + darting on his prey, I threw myself upon Fossard; who, + stupified by what was doing, and already fast bound and + confined in his bed, was my prisoner before he could make a + single movement, or utter a single word. So great was his + amazement, that it was nearly an hour before he could + articulate even a few words. When a light was brought, and he + saw my black face and garb of a coalman, he experienced such an + increase of terror, that I really believe he imagined himself + in the devil's clutches. On coming to himself, he thought of + his arms,--his pistols and dagger,--which were upon the table; + and, turning his eyes towards them, he made a struggle, but + that was all; for, reduced to the impossibility of doing any + mischief, he was passive." + +From the above extracts, a tolerably correct idea may be formed of +thieves and police-officers;--men who co-exist in every civilized +community, but who lead lives requiring the cunning and personal bravery +of savages. The thief exults in the success of a daring exploit, and +prides himself on his skill in avoiding the meshes of magistrates and +lawyers: the police-officer is no less vain of his skill, in detecting +and dragging to justice the man who boasts of his superiority in +artifice, while he almost defies the arm of vengeance. In order that the +number of such characters may be reduced, all reasonable attempts should +be made to reclaim juvenile delinquents; prisons should be not only +places of terror, but places where the spread of corruption is +effectually prevented, by the prohibition of intercourse amongst the +inmates; and, above all, education, founded on a moral and religious +basis, should be extended throughout society. Facts bear us out in +asserting, that crimes of the greatest magnitude, such as murder, +burglary, and arson, considerably diminish with the spread of +civilization, which operates, like the circle formed by the pebble +thrown into water, in extending its influence in proportion to its +circumference. As philanthropists in many different countries are +labouring simultaneously to promote this great end, we are justified in +considering the present age as the harbinger of a better; and we may +rejoice in the anticipation. The progressive improvement of the human +family is a delightful subject for meditation, giving us, perhaps, a +prelibation of the joys of futurity, and animating us to contribute our +aid, trifling as it may be, to the melioration of the condition of our +country. + +Before closing this article, we can scarcely forbear remarking, that the +translator of Vidocq has used various words which have been considered +by English writers as Americanisms; such as _to progress_, _to +approbate_, and _lengthy_; also _chicken-fighting_ for cock-fighting. +Whether he is an American or an Englishman we know not; but certain we +are, that nearly every one of the alleged peculiarities in language, +adopted by Americans, may be found either in old English authors, or are +known to have been used in one or other of the provincial brogues of +England. Captain Basil Hall notices the substitution of _fall_ for +Autumn; but he might have known, that though nearly obsolete in England, +it is still current in the west of England amongst the vulgar.[15] Even +the much laughed at _I guess_, is in vogue in Lancashire; so that with +the exception of _to tote_ for to carry, which, as Dr. Webster remarks, +was introduced by the negroes into the southern states, we do not know +whether a single word or expression supposed to be peculiar to the +United States, may be found, which cannot be traced to Great Britain or +Ireland. In the volume on Insect Architecture, issued by the Society for +the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, we notice the word _sparse,_ which, +till then, we had supposed to be of American formation; and a late +writer in Blackwood's Magazine says, that the New-England word +_tarnation_, is current in the county of Suffolk in old England. The +probability of its being introduced into Massachusetts from that part of +England, is confirmed by the great number of towns in Massachusetts +bearing the same names as towns in the counties of Suffolk and Essex, +and by the correspondence remarked by travellers between the dialects of +the two districts. Every one may have observed, that the +New-Englanders,--many even of the educated amongst them,--pronounce the +participle _been_, as if written _ben_; and this peculiarity, we are +assured, is prevalent in the part of England just mentioned. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[12] See the second series of Tales of a Grandfather. + +[13] Since the above was written, we have met with an old schoolfellow +of Vaux's, and who also knew him in after life; and from him we have +learnt that Vaux's Memoirs have strong claim to credence, from the +circumstance that the account of his early life appears to be correctly +given, as also that part of his subsequent career which is known to our +informant. He added, that his manners were quite fascinating. + +[14] As many of our readers may not recollect it, we here insert it. +Cibber, it should be borne in mind, was poet-laureate. + +"In merry old England, it once was a rule, That the king had his poet, +and also his fool; But the times are so altered, I'd have you to know +it, That Cibber will serve both for fool and for poet!" + +Cibber seems so little to have minded this, and the rest of Pope's +satire on him in the Dunciad, that he wrote another epigram nearly as +pungent on himself! We give the following stanzas as a specimen of it. + + "When Bayes thou play'st, thyself thou art; + For that by nature fit, + No blockhead better suits the part, + Than such a coxcomb wit. + + In Wronghead, too, thy brains we see + Who might do well at plough; + As fit for Parliament was he, + As for the laurel thou." + +[15] See A Summary View of America. By an Englishman. 8vo. London: 1824. + + + + +ART. VI.--TOBACCO. + +1.--"_Counterblaste to Tobacco._" By KING JAMES I. _of England._ Works, +fol. from 214 to 222. + +2.--_A Dissertation on the Use and Abuse of Tobacco._ By The Rev. ADAM +CLARKE. pp. 32. October: 1798. + +3.--_Observations upon the influence of the habitual use of Tobacco upon +Health, Morals, and Property._ By BENJAMIN RUSH, M.D. Essays. p. 263 to +274. 1798. + +4.--_Notices relative to Tobacco._ By DR. A. T. THOMSON. _Appendix (Note +B) to Mrs. A. T. Thomson's Life of Sir Walter Ralegh._ pp. 24: 1830. + + +The annals of literature furnish abundant examples of authors, who, +through wantonness, whimsicality, a desire to say something, where many +could say nothing, and few could say much, or from some other impulse, +(for which it were now unprofitable to search,) have adopted themes +either insignificant in themselves, or repugnant to truth; subjects +barren, or improbable, or laborious, or palpably absurd. Thus Homer has +celebrated the battle of the Frogs and Mice; Virgil sung of Bees; +Polycrates commended Tyranny; Phavorinus sets forth the praises of +Injustice; and Cardan pronounced the eulogy of Nero. The Golden Ass of +Apulcius is well known; Henry Cornelius Agrippa has employed his wit and +learning on an elaborate "Digression in praise of the Asse." Other +authors have discovered virtues and excellencies in this animal, though +the generality of mankind have agreed in supposing it possessed nothing +remarkable but dulness and obstinacy. Lucian exercised his genius on a +fly; and Erasmus has dignified Folly in his _Encomium Moriae_, which, for +the sake of the pun, he inscribed to Sir Thomas More. The subject of +Michael Psellus is a Gnat; Antonius Majoragius took for his theme Clay; +Julius Scaliger wrote concerning a Goose; Janus Dousa on a Shadow; and +Heinsius (_horresco referens_) eulogized a Louse. This last animal +elicited some fine moral verses from Burns; Libanus thought the Ox +worthy of his pen; and Sextus Empiricus selected the faithful Dog. +Addison composed the Battle of the Pigmies and Cranes; Rochester +versified about Nothing; and Johannes Passeratius made a Latin poem on +the same subject, which is quoted at full length by Dr. Johnson at the +end of his Life of Rochester. The Jeffreidos were written to commemorate +the perils to which Sir Jeoffrey Hudson was exposed; Sir William Jones +thought Chess worthy of the epopee; and at the foot of this list of +egregious triflers, we place Dr. Raphael Thorius, who wrote a much and +often praised Latin poem on the Virtues of Tobacco. + +Now, to most of our readers, this last theme would seem to offer fewer +inducements to the poet's pen than any of those thus enumerated; and +genius could scarcely have selected one, which seemed less ennobling in +itself, or rather, which at once presented such palpable +discouragements, from the coarse associations connected with it, and the +cureless vulgarity and nauseousness with which the whole subject appears +to be invested. In opposition to so many obstacles and dissuasives, this +great man yielded to the impulse of his muse, and obtained an +immortality to which no other action of his life would have entitled +him. It is with unaffected regret that we are compelled to state, that, +to procure a sight of this celebrated poem, we have ransacked our +libraries without the least success. How painful is the reflection, that +perhaps this work has never yet reached the United States! What a +reproach to our republic, that a poem whose object was to celebrate the +virtues of the most incomparable of all our native plants, should be +totally unknown in that new world, with whose discovery it was nearly +contemporaneous! But perhaps our Jeremiad may be premature; for in some +obscure corner in Virginia, (the garden of this weed,) a copy of the +poem may at this very moment exist, like unobtrusive merit, disregarded +and despised. For the honour of our country, we hope this may prove +true; since it may lessen the odium with which men habitually load poor +republics, a name which has long been the by-word and synonime of +ingratitude. + +We are fully aware of the contemptuous manner in which Doctor Clarke +speaks of this production, and its English translation by the Rev. W. +Berwick, declaring them to be "of equal merit, and that they scarce +deserve to be mentioned." But to the merit of this work we have +testimony infinitely higher than the opinion of the Reverend Doctor. +Thus, Howell, in his inimitable "Familiar Letters," a book which cannot +be too highly commended, or too often read, says, "if you desire to read +with pleasure all the virtues of this modern herb, you must read Dr. +Thorius's Potologis, an accurate peece, couched in a strenuous heroic +verse, and continuing its strength from first to last; insomuch that for +the bignes it may be compared to any piece of antiquity, and in my +opinion is beyond [Greek: Batzachomnomachia] or [Greek: +Galeomnomachia]."[16] The learned Mr. Bayle speaks of the same +production in very commendatory language.[17] Bayle tells an excellent +story of Thorius, which, as it illustrates the character of the great +tobacco poet, deserves to be read. He was extremely fond of his glass of +wine, and had, beside, that hydrophobic distaste, which has been +imagined essential to the true poet. Being one day seated at the dinner +table, in company with the celebrated Peireskius, in the festivity of +the occasion, he was urging the latter to quaff off a bumper of wine, +and after the most importunate intreaties, Peireskius at last agreed to +do it upon one condition, which was, that Thorius should immediately +afterwards drink a bumper himself. No condition could be more +acceptable, no penalty more easy; but what was the surprise and horror +of Thorius, when his turn came, to find that he was called upon to drink +a bumper, not of wine, but of water!--which insipid and unaccustomed +beverage, after sundry efforts and awry faces, he contrived to get down, +amidst peals of laughter from his hilarious and learned friends. + +We classed Thorius's poem among the extravagant vagaries of genius; but +the more we reflect upon the subject matter of this poem, the more the +conviction fastens upon our minds, that it is by no means a trivial or +undignified topic; that considered in what light it may, tobacco must be +regarded as the most astonishing of the productions of nature, since, +although unsightly, offensive, and, perhaps, in every way pernicious, it +has, in the short period of about three centuries, subdued not one +particular nation, but the whole world, Christian and Pagan, into a +bondage more abject and irremediable than was ever known to tyranny or +superstition. Kings have forbidden it; popes have anathematized it; and +physicians have warned against it. Even ministers of the gospel have +lifted up their voices, and thundered their denunciations from the +pulpit; but all has been in vain; its use has increased, is increasing, +and will increase, as long as the earth continues to yield this +miraculous vegetable to the unnatural appetite of man. + +That what is persecuted should thrive the more in consequence of +persecution, can excite no surprise in any one at all skilled in the +history of human nature; but this is altogether inadequate to account +for that preternatural eagerness with which men seek after this +wonderful plant. In fact, there appears to be some occult charm +connected with it--some invisible spirit, which, be it angel, or be it +devil, has never yet been, and perhaps never will be, satisfactorily +explained. To those who have never revelled in this habit, and +consequently can neither comprehend its nature or strength, the +hyperbolical language which most authors use when they speak of tobacco, +must appear, in an eminent degree, burlesque and overstrained. +"Tobacco," says the Anatomist of Melancholy, "divine, rare, +superexcellent tobacco, which goes far beyond all their panaceas, +potable gold, and philosophers' stones, a soveraign remedy to all +diseases--A good vomit, I confess, a vertuous herb, if it be well +qualified, opportunely taken, and medicinally used; but as it is +commonly abused by most men, which take it as tinkers do ale, 'tis a +plague, a mischief, a violent purger of goods, lands, and health; +hellish, devilish, and damned tobacco; the ruine and overthrow of body +and soul."[18] So in his valedictory to tobacco, Mr. Lamb is not less +extravagant and contradictory. The health of the poet it appears had +suffered seriously from the immoderate use of tobacco, which had been in +consequence interdicted by his physician. Compelled to surrender his +favourite enjoyment, he vents his feelings in a very spirited "Farewell +to Tobacco," which exhibits a singular mixture of opposite sentiments, +and of violent struggles between his propensity to the habit and his +acquiescence in the necessity which severs him from it, together with +feeble attempts to curse that, without which, life to the unhappy poet +seemed scarcely endurable. + + "Stinking'st of the stinking kind, + Filth of the mouth and fog of the mind, + Africa that brags her foyson, + Breeds no such prodigious poison, + Henbane, nightshade, both together, + Hemlock, aconite---- + ----Nay, rather + Plant divine, of rarest virtue; + Blisters on the tongue would hurt you; + 'Twas but in a sort I blamed thee, + None e'er prospered who defamed thee." + +But tobacco has had enemies of exalted station, whose persecution has +been uniform, and whose hatred has been unmixed. Such was James the +First of England, who is not less remarkable for his sagacity in +discovering the gunpowder plot, and having supported the divine right of +kings, than for having written a "Counterblaste to Tobacco."[19] But let +the king speak for himself:-- + + "Tobacco," says he, "is the lively image and pattern of hell, + for it hath, by allusion, all the parts and vices of the world + whereby hell may be gained; to wit. 1. It is a smoke; so are + all the vanities of this world. 2. It delighteth them that take + it; so do all the pleasures of the world delight the men of the + world. 3. It maketh men drunken and light in the head; so do + all the vanities of the world, men are drunkards therewith. 4. + He that taketh tobacco can not leave it; it doth bewitch him; + even so the pleasures of the world make men loath to leave + them; they are for the most part enchanted with them. And, + farther, besides all this, it is like hell in the very + substance of it, for it is a stinking loathsome thing, and so + is hell." + +The mythological fable which existed among the Indians as to the manner +in which this plant was first bestowed upon mankind, is extremely +whimsical, somewhat discreditable, and withal of such a nature as to +preclude the propriety of our introducing it in this place to the +acquaintance of our readers. But writers are not wanting who have +carried the original of tobacco into the Grecian fabulous ages, and +attributed to Bacchus the glory of having discovered and disclosed to +mortals its virtues. Thorius, as Dr. Clarke tells us, very ominously +ascribes the discovery and first use of this herb to Bacchus, Silenus, +and the Satyrs, (drunkenness, gluttony, and lust,) and yet, continues +the Doctor, with a sneer, this poem was written in praise of it. Mr. +Lamb, in the poem before quoted, has the same thought, and he farther +adds a belief, that the tobacco plant was the true Indian conquest for +which the jolly god has been so celebrated. He moreover intimates, that +the Thyrsus of that deity was afterwards ornamented with leaves of +tobacco, instead of ivy. Even the name of the plant has been derived +from Bacchus. This is particularly mentioned by Mr. Joseph Sylvester, +quoted by Dr. Clarke, who wrote a poem on tobacco which he inscribed to +Villiers, Duke of Buckingham. The title of this tirade is very quaint, +viz. "Tobacco battered, and the Pipes shattered (about their Ears who +idly idolize so base and barbarous a Weed; or at least-wise overlove so +loathsome a Vanity) by a Volley of holy Shot from Mount Helicon." + + "For even the derivation of the name + Seems to allude and to include the same; + Tobacco as [Greek: toBakcho] one would say + To cup-god Bacchus dedicated ay." + +Nor should all this appear so extraordinary, when we consider that +Charlevoix, with the utmost seriousness, discusses the question, whether +the calumet of the North American Indians was the same as the caduceus +of Mercury.[20] It is however beyond all doubt, that tobacco has always +been regarded by the Indians with religious veneration, and employed by +them in all religious ceremonies. Mr. Stith informs us, that they +thought this plant "of so great worth and virtue that the gods +themselves were delighted with it; and therefore they sometimes made +sacred fires, and instead of a sacrifice, threw in the dust of tobacco; +and when they were caught in a tempest, they would sprinkle it into the +air and water--upon all their new fishing nets they would cast some of +it, and when they had escaped any remarkable danger, they would throw +some of this dust into the air, with strange distorted gestures, +sometimes striking the earth with their feet in a kind of time and +measure, sometimes clapping their hands and throwing them up on high, +looking towards the heavens, and uttering barbarous and dissonant +words."[21]--Sir Hans Sloan tells us, also, that the Indians employ +tobacco in all their enchantments, sorceries, and fortune-tellings; that +their priests intoxicate themselves with the fumes, and in their +ecstacies give forth ambiguous and oracular responses.[22] + +A few words will now be devoted to the subject of the numerous names +which have belonged to tobacco; many persons conceiving the title of any +thing, to be of equal importance with the christening of a person; and +surely where the etymology of a name of either person or thing can throw +any light upon their respective histories, the time employed thereon can +hardly be looked upon as either lost or misspent. But it unfortunately +happens, as is almost always the case in regard to persons and things +belonging to mythological eras, that the greatest confusion and +perplexity exist in regard to the Indian titles which have been bestowed +upon tobacco; and as we frankly confess ourselves utterly unversed in +Occidental philology, we shall, with whatever reluctance, be obliged to +omit even the mention of many appellations, whose true meaning and value +have passed into obscurity, with the languages and nations from which +such appellations were derived.[23] + +Sir Hans Sloan informs us, that the name was originally picielt, and +that tobacco was given it by the Spaniards.[24] Several authors say, +that it was called by the inhabitants of the West India islands +yoli--but that on the continent they gave it the name of paetum, peti, +petunum, or petun.[25] Some say it was sent into Spain from Tabaco, a +province of Yucatan, where it was first discovered, and from whence it +takes its common name. Pourchot declares, that the Portuguese brought it +into Europe from Tobago, an island in North America; but the island +Tobago, says another, was never under the Portuguese dominion, and that +it seems rather to have given its name to that island. The inhabitants +of Hispaniola call it by the name cohiba, or pete be cenuc, and the +instrument by which they smoke it tabaco, and hence, say they, it +derived its name. Stith, in his History of Virginia, speaks of one Mr. +Thomas Harriot,[26] a domestic of Sir Walter Ralegh, a man of learning, +who was sent by Ralegh to Virginia chiefly to make observations, which +were afterwards published. Now this Harriot, speaking of tobacco, says +it was called, by the Indians of Virginia, uppowoc.[27] But the +principal names by which this article is now known, either in common +parlance or scientific discourse, are three, viz.--paetum, which seems to +be its poetical title--tobacco, its vulgar and most intelligible +name--and nicotiana, its scientific and botanical name; which latter we +will explain more fully hereafter.[28] + +The Abbot Nyssens thought it was the Devil who first introduced tobacco +into Europe. We do not design to discuss so important a question, +concerning which there must needs be a contrariety of opinions; but we +cannot forbear to observe, that to give the Devil more than his due, is +by no means new or uncommon in ecclesiastical inquiries. We have +something parallel to this in the history of Hercules, though springing +most probably from a very different source; for to him the ancients were +wont to attribute any great action for which they could not find a +certain author. We are informed that this plant was first seen smoked by +the Spaniards, under Grijalva, in 1518. In 1519, the illustrious Cortez +sent a specimen of it to his king, and this was the date of its +introduction into Europe. Others say, one Roman Pane carried it into +Spain. By the Cardinal Santa Croce it was conveyed to Italy. It should +be observed, however, that the ancestors of the Cardinal already enjoyed +the reputation of having brought into Italy the true cross, and the +double glory which attaches to the Santa Croce family in consequence, is +well described in the following Latin lines, taken from Bayle's +Dictionary.[29] These verses are valuable in another respect, since they +contain a full enumeration of the real or supposed virtues of the herb. +They are also copied by the Reverend Dr. Clarke; and the English verses +which accompany them, are by the Dr. attributed to M. de Maizeaux.-- + + "Nomine quae sanctae crucis herba vocatur ocellis + Subvenit, et sanat plagas, et vulnera jungit, + Discutit et strumas, cancrum, cancrosaque sanat + Ulcera, et ambustis prodest, scabiemque repellit, + Discutit et morbum cui cessit ab impete nomen, + Calefacit, et siccat, stringit, mundatque, resolvit, + Et dentium et ventris mulcet capitisque dolores; + Subvenit antiquae tussi, stomachoque rigenti + Renibus et spleni confert, ultroque, venena + Dira sagittarum domat, ictibus omnibus atris + Haec eadem prodest; gingivis proficit atque + Conciliat somnum: nuda ossa carne revestit; + Thoracis vitiis prodest, pulmonis itemque, + Quae duo sic praestat, non ulla potentior herba. + Hanc Sanctacrucius Prosper quum nuncius esset, + Sedis Apostolicae Lusitanas missus in horas + Huc adportavit Romanae ad commoda gentis, + Ut proavi sanctae lignum crucis ante tulere + Omnis Christiadum quo nunc respublica gaudet, + Et Sanctae crucis illustris domus ipsa vocatur + Corporis atque animae nostrae studiosa salutis." + +We subjoin the following "faithful but inelegant translation," which is +given by M. de Maizeaux in his translation of Bayle. + + "The herb which borrows Santa Croce's name + Sore eyes relieves, and healeth wounds; the same + Discusses the king's evil, and removes + Cancers and boils; a remedy it proves + For burns and scalds, repels the nauseous itch, + And straight recovers from convulsion fits. + It cleanses, dries, binds up, and maketh warm; + The head-ach, tooth-ach, colic, like a charm + It easeth soon; an ancient cough relieves, + And to the reins and milt, and stomach gives + Quick riddance from the pains which each endures; + Next the dire wounds of poisoned arrows cures; + All bruises heals, and when the gums are sore, + It makes them sound and healthy as before. + Sleep it procures, our anxious sorrows lays, + And with new flesh the naked bone arrays. + No herb hath greater power to rectify + All the disorders in the breast that lie + Or in the lungs. Herb of immortal fame! + Which hither first by Santa Croce came, + When he (his time of nunciature expired) + Back from the court of Portugal retired; + Even as his predecessors great and good, + Brought home the cross, whose consecrated wood + All Christendom now with its presence blesses; + And still the illustrious family possesses + The name of Santa Croce, rightly given, + Since they in all respects resembling Heaven, + Procure as much as mortal men can do, + The welfare of our souls and bodies too." + +It is agreed on all hands, that tobacco was introduced into France by +John Nicot, (whence it obtains its common name Nicotiana) Lord of +Villemain and Master of Requests of the household of Francis the Second. +He was born at Nismes, and was sent as embassador to the Court of +Portugal in 1559, from whence, on his return, he brought to Paris this +herb. From Nicot, it was also called the embassador's herb. The +question, whether it was known in France before it was carried into +England, was long agitated, and is perhaps not settled yet, since the +precise epocha of its introduction into any particular country, cannot +with absolute certainty be fixed. The French writers, generally, are of +opinion that Sir Francis Drake conveyed it to England before Nicot made +it known in France. Thevet, who has discussed the subject, is thought by +them to have settled it in favour of the English. A French writer, Jean +Liebault, says tobacco grew wild in France long before the discovery of +the New World. Mr. Murray inclines to the belief, that tobacco existed +in Europe before the discovery of America, but he thinks it proceeded +from Asia.[30] Mr. Savary asserts, that among the Persians it was known +at least five hundred years since, but that they obtained it from Egypt, +and not from the East Indies, where its cultivation was but recent. But, +what has not been said of this extraordinary plant? It has often been +called a Nepenthe, and we are under belief that some have even imagined +that the tobacco leaf forms a principal ingredient in the wondrous and +potent mixture which Helen prepares for her guests in the fourth +Odyssey.-- + + [Greek: "Phazmachon + Nependes t' acholon te kakon epilethon apanton."] + + "Of sovereign use to assuage + The boiling bosom of tumultuous rage; + To clear the cloudy front of wrinkled care, + And dry the tearful sluices of despair." + +In the same passage, Homer tells us that Helen learned the nature of +drugs and herbs from the wife of Thone, King of Egypt. Now, by +considering this latter fact, in conjunction with what is asserted by +Mr. Savary, some verisimilitude seems to be imparted to the hypothesis +of the tobacco plant having sprung originally from Egypt. We are not +aware of any author (though we think it not improbable that such may +exist) who has carried matters so far as to assert that tobacco was the +tree of Paradise, "whose mortal taste brought death into the +world,"--nor would this appear for a moment extravagant, if one only +calls to mind the strange traditions which the Rabbinnical writers have +handed down upon theological points of far more importance, or the +equally absurd and monstrous notions which the modern history of +sectarianism furnishes. From what has been said, however, it appears +very clear, that Satan has had too much to do with tobacco. If it be +verily the tree of knowledge, it must be admitted that he has preserved +it with infinite care, as if grateful for the mighty mischief which was +wrought in Eden, and as a fit instrument for those injuries in future to +the human family, which so many authors assure us it is producing at the +present day. How tobacco ever got to America is a difficulty of very +little moment, when we remember that writers are not agreed in what +manner America was even peopled. Even were we to admit that the +aboriginal Americans were not descended from Adam and Eve, still if we +concede that Satan has had the especial care of tobacco, we cannot be +surprised at his finding the means, if he had the desire, of introducing +it into America. We have before alluded to what the Abbot Nyssens says, +and if in addition we call to mind what others have uttered about its +diabolical nature, and that the American Indians were wont to propitiate +the powers of darkness by making offerings to them of tobacco, we cannot +help thinking that King James was nearer truth and propriety than he +imagined, when he declared that if he were to invite the Devil to dine +with him, he would be sure to provide three things,--1. a pig,--2. a +poll of ling and mustard,--3. a pipe of tobacco for digestion. + +It is not certainly known whether tobacco grew spontaneously in +Virginia, or whether it came originally from some more southern region +of America. At all events, the English who first visited Virginia +certainly found it there, and Harriot is of opinion, that it was of +spontaneous growth. Mr. Jefferson thinks it was a native of a more +southern climate, and was handed along the continent from one nation of +savages to another.[31] Dr. Robertson informs us, that it was not till +the year 1616 that its cultivation was commenced in Virginia.[32] +However this may be, the gallant and unfortunate Sir Walter Ralegh has +the credit of bringing it into fashion in England.[33] It is well known +that the colony planted in Virginia by Sir Walter, suffered many +calamities, and we are told, that Ralph Lane,[34] one of the survivers +who was carried back to England by Sir Francis Drake, was the person who +first made tobacco known in Great Britain. This was in the 28th year of +Queen Elizabeth, A. D. 1585.[35] Sir Walter himself is said to have been +very fond of smoking, and many humorous stories have been recorded +concerning it, particularly of a wager he made with Queen Elizabeth, +that he would determine exactly the weight of the smoke which went off +in a pipe of tobacco. This he did by first weighing the tobacco which +was to be smoked, and then carefully preserving and weighing the ashes, +and the queen paid the wager cheerfully, being satisfied that what was +wanting to the prime weight must have been evaporated in smoke. Every +one remembers the story of the alarm of one of Sir Walter's servants, +who, coming into a room and beholding his master enveloped in smoke, +supposed him to be on fire. + +To the devout and genuine worshippers of this weed, it may be +satisfactory to know, that a tobacco-box and some pipes, belonging +formerly to Sir Walter, are still in existence, and all smokers who may +feel so disposed may perform a pilgrimage to them when they visit +England, they being in the museum of Mr. Ralph Thoresby of Leeds, +Yorkshire.[36] We shall conclude our remarks upon Sir Walter, by a +poetical tribute to his memory, which is both apposite and eloquent. + + "Immortal Ralegh! were potatoes not, + Could grateful Ireland e'er forget thy claim?[37] + 'Were all thy proud historic deeds forgot,' + Which blend thy memory with Eliza's fame; + Could England's annals in oblivion rot, + Tobacco would enshrine and consecrate thy name." + +We cannot forbear to make a quotation concerning the Virginia colony, at +a more flourishing subsequent period, which, as it records a historical +fact, cannot fail to be interesting, while at the same time it is +sufficiently comic. "The adventurers," says Malte-Brun, "who increased +from year to year, were reduced, in consequence of the scarcity of +females, to import wives by order, as they imported merchandise. It is +recorded, that ninety girls, 'young and uncorrupt,' came to the Virginia +market in 1620, and sixty in 1621; all of whom found a ready sale. The +price of each at first was one hundred pounds of tobacco, but afterwards +rose to one hundred and fifty. What the prime cost was in England is not +stated."[38] + +In whatever manner tobacco found its way into Europe, it met with a very +hostile reception from several crowned heads. Elizabeth published an +edict against its use. James imposed severe prohibitory duties, and +Charles, his successor, continued them. + + "In 1590," says Dr. Thomson, "Shah Abbas prohibited the use of + tobacco in Persia, by a penal law; but so firmly had the luxury + rooted itself in the minds of his subjects, that many of the + inhabitants of the cities fled to the mountains, where they hid + themselves, rather than forego the pleasure of smoking. In + 1624, Pope Urban VIII. anathematized all snuff-takers, who + committed the heinous sin of taking a pinch in any church; and + so late as 1690, Innocent XII. excommunicated all who indulged + in the same vice in Saint Peter's church at Rome. In 1625, + Amurath IV. prohibited smoking as an unnatural and irreligious + custom, under pain of death. In Constantinople, where the + custom is now universal, smoking was thought to be so + ridiculous and hurtful, that any Turk, who was caught in the + act, was conducted in ridicule through the streets, with a pipe + transfixed through his nose. In Russia, where the peasantry now + smoke all day long, the Grand Duke of Moscow prohibited the + entrance of tobacco into his dominions, under the penalty of + the _knaut_ for the first offence, and death for the second; + and the Muscovite who was found snuffing, was condemned to have + his nostrils split. The Chambre au Tabac for punishing smokers, + was instituted in 1634, and not abolished till the middle of + the eighteenth century. Even in Switzerland, war was waged + against the American herb: to smoke, in Berne, ranked as a + crime next to adultery; and in 1653, all smokers were cited + before the Council at Apenzel, and severely punished."[39] + +We shall see hereafter what a host of enemies tobacco found also among +medical writers. We speak here particularly of the moderns; for many of +the older physicians extolled its healing virtues to the skies, and they +were giants in knowledge; but as an old author says, "Pigmei gigantum +humeris impositi plusquam ipsi gigantes vident." Indeed it must be +admitted, as a very powerful argument against the efficacy of tobacco as +a medicine, that the physicians of our day have in many cases abandoned +its use, and in others adopted some less dangerous succedaneum. + +It may not be unamusing to the curious reader to know in what manner +this subject is handled by King James. The "Counterblaste" commences by +denouncing tobacco, because "the vile and stinking custome comes from +the wilde, godlesse, and slavish Indians," by whom it was used as an +antidote against the most dreadful of all diseases. Its use was +introduced "neither by a king, great conqueror, nor learned Doctor of +Physicke, but by some Indians who were brought over;" they died, but the +"savage custome" survived. King James contents himself by examining only +four of the principal grounds or arguments upon which tobacco is used, +two founded "on the theoricke of a deceivable appearance of reason," and +two "upon the mistaken practicke of generall experience." Thus, "1. An +aphorisme in the Physickes that the brains of all men being naturally +cold and wet, all dry and hote things should be good for them." Ergo, +this "stinking suffumigation."--2. The argument grounded on a show of +reason, is "that this filthy smoke, as well through the heat and +strength thereof, as by a natural force and quality, is able and fit to +purge both the head and stomach of rhewmes and distillations, as +experience teacheth by the spitting and avoiding fleame immediately +after the taking of it."--3. That "the whole people would not have taken +so general a good liking thereof, if they had not by experience found it +very soveraigne and good for them."--4. That "by the taking of tobacco, +divers and very many doe finde themselves cured of divers diseases; as +on the other hand no man ever received harme thereby." The King after +having, as he trusts, sufficiently answered "the most principal +arguments" that are used in defence of this "vile custome," proceeds "to +speake of the sinnes and vanities committed in the filthy abuse +thereof." And 1. As being a sinneful and shameful lust.--2. As a branch +of drunkennesse.--3. As disabling both persons and goods. His majesty +concludes the "Counterblaste" by calling the smoking of tobacco "a +custome loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmeful to the +brain, dangerous to the lungs, and in the blacke and stinking fume +thereof, nearest resembling the horrible Stigian smoke of the pit that +is bottomlesse."[40] + +Let it not be supposed that tobacco has been without friends, wise, +learned, and distinguished; but space forces us to pretermit the mention +of many who have ascribed to it as many virtues as were ever ascribed to +the grand elixir of Alchemy. We shall content ourselves with two or +three miscellaneous testimonies.--Thus Acosta tells us it is a plant, +"which hath in it rare virtues, as amongst others it serves for a +counterpoison--for the Creator hath imparted his virtues at his +pleasure, not willing that any thing should grow idle."[41] Lord Bacon +speaks of its "cheering and comforting the spirits," and that it +relieves in lassitude.[42] Again he says, "doubtless it contributes to +alleviate fatigues and discharge the body of weariness. 'T is also +commonly said to open the passages, and draw off humours; but its +virtues may be more justly attributed to its _condensing_ the +spirits."[43] "It is a good companion," says Howell, "to one that +converseth with dead men, for if one hath bin poring long upon a book, +or is toiled with the pen, or stupified with study, it quickeneth him, +and dispels those clouds that usually oreset the brain. The smoke of it +is one of the wholesomest sents that is against all contagious airs, for +it oremasters all other smells; as _King James_ they say found true, +when being once a hunting, a showr of rain drave him into a pigsty for +shelter, where he caused a pipe full to be taken of purpose."[44] It +were easy to multiply quotations both in prose and verse, but it is to +the latter, most especially, that we must look for the most glowing +ascriptions--to poetry which has ever delighted.[45] + + "To sing the praises of that glorious weed-- + Dear to mankind, whate'er his race, his creed, + Condition, colour, dwelling, or degree! + From Zembla's snows to parched Arabia's sands, + Loved by all lips, and common to all hands! + Hail sole cosmopolite, tobacco, hail! + Shag, long-cut, short-cut, pig-tail, quid, or roll, + Dark Negrohead, or Orinooka pale, + In every form congenial to the soul." + +Before we proceed to consider the use of tobacco as a habit, which +modern physicians are pleased to consider so pestiferous and baleful, +let us attend for a few moments to what has been said concerning its +culture and manufacture. Mr. Jefferson, in his Notes, says that its +culture is productive of infinite wretchedness; that it is found easier +to make 100 bushels of wheat than 1000 pounds of tobacco, and that they +are worth more when made.[46] Davies, in his History of the Carriby +Islands, after giving an account of the culture and preparation of +tobacco, adds, "that if the people of Europe who are so fond of it, had +themselves seen the poor servants and slaves who are employed about this +painful work, exposed the greatest part of the day to the scorching heat +of the sun, and spending one half of the night in reducing it to that +posture wherein it is transported into Europe; no doubt they would have +a greater esteem for, and think much more precious that herb which is +procured with the sweat and labours of so many miserable creatures."[47] + +Numerous medical writers, of the justest celebrity, have assured us, +that endless and dreadful evils are the portion of all who are engaged +in the manufacture of tobacco; that the workmen are in general meagre, +jaundiced, emaciated, asthmatic, subject to colic, diarrheas, to +vertigo, violent headach, and muscular twitchings, to narcotism, and to +various diseases of the breast and lungs.[48] They have also declared +that some of these evils have befallen families from the fact alone of +being in the neighbourhood of a tobacco manufactory.[49] Ramazzini says +that even the horses employed in the tobacco mills are most powerfully +affected by the particles of the tobacco. Now if these things be true, +when we call to mind the countless multitudes employed in this "dreadful +trade," what a throng of evils present themselves upon the very +threshold of our subject.[50] In this view of the case, one could not +pass such a manufactory without an involuntary shudder, regarding it as +a charnel house, or rather as a Pandora's box, to those wretched beings +who are doomed to work or dwell within its pestilential precincts.[51] +But in spite of the various and respectable testimony which has been +produced by writers opposed to the use of tobacco, we cannot help +regarding their statements as exceedingly exaggerated. We have not space +to enter into a more minute examination of this portion of our subject, +but to such of our readers as may feel desirous of prosecuting the +inquiry, we take great pleasure in recommending a very able memoir by +Messieurs Parent-Duchatelet and D'Arcet,[52] in which the whole subject +of the effects of tobacco upon the persons connected with its +manufacture, is most satisfactorily discussed, and the opinions and +assertions of those who have gone so far as to declare that it was even +necessary to the public health that the manufactories of tobacco should +be removed out of large towns because of their great insalubrity, shown +to be either without any just grounds, or the results of prejudice and +ignorance. + +The fecundity of this plant is marvellous. Linnaeus has calculated that a +single plant of tobacco contains 40,320 grains, and says that if each +seed came to perfection, the plants of tobacco in vegetation in the +course of four years, would be more than sufficient to cover the whole +surface of the earth. We are elsewhere informed that these seeds +preserve their germinative properties for six years and even longer. +"Sir Thomas Browne observes," says Mather, "that of the seeds of +tobacco, a thousand make not one grain, (though Otto de Guericke, as I +remember, says, fifty-two cyphers with one figure would give the number +of those which would fill the space between us and the stars,) a plant +which has extended its empire over the whole world, and has a larger +dominion than any of all the vegetable kingdom."[53] Our readers may +very easily amuse themselves by making calculations on the immense +consumption and value of this plant. The following account from a French +medical writer,[54] will be sufficient. On a rough calculation, the +tobacco sold yearly in France amounts to 40,000,000 pounds weight, which +at three francs per pound, the ordinary price, will make the enormous +annual sum of 120,000,000 francs. One-fourth of the French population +use tobacco, so that of 8,000,000 of human beings, each individual +consumes annually, in the various forms of snuffing, chewing, and +smoking, about six pounds. This quantity may seem too great for some +persons, but it should be remembered that there are many who use a dozen +or twenty pounds in the course of the year. + +If we contemplate man in connexion with tobacco as a necessary, the +juxtaposition cannot fail to strike us as exceedingly ludicrous. From +the earliest ages of philosophy, it has been a favourite employment of +the wise to propose such definitions of man as should fully distinguish +him from the rest of animated nature, and yet no definition of ancient +times will, we are satisfied, appear so excellently discriminative as +one which grows out of our present subject, and which denominates him +the only tobacco loving animal, for (to pass over the tobacco-worm) the +only creature known beside man, whose nature does not abhor tobacco, is, +as Dr. Rush informs us, the solitary rock goat of Africa, one of the +wildest and most filthy of animals. "Were it possible," says he, "for a +being who had resided on our globe, to visit the inhabitants of a planet +where reason governed, and to tell them that a vile weed was in general +use among the inhabitants of the globe it had left, which afforded no +nourishment; that this weed was cultivated with immense care, that it +was an important article of commerce, that the want of it produced real +misery, that its taste was extremely nauseous, that it was unfriendly to +health and morals, and that its use was attended with a considerable +loss of time and property, the account would be thought incredible."[55] +It is idle to speak of tobacco, as being "extremely nauseous," that it +is the "meanest and most paltry of all gratifications," &c. Had not man +discovered in it a delight and comfort which was to be derived from few +other sources, the habitual use of tobacco would long since have been +neglected. To say man uses tobacco for no other reason but its +offensiveness, is a solecism; scarcely would it be more absurd to adopt +the habitual use of castor oil as a cordial, or assafoetida as a +perfume. On this subject Mr. Chamberet[56] has a very interesting +passage, which, as it is so well expressed by the author, we take the +liberty of offering to our readers in his own language. + + "Observons," says he, "que l'homme, en vertu de son + organization a sans cesse besoin de sentir, que presque + toujours il est malheureux, soit par les fleaux que la nature + lui envoie, soit par les tristes resultats de ses passions + aveugles, de ses erreurs de ses prejuges, de son ignorance, &c. + Le tabac exercant sur nos organes une impression vive et forte, + susceptible d'etre renouvelee frequemment et a volonte, on + s'est livre avec d'autant plus d'ardeur a l'usage d'un + semblable stimulant qu'on y a trouve a la fois le moyen de + satisfaire le besoin imperieux de sentir, qui caracterise la + nature humaine, et celui d'etre distrait momentanement des + sensations penibles ou douloureuses qui assiegent sans cesse + notre espece, que le tabac aide ainsi a supporter l'accablant + fardeau de la vie. Avec le tabac, le sauvage endure plus + courageusement la faim, la soif, et toutes les vicissitudes + atmospheriques, l'esclave endure plus patiemment la servitude, + &c. Parmi les hommes qui se disent civilises, son recours est + souvent invoque contre l'ennui, la tristesse; il soulage + quelquefois momentanement les tourmens de l'ambition decues de + ses esperances, et concourt a consoler, dans certains cas les + malheureuses victimes de l'injustice." + +Dr. Walsh says that tobacco used with coffee, after the Turkish +fashion, "is singularly grateful to the taste, and refreshing to the +spirits; counteracting the effects of fatigue and cold, and appeasing +the cravings of hunger, as I have often experienced. Hearne, I think, in +his journey to the mouth of the Coppermine river, mentions his +experience of similar effects of tobacco. He had been frequently +wandering without food for five or six days, in the most inclement +weather, and supported it all, he says, in good health and spirits, by +smoking tobacco, &c."[57] Willis, as quoted by Mons. Merat, recommends +the use of tobacco in armies, as able to supply the necessaries of life +to a great extent, and also as an excellent preventive against various +diseases.[58] And Dr. Rush relates that he was informed by Colonel Burr, +that the greatest complaints of dissatisfaction and suffering which he +heard among the soldiers who accompanied General Arnold in his march +from Boston to Quebec through the wilderness, in the year 1775, were +from the want of tobacco. This was the more remarkable, as they were so +destitute of provisions as to be obliged to kill and eat their dogs.[59] + +Tobacco possesses narcotic powers in common with many other substances, +of which neither time nor space will permit us to make mention. +Narcotics, when used to a due extent, become poisons, and hence tobacco +holds a very high rank in toxicology. A thousand experiments, as well as +accidents, show that it is a most deadly poison.[60] It has also been +called a counterpoison, but those who have asserted this have been +contradicted by numerous writers. Dr. Rush affirms that repeated +experience in Philadelphia has proved, that it is equally ineffectual in +preserving those who use it from the influenza and yellow fever. In the +plague, it was said to be useful, but what has been advanced on this +subject is now shown to be without much foundation. Still it may be said +of tobacco, that though it does not contain any specific antidote to +contagion, or possess antiseptic properties, it may nevertheless, as a +powerful narcotic, by diminishing the sensibility of the system, render +it less liable to contagion. It also moderates anxiety and fear, which +we are told quicken the activity of contagion. "Thus," says Cullen, "the +antiloimic powers of tobacco are upon the same footing with wine, +brandy, and opium."[61] + +Dr. Fowler has written a treatise upon the effects of tobacco in the +cure of dropsies and dysuries. The Doctor seemed determined to discover +virtue in this plant, because he tells us in his preface, that he was +nowise discouraged in his inquiries into the medicinal effects of +tobacco, although the generality of writers on the materia medica have +spoken of it with great caution and reserve, and for the most part have +declared it either _obsolete_, or so _uncertain_, _violent_, and +_deleterious_ in its effects, as to render its exhibition _unadvisable_. +Dr. Cullen says that he employed tobacco in various cases of dropsy, but +with very little success.[62] Even those who advocate the medicinal use +of tobacco, admit that it is one of those violent remedies, which +nothing but the most skilful management can render beneficial; such as +arsenic, prussic acid, and many other deadly poisons, which, if +cautiously and properly administered, become excellent medicines. Thus +the liniment of tobacco, which has formerly been called one of the best +in the dispensatory, is said, in a case mentioned by Mr. Murray, to have +caused the deaths of three children, who expired within twenty-four +hours in convulsions, in consequence of its application for scald head. +Innumerable instances are given of its deleterious effects, even when +used medicinally, and with the greatest caution. In some cases it has +entirely failed to give the anticipated relief, and in others been +followed by the most deplorable consequences. We believe, however, that +eminent practitioners still continue to employ it, and find it +serviceable in some diseases. We have indeed heard it remarked, by a +distinguished physician, that much of the medicinal effect which might +otherwise be derived from tobacco, is often lost by the habitual use of +the article, which renders the system less sensible to its influence. + +As a vulnerary, tobacco was used by the Indians, and physicians say that +it promotes the cicatrization and healing of inveterate ulcers. It has +been used in most cutaneous disorders, and its smoke has been considered +useful in rheumatisms, gout, chronic pains, &c.; but in all these cases +its virtue has also been denied, or it has been asserted that many other +medicines possess more certain efficacy. As an emetic it is considered +dangerous, being extremely violent, and succeeded by too much distress +and sickness. That it has been found useful in destroying insects, and +in preserving old clothes laid by against the inroads of vermin, there +can be no doubt; but on the mosquito and fly, two pests to whose cruel +torments we are most exposed, it will be within the painful remembrance +of many of our readers, that no quantity of tobacco smoke appears to +have the least effect. + +Even though we admitted and could prove tobacco to be a useful medicine, +still this fact would afford no argument in favour of its habitual use +in a state of health. On the contrary, it would be the very reason for +its non-use; for the habitual use will in time weaken and destroy its +medicinal powers. Many, after finding or fancying relief from its +occasional, have fallen into its habitual use, and the remedy has thus +virtually proved worse than the disease. Besides, by this course, +persons take away the hope of future benefit from the application, in +case of a recurrence of their disorder. + +That this habit is entirely unevangelical, Dr. Clarke attempts to show +with much zeal. Let those who profess to renounce the lusts of the flesh +read his tract, and determine, conscientiously, how far his arguments +are worthy of attention. That the devout "roll this sin as a sweet +morsel under the tongue," is fully evinced by every day's experience; +and the following anecdote from Dr. Clarke forms a good illustration of +this text. + + "An eminent physician," says he, "gave me the following + account:--'When I was at L----, in the year 1789, a certain + religious people at one of their annual meetings made a rule, + or rather revived one which had been long before made and + established among them by their venerable founder, but had been + in a great measure lost sight of, viz.--That no minister in + their connexion should use snuff or tobacco, unless prescribed + by a physician. This rule at once showed their prudence and + good sense. Towards the conclusion of the meeting, having + offered my assistance to as many as stood in need of medical + help, several of them consulted me on the subject of taking + tobacco in one form or other; and with very little variation + their mode of address was as follows:--'Doctor, I am troubled + frequently with such a complaint, (naming it,) I take tobacco, + and have found great benefit from the use of it; I am sure were + I to give it up I should be very ill indeed; and I am certain + that you are too wise and too skilful a man to desire me to + discontinue a practice which has been so beneficial to me.' + After such an address what could I say? It was spoken with + serious concern, and was properly _argumentum ad hominem_: I + knew they were sincere, but I knew also they were deceived: + however, to the major part of them I ventured to speak thus: + 'gentlemen, you certainly do me honour in the confidence you + repose in my skill, but you have brought me into a dilemma from + which I cannot easily extricate myself; as I find I must either + say as you say on the subject, or else renounce all pretensions + to wisdom and medical skill. However, I cannot in conscience + and honour prescribe to you the continued use of a thing which + I know does many of you immense hurt.'" + +But the anti-christian nature of this habit is placed in a very strong +light, in a curious passage, by Dr. Rush.[63] "What reception," says he, +"may we suppose, would the apostles have met with, had they carried into +the cities and houses to which they were sent, snuff-boxes, pipes, +segars, and bundles of cut, or rolls of hog, or pigtail tobacco?" + +The effects of tobacco upon the morals have been often animadverted +upon, and in no particular more frequently, and with greater emphasis, +than in its obvious tendency to promote temulency. Charlevoix intimates +the near connexion which exists between intemperance and smoking, when +he assures us, that amongst many nations, to smoke out of the same pipe +in token of alliance, is the same thing as to drink out of the same +cup.[64] + +"Smoking and chewing tobacco," says Rush, "by rendering water and simple +liquors insipid to the taste, dispose very much to the stronger stimulus +of ardent spirits. The practice of smoking segars has, in every part of +our country, been more followed by a general use of brandy and water as +a common drink, more especially by that class of citizens who have not +been in the habit of drinking wine or malt liquors."[65] "One of the +greatest sots I ever knew," says the same author, "acquired a love for +ardent spirits by swallowing cuds of tobacco, which he did to escape +detection in the use of it; for he had contracted the habit of chewing, +contrary to the advice and commands of his father. He died of a dropsy +under my care, in the year 1780."[66] On this subject, a very late +writer is still more express. "We consider tobacco," says he, "closely +allied to intoxicating liquors, and its confirmed votaries as a species +of drunkards." Again. "I have observed that persons who are much +addicted to liquor, have an inordinate liking to tobacco in all its +different forms; and it is remarkable, that in the early stages of +ebriety, almost every man is desirous of having a pinch of snuff. This +last fact it is not easy to explain; but the former may be accounted for +by that incessant craving after excitement, which clings to the system +of the confirmed drunkard."[67] + +The limits of our article will not allow us to embrace all the +considerations which belong to this subject, and which have been +bestowed upon it by various writers. We will therefore proceed to the +few remarks which we have to make upon the three chief modes of using +tobacco, viz., snuffing, smoking, and chewing. Catherine de Medicis, the +personage said to have prompted the horrible massacre of St. +Bartholomew's day at Paris, is commonly regarded as the inventress of +snuff-taking. In Russia and Persia the penalty of death was annexed to +the use of tobacco in every form except that of snuff. For this lighter +offence, the punishment was softened down to simple mutilation, no +greater severity being deemed necessary than that of cutting off the +nose. We doubt exceedingly whether either penalty would deter the +inveterate snuff-takers of the present day. Indeed, we are told +somewhere that it was very common among the Persians to expatriate +themselves, when they were no longer allowed to indulge in tobacco in +their native country. One of the first effects of snuff is to injure the +nerves of the nose, which are endowed with exquisite sensibility, and of +which an incredible number are spread over the inner membrane of the +nostrils. This membrane is lubricated by a secretion, which has a +tendency to preserve the sense. By the almost caustic acrimony of snuff, +the mucus is dried up, and the organ of smelling becomes perfectly +callous. The consequence is, that all the pleasure we are capable of +deriving from the olfactory organs, the _omnis copia narium_, as Horace +curiously terms it, is totally destroyed. Similar effects are also +produced upon the saliva, and hence it is that habitual snuff-takers are +often unable to speak with proper distinctness; and the sense of taste +for the same reason is very much obtunded. A snuffer may always be +distinguished by a certain nasal twang--an asthmatic wheezing--and a +sort of disagreeable noise in respiration, which is nearly allied to +incipient snoring. Snuff also frequently occasions fleshy excrescences +in the nose, which, in some instances, end in polypi. Individuals have +oftentimes a predisposition to cancer in little scirrhous +intumescencies, which, if kept easy and free from every thing of an +irritating character, will continue harmless, but which the use of snuff +sometimes frets into incurable ulcers and cancers. By the use of snuff, +tumours are also generated in the throat, which obstruct deglutition, +and even destroy life. Dr. Hill saw a female die of hunger, who could +swallow no nourishment because of a polypus which closed up the stomach, +the formation of which was attributed to the excessive use of snuff. +Some portion of the snuff will involuntarily find its way into the +stomach, where its pernicious properties soon manifest themselves, being +frequently followed by nausea, vomitings, loss of appetite, and impaired +digestion. The drain of the juices has a tendency to injure the muscles +of the face, to render them flaccid, to furrow and corrugate the skin, +and to give a gaunt, withered, and jaundiced appearance to "the human +face divine." + +We are also informed that it embrowns the complexion, by withdrawing +those peculiar secretions which communicate the fine vermillion hue of +beauty. In our country, however, women do not abandon themselves to this +impure habit, till they are married, and have no farther desire to +please, or till they are somewhat _passees_, and find their faculties of +pleasing impaired. What a death-blow does snuffing give to all that +romance with which it is the interest of refined society to invest the +fair sex! How vulgar the thought "that a sneeze should interrupt a +sigh!"--How unpoetical is snuff! The most suitable verses which a lover +could address to a snuff-taking mistress, would be imitations of +Horace's lines to the Sorceress Canidia. What sylph would superintend +the conveyance of this dust to the nostrils of a belle? What Gnome would +not take a fiendish delight in hovering over a pipe-loving beauty? + +"The only advantage," says Dr. Leake, "of taking snuff, is that of +sneezing, which, in sluggish phlegmatic habits, will give universal +concussion to the body, and promote a more free circulation of the +blood; but of this benefit snuff-takers are deprived, from being +familiar with its use." When the stimulus of snuff ceases to be +sufficient, recourse is immediately had to certain admixtures, by which +the necessary excitement is procured; thus pepper, euphorbium, +hellebore, and even pulverised glass, are made use of to give it +additional pungency. Snuffing is also a frequent cause of blindness. +Nature has appointed certain fluids to nourish and preserve the eye, +which, if withdrawn, cause the sight to become prematurely old, impaired +by weakness, and sometimes totally destroyed. We are also told that it +dries up and blackens the brain, and gives the stomach a yellow hue;[68] +that it injures the moral faculties, impairs the memory, and, indeed, +debilitates all the intellectual powers, and that it taints the breath +"with the rank odour of a tobacco cask." "We read in the Ephemerides des +Curieux de la Nature, that a person fell into a state of somnolency, and +died apoplectic, in consequence of having taken by the nose too great a +quantity of snuff."[69] In fine, snuffing is said to bring on +convulsions, promote pulmonary consumption, and to cause madness and +death! Napoleon is thought to have owed his death to a morbid state of +stomach, superinduced by snuffing to excess. Dr. Rush relates that Sir +John Pringle was afflicted with tremors in his hands, and had his memory +impaired by the use of snuff; when, on abandoning the habit, at the +instance of Dr. Franklin, he found his power of recollection restored, +and he recovered the use of his hands.[70] + +When the habit of snuffing is once contracted, it becomes almost +impossible to divest ourselves of it. It becomes as necessary as food, +or any of those first wants of life "quibus negatis natura doleat." The +following story we translate from a French medical writer:-- + + "I recollect, about twenty years since, while gathering simples + one day in the Forest of Fontainebleau, I encountered a man + stretched out upon the ground; I supposed him to be dead, when, + upon approaching, he asked in a feeble voice if I had some + snuff; on my replying in the negative, he sunk back + immediately, almost in a state of insensibility. In this + condition he remained till I brought a person who gave him + several pinches, and he then informed us that he had commenced + his journey that morning, supposing he had his snuff-box with + him, but found very soon he had started without it; that he had + travelled as long as he was able, till at last, overcome by + distress, he found it impossible to proceed any farther, and + without my timely succour he would have certainly + perished."[71] + +The consumption of time and great expense of this artificial habit, +almost surpass belief. "A man who takes a pinch of snuff every twenty +minutes," says Dr. Rush, "(which most habitual snuffers do), and snuffs +fifteen hours in four-and-twenty, (allowing him to consume not quite +half a minute every time he uses the box,) will waste about five whole +days of every year of his life in this useless and unwholesome practice. +But when we add to the profitable use to which this time might have been +applied, the expenses of tobacco, pipes, snuff, and spitting boxes--and +of the injuries which are done to the clothing, during a whole life, the +aggregate sum would probably amount to several hundred dollars. To a +labouring man this would be a decent portion for a son or daughter, +while the same sum saved by a man in affluent circumstances, would have +enabled him, by a contribution to a public charity, to have lessened a +large portion of the ignorance or misery of mankind." But Lord Stanhope +makes a far more liberal estimate than Dr. Rush; "Every professed, +inveterate, and incurable snuff-taker," says he, "at a moderate +computation, takes one pinch in ten minutes. Every pinch, with the +agreeable ceremony of blowing and wiping the nose, and other incidental +circumstances, consumes a minute and a half. One minute and a half out +of every ten, allowing sixteen hours to a snuff-taking day, amounts to +two hours and twenty-four minutes out of every natural day, or one day +of every ten. One day out of ten amounts to thirty six days and a half +in a year. Hence, if we suppose the practice to be persisted in forty +years, two entire years of the snuff-taker's life will be devoted to +tickling his nose, and two more to blowing it." The same author proposes +in a subsequent essay to show, that from the expense of snuff, +snuff-boxes, and handkerchiefs, a fund might be formed to pay off the +English National debt! + +The subject of snuffing having employed more of our time than we +anticipated, the two following heads of smoking and chewing will be more +briefly noticed. On the subject of smoking, Mr. Beloe has preserved the +following old epigram.[72] + + "We buy the dryest wood that we can finde, + And willingly would leave the smoke behinde: + But in tobacco a thwart course we take + Buying the herb only for the smoke's sake." + +Smoking was the earliest mode of using tobacco,[73] (as might be +inferred from the epigram) and for a long time the only mode in which it +was used in Europe. Certainly in our day it is the most general, and at +the same time the most expensive, and although several rivals contend +with Sir Walter Ralegh for the praise of having introduced tobacco into +England, yet the "bright honour" of having taught his countrymen to +imitate the Indians, in this particular, he "wears without corrival." +Almost all the arguments which have been employed against the use of +tobacco as a sternutatory, are more or less applicable to it when used +in the way of fumigation.[74] Good old Cotton Mather, who was fully +aware of the disadvantages as well as sinfulness of this habit, +deprecates it with a qualification at which it is impossible to repress +a smile. It savours so much of "beating the Devil round a bush." Thus he +says--"May God preserve me from the indecent, ignoble, criminal slavery, +to the mean delight of smoking a weed, which I see so many carried away +with. And _if_ ever I should smoke it, let me be so wise as to do it, +not only with moderation, but also with such employment of my mind, as I +may make that action afford me a leisure for!"[75] + +The effects of smoking on the breath, clothes, hair, and indeed the +whole body, are most offensive. What is more overpowering than the stale +smell remaining in a room where several persons have been smoking? When +the practice is carried to excess, it causes the gums to become lax and +flabby, and to recede from the discoloured teeth, which appear long, +unsightly, and at length drop out. Dr. Rush, in his "Account of the life +and death of Edward Drinker," tells us that that individual lost all his +teeth by drawing the hot smoke of tobacco into his mouth. By the waste +of saliva, and the narcotic power of tobacco, the digestive powers are +impaired, and "every kind of dyspeptic symptoms," says Cullen, "are +produced."[76] King James does not forget to note this habit as a breach +of good manners. "It is a great vanitie and uncleannesse," says he, +"that at the table, a place of respect, of cleanlinesse, of modestie, +men should not be ashamed to sit tossing pipes, and puffing of the smoke +of tobacco one to another, making the filthy smoke and stinke thereof to +exhale athwart the dishes and infect the aire, when very often men that +abhorre it, are at their repast." + +We come now to the subject of chewing. Whether the rock goat, the filthy +animal to which we have before adverted, or the tobacco worm, first +taught imitative man to masticate tobacco, we are ignorant. One thing, +however, is most certain, that of all modes of using it, chewing seems +most vulgar and ungentlemanlike, and it is worthy of particular remark, +that in our country it is more used in this manner, among the better +class of society, than in any other part of the world.[77] All the worst +effects which have been ascribed to it in the two former modes of using +it, are, with increased severity, imputed to chewing. But tobacco used +in this form is said to diminish hunger. "We have been told," says Dr. +Leake, "that tobacco, when chewed, is a preservative against hunger; but +this is a vulgar error, for in reality it may more properly be said to +destroy appetite by the profuse discharge of saliva, which is a powerful +dissolving fluid, essential both to appetite and digestion." In the use +of the quid, or cud, accidents sometimes happen from swallowing +portions, which must needs be very hurtful. Chewers are often taken by +surprise, and rather than be detected in the unclean practice, they +will, with Spartan fortitude, endure the horrible agonies of swallowing +the juice, and sometimes even the quid itself. But we must close our +remarks upon this vile habit, which we do by the following quotation +from a French writer. "Quant a la coutume de chiquer le tabac, elle est +bornee, je crois, a un petit nombre d'individus grossiers, et le plus +souvent voues a des habitudes crapuleuses, du moins si j'en juge par +ceux que j'y vois livres." We take the liberty of referring tobacco +chewers to Dr. Clark's treatise, (p. 24,) for a quotation he makes from +Simon Paulli, physician to the King of Denmark, who wrote a treatise on +the danger of using this herb, and also to a note at the foot of the +page, both which we are unwilling to repeat. + +We are almost prepared to assert, that there is scarcely a conceivable +mode of applying tobacco to the human body, which has not been thought +of and practised. In former times, it was used by the oculists. Howell +says "that it is good to fortify and preserve the sight, the smoak being +let in round about the balls once a week, &c." We have even known snuff +to be blown into the eyes to cure inflammation. This latter remedy +should be somewhat perilous, if what Sauvages relates be true, that a +female was thrown into a catalepsy by a small portion of snuff which had +accidentally entered her eye. The Rev. S. Wesley, speaking of the abuse +of tobacco, intimates an apprehension that the human ear will not long +remain exempted from its application. + + "To such a height with some is fashion grown, + They feed their very nostrils with a spoon,[78] + One, and but one degree is wanting yet, + To make their senseless luxury complete; + Some choice regale, useless as snuff and dear, + To feed the mazy windings of the ear." + +Now, as a medicine, at least, it has been used for the ear; for Sir Hans +Sloan positively affirms that the "oyl or juice dropped into the ear is +good against deafness."[79] Another mode of using tobacco, and not very +common we hope, is what is called plugging, that is, thrusting long +pellets or rolls of tobacco up the nose, and keeping them there during +the night. As a dentifrice it is used in many parts of the world. We +have had an opportunity of witnessing this fact in various parts of +South America, but especially in Brazil, where respectable women do not +scruple openly to use tobacco for this purpose. We have known several +very respectable individuals of both sexes in our own country, who use +snuff as a tooth powder, and with them its employment was just as much a +habit as any other mode of using tobacco. These have been generally West +Indians, or persons who have resided much in the West India islands. In +some of our southern states, tobacco is much used among the ladies as a +dentifrice. Indeed there appears to prevail generally, a very strong +opinion, that it is an excellent preservative of the teeth, which is +certainly an error; though we think it probable that the stimulus of +tobacco, to those who use it in excess, may become in a certain degree +necessary to their preservation. + +Tobacco is truly a leveller. It equalizes the monarch and the hind, and +is acceptable to the sage as well as the sailor. "Its smoke," says +Thomson, "rising in clouds from the idolatrous altar of the native +Mexican, opened the world of spirits to his delirious imagination," +while it has "even assisted in extending the boundaries of intellect, by +aiding the contemplations of the Christian philosopher." If we advert +to the irrefragable proofs of the virulent properties of this plant, and +the various arguments which have been urged against its habitual use, we +cannot fail to be struck with the extraordinary fact, that so large a +portion of mankind should voluntarily struggle through its repugnant +qualities, both of taste and effect, until by habit its stimulus grows +pleasurable, and the system becomes mithridated against its poison! It +would almost seem as if the use of some substance of this class were +necessary to the intellectual and physical economy of man, since no +nation nor age, of which we have any account, has been found without. Of +the various masticatories which have been in general use, if we except +opium, tobacco is unquestionably the most pernicious. Although its +moderate use may not shorten life, or prove perceptibly hurtful to +health, yet its excessive employment certainly generates many formidable +disorders, particularly of the nerves and stomach, and subjects its +votary to innumerable inconveniences and sufferings. Our space will not +permit us to expatiate any further; and we shall therefore conclude our +article by relating from Rush a very interesting anecdote of Dr. +Franklin, which places the common-sense view of this matter in the +strongest possible light. _A few months before Franklin's death, he +declared to one of his friends, that he had never used tobacco in the +course of his long life, and that he was disposed to believe there was +not much advantage to be derived from it, for that he had never known a +man who used it, who advised him to follow his example._ + +FOOTNOTES: + +[16] Epistolae Hoelianae, p. 405. + +[17] Critical and Historical Dictionary, article Thorius. + +[18] Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy, fol. p. 235. + +[19] King James's Works, fol. p. 214. + +[20] Hist. North America, vol. i. p. 322.--See also Hennepin's Voyages, +p. 93 et seq. + +[21] Stith's Hist. of Virginia, p. 19. + +[22] Sloan's Nat. Hist. Jamaica, vol. i. p. 147. + +[23] This hiatus we are in some measure able to supply from a note in +the Appendix to Mrs. Thomson's Life of Ralegh, (Note B. Notices +concerning Tobacco by Dr. Thomson,) p. 458. "In the Mexican or Aztuk +tongue, it is called _yetle_; in Algonkin, _sema_; in the Huron, +_ayougoua_; in the Peruvian, it is _sayri_; in Chiquito, _pais_; in +Vilela, _tusup_; Albaja, _nalodagadi_; Moxo, _sabare_; Omagua, _potema_; +Tumanac, _cavai_; Mayhure, _jema_; and in the Cabre, _sena_. The other +synonymes are, _tabac_, in French; _tabak_, in German, Dutch, and +Polish; _tobak_, in Swedish and Danish; _tobaco_, Spanish and +Portuguese; and _tobacco_ in the Italian. In the Oriental languages,--it +is _tambacu_, in Hindostanee; _tamracutta_, in Sanscrit; _pogheielly_, +in Tamool; _tambracco_, in the Malay tongue; _tambracco_, in Javanese; +_doorkoole_, in Cingalese; and _bujjerhony_, in Arabic." + +[24] Nat. Hist. Jam. vol. i. p. 147. + +[25] Dr. Tobias Venner, in his "Treatise of Tobacco," at the end of his +curious old work, entitled, "Via recta ad longam vitam," says +humorously, that petum is the "fittest name that both we and other +nations may call it by, deriving it of peto, for it is far-fetched and +much desired." p. 386. + +[26] This Harriot, or Herriot, was a distinguished mathematician, and +the instructer of Ralegh, in whom both himself and the celebrated +Richard Hakluyt, the industrious and indefatigable compiler of voyages, +found a liberal friend and patron.--Mrs. A. T. Thomson's Life of Sir W. +Ralegh, pp. 46 and 48. + +[27] Stith, p. 17. + +[28] "Le Cardinal de Sainte Croix, nonce en Portugal, et Nicholas +Tornabon, legat en France, l'introduisent en Italie ou elle recut les +noms d'herbe de Sainte Croix, et de Tornabonne; elle a encore porte +d'autres noms fondes sur des proprietes vraies ou supposees, ou sur la +haute idee qu'on avait de ses vertus: c'est ainsi qu'on l'a appelee +Buglose ou Panacee Antarctique, Herbe Sainte ou Sacree, Herbe a tous +maux, Jusquiame du Peron," &c. &c. Dictionnaire des Sciences Medicales, +Art. Tabac, par Mons. Merat. + +[29] Article Santa Croce, where they are attributed to Victor Duranti. + +[30] M. Merat ut supra. + +[31] Jefferson's Notes on Virginia, p. 62. + +[32] Robertson's Hist. of America, vol. iv. p. 97. + +[33] It is said that Ralegh used to give smoking parties at his house, +where his guests were treated with nothing but a pipe, a mug of ale, and +a nutmeg.--Thomson's Life of Ralegh, p. 471. + +[34] Ralph Lane was lieutenant of the fleet of Sir Richard Grenville, +which had been sent to Virginia by Sir Walter Ralegh, in 1585, where he +was made governor.--Hakluyt's Voyages, vol. iii. p. 251. + +[35] Camden has the following passage: "Et hi reduces," speaking of +those survivers who were carried home by Drake, "Indicam illam plantam, +quam tabaccam vocant et nicotiam, qua contra cruditates, ab Indis +edocti, usi erant, in Angliam primi quod sciam, intulerunt. Ex illo sane +tempore usu coepit esse creberrimo, et magno pretio, dum quamplurimi +graveolentem illius fumum, alii lascivientes, alii valetudini +consulentes, per tubulum testaceum inexplebili aviditate passim hauriunt +et mox e naribus efflant; adeo ut tabernae tabacanae non minus quam +cervisiariae et vinariae," beer-houses and grog-shops, we presume, "passim +per oppida habeantur. Ut Anglorum corpora (quod salse ille dixit) qui +hac planta tantopere delectantur in barbarorum naturam degenerasse +videantur; cum iisdem quibus barbari delectentur et sanari se posse +credant."--Camdeni Ann. Rer. Anglican. p. 415. + +[36] These valuables are thus described in a note to Cayley's Life of +Sir Walter Ralegh, vol. i. p. 81. "Among Thoresby's artificial +curiosities, we have Sir W. Ralegh's tobacco-box, as it was called, but +is rather the case for the glass wherein it was preserved, which was +surrounded with small wax candles of various colours. This is of gilded +leather, like a muff-case, about half a foot broad and thirteen inches +high, and hath cases for sixteen pipes in it.--Ducatus Leodensis, fol. +1715, p. 485." + +[37] Ralegh is believed to have introduced the culture of the potato, as +well as tobacco, into Ireland. The latter on his own estate at Youghal, +in the county of Cork. + +[38] Universal Geography, vol. iii. p. 223. + +[39] Appendix, p. 466. + +[40] King James's Works, fol. from page 214 to 222. + +[41] Naturall and Morall Historie of the Indies, p. 289. + +[42] Silva Silvarum--Lassitude. + +[43] History of life and death. Lord Bacon's Works, vol. iii. p. 377. + +[44] Howell's Epist. Hoel. or Familiar Letters, p. 405. + +[45] In the TEXNODAMIA or Marriage of the Arts, by Barten Holiday, 1680, +there is a singular poem on the subject of Tobacco, where, in successive +stanzas, if is compared to a musician, a lawyer, a physician, a +traveller, a crittike, an ignis fatuus, and a whyffler. Beloe's +Sketches, vol. ii. p. 10. + +[46] Notes on Virginia, pp. 278, 279. + +[47] Davies' Hist. of the Carriby Islands, fol. p. 192. + +[48] Ramazzini also says that the breath of those who labour at tobacco +is intolerably offensive, "efficit, ut tabacariarum semper foeteant +animae." + +[49] "Tanta enim ex illa tritura partium tenuim," says Ramazzini, +"aestate praesertim, diffunditur exhalatio, ut tota vicinia tabaci odorem, +non sine querimonia, et nausea persentiat." + +[50] Puellam hebraeam novi, quae tota die explicandas placentas istas ex +tabaco incumbens, magnum ad vomitum irritamentum sentiebat, et +frequenter alvi subductiones patiebatur, mihique narrabat, vasa +hemorroidalia multum sanguinis profudisse, cum super placentas illas +sederet. + +[51] Tourtel, in his Elemens d'Hygiene tom. ii. p. 410, assures us it is +very dangerous to sleep in tobacco magazines. He cites an observation of +Buchoz, who says that a little girl, five years old, was seized with +frightful vomitings, and expired in a very short time from this sole +cause. + +[52] This memoir is entitled "Influence du tabac sur la sante des +ouvriers," and is published in the "Annales d'hygiene publique et de +medecine legale," first volume, April, 1829--p. 169. + +[53] Mather's Christian Philosopher, p. 128. + +[54] M. Merat. + +[55] Rush's Essays, p. 261. + +[56] Flore Medicale, tom. six. p. 205. + +[57] Journey from Constantinople to England, p. 4. + +[58] Dictionnaire des Sciences Medicales. Art. Tabac. + +[59] Essays, p. 267. + +[60] Brodie, Macartney, &c. See also Nancrede's Orfila, p. 289. + +[61] Materia Medica, vol. ii. p. 197. + +[62] Mat. Med. vol. ii. p. 198. + +[63] Essays, p. 271. + +[64] Hist. N. America, vol. i. p. 322. + +[65] Rush's Works, vol. i. p. 167. + +[66] Essays, p. 270. + +[67] Macnish's Anatomy of Drunkenness, p. 83. + +[68] "Qu'on ne pense pas, malgre l'usage immense et presque general du +tabac, qu'il n'y ait aucun inconvenient a s'en servir. Les auteurs +rapportent des faits qui prouvent le contraire, et sans ajouter foi a ce +que raconte Borrichius (dans un lettre ecrite a Bartholin) d'une +personne qui s'etait tellement desseche le cerveau a force de prendre du +tabac, qu'apres sa mort, on ne lui trouva dans le crane, au lieu +d'encephale, qu'un petit grumeau noir; ni meme a ce que dit Simon Pauli, +que ceux qui fument trop de tabac ont le cerveau et la crane tout noirs, +nonplus qu'a l'assertion de Van Helmont qui a vu, affirme-t-il, un +estomac teint enjaune par la vapeur du tabac; tout le monde sait qu'il +affaiblit l'odorat par suite de ses irritations repetees sur la membrane +olfactive, qu'il nuit a l'integrite du gout, parce qu'il en passe +toujours un peu dans la bouche et jusque sur la langue. Ce que l'on +n'ignore pas nonplus c'est qu'il derange la memoire, la rends moins +nette, moins entiere; il produit de plus des vertiges, des cephalees et +meme l'apoplexie."--_Dictionnaire des Sciences Medicales, art. Tabac._ + +[69] Orfila's Toxicology, p. 291. + +[70] Essays, p. 265. + +[71] M. Merat. + +[72] Sketches of Literature and Scarce books, vol. ii. p. 130. + +[73] Mr. Brodigan, in his treatise on the tobacco plant, quotes +Herodotus, Strabo, Pomponius Mela, and Solinus, to prove that _tobacco_ +was smoked in very ancient times, but the passages merely go to show +that the smoking of _herbs_ was common. + +[74] Venner gives ten precepts on the manner in which tobacco is to be +used, and afterwards summarily rehearses the consequences to all who use +it contrary to the order and way he sets down; viz. that "it drieth the +brain, dimmeth the sight, vitiateth the smell, dulleth and dejecteth +both the appitite and stomach, destroyeth the concoction, disturbeth the +humours and spirits, corrupteth the breath, induceth a trembling of the +limbs, exsiccateth the wind-pipe, lungs, and liver, annoyeth the milt, +scorcheth the heart, and causeth the blood to be adusted. Moreover it +eliquateth the pinguie substance of the kidneys, and absumeth the +geniture. In a word, it overthroweth the spirits, perverteth the +understanding, and confoundeth the sences with a sudden astonishment and +stupiditie of the whole body." Via recta ad longam vitam. p. 404. + +[75] Christian Philosopher, p. 136. + +[76] Materia Medica, vol. ii. p. 196. + +[77] In many parts of Europe it is almost impossible for a tobacco +chewer to be regarded as a gentleman. + +[78] The fashionable snuff-taker was formerly accustomed to dip up the +snuff with a little spoon or ladle, "which ever and anon he gave his +nose." + +[79] Natural Hist. Jam. vol. i. p. 147. + + + + +ART. VII.--_Voyages and Discoveries of the Companions of Columbus._ By +WASHINGTON IRVING: Philadelphia: Carey & Lea: 1831. + + +When we noticed, three years since, a former production of Mr. Irving, +we took occasion to express an opinion of its merits, which has been +fully confirmed. No work of the present era appears to have afforded +more general and unmingled gratification to its readers, than his Life +of Columbus; and he has received, in the approbation, not only of his +own countrymen, but of Europeans, the most gratifying reward an author +can desire. The fame which he had acquired, and that most justly, by the +happy works of fiction in which he was introduced to the public, is now +changed into one of higher character; and he becomes entitled to take +his stand among those writers who have done more than amuse the fancy, +or even gratify the heart. He is to be classed with the historians of +great events; for if the period of which he has treated is limited, or +the persons whose actions he has described are not numerous, yet the one +included within it, short as it was, circumstances that have produced an +effect which long ages have not always surpassed in importance or +wonderful consequences; and the others embrace individuals whose actions +have more deeply affected the human race than many of the revolutions of +great and populous nations. + +Having these feelings in regard to the former work of Mr. Irving, we +open the present volume with mingled apprehension and pleasure. We +rejoice that we are to follow again the same guide in adventurous +voyages among the clustering Antilles; but we almost fear that the +narrative may want much of that interest, novelty, and beauty, which +make the story of Columbus among the most attractive ever recorded. The +followers of the Admiral were, it is true, brave, adventurous, gallant +men; the skies beneath which they sailed were as blue, clear, and +tranquil as when he first admired their delightful serenity; the islands +they visited were as flowery and as fertile as when they first blessed +the sight of the enterprising sailor; if the iron hand of Christian +civilization had, here and there, broken down the gentle and benevolent +spirit of the naked beings who wandered through a life of inglorious +bliss, in their remote and peaceful regions, there were yet haunts +undiscovered where they might roam in undisturbed security--there were +yet bays over which they might dart unobstructed their light +canoes--green and shady forests beneath which they might chant their +songs, and rich valleys not yet searched for gold. But yet with all +this, he, the master spirit, is no longer among the voyagers. There is +no longer the novelty of a vast discovery. The way has been opened by +the daring pioneer, and we are now only to follow in the plain track his +genius conceived, discovered, and marked out. We can merely watch the +footsteps of those who followed the triumphal chariot; the hero of the +ovation has already passed along, and our eyes are still dazzled with +his splendour--our minds are still filled with admiration of his genius, +his enterprise, his undaunted and noble spirit. We are to turn from +those loftier efforts of human intellect and perseverance, which mark, +now and then, a human being, as a beacon in the midst of his fellow men, +to the more common, though it is true, the bold and spirited adventures +which attend the fortunes of many in the career of life. The story of +these adventures is indeed full of interest, but it is an interest less +in degree; and we can no more venture to compare it with that which +attends the actions and fortunes of him who seeks and finds a new world, +than we can compare the patient inquirer, who nightly searches through +his telescope for new stars in the vast firmament, with him who +proclaimed and proved the theory of the universe--than we can see in +every military exploit of Parmenio and Seleucus, the master spirit that +planned and effected the subjugation of the world. + +Yet the pen which has described with so much felicity the life of +Columbus, cannot fail to impart great attraction to an account of those +who followed in the career they had commenced with him; who were +emboldened by the energy they had witnessed, and the success in which +they had partaken; and who completed the discovery of those regions, +which he was permitted scarcely to see, and of whose vast extent he had +no conception. While they were yet his associates, these voyagers had +become acquainted with the pearl fisheries of Paria and Cubaga; they +learned to believe that they had approached the confines of the golden +regions of the east, described by the ancients in glowing colours; and +they had heard something of a vast ocean to the south, in which they +expected to find the oriental islands of spice and perfumes. All that +they thus collected from tradition or partial observation, they +treasured up to form the groundwork of schemes for future adventures, +which they might pursue for the purposes of individual gain, or from +motives of individual ambition, when no longer sailing under the ensign +of their great commander. The more selfish objects of these exploits, +their want of connexion with the lofty views that inspired Columbus, the +comparatively small scale on which they were conducted, gave to them a +sort of daring and chivalrous character, which much resembles the +warfare of the predatory nobles of Europe during the middle ages. While +they were as far removed from the treacherous rapine of the buccaneers, +as the inroads of the armed bands of knights were from the secret +attacks of the robber and assassin; they were yet the offspring of +personal interest, and were distinguished by innumerable incidents of +personal valour. They offered new fields where the burning desire for +romantic achievement might be gratified; and the old spirit of Castile, +which no longer found scope among the fastnesses of Andalusia, or the +rich valleys of Granada, was delighted to embark on the waves of an +ocean scarcely known, and to seek beyond it wealth and glory in golden +regions, of which the discovery had already made one man the object of +unmingled admiration and applause. + +Of these voyagers, the first to whom Mr. Irving directs our attention is +_Alonzo de Ojeda_--a man whose daring exploits, enterprising spirit, and +headlong valour, cannot be forgotten by those who have already read the +History of Columbus. He was his companion in the second voyage, and, it +may be remembered, attracted the admiration of the bold cacique Caonabo, +who paid that reverence to his undaunted prowess, which he refused to +the superior rank of Columbus. Whether his restless and ambitious spirit +could not bear the control of a superior, or whether he had formed, +during the voyage he had made, some plan of individual enterprise, he +did not accompany the admiral in his subsequent expeditions. He could +not, however, long endure the irksome life of a courtier; and he could +less bear to hear, without desiring to partake of the discoveries which +were announced by every returning vessel, of new coasts and islands, +abounding with drugs, spices, precious stones, and pearls, said to +surpass in size and clearness those gathered in the East. Through the +influence of a relative, he obtained the patronage of the bishop Don +Juan Rodriguez Fonseca, who had the chief management of the affairs of +the Indies, and was permitted to fit out an expedition to visit any +territories in the new world, except such as appertained to Portugal, or +such as had been discovered in the name of Spain previous to the year +1495. The latter part of the exception being craftily intended to leave +open to him the coast and pearl fisheries of Paria, notwithstanding the +rights reserved to Columbus. Destitute of wealth, the young adventurer +contrived, by his reputation for boldness and enterprise, and by his +confident promises of rich rewards, to obtain money from the merchants +of Seville. He united with him as associates, _Juan de la Cosa_, a hardy +veteran who had already navigated the new seas with the admiral, and +_Amerigo Vespucci_, who seems then to have been distinguished by little +but a roving disposition and a broken fortune, but who is now known from +the accident which has forever attached his name to the discoveries of +Columbus. + +Ojeda sailed from Port St. Mary on the 20th of May 1499; he reached land +on the coast of Surinam; thence he steered along the shore of South +America, passed and beheld with wonder the mouths of the mighty rivers +that there flow into the Atlantic, and first landed among the natives on +the island of Trinidad. He then kept his course along the coast of Terra +Firma, until he arrived at Maracapana, where he unloaded and careened +his vessels, and built a small brigantine. He found the natives +hospitable and well disposed, but differing greatly in character from +the gentle and peaceful inhabitants of the islands within the gulf. They +were tall, well made, and vigorous; expert with the bow, the lance, and +the buckler, and ready for the wars in which they delighted to engage. +The martial spirit of Ojeda was soon roused, and he readily proffered +his aid to the savages, in an expedition against a hostile tribe of +cannibals, in a neighbouring island. As soon as his ships were refitted, +he attacked and defeated, with great slaughter, the savage warriors, +who, decorated with coronets of gaudy plumes, their bodies painted, and +armed with bows, arrows, and lances, gallantly met and resolutely fought +him on the beach. He then pursued his voyage along the coast, passed the +island of Curacoa, and penetrated into the deep gulf to the south. On +the eastern shore he found an Indian village which struck him with +surprise. The houses were built on piles, and the communication was +carried on in canoes. From these resemblances to the Italian city, he +called it Venezuela, or little Venice, a name it still bears, and which +is now extended to the bay and the province around. The natives made a +treacherous attack on Ojeda, but manning his boats, the gallant Spaniard +charged among the thickest of the enemy, and soon drove them to the +shore, whence they fled into the woods. Not desiring to cause useless +irritation, he continued his voyage as far as the port of Maracaibo, +which still retains its Indian name. In the territory beyond, called +Coquibacoa, he found a gentler race of inhabitants, who received the +Spaniards with delight, and solicited them to visit their towns. + + "Ojeda, in compliance with their entreaties, sent a detachment + of twenty-seven Spaniards on a visit to the interior. For nine + days they were conducted from town to town, and feasted and + almost idolized by the Indians, who regarded them as angelic + beings, performing their national dances and games, and + chanting their traditional ballads for their entertainment. + + "The natives of this part were distinguished for the symmetry + of their forms; the females in particular appeared to the + Spaniards to surpass all others that they had yet beheld in the + new world for grace and beauty; neither did the men evince, in + the least degree, that jealousy which prevailed in other parts + of the coast. + + "By the time the Spaniards set out on their return to the ship, + the whole country was aroused, pouring forth its population, + male and female, to do them honour. Some bore them in litters + or hammocks, that they might not be fatigued with the journey, + and happy was the Indian who had the honour of bearing a + Spaniard on his shoulders across a river. Others loaded + themselves with the presents that had been bestowed on their + guests, consisting of rich plumes, weapons of various kinds, + and tropical birds and animals. In this way they returned in + triumphant procession to the ships, the woods and shores + resounding with their songs and shouts. + + "Many of the Indians crowded into the boats that took the + detachment to the ships; others put off in canoes, or swam from + shore, so that in a little while the vessels were thronged with + upwards of a thousand wondering natives. While gazing and + marvelling at the strange objects around them, Ojeda ordered + the cannon to be discharged, at the sound of which, says + Vespucci, the Indians 'plunged into the water like so many + frogs from a bank.' Perceiving, however, that it was done in + harmless mirth, they returned on board, and passed the rest of + the day in great festivity. The Spaniards brought away with + them several of the beautiful and hospitable females from this + place, one of whom, named by them Isabel, was much prized by + Ojeda, and accompanied him in a subsequent voyage." + +Leaving these friendly Indians, Ojeda pursued his way along the coast to +the westward, until he reached cape de la Vela. During his long voyage +he had been disappointed in finding the ready treasures of gold and +pearls which he had expected, and now, wearied with his fruitless +efforts, and embarrassed by the crazy state of his vessels, he resolved +reluctantly to return to Spain. On his way, he stopped, in spite of the +clause in his commission, at Hispaniola, to cut dye-wood, but was +prevented by the governor, and obliged to set sail. He then cruised +among the islands, and seizing the natives, carried them home to sell +for slaves. He reached Cadiz in June, 1500, but so unproductive was his +expedition, that it is said, after the expenses were paid, but five +hundred ducats remained to be divided among fifty-five adventurers. + +The private enterprise of Ojeda did not fail to excite the same spirit +among other followers of Columbus, who remained in Spain. He had been +scarcely a month gone, before _Pedro Alonzo Nino_, who had been the +pilot of the admiral on his first voyage, set out from Palos with +_Christoval Guerra_, the brother of a Sevillian merchant who supplied +the outfit. The vessel of these bold adventurers was but a bark of fifty +tons, the crew but thirty-three men--yet with the daring spirit of the +Spanish sailors of those days, they embarked fearlessly and joyfully to +explore barbarous shores and unknown seas. Reaching the coasts of Paria +and Cumana, they carried on for some time a profitable commerce with the +natives, from whom they obtained pearls and gold in exchange for glass +beads and other trinkets; but falling in at length with tribes less +peaceful, and not, like Ojeda, enjoying warlike renown as much as +profitable traffic, they returned to Spain after an absence of ten +months, and making fewer discoveries but more profit than had yet +resulted from any voyage across the Atlantic. + +In the month of December of the same year, 1499, _Vicente, Yanez +Pinzon_, one of the three brave men of that family who aided Columbus in +his first voyage, but who had since remained in Spain, owing to the +difference that arose between his brother and the admiral, embarked with +two of his nephews, sons of Martin Alonzo, in an armament consisting of +four caravels, from the port of Palos, the cradle of American discovery. +Carried by a storm south of the equator, they were perplexed with the +new aspect of the heavens, and it was not till the 28th of January, +1500, that they were consoled by the sight of land. The headland they +saw, now known as cape St. Augustin, the most prominent point of Brazil, +they named Santa Maria de la Consolacion. They found the natives warlike +and inhospitable, treating with haughty contempt the hawks' bills and +trinkets which were exhibited to them; and Pinzon and his weary +messmates were fain to pursue their voyages, amid occasional conflicts +whenever they landed, along the shores that stretched to the north. He +discovered the mouth of the vast river of the Amazons, visited a number +of fresh and verdant islands lying within it, and thence passing the +gulf of Paria, made his way directly to Hispaniola. From there, sailing +to the Bahamas, he encountered a violent storm, and sustained so much +damage that he returned to Spain. + +Scarcely had Pinzon sailed from Palos, when he was followed by his +townsman _Diego de Lepe_. Of his voyage, however, but little is known, +except that he doubled cape St. Augustin, and enjoyed for ten years the +reputation of having extended his discoveries farther south than any +other voyager. + +In October following, soon after the return of Ojeda, a wealthy notary +of Seville, by name _Rodrigo de Bastides_, desirous of speculating in +the new El Dorado, engaged the services of the veteran pilot and +companion of Ojeda, Juan de la Cosa, and set out with two caravels in +quest of gold and pearls. They continued the discoveries along Terra +Firma, from cape de la Vela, where Ojeda had stopped, to the port +afterwards called Nombre de Dios; they treated the natives kindly, and +acquired rich cargoes; but unfortunately their vessels were cast away on +the coast of Hispaniola, and the crews were forced to travel on foot to +the city of St. Domingo, provided only with a small store of trinkets +and other articles of Indian traffic, with which to buy provisions on +the road. The moment Bastides made his appearance, he was seized as an +illicit trader by the governor Bobadilla, the oppressor and superseder +of Columbus, and sent for trial to Spain. He was there acquitted, and +his voyage was so lucrative, that he had considerable profit after all +his misfortunes. + +The reports of these successive adventures were not heard by Ojeda, who +had continued to linger about the bishop of Fonseca, without reanimating +his bold spirit. He found numbers ready to listen to his wonderful +stories, and embark in his wild expeditions; he found others who desired +to increase their wealth, by aiding him with the means to renew them. +The king made him governor of the province of Coquibacoa, which he had +discovered; and in 1502 he again set sail, with four vessels well fitted +out. Arriving at his new government, he selected a bay which he named +Santa Cruz, but which is supposed to be that now called Bahia Honda, as +the site of a settlement, and commenced at once the erection of a +fortress. Before long, however, dissensions broke out between him and +some of his principal companions, which ended in his being seized by the +latter, accused as a defaulter to the crown of Spain, and thrown into +irons. The whole community then set sail with their former chief for St. +Domingo. They arrived at the island of Hispaniola, and while at anchor +within a stone's throw of the land, Ojeda, confident of his strength and +skill as a swimmer, let himself quietly down the side of the ship during +the night, and tried to gain the shore. His arms were free, but his feet +were shackled, and the weight of the irons threatened to sink him. He +was obliged to call for help; a boat was sent from the ship; and the +unfortunate governor, half drowned, was restored to captivity. He was +tried at San Domingo and condemned, but appealing to the sovereign, was +afterwards acquitted. The long litigation, however, exhausted his +fortune, and he again found himself a ruined man. + +If ruined, however, he was yet in the vigour of his years, and his +spirit was undaunted. He still yearned for the gold of Terra Firma. All +he wanted was money to fit out an armament. In this difficulty he was +aided by an old and tried friend. Juan de la Cosa, the hardy pilot of +Columbus, and the companion of Ojeda in his first voyage, and +subsequently of Rodrigo de Bastides, had remained in Hispaniola, and +contrived to fill his purse in subsequent cruises among the islands. The +friends united together, and applied to the crown of Spain for a grant +of territory and command on Terra Firma. A similar application was made +about the same time by Diego de Nicuesa, an accomplished courtier of +noble birth.-- + + "Nature, education, and habit, seemed to have combined to form + Nicuesa as a complete rival of Ojeda. Like him he was small of + stature, but remarkable for symmetry and compactness of form, + and for bodily strength and activity; like him he was master at + all kinds of weapons, and skilled, not merely in feats of + agility, but in those graceful and chivalrous exercises, which + the Spanish cavaliers of those days had inherited from the + Moors; being noted for his vigour and address in the jousts or + tilting matches after the Moresco fashion. Ojeda himself could + not surpass him in feats of horsemanship, and particular + mention is made of a favourite mare, which he could make caper + and carricol in strict cadence to the sound of a viol; beside + all this, he was versed in the legendary ballads or romances of + his country, and was renowned as a capital performer on the + guitar! Such were the qualifications of this candidate for a + command in the wilderness, as enumerated by the reverend Bishop + Las Casas. It is probable, however, that he had given evidence + of qualities more adapted to the desired post; having already + been out to Hispaniola in the military train of the late + Governor Ovando." + +King Ferdinand found some difficulty in deciding between the claims of +candidates whose merits were so singularly balanced; he ultimately +divided that part of the continent lying along the isthmus, and +extending from cape de la Vela to cape Gracias a Dios, into two +provinces, separated by the bay of Uraba, which is at the head of the +gulf of Darien. Of these provinces, the eastern was assigned to Ojeda, +the western to Nicuesa. + +The armaments of the rival governors met in the port of St. Domingo. It +was not long before cause of collision arose between two men, both +possessed of such swelling spirits. They quarrelled about the boundaries +of their governments, and the province of Darien was boldly claimed by +each.-- + + "Their disputes on these points ran so high, that the whole + place resounded with them. In talking, however, Nicuesa had the + advantage; having been brought up in the court, he was more + polished and ceremonious, had greater self-command, and + probably perplexed his rival governor in argument. Ojeda was no + great casuist, but he was an excellent swordsman, and always + ready to fight his way through any question of right or dignity + which he could not clearly argue with the tongue; so he + proposed to settle the dispute by single combat. Nicuesa, + though equally brave, was more a man of the world, and saw the + folly of such arbitrament. Secretly smiling at the heat of his + antagonist, he proposed as a preliminary to the duel, and to + furnish something worth fighting for, that each should deposit + five thousand castillanos, to be the prize of the victor. This, + as he foresaw, was a temporary check upon the fiery valour of + his rival, who did not possess a pistole in his treasury; but + probably was too proud to confess it." + +How long the poverty of Ojeda could have kept down his fiery spirit, we +may doubt. Fortunately he had in his companion, the brave Juan de la +Cosa, a friend who could control him, as well as follow and support him. +Juan reconciled, at least for a time, the quarrel of the rival +governors, and it was agreed that the river Darien should be the +boundary of their provinces. Things being thus arranged, Ojeda was +anxious to set sail; he still, however, wanted pecuniary assistance to +complete his equipment; though careless of money himself, he seems to +have had a facility in commanding the purses of his neighbours; and on +this occasion he found, in a quarter, where perhaps he could scarce have +expected it, both personal and pecuniary aid. There lived at San +Domingo, the bachelor _Martin Fernandez de Enciso,_ a shrewd lawyer, who +had contrived to accumulate a considerable fortune by the litigation +which already flourished in the New World. He was dazzled by the visions +of unbounded wealth, he was promised the lofty office and title of +Alcalde Mayor, and in an evil hour the worthy bachelor united in the +enterprise of Ojeda, in search of fame and fortune. It was determined +that he should stay at St. Domingo till he could collect a larger store +of provisions and more men; and then follow his partner, who set sail +without delay. The armament of Nicuesa still remained in port; for that +gallant cavalier, notwithstanding his challenge to his rival, had +exhausted all the money he could raise; he was even threatened with a +prison; and it was not till some time after his rival had sailed, that +he was enabled by unexpected assistance to embark. + +In the month of November 1509, Ojeda reached the harbour of Cartagena, +in his new province. In addition to Juan de la Cosa, he had as a +companion _Francisco Pizarro_, who afterwards conquered Peru. The +former, knowing from previous voyages the savage character of the +natives, advised Ojeda not to stop there, but to proceed to the bay of +Uraba. Such advice was useless to a proud warrior, who despised a naked +and a savage foe. Having failed to keep his commander from danger, the +faithful Juan could only stand by to aid him. Ojeda, who was a good +Catholic, thought that he performed a pious duty in reducing the savages +to the dominion of the king and the knowledge of the true faith. He +carried as a protecting relic a small painting of the Holy Virgin; he +summoned the Indians in the name of the Pope, and he assured them in +the most solemn terms that they were the lawful subjects of the +sovereigns of Castile. + + "On landing, he advanced towards the savages, and ordered the + friars to read aloud a certain formula, which had recently been + digested by profound jurists and divines in Spain. It began in + stately form. 'I, Alonzo de Ojeda, servant of the most high and + mighty sovereigns of Castile and Leon, conquerors of barbarous + nations, their messenger and captain, do notify unto you, and + make you know, in the best way I can, that God our Lord, one + and eternal, created the heaven and the earth, and one man and + one woman, from whom you and we, and all the people of the + earth proceeded, and are descendants, as well as all those who + shall come hereafter.' The formula then went on to declare the + fundamental principles of the Catholic Faith; the supreme power + given to St. Peter over the world and all the human race, and + exercised by his representative the pope; the donation made by + a late pope of all this part of the world and all its + inhabitants, to the Catholic sovereigns of Castile; and the + ready obedience which had already been paid by many of its + lands and islands and people to the agents and representatives + of those sovereigns. It called upon those savages present, + therefore, to do the same, to acknowledge the truth of the + Christian doctrines, the supremacy of the pope, and the + sovereignty of the Catholic King, but, in case of refusal, it + denounced upon them all the horrors of war, the desolation of + their dwelling, the seizure of their property, and the slavery + of their wives and children. Such was the extraordinary + document, which, from this time forward, was read by the + Spanish discoverers to the wondering savages of any newly-found + country, as a prelude to sanctify the violence about to be + inflicted on them." + +The pious manifesto was uttered in vain to the warlike savages: they +brandished their weapons, and Ojeda, after a short prayer to the Virgin, +had to discard the parchment, brace up his armour, and charge the foe at +the head of his followers. He was not long in defeating his naked +enemies, who fled into the forests. Juan de la Cosa again tried his +influence with his commander, and urged him to desist from pursuit. It +was in vain. Ojeda, with Juan faithfully at his side, rushed madly on +through the mazes of unknown woods. The Indians rallied and waylaid the +imprudent Spaniards. It was in vain that Ojeda inspired them with fresh +courage by the example of his undaunted prowess. Numbers prevailed; the +weapons of the savages were steeped in a deadly poison; and one after +one the invaders were left dead. Among those who fell was the brave Juan +de la Cosa; and a Spaniard, who was near him when he died, was the only +surviver of seventy that had followed Ojeda in his rash and headlong +inroad. + +For days those who remained at the ships waited the arrival of their +companions. They searched the woods and shouted along the shore, but +they could hear no signal from them. What was their surprise one day, at +catching in a thicket of mangrove trees, a glimpse of a man in Spanish +attire. They entered, and found the unfortunate Ojeda; he lay on the +matted roots of the trees; he was speechless, wan, and wasted; but his +hand still grasped his sword. They restored him with wine and a warm +fire; he recounted the story of his rash expedition; of his struggles +among rocks and forests to reach the shore; and he bitterly reproached +himself with the death of his faithful companion. While the crowd of +Spaniards were yet on the beach administering to the recovery of their +commander, they beheld steering into the harbour, a squadron of ships, +which they soon recognised as that of Nicuesa. Ojeda recollected at once +his quarrel; his valiant spirit was quelled by the hardships he had +suffered; he feared to meet his rival; and he directed his followers to +leave him concealed in the woods until the disposition of Nicuesa should +be known.-- + + "As the squadron entered the harbour, the boats sallied forth + to meet it. The first inquiry of Nicuesa was concerning Ojeda. + The followers of the latter replied, mournfully, that their + commander had gone on a warlike expedition into the country, + but days had elapsed without his return, so that they feared + some misfortune had befallen him. They entreated Nicuesa, + therefore, to give his word, as a cavalier, that should Ojeda + really be in distress, he would not take advantage of his + misfortunes to revenge himself for their late disputes. + + "Nicuesa, who was a gentleman of noble and generous spirit, + blushed with indignation at such a request. 'Seek your + commander instantly,' said he; 'bring him to me if he be alive; + and I pledge myself not merely to forget the past, but to aid + him as if he were a brother.' + + "When they met, Nicuesa received his late foe with open arms. + 'It is not,' said he, 'for Hidalgos, like men of vulgar souls, + to remember past differences when they behold one another in + distress. Henceforth, let all that has occurred between us be + forgotten. Command me as a brother. Myself and my men are at + your orders, to follow you wherever you please, until the + deaths of Juan de la Cosa and his comrades are revenged.' + + "The spirits of Ojeda were once more lifted up by this gallant + and generous offer. The two governors, no longer rivals, landed + four hundred of their men and several horses, and set off with + all speed for the fatal village. They approached it in the + night, and, dividing their forces into two parties, gave orders + that not an Indian should be taken alive." + +Dreadful indeed was the carnage, and fierce the vengeance the two +commanders wreaked upon the natives. Having sacked the village, they +left it a smoking ruin, and returned in triumph to their ships. The +spoil, which was great, was divided among the followers of each +governor, and they now parted with many expressions of friendship, +Nicuesa proceeding westward to his province. + +Ojeda did not long continue at a spot so fatal. He proceeded along the +coast, and at length selected a height on the east side, at the entrance +of the gulf of Darien, as the place for his town, which he named St. +Sebastian. He immediately erected a fortress to defend himself against +the natives, and considering this as his permanent seat of government, +despatched a ship to Hispaniola, with a letter to the bachelor Enciso, +requesting him to join the colony with the provisions and men he had +collected. In the meanwhile, those who remained soon exhausted the +stores they had, and were reduced to great want. They were fortunately +relieved by the arrival of a vessel commanded by _Bernardo de_ +_Talavera_, a reckless adventurer, who being threatened with +imprisonment by his creditors in St. Domingo, had persuaded a set of +men, as reckless as himself, to seize by force a vessel, lying off shore +loaded with provisions, and join the new colony. While the supply +brought by Talavera lasted, Ojeda was able to pacify his murmuring +companions, and to persuade them peacefully to await the arrival of +Enciso. When this however was exhausted, and famine threatened them, +they became outrageous in their clamours, and Ojeda was compelled, as +the only means of appeasing them, to agree to go himself to St. Domingo +for aid, leaving those who stayed under the command of Francisco +Pizarro, as his lieutenant. Talavera, already tired of the hardships he +had encountered, was willing enough to return, and set sail with the +commander in his vessel. The ill luck which had attended Ojeda during +this expedition still continued. The vessel was cast on the island of +Cuba, and completely wrecked; and the unhappy Spaniards had no choice +but to perish on the beach, or to traverse the wide morasses that spread +along the coast, until they reached some place where they could obtain +aid. These morasses, as they proceeded, became deeper and deeper, the +water sometimes reaching to their girdles; and when they slept, they had +to creep up among the twisted roots of the mangrove trees, which grew in +clusters in the waters. Of all the party, Ojeda alone kept up his spirit +undaunted. He cheered his companions; he shared his food among them; +whenever he stopped to repose in the mangrove trees, he took out his +treasured picture of the Virgin, which he had carefully preserved +through all his troubles, and placing it before him, commended himself +to the Holy Mother; and by persuading his companions to join him, he +renewed their patience and courage. It was on one of these occasions +that he made a vow to erect a chapel and leave his relic in the first +Indian town to which he came. At length, after incredible sufferings, +they reached a village; the natives gathered round the poor wanderers, +and gazed at them with wonder; they treated them with humanity, and +after restoring them to health and strength, aided and accompanied them +till they reached the point of land nearest Jamaica. At that spot they +procured canoes, arrived at a settlement of their countrymen, and thence +returned to St. Domingo. + +Ojeda was too pious a Catholic to forget the vow he had made in his +distress, though it must have sorely grieved him to part with the relic +to which he attributed his safety in so many perils. At the village, +however, where he had been so kindly succoured, he faithfully performed +it. + + "He built a little hermitage or oratory in the village, and + furnished it with an altar, above which he placed the picture. + He then summoned the benevolent cacique, and explained to him, + as well as his limited knowledge of the language, or the aid of + interpreters would permit, the main points of the Catholic + faith, and especially the history of the Virgin, whom he + represented as the mother of the Deity that reigned in the + skies, and the great advocate for mortal man. + + "The worthy cacique listened to him with mute attention, and + though he might not clearly comprehend the doctrine, yet he + conceived a profound veneration for the picture. The sentiment + was shared by his subjects. They kept the little oratory always + swept clean, and decorated it with cotton hangings, laboured by + their own hands, and with various votive offerings. They + composed couplets or areytos in honour of the Virgin, which + they sang to the accompaniment of rude musical instruments, + dancing to the sound under the groves which surrounded the + hermitage. + + "A further anecdote concerning this relique may not be + unacceptable. The venerable Las Casas, who records these facts, + informs us that he arrived at the village of Cuebas some time + after the departure of Ojeda. He found the oratory preserved + with the most religious care, as a sacred place, and the + picture of the Virgin regarded with fond adoration. The poor + Indians crowded to attend mass, which he performed at the + altar; they listened attentively to his paternal instructions, + and at his request brought their children to be baptized. The + good Las Casas having heard much of this famous relique of + Ojeda, was desirous of obtaining possession of it, and offered + to give the cacique in exchange, an image of the Virgin which + he had brought with him. The chieftain made an evasive answer, + and seemed much troubled in mind. The next morning he did not + make his appearance. + + "Las Casas went to the oratory to perform mass, but found the + altar stripped of its precious relique. On inquiring, he learnt + that in the night the cacique had fled to the woods, bearing + off with him his beloved picture of the Virgin. It was in vain + that Las Casas sent messengers after him, assuring him that he + should not be deprived of the relique, but, on the contrary, + that the image should likewise be presented to him. The cacique + refused to venture from the fastnesses of the forest, nor did + he return to his village and replace the picture in the + oratory, until after the departure of the Spaniards." + +The fate of Ojeda was that of a ruined man. He lingered for some time at +San Domingo, but he no longer appeared there as the governor of a +province. He was a needy wanderer. His health was broken down by wounds +and hardships, and he died at last so poor that he did not leave money +enough to pay for his interment; and so broken in spirit, that he +entreated with his last breath, that his body might be buried at the +portal of the Monastery of St. Francisco, in humble expiation of his +past pride, "so that every one who entered might tread upon his grave." + +When the gallant and generous minded Nicuesa left Ojeda, he sailed to +the west to encounter perils still greater than his rival endured. His +squadron arrived safely on the coast of Veragua. He there embarked +himself in a small caravel belonging to it, that he might the better +explore the inlets and places along the shore, committing the charge of +the other vessels to his lieutenant Lope de Olano. One night, shortly +after making this arrangement, a violent storm came on, and when day +dawned, Nicuesa was left without one of the squadron in sight. Taking +refuge in a river, his caravel was wrecked, and the unfortunate +commander was left on the desert shore with the crew of the vessel, and +nothing remaining to them but the boat, which was accidentally cast on +the beach. Day after day they hoped for the arrival of their +companions, until they began to suspect that the lieutenant had +determined to profit by the absence of Nicuesa, assume his power, and +leave him to perish. They wandered along shore, in the direction, as +they supposed, of the place where they had been separated from the +squadron. They crossed the rivers and sailed to the islands near the +coast in their boat. At length, to complete their misfortunes, at one of +the latter, four of the party deserted, took with them the boat, and +left their commander and the rest of the party, without food, +assistance, or means to regain the land. In this sad situation they +remained for weeks; many of them died, and those who lived envied, +instead of mourning over, their fate. At length one of the brigantines +of the squadron appeared; it had been sent by Lope de Olano, who had +been found by the four mariners in the boat; and Nicuesa and the +survivers were conveyed to their companions, who had made a settlement +at the mouth of the river Belen. Finding that spot unhealthy, Nicuesa +broke up the settlement, and established the remnant of his once large +colony, now reduced to a hundred emaciated wretches, at "El Nombre de +Dios." "Here let us stop," exclaimed the weary commander to his +companions, "in the name of God (en el nombre de Dios,)"--whence the +port derived its name. + +While the two governors were thus struggling to establish their +colonies, the bachelor Enciso, whom we have mentioned as having enlisted +with Ojeda, set out from St. Domingo to join that adventurer with the +men and provisions he had collected. Among his recruits was _Vasco Nunez +de Balboa_, another name destined to become famous on these seas. The +bachelor had hardly reached Terra Firma before he fell in with Francisco +Pizarro, and the small remains of the colony left by Ojeda at St. +Sebastian. He heard the story of their misfortunes and the departure of +their commander, but nothing daunted, the worthy gentleman of the robe +assumed the courageous bearing of a knight errant, and determined to +pursue the adventures on which he had embarked. Having heard of a great +sepulchre not far in the interior, where the natives were said to be +buried with all their ornaments of gold, he determined at once to pounce +on so valuable a mine. He held it no sacrilege to plunder the graves of +pagans and infidels, and he took care to secure the law on his side, by +causing to be read and interpreted to all the caciques, a declaration, +informing them of the nature of the Deity, the supremacy of the pope, +and the undoubted validity of his grant of their country to the Catholic +sovereigns. + + "The caciques listened to the whole very attentively, and + without interruption, according to the laws of Indian courtesy. + They then replied, that, as to the assertion that there was but + one God, the sovereign of heaven and earth, it seemed to them + good, and that such must be the case; but as to the doctrine + that the pope was regent of the world in place of God, and + that he had made a grant of their country to the Spanish king, + they observed that the pope must have been drunk to give away + what was not his, and the king must have been somewhat mad to + ask at his hands what belonged to others. They added, that they + were lords of those lands, and needed no other sovereign, and + if this king should come to take possession, they would cut off + his head and put it on a pole; that being their mode of dealing + with their enemies.--As an illustration of this custom, they + pointed out to Enciso the very uncomfortable spectacle of a row + of grisly heads impaled in the neighbourhood." + +On hearing this answer, the bachelor at once discarded the legal, and +assumed the warlike character. He charged the Indians, and routed them +with ease. He forthwith plundered the sepulchres, but whether he +obtained the expected booty is not recorded. After this exploit, the +worthy bachelor set about establishing the provincial government as +Alcalde Mayor of Ojeda. St. Sebastian being in ruins, and the scene of +so many misfortunes, was speedily deserted, and by the advice of Vasco +Nunez he seized on the village of Darien, drove out the inhabitants, +collected at it great quantities of food and golden ornaments, and +established his capital under the sounding title of Santa Maria de la +Antigua del Darien. + +It so happened that this new town was on the western shore of the river +Darien, and consequently within the province of Nicuesa, not of Ojeda. +Some discontented or ambitious persons in the colony took advantage of +this, and attacked the alcalde in his own way, with legal weapons, +questioning his right to rule. Among these Vasco Nunez and one Zamudio +were the leaders, and aspired to the bachelor's post. It was however at +last determined to seek for the rightful head of the colony, Nicuesa; +and bring him to the new capital. That woe-worn commander accepted with +delight the unexpected proffer; foolishly however he assumed at once the +haughty airs of a governor, and before he had seen his new colony, spoke +of the punishment he would inflict on the disturbers of its harmony. The +inhabitants of Darien heard of this language, and repented of their +hasty measure. Placing Vasco Nunez at their head, they awaited the +arrival of Nicuesa on the beach, and when they saw his vessel enter the +bay, refused him permission to land. It was in vain that the unfortunate +cavalier entreated, promised, and explained. Even Vasco Nunez, who was +of a generous spirit, supplicated for his reception as a private +individual, without effect. The determination of the populace was made +up; and sad to tell, Nicuesa was driven to sea in his crazy bark, and +never heard of more. + +The bachelor Enciso now again claimed his right to command the colony. +The people, however, were all on the side of Vasco Nunez; he had become +a great favourite, from his frank and fearless character, and his +winning affability; in fact, he was peculiarly calculated to manage the +fiery and the factious, yet generous and susceptible nature of his +countrymen, and in addition to this he was in the vigour of his age, +tall, well formed and hardy. After a fruitless struggle, Enciso left the +colony, and Vasco Nunez, well aware of the appeal he would make to the +Spanish government, sent at the same time Zamudio to represent and +defend him before the same tribunal. Vasco Nunez at once exerted himself +to prove his capacity as governor. His first expedition was against +Careta, the neighbouring cacique of Coyba, for the purpose of obtaining +supplies. By a stratagem he made captives of the cacique, his wives, and +children, and many of his people. He discovered also their store of +provisions, and returned with his booty and his captives to Darien. + + "When the unfortunate cacique beheld his family in chains, and + in the hands of strangers, his heart was wrung with despair; + 'What have I done to thee,' said he to Vasco Nunez, 'that thou + shouldst treat me thus cruelly? None of thy people ever came to + my land that were not fed, and sheltered, and treated with + loving kindness. When thou camest to my dwelling, did I meet + thee with a javelin in my hand? Did I not set meat and drink + before thee, and welcome thee as a brother? Set me free + therefore, with my family and people, and we will remain thy + friends. We will supply thee with provisions, and reveal to + thee the riches of the land. Dost thou doubt my faith? Behold + my daughter, I give her to thee as a pledge of friendship. Take + her for thy wife, and be assured of the fidelity of her family + and her people!' + + "Vasco Nunez felt the force of these words, and knew the + importance of forming a strong alliance among the natives. The + captive maid, also, as she stood trembling and dejected before + him, found great favour in his eyes, for she was young and + beautiful. He granted, therefore, the prayer of the cacique, + and accepted his daughter, engaging, moreover, to aid the + father against his enemies, on condition of his furnishing + provisions to the colony. + + "Careta remained three days at Darien, during which time, he + was treated with the utmost kindness. Vasco Nunez took him on + board of his ships and showed him every part of them. He + displayed before him also the war horses, with their armour and + rich caparisons, and astonished him with the thunder of + artillery. Lest he should be too much daunted by these warlike + spectacles, he caused the musicians to perform a harmonious + concert on their instruments, at which the cacique was lost in + admiration. Thus having impressed him with a wonderful idea of + the power and endowments of his new allies, he loaded him with + presents and permitted him to depart. + + "Careta returned joyfully to his territories, and his daughter + remained with Vasco Nunez, willingly for his sake giving up her + family and native home. They were never married, but she + considered herself his wife, as she really was, according to + the usages of her own country, and he treated her with + fondness, allowing her gradually to acquire great influence + over him. To his affection for this damsel, his ultimate ruin + is, in some measure, to be ascribed." + +Vasco Nunez did not neglect the favourable occasion these circumstances +offered, of extending his power among the neighbouring Indians. Those +who were hostile he attacked; those who were friendly he conciliated. +From all he obtained supplies of provisions and gold, to support and +enrich his colony. It was in one of his excursions to a friendly chief, +the cacique of Comagre, that he obtained the information which gave +greater scope to his adventurous spirit, and enabled him to place +himself in the same degree with Pizarro and Cortez among the +discoverers who succeeded the great admiral. The cacique had made a +present or tribute of a large quantity of gold, and the followers of +Vasco Nunez quarrelled as they were dividing among them their respective +shares in the presence of the Indian chief. + + "The high minded savage was disgusted at this sordid brawl + among beings whom he had regarded with such reverence. In the + first impulse of his disdain he struck the scale with his fist, + and scattered the glittering gold about the porch. Before the + Spaniards could recover from their astonishment at this sudden + act, he thus addressed them: 'Why should you quarrel for such a + trifle? If this gold is indeed so precious in your eyes, that + for it alone you abandon your homes, invade the peaceful lands + of others, and expose yourselves to such sufferings and perils, + I will tell you of a region where you may gratify your wishes + to the utmost.--Behold those lofty mountains,' continued he, + pointing to the south; 'beyond these lies a mighty sea, which + may be discerned from their summit. It is navigated by people + who have vessels almost as large as yours, and furnished, like + them, with sails and oars. All the streams which flow down the + southern side of those mountains into that sea abound in gold; + and the kings who reign upon its borders eat and drink out of + golden vessels. Gold, in fact, is as plentiful and common among + those people of the south as iron is among you Spaniards.' + + "Struck with this intelligence, Vasco Nunez inquired eagerly as + to the means of penetrating to this sea and to the opulent + regions on its shores. 'The task,' replied the prince, 'is + difficult and dangerous. You must pass through the territories + of many powerful caciques, who will oppose you with hosts of + warriors. Some parts of the mountains are infested by fierce + and cruel cannibals, a wandering lawless race: but, above all, + you will have to encounter the great cacique Tubanama, whose + territories are at the distance of six days journey, and more + rich in gold than any other province; this cacique will be sure + to come forth against you with a mighty force. To accomplish + your enterprise, therefore, will require at least a thousand + men armed like those who follow you." + +The effect of this intelligence, on the enterprising spirit of Vasco +Nunez, may be well imagined. The Pacific ocean and its golden realms +seemed to be at his feet. He beheld within his power an enterprise which +would at once elevate him from a wandering and desperate man, to a rank +among the great captains and discoverers of the earth. He lost no time +in making every preparation to realize the splendid vision. With this +object he sent for aid to Don Diego Columbus, who then governed at St. +Domingo; and in the mean time endeavoured to strengthen himself with the +surrounding tribes of natives, and to quiet the spirit of +insubordination which would occasionally break out at Darien. At length, +on the 1st of September, 1513, he set out with one hundred and ninety +Spaniards, and a number of Indians. At Coyba he left half his company +with the cacique Careta, to await his return, and with the residue, on +the sixth of the month, struck off towards the mountains. By some of the +Indian tribes he was kindly received, by others hostile intentions were +displayed. These were soon overcome by the use of fire arms and blood +hounds, which terrified the natives and put them at once to flight. On +the evening of the 25th of September, the party, now reduced to +sixty-seven Spaniards, arrived at the foot of the last mountain, from +whose top they were told they would command the long sought prospect. +Vasco Nunez obtained fresh Indian guides, and ordered his men to retire +early to repose, that they might be ready to set off at the cool and +fresh hour of daybreak, so as to reach the summit of the mountain before +the noontide heat. + + "The day had scarcely dawned, when Vasco Nunez and his + followers set forth from the Indian village and began to climb + the height. It was a severe and rugged toil for men so wayworn, + but they were filled with new ardour at the idea of the + triumphant scene that was so soon to repay them for all their + hardships. + + "About ten o'clock in the morning they emerged from the thick + forests through which they had hitherto struggled, and arrived + at a lofty and airy region of the mountain. The bald summit + alone remained to be ascended, and their guides pointed to a + moderate eminence from which they said the southern sea was + visible. + + "Upon this Vasco Nunez commanded his followers to halt, and + that no man should stir from his place. Then, with a + palpitating heart, he ascended alone the bare mountain-top. On + reaching the summit the long-desired prospect burst upon his + view. It was as if a new world were unfolded to him, separated + from all hitherto known by this mighty barrier of mountains. + Below him extended a vast chaos of rock and forest, and green + savannahs and wandering streams, while at a distance the waters + of the promised ocean glittered in the morning sun. + + "At this glorious prospect Vasco Nunez sank upon his knees, and + poured out thanks to God for being the first European to whom + it was given to make that great discovery. He then called his + people to ascend: 'Behold, my friends,' said he, 'that glorious + sight which we have so much desired. Let us give thanks to God + that he has granted us this great honour and advantage. Let us + pray to him that he will guide and aid us to conquer the sea + and land which we have discovered, and in which Christian has + never entered to preach the holy doctrine of the Evangelists. + As to yourselves, be as you have hitherto been, faithful and + true to me, and by the favour of Christ you will become the + richest Spaniards that have ever come to the Indies; you will + render the greatest services to your king that ever vassal + rendered to his lord; and you will have the eternal glory and + advantage of all that is here discovered, conquered, and + converted to our holy Catholic faith.' + + "The Spaniards answered this speech by embracing Vasco Nunez, + and promising to follow him to death. Among them was a priest, + named Andres de Vara, who lifted up his voice and chanted _Te + Deum laudamus_--the usual anthem of Spanish discoverers. The + people, kneeling down, joined in the strain with pious + enthusiasm and tears of joy; and never did a more sincere + oblation rise to the Deity from a sanctified altar than from + that wild mountain summit. It was indeed one of the most + sublime discoveries that had yet been made in the New World, + and must have opened a boundless field of conjecture to the + wondering Spaniards. The imagination delights to picture forth + the splendid confusion of their thoughts. Was this the great + Indian Ocean, studded with precious islands, abounding in gold, + in gems, and spices, and bordered by the gorgeous cities and + wealthy marts of the East? Or was it some lonely sea, locked up + in the embraces of savage uncultivated continents, and never + traversed by a bark, excepting the light pirogue of the Indian? + The latter could hardly be the case, for the natives had told + the Spaniards of golden realms, and populous and powerful and + luxurious nations upon its shores. Perhaps it might be bordered + by various people, civilized in fact, but differing from Europe + in their civilization; who might have peculiar laws and customs + and arts and sciences; who might form, as it were, a world of + their own, intercommuning by this mighty sea, and carrying on + commerce between their own islands and continents; but who + might exist in total ignorance and independence of the other + hemisphere. + + "Such may naturally have been the ideas suggested by the sight + of this unknown ocean. It was the prevalent belief of the + Spaniards, however, that they were the first Christians who had + made the discovery. Vasco Nunez, therefore, called upon all + present to witness that he took possession of that sea, its + islands, and surrounding lands, in the name of the sovereigns + of Castile, and the notary of the expedition made a testimonial + of the same, to which all present, to the number of sixty-seven + men, signed their names. He then caused a fair and tall tree to + be cut down and wrought into a cross, which was elevated on the + spot from whence he had at first beheld the sea. A mound of + stones was likewise piled up to serve as a monument, and the + names of the Castilian sovereigns were carved on the + neighbouring trees. The Indians beheld all these ceremonials + and rejoicings in silent wonder, and, while they aided to erect + the cross and pile up the mound of stones, marvelled + exceedingly at the meaning of these monuments, little thinking + that they marked the subjugation of their land." + +From the summit of the mountain Vasco Nunez cheerfully pursued his +journey to the coast; when he tasted the water and found it salt, he +felt assured that he had indeed discovered an ocean; he again returned +thanks to God, and drawing his dagger from his girdle, marked three +trees with crosses in honour of the Trinity and in token of possession. + +He remained on the shore of the Pacific ocean till the 3d of November. +In the interval, he conciliated by his good management the kind feelings +of the natives; he visited some of the neighbouring islands; he was +shown the valuable pearl fisheries; and was loaded when he left there +with pearls and gold. On his return he had several hostile rencounters +with the natives, and reached Darien on the 19th of January, 1514. + + "Thus ended one of the most remarkable expeditions of the early + discoverers. The intrepidity of Vasco Nunez in penetrating, + with a handful of men, far into the interior of a wild and + mountainous country, peopled by warlike tribes; his skill in + managing his band of rough adventurers, stimulating their + valour, enforcing their obedience, and attaching their + affections, show him to have possessed great qualities as a + general. We are told that he was always foremost in peril, and + the last to quit the field. He shared the toils and dangers of + the meanest of his followers, treating them with frank + affability; watching, fighting, fasting and labouring with + them; visiting and consoling such as were sick or infirm, and + dividing all his gains with fairness and liberality. He was + chargeable at times with acts of bloodshed and injustice, but + it is probable that these were often called for as measures of + safety and precaution; he certainly offended less against + humanity than most of the early discoverers; and the unbounded + amity and confidence reposed in him by the natives, when they + became intimately acquainted with his character, speak strongly + in favour of his kind treatment of them. + + "The character of Vasco Nunez had, in fact, risen with his + circumstances, and now assumed a nobleness and grandeur from + the discovery he had made, and the important charge it had + devolved upon him. He no longer felt himself a mere soldier of + fortune, at the head of a band of adventurers, but a great + commander conducting an immortal enterprise. 'Behold,' says old + Peter Martyr, 'Vasco Nunez de Balboa, at once transformed from + a rash royster to a politic and discreet captain:' and thus it + is that men are often made by their fortunes; that is to say, + their latent qualities are brought out, and shaped and + strengthened by events, and by the necessity of every exertion + to cope with the greatness of their destiny." + +While Vasco Nunez was thus exulting in his successful expedition, +fortune was preparing for him a sad reverse. The bachelor Enciso had +arrived in Spain, and notwithstanding the statements of Zamudio, had +made an unfavourable impression in regard to Vasco Nunez. The result +was, that a new governor of Darien was appointed, in the person of Pedro +Arias Davila, commonly called Pedrarias, a brave warrior, but little +fitted to command in a colony such as that to which he was sent. A +number of young Spanish nobles and gentlemen determined to accompany +him, having heard wild stories of the wealth and adventures which the +new world offered. Pedrarias was also attended by his heroic wife, Dona +Isabella de Bobadilla, and by the bishop Quevedo, a just and benevolent +priest. Scarcely had the new expedition left the shores of Spain, when +news arrived there of the splendid discoveries of Vasco Nunez, and the +king repented that he had so hastily superseded him. + +In the month of June, the squadron of Pedrarias anchored before Darien. +When the hardy veterans of the colony heard that their beloved commander +was to be thus removed, they were loud in their murmurs, and eagerly +desired to resist the newly arrived governor. Not so Vasco Nunez; he +bowed at once to the mandates of the king, and acknowledged the +authority of Pedrarias. This frank and honourable conduct was ill repaid +by the new chief; he took advantage of the unsuspecting confidence of +Vasco Nunez, and directed him to be prosecuted for usurpation and +tyrannical abuse of power. Fortunately, the bishop was opposed to the +conduct of the governor, and even his wife ventured to express her +respect and sympathy for the discoverer. This alone saved him from being +sent in irons to Spain. In the mean time, the gallant Spanish cavaliers +sunk beneath the fatal climate, to which they were unaccustomed, and the +affairs of the colony became distracted. Pedrarias, to engage them, +fitted out an expedition for the Pacific, but it ended in disappointment +and disaster, and had little result but to change some of the friendly +Indian tribes into implacable enemies. + +While things were in this state, despatches arrived from Spain. In a +letter addressed to Vasco Nunez, the king expressed his high sense of +his merits and services, and constituted him adelantado of the South +Sea, though subordinate to the general command of Pedrarias. That +governor, still envious of the renown of his rival, refused to confer on +him the powers belonging to his new office, and all that Vasco Nunez +could obtain was the recognition of the title. Still further to thwart +the honourable plans of the discoverer, he determined to explore, under +his own auspices, the pearl fisheries and islands discovered by Vasco +Nunez on the Pacific, and for this purpose fitted out an expedition +under the command of his own relative Morales; he sent with him, +however, Francisco Pizarro, who had accompanied Vasco Nunez on his first +expedition. These explorers were kindly received by the caciques, who +willingly gave them pearls for hatchets, beads, and hawks' bills, which +they valued much more. An incident occurred on their visit to Isla +Rica, which, connected with the future history of Pizarro, was +singularly interesting. + + "Finding that pearls were so precious in the eyes of the + Spaniards, the cacique took Morales and Pizarro to the summit + of a wooden tower, commanding an unbounded prospect. 'Behold + before you,' said he, 'the infinite sea, which extends even + beyond the sun-beams. As to these islands which lie to the + right and left, they are all subject to my sway. They possess + but little gold, but the deep places of the sea around them are + full of pearls. Continue to be my friends, and you shall have + as many as you desire; for I value your friendship more than + pearls, and, as far as in me lies, will never forfeit it.' + + "He then pointed to the main land, where it stretched away + towards the east, mountain beyond mountain, until the summit of + the last faded in the distance, and was scarcely seen above the + watery horizon. In that direction, he said, there lay a vast + country of inexhaustible riches, inhabited by a mighty nation. + He went on to repeat the vague but wonderful rumours which the + Spaniards had frequently heard about the great kingdom of Peru. + Pizarro listened greedily to his words, and while his eye + followed the finger of the cacique, as it ranged along the line + of shadowy coast, his daring mind kindled with the thought of + seeking this golden empire beyond the waters." + +On their way back through the mountains, the Spaniards were attacked by +the savages with great ferocity; and when they reached Darien their +party was greatly diminished, though the spoil they brought with them +was great. + +In the mean time, the disagreement between Pedrarias and Vasco Nunez +continued, to the great regret of the bishop Quevedo, and the +mortification of Dona Isabella. At length a plan was suggested by the +former which had the fortunate effect of producing a reconciliation. It +was agreed that Vasco Nunez should marry the daughter of the governor, +then in Spain, and he was accordingly betrothed at once. Pedrarias now +looked upon the exploits of his rival as those of one of his own family, +and no longer thwarted him. He cheerfully aided him in a new expedition +which was planned for transporting timber across the isthmus, building +brigantines on the Pacific, and exploring the country farther to the +south. When Vasco Nunez found himself floating in large vessels, on the +waves of the vast ocean he had discovered, he felt an honourable pride, +and a thousand visions of discoveries yet to be made crowded on his +fancy. Alas! they were not destined to be realized. A person who had a +private pique against him, insinuated himself into the confidence of +Pedrarias; declared that Vasco Nunez had schemes of boundless ambition; +that he would soon throw off his connexion with the governor, and above +all, that such was his devotion to the Indian damsel, the daughter of +Careta, that he would never wed her to whom he was betrothed. All the +ancient enmity of Pedrarias was renewed; he determined at once to put an +end to the rivalry of Vasco Nunez; by fair promises he induced him +unsuspectingly to return; and as soon as he arrived within his power had +him arrested and tried for treason. His condemnation was to be +expected, but deep was the emotion and surprise among the colonists when +they learned that it was to be followed by the immediate death of the +unfortunate soldier. No entreaties, however, could induce the governor +to relent. He had his victim now in his power and he determined he +should not escape. + + "It was a day of gloom and horror at Acla, when Vasco Nunez and + his companions were led forth to execution. The populace were + moved to tears at the unhappy fate of a man, whose gallant + deeds had excited their admiration, and whose generous + qualities had won their hearts. Most of them regarded him as + the victim of a jealous tyrant; and even those who thought him + guilty, saw something brave and brilliant in the very crime + imputed to him. Such, however, was the general dread inspired + by the severe measures of Pedrarias, that no one dared to lift + up his voice, either in murmur or remonstrance. + + "The public crier walked before Vasco Nunez, proclaiming, 'This + is the punishment inflicted by command of the king, and his + lieutenant Don Pedrarias Davila, on this man, as a traitor and + an usurper of the territories of the crown.' + + "When Vasco Nunez heard these words, he exclaimed, indignantly, + 'It is false! never did such a crime enter my mind. I have ever + served my king with truth and loyalty, and sought to augment + his dominions.' + + "These words were of no avail in his extremity, but they were + fully believed by the populace. + + "Thus perished, in his forty-second year, in the prime and + vigour of his days and the full career of his glory, one of the + most illustrious and deserving of the Spanish discoverers--a + victim to the basest and most perfidious envy. + + "How vain are our most confident hopes, our brightest triumphs! + When Vasco Nunez, from the mountains of Darien, beheld the + Southern ocean revealed to his gaze, he considered its unknown + realms at his disposal. When he had launched his ships upon its + waters, and his sails were in a manner flapping in the wind, to + bear him in quest of the wealthy empire of Peru, he scoffed at + the prediction of the astrologer, and defied the influence of + the stars. Behold him interrupted at the very moment of his + departure; betrayed into the hands of his most invidious foe; + the very enterprise that was to have crowned him with glory + wrested into a crime; and himself hurried to a bloody and + ignominious grave, at the foot, as it were, of the mountain + from whence he had made his discovery! His fate, like that of + his renowned predecessor Columbus, proves, that it is sometimes + dangerous even to discern too greatly!" + +There yet remain in this interesting volume the history of _Valdivia_ +and his companions, and of the bold _Juan Ponce de Leon_. Each contains +scenes and incidents scarcely less interesting than those we have +rapidly noticed; but the termination of the story of Vasco Nunez affords +us a place to pause, and we are recalled from the agreeable task of +narrating to that of expressing some opinion on the merits of the work +which has so delightfully detained us. We may add that there is also an +appendix, containing a narrative of a visit or pilgrimage, truly +American, made by the author to the little port of Palos, where Columbus +and so many of his followers embarked for America; it is in the happiest +style, and cannot be read without the strongest emotions; we can +scarcely refrain, notwithstanding its length, from presenting it entire +to the reader. + +The copious quotations we have made, and the abstract of some of the +more interesting parts of the narrative, will be sufficient to relieve +us in a great degree from the necessity of criticism. Our readers will, +themselves, be able to form a just estimate of the power and skill of +the writer, and of the pleasure to be derived from the story he has +recorded. We venture to say, that by none will that estimate be +otherwise than favourable, either to the talents of the author, or the +interest of the work. + +The style of Mr. Irving has been objected to as somewhat elaborate, as +sacrificing strength and force of expression, to harmony of periods and +extreme correctness of language. We cannot say that we have been +inclined to censure him for this. If he assumed a style more than +usually refined, it was in those works of fiction, those short but +agreeable narratives, in which he desired to win the fond attention of +the reader, but in which he never endeavoured to call up violent +emotions, to engage in the wild speculations of a discursive fancy, or +to treat topics requiring logical or historical correctness. For such +works as the Sketch Book, we believe the style adopted by Mr. Irving to +be eminently well fitted, and we do not hesitate to attribute much of +the success of those charming tales to this very circumstance. We +believe so the more readily, because we find him adopting in the Life of +Columbus, and in the volume before us, a different manner, but one +equally well suited to the different nature of the subject he treats. +Without losing the elegance and general purity by which it has been +always characterized, it seems to us to have acquired more freshness, +more vivacity; to flow on more easily with the course of the spirited +narrative; to convey to the reader that exquisite charm in historical +writing--an unconsciousness of any elaboration on the part of the +writer, yet a quick and entire understanding of every sentiment he +desires to convey. + +But connected with this, the writing of Mr. Irving possesses another +characteristic, which has never been more strongly and beautifully +exhibited than in the present volume. We mean that lively perception of +all those sentiments and incidents, which excite the finest and the +pleasantest emotions of the human breast. As he leads us from one savage +tribe to another--as he paints successive scenes of heroism, +perseverance, and self-denial--as he wanders among the magnificent +scenes of nature--as he relates with scrupulous fidelity the errors, and +the crimes, even of those whose lives are for the most part marked with +traits to command admiration, and perhaps esteem--every where we find +him the same undeviating, but beautiful moralist, gathering from all +lessons to present, in striking language, to the reason and the heart. +Where his story leads him to some individual, or presents some incident +which raises our smiles, it is recorded with a naive humour, the more +effective from its simplicity; where he finds himself called on to tell +some tale of misfortune or wo--and how often must he do so when the +history of the gentle and peaceful natives of the Antilles is his +subject--the reader is at a loss whether most to admire the beauty of +the picture he paints, or the deep pathos which he imperceptibly +excites. + +Nor has he shown less judgment in the selection of his subject. To all +persons the discovery of this continent is one which cannot fail to +engage and reward attention--to him who loves to speculate on the +changes and progress of society, to him who loves to trace the paths of +science and knowledge, to him who loves to dwell on bold adventures and +singular accidents, to him who loves carefully to ascertain historical +truth. We scarcely know any topics at the present day, explored and +exhausted as so many fields have been, that afford a richer harvest than +those which Mr. Irving has now selected. We trust that many more works +are yet to be the fruits of his most fortunate visit to the peninsula. +The sources of information so liberally opened to him, and already so +judiciously used--and which have contributed to add new reputation to so +many names honourable to Spain--must yet furnish ample materials to +illustrate other men, to disclose the incidents attending other +adventures; and we trust that three years more may not elapse, before we +again sail with our author over the newly discovered billows of the +Pacific, or explore the plains of Mexico and Peru, or wander with some +of the hardy adventurers who first dared to penetrate the defiles of the +Andes. + +We have already mentioned, in the notice of the Life of Columbus, the +circumstances which led Mr. Irving to the investigation of this period +of Spanish history, and the facilities afforded him in the prosecution +of his labours. The materials for this volume were procured during the +same visit. In addition to the historical collections of Navarrete, Las +Casas, Herrera, and Peter Martyr, he profited by the second volume of +Oviedo's history, of which he was shown a manuscript copy in the +Columbian library of the cathedral of Seville, and by the legal +documents of the law case between Diego Columbus and the crown, which +are deposited in the Archives of the Indies. + + + + +ART. VIII.--_The History of Louisiana, from the earliest period._ By +FRANCOIS-XAVIER MARTIN: 2 vols. 8vo. New-Orleans: Lyman and Beardslee. +1827. + + +It is about a year and a half since a very good translation of the +History of Louisiana by _Barbe Marbois_, was laid before the public. +Another work on the same subject, by _Francis Xavier Martin_, has +recently come to our knowledge. We use this expression, because, +although the title page shows a publication of the book in 1827, we +neither saw it nor heard of it until the close of the last year; and, +even now, we know of no copy but that in our possession. It may be that +the honourable author, (for he is a Judge of the Supreme Court of the +state whose history he has written,) was satisfied with collecting and +preserving his materials by printing them, and cared not for the fame or +profit of an extensive circulation and sale of his work. His philosophy +may make him as indifferent to the one as his fortune does to the other, +or his modesty may be greater than either. We think we shall perform an +acceptable service by introducing the stranger to our readers, who will +not fail to derive from him many things which will reward the time and +trouble given to acquire them. + +History has seldom appeared under the sanction of names better entitled +to credit and respect than those we have mentioned. M. Marbois is known +to us by his residence in the United States, as the secretary of the +French legation, and Consul General of France, during the revolutionary +war; and, afterwards, as _Charge d' Affaires_; in which situations he +was distinguished for his extraordinary capacity in the business of +diplomacy, as well as for the integrity of his principles, and the +frankness and amenity of his manners. By living long among us, he seems +to have acquired not only an affection and respect for the American +people, but an ardent admiration of our political institutions, which +have adhered to him with undiminished strength through the various +fortunes he has since encountered. He has prefixed to his History, an +"Introduction," which is, as it professes to be, "An Essay on the +Constitution and Government of the United States of America;" and +although the venerable author had passed his eightieth year, he had lost +none of the freshness of his attachment to our republic and its +citizens, or of the vigour of his pen in portraying them. No foreigner +has ever understood us so well, and few Americans better. + +That part of his history which relates to the cession of Louisiana to +the United States, is particularly entitled to attention from its +curious details, and will be received with implicit belief, as M. +Marbois was the negotiator on the part of France in that extraordinary +transaction, fraught with consequences so momentous. He relates nothing +but what was in his personal knowledge. We will not anticipate our +notice of this event, but we cannot suppress the remark, that the +acquisition of this vast region by the United States, now so prosperous, +so loyal and efficient a portion of our grand confederacy, by which we +were not only saved from a war, but liberty, happiness, and wealth have +been spread over a country, before that time neglected, mismanaged, and +unproductive, and dispensed to an intelligent and industrious people, +who had for a century been struggling with oppression and innumerable +difficulties, changing with their repeated changes of masters, was owing +to the keen sagacity and prompt decision of Napoleon. It is thus that +the destinies of mankind wait upon the fortunes, the caprice, the +foresight, and the blunders of the great, and are determined, for weal +or wo, by causes and accidents in which those who are most affected by +them have no agency. The people of Louisiana, and their fertile +territory, which from their first settlement had been a subject of +barter among the powers of Europe, to make a peace, to round off a +treaty, or answer some policy or interest of a distant sovereign, are +now irrevocably fixed as a member of a great republic, never again to be +a helpless and degraded makeweight in the bargains of foreign princes. + +_F. X. Martin_, the author of the work now in our review, has held for +many years the high station of a Judge of the Supreme Court of +Louisiana; respected for the learning and integrity with which he +discharges the duties of his office, and equally so, in all his public +and private relations. He, also, is at once the historian and the +witness of some of the interesting transactions he narrates; and the +veracity of his testimony is unquestionable, as to those matters of +which he speaks from his personal knowledge. Being as independent in his +circumstances as he is in his principles, and having no resentments, of +which we have heard, to gratify, by calumniating any man, there is +nothing to draw him from the line of rectitude, and we presume that no +errors, at least of intention, will be imputed to him. + +With this acquaintance with the character of the author, and his means +of information, we may open his book with more than the confidence +usually due to similar productions. + +Before we introduce our readers to the materials of which these volumes +are composed, we would say a word, and do it frankly, upon the plan +adopted by the author in presenting them to the world. We speak not of +the language or style of the composition, which is sufficiently clear +and correct to be secure from criticism, especially under the apology of +the writer, that "as he does not write in his vernacular tongue, +elegance of style is beyond his hope, and consequently without the scope +of his ambition." We are not so well satisfied with his reasons for the +wide range he has taken over time and space in a "History of Louisiana." +He has commenced, as every annalist of an American village has done, +with the discoveries of Columbus; he has given us, with considerable +detail, the circumstances which attended the settlements of the English +and French provinces in this hemisphere; and has drawn "the attention of +his readers to transactions on the opposite side of the Atlantic," +which have no apparent connexion with his subject. The "chronological +order" which he has adopted, is not confined to the affairs of +Louisiana, but comprehends occurrences in every part of the globe, and +sometimes brings together on the same page such a heterogeneous mass, as +to force a smile from us in spite of the official gravity which belongs +to the office of a reviewer. The assemblages of events are often so +unexpected and grotesque, that we should believe a joke was intended, if +they had not been brought together on the summons of a Judge of a +Supreme Court. Assuredly nothing like them was ever seen in a jury-box, +even in the mixed population of Louisiana. A few references will explain +the nature and meaning of our criticism. + +The "Discovery of America" being disposed of, the reader of the History +of Louisiana has his recollection recalled to the reigns of Charles +VIII. in France; of Henry VII. of England; and Ferdinand and Isabella, +of course; with notices of various movements in those countries in their +several reigns. The second chapter is got up in the same manner, taking +a zigzag course over our continent, north, south, east, and west, with +occasional excursions to Europe to keep up the variety. This procedure +often produces an assemblage of events, as we have said, on the same +page, rather startling to themselves as well as to us.--Thus on page 48 +of the first volume--"On the 20th of December, a ship from England +landed one hundred and twenty men near Cape Cod, who laid the foundation +of a colony, which, in course of time, became greatly conspicuous in the +annals of the northern continent. They called their first town Plymouth. +Philip III. on the 21st of March of the following year, the forty-third +of his age, transmitted the crown of Spain to his son Philip IV. This +year James I. of England granted to Sir William Alexander, all the +country taken by Argal from the French in America. The Iroquois, +apprehending that if the French were suffered to gain ground in +America." So on page 157--"Iberville returned to France in the +fleet--William III. of England died on the 16th of March, in consequence +of a fall from his horse, in the fifty-third year of his age. Mary, his +queen, had died in 1694; neither left issue. Anne, her sister, succeeded +her." Can we avoid to ask what has all this to do with Louisiana? In +page 234--John Law's well known scheme is thus abruptly introduced. +"Another Guinea-man landed three hundred negroes a few days after. John +Law, of Lauriston in North Britain, was a celebrated financier," &c. + +The work abounds with such odd combinations, nor have we selected the +most singular, arising from the "chronological order" adopted by the +author, which, while it has advantages in narrations confined to one +object, will not do in a history extended over half of the world. We +have presented to us, in the same incongruous manner, the settlement of +Maryland--of Nova Scotia--sketches of English history under Oliver +Cromwell--an account of the hooping cough in Quebec--and an earthquake +in Canada. The cough was supposed to be the effect of enchantment,--"and +many of the faculty did, or affected to believe it." "It was said a +fiery crown had been observed in the air at Montreal; lamentable cries +heard at Trois Rivieres, in places in which there was not any person; +that, at Quebec, a canoe, all on fire, had been seen on the river, with +a man armed _cap-a-pie_, surrounded by a circle of the same element." On +the subject of the earthquake, the account of which is taken from +Charlevoix, it was indeed a fearful visitation, if the truth be not +exaggerated by terror and superstition.-- + + "A dreadful earthquake was felt in Canada, on the fifth of + February, 1663. The first shock is said by Charlevoix, to have + lasted half an hour; after the first quarter of an hour, its + violence gradually abated. At eight o'clock in the evening, a + like shock was felt; some of the inhabitants said they had + counted as many as thirty-two shocks, during the night. In the + intervals between the shocks, the surface of the ground + undulated as the sea, and the people felt, in their houses, the + sensations which are experienced in a vessel at anchor. On the + sixth, at three o'clock in the morning, another most violent + shock was felt. It is related that at Tadoussac, there was a + rain of ashes for six hours. During this strange commotion of + nature, the bells of the churches were kept constantly ringing, + by the motion of the steeples; the houses were so terribly + shaken, that the eaves, on each side, alternately touched the + ground. Several mountains altered their positions; others were + precipitated into the river, and lakes were afterwards found in + the places on which they stood before. The commotion was felt + for nine hundred miles from east to west, and five hundred from + north to south. + + "This extraordinary phenomenon was considered as the effect of + the vengeance of God, irritated at the obstinacy of those, who, + neglecting the admonitions of his ministers, and contemning the + censures of his church, continued to sell brandy to the + Indians. The reverend writer, who has been cited, relates it + was said, ignited appearances had been observed in the air, for + several days before; globes of fire being seen over the cities + of Quebec and Montreal, attended with a noise like that of the + simultaneous discharge of several pieces of heavy artillery; + that the superior of the nuns, informed her confessor some time + before, that being at her devotions, she believed 'she saw the + Lord irritated against Canada, and she involuntarily demanded + justice from him for all the crimes committed in the country; + praying the souls might not perish with the bodies: a moment + after, she felt conscious the divine justice was going to + strike; the contempt of the church exciting God's wrath. She + perceived almost instantaneously four devils, at the corners of + Quebec, shaking the earth with extreme violence, and a person + of majestic mien alternately slackening and drawing back a + bridle, by which he held them.' A female Indian, who had been + baptized, was said to have received intelligence of the + impending chastisement of heaven. The reverend writer concludes + his narration by exultingly observing, 'none perished, all were + converted.'" + +The fourth chapter still keeps us at a distance from the "promised +land." The discontents and disturbances which agitated Canada, are +minutely narrated, and, in some respects, not without considerable +interest. One of the causes of the commotion, was an arbitrary act of +power of the Count de Frontenac, who "had imprisoned the Abbe de +Fenelon, then a priest of the seminary of St. Sulpice at Montreal, who +afterwards became archbishop of Cambray." Thus were the genius, the +learning, and the virtues of this great and good man, laid prostrate at +the feet of a petty tyrant; and might have been for ever lost to the +world. It is by such abuses of power that men learn and feel the value +of a government of laws, supreme and superior to the influence of office +and the power of the sword. In this chapter we are introduced to the +name of Robert C. Lasalle, afterwards so conspicuous for his courage and +perseverance in the settlement of these regions. Some interesting +details of his life and adventures, which may be called romantic, are +given, for which we refer to the book. + +As the character and conduct of the Founder of Pennsylvania has been +lately assailed, with exceeding injustice, by a Pennsylvanian, and a +judge too, it will add something to the testimony already so abundant in +his behalf, to quote the following extract-- + + "The year 1680 is remarkable for the grant of Charles the + Second, to William Penn, of the territory that now constitutes + the states of Pennsylvania and Delaware. The grantee, who was + one of the people called Quakers, imitating the example of + Gulielm Usseling and Roger Williams, disowned a right to any + part of the country included within his charter, till the + natives voluntarily yielded it on receiving a fair + consideration. There exists not any other example of so liberal + a conduct towards the Indians of North America, on the erection + of a new colony. The date of Penn's charter is the twentieth of + February." + +We follow our author into his fifth chapter, which we find occupied with +a variety of matters, sufficiently interesting in themselves, but having +no relation to the professed subject of our history; and which have been +collected from works of no difficult access to any body. We notice, +however, an occurrence, especially worthy of our attention at this time, +when a project is entertained of introducing a government paper currency +into the United States.-- + + "Louis the Fourteenth having approved the emission of card + money made in Canada, during the preceding year, another + emission was now prepared in Paris, in which pasteboard was + used instead of cards. An impression was made on each piece, of + the coin of the kingdom, of the corresponding value. + + "Pasteboard proving inconvenient, cards were again resorted to. + Each had the flourish which the intendant usually added to his + signature. He signed all those of the value of four livres and + upwards, and those of six livres and above were also signed by + the governor. + + "Once a year, at a fixed period, the cards were required to be + brought to the colonial treasury, and exchanged for bills on + the treasurer-general of the marine, or his deputy at + Rochefort. Those which appeared too ragged for circulation were + burnt, and the rest again paid out of the treasury. + + "For a while the cards were thus punctually exchanged once a + year; but in course of time bills ceased to be given for them. + Their value, which till then had been equal to gold, now began + to diminish; the price of all commodities rose proportionably, + and the colonial government was compelled, in order to meet the + increased demands on its treasury, to resort to new and + repeated emissions; and the people found a new source of + distress in the means adopted for their relief." + +This subject is frequently referred to, and always as a source of +distress; as a disastrous measure of policy.-- + + "Louisiana suffered a great deal from the want of a circulating + medium. Card money had caused the disappearance of the gold and + silver circulating in the colony before its emission, and its + subsequent depreciation had induced the commissary ordonnateur + to have recourse to an issue of _ordonances_, a kind of bills + of credit, which although not a legal tender, from the want of + a metallic currency, soon became an object of commerce. They + were followed by treasury notes, which being receivable in the + discharge of all claims of the treasury, soon got into + circulation. This cumulation of public securities in the + market, within a short time threw them all into discredit, and + gave rise to an _agiotage_, highly injurious to commerce and + agriculture." + + "The province was at this time inundated by a flood of paper + money. The administration, for several years past, had paid in + due bills all the supplies they had obtained, and they had been + suffered to accumulate to an immense amount. A consequent + depreciation had left them almost without any value. This had + been occasioned, in a great degree, by a belief that the + officers who had put these securities afloat, had, at times, + attended more to their own than to the public interest, and + that the French government, on the discovery of this, would not + perhaps be found ready to indemnify the holders against the + misconduct of its agents. With a view, however, to prepare the + way for the redemption of the paper, the colonial treasurer was + directed to receive all that might be presented, and to give in + its stead certificates, in order that the extent of the evil + being known, the remedy might be applied." + + "The province laboured under great difficulties, on account of + a flood of depreciated paper, which, inundating it, annihilated + its industry, commerce, and agriculture. So sanguine were the + inhabitants of their appeal to the throne, that they instructed + their emissary, after having accomplished the principal object + of his mission, to solicit relief in this respect." + +We turn also to Marbois, on this subject, and trust we shall be excused +for giving so much of our time to it, by the interest the people of the +United States now have in it. We have had our own experience of the +fatal consequences of such schemes; let us also listen to the experience +of others, which points to the distress and ruin that attend such +experiments. Speaking of Law's great scheme of finance, this wise and +venerable statesman says--"A foreigner of an eccentric mind, though a +skilful calculator, had engaged the regent in operations the most +disastrous to the finances of the state. John Law, after having +persuaded credulous people that paper money might advantageously take +the place of specie, drew from this false principle the most extravagant +consequences. They were adopted by ignorance and cupidity." This writer, +with the experience of more than half a century in public affairs, +adds--"These chimeras, called by the name of system, do not differ much +from the schemes that are brought forward in the present age, under the +name of credit." + +Speaking of the paper money created for Louisiana, M. Marbois tells us-- + + "The expenses resulting from want of order had no limits: in no + condition to provide for them, the heads of the government had + recourse to paper money, the desperate resource of financiers + without capacity. The following remarks on this subject are + from a despatch of M. Rouille, minister of marine. + + "'The disorder, which has for some time prevailed in the + finances and trade of Louisiana, principally arises from + pouring into the province treasury orders and other kinds of + paper money; all of which soon fell into discredit, and + occasioned a depreciation of the currency, which has been the + more injurious to the colony and its trade, as the prices of + all things, and particularly of manual labour, have increased + in proportion to the fall in the treasury notes.' + + "It was on the 30th of November, 1744, that this minister thus + expressed himself with regard to the chimerical systems of + credit, which have never been more in vogue than in our time." + +We pass over the sixth chapter of our book, without any particular +notice of its contents. It is occupied with miscellaneous transactions +in other provinces; with Indian wars; the abdication of James II., and +the accession of William and Mary to the throne of England; which, in +pursuance of the chronological order, we find snugly deposited between +the census of Canada and some affairs in Fort Louis. These things, with +the peace made between the Marquess de Denonville and some Indians, and +some other matters, cover one page. + +The seventh chapter of this volume brings us again in sight of +Louisiana; and we thought our author was a little like Louis XIV., who, +it is said, "seemed to have lost sight of Louisiana in the prosecution +of the war," &c. Some interesting details are here given of the early +attempts to plant a French colony in this territory, interrupted by +hostilities with the Indians, and other impediments not unusual to +enterprises of this kind. The northern provinces, however, are not +neglected; and we are specially informed of the determination of the +British cabinet to attack Montreal and Quebec--this was in 1710. + +In tracing the history of a country which has attained the strength and +importance of Louisiana, it is gratifying, occasionally, to look back to +the days of its weakness, and particularly so when the advance has been +surprisingly rapid, and may be fairly traced to the freedom of the +government under which it was made. Our author has, from time to time, +exhibited the population, agriculture, production, and trade of this +province, at various periods, and under different circumstances. + + "In 1713, there were in Louisiana two companies of infantry of + fifty men each, and seventy-five Canadian volunteers in the + king's pay. The rest of the population consisted of + twenty-eight families; one half of whom were engaged, not in + agriculture, but in horticulture: the heads of the others were + shop and tavern keepers, or employed in mechanical occupations. + A number of individuals derived their support by ministering to + the wants of the troops. There were but twenty negroes in the + colony: adding to these the king's officers and clergy, the + aggregate amount of the population was three hundred and eighty + persons. A few female Indians and children were domesticated in + the houses of the white people, and groups of the males were + incessantly sauntering or encamped around them. + + "The collection of all these individuals, on one compact spot, + could have claimed no higher appellation than that of a hamlet; + yet they were dispersed through a vast extent of country, the + parts of which were separated by the sea, by lakes, and wide + rivers. Five forts, or large batteries, had been erected for + their protection at Mobile, Biloxi, on the Mississippi, and at + Ship and Dauphine Islands. + + "Lumber, hides, and peltries, constituted the objects of + exportation, which the colony presented to commerce. A number + of woodsmen, or _coureurs de bois,_ from Canada, had followed + the missionaries, who had been sent among the nations of + Indians, between that province and Louisiana. These men plied + within a circle, of a radius of several hundred miles, of which + the father's chapel was the centre, in search of furs, + peltries, and hides. When they deemed they had gathered a + sufficient quantity of these articles, they floated down the + Mississippi, and brought them to Mobile, where they exchanged + them for European goods, with which they returned. The natives + nearer to the fort, carried on the same trade. Lumber was + easily obtained around the settlement: of late, vessels, from + St. Domingo and Martinique, brought sugar, coffee, molasses, + and rum, to Louisiana, and took its peltries, hides, and + lumber, in exchange. The colonists procured some specie from + the garrison of Pensacola, whom they supplied with vegetables + and fowls. Those who followed this sort of trade, by furnishing + also the officers and troops, obtained flour and salt + provisions from the king's stores, which were abundantly + supplied from France and Vera Cruz. Trifling but successful + essays had shown, that indigo, tobacco, and cotton, could be + cultivated to great advantage: but hands were wanting. + Experience had shown, that the frequent and heavy mists and + fogs were unfavourable to the culture of wheat, by causing it + to rust." + +What a change have a few years of good government and undisturbed +industry and enterprise made in this country; for up to the time of its +cession to the United States, its improvement was slow, uncertain, and +by no means remarkable! Who can now recognise in this rich and +prosperous state, the member of a great confederation, of a powerful +republic, known and respected by every nation of the earth, the desolate +wilds, the miserable and scattered habitations, "few and far between," +with a population half savage and half civilized, of various bloods and +colours, and scarcely able to support a pinched and comfortless +existence, by excessive toil and a constant exposure to hardships and +peril! + +After the charter of Crouzat, in September 1712, and a subsequent +charter to a new corporation five years after, the settlement of the +colony was better attended to, and measures taken to advance its +prosperity. Unfortunately for humanity, and perhaps for the ultimate +happiness of the province, it was found, or thought, to be necessary, to +introduce the negroes of Africa, for the cultivation of the soil. This +species of labour was resorted to in Louisiana in the year 1719. + + "Experience had shown the great fertility of the land in + Louisiana, especially on the banks of the Mississippi, and its + aptitude to the culture of tobacco, indigo, cotton, and rice; + but the labourers were very few, and many of the new comers had + fallen victims to the climate. The survivers found it + impossible to work in the field during the great heats of the + summer, protracted through a part of the autumn. The necessity + of obtaining cultivators from Africa, was apparent; the company + yielding thereto, sent two of its ships to the coast of Africa, + from whence they brought five hundred negroes, who were landed + at Pensacola. They brought thirty recruits to the garrison." + +Whatever may hereafter be the consequences of this determination to +employ slave-labour, its immediate effects were beneficial to the +planters; and in the next year, it is said that the company represented +to the king that "the planters had been enabled, by the introduction of +a great number of negroes, to clear and cultivate large tracts of land." +It will be observed, that at this time the cultivation of sugar was not +thought of. + +The discursive manner of our author frequently furnishes us with +anecdotes of interest, sometimes relating to habits of the Indians, and +sometimes to other persons and subjects. In this class we reckon an +account of a female adventurer who appeared in Louisiana so early as the +year 1721.-- + + "There came, among the German new comers, a female adventurer. + She had been attached to the wardrobe of the wife of the + Czarowitz Alexius Petrowitz, the only son of Peter the Great. + She imposed on the credulity of many persons, but particularly + on that of an officer of the garrison of Mobile, (called by + Bossu, the Chevalier d'Aubant, and by the king of Prussia, + Maldeck) who having seen the princess at St. Petersburg, + imagined he recognised her features in those of her former + servant, and gave credit to the report which prevailed, that + she was the Duke of Wolfenbuttle's daughter, whom the Czarowitz + had married, and who, finding herself treated with great + cruelty by her husband, caused it to be circulated that she had + died, while she fled to a distant seat, driven by the blows he + had inflicted on her--that the Czarowitz had given orders for + her private burial, and she had travelled incog. into France, + and had taken passage at L'Orient, in one of the company's + ships, among the German settlers. + + "Her story gained credit, and the officer married her. After a + long residence in Louisiana, she followed him to Paris and the + Island of Bourbon, where he had a commission of major. Having + become a widow in 1754, she returned to Paris, with a daughter, + and went thence to Brunswick, when her imposture was + discovered; charity was bestowed on her, but she was ordered to + leave the country. She died in 1771, at Paris, in great + poverty. + + "A similar imposition was practised for a while with + considerable success, in the southern British provinces, a few + years before the declaration of their independence. A female, + driven for her misconduct from the service of a maid of honour + of Princess Matilda, sister to George the Third, was convicted + at the Old Bailey, and transported to Maryland. She effected + her escape before the expiration of her time, and travelled + through Virginia and both the Carolinas, personating the + princess, and levying contributions on the credulity of + planters and merchants; and even some of the king's officers. + She was at last arrested in Charleston, prosecuted, and + whipped." + +When we read the account of New-Orleans, a century ago, we can hardly +credit that it is the same New-Orleans which we now know.-- + + "New-Orleans, (according to his account,) consisted at that + time of one hundred cabins, placed without much order, a large + wooden warehouse, two or three dwelling houses, that would not + have adorned a village, and a miserable storehouse, which had + been at first occupied as a chapel; a shed being now used for + this purpose. Its population did not exceed two hundred + persons." + +In the enormous increase of population and wealth which this highly +favoured city exhibits, a Pennsylvanian may feel pride in observing, +that the industrious Germans, who have never failed to improve and +enrich the soil they inhabit, have had their share. John Randolph once +said on the floor of Congress, that the land on which a slave set his +foot was cursed with barrenness. The reverse of this may be truly +asserted of the German settlers. To their persevering industry, patient +labour, and habitual economy, every difficulty yields, and every soil +becomes fertile. An accident brought them to New-Orleans, with no +intention of remaining; and their usefulness was felt and encouraged. + + "Since the failure of Law, and his departure from France, his + grant at the Arkansas had been entirely neglected, and the + greatest part of the settlers, whom he had transported thither + from Germany, finding themselves abandoned and disappointed, + came down to New-Orleans, with the hope of obtaining a passage + to some port of France, from which they might be enabled to + return home. The colonial government being unable or unwilling + to grant it, small allotments of land were made to them twenty + miles above New-Orleans, on both sides of the river, on which + they settled in cottage farms. The Chevalier d'Arensbourg, a + Swedish officer, lately arrived, was appointed commandant of + the new post. This was the beginning of the settlement, known + as the German coast, or the parishes of St. Charles and St. + John the Baptist. These laborious men supplied the troops and + the inhabitants of New-Orleans with garden stuff. Loading their + pirogues with the produce of their week's work, on Saturday + evening, they floated down the river, and were ready to spread + at sun-rise, on the first market that was held on the banks of + the Mississippi, their supplies of vegetables, fowls, and + butter. Returning, at the close of the market, they reached + their homes early in the night, and were ready to resume their + work at sun-rise; having brought the groceries and other + articles needed in the course of the week." + +A few years later, the Jesuit and Ursuline nuns arrived at New-Orleans, +and began the improvement of a tract of land immediately above the city. +They erected a house and chapel; they planted the front of their land +with the myrtle wax shrub. Soon after, the foundation was laid for a +large nunnery, into which the ladies removed in 1730, and occupied it +until 1824. On every side the work of improvement proceeded gradually, +but effectually. Among other expedients to hasten the progress of +population, "a company ship brought out a number of poor girls, shipped +by the company. They had not been taken, as those whom it had +transported before, in the houses of correction in Paris. It had +supplied each of them with a small box, _cassette_, containing a few +articles of clothing. From this circumstance, and to distinguish them +from those who had preceded them, they were called girls _de la +cassette_. Till they could be disposed of in marriage, they remained +under the care of the nuns." + +The fig tree was introduced from Provence, and the orange from +Hispaniola, both now so abundant and so excellent at New-Orleans. + +Injustice to the aborigines seems to have marked the march of the white +man in all its stages; nor were the victims of his cupidity slow in +their revenge, or wanting in courage and ingenuity in prosecuting it. We +have an instance of this, which we think interesting enough to be +extracted.-- + + "The indiscretion and ill conduct of Chepar, who commanded at + Fort Rosalie, in the country of the Natchez, induced these + Indians to become principals, instead of auxiliaries, in the + havock. + + "This officer, coveting a tract of land in the possession of + one of the chiefs, had used menaces to induce him to surrender + it, and unable to intimidate the sturdy Indian, had resorted to + violence. The nation, to whom the commandant's conduct had + rendered him obnoxious, took part with its injured member--and + revenge was determined on. The suns sat in council to devise + the means of annoyance, and determined not to confine + chastisement to the offender; but, having secured the + co-operation of all the tribes hostile to the French, to effect + the total overthrow of the settlement, murder all white men in + it, and reduce the women and children to slavery. Messengers + were accordingly sent to all the villages of the Natchez and + the tribes in their alliance, to induce them to get themselves + ready, and come on a given day to begin the slaughter. For this + purpose bundles of an equal number of sticks were prepared and + sent to every village, with directions to take out a stick + everyday, after that of the new moon, and the attack was to be + on that on which the last stick was taken out. + + "This matter was kept a profound secret among the chiefs and + the Indians employed by them, and particular care was taken to + conceal it from the women. One of the female suns, however, + soon discovered that a momentous measure, of which she was not + informed, was on foot. Leading one of her sons to a distant and + retired spot, in the woods, she upbraided him with his want of + confidence in his mother, and artfully drew from him the + details of the intended attack. The bundle of sticks for her + village had been deposited in the temple, and to the keeper of + it, the care had been intrusted of taking out a stick daily. + Having from her rank access to the fane at all times, she + secretly, and at different moments, detached one or two sticks, + and then threw them into the sacred fire. Unsatisfied with + this, she gave notice of the impending danger to an officer of + the garrison, in whom she placed confidence. But the + information was either disbelieved or disregarded." + +This well concerted plan of revenge was carried into a terrible +execution; and the aggressor who had caused it was among the victims. + +A circumstance, purely accidental, and, in itself, altogether +insignificant, was the beginning of an agricultural experiment in +Louisiana, which, long afterwards, was followed by a success, important +not only to that territory, but to these United States. + + "Two hundred recruits arrived from France on the 17th of April, + for the completion of the quota of troops allotted to the + province. The king's ships, in which they were embarked, + touched at the cape, in the Island of Hispaniola, where, with a + view of trying with what success the sugar cane could be + cultivated on the banks of the Mississippi, the Jesuits of that + island were permitted to ship to their brethren in Louisiana, a + quantity of it. A number of negroes, acquainted with the + culture and manufacture of sugar, came in the fleet. The canes + were planted on the land of the fathers immediately above the + city, in the lower part of the spot now known as the suburb St. + Mary. Before this time, the front of the plantation had been + improved in the raising of the myrtle wax shrub; the rest was + sown with indigo." + +In this humble manner was the sugar cane introduced into Louisiana, +which has now become a principal source of its wealth. We will here +advance upon our work in order to trace, in a connected manner, the +various attempts which were made to fix the cultivation of this plant, +with their failures and success, for many years vibrating in +uncertainty. The experiment we have just alluded to was made in 1751; +eight years afterwards, our author tells us:-- + + "Although the essay, which the Jesuits had made in 1751, to + naturalize the sugar cane in Louisiana, had been successful, + the culture of it, on a large scale, was not attempted till + this year, when Dubreuil erected a mill for the manufacture of + sugar, on his plantation, immediately adjoining the lower part + of New-Orleans--the spot now covered by the suburb Marigny." + +In 1769, the project seems to have been given up, as we are then +informed that--"the indigo of Louisiana was greatly inferior to that of +Hispaniola, the planters being quite unskilful and inattentive in the +manufacture of it; that of sugar had been abandoned, but some planters +near New-Orleans raised a few canes for the market." + +No explanation is given of the causes of the abandonment of this most +valuable product, which subsequent experience has shown is so admirably +adapted to the soil and climate of Louisiana. It is the more +unaccountable, as a large capital had been embarked in it, for the +purchase of slaves principally. It may be that it did not receive the +protection from jealous rivals, which is indispensable for the success +of every new enterprise of this kind, even under the most favourable +circumstances; at least until it is firmly established; its expenditures +secured or reimbursed; and its capacity brought into full development +and operation. + +From the period we have last spoken of, 1769, until 1796, we hear, from +our author, of no effort to resume the cultivation of the sugar cane; +although we may presume it was not absolutely extinguished; for in the +record of the events of this year, (1796) he tells us--"Bore's success, +in his first attempt to manufacture sugar, was very great, and he sold +his crop for ten thousand dollars. His example induced a number of other +planters to plant cane." In the transactions of 1794, we are indeed +informed upon this point; and of the origin of Bore's undertaking this +culture. + + "Since the year 1766, the manufacture of sugar had been + entirely abandoned in Louisiana. A few individuals had, + however, contrived to plant a few canes in the neighbourhood of + the city: they found a vent for them in the market. Two + Spaniards, Mendez and Solis, had lately made larger + plantations. One of them boiled the juice of the cane into + syrup, and the other had set up a distillery, in which he made + indifferent taffia. + + "Etienne Bore, a native of the Illinois, who resided about six + miles above the city, finding his fortune considerably reduced + by the failure of the indigo crops for several successive + years, conceived the idea of retrieving his losses by the + manufacture of sugar. The attempt was considered by all as a + visionary one. His wife, (a daughter of Destrehan, the colonial + treasurer under the government of France, who had been one of + the first to attempt, and one of the last to abandon, the + manufacture of sugar) remembering her father's ill success, + warned him of the risk he ran of adding to instead of repairing + his losses, and his relations and friends joined their + remonstrances to hers. He, however, persisted; and, having + procured a quantity of canes from Mendez and Solis, began to + plant." + +So that in two years after Bore began to plant, he was able to make a +crop which sold for ten thousand dollars. From this time the culture of +the cane may be considered as established in Louisiana, constantly and +rapidly increasing in its importance, until it has become a principal +product of its soil, in which an immense capital is embarked. We have +before us a copy of a "Letter of Mr. Johnston of Louisiana, to the +secretary of the treasury, in reply to his circular of the 1st July +1830, relative to the culture of the sugar cane." This interesting +document contains a mass of authentic information, which leaves no doubt +of the importance of the culture of the cane, not only to those regions +of the United States which are suitable to it, but to all or most of the +other states; and the inference he justly draws from it is, that it +deserves and still requires all the protection it now receives from the +government. If it should be discontinued or diminished so as to affect +materially the sugar planter, the injury will not stop there, but be +extended to thousands of our citizens, who may not have reflected upon +the direct interest they have in this question. We deem it to be so +important, that we believe our readers, many of whom may not see the +letter of the honourable senator, will not find a page or two +unprofitably given to some extracts from it. In the introduction of his +subject he says: + + "When Louisiana was acquired by the United States, there was a + duty on brown sugar of two and a half cents a pound, levied for + revenue. The people of that state, who had already made some + experiments in the culture of the cane, saw that the duty + afforded them some protection from foreign competition, and + secured the benefit of the home market, which was then of + considerable extent, and rapidly increasing. This induced them, + within the region then considered adapted to the cane, to turn + their attention to the production of sugar. They embarked their + whole fortunes, and for a long time struggled, under very + discouraging circumstances, against the effects of the climate, + the vicissitudes of seasons, the deficiency of capital, the + want of skill, and all the difficulties incident to the + commencement of such an enterprise. It was for many years a + doubtful experiment and hazardous undertaking, but they + persevered. + + "The cane gradually adapted itself to the climate. Different + kinds of cane were introduced, skill was acquired by + experience, capital increased, machinery and steam power + applied, improvements adopted, and expenses diminished. + + "At the close of the war, Congress, for the purpose of + increasing the revenue, and of protecting the domestic + industry, increased the rate of duty on sugar half a cent a + pound, as a part of a general system. This had a most decisive + effect in bringing this great national interest to its present + state, and they have now finally triumphed over every obstacle. + + "It was more than twenty years before they could produce 40,000 + hogsheads; and during the greater part of that time very little + profit was made upon the capital employed. + + "The increase of capital, the introduction of machinery, the + diversion of labour from other less profitable pursuits, the + acquisition of skill, and, above all, the confidence of the + people in the protection of the government, have vastly + augmented the means of production. It now promises an ample + supply for the consumption of the country, and a steady but + moderate profit. They are in a course of experiment, that will + in a short period establish this great interest upon a scale + adequate to the wants of the people. + + "Under the faith of the laws, they have embarked their capital + in the production of one of the great necessaries of life, and + in support of a national system, which they understood it was + the object of the government to establish. They have opened a + new and extensive field of agricultural industry; directed + labour to more profitable employment; maintained the value of + slaves; and increased the internal commerce of the country. + They have contributed their full share to all the duties paid + on other articles. They came into this Union, charged with _an + immense public debt_, which was greatly increased by the war, + in which they suffered in common: they have freely contributed + their portion to its payment." + +He proceeds to show that the value of lands and slaves "is predicated +upon the value of the sugar, and that depends upon the rate of duty +established by the laws." The effects of a reduction of the duty is thus +detailed. + + "The present price of sugar, at 5-1/2 cents, is sustained by a + duty of 3 cents a pound. If that duty was removed, foreign + sugar would be sold 3 cents less, and ours would fall in the + same proportion. That reduction would bring sugar below the + actual cost, and therefore it could not be made, even if slaves + and lands cost nothing. A reduction of 2 cents would bring the + price to the exact amount of 3-1/2 cents a pound, the precise + cost of the sugar, independent of the capital, and therefore + would yield nothing to the cultivator. A reduction of 1 cent + would bring sugar to 4-1/2 cents, which would leave only 1 cent + profit to pay for the capital--that is, the lands and slaves. + That would diminish the present profit one half, and the value + of the slaves in the same proportion. This reduction of duty + operates entirely upon the _profit_; and a reduction of + one-third of the duty operates a reduction of one-half of the + profit, and thereby one-half of the value of the capital, and + one-half of the slaves. Capital has been invested in Louisiana + by the present standard of value. A reduction in that standard + would produce a corresponding reduction in the value of all + property. A reduction of one-third of the duty would sink half + the value of property in the state, and ruin all those who have + made engagements upon the faith of the laws." + +The writer subsequently presents very precise and satisfactory +statements, to show the capital required for this branch of agriculture, +and the prices which are necessary to sustain it; with some calculated +anticipations of its increase, if not crushed by foreign competition. +Should it be asked, what interest have the other states of the Union in +this concern? It may be a very profitable employment of the money and +slaves of the rich planters of Louisiana; but is this a fair reason for +imposing heavy duties on a necessary of life, thus enhancing its cost to +those who consume it? To meet this inquiry, and remove the objection +contained in it; to show that the citizens of the states who consume the +sugar have an immediate participation in the profits of its cultivator, +Mr. Johnston says-- + + "It is said that this is a local concern, interesting only to + Louisiana. The slaves are taken, as beforementioned, from + cotton and tobacco, and are furnished by the Southern States. + + "The provisions and animals come from the Western States. + + "The clothing from the North. + + "The engines, machinery, &c. come from the different foundries + in the United States--principally from the West. + + "One-third of the capital comes from the South--and more than + three-fifths of the whole production goes either in sugar or + money to the other states, as their portion of the contribution + in making it. The remaining two-fifths, being the profit on + the capital, goes back chiefly to Virginia and Maryland, to + purchase more slaves. + + "There are estimated now, 35,000 slaves: it will require 26,000 + more to supply the consumption of 1835. + + "There are estimated 725 plantations, which, when brought into + operation, will yield an average of 300 hogsheads, sufficient + for the consumption of 1836. + + "These have required 725 mills for grinding, as many sets of + kettles, &c. There are now about 100 steam engines--there will + be required in addition, upwards of 600 steam engines. + + "These plantations require also a large amount of horses, + mules, and oxen; carts, wagons, ploughs, tools, iron, &c. + + "The present consumption for the slaves, is 35,000 barrels of + pork. + + "Which will be increased in 1835 to--say 60,000 " " + + "They purchase now about ... 50,000 barrels of corn. + + "Each mill, with steam engine and kettles, &c. will cost + $5,000. + + "There are employed on the sugar plantations (independent of + the cotton estates) 22,000 horses--value $1,500,000. These are + to be renewed every seven years, or it will require $200,000 a + year to supply the market. There were purchased in 1827-8, + 2,500 horses--in 1828-9, 2,800--in 1829-30, 3,000 horses. + + "Of the 100,000 hogsheads of sugar made in Louisiana, 50,000 + hogsheads are transported up the Mississippi in steam-boats, + for the supply of the Western States, who obtain it in exchange + for their productions. Here, then, there is an internal trade + of five millions, created in the Western States. + + "The remainder of the sugar is transported coastwise by our + vessels, to the North, to restore the balance of trade with + that quarter, as well as with foreign nations. + + "Thus every interest of agriculture, manufactures, commerce, + and navigation, connects itself intimately with this object. + + "The sugar is indeed made in Louisiana, but a portion of the + money on which the establishments are founded, the whole of the + labour by which it is produced, the chief supply of food, and + the entire amount of clothing, and the transportation of the + article, are furnished from the different states." + +A prospect is reasonably held out of the reduction of the price of the +article, by continuing the protection, to a point as low as need be +desired, or could be obtained if we were to depend upon a foreign +supply. + + "When the estates are paid for, and the general diminution of + value in other things takes place, with the improvements in + machinery and other causes, sugar will be profitably made at 4 + cents, and that is about the price at which we purchase it now + in the islands: at that price we can, after supplying this + country, enter into the general market of the Baltic, + Mediterranean, and Black Seas." + +On this part of the case a more satisfactory ground is taken; and it is +made manifest, by authentic documents, that since the production of +sugar in Louisiana, with the duties by which it is protected, a +reduction has taken place in the price of the article, of _one-half_. +The results of the tables annexed to the letter are thus given. + + "The protecting duty on sugar, besides opening a new field of + industry, diverting a large portion of labour from other + objects, maintaining the value of all the slave property in the + country, and supplying the people with an article of general + use and prime necessity, has actually diminished the price + one-half in twelve years. + + "In paper A, it will be seen that the prices in 1818 ranged + from $14 to 15, and that in 1829 they had fallen to $7.50. + + "In paper marked B, it will be seen, that the brown of Havana + has fallen 3 cents in 6 years, from 10 to 7 cents, while the + sugar of Louisiana has varied from 8-1/2 to 6-1/2. The price + of sugar has in that time depreciated more than the duty, and + will produce still greater effect. The general average of + Havana brown, for six years, is 9-3/4, which now sells at from + 7 to 8. The general average of Louisiana for the same period is + 8-1/4; the present price ranges from 6-1/2 to 7-1/2. The sugar + of Louisiana now sells in New-Orleans at 5-1/2; freight, &c. + will bring it to 6-1/2 in the Atlantic ports." + +Mr. Johnston has no doubt of the capacity of the sugar region of the +United States to supply all our demands for it, for a long period to +come. + + "Without entering into any exact calculation, I can with + confidence assure you, that Louisiana alone can produce enough + for the consumption of the country for twenty-five or thirty + years, and including Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, and Georgia + south of the 32d degree, will supply it for twice that period. + + "It thus appears, that the people of Louisiana, under a + confidence in the permanency of the policy of the government, + have embarked their fortunes in the production of an article of + extensive use; that they are now in the course of successful + experiment, which promises, in a few years, to supply the + consumption of the country; that they have opened a new field + of agricultural industry and enterprise, requiring a vast + amount of labour and capital; that they have actually reduced + the price of the article one-half, and have saved the country + an expense of six or seven millions a-year, and will reduce the + price still lower, when the experiment is complete." + +Having found in our "History of Louisiana," the feeble commencement of +the culture of the sugar cane in that country, we thought it not beside +our purpose, and likely to be agreeable to our readers, to trace it to +its present strong and flourishing condition; to show the causes of its +increase, and its immense value to those who have embarked their +fortunes in it; to those by whom its produce is consumed, and finally to +the revenue of the government. All these matters, doubtless, will be +carefully examined and considered by the public councils whose right and +duty it is to decide upon them. + +We return to our history; the colony seems now to have attracted the +attention of the mother country, and liberal assistance was given to +advance its population. + + "The ships landed also sixty poor girls, who were brought over + at the king's expense. They were the last succour of this kind, + which the mother country supplied. They were given in marriage + to such soldiers whose good conduct entitled them to a + discharge. Land was allotted to each couple, with a cow and + calf, a cock and five hens; a gun, axe, and hoe. During the + three first years, rations were allowed them, with a small + quantity of powder, shot, and grain for seed." + +This was in 1751. + +An anecdote is recorded, exhibiting at once a feature of aboriginal +justice, and the strength of parental affection in the "poor Indian." + + "In a quarrel between a Choctaw and a Colapissa, the former + told the latter his countrymen were the dogs of the + French--meaning their slaves. The Colapissa, having a loaded + musket in his hands, discharged its contents at the Choctaw, + and fled to New-Orleans. The relations of the deceased came to + the Marquis de Vaudreuil to demand his surrender: he had in the + mean while gone to the German coast. The Marquis, having vainly + tried to appease them, sent orders to Renaud, the commandant + of that post, to have the murderer arrested; but he eluded the + pursuit. His father went to the Choctaws and offered himself a + willing victim: the relations of the deceased persisted in + their refusal to accept any compensation in presents. They at + last consented to allow the old man to atone, by the loss of + his own life, for the crime of his son. He stretched himself on + the trunk of an old tree, and a Choctaw severed his head from + the body, at the first stroke. This instance of paternal + affection was made the subject of a tragedy by Leblanc de + Villeneuve, an officer of the troops lately arrived from + France. This performance is the only dramatic work which the + republic of letters owes to Louisiana." + +In the same year the white men furnished a subject for a tragedy far +more cruel and vindictive than the self-immolation of an Indian father, +and far less just and amiable. + + "During the summer, some soldiers of the garrison of Cat + Island, rose upon and killed Roux, who commanded there. They + were exasperated at his avarice and cruelty. He employed them + in burning coal, of which he made a traffic, and for trifling + delinquencies had exposed several of them, naked and tied to + trees in a swamp, during whole nights, to the stings of + musquetoes. Joining some English traders in the neighbourhood + of Mobile, they started in the hope of reaching Georgia, + through the Indian country. A party of the Choctaws, then about + the fort, was sent after and overtook them. One destroyed + himself; the rest were brought to New-Orleans, where two were + broken on the wheel--the other, belonging to the Swiss regiment + of Karrer, was, according to the law of his nation, followed by + the officers of the Swiss troops in the service of France, + sawed in two parts. He was placed alive in a kind of coffin, to + the middle of which two sergeants applied a whip saw. It was + not thought prudent to make any allowance for the provocation + these men had received." + +The removal of the Acadians from their country; stripping them of their +lands and goods; permitting them to carry nothing away but their +household furniture and money, of which they had but little; laying +waste their fields and their dwellings, and consuming their fences by +fire, was another awful tragedy performed by civilized man upon the weak +and defenceless, upon the pretences of policy. It was an act of British +inhumanity; the sufferings of these miserable outcasts and wanderers are +described by our author. + + "Thus beggared, these people were, in small numbers and at + different periods, cast on the sandy shores of the southern + provinces, among a people of whose language they were ignorant, + and who knew not theirs, whose manners and education were + different from their own, whose religion they abhorred, and who + were rendered odious to them, as the friends and countrymen of + those who had so cruelly treated them, and whom they considered + as a no less savage foe, than he who wields the tomahawk and + the scalping knife. + + "It is due to the descendants of the British colonists, to say, + that their sires received with humanity, kindness, and + hospitality, those who so severely smarted under the calamities + of war. In every province the humane example of the legislature + of Pennsylvania was followed, and the colonial treasury was + opened to relieve the sufferers; and private charity was not + outdone by the public. Yet but a few accepted the proffered + relief, and sat down on the land that was offered them. + + "The others fled westerly, from what appeared to them a hostile + shore--wandering till they found themselves out of sight of any + who spoke the English language. They crossed the mighty spine, + and wintered among the Indians. The scattered parties, thrown + off on the coast of every colony from Pennsylvania to Georgia, + united, and trusting themselves to the western waters, sought + the land on which the spotless banner waved, and the waves of + the Mississippi brought them to New-Orleans." + +The practice of _shipping off_ individuals who were obnoxious to the +dominant party, seems to have obtained in Louisiana at a very early +period; and, as we shall see, became a favourite process in the +administration of justice. A pretty strong case of this employment of +physical force, without any consultation with the officers of the law, +or any regard to the civil rights of the people, occured in 1759. We +shall give it to our readers. + + "Diaz Anna, a Jew from Jamaica, came to New-Orleans, on a + trading voyage. We have seen, that by an edict of the month of + March, 1724, that of Louis the Thirteenth, of the 13th of + April, 1615, had been extended to Louisiana. The latter edict + declared, that Jews, as enemies of the Christian name, should + not be allowed to reside in Louisiana; and if they staid in + spite of the edict, their bodies and goods should be + confiscated: Rochemore had the vessel of the Israelite and her + cargo seized. Kerlerec sent soldiers to drive away the guard + put on board the vessel, and had her restored to the Jew. + Imagining he had gone too far to stop there, he had Belot, + Rochemore's secretary, and Marigny de Mandeville, de Lahoupe, + Bossu, and some other officers, whom he suspected to have + joined the ordonnateur's party, arrested, and a few days after + shipped them for France." + +Thus far we have seen this province under the dominion of France, and +gradually ameliorating its condition under her government. We come now +to the period when a new master was to be given to it, or rather, when +it was to be given to a new master. It is thus that kings have used +territories and their people, their industry and their wealth, as +subjects of diplomatic traffic and political accommodation. "On the 3d +of November 1763, a secret treaty was signed between the French and +Spanish kings, by which the former ceded to the latter the part of the +province of Louisiana which lies on the western side of the Mississippi, +with the city of New-Orleans, and the island on which it stands." When +the rumours of this cession reached the colonists, it produced the +deepest distress; they had a dread of passing "under the yoke of Spain." +Official intelligence of the event was not received until October 1764, +when an order came from the king to deliver possession of the ceded +territory to the governor of the Catholic king. "This intelligence +plunged the inhabitants in the greatest consternation;" especially as it +estranged them from their kindred and friends in the eastern part of the +province--transferring them to a foreign potentate. Every effort was +made by meetings and memorials to avert the calamity. The actual +delivery was delayed; and a hope was entertained that the cession might +be rescinded, for two years had elapsed since the direction had been +given to surrender the province to Spain. In the summer of 1766, +intelligence was received that Don Ulloa had arrived at Havana, to take +the possession, for Spain, of Louisiana. Soon after he landed at +New-Orleans, and was received "with dumb respect." He declined +exhibiting his powers, and of course delayed to receive the possession +of the country. In 1768 the council insisted that Don Ulloa should +produce his powers or depart from the province; he chose the latter +alternative, and sailed for Havana, and from thence to Spain. In the +following year a governor of a different temperament was sent from +Spain, attended by a strong military force, with a large supply of arms +and ammunition. On the 24th of July, Don Alexander O'Reilly landed on +the levee. "The inhabitants immediately came to a resolution to choose +three gentlemen to wait on him, and inform him that the people of +Louisiana were determined to abandon the colony, and had no other favour +to ask from him, but that he would allow them two years to remove +themselves and their effects." O'Reilly received the deputies with great +politeness; made professions of his desire to promote the interests of +the colonists, and said every thing he thought would flatter the people. +At this time the Spanish armament had not reached the city; it cast +anchor on the 16th of August. In the afternoon of the 18th, the +Spaniards disembarked; the French flag was lowered, and the Spanish was +seen flying in its place in the middle of the square. We have been thus +particular in narrating these events, because they were the precursors +of a proceeding of military violence, astonishing _even for that day_, +and under circumstances of open disaffection and opposition to the +government; for some of the planters had taken up arms on the arrival of +O'Reilly. + +One of the first acts of O'Reilly's administration was to take a census +of the inhabitants of New-Orleans. The aggregate population was 3190, of +every age, sex, and colour; of these 1902 were free; 1225 slaves, and +sixty domesticated Indians; the number of houses was 468; the whole +province contained but 13,538 inhabitants. + +We have seen that the cession of the province had created the utmost +discontent; and the arrival of O'Reilly was considered as a general +calamity. The transfer had been impeded and resisted by all the means in +the power of the colonists. Although Don Ulloa had not ventured to +execute his commission with the force at his command, he had, +nevertheless, "set about building forts and putting troops into them." +On the other side, plans of resistance were contemplated by the people; +and assistance looked for from their English neighbours in West Florida; +and in the fall of 1768 Don Ulloa was, as we have seen, ordered away. By +this brief retrospect, the temper of the colonists, on the arrival of +O'Reilly, will be understood, and will serve as a key to his +proceedings. He resolved to lose nothing by timidity and hesitation. In +the reckless pride and unbridled passions of military despotism, he +disdained to temporize, or endeavour to sooth the irritated feelings of +the people, or to conciliate their confidence, or calm their fears. He +had been accustomed to rely upon no power but that of the sword, and to +respect no authority but a military commission. To him the _law_ was a +subject of scorn, and the civil rights of citizens or subjects an idle +tale. He looked upon his five thousand troops, with their arms and +ammunition, and he saw there the only power be respected, or would +condescend to use to maintain his government. Such principles led or +drove him to a course of desperate violence, having then no parallel in +any country pretending to a government of laws, or any civil rights. We +shall give his proceedings in the language of our historian. + + "Towards the last day of August, the people were alarmed by the + arrest of Foucault, the commissary-general and ordonnateur, De + Noyant and Boisblanc, two members of the superior council; La + Freniere, the attorney-general, and Braud, the king's printer. + These gentlemen were attending O'Reilly's leve, when he + requested them to step into an adjacent apartment, where they + found themselves immediately surrounded by a body of + grenadiers, with fixed bayonets, the commanding officer of whom + informed them they were the king's prisoners. The two first + were conveyed to their respective houses, and a guard was left + there: the others were imprisoned in the barracks. + + "It had been determined to make an example of twelve + individuals; two from the army, and an equal number from the + bar; four planters, and as many merchants. Accordingly, Marquis + and De Noyant, officers of the troop; La Freniere, the + attorney-general, and Doucet, (lawyers,) Villere, Boisblanc, + Mazent, and Petit, (planters,) and John Milhet, Joseph Milhet, + Caresse and Poupet, (merchants,) had been selected. + + "Within a few days, Marquis, Doucet, Petit, Mazant, the two + Milhets, Caresse, and Poupet, were arrested and confined. + + "Villere, who was on his plantation at the German coast, had + been marked as one of the intended victims; but his absence + from the city rendering his arrest less easy, it had been + determined to release one of the prisoners on his being + secured. He had been apprized of the impending danger, and it + had been recommended to him to provide for his safety by + seeking the protection of the British flag waving at Manshac. + When he was deliberating on the step it became him to take, he + received a letter from Aubry, the commandant of the French + troops, assuring him he had nothing to apprehend, and advising + him to return to the city. Averse to flight, as it would imply + a consciousness of guilt, he yielded to Aubry's recommendation, + and returned to New-Orleans; but as he passed the gate, the + officer commanding the guard arrested him. He was immediately + conveyed on board of a frigate that lay at the levee. On + hearing of this, his lady, a grand daughter of La Chaise, the + former commissary-general and ordonnateur, hastened to the + city. As her boat approached the frigate, it was hailed and + ordered away. She made herself known, and solicited admission + to her husband, but was answered she could not see him, as the + captain was on shore, and had left orders that no communication + should be allowed with the prisoner. Villere recognised his + wife's voice, and insisted on being permitted to see her. On + his being refused, a struggle ensued, in which he fell, pierced + by the bayonets of his guards. His bloody shirt thrown into the + boat, announced to the lady that she had ceased to be a wife; + and a sailor cut the rope that fastened the boat to the + frigate. + + "O'Reilly's assessors heard and recorded the testimony against + the prisoners, and called on them for their pleas. + + "The prosecution was grounded on a statute of Alfonso the + eleventh, which is the first law of the seventh title of the + first partida, and denounces the punishment of death and + confiscation of property against those who excite any + insurrection against the king or state, or take up arms under + pretence of extending their liberty or rights, and against + those who give them any assistance. + + "Foucault pleaded he had done nothing, except in his character + of commissary-general and ordonnateur of the king of France in + the province, and to him alone he was accountable for the + motives that had directed his official conduct. The plea was + sustained; he was not, however, released; and a few days + afterwards, he was transported to France. + + "Brand offered a similar plea, urging he was the king of + France's printer in Louisiana. The only accusation against him, + was that he had printed the petition of the planters and + merchants to the superior council, soliciting that body to + require Ulloa to exhibit his powers or depart. He concluded + that he was bound, by his office, to print whatever the + ordonnateur sent to his press; and he produced that officer's + order to print the petition. His plea was sustained and he was + discharged. + + "The other prisoners declined also the jurisdiction of the + tribunal before which they were arraigned: their plea was + overruled. They now denied the facts with which they were + charged, contended that if they did take place, they did so + while the flag of France was still waving over the province, + and the laws of that kingdom retained their empire in it, and + thus the facts did not constitute an offence against the laws + of Spain; that the people of Louisiana could not bear the yokes + of two sovereigns; that O'Reilly could not command the + obedience, nor even the respect of the colonists, until he made + known to them his character and powers; and that the Catholic + king could not count on their allegiance, till he extended to + them his protection. + + "It had been determined at first, to proceed with the utmost + rigour of the law against six of the prisoners; but, on the + death of Villere, it was judged sufficient to do so against + five only. The jurisprudence of Spain authorizing the + infliction of a less severe punishment than that denounced by + the statute, when the charge is not proved by two witnesses to + the same act, but by one with corroborating + circumstances.--Accordingly two witnesses were produced against + De Noyant, La Freniere, Marquis, Joseph Milhet, and Caresse. + They were convicted; and O'Reilly, by the advice of his + assessor, condemned them to be hanged, and pronounced the + confiscation of their estates. + + "The most earnest and pathetic entreaties were employed by + persons in every rank of society, to prevail on O'Reilly to + remit or suspend the execution of his sentence till the royal + clemency could be implored. He was inexorable; and the only + indulgence that could be obtained, was, that death should be + inflicted by shooting, instead of hanging. With this + modification, the sentence was carried into execution on the + twenty-eighth of September. + + "On the morning of that day, the guards, at every gate and post + of the city, were doubled, and orders were given not to allow + any body to enter it. All the troops were under arms, and + paraded the streets or were placed in battle array along the + levee and on the public square. Most of the inhabitants fled + into the country. At three o'clock of the afternoon, the + victims were led, under a strong guard, to the small square in + front of the barracks, tied to stakes, and an explosion of + musketry soon announced to the few inhabitants who remained in + the city, that their friends were no more. + + "Posterity, the judge of men in power, will doom this act to + public execration. No necessity demanded, no policy justified + it. Ulloa's conduct had provoked the measures to which the + inhabitants had resorted. During nearly two years, he had + haunted the province as a phantom of dubious authority. The + efforts of the colonists, to prevent the transfer of their + natal soil to a foreign prince, originated in their attachment + to their own, and the Catholic king ought to have beheld in + their conduct a pledge of their future devotion to himself. + They had but lately seen their country severed, and a part of + it added to the dominion of Great Britain; they had bewailed + their separation from their friends and kindred; and were + afterwards to be alienated, without their consent, and + subjected to a foreign yoke. If the indiscretion of a few of + them needed an apology, the common misfortune afforded it. + + "A few weeks afterwards, the proceedings against the six + remaining prisoners were brought to a close. One witness only + deposing against any of them, and circumstances corroborating + the testimony, Boisblanc was condemned to imprisonment for + life; Doucet, Mazent, John Milhet, Petit, and Poupet, were + condemned to imprisonment for various terms of years. All were + transported to Havana, and cast into the dungeons of the Moro + Castle." + +O'Reilly was not satisfied with this bloody vengeance on the individuals +who had incurred his resentment and offended his pride. The "Superior +council" in a body must be prostrated by his power. + + "A proclamation of O'Reilly, on the twenty-first of November, + announced to them that the evidence received during the late + trials, having furnished full proof of the part the superior + council had in the revolt during the two preceding years, and + of the influence it had exerted in encouraging the leaders, + instead of using its best endeavours to keep the people in the + fidelity and subordination they owed to the sovereign, it had + become necessary to abolish that tribunal, and to establish, in + Louisiana, that form of government and mode of administering + justice prescribed by the laws of Spain, which had long + maintained the Catholic king's American colonies in perfect + tranquillity, content, and subordination." + +A year after these deeds of military heroism, O'Reilly took passage for +Europe. But what said his royal master, the King of Spain, for such +outrages upon the lives and liberty of his newly acquired subjects? We +are told in one short paragraph--"Charles III. _disapproved_ of +O'Reilly's conduct, and he received on his landing at Cadiz, an order +prohibiting his appearance at court." Well, it is something that his +conduct was _disapproved_ of, and not rewarded with new honours and +powers. Some _sovereigns_ might have done this. + +We pass from these distressing and disgraceful scenes, and find nothing +of peculiar interest in our History, until we come to the period of our +revolution. Although in 1778, the people of Louisiana could have had no +prophetic vision to warn them that they would become a member of the +American Republic, they felt and manifested a friendly disposition +toward us, and rendered us efficient aid in the struggle then carrying +on for our independence. + + "During the month of January, Captain Willing made a second + visit to New-Orleans. Oliver Pollock now acted openly as the + agent of the Americans, with the countenance of Galvez, who + now, and at subsequent periods, afforded them an aid of upwards + of seventy thousand dollars out of the royal treasury. By this + means, the posts occupied by the militia of Virginia on the + Mississippi, and the frontier inhabitants of the state of + Pennsylvania, were supplied with arms and ammunition." + +Now that we have become one people, and our Independence has made the +independence of Louisiana, it is gratifying to recall to our +recollection every testimony that may draw us closer together in our +affections, as we are in our interests and common welfare. We take +pleasure also in presenting an instance of American enterprise and +gallantry, which ought not to be forgotten. + + "Colonel Hamilton, who commanded at the British post at + Detroit, came this year to Vincennes, on the Wabash, with about + six hundred men, chiefly Indians, with a view to an expedition + against Kaskaskia, and up the Ohio as far as Fort Pitt, and the + back settlements of Virginia. Colonel Clark heard, from a + trader who came down from Vincennes to Kaskaskia, that + Hamilton, not intending to take the field until spring, had + sent most of his force to block up the Ohio, or to harass the + frontier settlers, keeping at Vincennes sixty soldiers only, + with three pieces of cannon and some swivels. The resolution + was immediately taken to improve the favourable opportunity for + averting the impending danger; and Clark accordingly despatched + a small galley, mounting two four pounders and four swivels, on + board of which he put a company of soldiers, with orders to + pursue her way up the Wabash, and anchor a few miles below + Vincennes, suffering nothing to pass her. He now sat off with + one hundred and twenty men, the whole force he could command, + and marched towards Vincennes. They were five days in crossing + the low lands of the Wabash, in the neighbourhood of Vincennes, + after having spent sixty in crossing the wilderness, wading for + several nights up to their breasts in water. Appearing suddenly + before the town, they surprised and took it. Hamilton for a + while defended the fort, but was at last compelled to + surrender." + +We now approach a period in the History of Louisiana when her direct +communication and commerce with the United States began; and from this +moment she became an object of great and growing interest to us. The +commencement of this intercourse is of a singular character, and was +conducted with singular address. + + "The foundation was now laid of a commercial intercourse, + through the Mississippi, between the United States and + New-Orleans, which has been continued, with but little + interruption, to this day, and has increased to an immense + degree; and, to the future extent of which, the imagination can + hardly contemplate any limit. Hitherto, the boats of the + western people, venturing on the Mississippi, were arrested by + the first Spanish officer who met them; and confiscation + ensued, in every case; all communication between the citizens + of the United States and the Spaniards being strictly + prohibited. Now and then, an emigrant, desirous of settling in + the district of Natchez, by personal entreaty and the + solicitations of his friends, obtained a tract of land, with + permission to settle on it with his family, slaves, farming + utensils, and furniture. He was not allowed to bring any thing + to sell without paying an enormous duty. An unexpected incident + changed the face of affairs in this respect. + + "The idea of a regular trade was first conceived by General + Wilkinson, who had served with distinction as an officer in the + late war, and whose name is as conspicuous in the annals of the + west, as any other. He had connected with it a scheme for the + settlement of several thousand American families in that part + of the present state of Louisiana, now known as the parishes of + East and West Feliciana, and that of Washita, and on White + river, and other streams of the present territory of Arkansas. + For these services to the Spanish government, he expected to + obtain the privilege of introducing, yearly, a considerable + quantity of tobacco into the Mexican market. + + "With a view to the execution of his plan, Wilkinson descended + the Mississippi, with an adventure of tobacco, flour, butter, + and bacon. He stopped at Natchez while his boat was floating + down the stream to New-Orleans, the commandant at the former + place having been induced to forbear seizing it, from an + apprehension that such a step would be disapproved by Miro, who + might be desirous of showing some indulgence to a general + officer of a nation with whom his was at peace--especially as + the boat and its owner were proceeding to New-Orleans, where he + could act towards them as he saw fit. + + "Wilkinson having stopped at a plantation on the river, the + boat reached the city before him. On its approaching the levee, + a guard was immediately sent on board, and the revenue officers + were about taking measures for its seizure, when a merchant, + who was acquainted with Wilkinson, and had some influence with + Miro, represented to him that the step Navarro was about to + take might be attended with unpleasant consequences; that the + people of Kentucky were already much exasperated at the conduct + of the Spaniards in seizing all the property of those who + navigated the Mississippi, and if this system was pursued, they + would probably, in spite of Congress, take means themselves to + open the navigation of the river by force. Hints were, at the + same time, thrown out, that the general was a very popular + character among those who were capable of inflaming the whole + of the western people, and that, probably, his sending a boat + before him, that it might be seized, was a scheme laid by the + government of the United States, that he might, on his return, + influence the minds of his countrymen; and, having brought them + to the point he wished, induce them to choose him for their + leader, and, spreading over the country, carry fire and + desolation from one part of Louisiana to the other. + + "On this, Miro expressed his wish to Navarro that the guard + might be removed. This was done; and Wilkinson's friend was + permitted to take charge of the boat, and sell the cargo, + without paying any duty. + + "On his first interview with Miro, Wilkinson, that he might not + derogate from the character his friend had given him, by + appearing concerned in so trifling an adventure as a boat-load + of tobacco, flour, &c. observed that the cargo belonged to + several of his fellow-citizens in Kentucky, who wished to avail + themselves of his visit to New-Orleans to make a trial of the + temper of the colonial government. On his return he could then + inform the United States government, of the steps taken under + his eye; so that, in future, proper measures might be adopted. + He acknowledged with gratitude the attention and respect + manifested towards himself, and the favour shown to the + merchant who had been permitted to take care of the boat; + adding, he did not wish that the intendant should expose + himself to the anger of the court, by forbearing to seize the + boat and cargo, if such were his instructions, and he had no + authority to depart from them when circumstances might require + it. + + "Miro supposed, from this conversation, that Wilkinson's object + was to produce a rupture rather than to avoid one. He became + more and more alarmed. For two or three years before, + particularly since the commissioners of the state of Georgia + came to Natchez to claim the country, he had been fearful of an + invasion at every rise of the water; and the rumour of a few + boats having been seen together on the Ohio, was sufficient to + excite his apprehensions. At his next interview with Wilkinson, + having procured further information of the character, number, + and disposition of the western people, and having revolved, in + his mind, what measures he could take, consistently with his + instructions, he concluded that he could do no better than to + hold out a hope to Wilkinson, in order to secure his influence + in restraining his countrymen from an invasion of Louisiana, + till further instructions could be received from Madrid. The + general sailed in September for Philadelphia." + +In 1788, Don Martin Navarro, the intendant, left the province for Spain, +and we cannot deny him the credit of sagacity, in his last communication +to the king. + + "Navarro's last communication to the king was a memorial which + he had prepared, by order of the minister, on the danger to be + apprehended by Spain, in her American colonies, from the + emancipation of the late British provinces on the Atlantic. In + this document, he dwells much on the ambition of the United + States, and their thirst for conquest; whose views he states to + be an extension of territory to the shores of the Pacific + ocean; and suggests the dismemberment of the western country, + by means of pensions and the grant of commercial privileges, as + the most proper means, in the power of Spain, to arrest the + impending danger. To effect this, was not, in his opinion, very + difficult. The attempt was therefore strongly recommended, as + success would greatly augment the power of Spain, and forever + arrest the progress of the United States to the west. + + "It would not have been difficult for the King of Spain, at + this period, to have found, in Kentucky, citizens of the United + States ready to come into his views. The people of that + district met, this year, in a second convention, and agreed on + a petition to congress for the redress of their grievances--the + principal of which was, the occlusion of the Mississippi. Under + the apprehension that the interference of congress could not be + obtained, or might be fruitless, several expedients were talked + of, no one of which was generally approved; the people being + divided into no less than five parties, all of which had + different, if not opposite, views. + + "The first was for independence of the United States, and the + formation of a new republic, unconnected with them, who was to + enter into a treaty with Spain. + + "Another party was willing that the country should become a + part of the province of Louisiana, and submit to the admission + of the laws of Spain. + + "A third desired a war with Spain, and the seizure of + New-Orleans. + + "A fourth plan was to prevail on congress, by a show of + preparation for war, to extort from the cabinet of Madrid, what + it persisted in refusing. + + "The last, as unnatural as the second, was to solicit France to + procure a retrocession of Louisiana, and extend her protection + to Kentucky." + +We think the Don's scheme, for preventing the evils he anticipated, +altogether chimerical; but our author has more faith in it, and believes +"it would not have been difficult for the King of Spain, at this period, +to find, in Kentucky, citizens of the United States ready to come into +his views." We trust this is a mistake. The occlusion of the Mississippi +was the grievance they deplored. It is, however, worthy of our special +attention, that at the period when these matters were agitated in our +western country, our states were held together by the weak and +inefficient bonds of the old confederation, under which, state +selfishness and state pride, now called _state rights_, predominated +over the great and general interests of the Union; and the weaker +members were neglected, having no superintending, supreme federal power +to give an equal care and protection to every part. Our author +distinctly says, that "it was in the western part of the United States +that the inefficacy of the power of Congress was most complained of." +The present strength and prosperity of the west, are the fruits of our +"more perfect union," and the wisdom and gratitude of the west will +forever make it the friend and support of that Union. + +We are now introduced to the Baron de Carondelet, a name which +afterwards became conspicuous in the History of Louisiana, and familiar +to the citizens of the United States. He was appointed governor of the +province, and entered upon his duties in 1792. "The sympathies and +partialities of the people of Louisiana began to manifest themselves +strongly in favour of the French patriots, principally in New-Orleans." +The Baron thought it to be his duty, especially as he was a native of +France, "to restrain excesses against monarchical government." He began +by stopping "the exhibition of certain martial dances and revolutionary +airs" at the theatre. He afterwards thought it necessary to adopt +stronger measures to suppress the growing inclination to popular +doctrines, and betook himself to the _custom of the country_, the +New-Orleans _common law_, or rather the law of its governors, _to ship +off the obnoxious persons_, without any form of trial or condemnation. +He caused six individuals to be arrested and confined in the fort, and +soon afterwards, "shipped them for Havana, where they were detained a +twelve month." This may be a very pretty military mode of getting rid of +disagreeable or troublesome people--the summary arrest--the fort--the +ship and banishment; but we cannot reconcile it to our notions of +liberty and law. + +We pass over, as matters well known, the plans of _Genet_ at this +period, and the proceedings of the Baron to defeat them.--The Baron also +followed up, with great perseverance, "his favourite plan for the +separation of the western people from the Union," and he continued to do +so, subsequent to the ratification of the treaty between the United +States and Spain. The report made by _Power_, the Baron's agent, of the +dispositions of the western people, was altogether unpropitious to his +design. He, however, delayed the delivery of the posts, to which the +United States were entitled, under various pretences; still having the +separation in view. His proceedings to effect this object are detailed, +and will be read with interest. It is needless to say, that no ray of +success shone upon his enterprise. Power, the active agent of the +mischief, came very near to be tarred and feathered at Louisville, and +was afterwards arrested by General Wilkinson, at Detroit. The Baron must +have opened his eyes in astonishment at his egregious miscalculation of +the dispositions of the West, when Wilkinson informed him, "that the +people of Kentucky had proposed to him to raise an army of ten thousand +men to take New-Orleans in case of a rupture with Spain." + +Our author gives a concise account of the cession of Louisiana by Spain +to France, and again by France to the United States. The negotiator by +whom the latter transfer was conducted, on the part of France, was M. +Marbois, and his work is the most satisfactory authority for the curious +details of that extraordinary proceeding. The general character of the +transaction, and the terms of purchase, are sufficiently known; but M. +Marbois lets us into some of the secrets of the negotiation, and of the +reasons which induced the first consul to part with this valuable +territory as soon as he had acquired it. We will be brief with them. + +The cession of Louisiana by France to Spain in 1763, was not only, as we +have seen, a cause of violent discontent to the inhabitants of that +province, but was considered in all the maritime and commercial cities +of France, as impolitic and injurious; and a general wish prevailed to +recover the colony. This did not escape Bonaparte, who did not delay to +renew with the court of Madrid, a negotiation on the subject; having +also in view a diminution of the power of England, which was never out +of his mind. Profiting by the ascendancy he acquired by the victory of +Marengo, he easily persuaded the Prince of Peace to restore Louisiana to +France. This was done by a treaty made in October 1800. It was +stipulated that the surrender should be made six months after. The +treaty of 21st March 1801, renews these dispositions; but Louisiana +continued for some time longer under the dominion of Spain. The +differences between the United States and the French republic were +terminated by a convention at Paris, on 30th of September 1800; and on +the next day the treaty above mentioned with Spain was concluded at St. +Ildephonso. As the war between France and England still continued, the +cession of Louisiana to France was not made public; nor was possession +taken. This difficulty was not removed for some time. In October 1801, +preliminaries of peace were signed at London, followed up by the treaty +of Amiens in March 1802. In the following September General Victor was +appointed governor general of Louisiana; and Laussat the prefect sailed +for New-Orleans in January. + +The retrocession of the province to France created much uneasiness and +alarm in the United States. The free navigation of the Mississippi +became daily of more importance, and it was apprehended that the French +would not be found as peaceable neighbours as the Spaniards. Every one +remembers the short and uneasy existence of the insincere peace of +Amiens. A renewal of the war was seen to be inevitable, and the American +cabinet perceived that, in such an event, France would postpone the +occupation of Louisiana. This state of things was justly thought to be +favourable to an arrangement with France on the subject of the deposit +at New-Orleans and the navigation of the river. Mr. Monroe was sent to +that country for this purpose, where Mr. Livingston, our minister, had +been pursuing it for many months; his overtures received little or no +attention. The debates in our senate are not forgotten, on the motion of +Mr. Ross; nor the prospect then in view of our taking by force of arms +what it was believed would never be gained by treaty. In the spring of +1803, war was clearly inevitable between France and England; and +Bonaparte knew that Louisiana, in that event, would be at the mercy of +his enemy. He at once determined to change his policy in regard to that +province, and to part with it, as the only means of saving it from +England. On the 10th of April 1803, he entered upon the execution of his +design, and called two counsellors to him, and addressed them "with that +vehemence and passion which he particularly manifested in political +affairs." He said he knew the full value of Louisiana, and had been +desirous of repairing the fault by which it was lost--that "a few lines +of a treaty have restored it to me, and I have scarcely recovered it +when I must expect to lose it." Looking to the strength it would give to +the United States, he said: "But if it escapes from me, it shall one +day cost dearer to those who oblige me to strip myself of it, than to +those to whom I wish to deliver it." After some remarks upon the naval +strength in the Gulf of Mexico, and the ease with which they might take +Louisiana, he added;-- + + "I think of ceding it to the United States. I can scarcely say + that I cede it to them, for it is not yet in our possession. + If, however, I leave the least time to our enemies, I shall + only transmit an empty title to those republicans whose + friendship I seek. They only ask of me one town in Louisiana, + but I already consider the colony as entirely lost, and it + appears to me that in the hands of this growing power, it will + be more useful to the policy and even to the commerce of + France, than if I should attempt to keep it." + +The counsellors differed in their opinions, diametrically, each giving +his reasons at large. The first consul decided the question immediately; +he promptly declared, that + + "Irresolution and deliberation are no longer in season. I + renounce Louisiana. It is not only New-Orleans that I will + cede, it is the whole colony without any reservation. I know + the price of what I abandon, and I have sufficiently proved the + importance that I attach to this province, since my first + diplomatic act with Spain had for its object the recovery of + it. I renounce it with the greatest regret. To attempt + obstinately to retain it would be folly. I direct you to + negotiate this affair with the envoys of the United States. Do + not even await the arrival of Mr. Monroe: have an interview + this very day with Mr. Livingston." + +We hope and believe that one of the predictions of this luminous mind +will not be fulfilled, although we have lately seen some appearances of +its accomplishment. + + "Perhaps it will also be objected to me, that the Americans may + be found too powerful for Europe in two or three centuries: but + my foresight does not embrace such remote fears. Besides, we + may hereafter expect rivalries among the members of the Union. + The confederations, that are called perpetual, only last till + one of the contracting parties finds it to its interest to + break them, and it is to prevent the danger, to which the + colossal power of England exposes us, that I would provide a + remedy." + +"The conferences began the same day between Mr. Livingston and M. Barbe +Marbois, to whom the first consul confided the negotiation." Pending the +preliminary discussions, Mr. Monroe arrived at Paris; but even then Mr. +Livingston despaired of success, and said to Mr. Monroe, "I wish that +the resolution offered by Mr. Ross in the senate had been adopted. Only +force can give us New-Orleans; we must employ force; let us first get +possession of the country and negotiate afterwards." Mr. Livingston, +however, was happily mistaken. "The first difficulties," says M. +Marbois, "were smoothed by a circumstance which is rarely met with in +congresses and diplomatic conferences. The plenipotentiaries having been +long acquainted, were disposed to treat each other with confidence." The +negotiation, under such auspices, proceeded rapidly, but not without +some distrust on our part. + + "Mr. Monroe, still affected by the distrust of his colleague, + did not hear without surprise the first overtures that were + frankly made by M. de Marbois. Instead of the cession of a + town and its inconsiderable territory, a vast portion of + America was in some sort offered to the United States. They + only asked for the mere right of navigating the Mississippi, + and their sovereignty was about to be extended over the largest + rivers of the world. They passed over an interior frontier to + carry their limits to the great Pacific ocean." + +The termination of this important negotiation was as speedy and +satisfactory, as it has been and will be important in its consequences. +M. Marbois truly observes, "the cession of Louisiana was a certain +guarantee of the future greatness of the United States; and opposed an +insurmountable obstacle to any design formed by the English of becoming +predominant in America." In relation to the stipulations in the treaty, +that the inhabitants should be incorporated in the Union, and, in due +time, be admitted as a state, &c. M. Marbois records. + + "The first consul, left to his natural disposition, was always + inclined to an elevated and generous justice. He himself + prepared the article which has been just recited. The words + which he employed on the occasion are recorded in the journal + of the negotiation, and deserve to be preserved. 'Let the + Louisianians know that we separate ourselves from them with + regret; that we stipulate in their favour every thing that they + can desire, and let them hereafter, happy in their + independence, recollect that they have been Frenchmen, and that + France, in ceding them, has secured for them advantages which + they could not have obtained from a European power, however + paternal it might have been. Let them retain for us sentiments + of affection; and may their common origin, descent, language, + and customs, perpetuate the friendship.'" + +The arrangement being completed, M. Marbois says--"the following words +sufficiently acquaint us with the reflections which then influenced the +first consul. This accession of territory, said he, strengthens forever +the power of the United States, and I have just given to England a +maritime rival, that will sooner or later humble her pride." + +We return to the History of Judge Martin, who describes the ceremonies +of delivering the colony to the United States. Some citizens of the +United States waved their hats, but "no emotion was manifested by any +other part of the crowd. The colonists did not appear conscious that +they were reaching the _Latium sedes ubi fata quietas ostendunt_." + +We pass on to the year 1806, when the celebrated plot of Aaron Burr is +introduced. The president had received information of it, but not at +first with such certainty as warranted any steps to be taken against the +accused. General Wilkinson, then commanding in the west, afterwards made +communications to the president, "involving men distinguished for +integrity and patriotism; men of talents, honoured by the confidence of +the government, in the flagitious plot." The designs of Burr and his +associates were fully developed on his trial, and we need not repeat +them here; but the proceedings of General Wilkinson are not so generally +understood, and it is well that they should be. Nobody can be better +qualified than our historian to give the information, nor to obtain +implicit belief of all he narrates. We shall here see again that the old +practice of _shipping off_ obnoxious individuals was resorted to by a +military commander; as if there was something in the climate of +New-Orleans to excite men in power to this mode of punishment or +revenge. We cannot present these transactions better than in the +language of our author. + + "On Sunday, the fourteenth, Dr. Erick Bollman was arrested by + order of Wilkinson, and hurried to a secret place of + confinement, and on the evening of the following day + application was made on his behalf, for a writ of habeas + corpus, to Sprigg, one of the territorial judges, who declined + acting, till he could consult Mathews, who could not then be + found. On the sixteenth, the writ was obtained from the + superior court; but Bollman was, in the meanwhile, put on board + of a vessel and sent down the river. On the same day, + application was made to Workman, the judge of the county of + Orleans, for a writ of habeas corpus, in favour of Ogden and + Swartwout, who had been arrested a few days before, by order of + Wilkinson, at Fort Adams, and were on board of a bomb ketch of + the United States lying before the city. Workman immediately + granted the writ, and called on Claiborne to inquire whether he + had assented to Wilkinson's proceedings: Claiborne replied he + had consented to the arrest of Bollman, and his mind was not + made up as to the propriety of that of Ogden and Swartwout. + Workman then expatiated on the illegality and evil tendency of + such measures, beseeching Claiborne not to permit them, but to + use his own authority, as the constitutional guardian of his + fellow-citizens, to protect them; but he was answered that the + executive had no authority to liberate those persons, and it + was for the judiciary to do it, if they thought fit. Workman + added, that he had heard that Wilkinson intended to ship off + his prisoners, and if this was permitted, writs of habeas + corpus would prove nugatory. + + "From the alarm and terror prevalent in the city, the deputy + sheriff could procure no boat to take him on board of the + ketch, on the day the writ issued. This circumstance was made + known early on the next morning, to Workman, who thereupon + directed the deputy sheriff to procure a boat by the offer of a + considerable sum of money, for the payment of which he + undertook the county would be responsible. The writ was served + soon afterwards, and returned at five in the evening by + Commodore Shaw, and the commanding officer of the ketch, + Lieutenant Jones; Swartwout had been taken from the ketch + before the service of the writ. Ogden was produced and + discharged, as his detention was justified on the order of + Wilkinson only. + + "On the eighteenth of December, Wilkinson returned the writ of + habeas corpus into the superior court, stating that, as + commander in chief of the army of the United States, he took on + himself all responsibility for the arrest of Erick Bollman, + charged with misprison of treason against the government of the + United States, and he had adopted measures for his safe + delivery to the government of the United States: that it was + after several conversations with the governor and one of the + judges of the territory, that he had hazarded this step for the + national safety, menaced to its basis by a lawless band of + traitors, associated under Aaron Burr, whose accomplices were + extended from New-York to New-Orleans: that no man held in + higher reverence the civil authorities of his country, and it + was to maintain and perpetuate the holy attributes of the + constitution, against the uplifted arm of violence, that he had + interposed the force of arms in a moment of the utmost peril, + to seize upon Bollman, as he should upon all others, _without + regard to standing or station_, against whom any proof might + arise of a participation in the lawless combination. + + "This return was, afterwards, amended, by an averment that, at + the time of the service of the writ, Bollman was not in the + possession or power of the person to whom it was addressed. + + "On the following day Ogden was arrested a second time by the + commanding officer of a troop of cavalry of the militia of the + territory, in the service of the United States, by whom + Alexander was also taken in custody; on the application of + Livingston, Workman issued writs of habeas corpus for both + prisoners. + + "Instead of a return, Wilkinson sent a written message to + Workman, begging him to accept his return to the superior + court, as applicable to the two traitors, who were the subjects + of his writs. On this, Livingston procured from the court, a + rule that Wilkinson make a further and more explicit return to + the writs, or show cause why an attachment should not issue + against him. + + "Workman now called again on Claiborne, and repeated his + observations, and recommended, that Wilkinson should be opposed + by force of arms. He stated, that the violent measures of that + officer had produced great discontent, alarm, and agitation, in + the public mind; and, unless such proceeding were effectually + opposed, all confidence in government would be at an end. He + urged Claiborne to revoke the order, by which he had placed the + Orleans volunteers under Wilkinson's command, and to call out + and arm the rest of the militia force, as soon as possible. He + stated it as his opinion, that the army would not oppose the + civil power, when constitutionally brought forth, or that, if + they did, the governor might soon have men enough to render the + opposition ineffectual. He added, that, from the laudable + conduct of Commodore Shaw and Lieutenant Jones, respecting + Ogden, he not only did not apprehend any resistance to the + civil authority from the navy, but thought they might be relied + on. Similar representations were made to Claiborne by Hall and + Mathews; but they were unavailing. + + "On the twenty-sixth, Wilkinson made a second return to the + writ of habeas corpus, stating that the body of neither of the + prisoners was in his possession or control. On this, Livingston + moved for process of attachment. + + "Workman now made an official communication to Claiborne. He + began by observing, that the late extraordinary events, which + had taken place within the territory, had led to a + circumstance, which authorized the renewal, in a formal manner, + of the request he had so frequently urged in conversation, that + the executive would make use of the constitutional force placed + under his command, to maintain the laws, and protect his + fellow-citizens against the unexampled tyranny exercised over + them. + + "He added, it was notorious that the commander in chief of the + military forces had, by his own authority, arrested several + citizens for civil offences, and had avowed on record, that he + had adopted measures to send them out of the territory, openly + declaring his determination to usurp the functions of the + judiciary, by making himself the only judge of the guilt of the + persons he suspected, and asserting in the same manner, and as + yet without contradiction, that his measures were taken, after + several consultations with the governor. + + "He proceeded to state, that writs of habeas corpus had been + issued from the court of the county of New-Orleans: on one of + them, Ogden had been brought up and discharged, but he had + been, however, again arrested, by order of the general, + together with an officer of the court, who had aided + professionally in procuring his release. The general had, in + his return to a subsequent writ, issued on his behalf, referred + the court to a return made by him to a former writ of the + superior court, and in the further return which he had been + ordered to make, he had declared that neither of the prisoners + was in his power, possession, or custody; but he had not + averred what was requisite, in order to exempt him from the + penalty of a contempt of court, that these persons were not in + his power, possession, or custody, at the time when the writs + were served, and, in consequence of the deficiency, the court + had been moved for an attachment. + + "The judge remarked, that although a common case would not + require the step he was taking, yet, he deemed it his duty, + before any decisive measure was pursued against a man, who had + all the regular force, and in pursuance of the governor's + public orders, a great part of that of the territory, at his + disposal, to ask whether the executive had the ability to + enforce the decrees of the court of the county, and if he had, + whether he would deem it expedient to do it, in the present + instance, or whether the allegation by which he supported these + violent measures was well founded? + + "Not only the conduct and power of Wilkinson, said the judge, + but various other circumstances, peculiar to our present + situation, the alarm excited in the public mind, the + description and character of a large part of the population of + the country, might render it dangerous, in the highest degree, + to adopt the measure usual in ordinary cases, of calling to the + aid of the sheriff, the _posse comitatus_, unless it were done + with the assurance of being supported by the governor in an + efficient manner. + + "The letter concluded by requesting a precise and speedy answer + to the preceding inquiries, and an assurance that, if certain + of the governor's support, the judge should forthwith punish, + as the law directs, the contempt offered to his court: on the + other hand, should the governor not think it practicable or + proper to afford his aid, the court and its officers would no + longer remain exposed to the contempt or insults of a man, whom + they were unable to punish or resist. + + "The legislature met on the twelfth of January. Two days after, + General Adair arrived in the city, from Tennessee, and reported + he had left Burr at Nashville, on the twenty-second of + December, with two flat boats, destined for New-Orleans. In the + afternoon of the day of Adair's arrival, the hotel at which he + had stopped was invested by one hundred and twenty men, under + Lieutenant Colonel Kingsbury, accompanied by one of Wilkinson's + aids. Adair was dragged from the dining table, and conducted to + head quarters, where he was put in confinement. They beat to + arms through the streets; the battalion of the volunteers of + Orleans, and a part of the regular troops, paraded through the + city, and Workman, Kerr, and Bradford, were arrested and + confined. Wilkinson ordered the latter to be released, and the + two former were liberated on the following day, on a writ of + habeas corpus, issued by the district judge of the United + States. Adair was secreted until an opportunity offered to ship + him away." + +We approach a very interesting portion of our history, in which certain +transactions are detailed, with great precision, for some of which +General Jackson has obtained, and deserved, a brilliant crown of +military glory, and for others has been visited with deep and indignant +reproaches; whether justly or not, the reader will decide by the facts +of the case. + +On the 2d of December 1814, General Jackson reached New-Orleans; and on +the next day commenced his operations to put the city in a state of +defence against the attack expected to be made upon it. A large naval +force of the enemy was off the port of Pensacola; and it was understood +that New-Orleans was their object. The force in New-Orleans consisted of +seven hundred men of the United States regiments; one thousand state +militia, and some sailors and marines. Reinforcements from Tennessee and +Kentucky were looked for. It is not to our purpose, and must be +unnecessary, to recapitulate all the interesting occurrences which took +place at this alarming crisis; all evincing the gallantry and patriotism +of our countrymen. In this early stage of the contest, our author, with +great warmth and strong testimony, asserts the unshaken fidelity and +active efficient attachment of the people of New-Orleans to the +government of the United States, and repels with an honest indignation +the charges of disaffection and treason which were on various occasions +made upon them, to justify the tyrannical violence of certain +proceedings against them. He says, "although the population of +New-Orleans was composed of individuals of different nations, it was as +patriotic as that of any city in the Union." We believe him most +sincerely; and who does not? Can any just and candid man doubt it after +a sober perusal of his details, having a particular relation to this +question? To suppose that they had any sympathies with the invading foe; +any treasonable correspondence with them; any desire for their success; +is to calumniate a people as deeply and dearly interested in our +independence, as devotedly attached to our institutions, as any portion +of the republic. We therefore not only excuse, but applaud, the feelings +of resentment with which Judge Martin, himself one of the people of +Louisiana, and honoured by her confidence, meets every assertion and +insinuation of treachery or disaffection cast upon her. He assures us, +that "Claiborne (the governor) was sincerely attached to the government +of his country, and the legislature was prepared to call forth and place +at Jackson's disposal, all the resources of the state." Again he says, +"If some, in the beginning, doubted whether General Jackson's military +experience had been of a kind to fit him for this service, his conduct +very soon dispelled the doubt." + + "The want of an able military chief was sensibly felt, and + notwithstanding any division of sentiment on any other subject, + the inclination was universal to support Jackson, and he had + been hailed on his arrival by all. There were some, indeed, who + conceived that the crisis demanded a general of some experience + in ordinary warfare; that one whose military career had begun + with the current year, and who had never met with any but an + Indian force, was ill calculated to meet the warlike enemy who + threatened; but all were willing to make a virtue of necessity, + and to take their wishes for their opinions, and manifested an + unbounded confidence in him. All united in demonstrations of + respect and reliance, and every one was ready to give him his + support. His immediate and incessant attention to the defence + of the country, the care he took to visit every vulnerable + point, his unremitted vigilance, and the strict discipline + enforced, soon convinced all that he was the man the occasion + demanded." + +The general had, however, imbibed strong prejudices against the +inhabitants of the city, _infused into him by bad advisers who +surrounded him_. + + "Unfortunately he had been surrounded, from the moment of his + arrival, by persons from the ranks of the opposition to + Claiborne, Hall, and the state government, and it was soon + discovered that he had become impressed with the idea, that a + great part of the population of Louisiana was disaffected, and + the city full of traitors and spies. It appears such were his + sentiments as early as the 8th of September; for in a letter of + Claiborne, which he since published, the governor joins in the + opinion, and writes to him, 'I think with you, that our country + is full of spies and traitors.'" + +The interest we feel to vindicate the people of Louisiana from the +suspicions that were long entertained of their loyalty, and may not be +yet wholly eradicated, induces us to trouble our readers with further +extracts on this subject. + + "The legislature was in session, since the beginning of the + preceding month. We have seen that Claiborne, at the opening of + the session, had offered them his congratulations on the + alacrity with which the call of the United States for a body of + militia had been met, which, with the detail of the proceedings + of that body, is the best refutation of the charges which have + been urged against them. It will show, that in attachment to + the Union, in zeal for the defence of the country, in + liberality in furnishing the means of it, and in ministering to + the wants of their brave fellow-citizens who came down to + assist them in repelling the foe, the general assembly of + Louisiana does not suffer by a comparison of its conduct with + that of any legislative body in the United States. The + assertion, that any member of it entertained the silly opinion, + that a capitulation, if any became necessary, was to be brought + about or effected by the agency of the houses, any more than by + that of a court of justice, or the city council of New-Orleans, + is absolutely groundless." + +A proposition was made by the governor to the legislature, to suspend +the writ of habeas corpus, in order that men might be pressed for the +service, particularly naval, of the United States: the legislature knew +it to be a dangerous measure, and thought it unnecessary. + + "Coming from every part of the state, the representatives had + witnessed the universal alacrity with which Jackson's + requisitions for a quota of the militia of the state had been + complied with; they knew their constituents could be depended + on; they knew that Jackson, Claiborne, and many of the + military, were incessantly talking of sedition, disaffection, + and treason; but better acquainted with the people of + Louisiana, than those who were vociferating against it, they + were conscious, that no state was more free from sedition, + disaffection, and treason, than their own; they thought the + state should not outlaw her citizens, when they were rushing to + repel the enemy. They dreaded the return of those days, when + Wilkinson filled New-Orleans with terror and dismay, arresting + and transporting whom he pleased. They recollected that in 1806 + Jefferson had made application to congress for a suspension of + the writ of _habeas corpus_, but that the recommendation of the + president was not deemed sufficient to induce the legislature + of the Union to suspend it: that of Claiborne, as far as it + concerned Jackson, was not therefore acted on. The members had + determined not to adjourn during the invasion, and thought they + would suspend the writ when they deemed the times required it, + but not till then." + +That the refusal to put an uncontrouled power over the persons of the +citizens, to withdraw from them the protection of the law, did not +proceed from an unwillingness to obtain for the service the force +required, is made manifest by the substitute adopted. "A sum of five +thousand dollars was placed at the disposal of the commodore, to be +expended in bounties; and, to remove the opportunity of seamen being +tempted to decline entering the service of the United States, by the +hope of employment on board of merchant vessels, an embargo was passed." + +The general does not seem to have been satisfied with the reasons of the +legislature for denying the power he desired, nor with their substitute +for it. + + "The suspension of the writ of _habeas corpus_, and adjournment + of the houses, were measures which Jackson anxiously desired. + There was a great inclination in the members of both houses to + gratify him, in every instance in which they could do it with + safety: in these two only, they were of opinion it would be + unsafe to adopt his views." + +General Carroll, with a brigade of Tennessee militia, arrived on the +19th, and the legislature were indefatigable in preparing for the +expected attack. + + "At this period the forces at New-Orleans amounted to between + six and seven thousand men. Every individual exempted from + militia duty on account of age, had joined one of the + companies of veterans, which had been formed for the + preservation of order. Every class of society was animated with + the most ardent zeal; the young, the old, women, children, all + breathed defiance to the enemy, firmly disposed to oppose to + the utmost the threatened invasion. There were in the city a + very great number of French subjects, who from their national + character could not have been compelled to perform military + duty; these men, however, with hardly any exception, + volunteered their services. The Chevalier Tousard, the Consul + of France, who had distinguished himself, and had lost an arm + in the service of the United States, during the revolutionary + war, lamenting that the neutrality of his nation did not allow + him to lead his countrymen in New-Orleans to the field, + encouraged them to flock to Jackson's standard. The people were + preparing for battle as cheerfully as if for a party of + pleasure: the streets resounded with martial airs: the several + corps of militia were constantly exercising, from morning to + night: every bosom glowed with the feelings of national honour: + every thing showed nothing was to be apprehended from + disaffection, disloyalty, or treason." + +On the 21st, the enemy landed with a strong force, and a proud one, +confident of an easy victory. They looked upon all the wealth and +comforts of New-Orleans as already their own. The battle that shortly +after ensued, _sought for and won_ by the Americans, can never be +forgotten. The promptitude, decision, and skill, with which General +Jackson took his measures; the bravery with which they were executed; +and the glorious success which crowned the bold attack upon an enemy +greatly superior in numbers, discipline, and experience, will be ranked +among the most gallant achievements of military history. Our author +assures us that the invading army "had a force of very near five +thousand men; that which opposed him was not above two thousand." +Preparations against the grand attack upon the city continued with +unceasing vigilance and labour. The members of the legislature--_the +suspected legislature_--old and young, joined some of the military +corps; but lest their legislative aid might also be required, they +continued their sessions; when a most extraordinary proceeding occurred. + + "Every day, towards noon, three or four of the members of each + house, who served among the veterans or on the committees, + attended in their respective halls to effect an adjournment, in + order that, if any circumstance rendered the aid of the + legislature necessary, it might be instantly afforded. On going + for this purpose to the government house, Skipwith, the speaker + of the senate, and two of its members, found a sentinel on the + staircase, who, presenting his bayonet, forbade them to enter + the senate chamber. They quietly retired, and proceeded to the + hall of the sessions of the city council, where an adjournment + took place. The members of the other house, who attended for + the same purpose, were likewise prevented from entering its + hall, and acted like those of the senate." + +A committee was appointed to wait upon the general, and inquire into the +reasons of these violent measures against the legislature. The general +gave his reasons, which, in short, were, that he had received +information "that the assembly were about to give up the country to the +enemy." The author goes into a full examination of this charge; and the +refutation of it is entirely satisfactory. + +The spirit of defence even entered the walls of the prisons. + + "A number of debtors, who had taken the benefit of the acts + establishing the prison bounds, were anxious to join in the + defence of the city, but were apprehensive of exposing their + sureties. On this being represented to the legislature, an act + was passed, extending the prison bounds, until the first of May + following, so as to include Jackson's line." + +The last effort of the invader was made by the battle of the 8th of +January, and is described in our book with much effect. Long may it be +read and remembered with an unextinguishable glow of pride and +patriotism! The contest was ended; the foe hastily abandoned our shores, +on which they left nothing but memorials of their defeat and shame, in +the melancholy monuments of their slaughtered companions. Our author +concludes his narrative of these eventful days, with an eloquent tribute +to the general, by whose indefatigable activity and fearless gallantry a +rich and populous city was saved. + + "If the vigilance, the activity, and the intrepidity of the + general had been conspicuous during the whole period of the + invasion, his prudence, moderation, and self-denial, on the + departure of the enemy, deserves no less commendation and + admiration. An opportunity was then presented to him of + acquiring laurels by a pursuit, which few, elated as he must + have been by success, could have resisted. But, he nobly + reflected that those who fled from him were mercenaries--those + who surrounded his standard, his fellow-citizens, almost + universally fathers of families;--sound policy, to use his own + expressions, neither required nor authorized him to expose the + lives of his companions in arms, in a useless conflict. He + thought the lives of ten British soldiers would not requite the + loss of one of his men. He had not saved New-Orleans to + sacrifice its inhabitants." + +On his return to the city, he was greeted with "tears of gratitude"--why +were they not perpetual? His cruel suspicions; his unjust accusations of +treason and disaffection, were forgotten or forgiven, and no sentiment +remained in the hearts of the people of Louisiana, but admiration of his +conduct in the day of trial, and gratitude for his services; why was not +this perpetual? We shall see. + +"By a communication of the 13th of January, from Admiral Cochrane, +Jackson was informed that the Admiral had just received a bulletin from +Jamaica, (a copy of which was enclosed) proclaiming that a treaty of +peace had been signed by the respective plenipotentiaries of Great +Britain and the United States, at Ghent, on the 24th of December. The +despatch did not arrive till the 21st, by way of Balize; but the +intelligence had been brought to the city by one of Jackson's aids, who +had returned from the British fleet with a flag of truce." As in +canvassing the subsequent proceedings of the General at New-Orleans, his +advocates have pretended that he had no information of the peace to +which he ought to have trusted, that point must not be overlooked in our +inquiries. What was the evidence at this period, that is, on the 21st of +January? A communication directly addressed to him, by and under the +name of the British Admiral, with every sanction that honour and good +faith could give it. This communication, so vouched, was accompanied by +a copy of a bulletin which the Admiral declared he had just received +from Jamaica, too distant to have been fabricated there for the +occasion; and all this was confirmed by the intelligence brought by one +of the General's aids from the fleet. Is there any degree of military +caution that would have doubted the truth of this information, _in the +manner and for the purposes_ for which the doubts, real or pretended, +were used by the General? We will not say that he should, on such +intelligence, have exposed himself to an attack from the enemy; that he +should have disbanded his army, or thrown by his guards and defence, as +if the intelligence had been authentic from his own government; but, +assuredly there was that in the information he received, on which a +strong reliance might reasonably and safely have been placed; at least +enough to have suspended military operations _against his own +fellow-citizens_. He must have imputed fraud, falsehood, and forgery, to +an officer, who, although an enemy, was entitled to a more just and +respectful consideration. No usage of modern warfare would have +justified such practices, and therefore they ought not to have been +presumed. With no disposition to "set down aught in malice" against the +General, we cannot refrain from saying, that, whatever he may have found +it convenient to believe or disbelieve, to justify the extravagance of +ungovernable passions inflamed by evil counsellors, in his moments of +sober thoughts, if any such happened to him, he could not reject the +testimony before him, of the termination of the war. He certainly, at +least, thought it worthy to be announced to the people, although he +"forewarned them from being thrown into security by hopes that might be +delusive." This was a prudent caution, and sufficient. "On the 22d, the +gladsome tidings were confirmed, and a _Gazette of Charleston_ was +received, announcing the _ratification of the Treaty_ by the Prince +Regent." We assume then, that on the 22d of January, such intelligence +was received of the Peace at New-Orleans, as might, and should have +satisfied the most sceptical military caution, of its truth, at least to +the extent required for our examination into the General's subsequent +conduct. + +It seems that a discontent had arisen, which led to serious +consequences. The _French subjects_ resident at New-Orleans, "had +flocked round Jackson's standard, determined to leave it with the +necessity that called them to it, and not till then." They endured much +privation, toil, and danger; their families also were in a state of +suffering, to whose relief they were anxious to return _after the enemy +had left the state_. A few solicited a discharge; but the General +insisted on their being retained. Some then demanded of the French +consul, certificates of their national character, which were presented +to the General, who countersigned them, and the bearers were permitted +to return home. So many, however, applied for this indulgence, that the +General believed that the consul too easily granted his certificates, +"and considering a compliance with his duty, as evidence of his adhesion +to the enemy, ordered him out of the city." + +We now come to a false step, of more importance, made by the General, to +which he was led by that which has overthrown many men placed in +elevated stations. It has been the misfortune and ruin of great men who +were high; and, more frequently so, of high men who were not great; +_weak and evil counsellors_. + + "Yielding to the advice of many around him, who were constantly + filling his ears with their clamours about the disloyalty, + disaffection, and treason of the people of Louisiana, and + particularly the state officers and the people of French + origin, Jackson, on the last day of February, issued a general + order, commanding all French subjects, possessed of a + certificate of their national character, subscribed by the + consul of France, and countersigned by the commanding general, + to retire into the interior, to a distance above Baton + Rouge:--a measure, which was stated to have been rendered + indispensable by the frequent applications for discharges. The + names were directed to be taken of all persons of this + description, remaining in the city, after the expiration of + three days. + + "Time has shown this to have been a most unfortunate step; and + those by whose suggestions it was taken, soon found themselves + unable to avert from the general the consequences to which it + exposed him. The people against whom it was directed were + loyal--many of them had bled, all had toiled and suffered in + the defence of the state. Need, in many instances, improvidence + in several, had induced the families of these people to part + with the furniture of their houses to supply those immediate + wants, which the absence of the head of the family occasioned. + No exception, no distinction was made. The sympathetic feelings + of every class of inhabitants were enlisted in favour of these + men; they lacked the means of sustaining themselves on the way, + and must have been compelled, on their arrival at Baton Rouge, + then a very insignificant village, to throw themselves on the + charity of the inhabitants. Another consideration rendered the + departure of these men an evil to be dreaded. The apprehension + of the return of the enemy was represented, as having had much + weight with Jackson in issuing his order. Their past conduct + was a sure pledge that, in case of need, their services would + again be re-offered; there were among them a number of + experienced artillery-men; a description of soldiers, which was + not easily to be found among the brave who had come down from + Kentucky, or Tennessee, or even in the army of the United + States. These considerations induced several respectable + citizens to wait on Jackson, for the purpose of endeavouring to + induce him to reconsider a determination, which was viewed as + productive of flagrant injustice and injury to those against + whom it was directed, without any possible advantage, and + probably very detrimental, to those for whose benefit it was + intended." + +To quiet and console this distressed and injured people under this +wanton decree of military power; this cruel exile; it was recommended to +them to submit without resistance to the order. + + "They were assured, that the laws of the country would protect + them, and punish, even in a successful general, a violation of + the rights of, or a wanton injury to, the meanest individual, + citizen or alien. They were referred to the case of Wilkinson, + against whom an independent jury of the Mississippi territory + had given a verdict in favour of Adair, who had been illegally + arrested and transported, during the winter of 1806." + +It must be recollected, that this order was issued and executed on the +last day of February, six weeks after the Charleston Gazette had +announced at New-Orleans, the ratification of the treaty of peace, as +above stated. During all this period, there had not been an appearance +of the enemy, or a movement by them, or the slightest occurrence or +rumour, to raise a doubt of the truth of this intelligence. Not a doubt +of it was expressed by any body or from any quarter. On the 14th of +February, two weeks after the sentence of banishment upon the French +subjects, "the mail brought northern Gazettes, announcing the arrival of +the treaty at Washington." Was this also a British trick and delusion, +not to be trusted even by a relaxation of the severest military +discipline, or a mitigation of the dangerous predominance of martial +law? Our author says, "the hope that had been entertained that Jackson +would now allow these unfortunate people to stay with their families, +was disappointed." + +_Louallier_, a member of the House of Representatives, had been +conspicuous in bringing forth the energies of the state for its defence. +His activity and usefulness were properly appreciated by his +fellow-citizens. An opinion prevailed, that Jackson was unfriendly to +the French citizens, and to the officers of the state government. + + "A report, which now was afloat, that those who surrounded + Jackson were labouring to induce him to arrest some + individuals, alluded to in the general orders of the 28th of + February, roused his indignation, to which (perhaps more + honestly than prudently) he gave vent in a publication, of + which the following is a translation, in the _Courier de la + Louisiane_ of the 3d of March." + +The publication is of considerable length, and written with warmth and +ability. Our author, after giving it at large, proceeds-- + + "Man bears nothing with more impatience, than the exposure of + his errors, and the contempt of his authority. Those who had + provoked Jackson's violent measure against the French subjects, + availed themselves of the paroxysms of the ire which the + publication excited: they threw fuel into the fire, and blew it + into a flame. They persuaded him Louallier had been guilty of + an offence, punishable with death, and he should have him tried + by a court martial, as a spy. Yielding to this suggestion, and + preparatory to such a trial, he ordered the publication of the + second section of the rules and articles of war, which + denounces the punishment of death against spies, and directed + Louallier to be arrested and confined. Eaton is mistaken when + he asserts that the section had been published _before_. The + adjutant's letter to Leclerc, the printer of the _Ami des + Lois_, requesting him to publish it, bears date of the _fourth_ + of March, the day _after_ Louallier's publication made its + appearance. The section was followed by a notice that 'the city + of New-Orleans and its environs, being under martial law, and + several encampments and fortifications within its limits, it + was deemed necessary to give publicity to the section, _for the + information of all concerned_.' + + "Great, indeed, must have been Jackson's excitement, when he + suffered himself to be persuaded, that Louallier could + successfully be prosecuted as a spy. Eaton informs us, + Louallier was prosecuted as one _owing allegiance to the United + States_. The very circumstance of his owing that allegiance, + prevented his being liable to a prosecution as a spy. He was a + citizen of the United States: his being a member of the + legislature, was evidence of this. If he, therefore, committed + any act, which would constitute an alien a _spy_, he was guilty + of high treason, and ought to have been delivered to the + legitimate magistrate, to be prosecuted as a traitor." + +Judge Martin goes into a short, but satisfactory argument, to prove that +a citizen cannot be prosecuted as a spy under the articles of war. +Whether, however, the General and his advisers considered Louallier as a +spy, or a traitor, he "was arrested on Sunday the _5th of March_, at +noon, near the Exchange Coffee-house." He applied to a gentleman of the +bar for legal relief. An application for this purpose was made to Judge +Martin, (our author) one of the members of the Supreme Court of the +state. The judge thought he had no jurisdiction over the case, and could +not interfere. _Hall_, the District Judge of the United States, was then +called upon for a writ of habeas corpus, which was granted. The attorney +was directed by the Judge to inform the General of his application for +the writ and the order for issuing it.--This was in courtesy. + + "On receiving Morel's communication, the ebullition of + Jackson's anger was such, that reason appeared to have lost its + control. Those who had suggested the harsh measure against the + French citizens, and the still more harsh one against + Louallier, imagined the moment was come, when their enmity + towards Hall might be gratified. We have seen that a number of + individuals, who had hitherto sustained a fair character, were + now known as accomplices of the Barrataria pirates. + Prosecutions had been commenced against some of them, and Hall + manifested that stern severity of character, which appals + guilt. The counsel of these men had conceived the idea that he + did not view their efforts to screen their clients, with the + liberality and indulgence they deserved. The opportunity now + offered of humbling this worthy magistrate, was not suffered to + remain unimproved; and Jackson was assured that Hall, like + Louallier, was guilty of an offence punishable with death. + + "The general's attention was drawn to the seventh section of + the rules and articles of war, which denounces the last + punishment against persons aiding or abetting mutiny; and he + was pressed to prosecute the judge before a court martial. As a + preparatory step, with that promptitude of decision, which + Eaton says is a leading trait in his character, he signed an + instrument at once, the warrant for the arrest, and the + _mittimus_ for the imprisonment of Hall. He wrote to Colonel + Arbuckle, who commanded at the barracks, that having received + proof that Dominick A. Hall had been _aiding_, _abetting_, _and + exciting mutiny_ in his camp, he desired that a detachment + might be ordered forthwith, to arrest and _confine_ him; and + that a report might be made as soon as he was arrested. 'You + will,' as it is said in the conclusion of this paper, 'be + vigilant; as the agents of our enemy are more numerous than we + expected. You will be guarded against escapes.' + + "The prosecution of the judge was intended to be grounded on + the seventh section of the articles of war, which is in these + words:--'Any _officer or soldier_, who shall begin, cause, + excite, or join in, any mutiny or sedition, in any troop or + company, in the service of the United States, or in any post, + detachment, or guard, shall suffer death, or any other + punishment, as by a court martial shall be inflicted.' + + "Hall was not an officer, in the sense of the act of + Congress--he was not a soldier, in the ordinary meaning of that + word; but, according to the jurisprudence of head quarters, the + proclamation of martial law had transformed every inhabitant of + New-Orleans into a soldier, and rendered him punishable under + the articles of war. + + "The judge was accordingly arrested in his own house, at nine + o'clock, and confined in the same apartment with Louallier, in + the barracks. + + "As soon as this was reported at head quarters, Major Chotard + was despatched to demand from Claiborne, the clerk of the + district court of the United States, the surrender of + Louallier's petition, on the back of which Hall had written the + order for issuing the writ of _habeas corpus_. It has been seen + that there was not any officer of the state government, nor of + the United States, out of the army, who imagined that a + proclamation of martial law gave the general any right, nor + imposed on others any obligation, which did not exist before. + The clerk accordingly answered that there was a rule of court, + which forbade him to part with any original paper lodged in his + office; and he was ignorant of any right, in the commander of + the army, to interfere with the records of the court. He + however was, after much solicitation, prevailed on to take the + document in his pocket, and accompany Chotard to head quarters. + + "In the meanwhile, an express from the department of war had + arrived, with the intelligence that the President of the United + States had ratified the treaty, and an exchange of the + ratifications had taken place at Washington, on the 17th of + February, the preceding month. By an accident, which was not + accounted for, a packet had been put into the hands of the + messenger, instead of the one containing the official + information of the exchange of the ratifications. But the man + was bearer of an open order of the postmaster, to all his + deputies on the road, to expedite him with the utmost celerity, + as he carried _information of the recent peace_. He declared he + had handed an official notice of this event to the governor of + the state of Tennessee. + + "On the arrival of the clerk at head quarters, Jackson asked + him whether it was his intention to issue the writ: he replied + it was his bounden duty to do so, and he most assuredly would. + He was threatened with an arrest, but persisted in his + asseveration that he would obey the judge's order. He had + handed Louallier's petition to Jackson, and, before he retired, + demanded the return of it; this was peremptorily refused, and + the paper was withheld. It appears the date of the _fifth_ of + March had been originally on this document, and that being + Sunday, Hall changed it to that of the following day, the + _sixth_. The idea had been cherished, that this alteration + might support an additional article, in the charges against + Hall. It is not extraordinary, that those who imagined that, as + Louallier might be tried for a _libel_, in a court martial, + Hall might for _forgery_. Thus one inconsistency almost + universally leads to another. + + "Duplessis, the marshal of the United States, had volunteered + his services, as an aid to Jackson; a little after midnight he + visited head quarters. The imprisonment of Hall, and the + accounts from Washington, had brought a great concourse of + people near the general; who, elated by the success of the + evening, met the marshal at the door, and announced to him, _he + had shopped the judge_. Perceiving that Duplessis did not show + his exultation, he inquired whether he would serve Hall's writ. + The marshal replied, he had ever done his duty, which obliged + him to execute all writs directed to him by the court, whose + ministerial officer he was; and, looking sternly at the person + who addressed him, added, he would execute the court's writ _on + any man_. A copy of the proclamation of martial law, that lay + on the table, was pointed to him, and Jackson said, he _also_ + would do his duty. + + "A large concourse of people had been drawn to the Exchange + coffee-house, during the night, by the passing events, which + were not there, as at head quarters, a subject of exultation + and gratulation. The circumstances were not unlike those of the + year 1806, which Livingston describes as 'so new in the history + of our country, that they will not easily gain belief, at a + distance, and can scarcely be realized by those who beheld + them. A dictatorial power, assumed by the commander of the + American army--the military arrest of citizens, charged with a + civil offence--the violation of the sanctuary of justice--an + attempt to overawe, by denunciations, those who dared, + professionally, to assert the authority of the laws--the + unblushing avowal of the employment of military force, to + punish a civil offence, and the hardy menace of persevering in + the same course, were circumstances that must command + attention, and excite the corresponding sentiments of grief, + indignation, and contempt.'" + +We have made our extract so copiously of this dangerous and extravagant +proceeding, because we wish it to be represented in the language of the +author, and not by any abridgment of ours. General Jackson having +received intelligence of the treaty which he chose to agree that he +relied upon, addressed a despatch to the British commander "to +anticipate the happy return of peace." We again take up our author. + + "Jackson now paused to deliberate, whether these circumstances + did not require him, by a cessation of all measures of + violence, to allow his fellow-citizens in New-Orleans, to + anticipate this happy return of peace, the account of which, + the first direct intelligence was to bring to him, in an + official form--the untoward arrival of an orderly sergeant, + with a message from Arbuckle, to whom the custody of Hall had + been committed, prevented Jackson coming to that conclusion, + which his unprejudiced judgment would have suggested. The + prisoner had requested, that a magistrate might be permitted to + have access to him, to receive an affidavit, which he wished to + make, in order to resort to legal measures, for his release. + Arbuckle desired to know the general's pleasure, on this + application. Naturally impatient of any thing like control or + restraint, the idea of a superior power to be employed against + his decisions, threw Jackson into emotions of rage. Before they + had sufficiently subsided to allow him to act on the message, + some of his ordinary advisers came in, to recommend the arrest + of Hollander, a merchant of some note. What was the offence of + this man, has never been known; but Jackson's temper of mind + was favourable to the views of his visiters. He ordered the + arrest of the merchant, and forbade the access of the + magistrate to Hall; the idea of allowing his fellow-citizens to + anticipate the happy return of peace was abandoned, and + measures were directed to be taken for the trial of Louallier." + +The boasted "promptitude and decision" of the General's character, +admirable qualities in their proper places and under proper regulation, +carried him on, deeper and deeper, into the violation of the most sacred +rights of a free citizen, and of the immunities of the officers of the +law in the administration of the laws. + + "Dick, the attorney of the United States, made application to + Lewis, one of the district judges of the state, who was serving + as a subaltern officer, in the Orleans rifle company, and whose + conduct during the invasion, had received Jackson's particular + commendation. Believing that his duty as a military man, did + not diminish his obligation, as a judge, to protect his + fellow-citizens from illegal arrest, Lewis, without hesitation, + on the first call of Dick, laid down his rifle, and allowed the + writ. + + "Information of this having been carried to head quarters, + Jackson immediately ordered the arrest of Lewis and Dick. + + "Arbuckle, to whom Lewis's writ, in favour of Hall, was + directed, refused to surrender his prisoner, on the ground he + was committed by Jackson, under the authority of the United + States. + + "The orders for the arrest of Lewis and Dick were + countermanded." + +The effect of such proceedings, without parallel in a free government, +and without apology any where, may be well imagined. + + "The irritation of the public mind manifested itself, in the + evening, by the destruction of a transparent painting, in + honour of Jackson, which the proprietor of the Exchange + coffee-house displayed, in the largest hall." + +This brought the military in support of their General. + + "A number of officers had compelled the proprietor of the + Exchange coffee-house, to exhibit a new transparent painting, + and to illuminate the hall in a more than usual manner. They + attended in the evening, and stood near the painting, with the + apparent intention of indicating a determination, to resist the + attempt of taking down the painting. It was reported, a number + of soldiers were in the neighbourhood, ready to march to the + coffee-house, at the first call. This was not calculated to + allay the excitement of the public mind. The prostration of the + legitimate government; the imprisonment of the district judge + of the United States, the only magistrate, whose interference + could be successfully invoked, on an illegal arrest, under + colour of the authority of the United States, the ascendency + assumed by the military, appeared to have dissolved all the + bands of social order in New-Orleans." + +The good sense, we are told, of some of the most influential characters +in the city, prevented the extremities to which these proceedings were +fast approaching. The injured and the irritated were assured, "that +Jackson's day of reckoning would arrive; that _Hall_, with the authority +(though now without the power) of chastising the encroachments of the +military, possessed the resolution, and would soon have the power to +punish the violators of the law." The court martial, by whom Louallier +was tried, acquitted him. + + "Jackson was greatly disappointed at the conclusion to which + the court martial had arrived; he, however, did not release + either of his prisoners, and on the tenth issued the following + general order:-- + + "'The commanding general disapproves of the sentence of the + court martial, of which Major-general Gaines is president, on + the several charges and specifications exhibited against Mr. + Louallier; and is induced by the novelty and importance of the + matters submitted to the decision of that court, to assign the + reasons of this disapproval.'" + +He gave his reasons at length, which only show how hard it is for +certain tempers to acknowledge a wrong, or return to the right. + + "The court martial consoled themselves, by the reflection, that + their sentence, though disapproved by Jackson, was in perfect + conformity with decisions of the President of the United + States, and of the supreme court of the state of New-York, in + similar cases." + +There is something in the name and character of a _Court_, which assures +us of its respect for justice and the law. + + "The independent stand, taken by the court martial, had left no + glimpse of hope, at head quarters, that the prosecution of + Hall, on the charge of mutiny, on which he had been imprisoned, + could be attempted with any prospect of success--the futility + of any further proceedings against Louallier was + evident--Jackson, therefore, put an end to Hall's imprisonment + on Saturday, the 11th of March. The word _imprisonment_ is + used, because Eaton assures his readers, that '_Judge Hall was + not imprisoned_; it was merely an arrest.' Hall had been taken + from his bed chamber, on the preceding Sunday, at 9 o'clock in + the evening, by a detachment of about one hundred men, dragged + through the streets, and confined in the same apartment with + Louallier, in the barracks. Three days after, it had been + officially announced to the inhabitants of New-Orleans, that + Jackson was in possession of persuasive evidence, that a state + of peace existed, and the militia had been discharged, the door + of Hall's prison was thrown open, but not for his release. He + was put under a guard, who led him several miles beyond the + limits of the city, where they left him, with a prohibition to + return, 'till the ratification of the treaty was _regularly_ + announced, or the British shall have left the southern coast.' + + "This last, and useless display of usurped power, astonished + the inhabitants. They thought, that, if the general feared the + return of the British, the safety of New-Orleans would be + better insured, by his recall of the militia, than by the + banishment of the legitimate magistrate. It was the last + expansion of light, and momentary effulgence, that precedes the + extinguishment of a taper. + + "At the dawn of light, on Monday, the 13th, an express reached + head quarters, with the despatch which had accidentally been + misplaced, in the office of the secretary of war, three weeks + before. The cannon soon announced the arrival of this important + document, and Louallier was indebted for his liberation, to the + precaution, which Eaton says, the President of the United + States had taken, to direct Jackson to issue a proclamation for + the pardon of all military offences." + +Judge Hall had suffered indignity without being disgraced; he had +submitted to physical force without yielding his spirit to debasement; +or surrendering one of his official or personal rights. His reward +awaited him, and it is eloquently recorded by our historian. + + "Hall's return to the city was greeted by the acclamations of + the inhabitants. He was the first judge of the United States + they had received, and they had admired in him the + distinguishing characteristics of an American magistrate--a + pure heart, clean hands, and a mind susceptible of no fear, but + that of God. His firmness had, eight years before, arrested + Wilkinson in his despotic measures. He was now looked upon to + show, that if he had been unable to stop Jackson's arbitrary + steps, he would prevent him from exulting, in the impunity of + his trespass." + +_Dick_, the District Attorney, has a fair claim to a participation in +these honours. + + "He was anxious to lose no time, in calling the attention of + the district court of the United States, to the violent + proceedings, during the week that had followed the arrival of + the first messenger of peace; but Hall insisted on a few days + being exclusively given to the manifestation of the joyous + feelings, which the termination of the war excited. He did not + yield to Dick's wishes till the 21st. The affidavits of the + clerk of the district court, of the marshal of the United + States, of the attorney of Louallier, and of the commander at + the barracks, were then laid before the court." + +The case presented to the court, was substantially such as appears in +the foregoing narrative. Hall was as resolute in his court, as Jackson +at the head of an army; the Judge was as fearless in maintaining the +law, as the General had been in trampling upon it. "On motion of the +Attorney of the United States, a rule to show cause, why process of +attachment should not issue against Jackson, was granted." + +On the return day, the General, accompanied by one of his aids, appeared +before the court, and presented his answer to the rule. Some legal +questions were discussed and decided on the propriety of admitting the +answer. Finally, the rule was made absolute, that is, the _attachment +was ordered_. The General is still haunted by bad advisers. + + "Jackson's advisers now found he could not be defended on the + merits, with the slightest hope of success, as the attorney of + the United States would probably draw from him by + interrogatories, the admission, that both Louallier and the + judge were kept in prison, long after persuasive evidence had + been received at head quarters, of the cessation of the state + of war. They therefore recommended to him not to answer the + interrogatories, which would authorize the insinuation that he + had been condemned unheard. + + "It appears that some of his party, at this period, entertained + the hope that Hall could be intimidated, and prevented from + proceeding further. A report was accordingly circulated, that a + mob would assemble in and about the court-house--that the + pirates of Barataria, to whom the judge had rendered himself + obnoxious before the war, by his zeal and strictness, in the + prosecution that had been instituted against several of their + ringleaders, would improve this opportunity of humbling him. + Accordingly, groups of them took their stands, in different + parts of the hall, and gave a shout when Jackson entered it. It + is due to him to state, that it did not appear that he had the + least intimation that a disturbance was intended, and his + influence was honestly exercised to prevent disorder." + +When the General was called, "he addressed a few words to the court, +expressive of his intention not to avail himself of the faculty to +answer interrogatories." The District Attorney then addressed the court, +with firmness, but good temper. In conclusion he said,-- + + "That credulity itself could not admit the proposition, that + persuasive evidence that the war had ceased, and belief that + necessity required that violent measures should be persisted in + to prevent the exercise of the judicial power of the legitimate + tribunal, could exist, at the same time, in the defendant's + mind." + +The defendant--General Jackson--resorted to a strange equivocation to +extricate himself. + + "The general made a last effort to avert the judgment of the + court against him, by an asseveration, he had imprisoned + Dominick A. Hall, and _not the judge:_ his attention was drawn + to the affidavit of the marshal, in which he swore Jackson had + told him, 'I have _shopped the judge_.'" + +We come, with unaffected gratification, to the final triumph of the law, +in this contest with military power. + + "The court, desirous of manifesting moderation, in the + punishment of the defendant for the want of it, said that, in + consideration of the services the general had rendered to his + country, imprisonment should make no part of the sentence, and + condemned him to pay a fine of one thousand dollars and costs, + only." + +We should indeed regret, if our history terminated these memorable +transactions here. Every reader will be anxious to learn--How did the +impetuous spirit of the General, inflamed by his recent triumphs and +glories in the field, receive the condemnation of the law? What bursts +of passionate violence did he exhibit? What terrible explosion followed +the sentence of the court? Not a symptom or movement of the kind. He +seemed to awaken, as from a tempestuous dream, "the helm of reason +lost," and to fall into the character of a good citizen with dignity and +grace. + + "On Jackson's coming out of the court-house, his friends + procured a hack, in which he entered, and they dragged it to + the Exchange coffee-house, where he made a speech, in the + conclusion of which he observed, that, 'during the invasion, he + had exerted every faculty in support of the constitution and + laws--on that day, he had been called on to submit to their + operation, under circumstances, which many persons might have + deemed sufficient to justify resistance. Considering obedience + to the laws, even when we think them unjustly applied, as the + first duty of the citizen, he did not hesitate to comply with + the sentence they had heard pronounced;' and he entreated the + people, to remember the example he had given them, of + respectful submission to the administration of justice." + +We heartily wish that the scene had closed here, and the General had +appeared no more on _that stage_. But there was that within him which +forbade a quiet and unresisting resignation to his discomfiture and +humiliation. + + "A few days after, he published, in the _Ami des Lois_, the + answer he had offered to the district court, preceded by an + exordium, in which he complained, that the court had refused to + hear it. He added, that the judge 'had indulged himself, on his + route to Bayou Sarah, in manifesting apprehensions as to the + fate of the country, equally disgraceful to himself, and + injurious to the interest and safety of the state,' and + concluded--'should Judge Hall deny this statement, the general + is prepared to prove it, fully and satisfactorily.' + + "The gauntlet did not long remain on the ground, and the + following piece appeared in the _Louisiana Courier_: + + "'It is stated in the introductory remarks of General Jackson,' + that 'on the judge's route to Bayou Sarah, he manifested + apprehensions as to the safety of the country, disgraceful to + himself, and injurious to the state.' Judge Hall knows full + well, how easy it is for one, with the influence and patronage + of General Jackson, to procure certificates and affidavits. He + knows that men, usurping authority, have their delators and + spies: and that, in the sunshine of imperial or dictatorial + power, swarms of miserable creatures are easily generated, from + the surrounding corruption, and rapidly changed into the shape + of buzzing informers. Notwithstanding which, Judge Hall + declares, that on his route to Bayou Sarah, he uttered no + sentiment disgraceful to himself, or injurious to the state. He + calls upon General Jackson, to furnish that full and + satisfactory evidence of his assertion, which he says he is + enabled to do.' The pledge was never redeemed." + +Judge Martin's book is here brought to a conclusion, with some +appropriate and forcible reflections upon the duties and uses of +History, in affording lessons to men, high in authority, to bridle their +passions; to select capable and honest advisers; with other wise and +wholesome admonitions. + +We heartily unite with the Judge in his just and patriotic aspirations +in behalf of the Judiciary. + + * * * * * + + NOTE.--In quoting from our history the anecdote respecting the + residence and imprisonment of _Fenelon_ in Canada, we do not + intend to express a belief in its authenticity. It is the first + time we have heard that the celebrated author of Telemachus had + ever been in this country; and, as Judge Martin does not inform + us of the authority on which the story is related, we know not + what credit it is entitled to. + + + + +ART. IX.--_A Full and Accurate Method of Curing Dyspepsia, Discovered +and Practised_ by O. HALSTED. New-York: 1830. + + +Every era has possessed its false prophet in religion, from the days of +Mahomet to those of Joanna Southcot and Fanny Wright; not that the race +commenced with the former, or has terminated with the latter; the +records of history supply us with examples of "lying augurs," in every +period previously to the career of the Impostor of Mecca, and our daily +experience furnishes us with proofs that the tribe is by no means +extinct. As in religion, so has it been, and still continues, in +philosophy, and the whole circle of science: pretenders to excellence +have started up in every age, and although their efforts in the cause of +imposition have not been so splendid as the exertions of those who have +made religion their tool, they have yet been sufficiently remarkable to +excite the eager attention of mankind, and sufficiently profitable to +reward themselves. Medical science in particular may boast of a numerous +host of these worthies: it would far exceed the limits of this +publication to trace the progress of the charlatan, through the records +of ancient history; for the sake of brevity, a retrospective glance must +not be directed beyond the fifteenth century, when the arch priest of +"modern quackery" made his appearance upon the medical stage. In the +year 1493, Phillippus Aureolus Theophrastus Paracelsus Bombastus de +Hohenheim, was ushered into existence, and at a very early age announced +his discovery, that the recognised principles of medical science were +erroneous, and that in him alone was vested "the art divine, to heal +each lurking ill." Possessing a panacea capable, as he boasted, of +curing all diseases, and even of prolonging life to an indefinite +period, this empiric made war upon the health of mankind, and at last, +after a life of the most infamous debauchery, he died, in the +forty-eighth year of his age, with a bottle of the "Elixir Vitae" in his +pocket. The mantle of Paracelsus has been left behind, and a rich +inheritance of ignorance, insolence, and vanity, bequeathed to a +multitude of heirs; the value of the legacy, however, would have been +trifling, but for the credulity of mankind, which renders these +worthless possessions of inestimable importance: during the last +century, in particular, these descendants have attained an eminence +truly astonishing. Medicine is admitted to be one of the noblest +sciences, as tending, in its practice, to relieve the most irksome +restraints upon existence; it is acknowledged to be a science founded +upon close observation, and so nearly allied to other sciences, that its +pursuit is impracticable without them; that it requires years of +patient toil to fathom its mysteries, and the undivided efforts of a +mind to comprehend its purposes; and yet we are daily told of the most +extraordinary cures, and of the discovery of sovereign remedies, in all +cases and descriptions of disease, by individuals who have never + + "Toil'd an hour in physic's cause, + Or giv'n one thought to Nature's laws:" + +By men, in short, who are incapable of forming one rational opinion upon +the subject, and unprepared, by previous study or information, to detect +or remove one symptom. + +It is an old and apt saying, that "the wilder the tale, the wider the +ear;" and experience proves, that from the nursery to the tomb, no +legend is too marvellous for the faith of the credulous, and that in +many instances, the more incomprehensible the story, the more confirmed +is the belief. + +In the numerous newspapers daily published in the United States, a list +of cures are detailed with sufficient precision to satisfy the +sceptical, and sufficient plausibility to convince the ignorant, while a +string of medicines is set forth, of such unrivalled excellence, that no +disease is protected from their action; the panacea of Paracelsus is +rivalled, and every calamity that can afflict the body, from the crown +of the head to the sole of the foot, is at once relieved. "Vegetable +Powders," "Botanical Syrup," "Bilious Pills," "Jaundice Bitters," "Eye +Waters," ointments, &c. &c. are proclaimed as veritable specifics by +these veritable physic-mongers: no disease is too subtle, no train of +symptoms too severe, for them to contend with; they only meet the foe to +conquer, and confer an immortality on suffering humanity and themselves. +Thus they flourish, the quacks of the day, the impostors of the +multitude, and, perhaps, the dupes of themselves! But if Reason, that +plain and simple attribute, in its uncontrouled state, unfettered either +by prejudice or wilfulness, can be brought to bear on the question +between them and mankind, how little will their claims appear! Reason, +in the exertion of a capable authority, is taught to discriminate +fairly, and test candidly, and must therefore refuse the evidence +tendered by folly, or something worse, by which ignorance is bewitched. +Will the man of reflecting mind, and of candid judgment, admit the +claims of these pretenders, and match the speculations of avarice and +ignorance with the conclusions of science? Impossible! Safety consorts +with skill in every path of life; he would not trust himself on the wide +ocean with a man ignorant of navigation; nay, he would not trust a bale +of merchandise with him; and surely he will not abandon his bark of +existence to the command of a charlatan, who knows nothing of the +principles of the art he professes, and is altogether incompetent to +steer clear of the numerous rocks and quicksands in the course of life; +but a man of reflection and judgment is not a very common character; he +is surrounded by hundreds who examine not for themselves; and are easily +deluded, by the fairest promises, to surrender their opinions to +another's guidance: these are the supporters of quackery, and the +encouragers of those needy plunderers, who would render medicine a +farce, that they might practice jugglery the better. + +If the system of man resembled a machine, which, once in motion, +continued an unvaried power, and retained an equality of force, merely +requiring, when deranged, the tightening of a screw, the readjustment of +a strap, or the addition of a quantity of oil, little knowledge would be +required in the regulation of its functions; but when we find the +constitutions of men as varied as their countenances, the affections of +the body, numerous and diversified, never preserving identically the +same characters in two cases, or requiring the same exact treatment in +diseases, apparently of the same nature, we discover that something more +than the artifice of the quack is necessary in their government and +repair. + +It would indeed be a Herculean task to administer the rod of correction +to all the advertizing medical gentry of the day: it could be done, and +with justice to the community; but it would be wearisome. A champion, +however, has recently entered the medical arena, with whom we would fain +contend, not only in the hope of conquest, but in the expectation that +others may take warning by his defeat. With him we will now alone +engage, and thus throw down our gauntlet. + +A work has very lately appeared, professing to be a "New Method of +Curing Dyspepsia, discovered and practised by O. Halsted of New-York." +This publication sails in the wake of a tolerably successful practice +amongst the dyspeptics of the day, who have resorted to the temple of +our author "with faith sufficient to promote a cure." So long as this +continued, all interference was of course out of the question, as every +individual possesses an undoubted right to tamper either with his +judgment or his money; but when this aspirer after dyspeptic fame leaves +his concealment, and issues his discoveries and practices to the world, +he invites the battery of opinion, and renders himself at once amenable +to remark and investigation. A few words, however, on the subject of +dyspepsia, may not be amiss, before we take leave to reply to Mr. +Halsted. + +This much abused term, is a compound of two Greek words, signifying "bad +concoction," or bad digestion, _alias_ indigestion, and sufficiently +expressive of a condition in which the aliments supplied to the stomach +are not met by a vigorous and sufficient action for the purposes of +health; but this definition, however just, is not comprehensive enough +for the genius of mankind. That genius, which, in former times, has +sanctioned the appellations of nervous disorders, and bilious +complaints, as comprising nearly all others, has now selected the term +of dyspepsia, as the covering for a multitude of real and imaginary +woes; so that when an invalid approaches with a variety of symptoms, and +a host of pains or whimsies, he is at once pronounced to be a Dyspeptic. + +The book before us, commences with a short account of the organs engaged +in the process of digestion, copied from a periodical work of the day, +very good as far as it goes, and leaving nothing to be desired on the +score of brevity: our author then pursues his task, by a detail of the +symptoms of what he calls dyspepsia; from what work he procured these, +or from what unhappy wretch he could gain such a list of grievances, as +he describes arising from indigestion, does not appear; if they be in +existence now, the sooner the one is burnt and the other buried, the +better. It is evident that Mr. Halsted is unaware that dyspepsia occurs, +in one of two ways; either as a primary affection, or as a symptom of +other diseases; that he is unacquainted with the share the liver, with +its biliary apparatus, the pancreas, the spleen, the mesentery, the +omentum, &c. take in digestion, and of the symptoms occasioned by an +affection of these organs; it may therefore be adviseable to devote a +few lines to the consideration of these points, as well for the +satisfaction of the public, as for his instruction and the improvement +of his second edition. Dyspepsia, or indigestion in its simple form, +occurs either as a disease of debility, or as a consequence of excess: +the first arises from numerous causes, and seldom exists alone: the +secretion of the gastric juice is not only impaired, for the office of +no organ continues in a state of activity, all alike feeling the result +of that general depression affecting the system at large: the second may +be referred to the stomach itself, as a natural effect from +over-feeding, or indulgence in spirituous liquors. Dyspepsia, occurring +as a symptom in other diseases, appears under numerous characters, +either from the effects of sympathy, or from an extension of the malady +to the stomach itself. It may be readily granted that all the symptoms +described by Mr. Halsted, take place, in consequence of an affection of +the stomach, either primarily or secondarily; but to assert that they +are the results of a bad concoction of the viands we eat and drink, and +to act accordingly, is to misunderstand the meaning of a term, as well +as the treatment of a disorder. + +It is stated, in this work, that dyspepsia is Protean in its symptoms, +but single and uniform in its nature; the very reverse is the fact; its +symptoms are of a single character, and of an uniform attack, while its +nature is variable and inconstant. A dyspeptic will complain of a want +of appetite, a degree of squeamishness and irritability, eructations, +heart-burn, pain in the head, stomach, and bowels, with costiveness; his +tongue will be furred, and his pulse a little increased in strength and +quickness. To use the language of Dr. Armstrong, "the most constant +symptoms of dyspepsia, are a furred tongue, flatulence of the stomach, +and fretfulness, or depression of spirits;" he goes on to say, "these +may arise primarily from disorder or disease in the stomach itself, or +they may depend upon an affection of the brain, liver, bowels, or some +other remote or adjacent part." The nature of dyspepsia depends totally +upon its cause, and where so many circumstances may occasion it, it is +difficult to imagine one more variable. The important organs before +alluded to, so necessary to the economy of life, are all liable to the +most severe visitations of disease. Not to be too prolix, take, for the +sake of example, the first on the list, the liver: both in the acute and +chronic forms of inflammation of this viscus, how important a change is +wrought in the digestive functions, how enfeebled does the system become +during its continuance, and how futile would be the attempt to relieve +the malady by merely attacking one of its symptoms! And so, of the other +viscera, all marked when in a morbid state by peculiar characteristics, +not only affecting their own action, but all the parts in their +neighbourhood, the stomach as one of the great centres of the system in +particular; and yet, with all these facts in review, are we presented +with a list of ailments as dependant upon an impropriety in digestion, +which may in all probability (at least the greater part of them) be +traced to a source totally different. A careful discrimination of the +origin of disease is as necessary as any after treatment, which can +never, indeed, be applied with a reasonable chance of success without +it. + +Mr. Halsted recommends a change to a more temperate climate, travelling, +regular exercise, particularly on horseback, and above all, moderation +in eating and drinking; asserting, that if these means of recovery be +neglected, things will inevitably go on from bad to worse. Astonishing! +These new precepts, from the pen of such a distinguished practitioner, +cannot be too highly extolled, and should be classed with the +recommendation of old Parr; "keep your head cool by temperance, your +feet warm by exercise; never eat but when you are hungry, nor drink but +when nature requires it." Had the author stopped here, there would have +been no occasion for a rejoinder to his work; for directions so +admirable could only have obtained a ready compliance. In addition, +however, to these usual modes of recovering health and appetite, we are +put in possession of a few others, as purely original as can be +imagined--but of these anon. + +Mr. Halsted arranges dyspepsia in three stages; he has the incipient, +the confirmed, and the complicated; in other words, dyspepsia in its +commencement, in its continuance, and in its union with other +affections. The two first may undoubtedly belong to dyspepsia, but the +last, or complicated stage, is the one to which we must object; it is +said, that this occurs when other organs are deranged, and a double set +of symptoms produced; "when the patient will be said to die of liver +complaint, an affection of the lungs, marasmus, dysentery, diarrhoea, +or some anomalous complication of all these affections, conveniently +classed by the Doctor when he renders his account to the sexton, under +the sweeping term, consumption." The medical profession will doubtless +appreciate the value of the connexion which Mr. Halsted is anxious to +establish between the physician and the respectable officer who acts as +the last gentleman-usher to mankind, and duly estimate the candid and +gentlemanly mode of introduction of both parties to the public. + +Dyspepsia, Mr. H. continues, is the original fountain from whence all +this mischief, described in his third stage, proceeds; thus, according +to him, a catarrh, pneumonia, and the numerous diseases attacking the +respiratory organs, as "affections of the lungs," are occasioned by +dyspepsia; the liver cannot be affected but by dyspepsia; marasmus +proceeds from dyspepsia; dysentery depends on dyspepsia; and even +diarrhoea must own dyspepsia as its parent. The effects of cold and +damp, of obstructed perspiration, of scrofulous tendencies, and a +thousand other causes, pass for nought; dyspepsia rears its head as the +sole parent of ill, and little doubt can be entertained, that in the +event of a man, a little weakened by sickness, falling and breaking his +leg, this dyspeptic monitor would call the case dyspeptic fracture. Well +may the poor patient who peruses the pages of his work be called "an +unhappy dyspeptic;" and if he be not so already, he cannot read long, if +his attention and conviction go hand in hand, before the discovery of +such an accumulation of horrors, and all referred to his own person, +will render him a fit subject for the author's experiments. Some of +these symptoms are of too extraordinary a character to be passed over +without notice: coldness in the head, ears, and eyes, difficulty of +speech, and a jarring through the chest, numbness and coldness at the +stomach, and sometimes a weight as if a lump of lead were there: if this +be the case-- + + "Who breathes, must suffer; and who thinks, must mourn, + And he alone is bless'd, who ne'er was born." + +Then again, our author has been told by a sufferer, that he felt as if a +number of wires passed up from the stomach to the brain, and there +ramifying into small branches, communicated a sort of jarring or +vibrating sensation to each particular nerve. This is a perfect musical +case of a dyspeptic, who has a sort of piano-forte stomach; we might +fancy him exclaiming in the language of Shakspeare,-- + + "This music mads me; let it sound no more; + For though it have help'd madmen to their wits, + In me, it seems, it will make wise men mad." + +Then come "pains between the shoulders and in the small of the back, +cramps, stitches, pains in joints, with universal soreness and +weariness." This is as bad as the plague, a very wilderness of agonies. +Heaven guard us from them! To crown all, the sufferings of Caliban under +the magical touches of Prospero are applied to the wretched dyspeptic, +who has "cramps by night, and side-stitches to pen his breath up; old +cramps (one attack is not sufficient) shall rack him and fill his bones +with aches, making him roar so loud, that beasts shall tremble at his +din;" this is the very climax of bodily suffering--long may we all be +preserved from the Halsted Dyspepsia! + +Error in diet, and want of proper exercise, are correctly assigned as +two great causes of this disease; the former as respects the quantity, +quality, time and manner of taking food, and the latter as it affects +persons of a sedentary habit. These causes lead to actual dyspepsia, or +a bad concoction of the food in the stomach, from whence the evils +described arise; and which are sufficient of themselves, without adding +to the list those affections, dependant upon diseases of other organs, +although occupying the stomach as their seat, and all of which our +author has indiscriminately classed under _his sweeping term_, +dyspepsia. A very common error of diet, as respects the time and manner +of taking food, is not treated of with sufficient force, when its +baneful tendency is considered:--the custom that prevails, of dining +within a very short period, sometimes only a few minutes, and returning +immediately to the avocations of the day; the food is sent to the +stomach only half masticated, and the system directly subjected to +exertion, during which, the process of digestion cannot take place. If +we make a hearty meal, and at once proceed to labour of any kind, the +food remains for hours in an unaltered state; whereas, if we give a +short repose to our bodies, by assuming an easy posture, and partially +dismissing the remembrance of past, and the prospect of future cares, +allowing, in fact, the whole business of life a short rest, as far as +may be, the stomach will perform its office with ease and certainty. Mr. +Halsted devotes one section to the consideration "of the particular +condition of the stomach in dyspepsia;" and as he confesses that doctors +differ on this subject, he kindly lends his assistance to relieve their +indecision, by roundly asserting "that it consists mainly, in a debility +or loss of power of action, in the muscular coat of the stomach." That a +feebleness of the system may affect the muscular coat of the stomach, +is far from a novel doctrine; but the idea that dyspepsia _mainly_ +depends upon this cause, is certainly as new as it is startling: the +very meaning of the word would dispose us to consider that any want of +action in the stomach, preventing the due concoction, or the breaking +down of aliment for the purposes of nourishment to the frame, would +apply to it, and, strictly speaking, it would; not that the muscular +coat is alone, or the most powerful agent, in reducing the food to pulp +or chyme; it is one of the many forces in the service of nature. It must +be remembered that digestion, however well commenced in the stomach, is +not perfected there; that, in the words of Dr. Mason Good, "it ranges +through a wide spread of organs closely sympathizing with each other, +and each, when disordered, giving rise to dyspepsia." After the +formation of chyme, and the food has passed the pyloric orifice of the +stomach, it undergoes a new process in the duodenum, when it is +converted into chyle, probably by the action of the bile, although this +is a point not absolutely determined by physiological experiment; even +now, digestion is only half finished, the lacteals (a class of absorbing +vessels particularly numerous in the duodenum, and also existing in the +larger intestines) take up this fluid, for the purpose of conveying it +into the thoracic duct, which terminates in the left subclavian vein, +nor is the total process of digestion completed, until, in the language +of the author above quoted, "it has been exposed to the action of the +atmosphere, travelling, for this purpose, through the lungs, when it +becomes completely assimilated with the vital fluids." Hence, although +the meaning of dyspepsia must be restricted, as its derivations demand; +the term, digestion, bears a much more extensive signification than it +generally receives, and any error in its process may be properly +denominated indigestion; however, Mr. Halsted regards the term dyspepsia +as equivalent to indigestion, and we may, for once, adopt the same +phraseology. Now, as digestion is of so complicated a nature, how will +Mr. H. explain his reference to the muscular coat of the stomach as a +chief cause of its derangement? Is he so admirable a pathologist as to +discriminate, when called to a case of dyspepsia, whether, to use his +own words, "it consists in a diminished quantity or vitiated state of +the gastric fluid, in a morbid secretion from the inner coats of the +stomach, or from a peculiar acid generated there; whether chronic +inflammation of the mucous membrane of that organ, or a torpid state of +the liver and a deficient secretion of the bile occasion it: it would +appear that such conditions _may_ exist, and then produce their +different symptoms, requiring a _modified_ treatment;" but it frequently +happens that these cases, slight in themselves, determine principally to +the stomach, and are not apparent to the keenest eye in any other organ +upon the first attack. Besides, it is the practice of Mr. Halsted, when +he discovers that the digestive apparatus is not originally in fault, +but that a chronic inflammation of the stomach, or a torpor of the +liver, prevails, to _modify_ his treatment; this, at all events, is new +doctrine, to treat inflammation and torpor upon _modified_ principles. +If, however, diagnosis is so slight an affair in his hands, let him, +without delay, inform his countrymen at what college he studied, and +what were his plans of improvement.--Pathology is a difficult science, +and needs mentors to point out the best paths for its attainment. + +The muscular coat of the stomach has undoubtedly its proper office to +perform, and, failing in its functions, it may, in conjunction with +other causes, lead to dyspepsia; but to fix upon this, in particular, is +to negative the effects of other organs, and to deceive both your +patient and yourself. + +One of the most important discoveries in this work appears under the +title of "the state of the abdominal muscles during dyspepsia;" which is +pronounced to be a very characteristic feature of the disease, never yet +noticed by writers on the subject, or particularly attended to by +physicians. It would certainly have been somewhat strange for medical +writers to enlarge upon a symptom of one disease, which absolutely +belongs to another; or for physicians to attend to what they could not +detect; and it is equally singular, that this very characteristic +feature should only have favoured Mr. Halsted and his patients with a +visitation. Whenever the muscles of the abdomen are in a state of +constriction, as described by him, the usual cause is spasm of some part +of the intestinal canal, produced by _colic_, either of an accidental +nature, arising from some acrid ingesta, which irritate the bowels +without producing diarrhoea, attended with griping pains and +distention, and _spasmodic contraction of the abdominal muscles_, with +costiveness; or of a bilious form, closely allied to bilious diarrhoea +and cholera (Gregory.) These are the varieties of colic which have been +confounded with dyspepsia, particularly the first described; the symptom +alluded to has little or nothing to do with the office of the stomach, +but depends chiefly upon acrid substances, which have passed from that +organ, to exercise their pernicious qualities upon the intestines; the +sufferings of Mr. Halsted, so pathetically described, may at once be +referred to a fit of the colic, which a due want of care rendered very +frequent. + +Pass we now to the treatment, premising that a ride in a stage-coach led +to the discovery of its advantages, and taking care, at the same time, +of our abdominal muscles, lest the exertion of laughter should occasion +one of the muscular spasms so much dreaded by our author. The plan is +divided into four compartments; tickling, pickling, ironing, and +throwing up the bowels. The tickling is performed by gentle taps and +slight pushes in the pit of the stomach. (Who could bear it? It would +throw nine patients out of ten into convulsions!) The pickling, by +wrapping up the patient from the chest to the hips with flannel cloths, +wrung out in a mixture of equal parts of hot vinegar and water. (This at +all events tends to _keep_ him.) The ironing, by spreading a coarse dry +towel on the bowels, and passing over them "a bottle filled with boiling +water, or, what is better, a common flat-iron, such as is used in +smoothing linen, _heated as warm as can well be borne_, for fifteen or +twenty minutes." Make an ironing-board of a patient's bowels! This is +worse than all: a man might consent to be tickled and pickled--but to +iron him for twenty minutes--mercy on us! the very thought is sudorific. + +The throwing up of the bowels comes the last: fancy Mr. Halsted seated +on the right side of his patient, and facing him; then placing his right +hand upon the lower part of the abdomen, in such a manner, as to effect +a lodgment (we quote his words) as it were, under the bowels, suffering +them to rest directly upon the edge of the extended palm, and then, by a +quick but not violent motion of the hand, in an upward direction, the +bowels are thrown up much in the same manner as in riding on horseback, +a sensation being communicated like that produced by a slight blow. (It +is difficult to imagine who is entitled to the greatest admiration, the +practitioner or the patient.) This treatment, it is said, will generally +effect an increase in the strength of the pulse, a warmth in the +extremities, and a gentle perspiration. So we should imagine: if such a +mode of riding, with one's bowels in another man's hands, will not +produce perspiration, what will? The position of the sufferer, during +the last most remarkable process, may be occasionally altered, the +practitioner taking his station behind him; or he may be placed with his +back against the wall, whilst all these freedoms are taken with his +bowels. Nay, more,--he may be instructed to perform the operation on his +own person. + + "Wer't not for laughing, I should pity him." + +This, then, is the Halstedian treatment! + +The former rules of quackery, reduced to the administration of sundry +pills or elixirs, must be abandoned in favour of the manipulating and +scouring process of the great medical wizard of the day, who relieves by +a tap, and cures by a flat-iron; and although it may be difficult to +conceive the chain of ideas by which the imagination can connect the +bumpings of a stage-coach with the operations we have described, we may +exclaim,-- + + "Your art + As well may teach an ass to scour the plain, + And bend obedient to the forming rein," + +as cure dyspepsia; still, we must yield our admiration to the novelty of +invention, and to the ingenuity of application of these stomach and +bowel working wonders. + +It unfortunately happens sometimes, that the dyspepsia is connected with +inflamed stomach, in which case the _punching_ practice is death. We +have heard from eminent physicians, that several lives have, within +their knowledge, been endangered by it. Moreover, the real indecency of +the Halstedian process, particularly in the case of women, has greatly +shocked even the medical observers. + +Before we dismiss this book from actual review, we will devote a short +space to its probable effect upon the public, and upon the best means of +counteracting its tendency. + +Man, like a child, is amused by a novelty, and "tickled by a straw." His +"reason too often stoops not" to inquiry before a ready surrender, and +what is least comprehensible will occasionally receive the readiest +credence: bare assertion is admitted without proof, the rhodomontade of +enthusiasts passes for gospel, and the "leather and prunella" of +impostors are regarded as commodities of sterling value. No wonder, +then, that success attends a certain race, who are willing to prey upon +the infirmity of reason; that the mountebanks of former days are +emulated by the quacks of the present time; that Mr. Halsted has met +with abundance of patients, and a ready sale for his work: a hope of +relief from disease acts as a stimulant to faith, but "Hope is a +cur-tail dog in some affairs." + +It is said of Dr. Cameron, one of the most remarkable charlatans of his +day, that when reproached by a physician concerning his deception on the +public, he replied, "Out of twenty persons who pass this house in an +hour, nineteen are fools who come to me, whilst the one wise man applies +to you--which has the better practice? Believe me, doctor, that although +the wise seek the wise in your person, the fools will find me out." How +exactly is this assertion fulfilled in the present day! The wise man, +who values his health as his greatest earthly blessing, scorns to resign +it to the care of one who knows not the value of the trust; who cannot +comprehend the principles upon which it depends, the cause which +deranges it; or discover the particular organ requiring assistance: +common sense interposes a bar to any communication between a wise man +and a charlatan; while the multitude will flock to the snare, or swallow +the bait; first the gulls, and then the victims; the nostrums, injurious +or poisonous as they may be, find ready mouths for their reception; the +dogmas, willing ears; and the system of Mr. Halsted, ready sufferers. Is +it not to be lamented, that a man who claims a caste above this +multitude, will sometimes forget himself so far as to follow their +route, heedless of the lines of Horace?-- + + "When in a wood we leave the certain way + One error fools us, though we various stray." + +He madly leaves the track of reason to tread in the steps of folly; but +_he_ may perhaps retrace them, and if an injured, yet a wiser man. Not +so the generality,--they pursue an _ignis fatuus,_ which, dazzling their +perceptions as it lures them on, at last leaves them in the mire (from +which no skill perhaps can extricate them) to curse themselves and their +deceiver. + +The exertion of medical science is sufficient for the removal of +diseases capable of cure, and is unaccompanied by the risk of leaving +others in their place: quackery, on the contrary, attempts what it +cannot, from ignorance, perform, and frequently establishes a malady of +more serious character than the one it professed to relieve. The medical +man, aware of the structure of the human form, of the disposition and +arrangement of its several parts in a state of health, is gradually led +to a consideration of their condition in disease: that grand master, +experience, enables him to discriminate between the cause and effect of +morbid action; a long attention to the detail of practice gives him +power over a list of remedies whose properties he has ascertained by +observation; and in addition to all this, his daily thoughts are engaged +in the investigation of sickness in its many forms, and, frequently, his +midnight oil expended, while he peruses the observations, and profits by +the researches of others. Again, the advertising quack is frequently an +unlettered, never a well-informed man, at least on medical topics: his +education, his habits, his purposes, are all foreign to science; the +first has not been devoted to the accomplishment of a particular duty; +the second have not received that polish, or acquired that delicacy so +necessary in the hour of sickness and distress; and the third are +directed solely to the purposes of gain, rather than to the noble aim of +assisting his fellow-creatures; and yet such a character finds support. +To the individual who can depend upon his abilities we may exclaim, +"tibi seris, tibi metis," and so dismiss him to his fate. + +After all that has been said of the exertions of the charlatan to abuse +the confidence of mankind, particularly as far as dyspepsia is +concerned, it is due to the medical profession, to state what claims +they may fairly advance, to entitle them to the good opinion of the +public, in the cure of this much talked of affection. + +A physician, who understands what he is about, knows very well, when a +case of this nature comes before him, that it may proceed from a variety +of causes; that it may arise in the stomach from a want of digestive +power, from the small intestines by a partial failure in the process of +chymification; that it may depend upon the morbid action of the large +intestines, or exist merely as a symptom of an affection in other +organs. Sedentary habits, or irregularities of diet, are causes which +may be supposed to act locally on the digestive organs themselves; but +the history of a case will generally show that the derangement of the +digestive organs is secondary. When it arises from local irritation, it +can only be produced through the medium of the sensorium; when it is +idiopathic, it frequently originates in causes which affect the nervous +system primarily; such as anxiety, too great exertion of body and mind, +and impure air; in many instances, the nervous irritation which has +induced the disease, being trivial, is only kept up by the reaction of +its effects. Thus says Abernethy, one of the luminaries of modern +medical science. + +The first duty of a physician, therefore, is to ascertain from what +source indigestion proceeds, and to frame his treatment accordingly. To +act upon one system of cure, like our friend Mr. Halsted, in a disease +arising from such a variety of circumstances, would be as reasonable as +applying splints to an arm, when the thigh happens to be fractured; but +enough, we would hope, has been said to disabuse the mind of the public +of a predilection for these pretenders. Dyspepsia is a disease that has +existed for ages, and through ages has it readily been cured. In its +simple form there is no mystery about it, and when it becomes +complicated, it requires more than the knowledge of a quack to master +it. Confidence in a medical attendant, and an adherence to his +directions, will surely suffice now, as in former times; and if the +public will restrain a longing after novelty, and abandon those "who +rather talk than act, and rather kill than cure," in short, who work +upon their prejudices by artifice, we shall hear less of dyspepsia, +simply because it exists too frequently but in their own fancies. True, +there is a certain class, with such mental, as well as bodily +infirmities, who, worn down by depraved habits, or suffering under +weakened intellects, will permit the wildest chimeras to haunt them; +hypochondriacs may be met with every day, and these may be fit patients +for the charlatan, or legally subjected to the tickling, pickling, and +ironing of Mr. Halsted: extraordinary maladies may justify extraordinary +experiments. + +The absurd and improper treatment proposed in the work we have noticed, +can afford but little hope to any but the hypochondriacal dyspeptic; he +may fly to any measures, however desperate or ludicrous; for "a mind +diseased no medicine can cure." Let others, however, who cannot plead a +malady of the mind as an excuse for resorting to such practice, be +informed, that in most of the affections arising from, or confounded +with dyspepsia, it is unavailing, and may prove injurious. There are +many diseases which it is impossible that Mr. Halsted can distinguish +from dyspepsia, and to which he would apply his irons and bottles, +towels and vinegar, at the risk of his patient's safety. + +His views may be sound if adapted to the animal economy of a horse, but +are certainly unsuitable to the constitution of a man. + +We would say, then, to the public, in conclusion; be cautious how you +trust your health and lives with those who neither comprehend the nature +of the one, nor the value of the other--and who would exclaim behind +your backs, with Shakspeare's Autolycus, merely altering the description +of his wares:-- + + "Ha! ha! what a fool Honesty is! and Trust, his sworn brother, + a very simple gentleman! I have sold all my trumpery; not a + counterfeit stone, not a riband, glass, pomander, brooch, + table-book, ballad, knife, tape, glove, shoe-tie, bracelet, + horn-ring, to keep my pack from fasting: they throng who should + buy first, as if my trinkets had been hallowed, and brought a + benediction to the buyer; by which means, I saw whose purse was + best in picture, and, what I saw, to my good use I remembered." + +To the gentle pretenders themselves, we have but a few words to say at +parting:-- + + "Out you impostors, + Quack-salving cheating mountebanks--your skill + Is to make sound men sick, and sick men, kill." + + + + +ART. X.--BANK OF THE UNITED STATES. + +1.--_Report of the Committee of Ways and Means of the House of +Representatives of the United States, to which was referred so much of +the President's Message as relates to the Bank of the United States._ +April 13th, 1830: pp. 31. 8vo. + +2.--_Message of the President of the United States to both Houses of +Congress._ December 8th, 1830. + + +When the President first presented the question of re-chartering the +Bank of the United States to the national legislature, at the opening of +the session of 1829-30, the measure was viewed very differently by +different men. We do not speak of the vulgar herd of politicians, great +and small, who approve or condemn indiscriminately all measures of the +government, but of that more elevated and independent class, who ask +nothing of any administration than that it shall do its duty; and who +judge of its acts as they seem to be legal, useful, and wise. To some +the president's course appeared to be highly objectionable. The bank +charter had then six years to run, and, consequently, they said, neither +this congress nor the next had any control over the subject. Nor could +it furnish matter of legislation, they added, whilst president Jackson +remained in office, unless he should, by being elected for a second +term, give his sanction to a principle which he had pronounced impolitic +and dangerous. To have brought forward the subject, under these +circumstances, with no very doubtful intimation of his own wishes, was +as unnecessary as it was unusual, and implied a want of confidence in +those who were ultimately to decide the question. + +To others, however, this early notice of the subject seemed to be +justified by its importance, and they thought that the public could not +be too soon engaged in discussing the merits of a question which in so +many ways concerned the general welfare. Of this opinion seemed to be +the committee of the house of representatives, to which this part of the +message was referred, and which, after giving the subject a full +consideration, reported in favour of renewing the charter of the present +bank, and against the substitute for it which the president had ventured +to suggest. + +The subject being thus fairly before the people, and in fact undergoing +a very thorough investigation in the public journals, it was expected +that the president would be contented with having done his duty on the +occasion, and, if not silenced by the gentle dissuasive of the senate, +or the bold and uncompromising logic of the house, he would merely +regret that truth should be so hoodwinked by prejudice, or that error +should have found so many apologists and supporters in those august +bodies, and that he would leave the question where it properly belonged, +and where he himself had placed it--with "the legislature and the +people." It was, then, with no little surprise, perceived, that the +succeeding annual message, which is at the head of this article, had +brought the same subject to the notice of the legislature, consisting +precisely of the same individuals as before, when nothing was pretended +to have occurred to induce them to change their former opinion, and when +the only reason which had been given, at the preceding session, for +inviting the consideration of what neither required nor admitted +immediate legislation, no longer existed. Public attention had been +fully drawn to the subject. The stockholders of the bank, who are +profiting by the good management of the institution, and who naturally +wish the charter renewed, had taken the alarm, and, trusting to the +omnipotence of truth, had every where invited investigation and +discussion--and all those who hoped to profit by the new national bank, +or who felt themselves bound to second the wishes of the administration, +had opposed the renewal of the charter, through the prints devoted to +the same cause. + +When the avowed purpose of the president had been thus completely +answered, by his first communication to congress, it is natural to ask +what could have prompted the second? Were the majorities in both houses +of congress personally hostile to the president, or unfriendly to his +administration; and was it necessary for him to defend himself from +party prejudice by an appeal to the people? That could not be; for it is +notorious that the president's friends, personal or political, are most +numerous in both houses, and this advantage is a daily theme of party +boast and congratulation. Were the chairmen of the respective committees +his political opponents, and did they insidiously endeavour to bring his +party into discredit for the purpose of advancing their own? But they +were among his most zealous adherents--nay, it may be questioned whether +there was a single individual in the United States to whom the president +was more indebted for the vindication of his character before the +people, than to Mr. M'Duffie, who wrote one of the reports;--unless it +might be to Mr. Adams, when secretary of state. Was it then expected, +that the house of representatives, which had disregarded his +recommendation, would now approve his project? It is impossible that the +president or his advisers could have believed they would carry their +complaisance so far. They must have known that the subject would be +referred to the same committee, composed of the same persons, as that of +the preceding year, and who would be likely, if they reported at all, +not only to support their first opinions by further arguments, but to +express their disapprobation of a course so wanting in respect to the +legislature, and so little calculated to promote harmony between the +different branches of the government. As, then, we are compelled to give +the negative to all these suppositions, we must infer that the object of +this extraordinary course has been to influence public opinion. It seems +essential to the views of the present executive of the United States, to +put down the present national bank, and to erect another on its ruins; +and this favourite purpose it hopes to attain by bringing the +president's personal and official influence to bear on the question; +and, under the forms of the constitution, to appeal from his party in +congress, to his party in the nation. + +On the dignity or good faith of this course we will not make any +comment; but since the question is thus brought before the people, we +will cheerfully meet it, and inquire how far the measure recommended by +the president, against the opinions of the immediate representatives of +the people, seems calculated to advance the public interest, or to +promote a distinct and peculiar interest. We shall fearlessly, though +temperately, examine the president's propositions, both as to the +existing national bank and its proposed substitute; and we shall look at +the subject with a single eye to the public good, for we have no other +interest in the question than what is common to every citizen of the +United States. We know that there is much good sense in this nation, +and although there is a full share of prejudice too, yet no one need +despair, that the former, if properly addressed, will eventually +prevail. + +That part of the Message which relates to the bank is in these words,-- + + "The importance of the principles involved in the inquiry, + whether it will be proper to re-charter the Bank of the United + States, requires that I should again call the attention of + congress to the subject. Nothing has occurred to lessen, in any + degree, the dangers which many of our citizens apprehended from + that institution, as at present organized. In the spirit of + improvement and compromise which distinguishes our country and + its institutions, it becomes us to inquire whether it be not + possible to secure the advantages afforded by the present bank + through the agency of a bank of the United States, so modified + in its principles and structure as to obviate constitutional + and other objections. + + "It is thought practicable to organize such a bank, with the + necessary officers, as a branch of the treasury department, + based on the public and individual deposits, without power to + make loans or purchase property, which shall remit the funds of + the government, and the expenses of which may be paid, if + thought advisable, by allowing its officers to sell bills of + exchange to private individuals at a moderate premium. Not + being a corporate body, having no stockholders, debtors, or + property, and but few officers, it would not be obnoxious to + the constitutional objections which are urged against the + present bank; and having no means to operate on the hopes, + fears, or interests, of large masses of the community, it would + be shorn of the influence which makes that bank formidable. The + states would be strengthened by having in their hands the means + of furnishing the local paper currency through their own banks; + while the bank of the United States, though issuing no paper, + would check the issues of the state banks, by taking their + notes in deposit, and for exchange, only so long as they + continue to be redeemed with specie. In times of public + emergency, the capacities of such an institution might be + enlarged by legislative provisions. + + "These suggestions are made, not so much as a recommendation, + as with a view of calling the attention of congress to the + possible modifications of a system, which cannot continue to + exist in its present form without occasional collisions with + the local authorities, and perpetual apprehensions and + discontent on the part of the states and the people." + +When the president's views, as here disclosed, are analyzed, they seem +to involve the following propositions, to each of which we will give a +separate consideration. + +1. That the present Bank of the United States is unconstitutional. + +2. That it exercises a dangerous influence. + +3. That it creates discontent with the people, and collisions with the +states. + +4. That such a bank as is proposed in its place, is free from all these +objections. + +1. On the constitutionality of the bank, we have little to add to the +remarks made on the subject in our last number. The arguments then urged +having received no answer, and being, as we conceive, unanswerable, we +must consider that the more the question is investigated, the more it +will be found that a power which has been recognised by every branch of +the government, and at some time or other, by every party that has +administered the affairs of the nation, will be found to be correct. We +cannot, however, forbear to add one other, because of its peculiar +fitness to the present occasion. + +It is known, that the power of the general government to establish a +national bank, mainly turns on that clause of the Constitution of the +United States, which gives congress the power "to make all laws which +shall be _necessary and proper_ for carrying into execution" the powers +specifically granted--one party deducing the constitutionality of the +bank from a liberal interpretation of the word "necessary," and the +other drawing the opposite inference from their interpreting the same +word in a narrower sense; both reasoning justly from their respective +premises, and both agreeing, that on the true meaning of that term, rest +the merits of the controversy. + +Whenever a doubt occurs about the meaning of a phrase in a written +instrument, it has always been considered a good rule of interpretation, +to refer to the use of the same phrase in other parts of the same +instrument, for the purpose of discovering the sense attached to it by +those who used it. Applying this rule, we find in the article concerning +the duties and powers of the president, (3d section) that "he shall, +from time to time, give to the congress information of the state of the +Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall +judge _necessary and_ expedient." It is by virtue of this power thus +granted, and of this alone, that the president has recommended the +creation of a new bank to the legislature. Now, it will not be pretended +that he could have judged this recommendation to be _necessary_, in the +strictest sense of the term, but at most, that it was highly useful and +important. It must then be admitted, either that the narrow +interpretation of the word "necessary," relied on by those who deny the +constitutionality of the bank, is erroneous, or that the president +himself has violated the constitution in the recommendation he has made. +If it be insisted, that he had the constitutional right to recommend a +measure, which both houses of congress had pronounced highly +inexpedient, because he believed it prudent, and politic, and +salutary--the ground on which he himself places it--then the same +liberal interpretation of the term "necessary," which we admit to be the +true one, will make the bank constitutional. We have resorted to this +rule, not so much because it furnishes an argument _ad hominem_ which is +irresistible, as for the higher purpose of throwing light on one of the +most controverted parts of the constitution. + +But admitting, for the sake of argument, the constitutionality of the +bank to be one of those difficult and complicated questions about which +men's minds may always be divided, and that there are reasons on either +side, sufficient, if not to convince, to perplex and bewilder, and to +afford pretexts for those who seek some sinister or selfish ends--and of +such character are most constitutional questions--we would ask, if this +is never to have a termination? Are questions of this kind to be always +unsettled, so that no length of time, however sufficient to quiet +private controversies, shall put an end to those which most nearly +concern the tranquillity and permanence of the Union? + +On this subject of constitutional questions generally, we would trespass +awhile on the patience of our readers. It involves far higher +considerations than whether this or that individual shall be +president--this party or that shall exert a transient sway over the +destinies of the country. Our remarks are independent of men, or times, +or circumstances; and they are addressed to men of no party--to the +intelligent and patriotic of all parties--to that fund of good sense +which has ever characterized this nation. + +As every officer of the government takes an oath to support the +constitution, his conscience is appealed to, and that which he honestly +and truly believes to be the meaning of the obligation he has incurred, +must influence his votes and acts under the constitution. It is +seriously and earnestly maintained by many of our citizens, that every +man's own interpretation of the constitution must be his guide; and no +matter what the public tribunals have determined--no matter for what +length of time, or by what degree of unanimity a particular +interpretation may have prevailed, it is to weigh as nothing with him, +so far as it seems contrary to the conviction of his own mind. But is +this a true understanding of the character of a written constitution, +and of the oath which it enjoins? If so, would not the means devised to +secure its more faithful observance be the most likely to defeat its +provisions; and would it not make such a constitution the most +impracticable and absurd form of government that human folly ever +devised? Let us consider the consequences of this doctrine. + +In the first place, let us call to mind the great number of +constitutional questions which have arisen during the short period of +little more than forty years, since the Federal government went into +operation. In General Washington's administration, the most prominent of +those questions were suggested by the establishment of a national +bank--by the carriage tax--the proclamation of neutrality--and the +appropriations to carry the British treaty into effect: in that of Mr. +Adams, the elder, the alien and sedition laws: in Mr. Jefferson's, the +repeal of the Judiciary law--the embargo for an indefinite period--the +purchase of Louisiana: in Mr. Madison's, the United States Bank again, +the power of the federal government over the militia of a state--the +right of that government to construct roads: in Mr. Monroe's, the right +in congress to pass the bankrupt law--to lay a duty on imports for the +encouragement of manufactures--to appropriate money for the relief of +the poor of the district of Columbia: and in Mr. John Quincy Adams's, +the Cherokee treaty--the nullification doctrine--the power of appointing +public officers, together with several of the others previously +mentioned. + +To these questions we might add many of minor importance or interest, +and that multitude which have arisen and been decided in the Supreme +Court of the United States. But if the number is already so great, what +will it be a century or two hence? Let it be remembered, too, that each +of these legislative questions may give rise to many others connected +with them, and that each one may be multiplied to infinity in the courts +of justice. Thus, if protecting duties for the encouragement of +manufactures are unconstitutional, the duty claimed on every bale of +imported goods may be called in question. + +Whenever, then, any of these constitutional questions can be made, it +would be competent for the party interested, by the doctrines of these +political puritans, to make them. So that in every controversy, public +or private, every conflict of right or interest, as the question of +constitutionality would be completely open to the judge, and in criminal +cases, to the jury, either party may take his chance of success by +urging that interpretation of the constitution which best suits him, and +the same question would, of course, be decided one way in one place, and +another way in another. One man would be convicted for an offence for +which another would go unpunished; and one citizen, or one state, be +subjected to taxes under the constitution, from which others would be +shielded by the same instrument. + +Does any one doubt, that if a constitution is left to the unrestricted +interpretation of every one who swears to support it, there would be +this diversity? Let him look at the various commentaries on the same +text in the New Testament. Let him look at the various interpretations +of the same decrees of the Senate by the Edicts of the Pretors in Roman +jurisprudence--to say nothing of those countless decisions of the civil +law, by which, before the time of Justinian, it was buried beneath its +own rubbish. Let him look at the voluminous reports in our own language +on the written, as well as common law--on the infinite number of +questions that have arisen, and are yet arising on a single statute, or +even one of its sections,--let him consider these apposite examples, and +ask whether our constitution is likely to share a different fate? Such, +indeed, is the indefinite nature of language, the ever-varying character +of human concerns, and the subtlety of the human intellect, that it is +utterly impossible to pen a constitution on which numerous questions +would not arise, which no sagacity of man could foresee, and which his +language is too vague to provide for. + +Constitutional questions then must arise, and the true point of inquiry +is, whether our constitution meant that they should be finally settled, +or whether they are to remain suspended between heaven and earth, until +they are compelled to make their appearance by the necromancy of legal +subtlety, or occasionally laid in the Red Sea. + +But the evil would not stop with the federal government. We know that +each state has also its own constitution, and that if their legislatures +or executives transcend their powers, their acts, by the doctrines we +are considering, are utterly void. They cannot exceed the limits of +their charter, and those limits they have no exclusive right to define. +Who that has attended the deliberations of a state legislature, and +remarked the frequent recurrence of constitutional questions about their +powers, but must see that there is scarcely any law concerning property, +or office, or crime, on which ingenuity may not raise a doubt respecting +either the letter or spirit of the constitution? And the same +uncertainty and want of uniformity which would arise in the federal +government, would arise in a much greater ratio in that of a state; so +that no man could say certainly what were his duties or his rights. If +such a state of things may now ensue, how would it be when the +population of a single state should amount to several millions, and when +the spirit of litigation, united with the extension of legal science, +would give more than Norman acuteness to our constitutional lawyers? +When that era shall arrive, if this quibbling spirit that is now so +rife, shall not receive a timely check, where is the law, whose +authority may not be questioned? Now is the time to arrest it, before +our habits become indurated, and while our national character has that +ductility which the changes our country is ever undergoing, naturally +produces. Whoever is capable of taking a wide survey of human affairs, +and of comparing ages and nations, must perceive that every generation +of the civilized world is becoming more and more metaphysical--that the +understanding is more appealed to, and has greater sway than formerly, +and the imagination less. The age of magic, and witches, and ghosts, has +passed away. That of poetry is on the wane. Speculation has taken the +place of taste. What once passed unheeded, or was perceived only as it +was felt, must now be analyzed, and sifted, and decompounded, until we +have reached its elements, and a reason is required for every thing. +Such is the spirit of the age, and it is eminently favourable to +constitutional doubts and scruples. + +We may already perceive the progress of this captious, inquisitive, +hair-splitting spirit, in the brief chronicle of the federal +government. When congress met, immediately after the formation of the +constitution, in laying an impost, they endeavoured so to lay it, as to +give encouragement to those species of industry for which the country +seemed best suited, and their successors continued the same policy for +about thirty years, when it was discovered, (we think by a member from +Maine) that the policy was contrary to the constitution. The discovery +was soon welcomed by many of the politicians of the South, and it has +since been so cordially embraced by them, that the opposite opinion is +now looked upon as downright political heresy. + +A bankrupt law was passed during the first Mr. Adams's administration, +by virtue of the express power given to congress on that subject. When +Mr. Jefferson came into power, the law was repealed as inexpedient, +because it was believed to produce as much fraud and mischief in some +ways as it prevented in others. But nobody had then discovered that the +law was unconstitutional. Yet in 1822, that doctrine was broached and +zealously maintained by three or four members from the South, so as to +induce Mr. Lowndes, who was himself opposed to a bankrupt law, to +disavow the doctrines of his associates. That exemplary man, the +character of whose mind was sufficiently inclined to refined +speculation, if it had not been so tempered by candour and sound +practical sense, never lost sight of the end of government, in his view +of the means; and he believed that in interpreting the constitution, we +ought not to look at it through a microscope, for this plain reason, if +for no other, because those who are finally to decide on it look at it +with their ordinary eyes. Accordingly, in the first half of his speech, +he aimed to show that congress had the power to pass the law, and in the +last, that they ought not to exercise it. + +Again: Mr. Jefferson gave his sanction to the Cumberland road, to be +made at the national expense, provided the states through which it would +pass gave their express assent to it. The states of Virginia, Maryland, +and Pennsylvania, did pass laws giving such consent. It was not then +considered that congress had not the power of appropriating the money in +the treasury to all purposes of general utility, provided they did not +assume any other power, in the exercise of this; and it is clear that +Mr. Jefferson did not think that the construction of a road, _with the +consent_ of the states through which it passed, was such an exercise of +power. Yet after the road was made, by this growing disposition to +strict construction, it was discovered that congress had no power to +make such appropriations, under the constitution, and if the power could +not be derived from that instrument, the consent of the states +interested could not give it. It is here worthy of remark, that many of +those who maintained that the general government possessed the power of +making roads, independently of the states, concurred in the preceding +position; and thus a majority was obtained who agreed that congress +could use the public money for no purpose, which they had not the +independent power of executing. Each party hoped to derive strength by +this decision. The one, because it advanced a step forward in strict +construction; and the other, looking to the influence of the practical +benefits to be derived from the exercise of the power of making roads +and canals, flattered themselves that many, when they found themselves +not able to attain their object by mere appropriations, would, rather +than forego the promised benefits altogether, support a still more +enlarged construction of the constitution; and the issue seems so far to +have justified their expectations. + +We will give one more example. It had been supposed that the +vice-president, as presiding officer of the senate, had, by the force of +the term itself, the power of keeping order and regulating the debate; +yet three or four years ago, it was discovered by that officer, or some +of his friends, that he did not possess that power, in certain cases, +and he accordingly forbore to exercise it. + +These remarks are made in no invidious spirit. We do not mean to give +any opinions on these questions. In some of them, indeed, we scarcely +know whether, in this age of nice discrimination, our impressions +deserve to be called opinions. But we merely meant to refer to facts +which are a part of the history of the country. They go to show, that +constitutional doubts and difficulties are continually increasing, not +only from the new positions and aspects of things in the endless +vicissitudes of human affairs, but also by the progress of refinement in +reasoning; because much is now considered unconstitutional that was not +deemed so formerly. + +If this doubting, disputatious spirit--this habit of questioning every +thing whenever a quibble can be raised--should continue to advance, +where is the law, which, after fighting its way through both houses of +the legislature, and, perhaps, escaping the veto, may not be eventually +contested and defeated? We know that in many of the states there are +_Bills of Rights_, which are considered to have equal authority with +their constitutions. Some, indeed, regard them as settling the +principles of primordial law, which the constitution itself cannot +countervail. These, then, may also be appealed to for the purpose of +proving the unconstitutionality of a state law; and in the inferences +which ingenuity, or even stupidity, may draw from such broad and +indefinite principles, the clearest right may be disputed, and the most +atrocious crime defended. The right of a community to take the life of +any one of its citizens has been gravely denied, and the argument rests +for its support on the imprescriptible and immutable rights of man. If +the net-work of the laws shall be thus chafed and frittered away, little +fish, as well as big ones, may break through it when and where they +please. + +We are aware, that, in the ordinary concerns of life, nature and reason +will often assert their empire. They cannot be altogether cheated out of +their rights by sophisms and quibbling. But the latter will but too +often prevail. They have prevailed, are yet prevailing; and, if a +barrier is to be presented to their further progress, it must be by the +common sense of the nation, frowning into contempt this constitutional +casuistry, which would degrade our legislative halls into schools of +sophists--would employ the best powers of the human mind, not in +clearing up doubts, but in creating them--which considers that the most +obvious and direct meaning of the constitution is always the wrong one, +and that what the convention made the people say by that instrument, can +be understood but by one man in ten thousand, who cannot show he is +right, but by a commentary a hundred times as large as the text. It must +be by going further, and saying that after a question has been fully +discussed and solemnly decided--after it has been recognised by every +department of the government--and acquiesced in by the people, it should +be considered as the best exposition the constitution is capable of, and +as no longer open to controversy: and if the decision was wrong, +according to a maxim of the common law, and which became common law only +because it was common sense, the universality of the error makes it +right. + +Let it not be supposed, that if a false or inconvenient construction is +put on the constitution, or its meaning is considered doubtful and +uncertain, the evil may be corrected by an amendment. Supposing it to +take place, may we not, like bad tinkers, in stopping one hole, make +two? We can judge of the probable success of this course, by the various +laws passed to alter, or amend, or repeal, previous emendatory acts. But +if the remedy were effectual when attained, is it attainable? What +probability is there that three-fourths of the states will concur in any +amendment, or that motives of interest--of party sympathy--of delusive +argument--or the mere _nonchalance_ of men about evils which are not +immediately pressing, would not unite more than one-fourth of the +states? Besides, if the constitution were always to be changed whenever +a serious question of its construction arose, and amendments were as +practicable as they are difficult, the time required for the operation +would leave us nothing else to do. A century would scarcely suffice to +settle the questions which may occur in a single year. + +There is another mischief, of no insignificant character, which results +from these excessive refinements in interpreting the constitution, and +from the doctrine that no length of time can settle its meaning. They +afford ready pretexts to cunning and timid politicians for screening +their real motives from the people. When they wish to evade +responsibility for their votes, they have nothing more to do than to +plead scruples of conscience, and the sacred obligation of an oath. +Where is the measure which a moderate degree of ingenuity may not +show--we may almost say--has not shown to be against the words, or the +meaning and spirit of the constitution? It is true, if the people +distrust the sincerity of this plea of conscience, or disapprove it, +they may remove their representative. But that remedy may come too late, +and may not always be applied. The people have always shown great +indulgence and forbearance towards this plea: besides, before the time +of re-election comes about, these inconvenient scruples may, in the din +of new contests, be forgotten, or remembered only to be forgiven, and, +by the hocus pocus of party, even metamorphosed into a recommendation. +When, then, it is so easy to take shelter behind the ark of the +constitution, ought we to enlarge the limits of this place of refuge for +cunning and cowardice? + +One more argument in favour of a fair, liberal, manly construction of +the constitution. There would be a certain degree of inconvenience +incident to every written constitution, if there were no difficulties in +its interpretation, and its language was always understood in the same +sense by all men. In making that distribution of its various powers +which is deemed most likely to secure a safe and healthy action, the +hands of its functionaries must often be tied up from doing that which +particular circumstances may make highly expedient. Some imperative +claim of humanity, some yet more pressing emergency of state, may call +for powers which the constitution has withheld. Mr. Jefferson considered +the acquisition of Louisiana to be a case of that character. He +questioned the power of acquiring foreign territory under the +constitution. But when he reflected that France could not retain +possession of Louisiana, and that hither the constitution must be +stretched, (his letter to W. C. Nicholas might almost justify a stronger +expression,) or we must submit to having the greatest commercial nation +in Europe--our most active rival in peace, our most powerful enemy in +war--posted on our right and left flank, and, by and by, in our +rear,--he sacrificed his opinions to the safety of the republic. The +present president was no doubt actuated by similar considerations, when +he pursued the Seminoles into the Spanish territory, and made war on the +country in which they had taken refuge--the occasion not appearing to +him to admit of the delay of a formal declaration by congress. Commodore +Porter may be presumed to have acted on the same principle in Cuba. No +one regards these as fit cases for precedents. All agree, that if we +have a constitution, its mandates should be obeyed, and that we must be +content to put up with its partial inconvenience, for the sake of its +general benefits. But surely we ought not to go to the other extreme, +and so fetter the constituted authorities of the nation, by a spirit of +interpretation which will deprive them of all salutary power, except by +usurping it. Let us not lose sight of "the expedient," in discussing +"the right;" but rather, as the common sense of mankind dictates in +ordinary cases of conscience or morality, be liberal in construing the +constitution, when its power is to be used for the good of the people, +and captious and astute only when its exercise may be pernicious. + +On these grounds, we earnestly beseech those who are friendly to our +political institutions--who believe that no other than the complex +government we have adopted can unite the adaptation of laws to local +circumstances with the strength and security of a great empire, to +discountenance the pestilent and absurd doctrine that the constitution +is to be on all points forever unsettled. We beseech them to save this +monument of our country's wisdom--this instrument of its safety, its +liberty, and its future greatness, from the peril and reproach to which +it is thus exposed. It is in their power to protect it from an evil +which would convert a government intended to secure domestic peace, into +one of perpetual civil strife, and which would confide the destinies of +the country to sophists, and quibblers, and casuists--or rather to those +political managers who would use them as tools to persuade the people +that a good measure was unconstitutional, that they might pursue a bad +one with impunity. + +2. The next objection is, that the bank possesses a "formidable" +influence on the community. It must be admitted, that this complaint of +bank influence is not now brought forward for the first time. It was a +favourite theme of the demagogue, from the time the first Bank of the +United States was established, until its charter expired, when it +appeared that its influence was not equal to its own preservation. + +If, indeed, no other corporation had the right to issue notes of +circulation, then the power of enlarging or contracting the common +currency at pleasure would be a very great one--greater than ought to be +put into the hands of any others than persons chosen by the people, or +their representatives, and responsible to them. But as the bank and its +offices are every where surrounded by competitors, some of which have a +yet larger capital than themselves, they have no such exclusive control +over the amount of money in circulation, and their influence, whatever +it may be, can be exerted only as to its quality. It is precisely on +this last influence that the friends of the bank mainly rely for the +public favour. + +Let us inquire a little further into the extent of the bank's influence. +The principal functions of this institution, except the services it +renders the government, consist in discounting promissory notes, selling +or buying bills of exchange, and receiving deposits of coin, or of its +own notes, for safe keeping. It has no exclusive privilege of doing +either of these acts, as every state bank may do, and actually does the +same. But by means of its superior capital, and consequently its +superior credit and resources, it can, in some of its operations, either +undersell the other banks, or command a preference in the market;--aye, +there's the rub. The banks in some of the large cities have persuaded +themselves that if this "formidable" rival was out of the way, they +would be able to buy and sell more bills, and upon better terms than at +present. But if this consideration should make them an object of dread +and dislike to the state banks, it should also recommend them to the +favour of the public. Their notes, too, are generally preferred by +travellers, and for distant remittances. But neither does this fact +furnish any ground of dread to the community, whatever it may to their +rivals. + +It thus appears that they have the same advantage over other banks, +which one tradesman or mechanic occasionally has over others of the same +calling. He who does his work best, and sells it cheapest, will always +get the most and best custom; and it would be just as reasonable for his +rivals in business to complain of his making better wares, of being more +accommodating, and of underselling them, as for the other banks to +complain of the Bank of the United States. It is clear, that if the +rival banks are losers, the public is a gainer, unless they can succeed +in persuading the people, that competition, which is so salutary and +beneficial to the public in every other business, should be mischievous +only in this. The argument thus used against the Bank of the United +States, is precisely that which might have been used, and, we presume, +was used, by the owners of the Albany sloops against steam-boats; and +which might be used against canals and rail-roads, by those who would +find employment for their wagons in the former more expensive modes of +conveyance. + +But by an influence which is supposed to be so "formidable," is meant, +perhaps, a political and corrupt influence. If there be such a one, it +must be seen and felt; and we would ask in what way does it exert +itself? Does the bank use its money in the elections? If so, its +accounts must show it; and as there are men of all parties who own, or +may own, shares in the stock, let those who suspect this abuse +scrutinize those accounts for the purpose of detecting it. But those who +manage the banks, know very well, and so do those who accuse them, that +nine-tenths, or rather ninety-nine hundredths of the stockholders, would +not have given a five dollar note to get the president elected, or to +get him turned out. Your office-seekers, indeed, might pay pretty +liberally for such service, but they are seldom stockholders. These are, +for the most part, thrifty, cautious men, who choose to vest their money +in some fund which gives them regular returns; and they are content that +they shall be small, provided they be certain. The rest are widows, +guardians of orphan children, trustees of public institutions, and +merchants who have more capital than they can safely and profitably +employ. Now, who of these would allow a president and directors to +squander their money in a matter in which they felt little interest, and +that probably a divided one. No body believes this, and yet it is not +easy to say in what other mode they could exercise a corrupt influence. + +But if the stockholders were disposed to spend their money in +electioneering, can they be prevented from acting so foolishly by +putting down the bank? If the charter is not renewed, their money will +be returned to them, and they would then have both the power and the +inducement to use it for political purposes, which they cannot have +while it is supplying a currency to the country, and invigorating its +industry and commerce. But, in truth, it is well known, that those +persons do not make ducks and drakes of their money now, and are not +likely to do it then. + +It is true, that in case of an extraordinary demand for money, beyond +the means of supply by the state banks, the Bank of the United States +may sometimes prefer discounting the note of one man to that of +another--the paper of A to that of B; and that some of the directors +might have given the preference to A, because he was a neighbour--others +by his being a friend or relative, and others again by mere party +sympathies. But we believe that none of these things go very far at +bank. The object of its directors being to make money, they prefer the +paper of a rich man they hate, to that of a poor friend. Nor do they +widely differ from the rest of the world in this particular. But +granting that moral and political considerations do influence the bank +in its loans, who does not see that they could have no effect, except +when the supply of money for loan was not equal to the demand, and that +the mischief would be increased by putting down the richest and most +substantial bank in the country? + +Upon the whole, this cry against the influence of the bank, resolves +itself into that of wealth and property. These do exert a certain +influence in the community on some occasions, and it is more than +counteracted on others, by the jealousy and ill will it engenders. +Whatever influence wealth may have, it is inseparable from our present +condition, as we presume the United States are not yet prepared for the +Agrarian system, and every man will be permitted to enjoy the fruits of +his own industry, or that of his ancestors; but be it little or much, we +cannot reasonably expect to see it exerted more harmlessly or more +beneficially than in a solid, well managed bank. If, however, in spite +of all these considerations, the power of these institutions be thought +too great, and too liable to abuse, then there is no more effectual way +of weakening it than by diffusion. As most of the state banks are more +or less under the control of the state authorities, who may use the +influence of these banks for political purposes, it must be desirable to +all those who wish the public mind as free and unbiassed as possible, to +see this influence weakened, if not neutralized; and there seems no more +effectual mode of doing this than establishing a rival bank, over which +the state politicians could exercise no sort of authority. Let us, for +example, suppose that a system of banking was adopted for a state, by +which, under the colour of guarding the public against their insolvency, +those institutions were subjected to a _surveillance_ and control which +were calculated to make them feel their dependence on the state +government, and when the plan was matured, to make them obsequious to +its will. Would not every friend to the political purity of the state, +and the independent spirit of its citizens, wish to see a scheme of this +character frustrated? and what means so conducive to this end as the +Bank of the United States, which, in the first place, by bringing so +much capital into the market for loans, lessens the influence of all +banks, and, in the next, may perform its several functions without +regard to the smiles or frowns of any politicians whatever. + +This is probably the influence which is really objected to in the Bank +of the United States, that of disenthralling the people from an utter +dependence on the state banks for the various accommodations those +institutions afford--an influence which it appears to us no true friend +to his country should wish to see diminished, however inconvenient it +may be to those who would make banks and every thing else subservient to +their purposes. + +3. But the Bank of the United States, it seems, must be brought into +collision with the local authorities, and occasion perpetual +apprehensions and discontent on the part of the states and the people. +We know not upon what facts the president or his advisers have made this +statement. It is in direct contradiction to that made by the committee +of ways and means, who say-- + + "It is due to the persons, who for the last ten years, have + been concerned in the administration of the bank, to state, + that they have performed the delicate and difficult trust + committed to them, in such a manner as, at the same time, to + accomplish the great national ends for which it was + established, and promote the permanent interest of the + stockholders, with the least practicable pressure upon the + local banks. As far as the committee are enabled to form an + opinion, from careful inquiry, the bank has been liberal and + indulgent in its dealings with these institutions, and, with + scarcely an exception, now stands in the most amicable relation + to them. Some of those institutions have borne the most + disinterested and unequivocal testimony in favour of the bank. + + "It is but strict justice also to remark, that the direction of + the mother bank appears to have abstained, with scrupulous + care, from bringing the power and influence of the bank to bear + upon political questions, and to have selected, for the + direction of the various branches, business men in no way + connected with party politics. The Committee advert to this + part of the conduct of the directors, not only with a view to + its commendation, but for the purpose of expressing their + strong and decided conviction that the usefulness and stability + of such an institution will materially depend upon a steady and + undeviating adherence to the policy of excluding party politics + and political partisans from all participation in its + management. It is gratifying to conclude this branch of the + subject by stating, that the affairs of the present bank, under + the able, efficient, and faithful guidance of its two last + presidents and their associates, have been brought from a state + of great embarrassment into a condition of the highest + prosperity. Having succeeded in restoring the paper of the + local banks to a sound state, its resources are now such as to + justify the directors in extending the issue and circulation of + this paper so as to satisfy the wants of the community, both as + it regards bank accommodations and a circulating medium." + +The committee, coming immediately from the people, are somewhat more +likely to have accurate information on this subject than the president. +We have heard of no recent collisions between any state and the bank; +and those which formerly took place with the states of Ohio and +Maryland, respectively, have been long since settled in the Supreme +Court. The people of Tennessee, too, once objected, through their +representatives, to the location of a branch bank in that state; but a +subsequent legislature, believing that they better understood the +interests or wishes of their constituents, withdrew their opposition, +and the branch bank which was therefore established, is now in +successful operation. The legislature of Mississippi, in like manner, +has, within a few months, repealed a hostile act passed two years ago, +and invited the establishment of a branch. The executive council of +Florida, has recently requested a branch, and we understand that there +are numerous applications for branches from all parts of the Western and +Southern states. Surely the people of these and the neighbouring states +cannot seriously object, that a portion of the moneyed capital which has +been accumulated in the Atlantic states should be brought among them, to +encourage their industry and facilitate their trade--to enable their own +merchants to give them ready money, and a somewhat higher price for +their cotton--to furnish one man with the means of building a +mill--another a manufactory--and a third a steam-boat. We cannot believe +that they are such novices in political economy. If their citizens do +not want the money, they need not borrow it; and if they do, it is +better to find it at home, than to be dependant on New-York, +Philadelphia, or Boston, for it. In the state of Alabama, if we are to +believe the public prints, the United States Bank there has afforded +great and most seasonable aid to the state bank. Nor do we know of a +single state, in which there are any manifestations of popular +discontent with the bank, notwithstanding the pains taken by some of the +friends of the president to excite them. + +Perhaps the apprehensions mentioned in the message may refer to the +state banks rather than the people; and the president has presumed, +that, as some of the states are interested in the stock of these +institutions, and as their interests may conflict with those of the Bank +of the United States, the people would be likely to side with their own +institutions. The presumption is far from being unfounded. The +sympathies of the people will always be with the states, rather than the +general government, when the two are in conflict--a fact of which +politicians are sufficiently apt to avail themselves. Thus, when the +present Bank of the United States first went into operation, fears were +entertained by the state banks and their friends, that the United States +Bank and its branches would prove troublesome and dangerous neighbours. +Their strength to oppress, and even crush, a rival, was supposed to be +in proportion to their capital; and, comparing them with things with +which they had no sort of analogy, it was argued, that a state bank, in +the neighbourhood of a branch of the national bank, would be not more +likely to thrive, than a delicate shrub under the shade of a spreading +oak, or to find safety, than a light armed brig under the battery of a +seventy-four. These arguments prevailed for a season in some of the +states; but at length the experiment was made, in spite of these gloomy +predictions, and it was found, as well it might be, that a small +capital, _if prudently managed_, is as independent of the attacks of a +rival, in banking, as in any other business. And why should there be a +difference? A tailor or shoemaker who employs but two or three +journeymen, may do as safe, though not so profitable a business, as he +who employs twenty or thirty--in the same way as a small vessel may +navigate the ocean as safely as a large one, and may be even less likely +to overset in a storm, if it carry less sail in proportion to its +ballast. + +We do not mean to deny, that a bank with a superior capital, if it were +disposed to injure a rival at all hazards, might prove an inconvenient +neighbour, and greatly curtail its business. If it were to put itself to +the trouble of procuring the paper of the other, as soon as it was +issued, and convert it immediately into specie, the loans of that other +might be restricted to the amount of its specie capital. But this could +not be effected without a degree of trouble and expense which would make +it impracticable. What means does such a bank possess of drawing in the +paper of the other bank, except so far as the debtors of the one +institution chance to be the debtors of the other, or it choose to give +a premium for the notes of its rival? It is not likely, that the same +individuals would be the debtors to both banks, to a great extent; and +as to a premium, such sacrifices seldom take place in individual +competition, much less in that of banks. Besides, as soon as the bank +which was thus assailed found that a premium was given for its paper, it +would issue notes for the purpose of obtaining it, and the faster its +notes were bought up and returned for specie, the more would be found in +the market--a new swarm being attracted by the premium as soon as the +first disappeared--until in a few months its hostile rival would share +the fate of those who attempt to break another sort of banks--its own +coffers would be exhausted. + +The means then which a bank possesses of narrowing the sphere of +circulation of a rival's paper, are much more limited than is commonly +imagined; and such as they are, it will be cautious of exerting, lest +the same game should be played on itself. A combination of the state +banks, or even a single one of respectable capital, may practise the +same means of annoyance against a Bank of the United States, as that +could put in operation against them. But if both parties were wise, or +rather not utterly foolish, they would each pursue their own business; +and one not otherwise interfere with the other, than by occasionally +exchanging notes, and receiving the difference in specie. This course +might indeed prove a check to extravagant issues by either, but it is +precisely that check which the public is interested in maintaining. + +There is a further security against the wanton and bootless mischief +which fear or design has imputed to the Bank of the United States. +Public opinion would cry out against its illiberal course, and would +fully avenge the wrong. Some of their best customers would desert them. +They would lose most of their deposits. Their notes would be +industriously collected and prematurely returned to them, and they would +thus not only lessen their present profits, but furnish their enemies +with arguments against the renewal of their charter. The supposition of +such a course presumes the bank to be utterly regardless of +their own interests, as well as of all sense of fairness and +liberality--considerations which still have some weight with some +men--and it is at variance with all that we have ever heard of the +officers of that institution. As a proof that no fears or jealousies +against the Bank of the United States are entertained by safe and +substantial banks, we may remind our readers, that Mr. Girard, the +greatest banker we have, was one of the most efficient supporters of the +present national bank. No other individual in the United States would be +so much affected as he, if its competition and neighbourhood were +pernicious, and yet no one subscribed so largely to its stock, and no +one, we have reason to believe, deplores more strongly the confusion in +the moneyed concerns of the country, which he thinks would be inevitable +on the destruction of the bank. + +It is probable enough, that although these alleged causes of jealousy +and alarm are known to be groundless by the state banks, the proposition +against re-chartering the bank addresses itself to those institutions in +another way. They have been led to believe that the benefits of the +business now done by the bank, and of the government deposits, would be +apportioned among them. But let them not flatter themselves with +profiting by a division of this spoil. That great void in the +circulation which the withdrawal of the capital of the bank would +occasion, would immediately and imperatively call for new banks, which +the states would be sure to establish; and when once they began to meet +the demand, it would not be strange if the supply sometimes exceeded it, +according to the common occurrence of a scarcity being followed by a +glut. In that event, the present state banks might find too late that +they had exchanged one old and liberal rival for two or more new ones, +of a different character, who would be their competitors not only for +the profits of banking, but also for the favour or forbearance of the +state politicians. What the community at large is likely to regret or to +wish after the change, it is not difficult to conjecture. + +One of the complaints against the Bank of the United States has been, +that the notes issued by any one of its offices were not payable at +every other indiscriminately; and to this the president must have +referred, when, in his first message, he said that the bank "had failed +in the great end of establishing a uniform and sound currency." As the +same objection is not repeated in the last message, we are left at a +loss to decide whether he has been convinced, by the very lucid and +satisfactory views of Mr. Lowndes and Mr. M'Duffie, that the complaint +was unfounded, or whether he means to comprehend this among the causes +of discontent on the part of the states and the people. + +As this subject has received so thorough an investigation in the report +of the committee, and in our last number, it cannot be necessary to say +more on it. It is there shown, as we think conclusively, that the Bank +of the United States has done in this matter all that a bank can +do--more, indeed, than could have been reasonably expected of +it--towards furnishing the community with a sound and uniform currency: +that its notes, at the places where they are issued, are, for all +purposes, worth as much as gold and silver, and for distant payments +something more: that if its notes are sometimes worth, in one place, a +trifle less than specie, it is because they have been worth, at another +place, more than specie, since no one would transfer them to a great +distance from the place of emission, unless he found them more +convenient than specie: that as every bank has a direct interest in +giving its notes as great a credit and as wide a circulation as it can, +this institution will, for its own sake, redeem its notes at par, +wherever issued, when it can safely do so; and that in most cases, it +has actually done this; but that to make this obligatory would not only +be unjust to the bank, but would be highly impolitic, by counteracting +the natural and most efficient corrective of the over issues of banks, +and the overtrading of individuals; and would be moreover impracticable. + +To these irrefragable positions we may add, that the public has quite as +much interest as the bank in keeping this matter on its present footing. +One of the greatest benefits which a community derives from banking +institutions, is the substitution for a part of its currency of the +cheap article of paper for the costly one of specie, by which the +capital that would otherwise have been used as money, may be employed +for other useful purposes. But if the Bank of the United States, and +each of its offices, were obliged, as a matter of right, to redeem the +notes of every other, it would require an increase of specie which would +deprive the country of the benefits of this substitution, as well as the +bank of its profits. The same remark applies to their demanding a small +premium for their drafts on each other. For each of the offices to be +prepared not only to redeem its own paper, but to meet the drafts which +others may draw on it, it is obliged to keep on hand an extra supply of +specie; but if the check of the premium were removed, and it was no +longer a matter of discretion, a much larger amount would be necessary, +and nothing but experience could determine whether any thing short of +the whole capital of the bank, or even that, would be sufficient for the +purpose, under extraordinary circumstances, and great fluctuations of +trade. So that upon the whole this complaint against the bank seems to +be pretty much of the same character as these--that rivers do not run +upwards as well as downwards--or that the same season which gives us ice +does not also give us melons and peaches--or that a rail-road or a +canal, which reduces the expense of carriage to one-tenth, does not +reduce it to nothing. + +4. Having thus noticed all the objections which the president has made +to the bank, let us now turn our attention to the substitute that he has +proposed. This is a national bank, at the seat of government, which is +to be a branch of the treasury department, and which is, we presume, to +have subordinate offices distributed among the several states. Its +business will be to receive the public revenue from the collectors of +the customs, receivers of the land offices, and postmasters, together +with such deposits as individuals choose to make, and to give drafts, +from time to time, on distant offices, for a premium. + +According to this project, the funds of the treasury, instead of being, +as now, deposited in the several banks convenient to the receiving +offices, are to be in the immediate keeping of the new corps of the +treasury to be levied for the purpose, by which means the public is to +lose one of its present checks on the malversation of its agents. It is +known that there are in most banks various officers, each with his +appropriate duty--as--one or more to keep accounts--another to receive +money--another to pay it away--another to be its general depositary--and +that they are all placed under the superintendence of a president, whose +character and station in society give assurance for the faithful +discharge of his duty. That there is, moreover, a board of directors, +who hold their offices only for a year, and who, once a month or +oftener, appoint a committee to examine the affairs of the bank, and +especially to ascertain whether the amount of notes, securities, and +specie, correspond with the accounts of the institution. Yet, with all +these safeguards, it is found, now and then, that men who had previously +been above all suspicion, have not been able to withstand the temptation +to use the money thus placed in their charge, and that, occasionally, +these frauds and peculations are practised a long time without +detection. If this is the case, when there is such strict +accountability, and unremitted vigilance, how would it be when there was +neither, and when those who received the public money, instead of being +compelled to deposit it in a bank, as soon as they received it, and to +check for it when they paid it over, might use it as they pleased, +provided they were always ready to meet the drafts of the government. At +many places they might do this, and yet, in consequence of the large sum +which is always lying idle, or rather unappropriated in the treasury, +they might have the use of the excess, to a considerable amount, as long +as they remained in office. For several years the amount in the treasury +has never been less than five millions, and sometimes considerably more; +and of this, according to the ordinary current of business, one-third or +upwards would commonly be in the city of New-York, if it were not +transferred to Washington; and this money, which is now invigorating +industry and trade, it is proposed to consign either to utter idleness, +or to the exclusive use of the officers of the treasury. In addition to +that aversion to change which is felt by all office-holders, this plan +might furnish them with no ordinary means of effecting their object. + +But if for the sake of guarding against such strong temptation to +speculate with the public funds, and against such an encouragement to +corruption, by affording materials for it, the public money were +required, as now, to be deposited in the banks; though that plan would +be free from the objection we have just made, it would be liable to +another quite as great--the very one of influence which the president +has made to the bank of the United States--with this difference, +however, that the influence derived from the government funds is now +exercised by the Bank of the United States, and is a salutary check upon +that exercised by the state banks, but _then_, it would be added to that +patronage which is already thought sufficiently great for every +desirable purpose, and sometimes for purposes not desirable. The large +receipts of public money in our chief importing cities, would be +distributed among those banks which were most in favour with the +government, by which is always meant those that were its most zealous +and efficient supporters; and thus the revenue of the nation, that is, +the use of it, would be set up at auction, to be purchased by the +obsequious devotion of the state banks to the existing administration. +In a division of parties, not more equal than that we often witness in +our country, the vote of a single state may decide that of the Union, +and the vote of its principal city may decide that of the state. All +this is perfectly well known to some of the friends of the scheme, but +it is not so to those who are to pay for it, and who are less familiar +with the workings of the political wires. + +There is another part of this notable scheme, (we mean no pun,) which +merits our attention. This new bank and its offices are to sell drafts +on each other for a premium, and as the bank itself is to issue no +paper, the drafts may be paid for in the notes of the state banks, "only +so long as they continue to be redeemed in specie,"--such are the +President's words. But suppose the very common case of a bank paying +specie to-day, and not paying it, and not being able to pay it, +to-morrow, what becomes of the public revenue then? To be placed no +doubt first to the account of "unavailable funds," and then, to the +credit of the treasury. When these new bureaux of finance are +distributed over the Union, and having no paper of their own, must carry +on their operations altogether in gold and silver, and the paper of the +banks in their vicinity, it is impossible that, with the highest degree +of vigilance, prudence, impartiality, and firmness, united, they would +always avoid loss. But does any one believe that this delicate and +important trust would always be exercised with impartiality and +firmness? To believe it, would be to disregard all experience, and to +shut our eyes to what is passing before them every day. When the +officers of the government--themselves dependant more or less directly +on popular favour--were to have the power of discriminating between what +paper they would take and what refuse, how many motives would be for +ever presenting themselves for exercising it improperly? To reject the +paper of a substantial bank, that was hostile to the administration, if +there were any such, and to take that of a tottering one, which was +friendly. Let us suppose, by way of illustration, that some orator, or +political manager, no matter which, being about to set out for congress, +should apply to one of the treasury banks for a draft on Washington for +a few thousand dollars, and should offer in payment of it the paper, not +of a substantial bank, but of one which though poorer, was more +patriotic,--this being the best he could get--is it probable that his +application would be rejected? or that the officer would do more than +inquire whether the bank then paid specie, without troubling his head to +ascertain whether it merely made a show of paying it, and whether it +would not be insolvent in a month. Let it not be said, that if doubts +were entertained of the solidity of the bank, its paper might be +immediately converted into specie; for, in the first place, the bank may +be some hundreds of miles distant; and though it were in the immediate +vicinity, payment of specie would not always be demanded before it was +too late. Besides, the very demand of specie may, like a new weight +breaking down an overloaded packhorse, make it stop payment at once. The +bill now before congress, for allowing the treasury credit for certain +"unavailable funds," received some years since, would form an excellent +precedent for such occurrences, and it is one to which there would be +frequent occasions of appealing. And this mode of managing the public +revenue is proposed to take the place of that which now exists through +the Bank of the United States, by which the government has not lost a +dollar; and it is next to impossible can lose one. Verily, if the nation +were to suffer itself to be gulled by such a scheme as this, they would +deserve to suffer the loss they would be sure to incur. + +But pecuniary loss may be but a small part of the price which the nation +would pay for this new treasury bank. It may be made to pay, in +addition, the richest jewel it possesses--its political purity. The +influence which the national executive exercises over the present Bank +of the United States, is moderate, and not more than is salutary. It +annually appoints a part of its directors, and, at stated periods, may, +moreover, exercise its right, of having the government funds transferred +from one part of the Union to the other, in a more or less accommodating +way. But here its influence stops. The law, in pursuance of the charter, +directs that the public money shall be deposited in the Bank of the +United States or its branches, and in these it must be deposited, +whether the president or his secretaries have good will or ill will to +the bank, or whether the bank is willing to give any thing in return for +their favour or not. These public deposits are valuable to the bank; +and, for the benefit, they have paid, and we presume are yet willing to +pay, a fair price. But the compensation is not paid to any officer of +the government; it goes into the national treasury, and it consists of +gold and silver, and not in the base metal of political influence. + +We are well aware that many of the state banks are under the management +of high-minded and honourable men, who would not be bidders at this +auction, and who would scorn to purchase a share of the public deposits, +at the price of their independence. But such might not prove to be the +character of the greater number. Besides, in some of these cases, a +majority of the stockholders might not sit idly by, and see the bank +deprived of its share of government favour by the squeamishness of its +officers, and might therefore either coerce them into compliance, or +remove them. + +If so much has been said about the influence attached to the office of +the secretary of state, arising from the paltry patronage of printing +the laws of the United States, what should be thought of that privilege +of giving the permanent and uncompensated use of many millions of +dollars to such powerful corporations as the state banks--embracing some +thousands of directors, and some tens, nay, hundreds of thousands of +stockholders and borrowers? We would appeal to that intelligent class of +our citizens, who are quietly pursuing their occupations or professions +at home, by which they secure to themselves independence and +respectability, and who see, in the purity of our political +institutions, their country's present happiness and future greatness, to +take these things into consideration, and say whether they are willing +to give to any administration such powerful means of exercising an +influence of the worst sort over the minds of the people--whether they +will take the money now gained or saved to the nation by means of the +Bank of the United States, to enable a president and his cabinet to buy +golden opinions of that numerous class who have them to sell. + +The president lays some stress on the circumstance that his proposed +treasury bank would not be a corporation, as is the Bank of the United +States. But the lawyers tell us that there are two kinds of +corporations--aggregate and sole--and the question is, whether influence +is likely to be less extensive, or less dangerous, when it is +transferred from the corporation aggregate, (the bank) to the +corporation sole, (the executive). In the first case, the influence of +the bank has checks from its charter--from its stockholders--from its +directors--from public opinion--and, lastly, from the legislature. In +the last, the influence would be added to that which is already deemed +by many too great for the public tranquillity or safety. Whatever means +the Bank of the United States possesses, of operating "on the hopes, +fears, or interests of large masses of the community," the state banks +possess, to a far greater extent; and it would always be in the power +of the government to act on these corporations, either by the treasury +bank "checking their issues," as the president proposes; or, in case +that monstrous scheme should be rejected, by means of the public +deposits; so that, in any event, if the charter of the present bank is +not renewed, the influence of the executive will receive a most +formidable increase. + +Nor could the proposed national bank answer the same useful purposes to +the commercial world, as the present Bank of the United States. And, +first, as to transmitting values from one part of the Union to another, +by means of bills of exchange. The president informs us the new bank +might sell these at a moderate premium. But its means of doing so would +be evidently far more limited than those of the present bank, since the +latter, in addition to all the means possessed by the treasury bank, has +its own large capital and credit. In the year 1829, the amount of drafts +on each other which the bank and its offices sold, was upwards of +twenty-four millions, and the amount of its transfers of public money, +by means of treasury drafts, amounted to upwards of nine millions; +making, in all, more than thirty-three millions. Now, although the +annual public revenue is about twenty-four millions, yet as the +expenditures of the nation are going on at the same time as its +receipts, the money on hand, at any one time, seldom exceeds six or +seven millions. According to the monthly statement of the bank, for the +1st of January of the present year, the amount of deposits on account of +the treasury of the United States, was, after deducting over drafts, +6,940,628 dollars. But as this sum would be distributed very unequally +over the United States, there would be in some places more money than +the government had occasion for, and in others less, so that it would be +compelled to draw on the former, to meet the public exigencies, without +regard to the state of the exchange market, by reason of which, it would +not only not be able to afford the public that general accommodation +which the Bank of the United States now does, but be sometimes obliged +to sell its drafts for a _discount_, instead of a premium. Thus, suppose +the government has a large sum lying in New-York, (it sometimes has more +than two millions there,) and it has occasion for 200,000 dollars in +Maine, as much in Missouri, &c. Although it might have found a ready +sale in these places for its drafts, for a small amount, at par, or even +at a premium, yet the amount offered exceeding the demands of the +market, the government must either sell its drafts at a discount, or be +at the expense of transmitting the specie. In the mean while, the drafts +which are thus sold at one place at a loss, might be in demand at +another, but that demand the government cannot meet, because it must +give its money another direction. We therefore think that this part of +the scheme cannot be of much utility to the public, or of profit to the +treasury. + +It must be recollected, too, that the Bank of the United States is a +buyer as well as a seller of bills of exchange, to the great advantage +of the commercial community. Its purchases, during the same year, 1829, +amounted to upwards of twenty-nine millions of dollars; and that in this +business, the treasury bank, according to the president's programme, +could not engage. + +But besides the want of the accommodation now afforded by the purchase +or sale of inland bills to all parts of the Union, there is a large +further arrear of utility which the treasury bank would owe to the +public. In what way would it make amends for the immense amount of +currency withdrawn from circulation? The notes of the United States Bank +in actual circulation, commonly amount to fourteen or fifteen millions, +exclusive of its drafts, which, to a certain extent, perform the office +of currency. As the new bank is to issue no paper, the chasm must be +filled, either with the paper of the state banks, or not filled at all. +If with the former, whence are they to derive their increased means of +circulation, seeing that nearly all of them have carried their issues to +the extreme verge of safety, and some of them, perhaps, beyond it? It +will, however, be said, that there will be new banks established--the +capital that is vested in the Bank of the United States will not be +annihilated by the termination of that establishment, but will seek +employment in new banks. Let it be so. In that case what becomes of the +increased profits of which many of the state banks have been dreaming, +and the hope of obtaining which has been so artfully appealed to? + +But an addition to the state banks would fall far short of filling the +void. Much of the capital of the present bank was obtained from Europe. +We are told in the report of the committee, that foreigners own stock to +the amount of seven millions. Is it probable that these capitalists will +be as ready to venture their money in the state banks, as in one +chartered by the general government? Would they even venture it again in +a national bank, after we had shown so vacillating a policy? We +establish a bank of that description in 1791--we put it down in 1811, as +unconstitutional--we charter another, five years afterwards, 1816, and +discontinue that in 1836. Assuredly, after this experience, they would +prefer a somewhat smaller interest nearer home, rather than risk their +money in a country exhibiting so little stability, and where what had +been long determined to be legal by the highest authorities of the +country, is liable to be revoked on the first revolution of parties. + +There are persons who will consider the withdrawal of seven millions +from our circulation, as no source of regret; and who think the money +paid for the use of foreign capital, is so much lost to the country; +for the truths of political economy are not obvious to all. But no one +who is acquainted with the elements of that science, will doubt, that a +nation, not having as much capital as it can advantageously employ, may +be improved and enriched by foreign capital as well as its own; and the +benefit of these seven millions in stimulating the productive industry +of the country--in building ships, and wharves, and mills, and +manufactories, and steam-boats, is precisely the same as if they were +domestic capital, with the single difference of the interest. Ask the +owner of a thriving manufactory of woollens in Cincinnati, or of iron in +Pittsburg, if he had been assisted in his enterprise by a loan of +10,000, or 20,000 dollars from the Bank of the United States--and he +might answer, that, by the use of the money, in a few years, he had, +besides paying the interest, realized the sum borrowed. Ask him further +whether he would gain more by keeping the money longer, or returning it +to the European stockholder, and he would laugh at you, thinking your +question conveyed its own answer, as he had not chosen to return the +money. + +The president's project then of a treasury bank, seems to be liable to +all the objections he makes to the present Bank of the United States, in +a tenfold degree, as to influence, by adding so enormously to the +executive patronage. It offers a far inferior substitute for the safety, +and the easy transmission of the revenue; and no substitute at all for +much of the accommodation now afforded to commerce, and the large amount +of active capital it would throw out of circulation. + +In making this comparison, we have had no reference to the former +services of the Bank of the United States in restoring the currency of +the country to a sound state, or to its power of so preserving it, if +the country should be again involved in war. We have contented ourselves +with refuting the objections which have been brought forward against +that institution, under the sanction of the chief magistrate of the +country, and with pointing out to the unprejudiced mind the +inconveniences and serious mischiefs attendant on the scheme which has +been proposed in its stead. In our last number, we asserted that the +resumption of specie payments by the state banks, in 1817, was to be +probably attributed to the establishment of the Bank of the United +States, and we stated the facts upon which that opinion was founded. It +was, then, with some surprise, that we saw the position roundly denied +in a quarter (the North American Review) where we have been accustomed +to look for just views on all commercial affairs; and the resumption of +cash payments imputed to the resolution of congress, forbidding the +officers of the government from receiving the notes of any banks which +were not redeemable in specie. The question is not one of primary +importance, yet as it may affect our future policy, and concerns our +present justice, we will add a few remarks on the subject. When we see +that the measure of the government alluded to was not immediately +followed by the desired effect, but that as soon as the Bank of the +United States was about to go into operation, an arrangement was +voluntarily entered into with it by the banks of New-York, Philadelphia, +Baltimore, and Virginia, by which they all agreed to resume cash +payments at the same time, it seems to afford _prima facie_ evidence, +that it is to the Bank of the United States, and not to the legislature, +that the resumption is directly attributable. Whether the state banks +might not, at some subsequent time, have paid specie, and at what time, +must now remain a matter of conjecture; but we think it quite as likely, +that the banks, making extraordinary profits as they were, so long as +they were not compelled to redeem their notes in specie, would have +procured a repeal of the resolution of congress, as that that measure +would have operated coercively on them. In some of the states, the +resumption of specie payments was discountenanced by the state +legislatures; and in Virginia, if we mistake not, after the measure had +been enjoined on the banks by the legislature, it afterwards retraced +its steps, on the ground, that if they ventured to pay specie, the Bank +of the United States, then about to go into operation, would immediately +draw every dollar from their vaults. The banks of that state thus had +the express sanction of its legislature for continuing the suspension; +nor was it until after the meeting of the convention, mentioned in our +last number, that they paid specie. + +But in what way, it may be asked, could the Bank of the United States +have compelled the state banks to resume specie payments, if they had +not been so disposed? We answer, by giving the public the option of a +better currency than theirs, and presenting an easy and ready standard +in every part of the Union, by which the depreciation of their notes +would have been manifest. As soon as the paper of the national bank had +been put into circulation, it would command, by its convertibility into +specie, a preference in the market over the paper of the state banks, +and the difference would have been shown by the reduced rate at which +the latter would have passed. The public then having such a standard of +comparison, could no longer be deceived, and every one would have seen +the depreciation, and known the extent of it. What would have been the +natural consequence? The paper of the state banks, thus depreciated in +the market, would have been bought up by their more prudent and +substantial borrowers, and returned to them in discharge of their debts; +and thus they would have had no notes in circulation except what was +represented by the paper of their most straitened and doubtful +customers, nor would any others have continued to borrow of them. Thus, +with a business decreased in amount and impaired in character, they +would have found it impossible to make a profit equal to defraying their +expenses and yielding a dividend to the stockholders. + +All this the state banks distinctly foresaw, and not wishing to be +compelled to resume specie payments, by which their profits would be +diminished, they generally opposed the establishment of a national bank. +But when they found that all opposition had been ineffectual, and that +the bank was about to go into operation, and to pay specie, they +immediately saw that they must follow the example, or that their gains +were at an end--that the public, which took their paper, during the war +and immediately after the peace, when there was no other currency, would +not continue to take it, when they had the choice of a better--and thus +the compact which has been mentioned was formed. + +It is said, however, that the depreciated paper of the Baltimore banks +would have circulated so long as the government received it at the +custom-house, and that it was only after the government decided to +receive it no longer, that those banks found themselves compelled to pay +specie. But would this measure have been effectual without a national +bank? We have already intimated that we thought not. It would have been +vehemently attacked in congress and out, and all the states, except +perhaps Massachusetts, might have instructed their representatives that +the measure was premature, oppressive, and detrimental to the public +interests. But after the Bank of the United States went into operation, +the question was at an end. The government, whether the resolution of +congress had been passed or not, could not with decency have taken, or +been asked to take, any more than an individual, depreciated paper for +its dues, when there was good paper and specie in circulation; and the +Baltimore banks, as well as all others, must have followed suit, or +given up the game. + +For these reasons we must continue to think, that the claim urged by the +friends of the Bank of the United States, that it operated, by its +example, a salutary coercion on the state banks in their return to +specie payments, is as well established as a question of its character +can be, and that the same means by which it proved that remedy for the +mischiefs of an unsound currency--its solid capital--unquestionable +credit--and practical skill in business--would operate, on future +occasions, as a preventive of similar mischiefs. + +The same distinguished critic differs from the chairman of the committee +of ways and means, as to the effect of an increase of money in producing +depreciation. The proposition controverted is thus stated by Mr. +M'Duffie in the Report. + + "No proposition is better established than that the value of + money, whether it consists of specie or paper, is depreciated + in exact proportion to the increase of its quantity, in any + given state of the demand for it. If, for example, the banks, + in 1816, doubled the quantity of the circulating medium by + their excessive issues, they produced a general degradation of + the entire mass of the currency, including gold and silver, + proportioned to the redundancy of the issues, and wholly + independent of the relative depreciation of bank paper at + different places as compared with specie. The nominal money + price of every article was of course one hundred per cent. + higher than it would have been, but for the duplication of the + quantity of the circulating medium. Money is nothing more nor + less than the measure by which the relative value of all + articles of merchandise is ascertained. If, when the + circulating medium is fifty millions, an article should cost + one dollar, it would certainly cost two, if, without any + increase of the uses of a circulating medium, its quantity + should be increased to one hundred millions. This rise in the + price of commodities, or depreciation in the value of money, as + compared with them, would not be owing to the want of credit in + the bank bills, of which the currency happened to be composed. + It would exist, though these bills were of undoubted credit, + and convertible into specie at the pleasure of the holder, and + would result simply from the redundancy of their quantity. It + is important to a just understanding of the subject, that the + relative depreciation of bank paper at different places, as + compared with specie, should not be confounded with this + general depreciation of the entire mass of the circulating + medium, including specie." + +Although the principle appears to us to be laid down somewhat too +broadly by Mr. M'Duffie, as we shall presently state, yet he is +supported in his position, to the letter, by Hume, by Mr. Jefferson, and +virtually by Adam Smith, if we suppose that from any cause the excess of +gold and silver, which causes the depreciation, cannot be exported. They +all agree in this, that the amount of money which can circulate, and +which does in fact circulate in any country, depends upon the number and +value of its exchanges, and that, as its quantity increases, its value +diminishes. But Hume and Smith, concurring in this general principle, +drew very different inferences from it as to the paper currency of +banks. Hume thought that the equilibrium between the money required for +the country and that in circulation, was effected by depreciation; while +Smith considered, that it was maintained by an exportation of the +precious metals in proportion to the increase of paper. And the general +principle thus ably supported by authority, was all, no doubt, that Mr. +M'Duffie meant to assert. There is then probably no real difference +between him and his reviewer in the North American. + +We conceive that Mr. M'Duffie, in his application of the principle to +our own situation, twelve or fifteen years since, has not greatly +overrated the depreciation, if we regard the effect of the increase of +money on every species of exchangeable value; but that it was very +different with the different kinds. This difference requires +explanation; but first, of the general principle itself, which, it seems +to us, must be received with some qualification. + +The effect of an increase of money is certainly to diminish its value; +but the extent of the diminution is one of those nice problems in +political economy which has never been accurately settled. It has not +yet been adjusted to a formula which will explain all the facts +attending such increase. Although the quantity of money required in a +country mainly depends upon the number and value of its purchases in a +given time, yet with the same amount of these, much less money may be in +circulation at one time than another. There are various expedients and +substitutes for supplying a temporary deficiency of currency, which make +the quantity of money in a commercial country a variable one, capable of +considerable contraction or expansion. The actual money can be more or +less aided by credit. A farmer, a horse-dealer, a shopkeeper, a +mechanic--will all wait with a substantial purchaser for their money, +rather than lose the sale of their commodities; and a sudden rise in the +price of the staples of the country, such as our own often experience, +while it increases the demand for money, proportionally improves the +credit of individuals, and fits it as a substitute for cash. Money too +may be much more active at one time than another; and when there has +been a considerable increase of it, the greater comparative idleness of +a part of it, in the strong boxes or pocket-books of individuals, may +prevent or lessen its depreciation. These circumstances, and others +which might be added, all inappreciable except by approximations, +prevent the value of money from either rising or falling, in exact +proportion to its increase or decrease in quantity. + +To this qualification of the general principle, we would add another. +When the money of a country has been considerably increased, and the +excess cannot be exported, as was the case with our paper currency +during the suspension of cash payments, the depreciation is much greater +upon some articles than others. Its effect is least upon those +commodities which find a market abroad, because the price there +regulates the price here. It is by reason of this irregularity that +depreciation is often so disguised as not to be perceptible to all, and +that sometimes it is a matter of dispute whether it exists or not; as +was the case in England in the controversy between the bullionists and +their opponents, concerning the fact of the depreciation of their bank +paper during the suspension of cash payments. + +But if the increase of the currency has little effect on the prices of +some articles, it has the greater on those for the estimation of which +there is no such definite standard--as lands, town lots, and houses--and +those domestic products which look exclusively to domestic consumption +for a market, as butchers' meat, game, &c. All these took a prodigious +rise in all parts of the Union, and most men mistaking the effect of a +redundancy of money for a real rise of price consequent on our +increased population and capital, believed that real estate was the +best investment they could make of their money, and purchased it +accordingly--looking for remuneration, not to the rent or immediate +profit, but to that future rise in value which was inferred from the +past. This erroneous opinion brought capitalists into the market for +real estate, and the competition created by their money, and that which +others borrowed from the banks, raised the price extravagantly high. A +natural though singular result of this state of things was, that those +who had sold lands or lots at these factitious prices, could have made +no use of their money that would have been so profitable as not using it +at all; and the policy of hoarding, usually as unwise as it is odious, +would have been, on this occasion, the most rational and gainful that +could have been pursued. + +If, then, we take the prices of every species of merchandise among us, +together with that of real estate, we believe it will be found that such +average of prices then, is very near double of what it is now; and +consequently that Mr. M'Duffie's estimate of the late depreciation of +our currency was not extravagant. But granting that it was exaggerated, +he appears to us to have taken juster views than his critic, of its +pernicious effects, as well as of the agency of the bank in arresting +them; and we must think that he is the safer physician, who merely +overrates the danger of a disease, than he, who, though he rightly +judges it not mortal, mistakes both its cause and its remedy. + +We think, too, that the report of the committee was correct in +supposing, that the depreciation would not have taken place, if the Bank +of the United States had then been in existence. At any rate it would +have been postponed, and if not prevented altogether, under the +disadvantages of having neither a navy to protect our commerce, nor +manufactures to supply its place, it would have been greatly mitigated. +It is probable that the suspension of cash payments would not have taken +place at all, if the bank had followed the prudent course of the banks +of Boston, and not lent its money to the government; but though it had, +its paper would have been more nearly at par and more uniform than that +of the state banks, which varied in value according to the public +opinion of their prudence and solidity, as well as of the varying +quantity of notes thrown into circulation in different places. It is +possible that the national bank, being conducted with greater skill and +knowledge of banking, would have seen that they could not safely +accommodate the government with any large loan, and that when they were +reduced to the dilemma of either suspending cash payments and having a +depreciated currency, or of maintaining the currency sound, by +withholding assistance to the government, they would have preferred the +latter; and that the government would have been thereby induced to +resort sooner than they did to a system of taxation to support the war. +It is indeed impossible to say, at this time, what would have been the +precise result if we had possessed a national bank, but we think that +this much may be affirmed with confidence, that the depreciation of its +notes would have been far less, would have been uniform, and would have +taken the place of much paper which had no solid foundation for the +short-lived credit it obtained. + +It remains for us now to see what will be the extent of the immediate +pecuniary cost to the nation for pulling down the Bank of the United +States, and building up the Treasury Bank on its ruins. This view is +intelligible to all, and there are minds who will give more weight to +this objection than that of increasing executive influence. + +We know that it is an important function of every government to regulate +its money, weights, and measures, not from any mystical notions of +sovereignty, but because uniformity in these several standards is of the +greatest utility in saving time and trouble, and in preventing frauds +and disputes, and there is no effectual way of attaining uniformity +except by the legislative power. It is, therefore, that these subjects +were placed under the control of the general government, by the +constitution, and it is in the exercise of the powers thus granted that +it coins money of gold and silver, and determines their relative value. + +But as among the inventions of commerce, it is found that such metallic +money can be, to a considerable extent, substituted by paper, and thus a +measure of value which costs nothing, can be made and is made to answer +the same, and even a better purpose, than that which would cost a great +deal, the same reasons which made the regulation of the coin by the +government, necessary and proper, apply to the regulation of its +substitute. The government thus having control over the subject, is +furnished with the ready means of making a great profit by the +substitution; and this it may do in two ways. It may either become a +banker itself, and issue notes of circulation, having currency as money, +in return for the notes of individuals bearing interest, or it may +transfer the right of doing this to such a set of men as it deems worthy +of the trust, and make them pay a fair price for the valuable privilege +thus conferred. + +Of these two modes of profiting by the substitution of paper for specie, +the last is by far the best, for the same reason that it is best for the +government to sell its public lands, rather than to cultivate them. It +is incapable of commanding agents who will practise the same economy, +industry, and skill, in the management of the public concerns, as their +own. It must always pay higher than individuals for the same work, and +the various peculations to which it is exposed, besides the costly +apparatus of superintendents, would make banking, carried on by itself, +a bad measure of economy, to say nothing of the objections arising from +its disturbing the distribution of political power, by affording the +means of influence, patronage, and corruption. + +But the scheme which the president has been persuaded to recommend, +proposes, that the government should give up the advantages of both +plans: that it should forego both the profit of issuing paper itself, +and that of disposing of it to a corporate body, in which the community +had entire confidence, and which has proved, by its previous unexampled +success, its fitness for the duty--and in lieu of these plans, to let +the valuable privilege evaporate into a sort of electioneering material, +for whomsoever may hold the office of president, or may rule his +cabinet. And what is it which the people of the United States are thus +asked to surrender? Let us estimate it. + +According to the bank charter, the government takes stock to the amount +of seven millions of dollars, on which it pays to the bank an interest +of 5 per cent., and it now receives on this stock an interest of 7 per +cent, making a clear profit of 140,000 dollars a year, equal to a gross +capital of 2,800,000 dollars, all of which must be lost on the proposed +plan. But this is not all. The bank keeps the money of the +government--keeps its accounts--keeps its officers out of +temptation--and transfers the money from one part of the Union to +another with promptitude and certainty, without the loss of a single +dollar. We have seen that for some of these operations the treasury bank +would be obliged to pay. + +We do not mean to say that these various services of the bank are +gratuitous. On the contrary, it is fairly remunerated for them by the +privileges it enjoys, and by the public deposits; but still they are +valuable services, and in this way the government obtains a fair +equivalent for what it surrenders. Nor let it be supposed that as good a +bargain could be made with the state banks. The general government could +not be interested in their stock, nor could they afford to give as much +for the privileges, because they would be more local. Being connected +only by voluntary compacts, they could not do the business of the +government to the same advantage as a single corporation. They could not +circulate as much paper with the same safety, nor could they sell or buy +bills at as small a profit. The superior advantages which the Bank of +the United States enjoys in capital, in banking skill, and in the +greater credit and wider circulation of its notes, enables it to give a +liberal price for its charter, and the government would be false to the +people to surrender this benefit. + +But it would not become the government to attempt to extort, or to be +illiberal, but to act on the principle of justice to the public and the +bank. The legislature should not furnish the bank with either the +temptation or excuse of an Irish middle man, who grinds his sub-tenants +in proportion as his landlord has pressed him. Upon these principles, we +think the government should, by way of bonus, charge the bank a moderate +interest on its deposits, and pay a small commission for the services of +the bank. An adjustment of these several claims, by some general +estimate, might leave to the nation the clear annual gain of perhaps +200,000 dollars, or a gross capital of four millions, instead of giving +it away for the improvement of the machinery of our political +wire-workers. + +There is yet another mode by which the government might derive a profit +from the bank, and which has this further recommendation, that it would +not be at the expense of the stockholders, and it would be a value saved +to the nation that would be otherwise lost. It is now a favourite object +both with the people and the government to pay off the national debt; +and from the novelty of the phenomenon it will give great eclat to the +administration in which it takes place. It is known that upwards of +thirteen millions of this debt bears an interest of but 3 per cent. This +part of the public funds is held chiefly in Europe by large capitalists, +it being preferred by them, because it could not be redeemed but at par, +unless with the consent of the holders, and it was hardly expected that +the government would choose to redeem it at par rather than pay so low +an interest on it. They thus thought that the owners of the stock had +the means of postponing its redemption in their own hands. For these +reasons this stock has always been something higher in the market than +any other, and it now sells at 93 dollars a share of 100 dollars, which +is about 3-1/4 per cent. At the price at which the commissioners of the +sinking fund are limited, they cannot buy this stock; but when all the +rest of the debt is paid, this must come next, and as soon as the +government offers to purchase, it will rise still higher, perhaps to +par. In that event, the government will have to pay upwards of thirteen +millions of dollars, drawn from the pockets of the poor as well as the +rich, which they might keep for ever, by paying an annual interest of 3 +per cent, or 390,000 dollars. + +Now the use of this money, has been of immense advantage to this +country, and may continue to be so, considering how inadequately many +parts of it are supplied with real capital. It will build ships--erect +mills and manufactories--salt works and iron works--and help to make +rail roads and canals, by which our free and industrious population will +be able to improve the condition of the country in bettering their own. +This money, too, does not consist of paper which we can create at will, +but of gold and silver, or their equivalents, which we must send out of +the country. Had it not better remain here? Every good economist will +say yes. It will be not difficult, we should presume, for the government +to make an arrangement with the bank to pay this 390,000 dollars, and +release us from our obligations, and to receive a less sum than the +thirteen millions. Their capital may be enlarged, and the rapid growth +of our country will soon require its enlargement. The holders of this +stock will indeed have a right to look to the United States for their +money, but that would make only a nominal difference, and they might be +offered stock of the bank in exchange on advantageous terms. Thus the +money which would be appropriated to the payment of this debt, might be +kept in the country and be vested in banking capital, by which it would +give vigour to commerce, manufactures, and navigation, and, through +them, render benefit to the whole nation. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Quarterly Review, No. 17, +March 1831, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN QUARTERLY *** + +***** This file should be named 28012.txt or 28012.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/8/0/1/28012/ + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Josephine Paolucci +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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