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diff --git a/28011.txt b/28011.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..38438ae --- /dev/null +++ b/28011.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4177 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Tomato Culture: A Practical Treatise on the +Tomato, by William Warner Tracy + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Tomato Culture: A Practical Treatise on the Tomato + +Author: William Warner Tracy + +Release Date: February 6, 2009 [EBook #28011] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TOMATO CULTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Tom Roch, Louise Pattison and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + + + + + + TOMATO CULTURE + + + A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE TOMATO, ITS HISTORY, + CHARACTERISTICS, PLANTING, FERTILIZATION, + CULTIVATION IN FIELD, GARDEN, AND GREENHOUSE, + HARVESTING, PACKING, STORING, MARKETING, INSECT + ENEMIES AND DISEASES, WITH METHODS OF CONTROL AND + REMEDIES, ETC., ETC. + + + By + + WILL W. TRACY + + _Bureau of Plant Industry, + United States Department of Agriculture_ + + + _ILLUSTRATED_ + + + NEW YORK + + ORANGE JUDD COMPANY + + 1907 + + + To + + Dr. F. M. Hexamer + + IN HONOR OF HIS LIFELONG EFFORTS FOR THE + BETTERMENT OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL + PRACTICE + + + Copyright, 1907, by + ORANGE JUDD COMPANY + _All rights reserved_ + +[Illustration: WHERE NEW VARIETIES OF TOMATOES ARE DEVELOPED AND TESTED +(By courtesy _American Agriculturist_. Photo by Prof. W. G. Johnson)] + + + + +PREFACE + + +This little book has been written in fulfilment of a promise made many +years ago. Again and again I have undertaken the work, only to lay it +aside because I felt the need of greater experience and wider knowledge. +I do not now feel that this deficiency has been by any means fully +supplied, but in some directions it has been removed through the +kindness of Dr. F. H. Chittenden of the Bureau of Entomology, who wrote +the chapter on insect enemies, and of W. A. Orton of the Bureau of Plant +Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, who wrote the chapter +on diseases of tomatoes. + +I have made free use of, without special credit, and am largely indebted +to, the writings of Doctor Sturtevant and Professor Goff, Professor +Munson of Maine, Professor Halsted of New Jersey, Professor Corbett of +Washington, Professor Rolfs of Florida, Professor Bailey of New York, +Professor Green of Ohio, and many others. I have also found a vast +amount of valuable information in the agricultural press of this country +in general. I am also indebted to L. B. Coulter and Prof. W. G. Johnson +for many photographs. My thanks are also due B. F. Williamson, who made +the excellent drawings for this book under Professor Johnson's +direction. + +Tomatoes are among the most generally used and popular vegetables. They +are grown not only in gardens, but in large areas in every state from +Maine to California and Washington to Florida, and under very different +conditions of climate, soil and cultural facilities, as well as of +requirements as to character of fruit. The methods which will give the +best results under one set of conditions are entirely unsuited to +others. + +I have tried to give the nature and requirements of the plant and the +effect of conditions as seen in my own experience, a knowledge of which +may enable the reader to follow the methods most suited to his own +conditions and requirements, rather than to recommend the exact methods +which have given me the best results. + +WILL W. TRACY. + +_Washington, April, 1907._ + + + + + CONTENTS + + PAGE + + PREFACE v + + CHAPTER I + + BOTANY OF THE TOMATO 1 + + CHAPTER II + + HISTORY 14 + + CHAPTER III + + GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLANT 20 + + CHAPTER IV + + ESSENTIALS FOR DEVELOPMENT 28 + + CHAPTER V + + SELECTION OF SOIL FOR MAXIMUM CROP 33 + + CHAPTER VI + + EXPOSURE AND LOCATION 38 + + CHAPTER VII + + FERTILIZERS 43 + + CHAPTER VIII + + PREPARATION OF THE SOIL 46 + + CHAPTER IX + + HOTBEDS AND COLD-FRAMES 51 + + CHAPTER X + + STARTING PLANTS 59 + + CHAPTER XI + + PROPER DISTANCE FOR PLANTING 68 + + CHAPTER XII + + CULTIVATION 76 + + CHAPTER XIII + + STAKING, TRAINING AND PRUNING 79 + + CHAPTER XIV + + RIPENING, GATHERING, HANDLING AND MARKETING 90 + THE FRUIT + + CHAPTER XV + + ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES 97 + + CHAPTER XVI + + SEED BREEDING AND GROWING 112 + + CHAPTER XVII + + PRODUCTION FOR CANNING 117 + + CHAPTER XVIII + + COST OF PRODUCTION 121 + + CHAPTER XIX + + INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE TOMATO 123 + + CHAPTER XX + + TOMATO DISEASES 131 + + INDEX 148 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + FIGURE PAGE + + 1. Where new varieties of tomatoes are developed + and tested _Frontispiece_ + + 2. Tomato flowers 2 + + 3. Two-celled tomato 3 + + 4. Three-celled tomato 3 + + 5. Currant tomato and characteristic clusters 5 + + 6. Red cherry tomato 6 + + 7. Pear-shaped tomato 8 + + 8. Yellow plum tomato 9 + + 9. One of the first illustrations of the tomato 11 + + 10. An early illustration of the tomato 12 + + 11. Typical bunch of modern tomatoes 27 + + 12. Tomatoes trained to stakes in the South 35 + + 13. Three-sash hotbed 52 + + 14. Cross-section of hotbed 53 + + 15. Cold-frames on hill-side 54 + + 16. Transplanting tomatoes under cloth-covered + frames 56 + + 17. Spotting-board for use in cold-frames 61 + + 18. Spotting-board for use on flat 62 + + 19. Tomatoes sown and allowed to grow in hotbeds 69 + + 20. Planting tomatoes on a Delaware farm 75 + + 21. Training tomatoes in Florida to single stake 81 + + 22. Tomato plant trained to single stake 82 + + 23. Method of training to three stems in + forcing-house and out of doors 83 + + 24. Training on line in greenhouse 84 + + 25. Ready to transplant in greenhouse 85 + + 26. Training young tomatoes in greenhouse at New + York experiment station 86 + + 27. Tomatoes in greenhouse at the Ohio + experiment station 87 + + 28. Forcing tomatoes in greenhouse at New Hampshire + experiment station 88 + + 29. Florida tomatoes properly wrapped for long + shipment 93 + + 30. Greenhouse tomatoes packed for market 95 + + 31. Buckeye State, showing long nodes and distance + between fruit clusters 98 + + 32. Stone, and characteristic foliage 99 + + 33. Atlantic Prize, and its normal foliage 101 + + 34. Dwarf Champion 103 + + 35. A cutworm and parent moth 124 + + 36. Flea-beetle 125 + + 37. Margined blister beetle 125 + + 38. Tomato worm 126 + + 39. Tomato stalk-borer 127 + + 40. Characteristic work of the tomato fruit worm 128 + + 41. Adult moth, or parent of tomato fruit worm 129 + + 42. Proper way to make Bordeaux 137 + + 43. Point-rot disease of the tomato 140 + + + + +TOMATO CULTURE + + + + +CHAPTER I + +Botany of the Tomato + + +=The common tomato= of our gardens belongs to the natural order +_Solanaceae_ and the genus _Lycopersicum_. The name from _lykos_, a +wolf, and _persica_, a peach, is given it because of the supposed +aphrodisiacal qualities, and the beauty of the fruit. The genus +comprises a few species of South American annual or short-lived +perennial, herbaceous, rank-smelling plants in which the many branches +are spreading, procumbent, or feebly ascendent and commonly 2 to 6 feet +in length, though under some conditions, particularly in the South and +in California, they grow much longer. They are covered with resinous +viscid secretions and are round, soft, brittle and hairy, when young, +but become furrowed, angular, hard and almost woody with enlarged +joints, when old. The leaves are irregularly alternate, 5 to 15 inches +long, petioled, odd pinnate, with seven to nine short-stemmed leaflets, +often with much smaller and stemless ones between them. The larger +leaflets are sometimes entire, but more generally notched, cut, or even +divided, particularly at the base. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2--TOMATO FLOWERS ENLARGED ABOUT 2-1/2 TIMES. +SECTION OF FLOWER SHOWN AT RIGHT (Drawn from a photograph by courtesy of +Prof. L. C. Corbett)] + +=The flowers= are pendant and borne in more or less branched clusters, +located on the stem on the opposite side and usually a little below the +leaves; the first cluster on the sixth to twelfth internode from the +ground, with one on each second to sixth succeeding one. The flowers +(Fig. 2) are small, consisting of a yellow, deeply five-cleft, +wheel-shaped corolla, with a very short tube and broadly lanceolate, +recurving petals. The calyx consists of five long linear or lanceolate +sepals, which are shorter than the petals at first, but are persistent, +and increase in size as the fruits mature. The stamens, five in number, +are borne on the throat of the corolla, and consist of long, large +anthers, borne on short filaments, loosely joined into a tube and +opening by a longitudinal slit on the inside, and this is the chief +botanical distinction between this genus and _Solanum_ to which the +potato, pepper, night shade and tobacco belong. The anthers in the +latter genus open at the tip only. The two genera, however, are closely +related and plants belonging to them are readily united by grafting. The +Physalis, Husk tomato or Ground cherry is quite distinct, botanically. +The pistils of the true tomato are short at first, but the style +elongates so as to push the capitate stigma through the tube formed by +the anthers, this usually occurring before the anthers open for the +discharge of the pollen. The fruit is a two to many-celled berry with +central fleshy placenta and many small kidney-shaped seeds which are +densely covered with short, stiff hairs, as seen in Figs. 3 and 4. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3--TWO-CELLED TOMATO] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4--THREE-CELLED TOMATO] + +It is comparatively easy to define the genus with which the tomato +should be classed botanically, but it is by no means so easy to classify +our cultivated varieties into botanical species. We have in cultivation +varieties which are known to have originated in gardens and from the +same parentage, but which differ from each other so much in habit of +growth, character of leaf and fruit and other respects, that if they had +been found growing wild they would unhesitatingly be pronounced +different species, and botanists are not agreed as to how our many and +very different garden varieties should be classified botanically. Some +contend that all of our cultivated sorts are varieties of but two +distinct species, while others think they have originated from several. + +=Classification.=--The author suggests the following classification, +differing somewhat from that sometimes given, as he believes that the +large, deep-sutured fruit of our cultivated varieties and the distinct +pear-shaped sorts come from original species rather than from variations +of _Lycopersicum cerasiforme_: + +=Currant tomato, Grape tomato, German or Raisin tomato= (_Lycopersicum +pimpinellifolium_, _L. racemiforme_) (Fig. 5).--Universally regarded as +a distinct species. Plant strong, growing with many long, slender, weak +branches which are not so hairy, viscid, or ill-smelling, and never +become so hard or woody as those of the other species. The numerous +leaves are very bright green in color, leaflets small, nearly entire, +with many small stemless ones between the others. Fruit produced +continuously and in great quantity on long racemes like those of the +currant, though they are often branched. They continue to elongate and +blossom until the fruit at the upper end is fully ripened. Fruit small, +less than 1/2 inch in diameter, spherical, smooth and of a particularly +bright, beautiful red color which contrasts well with the bright green +leaves, and this abundance of beautifully colored and gracefully poised +fruit makes the plant worthy of more general cultivation as an ornament, +though the fruit is of little value for culinary use. This species, when +pure, has not varied under cultivation, but it readily crosses with +other species and with our garden varieties, and many of these owe their +bright red color to the influence of crosses with the above species. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5--CURRANT TOMATO AND CHARACTERISTIC CLUSTERS] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6--RED CHERRY TOMATO] + +=Cherry tomato= (_L. cerasiforme_) (Fig. 6).--Plant vigorous, with stout +branches which are distinctly trailing in habit. Leaves flat or but +slightly curled. Fruit very abundant, borne in short, branched +clusters, globular, perfectly smooth, with no apparent sutures. From 1/2 +to 3/4 inch in diameter and either red or yellow in color, two-celled +with numerous comparatively small, kidney-shaped seeds. Many of our +garden varieties show evidence of crosses with this species, and by many +it is regarded as the original wild form of all of our cultivated sorts. +These, when they escape from cultivation and become wild plants, as they +often do, from New Jersey southward, produce fruit which, in many +respects, resembles that of this species in size and form; but they are +generally more flattened, globe-shaped, with more or less distinct +sutures on the upper side, and I have never seen any fruit of these wild +plants which could not be readily distinguished from that of the true +Cherry tomato. + +Prof. P. H. Rolfs, Director of the Florida experiment station, reports +that among the millions of volunteer, or wild, tomatoes he has seen +growing in the abandoned tomato fields in Florida, he has never seen a +plant with fruit which could not be easily distinguished from that of +the true Cherry tomato. Again, one can, by selection and cultivation, +easily develop from these wild forms plants producing fruit as large and +often practically identical with that of our cultivated varieties, while +I have given a true stock of Cherry tomato most careful cultivation on +the best of soil for 20 consecutive generations without any increase in +size or change in character of the fruit. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7--PEAR-SHAPED TOMATO] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8--YELLOW PLUM TOMATO, SHOWING MOST USUAL FORM OF +CLUSTER] + +=Pear (not Plum) tomato= (_L. pyriforme_) (Fig. 7).--Plant exceptionally +vigorous, with comparatively few long, stout stems inclined to ascend. +Leaves numerous, broad, flat, with a distinct bluish-green color +noticeable, even in the cotyledons. Fruit abundant, borne in short +branched or straight clusters of five to ten fruits. It is perfectly +smooth, without sutures, and of the shape of a long, slender-necked +pear, not over an inch in transverse by 1-1/2 inches in longitudinal +diameter. When the stock is pure the fruit retains this form very +persistently. The production of egg-shaped or other forms is a sure +indication of impure stock. They are bright red, dark yellow, or light +yellowish white in color, two-celled, with very distinct central +placenta and comparatively few and large seeds. The fruit is inclined to +ripen unevenly, the neck remaining green when the rest of the fruit is +quite ripe. It is less juicy than that of most of our garden sorts but +of a mild and pleasant flavor. This is considered, by many, to be +simply a garden variety, but I am inclined to the belief that it is a +distinct species and that the contrary view comes from the study of the +impure and crossed stocks resulting from crosses between the true Pear +tomato and garden sorts which are frequently sold by seedsmen as +pear-shaped. Many garden sorts--like the Plum (Fig. 8), the Egg, the +Golden Nugget, Vick's Criterion, etc.--are known to have originated from +crosses of the Pear and I think that most, if not all, the garden sorts +in which the longitudinal diameter of the fruit is greater than its +transverse diameter owe this form to crosses with _L. pyriforme_. + +=Cultivated varieties= (_L. esculentum_).--This is commonly used as the +botanical name of our cultivated varieties, rather than as the name of a +distinct species. In western South America, however, there is found +growing a wild plant of Lycopersicum which differs from the other +recognized species in being more compact in growth, with fewer branches +and larger leaves, and carrying an immense burden of fruit borne in +large clusters. The fruit is larger than that of the other species but +much smaller than that of our cultivated sorts; is very irregular in +shape, always with distinct sutures, and often deeply corrugated and +bright red in color. The walls are thin; the flesh is soft, with a +distinct sharp, acid flavor much less agreeable than that of our +cultivated forms of garden tomatoes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9--ONE OF THE FIRST ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE TOMATO +_Poma amoris_, (_Pomum aureum_), (_Lycopersicum_), 1581] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10--AN EARLY ILLUSTRATION OF THE TOMATO (From +Morrison's "Historia Universalis," 1680)] + +This has commonly been regarded by botanists as a degenerate form of our +garden tomatoes, rather than as an original species, but I find that, +like _L. cerasiforme_ and _L. pyriforme_, it is quite fixed under +cultivation, except as crossed with other species or with our garden +varieties, and I believe it to be the original species from which our +cultured sorts have been developed, by crossing and selection. Such +crosses probably were made either naturally or by natives before the +tomato was discovered by Europeans. The earliest prints we have of the +tomato (Figs. 9 and 10) are far more like the fruit of this plant than +that of _L. cerasiforme_, and the prints of many of the earliest garden +varieties and of some sorts which are still cultivated in southern +Europe, for use in soups, are like it not only in size and form, but in +flavor. These facts make it seem far more probable that our cultivated +sorts have come, by crossing, between this and other species rather than +by simple development from _L. cerasiforme_. + +Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin, who has made a most careful study of the +tomato, expressed the same opinion, writing that it seemed to him that +our cultivated sorts must have come from the crossing of a small, round, +smooth, sutureless type, with a larger, deep-sutured, corrugated fruit, +like that of the Mammoth Chihuahua, but smaller. However this may be, I +think that it is wise to throw all of our cultivated garden sorts, +except the Pear, the Cherry, and the Grape--which I regard as distinct +species--together under the name of _L. esculentum_, even when we know +they have originated by direct crosses with the other species; and it is +well to classify the upright growing sorts under the varietal names, _L. +validum_, and the larger, heavier sorts, as _L. grandifolium_, as has +been done by Bailey. (Cyclopedia of Horticulture.) + + + + +CHAPTER II + +History + + +The garden vegetable known in this country as tomato and generally as +tomate in continental Europe, is also known as Wolf-peach and Love Apple +in England and America, and Liebesapfel in Germany, Pomme d'Amour in +France, Pomo d'oro in Italy, Pomidor in Poland. + +=Origin of name.=--The name tomato is of South American origin, and is +derived from the Aztec word _xitomate_, or _zitotomate_, which is given +the fruit of both the Common tomato and that of the Husk or Strawberry +tomato or Physalis. Both vegetables were highly prized and extensively +cultivated by the natives long before the discovery of the country by +Europeans, and there is little doubt that many of the plants first seen +and described by Europeans as wild species were really garden varieties +originated with the native Americans by the variation or crossing of the +original wild species. + +=Different types now common=, according to Sturtevant, have become known +to, and been described by Europeans in about the following order: + + 1. Large yellow, described by Matthiolus in 1554 and called + Golden apple. + + 2. Large red, described by Matthiolus in 1554 and called Love + apple. + + 3. Purple red, described by D'el Obel in 1570. + + 4. White-fleshed, described by Dodoens in 1586. + + 5. Red cherry, described by Bauhin in 1620. + + 6. Yellow cherry, described by Bauhin in 1620. + + 7. Ochre yellow, described by Bauhin in 1651. + + 8. Striped, blotched or visi-colored, described by Bauhin in + 1651. + + 9. Pale red, described by Tournefort in 1700. + + 10. Large smooth, or ribless red, described by Tournefort in + 1700. + + 11. Bronzed-leaved, described by Blacknell in 1750. + + 12. Deep orange, described by Bryant in 1783. + + 13. Pear-shaped, described by Dunal in 1805. + + 14. Tree tomato, described by Vilmorin in 1855. + + 15. Broad-leaved, introduced about 1860. + +The special description of No. 10 by Tournefort in 1700 would indicate +that large smooth sorts, like Livingston's Stone, were in existence +fully 200 years ago, instead of being modern improvements, as is +sometimes claimed; and a careful study of old descriptions and cuts and +comparing them with the best examples of modern varieties led Doctor +Sturtevant in 1889 to express the opinion that they had fruit as large +and smooth as those we now grow, before the tomato came into general use +in America, and possibly before the fruit was generally known to +Europeans. Even the production of fine fruit under glass is not so +modern as many suppose. In transactions of the London Horticultural +Society for 1820, John Wilmot is reported to have cultivated under glass +in 1818 some 600 plants and gathered from his entire plantings under +glass and in borders some 130 bushels of ripe fruit. It is stated that +the growth that year exceeded the demand, and that the fruit obtained +was of extraordinary size, some exceeding 12 inches in circumference and +weighing 12 ounces each. Thomas Meehan states in _Gardeners' Monthly_ +for February, 1880, that on January 8, of that year, he saw growing in +the greenhouses on Senator Cannon's place near Harrisburg, Pa., at +least 1 bushel of ripe fruits, none of which were less than 10 inches in +circumference,--a showing which compares with the best to be seen +to-day. + +Throughout southern Europe the value of the fruit for use in soups and +as a salad seems to have been at once recognized, and it came into quite +general use, especially in Spain and Italy, during the 17th century; but +in northern Europe and England, though the plant was grown in botanical +gardens and in a few private places as a curiosity and for the beauty of +its fruit, this was seldom eaten, being commonly regarded as unhealthy +and even poisonous, and on this account, and probably because of its +supposed aphrodisiacal qualities, it did not come into general use in +those northern countries until early in the 19th century. + +=First mention= in America, I find of its being grown for culinary use, +was in Virginia in 1781. In 1788 a Frenchman in Philadelphia made most +earnest efforts to get people to use the fruit, but with little success, +and similar efforts by an Italian in Salem, Mass., in 1802, were no more +successful. The first record I can find of the fruit being regularly +quoted in the market was in New Orleans in 1812, and the earliest +records I have been able to find of the seed being offered by seedsmen, +as that of an edible vegetable, was by Gardener and Hipburn in 1818, and +by Landreth in 1820. Buist's "Kitchen Gardener" says: "In 1828-9 it (the +tomato) was almost detested and commonly considered poisonous. Ten years +later every variety of pill and panacea was 'extract of tomatoes,' and +now (1847) almost as much ground is devoted to its culture as to the +cabbage." In 1834 Professor Dunglison, of the University of Virginia, +said: "The tomato may be looked upon as one of the most wholesome and +valuable esculents of the garden." + +Yet, though the fruit has always received similar commendation from +medical men, there has been constant recurring superstition that it is +unhealthy. Only a few years ago there was in general circulation a +statement that an eminent physician had discovered that eating tomatoes +tended to develop cancer. This has been definitely traced to the playful +question, asked as a joke by Dr. Dio Lewis, "Didn't you know that eating +bright red tomatoes caused cancer?" In more recent years an equally +unfounded claim has been made that tomato seeds were responsible for +many cases of appendicitis and that it was consequently dangerous to eat +the fruit. + +I give some quotations for tomatoes in Quincy Hall Market, Boston, with +some for other vegetables, for comparison. The records show that during +the week ending July 22, 1835, tomatoes were quoted at 50 cents per +dozen, cabbage at 50 cents per dozen. For the week ending September 22, +1835, tomatoes were quoted at 25 cents per peck, lima beans, 12-1/2 +cents per quart shelled, with comment that tomatoes are in much demand +and a far greater quantity has been sold than in previous years. During +the week ending July 22, 1837, tomatoes were quoted at 25 and 50 cents +per peck, and the note that they are of good size and were well ripened +and came from gardens in the vicinity would indicate that they had at +that time early maturing varieties and knew how to grow them. From about +1835 till the present time the cultivation and use of tomatoes have +constantly increased both in this country and in Europe, so that now +they are one of the most largely grown of our garden vegetables. + +A suggestion as to the extent they are now grown in America is the fact +that a single seed grower saved in 1903 over 20,000 pounds of tomato +seed--an amount sufficient to furnish plants for from 80,000 to 320,000 +acres, according to the care used in raising them, the larger quantity +not requiring more care than the best growers commonly use. A careful +estimate made by the _American Grocer_ shows that in 1903 the packing of +tomatoes by canners in the United States amounted to 246,775,426 +three-pound cans. In addition to the canned tomato, between 200,000 and +250,000 barrels of catsup stock is put up annually, requiring the +product of at least 20,000 acres. + +It is probable that the area required to produce the fruit that is used +fresh at least equals that devoted to the production for preserving, +which give us from 400,000 to 500,000 acres devoted to this crop each +year in America alone. The fruit is perhaps in more general use in +America than elsewhere, but its cultivation and use have increased +rapidly in other countries, particularly with the English speaking +races. Large quantities are grown in Australia, and immense and +constantly increasing quantities are grown under glass in England and +adjacent islands, while _The Gardeners' Chronicle_ states that in 1903 +between 600,000 and 800,000 pounds of fresh fruit were imported into +England from other countries. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +General Characteristics of the Plant + + +=In the native home= of the tomato, in South America, the conditions of +the soil, both as regards composition and mechanical condition, of the +moisture both in soil and air, and those of temperature and sunlight, +are throughout the growing season not only very favorable for rapid +growth, but are uniformly and constantly so. Under such conditions there +has been developed a plant which, while vigorous, tenacious of life, +capable of rapid growth and enormously productive, is not at all hardy +in the sense of ability to endure untoward conditions either in the +character of soil, of water supply, or of temperature. A check in the +development because of any unfavorable condition is never fully +recovered from, but will inevitably affect the total quantity and +quality of the fruit produced, even if subsequent favorable conditions +result in the rapid and vigorous growth of the plant. + +I know of an instance where two adjoining fields belonging to A and B +were set with tomatoes, using plants started in the same hotbed from the +same lot of seed. The soil was of equal natural fertility and each field +received about the same quantity of manure, though that given A's was +all well decomposed and worked into the soil, while that given B's was +fresh and raw and simply plowed in. A's field was put into the best +possible tilth before setting the plants, and the management of the +plants and their cultivation were such as to secure unchecked growth +from the time they were pricked out into cold-frames and set in the +field until the crop was matured. As long as the plants would permit, +the soil was cultivated every few days and kept in a state of perfect +tilth. + +B's field when the plants were set out was a mass of clods, as it had +been plowed, when wet, some time before and never harrowed but once. +The plants had been crowded forward as rapidly as possible in the +cold-frame, and when set in the field were much higher than A's, but so +soft that they were badly checked in transplanting and a great many of +them died and had to be reset. The field received but one or two +cultivations during the entire season. The growth of the plants in B's +field was irregular and uneven instead of steady and uniform as in A's, +and though some of the fruits were quite as large, they were not as +uniform as A's while the yield per acre was not more than half as much +nor the fruit of as good general quality. B had difficulty in disposing +of his crop and often had to sell below the market, while A had no +trouble in disposing of his at the highest prices for the day. B's crop +was a financial loss, while A's returned a most satisfactory profit. + +The key to the most successful culture of the tomato is the securing, +from the start to finish, of an unchecked uniform growth, though it need +not necessarily be a rapid one. The failure to do this is, in my +opinion, the principal reason for the comparatively small yield usually +obtained, which is very much less than it would be with better cultural +management. The tomato under conditions which I have repeatedly found it +practicable to secure, not only in small plantings but in large fields, +has proved capable of producing from 1,000 to 1,200 or even more bushels +to the acre, and the possible yield per plant is enormous. + +As early as 1818 the Royal Horticultural Society of London reports the +obtaining of over 40 pounds of fruit of marketable character from a +single vine. An acre of such plants would give a yield of over 1,800 +bushels of fruit, and many similar yields, and even greater ones, have +been recorded for single plants. The yield commonly obtained, even in +favorable locations, and by men who have grown tomatoes all their lives, +is more often less than 200 bushels to the acre than more. The way to +secure a better yield is to study carefully the nature and requirements +of the plants and the adaptation of our cultural practice to them. + +=Life habit of the plant.=--The tomato could be described as a +short-lived perennial, but its span of life is somewhat variable. Under +favorable conditions it will develop from starting seed to first ripe +fruit in from 85 to 120 days of full sunshine with a constant day +temperature of from 75 to 90 deg. F., and with one from 15 to 20 deg. F. lower +at night. The plants will ordinarily continue in full fruit for about 50 +to 60 days, after which they generally become so exhausted by excessive +production of fruit and the effects of diseases to which they are +usually subject that their root action and sap circulation become weaker +and weaker until they die from starvation. From Philadelphia southward +gardeners expect that spring set plants will thus exhaust themselves and +die by late summer, and they sow seed in late spring or early summer for +plants on which they depend for late summer and fall crops. + +Under some conditions, particularly in the Gulf states and in +California, tomato plants will not only grow to a much greater size than +normal, but will continue to thrive and bear fruit for a longer time. +Such a plant grown in Pasadena, Cal., was said to have been in constant +bearing for over 10 months. Again, sometimes plants that have produced a +full crop of fruits will start new sets of roots and leaves and produce +a second and even a third crop, each, however, being produced on new +branches and as a result of a fresh set of roots, those which produced +the preceding crop having died and disappeared. The period of +development, 85 to 120 days of full sunshine at a temperature above 75 deg. +F., has been given. The full sunshine and high temperature are essential +to such rapid development, and in so far as there is a lack of sunshine +from clouds or shade, or the day temperature falls below 75 deg. F. the +period will be lengthened, so that in the greater part of the United +States the elapsed time between starting seed to ripened fruit is +usually as much as from 120 to 150 days and often even longer. + +=Characteristics of the root.=--The roots of the tomato plant, while +abundant in number, are short and can only gather food and water from a +limited area. A plant of garden bean, for instance, is not more than +half the size of one of the tomato, but its roots extend through the +soil to a greater distance, gather plant food from a greater bulk of +soil, seem better able to search out and gather the particular food +element which the plant needs than do those of the tomato. This +characteristic of the latter plant makes the composition of the soil as +to the proportion of easily available food elements of great importance. +Tomato roots are also exceedingly tender and incapable of penetrating a +hard and compact soil, so that the condition of the soil as to tilth is +of greater importance with regard to tomatoes than with most garden +vegetables. + +Another characteristic of the tomato roots is that the period of their +active life is short. When young they are capable of transmitting water +and nutritive material very rapidly, but they soon become clogged and +inefficient to such an extent as to result in the starvation and death +of the plant. If the branches of such an exhausted plant be bent over +and covered with earth they will frequently start new roots and produce +a fresh crop of fruit, or if plants which have made a crop in the +greenhouse be transplanted to the garden and cut back, a new set of +roots will often develop and the plant will produce a second crop of +fruit which, in amount, often equals or exceeds the first one. But such +growths come only from new roots springing from the stem--never from an +extension of the old root system. + +=Characteristics of the stem and leaves.=--The growth of the stem, and +leaves of the young tomato plant is very rapid and, the cellular +structure coarse, loose and open. A young branch is easily broken and +when this is done it shows scarcely any fibrous structure--simply a mass +of coarse cellular matter which while capable, when young, of +transmitting nutritive matter rapidly, soon becomes dogged and inert. +This structure not only makes the active life of the leaves short, like +that of the roots, but necessitates a fresh growth in order to continue +the fruitfulness of the plant and renders the leaves very susceptible to +injury from bacterial and fungous diseases. The rapid growth also +necessitates an abundance of sunlight. + +=Characteristics of the blossom.=--The inflorescence of the tomato is +usually abundant and it is rare that a plant does not produce sufficient +blooms for a full crop. The flowers are perfect as far as parts are +concerned (Fig. 2) and in bright, sunny weather there is an abundance of +pollen, but sunlight and warmth are essential to its maturing into a +condition in which it can easily reach the stigma. The structure and +development of the flower are such that while occasionally, particularly +in healthy plants out of doors, the stigma becomes receptive and takes +the pollen as it is pushed out through the stamen tube by the elongating +style, it is more often pushed beyond them before the pollen matures, so +that the pollen has to reach the stigma through some other means. +Usually this is accomplished by the wind, either directly or through the +motion of the plants. + +Under glass it is generally necessary to assist the fertilization either +directly by application or by motion of the plant, this latter only +being effective in the middle of a bright sunny day. In the open ground +in cold, damp weather the flowers often fail of fertilization, in which +case they drop, and this is often the first indication of a failing of +the crop on large, strong vines. I have known of many cases where the +yield of fruit from large and seemingly very healthy vines was very +light because continual rains prevented the pollenization of the +flowers. Such failures, however, do not always come from a want of +pollen but may result from an over or irregular supply of water either +at the root or in the air, imperfectly balanced food supply, a sapping +of the vitality of the plants when young, or from other causes. Insects +rarely visit tomato flowers and are seldom the means of their +fertilization. + +=Characteristics of the fruit.=--The fruit of the original species from +which our cultivated tomatoes have developed was doubtless a +comparatively small two to many-celled berry, with comparatively dry +central placenta and thin walls. In some species the cells were +indicated by distinct sutures, forming a rough or corrugated fruit. It +has improved under cultivation by increase in size, the material +thickening of the cell walls, the development of greater juiciness and +richer flavor and a decrease in the size and dryness of the placenta, as +well as the breaking up of the cells by fleshy partitions resulting in +the disappearance of the deep sutures and an improvement in the +smoothness and beauty of the fruit. (Fig. 11.) + +The quality of the fruit is largely dependent upon varietal differences, +to be spoken of later, but it is also influenced by conditions of +growth--such as the proportion of the nutritive elements found in the +soil, the proper supply of moisture, the degree and uniformity of +temperature and, most of all, the amount of sunlight. Sudden changes of +temperature and moisture often result in cracks and fissures in the skin +and flesh, which not only injure the appearance but affect the flavor of +the fruit. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11--TYPICAL BUNCH OF MODERN TOMATOES Contrast with +Figs. 9 and 10] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +Essentials for Development + + +=Sunlight.=--Abundant and unobstructed sunlight is the most essential +condition for the healthy growth of the tomato. It is a native of the +sunny South and will not thrive except in full and abundant sunlight. I +have never been able to grow good tomatoes in the shade even where it is +only partial. The entire plant needs the sunlight. The blossoms often +fail to set and the fruit is lacking in flavor because of shade, from +excessive leaf growth, or other obstruction. + +The great difficulty in winter forcing tomatoes under glass in the North +comes from the want of sunlight during the short days of the winter +months. Were it not for the short winter days of the higher latitudes +limiting the hours of sunshine, tomatoes could be grown under glass in +the northern states to compete in price, when the better quality of +vine-ripened fruits is considered, with those from the Gulf states. +Growers are learning that tomatoes can be profitably grown under glass +during the longer spring days, and consumers are beginning to appreciate +the superior quality of fruit ripened on the vine over that picked green +and ripened in transit. At no time is this need of abundance of light of +greater importance than when the plants are young and, if they fail to +receive it, no subsequent favorable conditions will enable them to +recover fully from its ill effects. It is not so much the want of room +for the roots as of light for the leaves that makes the plants which +have been crowded in the seed-beds so weak and unprofitable. + +I once divided 100 young tomato plants, about 2 inches high, into four +lots of 25 each, numbering them 1, 2, 3 and 4. The plants of lots No. 1 +and 2 were set equal distance apart in box A, and those of lots No. 3 +and 4 in the same way in box B; both boxes being about 16 inches wide, +40 inches long and 4 inches deep. The two boxes were set together across +the side bench of a greenhouse with the outer edge against a board wall +some 2-1/2 feet high, so that the plants at the end of the box near the +wall received much less light than those at the other end. They remained +there about five weeks and then were taken out and the plants set in the +open ground. During the five weeks box A, containing lots No. 1 and 2, +was changed, end for end, every day so that those two lots of plants +received nearly an equal amount of sunlight, but box B was not changed +so that lot No. 3, at one end of the box, was constantly near the walk +and in the full light, while lot No. 4, at the other end of the box, was +constantly near the wall and in partial shade. The effect on the growth +of the plants was very marked. The plants of lot No. 4 were nearly twice +as high, but with much softer stems and leaves than those of lot No. 3. +The plants received equal care when set side by side in the open ground +and at the time the first fruit was gathered seemed of equal size and +vigor, but the total yield of fruit of lots No. 1, 2 and 3 was very +nearly the same and in each case at the rate of over 100 bushels an acre +more than that from lot No. 4. This is but one of the scores of +experiences which have led me to appreciate, in some degree, the +necessity of plenty of sunlight for the best development of the tomato. + +=Heat.=--The plant thrives best out of doors in a dry temperature of 75 +to 85 deg. F., or even up to 95 deg. F., if the air is not too dry and is in +gentle circulation. The rate of growth diminishes as the temperature +falls below 75 deg. until at 50 deg. there is practically no growth; the plant +is simply living at a poor dying rate and if the growth, particularly in +young plants, is checked in this way for any considerable time they will +never produce a full crop of fruit, even if the plants reach full size +and are seemingly vigorous and healthy. The plant is generally killed by +exposure for even a short time to freezing temperature, though young +volunteer plants in the spring are frequently so hardened by exposure +that they will survive a frost that crusts the ground they stand in; but +such exposure affects the productiveness of the plant, even if it +subsequently makes a seemingly vigorous and healthy growth. Under glass, +plants usually do best in a temperature somewhat lower than is most +desirable out of doors. I think this is due to the inevitable +obstruction of the sunlight and the lack of perfect ventilation. + +=Moisture.=--Although the tomato is not a desert plant and needs a +plentiful supply of water, it suffers far more frequently, particularly +when the plants are young, from an over-supply than from the want of +water. Good drainage at the root and warm, dry, sunny air, in gentle +motion, are what it delights in. Good drainage is essential not only to +the best growth of the plant but to the production of any fruit of good +quality. So important is this feature that though it can be readily +proved that, other things being equal, the tomato will give larger yield +and better fruit on well drained clay loam than on sandy soil, yet it is +more generally and more successfully planted on sandy lands simply +because they are usually better drained and on this account give better +crops. While excess of water in the soil is most injurious to the young +and growing plant, an abundance of it at the time the fruit swells and +ripens is very essential, and a want of it at that time results in small +and imperfect fruit of poor flavor. Excessive moisture in the air is +just as injurious as at the root. In my personal experience I have known +of more failures in tomato crops, at least in the northern states, to +come from a season of persistent rains and damp atmosphere at the time +when the plants should be in bloom and setting fruit than from any other +climatic cause. + +=Food supply.=--The tomato is not a gross feeder nor is the crop an +exhaustive one, but the plant is very particular as to its food supply. +It is an epicure among plants and demands that its food shall not only +be to its taste in quality but that it be well served. In order for the +plant to do its best, or even well, it is essential that the food +elements be in the right proportions and readily available. If there is +a deficiency of any single element there will be but a meager crop of +fruit, no matter how abundant the supply of the others. An over-supply +of an element, especially nitrogen, is hardly less injurious and will +actually lessen the yield of fruit though it may increase the size of +the vine. Not only must the food be in right proportions but in such +condition as to be readily available. Tomato roots have little power to +wrest plant food from the soil. The use of coarse, unfermented manure is +even more unsatisfactory with this than with other crops. The enormous +yields sometimes obtained by English gardeners from plants grown under +glass result from a supply of food of the right proportions and in +solution, instead of incorporating it in a crude condition with the +soil. + +=Cultivation.=--The tomato is grown in all parts of the United States +and under very different conditions, not only as to climate and soil but +as to the facilities for growing and handling the crop and the way in +which it is done. What would be ideal conditions of soil and the most +advantageous methods under some conditions would not be at all desirable +in others. In some cases the largest possible yield an acre, in others +fruit at the lowest cost a bushel, or at the earliest possible date, or +in a continuous supply and of the best quality, is the greatest +desideratum. It is impossible to give specific instructions which would +be applicable to all these varying conditions and requirements; so I +give general cultural directions for maximum crops with variations +suggested for special conditions and requirements, and then the reader +may follow those which seem best suited to his individual conditions. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +Selection of Soil for Maximum Crop + + +Large yields of tomatoes have been, and can be, obtained from soils of +varying composition, from a gumbo prairie, a black marsh muck, or a +stiff, tenacious clay, to one of light drifting sand, provided other +conditions, such as drainage, tilth and fertility are favorable. The +Connecticut experiment station and others have secured good results from +plants grown under glass in a soil of sifted coal ashes and muck, or +even from coal ashes alone, the requisite plant food being supplied in +solution. But a maximum crop could never, and a full one very seldom, be +produced on a soil, no matter what its composition, which could not be, +or was not put into and kept in a good state of tilth, or on one which +was poorly drained, sodden or sour, or which was so leachy that it was +impossible to retain a fair supply of moisture and of plant food. + +Of the 10 largest yields of which I have personal knowledge and which +ran from 1,000 to 1,200 bushels of fruit (acceptable for canning and at +least two-thirds of it of prime market quality) an acre, four were grown +on soils classed as clay loam, two on heavy clay--one of which was so +heavy that clay for making brick was subsequently taken from the very +spot which yielded the most and best fruit--one on what had been a black +ash swamp, one on a sandy muck, two on a sandy loam and one on a light +sand made very rich by heavy, annual manuring for several years. They +were all perfectly watered and drained, in good heart, liberally +fertilized with manures of proved right proportions for each field, and +above all, the fields were put into and kept in perfect tilth by methods +suited to each case; while the plants used were of good stock and so +grown, set and cultivated that their growth was never stopped or hardly +checked for even a day. These conditions as to soil and culture, +together with seasons of exceptionally favorable weather, resulted in +uniformly large crops on these widely different soils. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12--TOMATOES TRAINED TO STAKES ON A GEORGIA FARM] + +The composition of the soil, then, as to its proportions of sand or clay +is of minor importance as regards a maximum yield or as to quality of +the fruit, except as it affects our ability to put and keep the soil in +good physical condition. The tomato crop, however, particularly when the +plants are trimmed and trained to stakes, as is the usual practice in +the South, as seen in Fig. 12, with crops grown for early shipment, +necessitates in the trimming and training of the plants and the +gathering of the fruit when it is in the right degree of maturity for +shipment a great deal of trampling of the surface regardless of whether +it is wet or dry. Consequently if the surface soil has any considerable +proportion of clay there is danger of compacting and even puddling it by +working when wet, to the great detriment of the crop. Again, a more or +less sandy surface soil can be much more easily worked than one with a +large proportion of clay. For these reasons our choice of a soil for the +lowest cost a bushel and probably for a maximum yield should be a rich +sandy or sandy loam surface soil overlying a well-drained clay +sub-soil. I would prefer one which was originally covered with a heavy +growth of beech and maple timber, though I should want it to be "old +land" at the time. Tomatoes do not succeed as well on prairie soils, +particularly if they are at all heavy, as they do on timbered lands, but +one need not despair of a profitable crop of tomatoes on any soil which +would give a fair crop of corn or of cotton. + +=For early-ripening fruit.=--Sometimes the profit and satisfaction from +a tomato crop depend more largely upon the earliness of ripening than +upon the amount of yield or cost of growing. In such cases a warm, sandy +loam, or even a distinctly sandy soil, is to be preferred, as this is +apt to be warmer and the fruit will be matured much earlier on it than +on a heavier soil. It is essential, however, that it be well drained and +warm. Often lands classed as sandy are really colder than some of those +classed as clay, and such soils should be carefully avoided if early +maturity is important. + +=For the home garden.=--Here we seldom have a choice, but no one need +despair and abandon effort, no matter what the soil may be, for it is +quite possible to raise an abundant home supply on any soil and that, +too, without inordinate cost and labor. Some of the most prolific plants +and the finest fruits I have ever seen were grown in a village lot which +five years before had been filled in to a depth of 3 to 10 feet with +clay, coal ashes and refuse from a brick and coal yard. In another +instance magnificent fruit was grown in a garden where the soil was +originally made up chiefly of sawdust mixed with sand, drawn on a +foundation of sawmill edgings so as to raise it above the water of a +swamp. Where one has to contend with such conditions he should make an +effort to create a friable soil with a supply of humus by adding the +material needed. A very few loads, sometimes even a single load, of clay +or sand will greatly change the character of the soil of a sufficient +area to grow the one or two dozen plants necessary for a family supply. +In the two cases mentioned, the owner of the first named garden used +both sand and sawdust to lighten his soil, while the second drew a great +many loads of clay on his. + +=Growing under glass.=--I would make up a soil composed of about three +parts rotted sod, two or three parts of well-rotted stable manure (and +it is very important that it be well decomposed) and one part either of +coarse, sharp sand, sandy loam or clay loam, according as the sod soil +is light or heavy, the aim being to form a rich, light, open soil rather +than one which is as heavy and compact as desirable for some plants. If +sod soil is not available, of course, garden loam can be substituted, +but it is very important that the soil be thoroughly mixed, and +desirable that it be prepared sometime before it is to be used. Some +growers use the same soil for several crops, simply adding some fresh +manure; but, if so used, it is important that it be stirred and +thoroughly re-mixed and sterilized. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +Exposure and Location + + +In sections where there is danger of the plants being killed by early +fall frosts before they have ripened their entire crop, exposure of the +field is sometimes of importance in determining the marketable yield. + +A gentle inclination to the south, with a protection of higher land or +timber on the sides from which frost or high winds are most likely to +come, is the best. A steep descent to the south, shut in by high land to +the east and west, so as to form a hot pocket, is not favorable for a +maximum crop although it may give a smaller yield of early ripening +fruit; nor is a small field entirely surrounded by forest desirable. + +I once knew of a field, of about two acres, sloping to the south and +entirely surrounded by heavy timber, on which two or three tomato crops +were failures when other fields on the same farm gave large yields, but +after the timber on the south and east had been cut away this field +generally gave the largest yield in the neighborhood. + +=Location.=--While exposure is in some cases an important factor in +determining the total yield an acre, and so the cost, the location of +the field as regards distance from marketing point and the character of +the roads between them is of far greater importance in determining the +cost and profit of crop, but one which is very often disregarded. The +marketable product of an acre of tomatoes weighs from 3 to 30 tons, +which is not only more than that of most farm crops, but the product is +of such character that its value is easily destroyed by long hauls over +ordinary roads. It has to be marketed within a day or two of the time it +is in prime condition, regardless of the conditions of the roads or +weather; so that it is quite deceptive to estimate the cost of delivery +at the same rate a ton, as for potatoes or wheat, for it always costs +more, and sometimes several times more, to deliver tomatoes than it +would to deliver the same weight of less perishable crops. In most cases +the cost of picking and delivery is one of the most important factors in +determining profit and loss, particularly when the crop is grown for +canning factories, where one often has to wait for hours for his team to +unload. These conditions make it very important that the field be +located within a short distance of, and connected by good roads with the +point of delivery. + +=Early maturing fruit.=--Where early maturity is the great desideratum +the exposure of the field is often very important. It should, first of +all, be such as to secure comparative freedom from spring frosts so as +to permit of early setting of the plants and the full benefit of the +sunshine as well as protection from cold winds. There is often a great +difference in these respects between fields quite near each other. +Professor Rolfs, of Florida, mentions a case where the tomatoes in a +field sloping to the southeast and protected on the north and west by a +strip of oak timber were uninjured by a spring frost that killed not +only all the plants in neighboring fields, but those in the same field +farther away from the protecting timber. Such spots should be sought out +and utilized, as often they can be used to great advantage. Immediate +proximity to large bodies of water is sometimes advantageous in the +South, but in the North it is often disadvantageous for early fruit +because of the chilling of the air and the increased danger of spring +frosts, although affording protection from those of early fall. Here, +too, proximity of field to shipping point and distance and +transportation rate to market are very important factors affecting +profit on the crop. + +=The home garden.=--The south side of buildings or of tight fences and +walls often furnishes a most desirable place for garden tomatoes, but +the plants should be set at least 6 to 10 feet from the protection and +not so as to be trained upon or much shaded by them, as the disadvantage +of shutting off the light and circulation of the air, even from the +north, would more than overbalance anything gained by the protection. + +=Growing under glass.=--In this country tomatoes are seldom grown under +glass except during the darker winter months and the exposure of the +house; the form of the roof and the method of glazing which will give +the greatest possible light, are of importance, for tomatoes can not be +profitably grown in a dark house. Just how the greatest amount of light +may be made available in any particular case will depend upon local +conditions, but every effort should be made to secure the most +unobstructed sunlight possible and for the greatest number of hours each +day. + +=Previous crop and condition.=--In field culture tomatoes should not +follow tomatoes or potatoes. Both of these crops make use of large +quantities of potash, and although a small part of that used by the +plants is taken from the field in the crop, they inevitably reduce the +proportion of this element in the soil--that is, in such condition as to +be readily available for the succeeding crop. It is true that the +deficiency in potash may be supplied, but it is not so easy to supply it +in a condition in which it is possible for the roots of the tomato to +take it in. Unlike potatoes, tomatoes do not do well on new land, +whether it be newly cleared timber lands or new breaking of prairie. +Clover leaves the land in better condition for tomatoes than any other +of the commonly grown farm crops, while for second choice I prefer one +of peas, beans, corn, or wheat in the order named. + +One of the most successful tomato growers I know of, whose soil is a +rich, dark clay loam, prepares for the crop, as follows: Very late in +the fall or early in the spring he gives a clover sod a heavy dressing +of manure and plows it under. In the spring he prepares the ground by +frequent cultivation and plants it with early sweet corn or summer +squash. At the time of the last cultivation of these crops he sows +clover seed, covering it with a cultivator having many small teeth, and +rarely fails to get a good stand and a good growth of young clover +before the ground freezes. In the spring he plows this under, running +the plow as deep as possible and following in the furrow with a +sub-soiler which stirs, but does not bring the sub-soil to the surface. +He then gives the field a heavy dressing with wood ashes and puts it +into the best possible tilth before planting his tomatoes. This grown +usually harvests at least 500 bushels to the acre and has made a crop of +over 1,000 bushels. + +=Early market.=--In some sections of the South where the soil is light +and the growers depend almost wholly on the use of large quantities of +commercial fertilizer, they seem to meet with the best success by using +the same field for several successive crops, but in some places they +succeed best with plantings following a crop of cowpeas or other green +soiling crops plowed under, with a good dressing of lime. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +Fertilizers + + +The experiences and opinions of different gardeners and writers vary +greatly as to the amount and kind of fertilizer necessary for the +production of the maximum crop of tomatoes. If the question were as to +the growth of vine all would agree that the more fertilizer used and the +richer the soil, the better. Some growers act as if this were equally +true as to fruit, while others declare that one can easily use too much +fertilizer and get the ground too rich not only for a maximum but for a +profitable crop of fruit. I find that the amount an acre recommended by +successful growers varies from 40 tons of well-rotted stable manure, +supplemented by 1,000 pounds of complete fertilizer and 1,000 pounds of +unleached ashes, to one of only 300 pounds of potato fertilizer. + +In my own experience the largest yield that I can recall was produced on +what would be called rich land, and the application of fertilizer for +the tomato crop was not in excess (unless possibly of potash) of that of +the usual annual dressing. I think that in preparing a soil for +tomatoes, as in selecting social acquaintances, the "new rich" are to be +avoided. A soil which is rich because of judicious manuring and careful +cropping for many years can scarcely be too rich, while one that is made +rich by a single application of fertilizer, no matter how well +proportioned, may give even a smaller yield of fruit because of its +excessive use. Again, the proportions of the various food elements vary +greatly in different locations. + +Professor Halstead finds that in his section of New Jersey the liberal +use of nitrate of soda increases the yield and improves the quality, +while in some localities of New York, Ohio, and the West, growers find +that the yield of first-class fruit was actually lessened by its use. In +some sections of the South liberality in the use of phosphates +determines the amount and the quality of the crop, while at other points +it seems to be of little value. In my own experience the liberal +application of potash, particularly in the form of wood ashes, has more +often given good results than the application of any other special +fertilizer. + +If called upon to name the exact quantity and kind of manure for +tomatoes, without any knowledge of the soil or its previous condition, I +would say 8 to 10 tons of good stable manure worked into the soil as +late as possible in the fall or during the winter and early spring and +300 to 600 pounds of commercial fertilizer, of such composition as to +furnish 2 per cent. nitrogen, 6 per cent. phosphoric acid and 8 per +cent. potash scattered and worked into the row about the time that the +plants are set. The use of a large proportion of nitrogen tends to rank +growth of vine and soft, watery fruit. The use of a large proportion of +phosphoric acid tends to produce soft fruit with less distinctly acid +flavor; of potash, to smaller growth of vine and firm but more acid +fruit. + +I think that even more than with most crops it will be well for the +farmer to experiment to determine the best and most economical +fertilizer for his soil, setting aside five to ten plots of 1 to 4 +square rods each and apply nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, wood, +ashes, and phosphate alone and in different combinations. The results +will suggest the combination which he can use to best advantage. In the +majority of cases, however, where the soil is reasonably rich, +expenditures for putting the ground in the best possible state of tilth +will give larger returns than those for manures in excess of that which +the land has usually received in the regular rotation for ordinary farm +crops. + +=For the home garden.=--Usually a dressing of wood ashes up to a rate of +1 bushel to the square rod, well worked into the soil before the plants +are set, and occasionally watering with liquid manure, will generally +give the best returns of any special fertilization, it being assumed +that the garden has been well enriched with stable manure. + +=Tomatoes under glass.=--Some growers recommend frequent waterings with +liquid manure; others a surface dressing of sheep manure; still others a +mulch of moderately well decayed stable manure. Plants growing under +glass, particularly in pots or boxes, seem to be benefitted by so heavy +a dressing that if applied to plants growing outside it would be likely +to give excessive growth of vine with but little fruit. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +Preparation of the Soil + + +The proper preparation of the soil before setting the plants is one of +the most essential points in successful tomato culture. The soil should +be put into the best possible physical condition and to the greatest +practicable depth. How this can be best accomplished will vary greatly +with different soils and the facilities at the command of the planter. +My practice on a heavy, dry soil is to plow shallow as early in the +spring as the ground is fit to work, and then work and re-work the +surface so as to make it as fine as possible. + +If I am to use any manure which is at all coarse, it is well worked in +at this time. A week or 10 days before I expect to set the plants I +again plow, and to as great a depth as practicable, without turning up +much of the sub-soil, and if this has not been done within two years, +follow in the furrows with a sub-soil plow which loosens, but does not +bring the sub-soil to the surface. Then I work and re-work the surface, +at the same time working in any dressing of well-rotted manure, ashes or +commercial fertilizer that I want to use. I never regret going over the +field again, if by so doing I can improve its condition in the least. On +a lighter soil it might be better to compact rather than loosen as much +as would give the best results with clay, but always and everywhere the +soil should be made fine, friable and uniform in condition, to the +greatest depth possible. + +One of the most successful growers has said that if he could afford to +spend but two days' time on a patch of tomatoes he would use a day and a +half of the two days in fitting the ground before he set the plants. It +is my opinion that any working of the ground that serves to get it into +better mechanical condition, if done economically, will not only +increase the yield, but to such an extent as to lower the cost a bushel. +T. B. Terry's teaching of the necessity for working and re-working the +soil, if one would have the largest crops of potatoes of the best +quality, is even more applicable to the culture of tomatoes. + +=Home garden.=--Here there is no excuse for setting plants in hard, +lumpy soil. It should be worked and re-worked, not simply once or twice, +but once or twice after it has been thoroughly worked. In short, the +tomato bed should be made as friable as it is possible to make it and to +as great a depth as the character of the sub-soil will permit. + +=Under glass.=--I would strongly advise that soil for tomatoes, whether +it is to be used in solid beds or in pots or boxes, be thoroughly +sterilized by piling it not over 15 inches deep or wide over iron pipes +perforated with two lines of holes about one-sixteenth inch in diameter +and 2 inches apart and filled with steam for at least a half hour. It +can be sterilized, but far less effectively, by thorough wetting with +boiling water. It should always be well stirred and aired before the +plants are set in it. + +=Starting plants.=--From about the latitude of New York city southward, +it is possible to secure large yields from plants grown from seed sown +in place in the field, and one often sees volunteer plants which have +sprung up as weeds carrying as much or more fruit than most carefully +grown transplanted ones beside them. In many sections tomatoes are grown +in large areas for canning factories, and as a farm rather than a market +garden crop, individual farmers planting from 10 to 100 acres; and to +start and transplant to the field the 25,000 to 30,000 plants necessary +for a ten-acre field seems a great undertaking. Tomato plants, however, +when young, are of rather weak and tender growth, and need more careful +culture than can be readily given in the open field; and, again, the +demand of the market, even at the canning factories, is for delivery of +the crop earlier than it can be produced by sowing the seed in the +field. + +For these reasons it is almost the universal custom of successful +growers to use plants started under glass or in seed-beds where +conditions of heat and moisture can be somewhat under control. I +believe, however, that the failure to secure a maximum yield is more +often due to defective methods of starting, handling and setting the +plants than to any other single cause. In sections where tomatoes are +largely grown there are usually men who make a business of starting +plants and offering them for sale at prices running from $1 or even as +low as 40 cents, up to $8 and $10 a 1,000, according to their age and +the way they are grown; but generally, it will be found more +advantageous for the planter to start his plants on or near the field +where they are to be grown. + +=Tomato plants from cuttings= may be easily grown, but such plants, when +planted in the open ground, do not yield as much fruit as seedlings nor +is this apt to be of so good quality; so that, in practice, seedlings +only are used for outside crops. Under glass, plants from cuttings do +relatively better and some growers prefer them, as they commence to +fruit earlier and do not make so rank a growth. + +Seedlings can be most easily started and grown, at least up to the time +of pricking out, in light, well-ventilated greenhouses, and many large +growers have them for this specific purpose. Houses for starting tomato +plants should be so situated as to be fully exposed to the sun and not +shaded in any way; be provided with heating apparatus by which a night +temperature of 60 and up to one of 80 deg. F. in the day can be maintained +even in the coldest weather and darkest days likely to occur for 60 to +90 days before the plants can be safely set out in the open field; and +the houses should be well glazed and ventilated. + +Houses well suited for this purpose are often built of hotbed sash with +no frame but a simple ridge-board and sides 1 or 2 feet high, head room +being gained by a central sunken path and the sash so fastened in place +that they may be easily lifted to give ventilation or entirely removed +to give full exposure to sunshine, or for storing when the house is not +needed. Hotbed sash 3x6 feet with side-bars projecting at the ends to +facilitate fastening them in place are usually kept by dealers, who +offer them at from $1.50 to $3 each, according to the quality of the +material used. + +A hot water heating apparatus is the best, but often one can use a +brick furnace or an iron heating stove, connected with a flue of sewer +or drain-pipe that will answer very well and cost much less. It requires +but 6 to 10 square feet of bench to start plants enough for an acre, and +a house costing only from $25 to $50 will enable one to grow plants +enough for 20 acres up to the stage when they can be pricked out into +sash or cloth-covered cold-frames in which they can be grown on to the +size best suited for setting in the field. When a grower plants less +than 5 acres it is often better for him to sow his seed in flats or +shallow boxes and arrange to have these cared for in some neighboring +greenhouse for the 10 to 20 days before they can be pricked out. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +Hotbeds and Cold-frames + + +Plants can be advantageously started and even grown on to the size for +setting in open ground in hotbeds. In building these of manure it is +important to select a spot where there is no danger of standing water, +even after the heaviest rains, and it is well to remove the soil to a +depth of 6 inches or 1 foot from a space about 2 feet larger each way +than the bed and to build the manure up squarely to a hight of 2 to 3 +feet. It is also very important that the bed of manure be of uniform +composition as regards mixture of straw and also as to age, density and +moisture, so as to secure uniformity in heating. This can be +accomplished by shaking out and evenly spreading each forkful and +repeatedly and evenly tramping down as the bed is built up. Unless this +work is well and carefully done the bed will heat and settle unevenly, +making it impossible to secure uniformity of growth in different parts. + +Hotbed frames should be of a size to carry four to six 3x6-foot sash, +and made of lumber so fastened together that they can be easily knocked +apart and stored when not in use. They should be about 10 inches high in +front and 16 or 18 inches at the back, care being taken that if the back +is made of two boards one of them be narrow and at the bottom so that +the crack between them can be covered by banking up with manure or +earth. In placing them on the manure short pieces of board should be +laid under the corners to prevent their settling in the manure unevenly. +I prefer to sow the seed in flats or shallow boxes filled with rich but +sandy and very friable soil, and set these on a layer of sifted coal +ashes covering the manure and made perfectly level, but many growers sow +on soil resting directly on the manure; if this is done the soil should +be light and friable and made perfectly level. A perspective view of a +three-sash hotbed is given in Fig. 13, and of a cross-section in Fig. +14. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13--THREE-SASH HOTBED] + +In some sections, particularly in the South, it is not always easy to +procure suitable manure for making hotbeds, so these are built to be +warmed by flues under ground, but I think it much better where a fire is +to be used that the sash be built into the form of a house. A hotbed of +manure is preferred to a house by some because of its supplying uniform +and moist bottom heat--and one can easily give abundant air; but the +sash can be built into the form of a house at but little more expense, +and it has the great advantage of enabling one to work among the plants +in any weather, while, if properly built, any desired degree of heat and +ventilation can be easily secured. Except when very early ripening fruit +is the desideratum, plants started with heat but pricked out and grown +in cold-frames without it, but where they can be protected during cold +nights and storms, will give better results than those grown to full +size for the field in artificial heat. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14--CROSS-SECTION OF HOTBED] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15--COLD-FRAMES ON HILL-SIDE] + +=Cold-frames.=--In locations where tomatoes are much grown large areas +are devoted to cold-frames covered either by sash or cloth curtains. +Sash give much better protection from cold and on this account are more +desirable, particularly where very early fruiting is wanted, but their +first cost is much greater and the labor of attending to beds covered by +them is much more than where cloth is used. Sash-covered beds should be +of single width and run east and west, but if the beds are covered with +cloth it is better that they be double width (12 feet) and run north and +south. The front of the single and the sides of the double width beds +should be 8 to 10 inches high, held firmly erect by stakes and perfectly +parallel, both horizontally and vertically, with the back or with the +central support. This should be 6 inches higher than the front. The +cross strips, when sash are used, should be made of a 3-inch horizontal +and a 1-1/2-inch vertical strip of 1-inch lumber nailed together very +firmly in the form of an inverted T, the vertical pieces projecting 1 +inch at each end and resting on the front and back of the bed and +forming supports and guides for the sash. Some growers use vertical +strips as heavy as 2x3 or 4 inches for stepping across the beds. When +the plants are to be taken to the field, the sash and guides can be +easily removed. (Fig. 15.) + +Ground to be covered with cold-frames should be made very friable and +rich by repeated plowing and working in of a liberal dressing of +well-rotted stable manure and wood ashes. In southwestern New Jersey, +where immense areas of early tomatoes are grown, the soil of the beds +for a depth of about 6 inches is removed and a layer 3 to 5 inches deep +of well-rotted stable manure is placed in. That made of a mixture of +manure from horses, cattle and hogs is preferred. It is important that +the manure be so well rotted that it will not heat, and so dry that it +will not become pasty when tramped into a firm, level layer. On this +they place a layer of nearly 3 inches deep of rich, friable, moderately +compact soil and prick out the plants into this. The roots soon bind the +manure and soil together and by cutting through the manure so as to form +blocks one can carry the plants to the fields with but very little +disturbance of the root. + +=Cloth covers for beds= should be made of heavy, unbleached sheeting or +light duck, and it is better that the selvage run up and down the bed +rather than lengthwise. The cloth is torn into lengths of about 13 feet +and then sewn together with a narrow double-stitched flat seam so as to +form a sheet 13 feet wide and about 8 inches longer than the bed. The +edges are tacked every foot to the strips about 2 inches wide by 7/8 +inch thick with beveled outside edges and laid perfectly in line. A +second line of strips is then nailed to the first so as to break joints +with it and so that the two will form a continuous roller about a foot +longer than the bed with the edge of the curtain firmly fastened in its +center. The center of the curtain is secured to the central ridge of the +bed by strips of lath. When rolled up, the rollers are held in place by +loops of rope around their ends and when they are down they are held by +similar loops to the notched tent-pins driven into the ground or to +wooden buttons fastened to the sides and ends of the frame as shown in +Fig. 16. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16--TRANSPLANTING TOMATOES UNDER CLOTH-COVERED +FRAMES (Photo by Prof. W. G. Johnson)] + +Cloth covers are sometimes dressed with oil, but this is not to be +recommended, though it is an advantage to have them wet occasionally +with a weak solution of copper sulphate or with sea water as a +preservative and to prevent mildew. Such covers, well cared for, may +last five years or be of little use after the first, depending upon the +care given them. They can be made from 50 to 200 feet long and two men +can roll them up or down very quickly. + +When cloth covers are used the supporting cross-strips should not be +over 3 inches wide nor more than 3 feet apart; sometimes the strips are +made to bind the sideboard and ridge together by means of short pieces +of hoop iron or of barrel hoop. These are so placed and nailed as to +hold the upper edge of sideboards and of the central ridge flush with +the cross-strips, thus forming a smooth surface for cloth to rest on and +enabling one easily to "knock down" and remove the frames to facilitate +the taking of the plants from the bed to the field and the storing of +the frames for another season. + +=Flats for starting seeds.=--Any shallow box may be used or the plants +sown directly in the beds without them, but flats of a uniform size are +to be preferred--these will pack well on the greenhouse shelves; or in +the hotbed we make them with 7/8 inch thick ends and 1/2 inch thick +sides and bottom, the latter if of a single board having four half-inch +holes for drainage and in any case having two narrow strips about 1/4 +inch thick nailed across their bottoms so as to allow drainage water to +escape freely when the boxes are set on hard, cool floors. Two or three +such boxes, 35-1/2 inches long, 12 inches wide and 3 inches deep, will +be sufficient to start plants enough for an acre. I like to use similar +boxes only 4 inches deep for growing the plants after they are pricked +out, particularly if this is to be done in a greenhouse, as by turning +them we can equalize exposure to light and thus distribute the plants in +the field where they are to be set with the least possible disturbance. +One would need nearly 60 such boxes for plants enough for an acre. On +account of the lessened necessity for watering when plants are set in +beds rather than in boxes, many growers prefer to grow their plants in +that way. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +Starting Plants + + +This has been the subject of a vast amount of horticultural writing, and +the practice of different growers, and in different sections, varies +greatly. I give the methods I have used successfully, together with +reasons for following them, but it may be well for the reader to modify +them to suit his own conditions and requirements. + +=Largest yield.=--Some 45 to 50 days before plants can be safely set in +the open field the flats in which the seed is to be sown should be +filled with light, rich, friable soil, it being important that its +surface be made perfectly level, and that it be compact and quite moist, +but not so wet as to pack under pressure. Sow the seed in drills 3/8 +inch deep and 2 to 3 inches apart at the rate of 10 to 20 to the inch; +press the soil evenly over them, water and place in the shade in an even +temperature of 80 to 90 deg. F. As soon as the seeds begin to break soil, +which they should do in three to four days, place in full light and +temperature of 75 to 80 deg., keeping the air rather close so as to avoid +necessity of watering. After a few days reduce the temperature to about +65 deg. and give as much air as possible. Some growers press a short piece +of 2-inch joist into the soil of the benches, so as to form trenches 2 +inches wide and about 3/8 inch deep, and so spaced as to be under the +center of each row of glass, their sash being mostly made of five-inch +glass. In this, by using a little tin box with holes in the top, like +those of a pepper-box, they scatter seeds so that they will be nearly +1/8 to 1/4 inch apart, over the bottom of the 2-inch wide trench, and +then cover. This has the advantage of evenly spacing the plants and so +locating the rows that the plants will be little liable to injury from +drip. + +Young tomato plants are very sensitive to over-supply of water and some +of the most successful growers do not water at all until the plants are +quite large and then only when necessary to prevent wilting. In 10 to 15 +days, or as soon as the central bud is well started, the plants should +be pricked out, setting them 3 to 6 inches apart, according to the size +we expect them to reach before they go into the field; 5 inches is the +most common distance used. I think it better to set the full distance +apart at first, not to transplant a second time. It is very important +that this pricking out should be done when the plants are young and +small, though many successful growers wait until they are larger. The +soil in which they are set, whether it be in boxes or beds, should be +composed of about three parts garden loam, two parts well-rotted stable +manure and one part of an equal mixture of sand and leaf mold, though +the proportion of sand used should be increased if the garden loam is +clayey. The soil in the seed-boxes or in the beds, when the seedlings +are taken up, should be in such condition, and the plants be handled in +such a way that nearly all the roots, carrying with them many particles +of soil, are saved. The plants should be set a little, and but a little, +deeper than they stood in the seed-box and the soil so pressed about +the roots, particularly at their lower end, that the plants can not be +easily pulled out. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17--SPOTTING-BOARD FOR USE IN COLD-FRAMES] + +Where plants are set in beds the work can be facilitated by the use of a +"spotting-board" (Fig. 17). This should be about 1 foot in width, and +have pegs about 3 inches long, 3/4 inch in diameter at the base and +tapering to a point, fastened into the board the distance apart the +plants are to be set. It should also have narrow projections carrying a +single peg nailed to the top of board at each end, so that when these +pegs are placed in the end holes of the last row the first row of pegs +in the "spotting board" will be the right distance from the last row of +holes or plants. By standing on this, while setting plants in one set of +holes, holes for another set are formed. If the conditions of soil, air +and plants are right and the work is well done, the plants will show +little tendency to wilt, and it is better to prevent their doing so by +shading, rather than by watering, though the latter should be resorted +to if necessary. When plants are set in beds, some growers remove the +soil to a depth of about 6 inches and put in a layer of about 2 inches +of sifted coal ashes, made perfectly level, and then replace the soil. +This confines the roots to the surface and enables one to secure nearly +all of them when transplanting. The plants should be well established +in 24 hours and after this the more light and air that can be given, +without the temperature falling below 40 deg. F. or subjecting the plants to +cold, dry wind, the better. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18--SPOTTING-BOARD FOR USE ON FLAT (From W. G. +Johnson)] + +One can hardly overstate the importance to the healthy growth of the +young tomato plant of abundant sunshine, a uniform day temperature of +from 60 to 80 deg. F., or of the ill effects of a variable temperature, +particularly if it be the result of cold, dry winds, or of a wet, soggy +soil, the effect of over-watering. These points should be kept in mind +in caring for the plants, and every effort made to secure, as far as +possible, the first named conditions and to avoid the latter. The +frames, whether they be covered with sash or cloth, but more +particularly if with sash in sunshine and with curtains in dull days, +should be opened so as to prevent their becoming too hot, and so as to +admit air. And in a greenhouse full ventilation should be given +whenever it is possible to do so without exposure to too low a +temperature. If the plants are in boxes and on greenhouse shelves, it is +important that these be turned end for end every few days to equalize +exposure to light and give full exposure to the sun. The plants should +be watered only when necessary to prevent wilting, and the beds should +be covered during heavy rains. A "spotting-board" for use on flats is +seen in Fig. 18. + +The most unfavorable weather conditions are bright sun combined with a +cold wind, and cold storms of drizzling rain and frosty nights. Loss +from the latter cause may often be prevented by covering the beds with +coarse straw, which should always be provided for use in an emergency. +Many growers provide a second curtain--an old one answers very well--to +throw over the straw-covered beds. Beds so covered will protect the +plants from frost in quite severe weather. Watering should especially be +avoided for nearly three days before setting in fields; but six to +twelve hours before it is well to water thoroughly, though not so as to +make the soil at all muddy. About five days after pricking out and again +about five days before the plants are to go into the field and five days +after they are set, they should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture. + +=Early ripening fruit.=--Here the aim is to secure, by the time they can +be set in the field, plants which have come by an unchecked but +comparatively slow rate of growth to the greatest size and maturity +consistent with the transplanting to the field without too serious a +check. The methods by which this is accomplished vary greatly and +generally differ materially from those given above. The seed is planted +much earlier and 60 to 90 days before it is at all safe to set plants in +the open field; while a steady rate of growth is desirable, it should be +slow and the plants kept small by a second and even third and fourth +transplanting, and especial care taken to avoid the soft and irregular +growth resulting from over-watering or over-heating. Any side shoots +which may appear should be pinched out and a full pollination of the +first cluster of the blossoms secured, either by direct application of +pollen or by staking or jarring the plants on bright days; and finally, +special efforts made to set the plants in the field as early and with as +little check as possible. Growers are often willing to run considerable +risk of frost for the sake of early setting. + +When one has sandy land a very profitable crop can sometimes be secured +by sowing the seed very early, and growing the plants on in beds until +the first cluster of fruit is set, then heeling them in, much as nursery +trees are, but so close that they can be quickly covered in case of +frost. As soon as it is at all safe to do so, they are set in the open +ground, very closely, on the south side of ridges, so that only the +upper one-third of the plant is exposed, the remainder being laid nearly +level and covered with earth. + +So treated the plants will ripen the upper one or two clusters very +early but will yield little more until late in the season, and it is +generally more profitable to plow them up and put in some other crop as +soon as the first clusters of fruit have ripened. Others pinch out the +central bud as soon as it is well formed, usually within 10 days from +the sowing of the seed. When this is done a great proportion of the +plants will start branches from the axils of the cotyledons; these +usually develop blossoms in the third to the fifth node and produce +fruit much lower than in a normal plant. It is questionable if there is +any gain in time from seed to fruit by this method, but it enables one +to get older plants of a size which it is practicable to transplant to +the field. + +In most cases it will be found more profitable and satisfactory so to +grow the plants that by the time they can be safely set out of doors +they will be in vigorous condition, about 6 to 10 inches tall, stout, +healthy and well hardened off. Such plants will ripen fruit nearly, and +often quite as early as older ones and will produce a constant +succession of fruit, instead of ripening a single cluster or two and +then no more until they have made a new growth. + +=For late summer and early fall.=--It is generally true in the South and +often equally so in the North, that there is a more eager local demand +for tomatoes in the late summer and fall months, after most of the +spring set plants have ceased bearing, than in early summer. In Michigan +I have often been able to get more for choice fruit in late October and +in November than the best Floridas were sold for in May or early June, +and certainly in the South the home use of fresh tomatoes should not be +confined to spring set plants. For the fall crop in the South seed may +be sown in late spring or up to the middle of July, in beds shaded with +frames, covered with lath nailed 3 to 4 inches apart and the plants set +in the field about 40 days from sowing, the same care being taken to +put the ground into good condition as is recommended for the spring +planted crop. + +A second plan, which has sometimes given most excellent results, is to +cut back spring set plants which have ripened some fruit but which are +not completely exhausted, to mere stubs, and spade up the ground about +them so as to cut most of the roots, water thoroughly and cover the +ground with a mulch of straw. Most of the plants so treated will start a +new and vigorous growth and give most satisfactory returns. + +=Fruit at least expenditure of labor.=--When this is the great +desideratum, many growers omit the hotbed and even the pricking out, +sowing the seed as early as they judge the plants will be safe from +frost, and broadcast, either in cold-frames or in uncovered beds, at the +rate of 50 to 150 to the square foot and transplanting directly to the +field. Or they may be advantageously sown in broad drills either by the +use of the pepper-box arrangement suggested on page 60, or a garden +drill adjusted to sow a broad row. In Maryland and the adjoining states, +as well as in some places in the West, most of the plants for crops for +the canners are grown in this way and at a cost of 40 cents or even less +a 1,000. The seed should be sown so that it will be from 1/4 to 1/2 inch +apart and the plants thinned as soon as they are up so that they will be +at least 1/2 inch apart. Where seed is sown early with no provision for +protection from the frost it is always well to make other sowings as +soon as the last begins to break ground in order to furnish reserve +plants, if the earlier sown lots be destroyed by frost. Others even sow +the seed in place in the field, thinning out to a single one in a hill +when the plants are about 2 inches high. Some of the largest yields I +have ever known have been raised in this way, but the fruit is late in +maturing and generally the method is not so satisfactory as starting the +plants where they can be given some protection, and transplanting them +to the field. + +=Plants for the home garden.=--These may be grown in pots or boxes set +in the sunniest spot available and treated as has been described. In +this way plants, equal to any, may be grown without the aid of either +hotbed or greenhouse. It will generally be more satisfactory, however, +to secure the dozen or two plants needed from some one who has grown +them in quantity than to grow so small a lot by themselves. In selecting +plants, take those which are short, stiff, hard, and dark green in +color with some purple color on the lower part of the stem rather than +those which are softer and of a brighter green, or those in which the +foliage is of a yellowish green; but in selection it must be remembered +that varieties differ as to the color of foliage, so that there may be a +difference in shade which is not due to conditions. + +=Plants under glass.=--If to be grown in pots or boxes, "prick out," +when small, into three-inch pots and as they grow re-pot several times +so that when set in the pots or beds in which they are to fruit, they +are stout plants 12 to 16 inches high. Plants propagated from cuttings +give much better returns relatively under glass than out of doors. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +Proper Distance for Planting + + +The best distance apart for the plants to be set in the field varies +greatly with the soil, the variety, the methods of cultivation and other +conditions. Plants set as close in rich clay soil as would give the best +results in a warm, sandy one, or those of a strong growing sort, like +Buckeye State, set as close as would be desirable for sorts, like +Atlantic Prize or Dwarf Champion, would give little but leaves and +inferior fruit. In field culture I like to space the plants so as to +facilitate gathering the fruit, and recommend the following arrangement: +Set the plants according to soil and the variety 2-1/2 to 4 feet apart +in the row, omitting two or three in every 75 or 100 plants so as to +form driveways across the rows. Set the first and second and the third +and fourth rows, etc., 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 and the second and third and the +fourth and fifth rows 5-1/2 to 6 feet apart. As the plants grow, those +of the first and second and those of the third and fourth rows, etc., +are thrown together and in many cases it will pay to have a pair of +narrow horizontal strips or wires nearly 18 inches from the ground upon +which they can be thrown. + +This arrangement of the plants allows us to continue to cultivate the +wider spaces between the second and third and fourth and fifth, etc., +rows, much longer, and tends to confine the necessary tramping and +packing of the soil when gathering the fruit chiefly to these rows--an +important point in case the soil is wet. The rows can be marked out the +day before, but it is better to set the plants in the cross-rows and +that these be marked out just ahead of the setters. In this arrangement +the distances are equivalent to from 2-1/2x4 feet, requiring 4,300 +plants to the acre, to 4x5 feet, requiring but about 2,100 plants. The +latter distance is that most commonly used by New Jersey growers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19--TOMATOES SOWN AND ALLOWED TO GROW IN HOTBEDS] + +=In the home garden.=--It will usually be more satisfactory to give each +plant plenty of space, setting them 5 or 6 feet apart each way, except +in the case of the dwarf sorts, which should be from 3-1/2 to 3 feet +apart. A few plants at these distances will usually be much more +satisfactory than more set nearer together, but the larger growing +sorts should have at least 3 feet and the dwarf sorts 2 feet. When one +has a hotbed or cold-frame it is often an advantage to set a row of +tomato plants nearly 18 inches apart at the back end much earlier than +they could be safely set in the open ground, and if these are allowed to +grow on in place, as shown in Fig. 19, being pruned and tied to stakes, +they will give some very early fruit. + +=In the greenhouse.=--Experience and practice differ as to the most +desirable distance apart for plants under glass. But 2 feet apart, where +quality is the main consideration, and 18 inches when quantity, if fair, +is of more importance than extra quality. + +=Setting plants in the field.=--The economical and successful setting of +plants in the field is an important element of successful tomato culture +and is very dependent upon soil and weather conditions. It is assumed +that the soil of the field has been put into the best possible condition +of tilth, but its condition as to moisture is also very important. The +worst condition is when it is wet and muddy, especially if it is at all +clayey--not only is the cost of setting greatly increased, but plants +set in such soil can seldom, by any amount of care, be made to do well, +especially if a heavy beating rain or dry windy weather follows +immediately; the condition is less unfavorable if a warm gentle rain or +still moist weather follows. A dry cold wind, even if the day is cloudy +and the soil in good condition, is also unfavorable, particularly if the +roots of the plants are exposed. + +Wet soil, cold, dry air and wind are the conditions to be avoided. +Moist, not wet, soil and still, warm air are to be desired; whether the +day is sunny or not is less important. There is a certain definite time, +which does not usually extend beyond a few days, when any lot of plants +is in the best condition for setting in the field. It is hardly possible +to describe this condition more than to say it is when the plants are as +large as they can be without crowding and are in a state where they can +best stand the shock of removal. + +It will always be a matter of judgment as to how long it is best to hold +plants, which are in condition for setting, for favorable weather +conditions. They can sometimes be held a few days, by scant watering and +full exposure, or in some cases by taking from the bed and heeling in, +as nurserymen do trees; but it is better to set when the weather is +unfavorable or to run some risk from frost rather than to hold them in +this way too long. The wise selection of time for setting is an +important factor in securing a good and profitable crop. + +The South Jersey growers, to whom early ripening fruit is the great +desideratum and who have a very warm soil, and grow plants so they are +quite hardy and can be transplanted with little check, set them in the +field very early, some seasons by the last of April; and if the plants +can be got out so as to have two or three days of favorable weather to +get established before it comes, they seem to be little hurt even by a +quite severe frost. The first essential to successful transplanting is +to have well-grown, healthy, hardy plants; the second is that they be in +good condition for setting, which can be secured by giving them, for a +few days before planting, a scant supply of water and fullest possible +exposure to air and sun, and then a thorough wetting a few hours before +they are to be set. + +The South Jersey plan of growing and setting plants gets them into the +field in the best condition of any method I know. Two to five days +before they expect to plant, the growers go over the beds and, by means +of a hoe that has been straightened and sharpened to form a sort of +spade, they cut through the soil and manure so as to divide the plants +into blocks of six. A few hours before they are to plant, they saturate +the bed with water. By means of a flattened shovel they can take up the +blocks of plants and place them in a cart or low wagon so the soil is +scarcely disturbed at all, the roots in the manure serving to bind the +whole together. In the meantime furrows are opened along the rows and +the cart driven to the field; the plants in the blocks are cut apart +with a butcher knife placed in the furrow and the earth drawn about +them. + +Plants set in this way often do not wilt at all, even in hot sunshine. +When plants are grown in boxes these can be taken to the field and +plants taken from them in much the same way and so that they will be +disturbed but little. In setting the plants it should always be borne in +mind that while sunshine on the leaves of a plant rarely does any +injury, it is very injurious to the roots, and the exposure of the roots +to the sun or to cold, dry wind, should be avoided in every practicable +way, such as by carrying the plants to the field laid on the sides of a +box, which is then carried with its bottom toward the sun so as to have +the plants in the shade, always handling the plant in the shade of one's +body, etc. It is well worth while to walk to the end of the row to +commence work in order to secure this. It is attention to such details +that distinguishes one whose plants nearly always do well from one who +loses a large proportion of those he handles. + +=Fruit at the least expenditure of labor.=--The plants are prepared for +setting by scant watering, and are taken up so as to secure as much root +as possible with little soil adhering to them. Great care should be +taken in taking the plants from the bed, and in handling them, _to avoid +twisting the stems_, as to do so very seriously injures the plants, +often to such an extent that they will fail to grow, no matter how +carefully set out. Some growers dip the roots in a very thin clay mud, +hardly thicker than thin cream, but I have not found this of advantage +except, sometimes, when the roots are to be exposed for a longer period +than usual and I do not recommend it for general use. In setting, holes +are made either with a long dibble, in the hands of the one who +distributes the plants, or by a short one, in the hands of the setter; +the plants are dropped into them a little deeper than they had stood in +the bed, the earth closed about the roots, by pressure from the side. +Especial care should be taken that this is well done, particularly at +the bottom; the earth should be so firmly pressed to the root that the +plant cannot be easily pulled from the soil. In some sections +transplanting machines (Fig. 20) are used and liked, but most planters +prefer to set by hand and the additional cost is not great. An expert +with one or two boys to assist in handling the plants can put out as +many as 5,000 plants in a day. A machine requiring more help to run it +can set from 15,000 to 20,000. + +=In the home garden=, when but a few plants are to be set, it will be +better to put them in after 4 P. M. and use water in setting, but the +wet soil should be covered with some dry earth to prevent its caking. + +=In the greenhouse.=--Plants are better set in the places where they are +to fruit just before their first blossoms open and should be set in +accordance with the suggestions given for transplanting to the field. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20--PLANTING TOMATOES ON A DELAWARE FARM (Photo by +courtesy of _American Agriculturist_)] + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +Cultivation + + +=For maximum crop.=--As soon as plants are set the ground should be well +cultivated to the greatest depth practicable. We should remember that +the tomato needs for its best development a very friable soil, while the +tramping necessary in setting out the plants and gathering the fruit +tends to compact and harden the soil. Often transplanting has to be done +when the soil is wet, and we need to counteract the injury from tramping +by immediate cultivation; but, at the same time, we must avoid the +disturbing of the plants any more than is necessary, and all of our +cultivation should be done with these points in mind. Just how it can be +done best will vary not only with the location and the facilities +available, but with the weather conditions, so that it is not well to +attempt to give explicit directions any further than that one can hardly +cultivate too deeply for the first seven days nor too often for the +first 30 days after the plants are set, provided he avoids turning the +soil when it is too wet. Even walking through the field when the soil is +wet is injurious and should be avoided, in proportion as the soil is a +clayey one. + +=At least expenditure of labor.=--I hardly need add to or change the +suggestions given above for tomatoes at least cost, for any cultivation +wisely given will probably do as much to reduce cost per bushel by +increasing the yield per acre as any other expenditure. _In the garden_ +it is advisable that from the time the plants are set until the fruit +ripens, the surface soil about them be stirred every evening when it is +not actually wet. + +=In the greenhouse.=--The surface of the soil should be kept open by +frequent stirring or, as is the practice of some successful growers, it +may be covered with a mulch of partially rotted manure. The plants +should be watered only as needed to prevent wilt, and special pains +taken to guard against too much moisture either in the soil or in the +air, particularly on dark days. The night temperature should be +uniformly about 60 deg. F. while in the day it should be 75 deg., and if it be +bright and sunny it may go to 90 deg. or even higher. Air should be given +freely whenever feasible to do so without too greatly reducing +temperature. A moderate degree of moisture should be maintained in the +air, care being taken that it does not become too moist, especially +during dark days. There is more danger from the air becoming too moist +than from its becoming too dry, though either extreme is injurious. + +=Pollinating.=--The structure and relations of the parts of the tomato +flower are such that while perfect pollination is possible, and in +plants grown in the open air usually takes place without artificial +assistance, it is not so likely to occur when plants are grown under +glass, particularly in the winter months, and it is usually necessary to +secure it by artificial means. With vigorous, healthy plants and on +light, sunny days, it can be accomplished by jarring the plants near +midday. This generally throws enough pollen into the air so that an +abundance of it reaches each receptive stigma. With less vigorous plants +and on dark days it is necessary to hand pollinate the flowers. This is +done by gathering the pollen by means of jarring the plants, so that it +falls into a watch crystal or other receptacle secured at the end of a +wand, and then pressing the projecting pistils of other flowers into it +so that they may become covered with the pollen. + +Some growers transfer the pollen with a camel's-hair-brush; others by +pulling off the corolla and adhering anthers and rubbing them over the +stigma of other flowers. Fruit rarely follows flowers that are not +pollinated, and if it is incomplete the fruit will be unsymmetrical and +imperfectly developed. As tomato flowers secrete but very little, if +any, honey and are not attractive to insects, it is of no advantage to +confine a hive of bees in the tomato house in the way which is so useful +in one where cucumbers or melons are growing. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +Staking, Training and Pruning + + +Under favorable conditions of soil and climate, plants of most varieties +of tomatoes will, in field culture, yield as much fruit if allowed to +grow naturally and unpruned as if trained and pruned. This is especially +true of the sorts of the Earliana type and on warm, sandy soils, while +it may not be true of the stronger growing sorts, or on rich clay lands +or where the fertilizer used contains an excess of nitrogen. In any case +more fruit can be grown to the acre on pruned and staked plants because +more of them can be gotten on an acre; and it is an advantage to grow +them in that way because it enables us, by later cultivation, to keep +the ground in good tilth longer; also it facilitates the gathering of +the fruit; and last, but not least, it generally enables us to produce +better ripened and flavored fruit. + +Staking and pruning used to be the almost universal practice in the +South, but in many sections growers have abandoned it, claiming that +they get as good or better results without it. In the North it is rarely +used in field culture, though often used in private gardens and by some +market gardeners, and both staking or tying up and pruning are essential +to the profitable growing of tomatoes under glass. In the South, stout +stakes from 1 to 2 inches in diameter and 4 to 5 feet long are driven +into the ground so that they can be depended upon to hold the plants +erect through the heaviest storms, as seen in Fig. 21. This is generally +and wisely done as soon as the plant is set, though some growers delay +doing so until the fruit is well set, claiming that the disturbance of +staking, tying and pruning tends to hasten the ripening of the fruit. +The plant is then tied up, the tying material being wrapped once about +the stake and then looped about the plant so as to prevent slipping on +the stake or choking the stem of the plant as it enlarges. Raffia is +largely used and is one of the best tying materials, but short pieces of +any soft, cheap string can be used. The tying up will need to be +repeated as the stem elongates, which it will do very rapidly. + +In pruning the tomato we should allow the central shoot of the young +plant to grow, and remove all of the side shoots which spring from the +axils of the leaves and sometimes even from the fruit clusters, as seen +in Fig. 22. It is very desirable that this be done when the branches are +small, as there is then less danger of seriously disturbing the balance +of the growing forces of the plant, and also because there is less +danger of careless workmen cutting off the main shoot in place of a +lateral, which would seriously check the ripening of the fruit. It is +especially important that any shoots springing from the fruit cluster be +removed as early as possible. For these reasons it is important that, if +the plants are to be pruned at all, the field be gone over every few +days. If the pruning is not well done it is a disadvantage rather than a +help. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21--TRAINING TOMATOES IN FLORIDA TO SINGLE STAKE +(Photo by courtesy of Prof. P. H. Rolfs, Director Florida Experiment +Station)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 22--TOMATO PLANT TRAINED TO SINGLE STAKE] + +[Illustration: FIG. 23--METHOD OF TRAINING TO THREE STEMS IN +FORCING-HOUSE AND OUT OF DOORS] + +Some growers allow two or three (Fig. 23) instead of one shoot to grow, +selecting for the second the most vigorous of the shoots starting from +below the first cluster of fruit. In some locations they stop or pinch +out the main shoot just above the first leaf above the third or fourth +cluster; in some soils it is an advantage and in others rather a +disadvantage to do this. I have seldom practiced it. When fruit at the +lowest cost a bushel is the desideratum, neither pruning nor staking is +desirable. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24--METHOD OF TRAINING ON LINE IN GREENHOUSE] + +[Illustration: FIG. 25--READY TO TRANSPLANT IN GREENHOUSE (Redrawn from +photo by New York Experiment Station)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 26--TRAINING YOUNG TOMATOES IN GREENHOUSE AT NEW +YORK EXPERIMENT STATION (Photo by courtesy Prof. U. P. Hedrick)] + +=For home gardens.=--In the home garden trellising and pruning are often +very desirable, as they enable us not only to produce more fruit in a +given area but of better quality. Many forms of trellis, have been +recommended. Where the plants are to be pruned as well as supported, as +they should always be in gardens, there is nothing better than the +single stake, as described above. For a trellis without pruning, one +to three stout hoops supported by three stakes so as to surround the +plant which is allowed to grow through and fall over them, or two or +more parallel strips supported about a foot from the ground on each side +of a row of plants answer the purpose, which is simply to keep the plant +up from the ground and facilitate the free circulation of the air among +leaves and fruit. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27--TOMATOES IN GREENHOUSE AT OHIO EXPERIMENT +STATION (Photo by courtesy of C. W. Waid)] + +I have seen tomatoes grown very successfully by the side of an open +fence. Two stakes were driven into the ground about 6 inches from the +fence and the plant, but slanting outward and away from each other. The +tops of the stakes were fastened to the fence by wooden braces, and then +heavy strings fastened to the fence around the stakes and back to the +fence, the whole with the fence forming a sort of inverted pyramidal +vase about 3 feet across at the top. In this the plant was allowed to +grow, but it would be essential to success that the fence be an open +one. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28--FORCING TOMATOES IN GREENHOUSE AT NEW HAMPSHIRE +EXPERIMENT STATION. NOTE CHARACTER OF BED ON THE GROUND FLOOR. (Photo by +courtesy of Prof. H. F. Hall)] + +=In the greenhouse.=--Here pruning and training are essential. The +plants may be supported by wires or strings (a coarse wool twine will +answer), twisting the string about the plant as it grows. The growth is +usually confined to a single shoot, though some growers allow two (Fig. +24); the method of pruning does not differ from that given for field +culture, but it is more important that the plants be gone over often +and the branches removed when small. If allowed to do so, branches would +spring from the axil of each leaf and the plant would become a perfect +thicket of slender branches and leaves and produce but little fruit. The +main stem is sometimes pinched out after three or four clusters of fruit +are set and the branch from the axil of the first leaf above is allowed +to take its place. This tends to hasten the maturing of the fruit +clusters already set. After several clusters have matured, or the main +stem reaches the top of the house, some growers allow a shoot from the +bottom to grow and as soon as fruit sets on it the first stem is cut +away and this takes its place. Others prefer to remove the old plant +entirely and set in young ones. A plant ready for transplanting is shown +in Fig. 25. In figures 26, 27 and 28 are shown interior views of +greenhouses at the New York station at Geneva, the Ohio station at +Wooster, and the New Hampshire station at Durham. Note the strong, +vigorous plants in Fig. 26; the method of utilizing tile for watering in +Fig. 27; and the ground-floor bedding in Fig. 28. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +Ripening, Gathering, Handling and Marketing the Fruit + + +Tomatoes ripen and color from within outward and they will acquire full +and often superior color, particularly about the stems, if, as soon as +they have acquired full size and the ripening process has fairly +commenced, they are picked and spread out in the sunshine. The point of +ripeness when they can be safely picked is indicated by the surface +color changing from a dark green to one of distinctly lighter shade with +a very light tinge of pink. Fruit picked in this stage of maturity may +be wrapped in paper and shipped 1,000 or 2,000 miles and when unwrapped +after two or ten days' journey will be found to have acquired a +beautiful color, often even more brilliant than that of a companion +fruit left on the vine. Enclosing the fruit while on the vine and about +half grown in paper bags has been recommended, and it often results in +deeper and more even coloring and prevents injury from cracking, but the +fruit so ripened, while more beautiful, is not so well flavored as that +ripened in the sun. But Americans are said to taste with their eyes, so +that in this country, fruit of this beautiful color will often out-sell +that which is of better flavor though of duller color. + +The tomato never acquires its full and most perfect flavor except when +ripened on the vine and in full sunlight. Vine and sun-ripened +tomatoes, like tree-ripened peaches, are vastly better flavored than +those artificially ripened. This is the chief reason why tomatoes grown +in hothouses in the vicinity are so much superior to those shipped in +from farther south. After it has come to its most perfect condition on +the plant the fruit deteriorates steadily, whether gathered or allowed +to remain on the vine, and the more rapidly in proportion as the air is +hot and moist. That it be fresh is hardly less essential to the first +quality in a tomato than it is to such things as lettuce and cucumbers. + +=Gathering.=--As is the case with most horticultural products, the best +methods of gathering, handling and marketing the fruit vary greatly with +the conditions under which the fruit was grown and how it is to be used, +and it requires the best of judgment to gather it in the stage of +maturity in which it will give the best satisfaction, under the +conditions and for the purposes for which it is to be used. It is +impossible to give exact rules for determining when the fruit is in the +best condition. This can only be learned by experience, guided by a +knowledge of the ripening habit of the fruit, which not only varies +somewhat in different localities, but with different varieties. In the +extreme South, fruit is picked for shipment before it shows more than +the slightest tint of color at the blossom end; the depth of color which +is considered as indicating shipping condition deepens as we go north +and nearer market. + +Generally the fruit should be left on the vine no longer than will +permit of its becoming fully ripe by the time it reaches its +destination and is exposed for sale. When the fruit is to be shipped any +distance the field should be gone over frequently, as often as every +second or third day or even every day in the hight of the season, and +care taken to pick every fruit as soon as it is in proper condition. +When it is to be sold in nearby markets or to a cannery the exact stage +of maturity, when picked, is not so important, although it is always an +advantage not to gather until the fruit is well colored and before it +begins to soften. Some growers for canneries make but three or four +pickings, but in this case it is well to gather the ripest fruit +separately. + +In picking and handling great care should be taken not to mar or bruise +the fruit, and the stems should be removed as the fruit is picked to +prevent bruising in handling. A bruise or mar may not be as conspicuous +in a tomato as in a peach, but it is quite as injurious. It is a great +deal better for pickers to use light pails rather than baskets, the +flexibility of the latter often resulting in bruises. It is an advantage +to have enough of these so that the sorting can be from the pail, but if +this is not practical the fruit should be carefully emptied on a sorting +table for grading. It should first of all be separated with regard to +its maturity. A single fruit which is a little riper or greener than the +remainder may make the entire package unsalable. It should also be +graded as to freedom from blemishes or cracks, and as to size, form and +color. It is assumed that the fruit for each package is to be of the +same variety, but often there is quite a variation in different fruits +from even the same vine; the more uniform in all respects the fruit in +a package is the more attractive and salable it becomes. There is no +fruit where careful grading and packing have more influence on the price +it will command. + +[Illustration: FIG. 29--FLORIDA TOMATOES PROPERLY WRAPPED FOR LONG +SHIPMENT (Photo by courtesy of _American Agriculturist_)] + +I know of a certain noted peach-grower in northern Michigan who grew, +each year, some 2 to 5 acres of tomatoes for the Chicago market. It was +his custom to pick out about one-tenth of the best of the fruit, putting +it into small and attractively labeled packages; the remainder of the +crop was sorted over and from one-tenth to one-fifth of it rejected and +fed to stock or sold to a local cannery. The remainder was sent to +Chicago with his selects, but as common stock, and usually brought more +than his neighbors received for unsorted fruit; but the check he +received for his selects was usually as large as that for his commons, +thus giving him about 33-1/3 per cent. more for his crop than his +neighbors received for their equally good, but unsorted, fruit--to say +nothing of what he received for the rejected fruit and the saving of +freight which, he said, was usually enough to pay the actual cost of +sorting. + +Tomatoes are usually classed as vegetables but, when ripe, they require +as careful handling as the most delicate fruits and are as easily and +seriously injured by bruising and jarring. Just how this can be avoided +and the fruit gotten from the vine to the possibly distant consumer in +the best condition will vary in different cases. Tomatoes from the South +(Fig. 29) are generally marketed in carriers which, though varying +somewhat, are essentially alike and consist of an open basket or boxes +of veneer holding about 10 pounds of fruit. When shipped, two, four or +six of these are packed in crates made of thin boards, so as to protect +the fruits but give them plenty of air. + +=Packing.=--Most of the fruit sent to New York and Philadelphia markets +from New Jersey and other northern states is in boxes or crates holding +about 5/8 of a bushel and so made as to facilitate ventilation when +piled in cars or warehouses. Fruit for the canneries is usually picked +and handled in bushel crates of lath. These various packages are usually +sold in the flat and the grower puts them together as is convenient +before the crop comes on; but in many sections where there are large +shipments they are often put together by the package dealers. Fig. 30 +shows tomatoes as packed by the Ohio experiment station. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30--GREENHOUSE TOMATOES PACKED FOR MARKET (By +courtesy Ohio Experiment Station)] + +=Fruits after frost.=--Sometimes when there is a great quantity of +partially ripe and full grown green fruit on the vines which is liable +to be spoiled by an early fall frost, it can be saved by pulling the +vines and placing them in windrows and covering them with straw. Of +course the vines should be handled carefully to shake off as little +fruit as possible. If the freeze is followed by a spell of warm, dry +weather the fruit will ripen up so as to be quite equal to that shipped +in from a distance. A second plan is to pull the vines and hang them up +in a dry cellar or out-house, or lay them on the ground in an open +grove of trees, or beneath the trees of an adjoining orchard. + +Still another plan is to gather the green fruit and spread it not more +than two to four fruits deep in hotbed frames, which are then covered +with sash. Local grocers are usually glad to pay good prices for this +late fruit, and in seasons of scarcity I have known canners to buy +thousands of bushels so ripened at better prices than they paid for the +main crop. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +Adaptation of Varieties + + +Whatever may be their botanical origin, the modern varieties of +cultivated tomatoes vary greatly in many respects, and while these +differences are always of importance their relative importance differs +with conditions. When the great desideratum is the largest possible +yield of salable fruit at the least expenditure of labor, the qualities +of the vine may be the most important ones to be considered, while in +private gardens and for a critical home market and where closer +attention and better cultivation can be given, they may be of far less +importance than qualities of fruit. + +=Habits of growth.=--Whether it be standard or dwarf, compact or +spreading, is sometimes of great importance as fitting the sorts for +certain soils and methods of culture. On heavy, moist, rich land, where +staking and pruning are essential to the production of fruit of the best +quality, it is of importance that we use sorts whose habits of growth +fit them for it; while on warm, sandy, well-drained land, staking and +pruning may be of little value, and a different habit of growth more +desirable. We have sorts in which the vine is relatively strong growing +with few branches, upright, with long nodes and small fruit clusters +well scattered over the vine. They are usually very productive through a +long season but generally late in maturing. Stocks of this type are +sometimes sold, I think improperly, as giant climbing, or Tree tomato. +The Buckeye State is a good type of these sorts. (Fig. 31.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 31--BUCKEYE STATE, SHOWING LONG NODES AND DISTANCE +BETWEEN FRUIT CLUSTERS] + +Other varieties make a stout and vigorous but shorter growth, with more +and heavier branches, shorter nodes and many small medium-sized clusters +of fruit well distributed over the plant and which mature through a +fairly long season. These sorts are usually very productive and our most +popular varieties generally belong to this type, of which the Stone +(Fig. 32) is a good representative of the more compact and the Beauty of +the more open growing. + +[Illustration: FIG. 32--STONE, AND CHARACTERISTIC FOLIAGE] + +Other varieties form many short, weak, sprawling branches, with +usually large and sometimes very large clusters of fruit produced +chiefly near the center of the plant and which mature early and all +together. Plants of this type will often mature their entire crop and +die by the time those of the first type have come into full crop. The +Atlantic Prize (Fig. 33) and Sparks Earliana are examples of this type. + +In sharp contrast with the above is the tomato De Laye, often called +Tree tomato. This originated about 1862 in a garden at Chateau de Laye, +France. In this the plant rarely exceeds 18 inches in hight, is +single-stemmed or with few very short branches, the nodes very short, +the fruit clusters few and small. From this, by crossing with other +types, there has been developed a distinct class of dwarf tomatoes which +are of intermediate form and character and are well represented by the +Dwarf Champion (Fig. 34). Early maturity is sometimes the most important +consideration of all, though, because of increasing facilities for +shipping from the South, it is less commonly so than formerly. For +shipping and canning it is generally, though not always, desirable that +the crop mature as nearly together as possible, that it may be gathered +with the fewest number of pickings and advantage taken of a favorable +market; while for the home garden and market a longer season is +desirable. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33--ATLANTIC PRIZE, AND ITS NORMAL FOLIAGE] + +=Foliage.=--Abundant, broad and close, or scanty cut and open foliage is +sometimes of importance, according to whether the location, season and +other conditions make it desirable that the foliage protect the fruit +from the sun or admit the sunlight, with as little obstruction as +possible, to the center of the plant. In different sorts, we have +gradations from those in which the leaves are so deeply cut as to have a +fern-like appearance, to those like the Magnus, or potato-leaved, in +which the margin of each leaflet is entire, and from those in which the +leaflets are so few and small as to scarcely shut out the light at all +to those in which they are so numerous that the light can hardly +penetrate to the center of the plant. The Atlantic Prize is an +illustration of the scanty foliaged sorts, and the Royal Red or Buckeye +State of those in which it is more abundant. As to color, the foliage +varies from the dark blue-green of the Buckeye State to the light, +distinctly yellowish-green of the Honor Bright. + +=Varietal differences as to fruit.=--These are often more important than +those of vine. For canning, for forcing, and some other uses and for +certain markets, a medium and uniform size is a very important quality, +while in other cases uniformity is not important and the larger the +individual fruits, provided they be well formed, the better. We have +different sorts in which the size of the fruit varies from that of the +Currant, which is scarcely 1 inch in circumference, to that of +Ponderosa, of which well-formed specimens over 20 inches in +circumference have been grown. + +[Illustration: FIG. 34--DWARF CHAMPION. NOTE CHARACTER OF FOLIAGE] + +=Shape.=--It is always desirable that the outline of the vertical +section shall be a flowing line with a broad and shallow, or no +depression at the stem end and as little as possible at the opposite +point; but the relative importance of this, or whether the general +outline shall be round or oval, either vertically or horizontally, +forming a round, long or flat fruit, is largely determined by how the +fruit is to be used, and by individual taste. A round fruit is best +for canning; a long one is the most economical for slicing, though some +prefer a flat one for this purpose. It is always desirable that the +outline of the horizontal section shall be smooth, flowing and +symmetrical, and if there be any distinct sutures that they shall be +shallow and broad; but the relative importance of this, and whether the +outline be round or oval, is wholly a matter of individual taste. Some +people and markets prefer one shape and others a very different one. +Size and smoothness of fruit are the factors which control price in some +markets, while in others these points are quite secondary to color and +character of flesh. + +We have sorts which vary from the perfectly spherical ones of the grape +and cherry, to those in which the vertical diameter is less than a third +of that of the horizontal section; and the pear-shaped in which the +vertical diameter is twice or thrice that of the longest horizontal +section, and from those in which the outline of both the vertical and +horizontal sections is smooth and flowing to those in which the vertical +section has a deep indentation at both the stem and opposite ends, and +those in which the horizontal section is broken by deep indentures and +sutures often disposed with great irregularity. + +For shipping long distances, for the rough handling, and for the easy +preparation for the fruit for canning, a thick, tough skin is desirable, +while for home use it is objectionable. Freedom from blemish or skin +crack is also often an important quality, and we have sorts which vary +greatly in these respects. The color of the skin, whether purple, red, +yellow or white, is a matter of taste. In some markets the choice is +given to purple fruit, like the Beauty, while in others it can only be +sold at a reduced price. There are few who would care to use either +yellow or white fruit for canning or cooking in any way, but many prefer +them for slicing, or like to use them with the red for this purpose; we +have sorts showing every gradation from white or light yellow in color +through shades of red to dark purple-red, and still others which show +distinct colors in splashings and shadings. + +=Character of flesh.=--Many consider that the greater the number of cells +and the larger the proportion of flesh to that of pulp and seed the +better. This may be true of itself, but the fruit-like acid tomato +flavor which most people value is found chiefly in the pulp, and the +fruit which has not a due proportion of pulp and flesh seems to be +insipid and tasteless. Again, the division into many small cells is +often connected with a large and pithy placenta and unevenness in +maturity and coloring, which faults often more than overbalance any +advantage from small cells and thick flesh. The size and character of +the placenta are important qualities. + +In some sorts it is large, dry, pithy and hard, extending far into the +fruit even to below the center; and sometimes seems to divide into +secondary or branch placentas or masses of hard cellular matter, while +in other varieties it is small and so soft and juicy as scarcely to be +distinguished from the flesh. Usually, but not invariably, the large and +pithy placenta is correlated with large-sized fruit having many cells; +where this is the case it practically necessitates the cutting away and +wasting of a large proportion of the fruit in preparing it for canning, +so that the canners usually prefer round, medium-sized fruits. + +The character of the interior of the fruit varies greatly in different +varieties. Both the exterior and divisional walls vary in thickness and +in consistency. In some varieties they are comparatively thin, hard and +dry; in others, thicker, softer and more juicy. In some cases there is +but little interior wall, the fruit being divided into but few--even but +two--cells of even size and shape, while in others there are many cells +of varying size and shape. Varieties also differ greatly as to the +amount, consistency and flavor of the pulp and the number of seeds. It +requires from 300 to 500 pounds of ripe fruit to furnish a pound of seed +of Ponderosa, while with some of the smaller, earlier sorts one can get +a pound of seed from 100 to 200 pounds of fruit. + +=Coloring and ripening.=--Uniformity and evenness in coloring and +ripening are an important quality. Tomatoes generally color and ripen +from within outward, and from the point opposite the stem upward, but +varieties differ in the evenness and rapidity with which this takes +place. It is always desirable that the ripening be as even as possible +and that there be no green and hard spots either at the surface or in +the flesh, but often perfection in this respect is correlated with such +lack of size and solidity as to counterbalance it. Rapidity in ripening, +in a general way, is desirable for fruit to be used at home, and +undesirable in that which is to be shipped. + +The time a tomato fruit will remain in usable condition and the amount +of rough handling it will endure without becoming unsalable are most +important commercial qualities depending largely upon the combined +effects of the form and structure of the fruit, solidity and firmness of +the flesh and ripening habit. In all these respects we have varieties +which differ greatly, from the Honor Bright, which requires as much time +to ripen, and when ripe is firm-fleshed and will remain usable as long +as a peach, to those which 24 hours after reaching their full size are +fully colored and ripe, and in 24 hours more are so over-ripe and soft +that they will break open of their own weight. + +These are only some of the varietal differences of the tomato. Are such +differences of practical importance? I think they are, and that a wise +selection of the type best suited to one's own particular conditions and +requirements is one of the most essential requisites of satisfactory +tomato culture. How important it seems to practical tomato growers may +be illustrated by an actual case. + +In a certain section of New Jersey the money-making crop is early +tomatoes, and they are grown to such an extent that from an area with a +radius of not exceeding 5 miles they have shipped as much as 15,000 +bushels in one day, and the shipments will often average 8,000 bushels +for days together. They have tried a great number of sorts, but have +settled upon a certain type of a well-known variety as that best suited +to their conditions and needs. Seeds of this variety which are supposed +to produce plants of the exact type wanted can be bought from seedsmen +for 10 cents an ounce and at much lower rates for larger quantities, +but when one of the most successful growers of that locality, because of +change of occupation, offered seed selected by him for his own use for +sale at auction, it brought $3 an ounce. This price was paid because of +the confidence of the bidders that the seed could be depended upon to +produce plants of the exact type wanted for their conditions; and I was +assured that the use of this high-priced seed actually added very +largely to the profits from every field in that vicinity in which it was +used, but the use of some of the same lot of seed by planters in Florida +resulted in financial loss because the type of plant produced was not +suited to their conditions and requirements. + +A wise answer can only be given after a study of each case, and no one +can do this so well as the planter himself. He should know, as no one +else can know, his own conditions and requirements, and should be able +to form very exact ideas of just what he wants, and the doing so is, in +my opinion, one of the most important requisites for satisfactory tomato +growing. I also believe that it is as impossible for a man to answer +offhand the question, "What is the best variety of tomato?" as for a +wise physician to answer the question, "What is the best medicine?" + +=Varietal names= and descriptions mean something quite different in the +case of plants like the tomato, which are propagated by seed, from what +they do with plants like the apple and strawberry, which are propagated +by division. In the latter case all the plants of the variety are but +parts of the primal origination, and so are alike. A description is +simply a more or less complete and accurate definition of what a +certain immutable thing really is, but in the case of plants propagated +by seed the variety is made up of all the plants which accord with a +certain ideal. Bailey says, "Of all those which have more points of +resemblance than of difference," and a description of the variety is of +that ideal which in common practice is not fixed, but may and generally +does vary not only with different people but from time to time. The only +foundation for varietal names in plants of this class is an agreement as +to the ideal the name shall stand for. Under modern horticultural +practice when anyone has been able to secure seed most of which he is +reasonably sure will develop into plants of a distinct type different +from that of any sort known to him, he has a distinct variety, so that +it is not surprising that we should find that American seedsmen offer +tomato seed under more than 300 different names, and those of Europe +under more than 200 additional, so that we have more than 500 varietal +names, each claiming to stand for a distinct sort. Now it is quite +possible--indeed, it is certain--that we might have 500 tomato plants +each different in some respect, either of vine, leaf, habit of growth, +or character of fruit, from any of the others and that these differences +might make plants of one type better suited to certain conditions and +uses than any other; but it is very certain that these 500 names do not +stand for such differences. It is doubtless true that a portion--though +I think but a small portion--of these different sorts exist simply as a +matter of commercial expediency; but by far a greater part of them exist +because one has found that plants of a certain character were better +suited to some set of conditions and requirements than any sort with +which he was acquainted, and having secured seed which he thought would +produce plants of that character, has offered it as of a distinct sort. + +It is probable that a better acquaintance with sorts already in +cultivation would have prevented the naming of many of these stocks as +distinct varieties. What is of far more practical importance, the same +name does not always stand for precisely the same type with different +seedsmen, or even with the same seedsmen in different years; nor are the +seedsmen's published descriptions such as would enable any one to learn +from them just what type he will receive under any particular name, or +which sort he should buy in order to get plants of any desired type. +Seedsmen's catalogs are published and distributed gratuitously at great +expense, and are issued, primarily, for the sake of selling the seeds +they offer. They answer the purpose for which they are designed, in +proportion as they secure orders for seeds. Will this be measured by the +accuracy and completeness of their descriptions? I think that it needs +but slight acquaintance with the actual results of advertising to answer +in the negative, and whatever your answer may be, the answer given by +the catalogs themselves is an emphatic no. + +In a recent case I looked very carefully through the catalogs of 125 +American seedsmen who listed a certain variety which is very markedly +deficient in a certain desirable quality, and found that but 37 of the +125 mentioned the quality in connection with the variety at all and of +these but 7 admitted the deficiency, while 30 told the opposite of the +truth. Even if a complete, exact and reliable description of a variety +was published by disinterested persons, one could not be sure of getting +seed from seedsmen which would produce plants of that exact type, since +there is no agreement or uniformity among them as to the exact type any +varietal name shall stand for. + +One way of getting seed of the exact type wanted is to do as the South +Jersey growers did: go to work and breed up a stock which is uniformly +of the type wanted; but this involves more painstaking care than many +are willing to give, though I think not more than it would be most +profitable for them to expend for the sake of getting seed just suited +to their needs. + +A second and easier way is to secure samples of the most promising sorts +and from the most reliable sources and grow them on one's own farm; +select the stock which seems best for him and buy enough of that exact +stock for several years' planting, and in the meantime be looking for a +still better one. Tomato seed stored in a cool, dry place will retain +its vitality for from three to seven years. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +Seed Breeding and Growing + + +The potentialities of every plant and its limitations are inherent, +fixed and immutable in the seed from which it is developed and are made +up of the balanced sum of the different tendencies it receives in +varying degree from each of its ancestors back for an indefinite number +of generations. A very slight difference in the character or the degree +of any one of the tendencies which go to make up this sum may make a +most material difference in the balance and so in the resulting +character of the plant produced. Different plants, even of the same +ancestry, vary greatly in prepotency or in the relative dominance of the +influence they have over descendants raised from seed produced by them. + +In some cases all the plants raised from seed produced by a certain +plant will be essentially alike and closely resemble the seed-bearing +plant, while seed from another plant of the same parentage will develop +into plants differing from each other and seemingly more influenced by +some distant ancestor or by varying combinations of such influences than +of those of the plant which actually produced the seed from which they +were developed. Successful seed breeding can only be accomplished by +taking advantage of these principles of heredity and variation, and by a +wise use of them it is possible to produce seed which can be depended +upon to produce plants of any type possible to the species. + +=The first essential for breeding= is to have a clear and exact +conception of precisely what, in all respects, the type shall be and +then the securing of seed which has come from plants of that exact +character for the greatest possible number of generations, carefully +avoiding the introduction by cross-pollination of tendencies from plants +differing in any degree from the desired type. Secondly, seed should be +used from plants which have been proven to produce seed, which will +develop into plants like themselves or are strongly prepotent. A +practical way to accomplish this in the tomato is as follows: + +By experiment and observation form a very clear conception of precisely +the type of plant and fruits which is best suited to your needs. This +may be done by the study of available descriptions of sorts, by +conference with those who have had experience in your own or similar +climatic and soil conditions and in raising fruit for the same purposes +and, best of all, by trials of samples of different sorts and stocks on +your own grounds. Having formed such a conception, write out the +clearest possible description of exactly what you want and the ideal +plant you are aiming at, stating as fully and minutely as possible every +desirable quality and also those to be avoided. I consider not only the +formation of an exact ideal, but the writing out of a most minute and +exact description of precisely what in every particular the ideal plant +should be and the rigid adherence to that exact ideal in selection, as +the most important elements of successful seed breeding. Without it one +is certain to vary from year to year in the type selected and in just so +far as he does this, even if it be toward what might be called +improvements or in regard to an unimportant quality, he undermines all +his work and makes it impossible to establish a strain which can be +relied upon to produce an exact type. + +With this description in hand, search out one or more plants which seem +the nearest to the ideal. In doing this it should be kept in mind that +the character of the seed is determined by the plant rather than by the +individual fruit. Therefore, a plant whose fruit is most uniformly of +the desired type should be chosen over one having a small proportion of +its fruits of very perfect type, the others being different and +variable. Save seed from one or more fruits from each of the selected +plants, keeping that from each fruit, or at least each plant, separate. +Give it a number and make a record of how nearly, in each particular, +the plant and fruit of each number come to the desired ideal. I regard +the saving of each lot separately and recording its characters as very +important, even when all have been selected to and come equally close to +precisely the same ideal. Quite often the seed of one plant will produce +plants precisely like it, while that of another, equal or superior, will +produce plants of which no two are alike and none like that which +produced the seed, so that often the mixing of seed from different +plants of the same general type, and seemingly of equal quality, +prevents the establishment of a uniform type. + +The next year from 10 to 100 plants raised from each lot are set in +blocks and labeled. As they develop the blocks are studied and compared +with the original description of the desired type and that of each plant +from which seed was saved, and the block selected in which all the +plants come the nearest to the desired type, and which show the least +variation. From it plants are selected in the same way and to the same +type as the previous year. It is better to make selections from such a +block than to take the most superior plants from all of the blocks, or +from one which produced but one or but a few superlative ones, the rest +being variable. + +It is also well to consider the relative importance of different +qualities in connection with the degree to which the different lots +approach the ideal in these respects. Such a course of selection +intelligently and carefully carried out will give, in from three to five +years, strains of seed greatly superior and better adapted to one's own +conditions than any which it is possible to purchase. A single or but a +very few selections may be made each year, and the superior value of the +seed of the remainder of the seed blocks for use in the field will be +far more than the cost of the whole work. + +=Growing and saving commercial seed.=--The ideal way is for the seedsman +to grow and select seed as described above and give this stock seed to +farmers who plant in fields and cultivate it, much as is recommended for +canning, and save seed from the entire crop, the pulp being thrown away. +Only a few pickings are necessary and the seed is separated by machines +worked by horse power at small cost, often not exceeding 10 cents a +pound. They secure from 75 to 250 pounds per acre, according to the +variety and crop, and the seedsmen pay them 40 cents to $1 a pound for +it. Some of our more careful seedsmen produce all the seed they use in +this way; others buy of professional seed growers, who use more or less +carefully grown stock seed. In other cases when the fruit is fully ripe +it is gathered, and the seeds, pulp and skins, are separated by +machinery; the seed is sold to seedsmen, the pulp made into catsup, and +only the skins are thrown away. Still others get their supply by washing +out and saving the seed from the waste of canneries. Such seed is just +as good as seed saved _from the same grade of tomatoes_ in any other +way, but the fruit used by the canneries is, usually, a mixture of +different crops and grades, and even of different varieties, and +consequently the seed is mixed and entirely lacking in uniformity and +distinctness of type. + +Generally from 5 to 20 per cent. of the plants produced by seed as +commonly grown either by the farmer himself or the seedsmen, though they +may be alike in more conspicuous characteristics, will show varietal +differences of such importance as to affect more or less materially the +value of the plant for the conditions and the purposes for which it is +grown. In a book like this it is useless to attempt to give long +varietal descriptions even of the sorts commonly listed by seedsmen, +since such descriptions would be more a statement of what the writer +thought seed of that variety should be rather than of what one would be +likely to receive under that name. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +Production for Canning + + +=Growing for canning= has many advantages over growing for market. Some +of these are that it is not necessary to start the plants so early, that +they can be grown at less cost, and set in the field when smaller and +with less check, and on this latter account are apt to give a large +yield. It is not necessary to gather the fruit so often, nor to handle +it so carefully, while practically all of it is saleable. For these +reasons the cost of production is lower and it is less variable than +with crops grown for market. Still farmers and writers do not agree at +all as to the actual cost. It is claimed by some that where the factory +is within easy reach of the field the cost of growing, gathering and +delivering a full yield of tomatoes need not exceed $12 to $18 an acre, +while others declare they cannot be grown for less than $40. Nearly +one-third of this cost is for picking and delivering, and varies more +with the facilities for doing this easily and promptly and with the +yield than with crops grown for market. A large proportion of the crops +grown for canning are poorly cultivated and unwisely handled, so that +the average yield throughout the entire country is very low, hardly +exceeding 100 bushels an acre. But where weather and other conditions +are favorable, and with judicious cultivation, a yield of 300 to 800 +bushels an acre can be expected. I have known of many larger ones. + +A large proportion of the tomatoes grown for canning are planted under +contract, by which the farmer agrees to deliver the entire yield of +fruit fit for canning, which may be produced on a given area, at the +contract price per bushel or ton. The canner is to judge what fruit is +fit for canning and this often results in great dissatisfaction. To the +grower it seems in many cases as though the quantity of acceptable fruit +paid for was determined quite as much by the abundance or scarcity of +the general crop as by the weight hauled to the factory. The prices paid +by the factories for the past 10 years run from 10 to 25 cents a bushel, +while canning tomatoes in the open market for the same period have +brought from 8 to 50 cents a bushel, which, however, are exceptional +prices. In all but two of the past 10 years uncontracted tomatoes could +generally be sold, in most sections, for more than was paid on contract. +I have given the price a bushel, though canning tomatoes are usually +sold by the ton. The cost of the product of a well-equipped cannery is +divided about as follows: fruit, 30 per cent.; handling, preparing and +processing the fruit, 18 per cent.; cost of cans, labels, cases, etc., +43 per cent.; labeling, packing and selling, 0.035 per cent.; +incidentals, 0.055 per cent. + +=Canning on the farm.=--While as a general proposition such work as +canning tomatoes can usually be done at less cost in a central plant, +yet in many cases the grower can profitably do this on the farm, thus +saving not only the expense of delivery at the factory, but the +dissatisfaction with weights credited and delays in receiving the fruit. +But very little special apparatus or machinery (more than some form of +boiler for supplying steam) is needed, and this and the cans can be +readily obtained of dealers in canners' supplies. In Maryland and +neighboring states many dealers furnish all necessary machinery, cans +and other requisites and contract for the crop delivered in cans. + +Canning on the farm where the fruit is grown would be more generally +practiced except for the popular demand that the canned product shall be +brighter colored than it is possible to produce from fruit alone, and +the necessary dyeing and other doctoring can be more easily and +skilfully done at a central factory, though it is always at the +sacrifice of flavor and healthfulness for the sake of appearance. +Another advantage of canning on the farm is that it can be done with +less waste of fruit. The hauling to the factory and delay in working the +fruit result in a great deal of waste. The average cannery does not +obtain more than 1,200 pounds of product from a ton of fruit, there +being 800 pounds of waste, while with sound, ripe, perfectly fresh +fruit, it is entirely practical to secure from 1,600 to 1,800 pounds of +canned goods from a ton, and this saving in waste would more than +counterbalance the gain from the use of the better machinery possible in +the factory. + +=The process of canning= is simple and consists first of rinsing off the +fruit, then in wire baskets or pails dipping it into boiling hot water +to start the skins, which will require but two to four minutes. While +they are still hot they should be peeled and imperfections cut out, +then promptly placed in the cans, which should be fully filled; it is +well to do this by adding the juice which has escaped while peeling, +instead of water, as is done in the larger factories. This will give the +canned fruit better color and lessen the need of dye. Place in a hot box +for three to five minutes until heated through, wipe top of can clean +and drop perforated cap in place, add flux and solder, seal cap in place +with round capper, close perforation in cap with drop of solder. Place +in box or kettle and steam or boil for 20 to 40 minutes. If the tomatoes +were all ripe and none over-ripe, and have been kept hot from the time +they went into the scalding kettle until the sealed cans are in the +kettle, 20 minutes' cooking will make them surer to keep than 40 minutes +would with fruit such as is commonly received at factories, or that +which has been allowed to cool once or twice while in process. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +Cost of Production + + +There are a few vegetables or fruits where the cost of production and +the price received are more variable than with the tomato. The cost per +acre for raising the fruit varies with the conditions of soil, +facilities for doing the work economically and with the season, while +that of marketing the product varies still more. Under usual conditions, +the growing of an acre of tomatoes and the gathering and marketing of +the fruit will cost from $18 to $90, of which from 15 to 40 per cent. is +spent in fertilizing and preparing the ground, 5 to 10 per cent. for +plants, 20 to 30 per cent. for cultivation, and 25 to 40 per cent. for +gathering and handling the fruit. The last item, of course, varies +somewhat with, but not in proportion to, the amount of the crop, as it +costs proportionately less to gather a large than a small crop, and for +canners' use than for market. + +The expense of shipping and marketing the crop varies so greatly +according to the conditions and methods that I do not attempt to state +the amount. The total yield of fruit runs from 200 to 600 or 700 bushels +to the acre, a 200-bushel crop of tomatoes comparing as to amount with +one of 25 bushels of wheat and a 700-bushel crop of tomatoes with one of +60 bushels of wheat; with the best and wisest cultivation and under the +most favorable conditions one can as reasonably hope for one as for the +other. Of this total yield, from 10 to 25 per cent. of the fruit should +be such as, because of earliness and quality, can be sold as extras, and +there is usually from 5 to 10 per cent., and sometimes a much larger per +cent., which should be rejected as unsalable. The selected fruit should +net from $1 to $5 a bushel, the common from 30 to 75 cents--making the +returns for a 200-bushel yield well sold in a nearby market $70 to $350, +and proportionately larger, for a better yield. In practice I have known +of crops which gave a profit above expenses of over $1,000 an acre. This +came, however, from exceptionally favorable conditions and skilled +marketing, and I have known of many more crops where, though the fruit +was equally large and well grown, the profit was less than $100. + +In this country a greenhouse is seldom used solely for the growing of +tomatoes, but other crops--such as lettuce--are grown in connection with +the tomatoes, so that it is impracticable to give the cost of +production. As grown at the Ohio state experiment station--and the crop +ripened in late spring or early summer and sold on the market of smaller +cities--greenhouse tomatoes have yielded about two pounds a square foot +of glass and brought an average price of 12 cents per pound. In other +cases yields as high as 10 pounds a foot of glass and an average price +of 40 cents a pound have been reported. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +Insects Injurious to the Tomato + + By DR. F. H. CHITTENDEN + Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture + + +From the time tomato plants are set in the field until the fruit has +ripened they are subject to the attacks of insects which frequently +cause serious injury. On the whole, however, the tomato is not so +susceptible to damage as are some related crops--such as the potato. + +=Cutworms.=--Of insects most to be feared and of those which attack the +plants when they are first set out are cutworms of various species. The +grower is as a rule quite too familiar with these insects, and no +description of their methods is necessary, beyond the statement that +they cut off and destroy more than they eat and re-setting is frequently +necessary. The best remedy is a poisoned bait, prepared by dipping +bunches of clover, weeds, or other vegetation in a solution of Paris +green or other arsenical, 1 pound to 100 gallons of water. These baits +are distributed in small lots over the ground _before_ the plants are +set, the precaution being observed that the land is free for two or +three weeks from any form of vegetation. This will force the hungry +"worms" to feed on the baits, to their prompt destruction. A bran-mash +is also used instead of weeds or clover, and is prepared by combining +one part by weight of arsenic, one of sugar, and six of sweetened bran, +with enough water added to make a mash. The baits are renewed if they +become too dry, or they can be kept moist by placing them under shingles +or pieces of board. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35--CUTWORM AND PARENT MOTH (_Feltia subgothica_) +(From Chittenden, U. S. Department of Agriculture)] + +=Flea-beetles= attack the plants soon after they are set, and their +injuries can be prevented by dipping the young plants before setting in +a solution of arsenate of lead, about 1 pound to 50 gallons of water, or +Paris green, 1 pound to 100 gallons. If this precaution has not been +observed a spray of either of these arsenicals used in the proportion +specified will suffice, repeating if the insects continue on the plants. +In the preparation of the spray a pound of fresh lime to each pound of +the arsenical should be added; or, better yet, Bordeaux mixture should +be employed as a diluent instead of water. This mixture has some +insecticidal value, is a most valuable fungicide, and is also a +powerful deterrent of flea-beetle attack, acting to a less degree +against other insects which are apt to be found on the tomato. In +applying any spray a sprayer costing not less than $7 is a positive +necessity. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36--FLEA-BEETLE Does great injury to young plants. +Much enlarged. Actual size shown by line at right. (From Chittenden)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 37--MARGINED BLISTER BEETLE (From Chittenden)] + +=The Colorado potato beetle=, or "potato bug," sometimes injures +tomatoes, but not as a rule when potatoes are available. This suggests +the use of potatoes as a trap crop, planted in about three rows +completely around the field of tomatoes. The arsenicals used in the same +proportion as for flea-beetles will destroy the potato beetle. It is +necessary to keep the trap potatoes well sprayed to prevent them from +breeding on these plants and migrating to the tomatoes. Potato beetles +can also be controlled by jarring them from the affected plants into +large pans containing a little water on which a thin scum of kerosene is +floating. + +=Blister beetles= may be controlled, under ordinary circumstances, by +the same method employed against the Colorado beetle. When they are +present in great numbers a good remedy consists in driving them with the +wind from the cultivated fields into windrows of straw or similar dry +material previously prepared along the leeward side of the field, where +they will congregate and can be burned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 38--TOMATO WORM (_Protoparce sexta_) (_a_) Adult +moth; (_b_) full-grown larva; (_c_) pupa--all reduced. (After Howard, U. +S. Dept. Agr.)] + +=The tomato worms=, of which there are two common species closely +resembling each other, are often abundant and destructive on tomato +foliage, particularly southward. The arsenicals will kill them, or they +can be held in check by hand-picking, a little experience enabling one +to detect their presence readily. Turkeys are utilized in destroying +these worms in the South. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39--TOMATO STALK-BORER (_Papaipema nitela_) +(_a_) Female moth; (_b_) half-grown larva; (_c_) mature larva in injured +stalk; (_d_) lateral view of abdominal segment; (_e_) pupa--all somewhat +enlarged. (From Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)] + +=The stalk-borer=, as its name implies, attacks the stalk, and is an +intermittent pest, though quite annoying at times. It is difficult to +combat, but its injuries may be prevented by care in keeping down, and +by _promptly_ destroying, the weeds after they are pulled or hoed out +during the growing season. If weeds are left to dry the striped +caterpillar of this species will desert them and enter cultivated +plants. Ragweed and burdock are the principal foods of this insect, and +special attention should be given to eradicate them where tomatoes are +planted. Crop rotation is advisable where this can be conveniently +practiced, and such plants as cabbage, radish and the like, onions, +beets, asparagus and celery are suggested as alternates. When the plants +are sprayed with arsenicals for other insects this will operate to a +certain extent against the stalk-borer. + +[Illustration: FIG. 40--CHARACTERISTIC WORK OF THE TOMATO FRUIT WORM +(_Heliothis obsoleta_) (Redrawn by Johnson from C. V. Riley)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 41--ADULT MOTH, OR PARENT OF TOMATO FRUIT WORM +(From Chittenden, U. S. Department of Agriculture)] + +=The tomato fruit worm= (Fig. 40) known as the bollworm of cotton and the +ear worm of corn, is frequently the cause of serious trouble to tomato +growers, especially in the southern states, due to its pernicious habit +of eating into and destroying the green and ripening fruit. For its +control it is advisable not to plant tomatoes in proximity to old corn +or cotton fields, nor should land be used in regions where this species +is abundant until it has been fall or winter plowed. Sweet corn planted +about the field before the tomatoes are set will serve as a lure for the +parent moths to deposit their eggs, corn and cotton being favorite foods +of this species and preferred to tomatoes. The fruit worm feeds to a +certain extent on the foliage before penetrating the fruit, and it is +possible to keep it in subjection by spraying with arsenicals as advised +for the flea-beetles. It is suggested that arsenate of lead, being more +adhesive than other arsenicals, should be used for the first sprayings, +beginning when the fruit commences to form, repeating once or twice as +found necessary, and making a last spraying with Paris green within a +few days of ripening. This last poison will readily wash off and there +is no danger whatever of poisoning to human beings, as has been +conclusively proved in numerous similar cases. For the perfect success +of this remedy the last spraying is essential, as those who have +sprayed with an arsenical and have reported only partial good results +have discontinued within about two weeks of the time of the ripening of +the first fruit. + +=White fly or aleyrodes.=--These minute insects are familiar to most +growers who raise tomatoes under glass. They can be held in control by +vaporization or fumigation with tobacco or nicotine extracts, or by +spraying with kerosene emulsion or the so-called whale-oil (fish-oil) +soap. Care is necessary in using the extracts that the smudge does not +become too dense and injure the plants. Before applying this remedy on a +large scale a preliminary trial should be made following the directions +on the packages, and reducing the amount if any ill results follow. +Hydrocyanic acid gas, properly used, is also an excellent remedy for +aleyrodes, aphides, "mealy-bug," and other soft-bodied insects which are +sometimes troublesome on greenhouse tomatoes. + + For a complete account of the methods of making and handling + hydrocyanic acid gas, see Professor Johnson's book entitled + "Fumigation Methods," published by Orange Judd Company, of New + York. Sent postpaid for $1.--[AUTHOR. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +Tomato Diseases + + By W. A. ORTON + U. S. Department of Agriculture + +DISEASES NOT CAUSED BY FUNGI OR INSECTS + + +The health of tomato plants is to a large extent dependent on the +conditions under which they are being grown. The character and physical +condition of the soil, the supply of water and plant food, the +temperature and amount of sunlight, are all factors of the greatest +importance in the growth and development of the crop. When there are +variations from the normal in the case of any of these the plant adapts +itself to the change as far as possible, but its functions may be so +disturbed as to result in ill health or disease. It is in many cases +difficult to draw a line between a natural re-action of the plant to its +environment and a state of disease. For example, the trouble described +in the next paragraph seems to fall into the first class. + +=Shedding of blossoms.=--The tomato is very liable to drop its buds and +blossoms and in some instances partial or total crop failures have +resulted. The principal causes are an over-rapid growth, due in many +cases to an excess of nitrogenous fertilizers, unfavorable weather +conditions, especially cold winds, continued rainy or moist weather, +which hinders pollination, lack of sunlight, or extremely hot weather. +Such shedding can be partially controlled by pruning away the lateral +branches as soon as formed and topping the plants after the third +cluster of fruit has set, and by a reduction in the use of nitrogenous +fertilizers. A failure to set fruit in the greenhouse is often due to +lack of pollination, which must be remedied by hand pollination. + +=Cracking of the fruit.=--The formation of cracks or fissures in the +nearly mature fruit is due to variations in the water supply and other +conditions affecting growth at this stage. If after the development of +the outer portion of the fruit has been checked by drought there follows +a period of abundant water supply and rapid growth, the fruit expands +more rapidly than its epidermis and the latter is ruptured. Some +varieties of tomatoes are much less subject to this trouble than others +and should be given preference on this account. The grower, so far as +lies in his power, should seek to maintain an uninterrupted growth by +thorough preparation of the land, by cultivation or by mulching. If the +half-grown fruits are enclosed in paper bags, cracking may be prevented, +but at the risk of loss of flavor in the ripened fruit. + +=Leaf curl.=--The effect of pruning is to stimulate growth and to +increase the size of the leaves, the effort of the plant being to +maintain a balance between roots and foliage. With rapidly growing +plants, especially in the greenhouse and garden where both high manuring +and pruning have been practiced, more or less curling and distortion of +the leaves may result without developing into serious trouble if the +grower takes the hint and modifies his methods so as to permit a more +balanced growth. On the other hand, the ill effects of over-feeding and +pruning may reach a point where the plant is seriously crippled. + +=Edema.=--Under certain conditions plants in greenhouses or even in the +open field, may absorb water through the roots faster than it can be +transpired through the leaves, with the result that dropsical swellings +or blisters occur on the leaves and more succulent stems. There is also +a deformation of the foliage, much like the leaf-curl produced by +over-feeding. This trouble, known as edema, occurs when the soil is +warmer than the air, or during periods of moist, warm, cloudy weather, +which checks transpiration. The grower should cease pruning, and +withhold water, and in the field cultivate deeply. In the greenhouse, +adequate ventilation should be given, keeping the house dry rather than +moist. + +=Mosaic disease.=--The tomato is occasionally subject to a trouble allied +to the mosaic disease of tobacco. It is characterized by a variegation +of the leaves into light and dark green areas, usually accompanied by +distortion and reduction in size. In severe cases a whole field may +become worthless. While the nature of this malady is not fully +understood, it is known to be due to a disordered nutrition of the young +leaf-cells. It can be produced by severe pruning or by mutilation of the +roots in transplanting, both of which should be carefully avoided. It is +more likely to occur in seedlings that have made a soft, rapid growth on +account of an excess of nitrogenous fertilizer or too high temperature. +Close, clayey soils, on account of their poor physical condition, also +favor the development of the disease after transplanting. + +=Western blight (Yellows).=--In the North Pacific and Rocky Mountain +states, serious losses are annually caused by a disease apparently +unlike any eastern trouble. It is marked by a gradual yellowing of the +foliage and fruit. Development is checked, the leaves curl upward and +the plant dies without wilting. The nature and cause of this disease is +as yet unknown. It appears to be worst on new land. Experiments that +have been made indicate that in older cultivated fields thorough +preparation of the soil, manuring and cultivation, combined with care in +transplanting to avoid injuring the roots and checking growth, will +greatly restrict the spread of this blight. + + +DISEASES CAUSED BY PARASITES + +There are several fungous parasites of tomatoes, which, for the readers +convenience, may be briefly mentioned and the treatment of all discussed +together. The first three are indeed somewhat difficult to tell apart +without a microscope, as they produce a similar effect on the leaves and +all yield to the same treatment--thorough spraying with Bordeaux +mixture. + +=Leaf spot= (_Septoria lycopersici_ Speg.) has been widely prevalent and +injurious during recent years. It produces small, roundish dark-brown +spots on leaves and stems. The lower leaves are attacked first and +gradually curl up, die and fall off. The vitality of the plant is +reduced and it is only kept alive by the young leaves formed at the +top. + +The fungus that causes early blight of potatoes (_Alternaria solani_ (E. +& M.) J. & G.) occurs on tomatoes also, sometimes doing much injury. The +spots formed are at first small and black, later enlarging and +exhibiting fine concentric rings. + +A somewhat similar leaf-blight results from a species of +_Cylindrosporium_, and other fungi may occur on diseased leaves. + +=Leaf mold= (_Cladosporium fulvum_ Cke.) is quite distinct from the +foregoing in appearance. It does not cause such distinct spots but +occurs in greenish brown, velvety patches of irregular outline on the +under side of the leaves. The lower leaves are first attacked, and as +the disease progresses they turn yellow and drop off. This is the +principal fungous enemy of greenhouse tomatoes, but also does injury in +gardens, particularly in Florida and the Gulf region. It is readily +controlled by spraying. In the greenhouse care should be taken to +ventilate well, without, however, allowing cold drafts to strike the +plants. + +=Downy mildew= (_Phytopthora infestans_ DeBy.), the cause of the late +blight of potatoes, will attack tomatoes during cool and very moist +weather, which greatly favors its development. Such outbreaks sometimes +occur to a limited extent in New England and serious losses are reported +on the winter crop in southern California, but the disease has never +been troublesome in other sections of the country, as it cannot develop +in dry or hot weather. It affects the tomato as it does the potato, +forming on the leaves dark, discolored spots, which spread rapidly under +favorable conditions, killing the foliage in a few days. The fruit is +also attacked and becomes covered with the mildew-like spore-bearing +threads of the fungus. Bordeaux mixture properly applied is an efficient +preventive. + +=Spraying tomatoes.=--It should be the invariable practice of the tomato +grower to spray with Bordeaux mixture to prevent injury from any of +these leaf-blights. This should be done while the plants are still +healthy, as if put off until the disease appears the battle is half +lost. Make the first application to the young plants in the seed-bed a +few days before transplanting. Spray again within a week after the +plants are set in the field, and repeat at intervals of ten days or two +weeks until the fruit is full grown. Success in spraying depends mainly +on the thoroughness of the work. The aim should be to cover every leaf +with a fine mist. Do not drench the foliage but pass to the next plant +before the drops run together and off the leaf. Use a nozzle that gives +a fine spray and maintain a high pressure at the pump. + +_Preparation of Bordeaux mixture._--Formula: Copper sulphate +(bluestone), 5 pounds; lime, 5 pounds; and water, 50 gallons. The copper +sulphate may be either in crystals or pulverized. Dissolve by suspending +the required amount in a coarse sack near the top of the water a few +hours before it will be needed. The lime must be fresh stone lime of +good quality. Slake thoroughly by the addition of small quantities of +water at a time as needed, stirring until all small lumps are slaked. +Strain both the lime milk and the copper sulphate or bluestone solution +through a brass strainer of 18 meshes per inch and dilute each with half +the water before mixing together. Do not use Bordeaux left over from +the previous day. An old mixture or one made from the concentrated +solutions has a poor physical condition. It settles more quickly, tends +to clog the nozzle and does not adhere so well to the foliage. Failure +to use the strainer results in endless trouble in the field from clogged +nozzles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 42--PROPER WAY TO MAKE BORDEAUX (From W. G. +Johnson)] + +When much spraying is to be done it is more convenient to keep the +bluestone and lime in separate permanent stock solutions, as shown in +Fig. 42, containing 2 pounds to the gallon of their respective +ingredients. These will keep indefinitely, if the water evaporated is +replaced, and may be used from as needed. + +_Spraying apparatus._--Tomato growers having only a small area to spray +may use one of the numerous forms of hand-pumps or bucket sprayers now +on the market. For larger fields it will be necessary to employ a +barrel sprayer. This consists of a hand-pump mounted in a barrel or tank +and equipped with two leads of 3/8 inch hose 25 feet long, each with a +four-foot, extension made from 1/4 inch gas pipe, and a double Vermorel +nozzle. The barrel should be carried in an ordinary farm wagon. Three +men do the work. One is expected to drive and pump, while the other two +manipulate the nozzles. The outfit is stopped while the plants within +reach are sprayed, then driven forward about 30 feet and stopped again. +On an average in actual field practice 3 to 4 acres a day can be sprayed +in this way, applying 100 to 200 gallons of Bordeaux per acre. To keep +the long hose off the plants two poles about 10 feet long may be pivoted +to the bed of the wagon so as to swing at an angle over the wheel and +carry the hose. The pump for this outfit should be of good capacity, +with brass valves. A "Y" shut-off discharge connection on the pump is a +convenience for stopping the spray at any time. The most satisfactory +nozzles are those of the Vermorel type. It is cheapest in the long run +to buy the best grades of pumps on the market. This outfit is +excellently adapted for spraying small fields of potatoes and for +general orchard work, and is invaluable on the average farm. + +=Phytoptosis.=--This disease is known to occur only in Florida, where it +is sometimes common enough to require remedial treatment. The affected +portions of the foliage are more or less distorted and covered with an +ashy white fuzz. The general vigor and fruitfulness of the plants are +greatly reduced. The name applied to this trouble denotes its cause, an +extremely small mite (_Phytoptus calacladophora_ Nal.), which by its +presence on the leaves or stems so irritates them as to result in the +abundant development of modified plant hairs, which shelter the mites +and form the fuzzy covering characteristic of the disease. A remedy for +phytoptosis is available in the sulphur compounds. The following one is +particularly recommended by Prof. P. H. Rolfs, to whom our knowledge of +the disease is due: + +_Preparation of sulphur spray._--Place 30 pounds of flowers of sulphur +in a wooden tub large enough to hold 25 gallons. Wet the sulphur with 3 +gallons of water, stir it to form a paste. Then add 20 pounds of 98 per +cent. caustic soda (28 pounds should be used if the caustic soda is 70 +per cent.) and mix it with the sulphur paste. In a few minutes it +becomes very hot, turns brown, and becomes a liquid. Stir thoroughly and +add enough water to make 20 gallons. Pour off from the sediment and keep +the liquid as a stock solution in a tight barrel or keg. Of this +solution use 4 quarts to 50 gallons of water. Apply with a spray pump +whenever the disease appears, and repeat if required by its later +reappearance. The use of dry sulphur is also recommended. + + +DISEASES OF THE FRUIT + +[Illustration: FIG. 43--POINT-ROT DISEASE OF THE TOMATO (Redrawn from +N. Y. Expr. Sta. No. 125)] + +=Point-rot.=--This trouble, called also "blossom-end rot," and +"black-rot," occurs on the green fruit at various stages of development, +as shown in Fig. 43. It begins at the blossom end as a sunken brown +spot, which gradually enlarges until the fruit is rendered worthless. +The decayed spot is often covered in its later stages by a dense black +fungous growth (_Alternaria fasciculata_ (C. & E.) J. & G. syn. +_Macrosporium tomato_ Cke.), formerly thought to be the cause of the +rot, but now known to be merely a saprophyte. Point-rot sometimes occurs +in greenhouses, but is more common in field culture. It is one of the +most destructive diseases of the tomato, but its nature is not fully +worked out, and a uniformly successful treatment is unknown. It has been +thought to be due to bacterial invasion, but complete demonstrations of +that fact have not yet been published. The physiological conditions of +the plant appear to be important. The disease is worst in dry weather +and light soils, where the moisture supply is insufficient, and +irrigation is beneficial in such cases. Spraying does not control +point-rot so far as present evidence goes. + +=Anthracnose--ripe-rot=--(_Colletotrichum phomoides_ (Sacc.) Chest.), is +distinguished from the point-rot by the fact that it occurs mainly on +ripe or nearly ripe fruits, producing a soft and rapid decay. Widespread +losses from this cause are not common, but when a field becomes infected +a considerable proportion of the crop within a limited area may be +destroyed if humid or rainy weather prevails. Preventive measures only +can be employed. These should consist in collecting and destroying +diseased fruit and in staking and trimming the vines to admit light and +air to dry out the foliage. Bordeaux mixture applied after the +development of the disease would be of doubtful efficiency and would be +objectionable on account of the sediment left on the ripe fruit. + + +DISEASES OF THE ROOT OR STEM + +=Damping off.=--Young plants in seed-beds often perish suddenly from a +rot of the stem at the surface of the ground. This occurs as a rule in +dull, cloudy weather among plants kept at too high a temperature, +crowded too closely in the beds or not sufficiently ventilated. Several +kinds of fungi are capable of causing damping off, under such +conditions. + +_Preventive measures_ are of the first importance. Since old soil is +often full of fungous spores left by previous crops, it is the wisest +plan to use sterilized soil for the seed-bed. When the young plants are +growing, constant watchfulness is required to avoid conditions that will +weaken the seedlings and favor the damping off fungi. + +_Watering and ventilation_ are the two points that require especial +skill. Watering should be done at midday, to allow the beds to drain +before night, and only enough water for the thorough moistening of the +soil should be applied. Ventilation should be given every warm day as +the temperature and sunshine will permit, but the plants must be +protected from rain and cold winds. Work the surface of the soil to +permit aeration and do not crowd the plants too closely in the beds. If +damping off develops something can be done to check it by scattering a +layer of dry, warm sand over the surface, and by spraying the bed +thoroughly with weak Bordeaux or by applying dry sulphur and air-slaked +lime. + +=Bacterial wilt= (_Bacterium solanacearum_ Erw. Sm.).--This disease, +which also attacks potatoes and eggplants and some related weeds, is one +of the most serious enemies of the tomato. It is known to occur from +Connecticut southward to Florida and westward to Colorado, but is most +prevalent in the Gulf States, where it has greatly discouraged many +growers. + +_Its most prominent symptoms_ are the wilting of the foliage and a +browning of the wood inside the recently wilted stems. An affected plant +wilts first at the top, or a single branch wilts, but later the entire +plant yellows, wilts and dies. Young plants wilt more suddenly and dry +up. The disease progresses more rapidly in plants that have made a +succulent, luxurious growth, while those with hard, woody stems resist +it somewhat. + +_The disease is due_ to the invasion of bacteria, which enter the leaves +through the aid of leaf-eating insects, or through the roots. They plug +the water-carrying vessels of the stem, shutting off the water and food +supply of the plant. If the stem of a plant freshly wilted from this +disease be severed, the bacteria will ooze out in dirty white drops on +the cut surface. + +=Remedial measures= entirely satisfactory for the control of bacterial +wilt have not yet been worked out. The best methods to adopt at present +are the following: + +(1) _Rotation of crops._--The field evidence is that this disease is in +many cases localized in old gardens or in definite spots in the field. +It appears also that the infection left by a diseased crop can remain in +the soil for some time. It is therefore advised that tomato growers +should always practice a rotation of crops, whether any disease has +appeared or not, and that in case bacterial wilt develops they should +not plant that land in tomatoes, potatoes, or eggplants for three or +four years. The length of rotation necessary to free the soil is not +known, but will have to be worked out by the individual grower. + +(2) _Destruction of diseased plants._--The bacteria causing wilt not +only spread through the soil but are carried by insects from freshly +wilted to healthy plants. Diseased plants thus become dangerous sources +of infection, and it is evident that all such should be pulled out and +burned. This is particularly important at the beginning of the trouble +when the eradication of a few wilting plants may save the remainder. + +(3) _Control of insects._--To lessen the danger from spread of wilt by +insects, the measures advised in the next chapter for the control of +leaf-eating insects should be adopted. In this connection it should be +mentioned that the use of Bordeaux mixture for leaf blights, as +previously recommended, has an additional value in that the coating on +the leaves is distasteful to insects and helps to keep them away. + +(4) _Seed selection._--Work done at the Florida experiment station +indicates that resistant varieties may be secured, but there are as yet +none in commercial use. This is an important line for experimenters to +follow up. There is no proof that the disease is spread through seed +from diseased plants. + +=Fusarium wilt.=--This disease and the one following resemble the +bacterial wilt so closely, as far as external characters go, that they +are difficult to tell apart. The parasites, however, differ so +materially in their nature and life history that the field treatment is +quite different. There are also differences in geographical distribution +that are important, for while the Fusarium wilt occurs occasionally +throughout the southern states, it is known to be of general commercial +importance only in southern Florida and southern California. + +_The symptoms of the disease_ are a gradual wilting and dying of the +plants, usually in the later stages of their development. Young plants +die, however, when the soil infection is severe. There is a browning of +the woody portions of the stem, and when a section of this is examined +under a compound microscope the vessels are found to be filled with +fungous threads, which shut off the water supply. + +_The infection_ in the Fusarium wilt appears to come entirely from the +soil. Little is known of its manner of spread, except that the +cultivation of a tomato crop in certain districts appears to leave the +soil infected so that a crop planted the next year will be injured or +destroyed. The fungus does not remain in the soil for a very long time +in sufficient abundance to cause serious harm. A rotation of crops that +will bring tomatoes on the land once in three years has been found in +Florida to prevent loss from Fusarium wilt. + +_This fungus does not attack any other crop_ than tomatoes, so far as +known, though it is very closely related to species of Fusarium +producing similar diseases in cotton, melon, cowpea, flax, etc. Fusarium +wilt has not been found in fields and gardens in the northern states, +but tomatoes in greenhouses there are sometimes attacked by it or a +related Fusarium, which also occurs in England. When greenhouse beds are +infected the soil for the next crop should be thoroughly sterilized by +steam under pressure. + +=Sclerotium wilt.=--This disease resembles the two preceding in its +effect on the plant, which wilts at the tip first, and gradually dies. +Its geographical range is more restricted. It seems to be confined to +northern Florida and the southern part of Georgia and Alabama, where it +occurs in gardens and old cultivated fields. The fungus causing this +wilt attacks the root and the stem near the ground, working in from the +outside. There is not the browning of the wood vessels characteristic of +the two preceding diseases. If an affected stem is put in a moist +chamber made from a covered or inverted dish, there will develop an +exceedingly vigorous growth of snow-white fungous mycelium which, after +a few days, bears numerous round shot-like bodies, at first +light-colored, then becoming smaller and dark-brown. These are the +sclerotia or resting bodies of the fungus. This fungus, called +_Sclerotium_ sp., or "Rolf's Sclerotium," is noteworthy because it +attacks potatoes, squash, cowpea, and a long list of other garden +vegetables and ornamental plants. The only satisfactory means of control +is rotation of crops, using corn, small grain, and the Iron cowpea, a +variety immune to this and other diseases. Susceptible crops should be +kept from infected fields for two or three years. + +=Root-knot= (_Heterodera radicicola_ (Greef) Muel.) attacks tomatoes in +greenhouses and is in some cases an important factor in southern field +culture. It is caused by a parasitic eelworm or nematode, of minute +size, which penetrates the roots and induces the formation of numerous +irregular swellings or galls, in which are bred great numbers of young +worms. The effect on the plant is to check growth and diminish +fruitfulness, in advanced cases even resulting in death. + +_The remedy in greenhouse culture_ is thorough soil sterilization. In +the open field this is impracticable and recourse must be had to a +rotation with immune crops, which will starve out the root-knot. It must +now be borne in mind that the root-knot worm can attack cotton, cowpea, +okra, melons and a very large number of other plants. The only common +crops safe to use in such a rotation in the South are corn, oats, +velvet beans, beggar weed, peanuts, and the Iron cowpea. The use of +other varieties of cowpea than the Iron is particularly to be avoided, +on account of the danger of stocking the land with root-knot. +Fortunately, the disease is serious only in sandy or light soils. + +=Rosette= (_Corticium vagum_ (B. & C.) var. _solani_ Burt.) is a disease +of minor importance, which occurs in Ohio, Michigan, and scatteringly in +other states. The fungus causing it (_Rhizoctonia_) attacks the roots +and base of the stem, forming dark cankers. The effect on the plant is +to dwarf and curl the leaves and to restrict productiveness. The potato +suffers more severely from the same trouble. Rotation of crops and +liberal application of lime to the soil are advised for the control of +rosette in tomatoes. + + + + +INDEX + + + PAGE + + Adaptations of varieties, 97 + as to habit, 97 + as to foliage, 100 + as to fruit, 102 + + + Botany, 1 + + + Canning, cost of, 118 + on the farm, 118 + Essentials for successful, 119 + + Catalog descriptions incomplete, 110 + + Characteristics of blossom, 25 + + Characteristics of fruit, 26 + Development from original form, 26 + Effect of conditions on, 26 + Quality, 26 + + Characteristics of plant, 20 + Checking of growth, effect upon, 20 + Natural environment, 20 + Uniform growth, importance of, 21 + + Characteristics of root, 23 + + Characteristics of stem and leaves, 24 + + Classification, 4 + Cherry, 5 + Cultivated varieties, 10 + Currant, 4 + Pear, 7 + + Cold-frames, construction, 53 + + Commercial importance of crop, 18 + + Cost of crop, per acre, 121 + as grown for canners, 117 + + Covers for plant beds, 55 + + Cultivation, 76 + + Care and thoroughness necessary, 76 + in greenhouse, 77 + in home garden, 77 + + + Diseases, 131 + Bacterial wilt, 142 + Blight, early, 135 + Blight, leaf, 134 + Blight, Western, 134 + Cracking of fruit, 132 + Damping off, 141 + Edema, 133 + Fusarium wilt, 144 + Leaf curl, 132 + Leaf mold, 135 + Leaf spot, 134 + Mildew, downy, 135 + Mosaic disease, 133 + Phytoptosis, 138 + Point rot, 139 + Root knot, 146 + Sclerotium wilt, 145 + Yellows, 134 + + Diseases, remedies for, 131 + Bordeaux mixture, preparation of, 136 + Preventatives of, 143 + Spraying apparatus, 137 + Spraying, importance of, 136 + Sulphur spraying, 139 + + Distances for setting plants, 68 + in field, 68 + in greenhouse, 70 + in home garden, 69 + + Drainage, importance of, 31 + + + Essentials for best development, 28 + Cultivation, 32, 76 + Effect of shade, 28 + Food supply, 31, 43 + Heat, 30 + Moisture, 30 + Sunlight, 28 + + Exposure, 38 + for early crop, 39 + for greenhouse, 40 + for home garden, 40 + + + Fertilizers, 43 + Amounts, 43 + Character, 44 + Experiments with, 45 + for general application, 44 + for greenhouse, 45 + for home garden, 45 + + Flats, construction, 57 + + + Gathering fruit, 91 + + + Habit, 22 + + Handling fruit, 92 + + History, 14 + + Hotbeds, construction, 51 + + Hotbeds, growing fruit in, 70 + + House, construction, 49 + + + Insects injurious to tomatoes, 123 + Blister beetle, 125 + Colorado potato beetle, 125 + Cut worm, 123 + Flea-beetle, 124 + Stalk-borer, 127 + Tomato fruit worm, 128 + Tomato worm, 126 + White fly, 130 + + + Location of field as determining profit, 38 + + + Manure + Fall dressing, 41 + for cold-frames, 55 + for greenhouse soil, 37 + for hotbeds, 51 + in preparing ground, 46 + + + Origin, 10 + + Origin of name, 14 + + + Packing, 94 + + Pollinating, 77 + + Pollination, 25 + + Prices obtained + at canneries, 118 + for hothouse fruit, 122 + for select field grown fruit, 122 + + Profits on crop, 122 + + Propagation of plants, 48 + from cuttings, 49 + from seed, 48, 49 + in cold-frames, 53 + in hotbeds, 51 + in temporary greenhouses, 49 + + Pruning, 80 + + + Ripening on the vines, 90 + + Ripening after frost, 95 + + + Sash, cost, 49 + for hotbeds, 52 + for cold-frames, 53 + + Seed breeding, 112 + Essentials to success, 113 + Growing and saving commercial seed, 115 + Methods followed, 115 + Prices received, 116 + Yields obtained, 116 + Importance of breeding from individual plants, 114 + Importance of exact ideals, 113 + Methods recommended, 113 + Principles underlying, 112 + + Setting plants, 70 + Conditions favorable and unfavorable, 70, 71 + in field, 70 + in greenhouse, 74 + in home garden, 74 + New Jersey method, 71 + Other methods, 73 + + Soil + Composition, importance of, 24 + Conditions essential, 41 + Preparation, 41, 46 + for greenhouse, 47 + for home garden, 47 + + Soil Preparation, + for main crop, 46 + Importance of, 46 + Selection, 33 + for early crop, 36 + for greenhouse, 37 + for home garden, 36 + for main crop, 34 + Previous crop, 41 + + Sorting, 92 + + Staking, 79 + + Starting plants, 59 + Effect of shade, 29 + for early fruit, 63 + for forcing, 67 + for home garden, 67 + for late crop, 65 + in flats, 59 + in greenhouse, 59 + Pricking out, 60 + Right conditions, 62 + Spotting boards, 61 + Unfavorable conditions, 63 + Watering, 60 + With least labor, 66 + + Succession, practice in the South, 42 + + + Training, 79 + for greenhouse, 88 + for home garden, 85 + + Types, 14 + + + Value, development of, 16 + + Variations, + in foliage, 100 + in fruit, 102 + Coloring, 106 + Flesh, 105 + Ripening, 106 + Shape, 102 + in habit, 97 + + Varietal differences, + as to foliage, 100 + as to fruit, 102 + as to growth, 97 + + Variety names, 108 + Sources, 109 + Varying application, 110 + + + Watering, danger in, 30, 60 + + + Yielding capacity, 22 + + Yield per acre, 117, 121 + + Yield per foot of greenhouse bench, 122 + + + + +Transcriber's Notes + + +The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + Page 61: "... necessary. When plants are set in ..." (had 'plans'). + Page 107: "... these respects we have varieties ..." (had 'resepcts'). + Page 117: "... the question, "What is the best ..." (had 'queston'). + Page 148: "Mildew, downy, 135" (had 'downey'). + Page 149: "Pollinating, 77" (had 'Pollenating'). + Page 149: "Pollination, 25" (had 'Pollenation'). + +The archaic spelling of "hight" is as used throughout the original. + +'_' is used to denote italics, and '=' is used to denote bold typeface. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Tomato Culture: A Practical Treatise +on the Tomato, by William Warner Tracy + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TOMATO CULTURE *** + +***** This file should be named 28011.txt or 28011.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/8/0/1/28011/ + +Produced by Tom Roch, Louise Pattison and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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