summaryrefslogtreecommitdiff
path: root/27963.txt
diff options
context:
space:
mode:
Diffstat (limited to '27963.txt')
-rw-r--r--27963.txt14071
1 files changed, 14071 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/27963.txt b/27963.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c736023
--- /dev/null
+++ b/27963.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,14071 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Education, by Levi Seeley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of Education
+
+Author: Levi Seeley
+
+Release Date: February 2, 2009 [EBook #27963]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EDUCATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Audrey Longhurst, Barbara Kosker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ HISTORY
+
+ OF
+
+ EDUCATION
+
+ BY
+
+ LEVI SEELEY, PH. D.
+
+ PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY IN THE NEW JERSEY
+ STATE NORMAL SCHOOL
+
+
+ _REVISED EDITION_
+
+
+ NEW YORK : CINCINNATI : CHICAGO
+
+ AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+ COPYRIGHT, 1899, 1904, BY
+
+ LEVI SEELEY.
+
+ Entered at Stationers' Hall.
+
+ HIST. OF EDUCATION
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The importance of a knowledge of the history of education was never so
+fully recognized as at the present time. Normal schools and teachers'
+colleges give this subject a prominent place in their professional
+courses, superintendents require candidates for certificates to pass
+examination in it, and familiarity with it is an essential part of the
+equipment of every well-informed teacher. The history of education
+portrays the theories and methods of the past, warns of error and
+indicates established truth, shows difficulties surmounted, and
+encourages the teacher of to-day by examples of heroism and consecration
+on the part of educators whose labors for their fellow-men we discuss.
+To the teacher this study is a constant help in the schoolroom, the
+trials of which are met with the added strength and inspiration from
+contact with great teachers of the past.
+
+No text-book can be said to contain the last word upon any subject.
+Least of all can such a claim be made for a history of education, which
+aims to trace the intellectual development of the human race and to
+indicate the means and processes of that evolution. Any individuals or
+factors materially contributing thereto deserve a place in educational
+history. As to which of these factors is the most important, that is a
+question of choice, upon which, doubtless, many will differ with the
+author. Some educators, whose claims to consideration are unquestioned,
+have been reluctantly omitted on account of the limitations of this
+work.
+
+On the other hand, many teachers lack time for exhaustive study of such
+a subject. This book is designed to furnish all the material that can be
+reasonably demanded for any state, county, or city teacher's
+certificate. It also provides sufficient subject-matter for classes in
+normal schools and colleges and for reading circles. The material
+offered can be mastered in a half-year's class work, but, by using the
+references, a full year can be well employed. For those who desire to
+make a more extended study of particular topics, the author gives such
+authorities as years of careful research have shown to be most valuable.
+Every investigator knows the labor involved in finding suitable
+material. To spare the reader something of that labor, the literature is
+given at the beginning of each chapter. By following the collateral
+readings thus suggested, this book will be found suitable for the most
+advanced classes.
+
+The plan of references embraces three features: (1) literature at the
+beginning of each chapter; (2) foot references to special citations; and
+(3) a general bibliography in the Appendix. In the first two, titles are
+sometimes abbreviated because of their frequent repetition. In case of
+doubt the reader should refer to the general bibliography, in which all
+the authorities cited are arranged alphabetically, with full titles.
+
+To get the greatest value from this study, classes should be required to
+keep a notebook which should follow some uniform plan. I suggest the
+following as such outline: (1) historical and geographical; (2) home
+life; (3) physical, religious, and aesthetic education; (4) elementary
+and higher education; (5) summary of lessons taught; (6) educators:
+(_a_) life, (_b_) writings, (_c_) pedagogical teachings. Of course each
+teacher will modify this outline to suit his own ideals. Such notebook
+will be found to be of value not only in review, but also in fixing the
+subject-matter in the mind of the student.
+
+It is generally conceded that the plan of an historical work should be
+based upon the evolution of civilization. In common with other recent
+writers on educational history, the author accepts the general plan of
+Karl Schmidt in his "Geschichte der Paedagogik," the most comprehensive
+work on this subject that has yet appeared. But the specific plan, which
+involves the most important and vital characteristics of this book, is
+the author's own. The details of this specific plan embrace a study of
+the _history_ and _environment_, of the _internal_, _social_, _political_,
+and _religious_ conditions of the people, without which there can
+be no accurate conception of their education.
+
+Our civilization had its inception in that of ancient Egypt, and thence
+its logical development must be traced. If desirable the teacher can
+omit the chapters on China, India, Persia, and Israel. It will be found,
+however, that the lessons taught by these countries, though negative in
+character, are intensely interesting to students, and most instructive
+and impressive. These countries are also admirably illustrative of the
+plan employed in the book, and thereby prepare the way for later work.
+That plan is more fully set forth in the Introduction, a careful study
+of which is recommended to both teacher and student.
+
+The author wishes to acknowledge his appreciation of the valuable
+assistance in the preparation of this volume rendered by Dr. Elias F.
+Carr of the New Jersey Normal School, and Professor W. J. Morrison of
+the Brooklyn Training School for Teachers.
+
+ LEVI SEELEY.
+
+
+REVISED EDITION
+
+I have taken advantage of the necessary reprinting of the book to make
+certain changes and additions, and to correct a few errors which were
+found to exist. An attempt has been made to note the recent changes that
+have taken place, especially in the French and English school systems.
+
+ L. S.
+
+
+SECOND REVISION
+
+The continued and hearty reception which teachers are giving this book
+has led me to desire to make still further improvements in it.
+Accordingly, I have added brief sketches of the Sophists, Plutarch,
+Marcus Aurelius, Rollin, and Jacotot. The space available is all too
+limited to warrant such treatment as the subjects deserve. All that can
+be expected is that the reader may become interested and seek further
+information from special sources. An appendix is added in which the
+National Educational Association, the National Bureau of Education, the
+Quincy Movement, the Herbartian Movement, Child Study, Parents'
+Meetings, Manual Training, and Material Improvements in Schools are each
+given a brief consideration.
+
+ L. S.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+ CHAPTER I PAGE
+
+ INTRODUCTION 15
+
+ 1. Purpose of the history of education. 2. Plan of study. 3.
+ The study of great educators. 4. Modern systems of education.
+ 5. General outline.
+
+
+ CHAPTER II
+
+ CHINA 20
+
+
+ 1. Geography and history. 2. The home. 3. The elementary
+ school. 4. Higher education. 5. Degrees. 6. Examinations.
+ 7. Criticism of Chinese education. 8. Confucius.
+
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+ INDIA 29
+
+ 1. Geography and history. 2. The caste system. 3. The home.
+ 4. The elementary school. 5. Higher education. 6. Criticism of
+ Hindu education. 7. Buddha.
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+ PERSIA 36
+
+ 1. Geography and history. 2. The home. 3. The State education.
+ 4. Criticism of Persian education. 5. Zoroaster.
+
+
+ CHAPTER V
+
+ THE JEWS 40
+
+ 1. Geography and history. 2. The home. 3. The Jewish school.
+ 4. Esteem for the teachers. 5. The Schools of the Rabbis. 6. Criticism
+ of Jewish education. 7. The Talmud.
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI
+
+ EGYPT 46
+
+ 1. Geography and history. 2. The caste system. 3. The home.
+ 4. Education. 5. Criticism of Egyptian education. 6. General
+ summary of oriental education.
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII
+
+ GREECE 53
+
+ 1. Geography and history. 2. Manners and customs. 3. The
+ Olympian games.
+
+
+ CHAPTER VIII
+
+ ATHENS 56
+
+ 1. Historical. 2. The difference in spirit between Athens and
+ Sparta. 3. The home. 4. Education. 5. The Sophists. 6. Criticism
+ of Athenian education.
+
+
+ CHAPTER IX
+
+ ATHENIAN EDUCATORS 61
+
+ 1. Socrates,--life, method, death. 2. Plato,--life, his "Republic,"
+ scheme and aim of education. 3. Aristotle,--life, pedagogy,
+ estimate of him.
+
+
+ CHAPTER X
+
+ SPARTA 68
+
+ 1. Historical. 2. The home. 3. Education. 4. Criticism of
+ Spartan education. 5. Lycurgus. 6. Pythagoras.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XI
+
+ ROME 74
+
+ 1. The Age of Augustus. 2. Geography and history. 3. The
+ home. 4. Education,--elementary, secondary, higher. 5. Criticism
+ of Roman education.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XII
+
+ ROMAN EDUCATORS 81
+
+ 1. Cicero,--life, philosophy, pedagogy. 2. Seneca,--the teacher
+ of Nero, great orator, writer, etc., pedagogical writings. 3.
+ Quintilian,--his school, his "Institutes of Oratory," pedagogical
+ principles. 4. Plutarch and Marcus Aurelius.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIII
+
+ CHRISTIAN EDUCATION--INTRODUCTION 89
+
+ 1. General view. 2. New principles introduced by Christianity.
+ 3. Importance of the individual. 4. Obstacles which the early
+ Christians had to meet. 5. Slow growth of Christian education.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIV
+
+ THE GREAT TEACHER 96
+
+ 1. Life and character. 2. Impression which Christ made. 3. His
+ work as a teacher. 4. An example of pedagogical practice.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XV
+
+ GENERAL VIEW OF THE FIRST PERIOD OF CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 101
+
+ 1. The period covered. 2. The connection of the Church with
+ education. 3. The monasteries. 4. Influence of the crusades.
+ 5. Of the Teutonic peoples.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVI
+
+ THE FIRST CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS 104
+
+ 1. The catechumen schools. 2. Chrysostom. 3. Basil the
+ Great. 4. The catechetical schools. 5. Clement of Alexandria.
+ 6. Origen.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVII
+
+ CONFLICT BETWEEN PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 111
+
+ 1. General discussion. 2. Tertullian. 3. Saint Augustine.
+ 4. Augustine's pedagogy.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVIII
+
+ MONASTIC EDUCATION 116
+
+ 1. Monasteries. 2. The Benedictines. 3. The seven liberal arts.
+ 4. Summary of benefits conferred by the monasteries.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIX
+
+ SCHOLASTICISM 121
+
+ 1. Its character. 2. Its influence. 3. Summary of its benefits.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XX
+
+ CHARLEMAGNE 125
+
+ 1. History, character, and purpose. 2. Personal education.
+ 3. General educational plans. 4. Summary of Charlemagne's
+ work.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXI
+
+ ALFRED THE GREAT 130
+
+ 1. History and character. 2. Educational work.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXII
+
+ FEUDAL EDUCATION 132
+
+ 1. Character of the knights. 2. Three periods into which their
+ education was divided. 3. Education of women. 4. Criticism of
+ feudal education.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXIII
+
+ THE CRUSADES AS AN EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT 136
+
+ 1. Causes of the crusades. 2. The most important crusades.
+ 3. Summary of their educational value.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXIV
+
+ THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 139
+
+ 1. What led to their establishment. 2. The most important
+ early universities. 3. Their privileges. 4. Their influence.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXV
+
+ MOHAMMEDAN EDUCATION 143
+
+ 1. History of Mohammedanism. 2. The five Moslem precepts.
+ 3. Education. 4. What the Mohammedans accomplished for
+ science. 5. General summary of education during the Middle
+ Ages.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXVI
+
+ THE RENAISSANCE 148
+
+ 1. The great revival. 2. Principles proclaimed. 3. The movement
+ in Italy. 4. In Germany. 5. Summary of the benefits of the
+ Renaissance to education.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXVII
+
+ HUMANISTIC EDUCATORS 155
+
+ 1. Revival of the classics their purpose. 2. Dante. 3. Petrarch.
+ 4. Boccaccio. 5. Agricola. 6. Reuchlin. 7. Erasmus. 8. Pedagogy
+ of Erasmus.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+ THE REFORMATION AS AN EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE 164
+
+ 1. Conditions at the beginning of the sixteenth century. 2. The
+ invention of printing. 3. The rulers of the leading countries.
+ 4. Intellectual conditions. 5. Luther. 6. Luther's pedagogy.
+ 7. Melanchthon.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXIX
+
+ OTHER PROTESTANT EDUCATORS 174
+
+ 1. Sturm. 2. The _Gymnasium_ at Strasburg. 3. The celebrated
+ course of study. 4. Trotzendorf. 5. Neander.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXX
+
+ THE JESUITS AND THEIR EDUCATION 182
+
+ 1. The order. 2. Loyola. 3. Growth of the society. 4. Jesuit
+ education. 5. Use of emulation. 6. Estimate of their educational
+ work. 7. Summary. 8. The Port Royalists.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXI
+
+ OTHER EDUCATORS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 190
+
+ 1. Roger Ascham. 2. Double translating. 3. Rabelais. 4. First
+ appearance of realism in instruction. 5. Montaigne. 6. Summary
+ of progress during the sixteenth century.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXII
+
+ EDUCATION DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 200
+
+ 1. Political and historical conditions. 2. The educational situation.
+ 3. Compulsory education. 4. The Innovators.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXIII
+
+ EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 205
+
+ 1. Bacon. 2. The inductive method. 3. Ratke. 4. His pedagogy.
+ 5. Comenius. 6. The "Orbis Pictus." 7. Summary of his
+ work. 8. Milton. 9. Locke. 10. Fenelon. 11. His pedagogy.
+ 12. La Salle and the brothers of the Christian schools. 13. Rollin.
+ 14. Summary of the educational progress of the seventeenth century.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXIV
+
+ FRANCKE AND THE PIETISTS 231
+
+ 1. Pietism. 2. Francke. 3. The Institutions at Halle. 4. The
+ training of teachers. 5. _The Real-school._
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXV
+
+ GENERAL VIEW OF THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES 237
+
+ 1. The abolition of slavery. 2. The extension of political rights.
+ 3. Science as an instrument of civilization. 4. Religious freedom.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXVI
+
+ MODERN EDUCATORS--ROUSSEAU 241
+
+ 1. Life. 2. Pedagogy. 3. The "Emile."
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXVII
+
+ MODERN EDUCATORS--BASEDOW 250
+
+ 1. Life. 2. The Philanthropin. 3. Writings. 4. Jacotot.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXVIII
+
+ MODERN EDUCATORS--PESTALOZZI 257
+
+ 1. Childhood. 2. Schooling. 3. Life purpose. 4. The Christian
+ ministry. 5. The law. 6. Farming. 7. Marriage. 8. At
+ Neuhof. 9. Authorship. 10. At Stanz. 11. At Burgdorf. 12. At
+ Yverdon. 13. Summary of Pestalozzi's work.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXIX
+
+ MODERN EDUCATORS--FROEBEL 272
+
+ 1. Life. 2. As teacher. 3. His first school. 4. The kindergarten.
+ 5. The "Education of Man."
+
+
+ CHAPTER XL
+
+ MODERN EDUCATORS--HERBART 278
+
+ 1. Life. 2. Experience as a tutor. 3. As a university professor.
+ 4. His practice school in the university. 5. Writings. 6. His
+ pedagogical work. 7. Work of modern Herbartians.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLI
+
+ MODERN EDUCATORS--HORACE MANN 284
+
+ 1. Life. 2. Work as a statesman. 3. As an educator. 4. His
+ Seventh Annual Report. 5. Love for the common schools.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLII
+
+ THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY 289
+
+ 1. Administration. 2. School attendance. 3. The schools.
+ 4. Support of schools. 5. The teachers.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLIII
+
+ THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE 296
+
+ 1. Administration. 2. School attendance. 3. The schools.
+ 4. Support of schools. 5. The teachers.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLIV
+
+ THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND 304
+
+ 1. Administration. 2. School attendance. 3. The schools.
+ 4. Support of schools. 5. The teachers.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLV
+
+ THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES 309
+
+ 1. No national system. 2. State systems--Administration.
+ 3. School attendance. 4. The schools. 5. Support of schools.
+ 6. The teachers.
+
+
+ APPENDIX
+
+ RECENT EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS 315
+
+ 1. The National Educational Association. 2. The National Bureau of
+ Education. 3. The Quincy Movement. 4. The Herbartian Movement.
+ 5. Child Study. 6. Parents' Meetings. 7. Manual and Industrial Training.
+ 8. Material Improvements.
+
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF EDUCATION
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The history of education begins with the childhood of the race, and
+traces its intellectual development step by step to the present time. As
+such history is academic in character, and furnishes information
+concerning the educational systems, methods, theories, and practices of
+the past, it should be placed early in the professional pedagogical
+course, to serve as the foundation for an improved educational science
+which profits by the experience of mankind. The history of education
+presents many of the great problems that have interested thoughtful men,
+shows how some of these have been solved, and points the way to the
+solution of others. It studies educational systems, selecting the good,
+and rejecting the bad, and introducing the student directly to the
+pedagogical questions that have influenced the world. For these reasons,
+the study of education should begin with its history.
+
+Karl Schmidt says: "The history of the world is the history of the
+development of the human soul. The manner of this development is the
+same in the race as in the individual; the same law, because the same
+divine thought, rules in the individual, in a people, and in humanity.
+Humanity has, as the individual, its stages of progress, and it unfolds
+itself in them. The individual as a child is not a rational being; he
+becomes rational. The child has not yet the mastery over himself, but
+his environment is his master; he belongs not to himself, but to his
+surroundings. _The oriental peoples are the child of humanity....
+Classical antiquity represents the period of youth in the history of the
+world.... Christ is the type of perfected manhood._ The history of the
+individual reflects and repeats the history of humanity, just as the
+history of humanity is a reflection of the history of the Cosmos, and
+the history of the Cosmos is an image of the life of God; all history,
+be it that of humanity or of the individual, of the starry heavens, or
+of the earth, is development of life toward God." "Where there is
+development, there is progress. Progress in history is only the more
+visible, audible, perceptible embodiment of God in humanity."[1]
+
+In the study of the education of a people it is necessary first to
+become acquainted with their social, political, and religious life. To
+this end a knowledge of the geography and history of their country is
+often essential, because of the influence of climate, occupation, and
+environment, in shaping the character of a people. Examples of this
+influence are not wanting. The peculiar position of the Persians,
+surrounded on all sides by enemies, required a martial education as a
+preparation for defensive and offensive measures. Physical education was
+dominant among the Spartans, because of serfdom which involved the
+absolute control of the many by the few. No less striking are the
+effects of physical conditions upon all peoples in stimulating mental
+activity and in developing moral life, both of which processes are
+essential to true education. The intellectual product of the temperate
+zone differs from that of the torrid zone, the product of the country
+from that of the large city. For these reasons stress is here laid upon
+the geographical and historical conditions of the peoples considered.
+
+For the same purpose we must study the home and the family, the
+foundations upon which the educational structure is built. The ancient
+Jew looked upon children as the gift of God, thereby teaching the great
+lesson of the divine mission of children and of the parents'
+responsibility for their welfare. This race has never neglected the home
+education, even when it became necessary to establish the school. The
+family was the nursery of education, and only when diversified duties
+made it no longer possible to train the children properly in the home
+was the school established. Even then the purpose of the school was but
+to give expression to demands which the home created. The spirit and
+purpose of the education of a people can be understood only when the
+discipline, the ideals, and the religion of the home are understood.
+
+When we have learned the environment of a people, we are ready to study
+their elementary education. This takes us into the schoolroom,
+introduces us to the place where the school is held, indicates the
+course of study pursued, the discipline, methods of instruction, spirit
+and training of the teacher, as well as the results obtained. After this
+we are ready to consider the higher education, which completes the
+system and measures its efficiency.
+
+Another task demanded of the student is to draw lessons from the
+educational systems studied, to note what can be applied to modern
+conditions, and to avoid the errors of the past. The product of a
+method, as shown in the character of the people pursuing it, is of great
+interest in estimating the value of a scheme of education.
+
+Great movements have often been the outcome of the teachings of some
+individual who, inspired by a new idea, has consecrated his life to it.
+Through such men the world receives new and mighty impulses toward its
+enlightenment, civilization takes vast strides in its development, and
+man approaches nearer his final emancipation. Confucius, Socrates,
+Augustine, Charlemagne, Luther, Bacon, Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel,
+are names that suggest the uplifting of humanity and the betterment of
+the world. The study of the lives of these men, of their victories and
+their defeats, cannot fail to be an encouragement and a suggestive
+lesson to teachers of all lands and all times. The history of education
+must therefore consider the biographies of such men as well as their
+theories and their teachings.
+
+Finally, modern systems of education are the outgrowth of the
+experiences of the past. They represent the results attained and
+indicate present educational conditions. Nothing can better summarize
+the total development reached, or better suggest lines of future
+progress than a comparative discussion of the leading school systems of
+the world. The last chapters of this book, therefore, are devoted to a
+study of the school systems of Germany, France, England, and America.
+These are typical, each being suggestive of certain phases of education,
+while one of them has largely influenced the education of several other
+countries. Each furnishes lessons valuable to the student of history.
+Although many practices in other countries may not be applicable to our
+conditions, the broad-minded, genuine patriot will not refuse to accept
+sound principles and good methods from whatever source derived.
+
+It must not be forgotten that there is a vital distinction between
+_Education_ and _Schooling_. Education takes into account all those
+forces which enter into the civilization and elevation of man, whether
+it be the home, the school, the state, the church, the influences of
+environment, or all these combined. It is a continuous process which
+begins at birth and ceases only at the end of life. By schooling we mean
+the educative process which is carried on during a limited period of the
+child's life under the guidance of teachers.
+
+The school is a product of civilization. It became necessary because of
+the division of labor caused by the multiplication of the interests of
+mankind which made it impossible for the home to continue wholly to care
+for the training of its children. The history of education must not
+merely treat of the development of the school, but it must consider
+education in its broader meaning; that is, as a history of civilization.
+For this reason some of the great educators of the world who have not
+been school teachers, must receive consideration.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] "Geschichte der Paedagogik," Vol. I, pp. 1, 2.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+CHINA
+
+=Literature.=--_Martin_, The Chinese; _Clarke_, Ten Great Religions;
+_Houghton_, Women of the Orient; _Doolittle_, Social Life of the
+Chinese; _Johonnot_, Geographical Reader; _Lord_, Beacon Lights of
+History; _Ballou_, Due West and Footprints of Travel; _Ploetz_, Epitome
+of Universal History; _Barnes_, Studies in Education; _Stoddard's_
+Lectures; _Pierre Leroy-Beaulieu_, The Awakening of the East; _McClure's
+Magazine_, December, 1900, A Character Study of the Chinaman.
+
+
+The civilization of the "Celestial Empire" is, with the possible
+exception of that of Egypt, the oldest in the world. And yet, it has
+contributed but little to the advancement of mankind. Their system of
+education has failed to stimulate national and individual progress, has
+fostered narrow egotism, and has excluded external suggestion. It is
+studied rather for its negative lessons, and therefore suggests
+practices which the student of education will do well to avoid. The
+result in China furnishes the best argument against a method of
+instruction that appeals solely to the memory. This alone is sufficient
+reason for a study of Chinese education, aside from its strange and
+unique characteristics which never fail to interest the reader.
+
+=Geography and History.=--The Chinese Empire occupies a position on the
+eastern side of the Asiatic continent within about the same parallels of
+latitude as the United States, extending from twenty degrees latitude on
+the south to fifty-three degrees on the north. Its area is about four
+and a quarter million square miles, being somewhat larger than that of
+the United States. Its population is estimated at about six times that
+of our country. It has an abundance of rivers, intersected by numerous
+canals, which greatly facilitate internal commerce. Many parts of the
+country are densely populated. The people are largely engaged in
+agriculture. Tea and silk are the chief articles of export, while rice
+and millet form the principal food.
+
+The Chinese belong to the Mongolian or yellow race. They are an
+industrious, frugal, and temperate people, though the opium habit is
+very general and is disastrous in its effects. Doubtless the overcrowded
+population, which has driven many to live in boats and in crowded
+apartments, has had much to do in molding the Chinese character. Until
+recently they have been slow to admit modern improvements and are
+conservative in the maintenance of their customs, religion, education,
+and social practices. Consequently they have for many centuries made but
+little progress. Their authentic history covers, according to extant
+records, a period of nearly four thousand years. The government is an
+absolute monarchy; the emperor is regarded as the father of all his
+people and has complete power over the lives of his subjects.
+
+The Chinese language contains no alphabet; each symbol represents a
+different word; the substantives are indeclinable, and the verbs are
+without inflection. It thus becomes necessary in mastering the language
+to learn by rote a vast number of signs and characters,--a prodigious
+feat for the memory.
+
+The religion most widespread among the Chinese is Buddhism (which was
+imported from India), though ancestor worship is still universal. Women
+are the principal worshipers, yet the Chinese believe that women have
+no souls. The belief in transmigration of souls is implicit, and this is
+used to keep woman in a most degraded condition. If a woman is obedient
+to her husband and his relatives, and is the mother of sons, she may
+hope to return to this world, in the future, as a man, and thus have a
+chance ultimately to reach Buddha's heaven. The belief in the
+transmigration of souls explains the vegetarian diet of the Buddhist. No
+zealous Buddhist will touch meat or even eggs, neither will he kill the
+smallest insect, lest he should thus inadvertently murder a relative.[2]
+The men care but little for any religion beyond a veneration for their
+ancestors.
+
+Polygamy is very generally practiced, the limit to the number of wives
+being determined by the ability to support them. Women usually become
+more religious as they advance in years, and they spend much time in
+worshiping in the temples. It is they who preserve the national religion
+and make most difficult the work of missionaries.[3]
+
+=The Home.=--The wife exists only for the comfort of her husband. It is
+her duty to serve and obey him. If she abuses her husband, she receives
+one hundred stripes; but abuse from him is not a punishable offense.
+Instruction, at home as well as at school, is confined to boys. The
+birth of a boy is indicated by hanging a bow and arrow over the door;
+that of a girl, by a spindle and yarn. In naming the number of his
+children, the father counts only the boys. Boys are clothed in the
+finest material the family can afford; girls, in rags. Parents may
+destroy their children, but only girls are ever sacrificed. The mother
+can seldom read and write, her chief duty being to instill into her
+children the two cardinal Chinese virtues--_politeness_ and _obedience_.
+The relation of parents and children is the highest and purest
+representation of the relation between the Creator and the creature, and
+to venerate the parents is the first and holiest of all duties, higher
+than the love of wife to husband, higher than the reverence for the
+emperor; therefore the emperor's father cannot be his subject.
+
+To the Chinaman all other duties are included in filial duties. The
+bringing up of the children is left almost entirely to the mother. The
+training begins very early, and greatest stress from the first is laid
+upon obedience. Disobedience is a crime punishable by the father with
+death.
+
+There are no illustrated children's books, no nursery rhymes to inspire
+the imagination, none of the bright and useful things so necessary to a
+happy childhood. The child grows up with but few playthings calculated
+to stimulate the powers of the mind.
+
+=The Elementary School.=--At about six or seven years of age the child
+enters school. Sometimes a few parents unite to employ a teacher for
+their children. The government has no concern for the qualifications of
+the teacher; no license to teach is required, there is no governmental
+inspection or control, nor does the State assume any part of the expense
+of the school. Attendance is not compulsory, and yet male education is
+so universal that scarcely a boy can be found who does not enjoy
+opportunities for education. Charity schools are furnished by the
+wealthy for those who cannot afford to contribute toward the maintenance
+of a school.
+
+There are no public schoolhouses. The school is sometimes held in the
+temple, sometimes in the home of the schoolmaster, and sometimes in the
+home of a wealthy patron. The furniture of the schoolroom consists of an
+altar consecrated to Confucius and the god of knowledge, a desk and a
+chair for the teacher, and the pupils' desks and stools, provided by the
+children themselves. No effort is made to render the room attractive.
+
+The child is admitted the first time with much ceremony in order that
+the day may be one of pleasant memories. He also receives a new name,
+the name of his babyhood being dropped. Indeed, a change of name
+accompanies each new epoch of his life, as the time he takes a new
+degree, the day of his marriage, etc. Thus the boy enters upon his new
+work. The first years of study are devoted to reading, writing, and the
+elements of arithmetic, which studies complete the education of the
+majority of the pupils. No effort is made to interest the child; he is
+simply required to memorize and write as many as possible of the fifty
+thousand characters. Not until after the names of the characters have
+been learned by rote is there any effort to teach the meaning of the
+words which they represent. The child's writing, too, is mechanical, for
+the expression of thought is but a secondary consideration. Thought
+awakening is not encouraged in the Chinese course of education. Fear,
+not interest, is the motive which drives the child to study. Memory is
+the chief faculty to be cultivated, and each child vies with the others
+to make the most noise in study.
+
+The teacher is greatly revered, only less so than the father. His
+discipline is rigid, the rod not being spared. There are no new methods
+to learn; the practice to-day is the same as that of hundreds of years
+ago; it consists simply in hearing what the children have learned by
+heart.
+
+The second stage of study consists of translations from text-books and
+lessons in composition. This work brings some pleasure to the child, as
+it is a little less mechanical. The third stage consists of
+belles-lettres and essay writing. Only a few ever reach this stage, and
+the purpose of this advanced work is not intellectual development, or
+even the accumulation of knowledge, but to prepare for a position under
+the government, which can be reached by no other means. Even in these
+last two stages of study memory is the principal faculty brought into
+play. Without great exercise of this power the vast amount of material
+can never be mastered.
+
+=Higher Education.=--There are no high schools, but men who have taken
+degrees gather about them young students, who are to devote themselves
+to study, and give them instruction in the Chinese classics and prepare
+them for the State examinations for degrees. Great attention is paid to
+style, and in order to cultivate a good style, students are required to
+commit to memory many of the productions of their classical authors.
+They write a great many essays and verses, which are criticised by their
+teachers. The attention is confined solely to the Chinese classics. The
+educated Chinaman is usually ignorant of any field of knowledge not
+embraced in his own literature.
+
+There is in the royal library at Pekin a catalogue consisting of one
+hundred and twelve octavo volumes of three hundred pages each,
+containing the titles of twelve thousand works, with short extracts of
+their contents. These works treat of science, medicine, astronomy, and
+philosophy, while history has an especially rich literature. The Chinese
+knew how to observe the heavens four thousand years ago, and yet were
+unable to construct a calendar without the help of the Europeans. They
+invented gunpowder, the mariner's compass, porcelain, bells, playing
+cards, and the art of printing long before they were used in Europe, yet
+they lacked the ability to use these inventions as instruments to their
+advancement.
+
+China is divided into provinces which are subdivided into districts.
+Candidates must pass three examinations in their own district and those
+who are successful receive the lowest degree, that of "Budding
+Intellect." Many thousands enter for this degree, but only about one per
+cent succeed in attaining it. The possession of this degree does not yet
+entitle the holder to a public office, but most of those who have
+secured it become teachers, physicians, lawyers, etc. Once in three
+years there is another examination for the second degree, called
+"Deserving of Promotion," conducted by an examiner sent from Pekin. A
+third examination is also held once every three years, in Pekin, and
+success in this is rewarded by the title "Fit for Office." Holders of
+the last two degrees are entitled to an appointment to some office, the
+highest aim of a Chinaman. All of these examinations are conducted with
+great strictness and fairness, no one being excluded. Thus every Chinese
+child of ability has the opportunity to reach the highest positions in
+the country.
+
+There is a still higher degree called the "Forest of Pencils," which is
+open only to members of the Royal Academy, the _Hanlin_. The acquirement
+of this degree is the greatest honor to be attained; its possessor is
+highly esteemed, and may hold the highest offices in the country.
+
+In 1905 an edict was promulgated abolishing the old system of
+examinations. This marks an epoch in Chinese educational history and
+will tend to place China in the line of modern political and industrial
+development.
+
+=Criticism of Chinese Education.=--1. It is not under government
+control.
+
+2. It has no interest beyond the boundaries of China, and regards no
+literature save the Chinese classics.
+
+3. It is non-progressive, having made practically no improvement for
+many centuries.
+
+4. It cultivates memory to the neglect of the other powers of the mind,
+and places more emphasis on the acquirement of knowledge than on the
+development of the human faculties.
+
+5. It obtains its results through fear, not by awakening interest in or
+love for study.
+
+6. Women are not embraced in the scheme of education.
+
+7. It produces a conservative, untruthful, cunning, and non-progressive
+people.
+
+8. It reaches practically all of the male sex, and there is opportunity
+for all to rise to the highest positions of honor, but its methods are
+so unnatural as to awaken little desire for education on the part of the
+young.
+
+9. Its motive is debasing to the character.
+
+
+CONFUCIUS (B.C. 550-478)
+
+The name of Confucius is the one most revered among the Chinese. To him
+and his disciples are due not only the native religion, now supplanted
+by Buddhism, but also the language and literature. He began to teach in
+a private school at the age of twenty-two. He rejected no pupil of
+ability and ambition, but accepted none without these qualities. He
+said, "When I have presented one corner of a subject, and the pupil
+cannot make out the other three, I do not repeat the lesson." The
+following are extracts from the analects of Confucius:--
+
+1. What you do not like when done to yourself, do not to others.
+
+2. Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is
+perilous.
+
+3. To see what is right and not do it is want of courage.
+
+4. Worship as if the Deity were present.
+
+5. Three friendships are advantageous: friendship with the upright,
+friendship with the sincere, and friendship with the man of observation.
+Three are injurious: friendship with a man of spurious airs, friendship
+with the insinuatingly soft, and friendship with the glib-tongued.
+
+6. Shall I tell you what knowledge is? When you know a thing, to hold
+that you know it; and when you do not know a thing, to confess your
+ignorance.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[2] Mrs. E. E. Baldwin, Foochow, China.
+
+[3] Houghton, "Women of the Orient," p. 14.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+INDIA
+
+=Literature.=--_Marshman_, History of India; _Ragozin_, Vedic India;
+_Spofford_, Library of Historical Characters; _Butler_, Land of the
+Veda; _Houghton_, Women of the Orient; _Clarke_, Ten Great Religions;
+_Johonnot_, Geographical Reader; _Macaulay_, Essays; _Ballou_,
+Footprints of Travel; _Stoddard's_ Lectures; Encyclopaedia Britannica;
+_Arnold_, Light of Asia; _Chamberlain_, Education in India.
+
+
+=Geography and History.=--India lies between the sixth and thirty-sixth
+parallels of north latitude. It is bordered on the north by the
+Himalayas and on the south by the Indian ocean. The climate in general
+is hot, which makes the natives indolent and accounts for their lack of
+enterprise. The country is very rich, the chief products being wheat,
+cotton, rice, opium, and tea. The area is about one and a half million
+square miles, and the population two hundred millions.
+
+The early history of India is obscure, as the Brahmans, from religious
+scruples, have ever been opposed to historical records. It is certain
+that there was an aboriginal race which occupied the country from an
+unknown period, and that a branch of the Aryan[4] or Indo-Germanic race
+came to India and struggled for supremacy. The Aryans succeeded in
+reducing the natives to subjection or in driving them into the
+mountains. The comparatively pure descendants of these races are about
+equal in number in India, their mixed progeny composing the great mass
+of the Hindu population. The Sanskrit was their classic language, and
+the Veda their Bible.
+
+=The Caste System.=--There are four great castes in India:--
+
+1. The _Brahmans_, or highest caste, who are the priests, scholars,
+lawyers, physicians, teachers, etc. This order is highly reverenced by
+the lower castes, and its members are dignified, abstemious, and sedate.
+Their highest ideal is to bring their desires and appetites under
+complete control. They exercise great influence in the land.[5]
+
+2. The _warriors_, who comprise the army and the office holders.
+
+3. The _merchants_, _mechanics_, and _farmers_, who constitute the bone
+and sinew of India.
+
+4. The _servants_, who receive no education excepting in matters of
+politeness and other things connected with their station in life.
+
+Each caste must pay respect to the higher castes, and association with
+persons of a lower caste is considered a degradation. The English
+government of India does not interfere with the caste system, but it is
+gradually breaking down.
+
+Besides the above-mentioned castes, there are tradesmen's castes which
+have grown up as new occupations have been introduced. Thus there is a
+potters' caste, a weavers' caste, a carpenters' caste, etc., each son
+following his father's trade. This accounts for the marvelous skill of
+the craftsmen of India in weaving carpets and fine muslins, in metal
+work, and other arts,--workmanship not equaled anywhere else in the
+world.
+
+Brahmanism and Mohammedanism are the chief religions. Buddhism overran
+the country in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C., but it did
+not seem to be suited to the Hindus, and now it is found in its purity
+only in Ceylon. Unlike the Chinese, the Hindus are a very religious
+people. The Shastas[6] declare that "when in the presence of her
+husband, a woman must keep her eyes upon her master, and be ready to
+receive his commands. When he speaks, she must be quiet and listen to
+nothing besides. When he calls, she must leave everything else and
+attend upon him alone. A woman's husband is her god, her priest, and her
+religion. The most excellent work that she can perform is to gratify him
+with the strictest obedience."[7] The system of sale of girls at birth,
+for wives, of early betrothal and marriage, of perpetual widowhood under
+most degrading circumstances,[8] and the practice of polygamy make the
+condition of woman in India still worse than in China.
+
+The English now rule the country with such wisdom and justice that the
+people are generally contented and loyal. Reforms have been introduced,
+commerce has been established, improvements have been made, and new life
+has been awakened. They have also established schools and universities;
+but as the purpose here is to give a picture of the _caste_ education,
+the English system will not be described.
+
+=The Home.=--Woman has no educational advantages in India, and she is
+regarded more as the servant than as the equal of her husband. She may
+never appear uninvited in the presence of any man except her husband.
+This has worked great hardships for her, especially in cases of
+sickness, as she can have no medical attendance unless a female medical
+missionary can be reached. This fact has opened a fertile field for
+missionary enterprise which has been a great blessing to Hindu women.
+
+A member of a caste may marry in his own or in a lower caste; thus the
+Brahman may have four wives, the warrior three, the farmer two, and the
+servant one.
+
+Parents love their children, and expect of them unquestioning obedience.
+Children are taught to love and honor their teachers even more than
+their parents. They are taught to reverence and respect older persons
+under all circumstances. Contrary to the Chinese idea of education,
+which is to prepare for this life, the Hindu idea is to prepare for the
+future life, and children in the home, from their earliest years, are
+trained with reference to this idea.
+
+=The Elementary School.=--All teachers belong to the Brahman caste. They
+receive no salary, depending upon gifts for their support. They are mild
+in discipline, and generally humane in their treatment of their pupils.
+The instruction is given under trees in the open air on pleasant days,
+and in a tent or shed when the weather is bad. Instruction is given in
+reading, writing, and arithmetic, though religion constitutes the
+principal theme. Memorizing the holy sayings of Brahma occupies a large
+portion of the time. While the Chinaman worships nature and his
+ancestors, the Hindu worships Brahma. The cultivation of the memory is
+considered important, but by no means so essential as in the Chinese
+system.
+
+The reading lessons are from the Veda. In writing, the child begins by
+forming characters in sand with his finger or a stick, then he writes
+upon leaves, and finally upon paper, with ink. The work in arithmetic is
+very elementary, being only such as will fit the learners for practical
+life. Servants and girls are excluded from even this limited education.
+
+M. Ida Dean says: "How amused you would be if you could take a peep at a
+school in India taught by a native teacher. The school is often held in
+an open shed, and no pains whatever is taken to keep it clean. Often the
+rafters are festooned with cobwebs and dirt. Of furniture, save the
+teacher's low desk, there is none. The teacher uses a grass mat, while
+the boys sit cross-legged on the earthen floor. The teacher, in a
+singsong voice, reads a sentence which the boys shout after him. Then
+another sentence is read, which the pupils likewise shout in a singsong
+voice, while their bodies sway to and fro. This goes on until sentence
+after sentence is memorized. No one knows nor cares what he is saying.
+The teacher never explains. Neither teacher nor pupil is ever bothered
+by that troublesome and inquisitive little word _why_."
+
+The castes are taught separately, and especial attention is given to
+such instruction as will fit them for their station in life. The highest
+virtues to be cultivated are politeness, patience, modesty, and
+truthfulness. Morning, noon, and evening there are impressive religious
+ceremonies in the school, and the pupils must throw themselves at the
+feet of their teacher with reverential respect. There is no theory of
+education among the Hindus, each teacher instructing as he pleases,
+according to historic custom. This precludes any considerable
+improvement in method or advance in the art of education. There is no
+authority to decide upon qualifications of teachers, the only essential
+requisite being that they shall belong to the Brahman caste.
+
+=Higher Education.=--The Brahmans are the only educated class, although
+warriors attend their schools for the purpose of such study as is
+necessary in connection with their calling. The farmer caste, too, may
+attend the Brahman schools to learn the studies pertaining to their
+caste. They pursue in their schools the study of grammar, mathematics,
+astronomy, philosophy, medicine, law, literature, and religion. Many of
+them still speak their classic language, the Sanskrit. As their religion
+is based on philosophy, this study takes precedence over all others.
+
+"The Hindus are believed to have originated the decimal system of
+arithmetical notation which has been transmitted to us through Arabian
+channels."[9]
+
+The end of Hindu wisdom is to rise above all human suffering through
+knowledge. Wuttke says, "Christians pray, 'Thy Kingdom come'; the
+Chinese, 'Thy Kingdom remain'; the Hindus, 'Let whatever thou hast
+created pass away.'"
+
+=Criticism of Hindu Education.=--1. It is not universal, a large part of
+the people being excluded from its benefits.
+
+2. It is based on castes and the promulgation of the caste system, which
+is baneful.
+
+3. It depends too much upon the cultivation of the memory.
+
+4. It has no philosophy of education, and, therefore, is
+non-progressive.
+
+5. It does not properly honor woman, and excludes her from its
+advantages.
+
+6. It produces a dreamy, self-satisfied, indolent, selfish, and
+non-progressive people.
+
+7. It makes the people self-reflective, which doubtless accounts for
+their profound philosophical and mathematical discoveries.
+
+
+BUDDHA[10]
+
+Buddha lived in the first half of the sixth century B.C. He
+sought to overthrow Brahmanism and taught that all men are brothers,
+that they should show friendship, kindness, pity, and love toward their
+fellow-men. His religion and his spirit approach nearer to Christianity
+than any other oriental faith, and doubtless his influence was great for
+the uplifting of the race, though it cannot be classed as technically
+educational. "Self-denial, virtuous life, suppression of all
+self-seeking, love for fellow-men," said he, "are cardinal virtues which
+bring blessedness to mankind." T. W. Rhys Davids says, "Buddha did not
+abolish castes, as no castes existed at his time." Had the spirit of his
+teaching prevailed, India would never have been cursed by this baneful
+system. Buddhism is a religion based on moral acts. In a corrupted form
+it has many millions of adherents in China, Tibet, Japan, and other
+countries; but it is found in its purity only in Ceylon.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] The Aryans are supposed to have originally occupied the country east
+of the Caspian Sea, though some authorities locate them north of it. The
+branches of this race are the Hindus, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Celts,
+Teutons, and Slavs. These branches are related in language and color,
+and the peoples that find their common origin in the Aryans represent a
+large part of the world's enterprise and progress.
+
+[5] See article in Johonnot's "Geographical Reader," p. 197.
+
+[6] A commentary on the sacred book, the Veda of the Hindus.
+
+[7] Houghton, "Women of the Orient," p. 34.
+
+[8] A betrothed girl becomes a widow upon the death of her promised
+husband even though she be only two or three years old and may never
+have seen him. She must always remain a widow, and as such is constantly
+humiliated.
+
+[9] Williams, "History of Modern Education."
+
+[10] See North American Review, Vol. 171, p. 517.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+PERSIA
+
+=Literature.=--_Benjamin_, Story of Persia; _Ragozin_, The Story of
+Media, Babylon, and Persia; _Rawlinson_, The Seventh Great Oriental
+Monarchy; _Myers_, Ancient History; _Clarke_, Ten Great Religions;
+_Lord_, Beacon Lights of History; _Fergusson_, History of Architecture.
+
+
+=Geography and History.=--Persia lies in the pathway of the great
+caravans which formerly carried on trade between Europe and India. It
+consists largely of a high plateau, surrounded by mountains. Large parts
+of the country are sandy and dry from lack of sufficient rain, and
+therefore are unproductive. The people are a branch of the Aryan race.
+They doubtless lived a nomadic life, and were obliged to be ever ready
+to defend themselves. Success in defense against the frequent assaults
+of their surrounding enemies stimulated them to become a nation of
+warriors. This fact had much to do in shaping their education. Cyrus the
+Great conquered Media and brought Persia to the summit of her greatness.
+The Persians boasted that they had become great by the sword, hence they
+cared but little for agriculture or manufactures. They levied tribute
+upon the nations they had subdued. Home production was therefore
+unnecessary, and they could devote all of their time to the art of war.
+About one fourth of the population are still classed as wandering
+tribes, and the nation is an aggregation rather than a unity of
+peoples.
+
+The early Persians worshiped fire, and holy fires which only the Magi,
+or priests, were allowed to approach, were kept perpetually burning upon
+the mountain tops. The sun also was worshiped, the Persian kneeling with
+his face toward the east at sunrise in beatific joy. This worship may
+have been borrowed from the Egyptians, who were conquered by the
+Persians, and with whom they stood in close relations. In later times
+the religion of Zoroaster became the religion of the people.
+
+=The Home.=--Wife and children were required to show the father great
+respect. Each morning the wife was expected to ask her husband nine
+times, "What do you wish me to do?" The teacher stood next to the father
+in the child's esteem. The child was kept at home under the care of the
+mother until seven years of age. An astrologer gave him a name and
+outlined his future destiny by reference to the stars. It was forbidden
+to tell him the difference between right and wrong before his fifth
+year. No corporal punishment was administered before his seventh year.
+The mother was greatly beloved by her children, though women were
+excluded from education. The position of woman was much higher than in
+either China or India. The chief training of children in the home was
+physical. Throwing, running, archery, riding, etc., were the principal
+employments of children. Absolute truthfulness and justice were early
+inculcated. A quick eye, a steady hand, accurate power of observation,
+and unwavering courage were qualities sought for in every child, and all
+of the training in the home, as well as in the later education, had for
+its aim the acquirement of these powers. Thus children were early taught
+to be self-reliant and fearless.
+
+=The State Education.=--1. Persian education was national in character.
+After the seventh year the boy was taken from home and educated entirely
+by and for the State.
+
+His training in the use of arms, in riding, and in other athletic
+exercises was continued. There were large public institutions in which
+the boys were quartered, and simplest food and clothing were given them.
+Besides the training for war, they were taught religious proverbs and
+prayers, and were led to practice truth and justice. This education
+continued until their fifteenth year. The teachers were men who had
+passed their fiftieth year, and who were chosen for virtue as well as
+knowledge, that they might serve as models to their pupils.
+
+2. The second period of education consisted of a military training,
+which occupied the ten years between the age of fifteen and twenty-five.
+
+3. The final period was that of the soldier, which continued till the
+fiftieth year, when the Persian could retire from the army with honor.
+The most competent were retained as teachers.
+
+Reading and writing were taught to a limited degree, but the chief end
+of education was to prepare the citizen for war. The Magi were educated
+in astronomy, astrology, and alchemy, and many of the dervishes have
+ever been renowned for their acuteness, sense of justice, great powers
+of observation, and good judgment.
+
+=Criticism of the Persian Education.=--1. The State robs the family of
+its inherent right to educate the children.
+
+2. It neglects intellectual education, giving undue prominence to the
+physical and moral; and demands too great a part of the active life of
+man.
+
+3. It makes the highest aim of education to prepare for war, and
+therefore does not cultivate the arts of peace.
+
+4. It excludes woman from the benefits of education.
+
+
+ZOROASTER[11]
+
+Zoroaster, the founder of the Persian religion, was a great teacher. The
+exact date of his birth is unknown, but it is generally placed at about
+B.C. 600. The testimony of ancient classic literature confirms
+the belief that he was an historical person. A tablet unearthed in
+Greece contains an account of his life and his doctrines. Pliny says
+that he laughed on the day of his birth and that for thirty years he
+lived in the wilderness on cheese. He was the founder of the Magi
+priesthood, but did not teach the worship of fire.
+
+His philosophy is _dualistic_. There are two spirits or principles that
+rule the universe. These are Ormuzd, the principle of light, and
+Ahriman, the principle of darkness. These two opposing principles are in
+constant conflict, each striving for the mastery. Man is the center of
+the conflict, but Ormuzd as his creator has the greater power over him.
+All influences are summoned to bring about the success of the good, and
+in the end it will surely prevail. No remission of sin is taught, but
+judgment is represented as a bridge over which those whose good deeds
+outweigh their evil deeds are allowed to pass to paradise: in case the
+evil deeds outweigh the good, the person is cast off forever; in case of
+a balance of good and evil deeds, there is another period of probation.
+
+This dualism shows itself in nature as well as in the spiritual world.
+Order is opposed to lawlessness, truth to falsehood, life to death, good
+to evil. It is a religion in which the ideas of guilt and merit are
+carried out to the extreme. Zoroaster believed that he was the prophet
+chosen to promulgate these doctrines, and his influence as a teacher
+upon the Persian nation was unquestionably great. Persia is now a
+Mohammedan country.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[11] North American Review, Vol. 172, p. 132.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE JEWS
+
+=Literature.=--_Hosmer_, Story of the Jews; _Clarke_, Ten Great
+Religions; _Durrell_, New Life in Education; _Myers_, Ancient History;
+Stoddard's Lectures; _Lord_, Beacon Lights of History; _Josephus_,
+Antiquities of the Jews; _Morrison_, The Jews under Roman Rule;
+_Larned_, History for Ready Reference; _Hegel_, Philosophy of History;
+Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1895; _Peters_,
+Justice to the Jew.
+
+
+=Geography and History.=--The Jews were the ancient people of God, the
+"chosen people," whose history is recorded in the Old Testament
+Scriptures. They reached their greatest power and glory during the
+reigns of David and Solomon, and they occupied Palestine, with Jerusalem
+as their capital city. Within this small territory, some six thousand
+square miles in extent, have occurred some of the most important events
+of history, and the Jewish race has been the representative of God's
+purposes toward man. The Almighty communicated directly with his people,
+who were thus made acquainted with the divine will. The early Jews were
+nomadic in their habits, living in tents, and tending their flocks. The
+patriarch, who was at the head of a family or tribe, made laws for the
+people under him and governed them according to the command of God,
+whose representative he was. Because God directly or through the
+patriarch led and instructed the people, their education, like their
+government, is called _theocratic_.
+
+The Jews lost their independence B.C. 63 in becoming subject to
+the Romans, and in A.D. 70 Jerusalem was destroyed and the
+Jews were dispersed. Since that time they have been wanderers on the
+face of the earth, and there is no part of the world where they are not
+to be found. They have maintained their racial characteristics with
+remarkable purity. They were an agricultural people until the Babylonian
+captivity, after which they became a commercial people. Persecutions,
+which have universally followed them, making the acquirement of fixed
+property unsafe, had much to do with this change.
+
+=The Home.=--The Jewish family was the purest of antiquity. In general,
+monogamy was practiced, and the wife was regarded as the companion and
+equal of the husband. Children being accepted as the gift of God, the
+father stood in the same relation to his children as Jehovah stood to
+man. Therefore the father's highest aim was to bring up his children in
+the knowledge and service of the Lord. We have here the highest and best
+type of family training to be found in history, a characteristic that
+still holds in Jewish families wherever they exist, and that has
+contributed largely to the maintenance of the strong racial
+peculiarities of the Jews. The father taught his boys reading and
+writing, and the mother taught the girls household duties; but the
+latter were not entirely excluded from intellectual training.
+
+Great attention was given to the rites and ceremonies of the tabernacle
+and the Jewish law. History was also taught as a means of stimulating
+patriotism. The Jewish child was early made acquainted with the
+Scriptures, and history, law, and prophecy became familiar to every Jew.
+As there were no schools, this was all done in the home by the parents.
+Religion was the central thought of all education, and preparation for
+the service of the tabernacle and the worship of God was early given to
+every child. Thus in an atmosphere of love and piety the Jew discharged
+his sacred duty with care and faithfulness. Obedience to the commands of
+parents, veneration for the aged, wholesome respect for their ancestors,
+and familiarity with the Jewish law were instilled into the minds of all
+children. Music and dancing were taught in every household, not for
+pleasure, but as a means of religious expression. By prayer and holy
+living, by precept and example, by word and deed, the father discharged
+the duty committed to him by God, leading his children by careful
+watchfulness toward the ideal manhood which was revealed to him by the
+teachings of Holy Writ.
+
+There were no castes among the Hebrews, and the same kind of training
+was given to the children of rich and poor, high and low, alike. No
+other race of people has given such careful home training to its
+children, from earliest times to the present.
+
+=The Jewish School.=--There were no elementary Jewish schools until
+after the destruction of the nation and the loss of their civil liberty.
+After the defeat at Jena the Prussians turned to education as the sole
+means of retrieving their national greatness; the same was true of the
+Austrians after the defeat of Sadowa, and of the French after the fall
+of the empire at Sedan. But the Jewish people had set this example
+eighteen centuries before. Dittes says, "If ever a people has
+demonstrated the power of education, it is the people of Israel."
+
+The rabbis required, A.D. 64, that every community should
+support a school, and that attendance should be compulsory. This is the
+first instance of compulsory education on record. If a town was divided
+by a stream without a connecting bridge, a school was supported in each
+part. Not more than twenty-five pupils could be assigned to one
+teacher, and where the number was greater an assistant was employed. If
+there were forty pupils, there were two teachers. It will thus be seen
+that the Jews put into practice eighteen centuries ago a condition of
+things which, owing to the complexity of our civilization, is with us
+to-day largely an unrealized ideal.
+
+Teachers were respected even more than parents, for it was held that
+parents prepared their children for the present, but teachers for the
+future. None but mature married men were employed as teachers. It was
+said that "he who learns of a young master is like a man who eats green
+grapes, and drinks wine fresh from the press; but he who has a master of
+mature years is like a man who eats ripe and delicious grapes, and
+drinks old wine."
+
+The child entered school at six. Previous to that age physical exercise
+and bodily growth were to be the ends sought. "When he enters school,"
+says the Talmud, "load him like an ox." Other authorities, however,
+encouraged giving him tasks according to his strength. The subjects
+taught were reading, writing, natural history, arithmetic, geometry, and
+astronomy. The Scriptures were taught to all the children, and all were
+versed in religious rites.
+
+The methods were good and attractive, great effort being made to lead
+the children to understand, even though it might be necessary to repeat
+four hundred times. The discipline was humane. According to the Talmud,
+"children should be punished with one hand and caressed with two."
+Corporal punishment was administered only to children over eleven years
+of age.
+
+=The Schools of the Rabbis.=--Karl Schmidt says: "Culture in a people
+begins with the creation of a literature and the use of writing." The
+oldest monument of writing among the Israelites is found in the tables
+of stone containing the Ten Commandments. Moses, David, Solomon, and
+Isaiah, and the other prophets were the founders of the Hebrew
+literature.
+
+Among the instrumentalities of higher education were the Schools of the
+Prophets, which taught philosophy, medicine, poetry, history, and law to
+the sons of prophets and priests, and of leading families. These schools
+were influential in stimulating the production of the historical,
+poetical, and prophetic books of the Old Testament.
+
+But more important as direct means of higher education were the Schools
+of the Rabbis. These sprang up in Alexandria, Babylon, and Jerusalem in
+the early centuries of the Christian era. They were private institutions
+founded by celebrated teachers. Doubtless it was in such a school as
+this that St. Paul was brought up at the feet of Gamaliel. The principal
+subjects studied were theology and law,--politics, history, mathematics
+and science being excluded. The collection of the sayings and
+discussions was begun in the second century A.D. and afterward
+took form in the Talmud.
+
+=Criticism of Jewish Education.=--1. It exalted the home and insisted on
+the control of children by their parents.
+
+2. It gave to woman an honored place in the home.
+
+3. It gave an intelligent interpretation of the school and its
+functions. In regard to school attendance, the number of pupils under
+one teacher, the respect due to teachers, the course of study, and many
+other matters, it showed practical wisdom.
+
+4. It taught obedience, patriotism, and religion.
+
+5. It provided only for Jewish children.
+
+6. It was mild and generally wise in discipline, though mistaken in
+forbidding corporal punishment before the eleventh year, while admitting
+its use after that.
+
+7. It developed an honest, intelligent, progressive, God-fearing people.
+
+8. It produced some of the greatest poets and historians of the world.
+
+
+THE TALMUD[12]
+
+This book, as we have seen, is the outgrowth of the discussions of the
+rabbis, whose sayings, collected from the second to the sixth century
+A.D., are herein contained. It proclaims with great minuteness
+rules of life which the faithful Jew still rigidly observes. It has
+aided in perpetuating Jewish laws, ceremonies, customs, and religion,
+and has been the most potent means of preserving the national and racial
+characteristics of the Jews for nearly two thousand years. Driven from
+one country to another, they have always carried the Talmud with them
+and have been guided and kept united by its teachings. During the last
+quarter of the nineteenth century the study of the Talmud has been
+revived, not only among the Jews, but also among Christians and students
+of all classes.
+
+
+EXTRACTS FROM THE TALMUD
+
+1. Even if the gates of heaven are shut to prayer, they are open to
+tears.
+
+2. Teach thy tongue to say, "I do not know."
+
+3. If a word spoken in its time is worth one piece of money, silence is
+worth two.
+
+4. Not the place honors the man, but the man the place.
+
+5. The world is saved by the breath of school children.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[12] See Peters, "Justice to the Jew."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+EGYPT
+
+=Literature.=--_Maspero_, Egyptian Archaeology; _Wilkinson_, The Ancient
+Egyptians; _Stoddard's_ Lectures; Myers, Ancient History; _Routledge_,
+The Modern Wonders of the World; _Johonnot_, Geographical Reader;
+_Edwards_, A Thousand Miles up the Nile; _Knox_, Egypt and the Holy
+Land; _Ballou_, Due West; _Clarke_, Ten Great Religions; _Ebers_, Uarda;
+and Egyptian Princess; _Curtis_, Nile Notes of a Howadji.
+
+
+=Geography and History.=--Egypt consists of a narrow strip of land about
+six hundred miles long, lying in the northeastern part of Africa. Its
+geographical importance is due to the river Nile, which flows through
+it, and which, by its annual overflow, enriches the soil, and makes one
+of the most productive portions of the globe. For many centuries
+reservoirs for the storage of water in time of the overflow, and
+irrigation canals for its later distribution, have secured the country
+against drought, and thus abundant harvests were always assured
+"independent of the seasons and the skies." This, with the mild climate
+and exceedingly rich soil, made food attainable with slight labor,
+furnishing an abundance, not only for its own population, but making
+Egypt the granary of the Mediterranean countries. We learn from the
+Scriptures, of the visits of the sons of Jacob to Egypt to buy corn of
+Joseph when famine existed in their own land. These conditions, which
+made living so cheap, were doubtless the main causes of the early
+settlement of the valley of the Nile, and the rapid increase in its
+population. In confirmation of the foregoing we have the testimony of
+Diodorus Siculus, a Greek writer, who visited Egypt nearly two thousand
+years ago. He tells us that the entire cost to bring up a child to
+manhood was not more than twenty drachmas (less than four dollars of our
+money).[13]
+
+Of the antiquity of Egyptian history we have abundant evidence. Swinton
+says, "Egypt is the country in which we first find a government and
+political institutions established. Egypt itself may not have been the
+oldest _nation_, but Egyptian history is certainly the oldest _history_.
+Its monuments, records, and literature surpass in antiquity those of
+Chaldea and India, the two next oldest nations."[14] The records of the
+history of Egypt are found in abundance carved on her monuments, tombs,
+buildings, implements, etc. They were written in hieroglyphics, the
+meaning of which was unknown until the discovery of the "Rosetta stone,"
+which furnished the key to their interpretation.
+
+The ancient Egyptians excelled in mechanics and arts. It is doubtful
+whether to-day we know as much of certain sciences as they did four
+thousand years ago. Their applications of mechanics, engineering,
+dyeing, and embalming still remain to us "lost arts." The wisdom of the
+Egyptians was proverbial, and the great scholars of other countries made
+pilgrimages to Egypt to study philosophy, literature, law, and science.
+
+=The Caste System.=--The caste system existed also in Egypt, but in no
+such strict sense as in India. The first and highest caste consisted of
+the priests, who represented the learning and wealth of the country.
+They owned one third of the land, upon which they paid no tax. They
+held all the offices, were the surveyors, engineers, teachers,--indeed,
+their caste alone furnished all the higher professions. They ruled the
+land with an iron hand. Concerning their influence, Swinton says, "The
+priests were the richest, most powerful, and most influential order. It
+must not be supposed, however, that the modern word 'priest' gives the
+true idea of this caste. Its members were not limited to religious
+offices; they formed an order _comprising many occupations and
+professions_. They were distributed all over the country, possessing
+exclusively the means of reading and writing, and the whole stock of
+medical and scientific knowledge. Their ascendency, both direct and
+indirect, over the minds of the people was immense, for they prescribed
+that minute religious ritual under which the life of every Egyptian, not
+excepting the king himself, was passed."[15]
+
+The second caste consisted of the military class, who also belonged to
+the nobles. There was freer intercourse between the two higher castes
+than was possible in the Hindu system. It was not uncommon to find
+brothers belonging to different castes. Ampere found an inscription on a
+monument mentioning one son as a priest, another as governor of a
+province, and a third as superintendent of buildings. To each member of
+this caste was assigned a parcel of land (six and one half acres), which
+also was free from taxation. These two higher castes were especially
+privileged, and the gulf between them and the lower castes was very
+wide.
+
+The third, or _unprivileged_ caste was subdivided into three orders: (1)
+the farmers and boatmen; (2) the mechanics and tradespeople; and (3) the
+common laborers. Between these, also, there were bonds of common
+interest, though a decided difference between the orders was recognized.
+
+The caste system may be outlined as follows:--
+
+ { I. _Priests_, who represented the learning and wealth and
+ { ruled the land.
+ {
+ Egyptian { II. _Soldiers_, who, though lower in caste than the priests,
+ Castes. { yet associated with them.
+ { {1. _Farmers_ and _boatmen_, who ranked next.
+ { III. {2. _Mechanics_ and _tradespeople_, who ranked next.
+ { {3. The common laborers.
+
+The slaves were lower than the common laborers, and were not classified
+among the castes. They were generally captives taken in war. Respect and
+reverence for the higher castes were by no means so marked as in India,
+and outbreaks between the various classes were common.
+
+=The Home.=--Woman occupied a much higher plane in Egypt than in China
+or India, though polygamy was practiced by all classes except the
+priests. She was the recognized mistress of the home, possessed some
+education, and largely directed the education of the children. Children
+of wives of different castes had equal rights before the law to
+inheritance. Great attention was paid to religious ceremonies, and the
+children were taught piety and obedience in their early youth. They were
+highly regarded in the Egyptian home, and were brought up in an
+atmosphere of love and filial respect. The day of a child's birth was
+regarded as determining its destiny. The child was brought up on the
+simplest food, and furnished with scanty clothing, in order that its
+body might be strong and supple.
+
+=The Education.=--The education, like that of India, was suited to the
+different castes. Priests were the only teachers. While chief attention
+was given to the education of boys, girls also received some
+instruction. The principal subjects taught in the lowest caste were
+writing and mathematics. The papyrus plant, found along the Nile,
+furnished a material on which writing was practiced. In arithmetic we
+find an anticipation of modern principles in the concrete methods
+employed. Religious instruction was also given. Bodily exercise was
+severe, running being a favorite pastime. The expense of schooling was
+very small. The boy usually followed the trade of his father, though
+this was not an inflexible rule. The occupation he was to follow had
+some influence in shaping his education.
+
+The higher castes received an extensive education, including a knowledge
+of higher mathematics, astronomy, language, natural science, medicine,
+music, engineering, and religion. The annual overflow of the Nile
+necessitated the construction of reservoirs and irrigation canals, and
+caused frequent changes of boundary lines. For all this a knowledge of
+mathematics was necessary, and this study was therefore greatly
+encouraged. Institutions of higher learning for the training of priests
+and soldiers were found at Thebes, Memphis, and Heliopolis. The Museum
+of Alexandria, which reached its highest prosperity about the middle of
+the third century B.C., and which made Alexandria the center of
+the learning of the world at that period, attracted philosophers and
+investigators from Athens and Rome. In connection with the Museum was
+the celebrated Alexandrian library, which was fostered by the Ptolemies,
+and which contained a vast collection of books, variously estimated at
+from four hundred thousand to seven hundred thousand volumes.[16]
+
+=Criticism of Egyptian Education.=--1. It was dominated by the priests
+under the caste system, and did not recognize equality of man.
+
+2. It encouraged greater respect for woman than other oriental systems,
+but took little account of her intellectual training.
+
+3. It made use of concrete methods, at least in writing and arithmetic,
+for the first time in history.
+
+4. It was non-progressive in its elementary education, the father
+generally expecting his son to follow his calling.
+
+5. In higher education it was justly noted, as it attracted wise men
+from Greece and Rome to study its science and philosophy.
+
+
+GENERAL SUMMARY OF ORIENTAL EDUCATION
+
+With the discussion of Egyptian education, the consideration of oriental
+systems ceases. Concerning the education of the Phoenicians,
+Babylonians, and other oriental nations we know but little. To the
+Phoenicians the invention of the alphabet, glass making, and purple
+dyeing is generally credited, and the knowledge of these things was
+communicated to the Mediterranean nations with whom they engaged in
+trade. The classical countries were materially influenced by Egyptian
+culture, and the way was prepared for a broader and more enlightened
+interpretation of the purpose of education, and for a more successful
+evolution of civilization on soil better suited to that end. We may
+briefly summarize the lessons of oriental education, as follows:--
+
+1. The Oriental systems fostered class distinctions by furnishing but
+little enlightenment to the lower classes, and affording superior
+advantages to the privileged few.
+
+2. They were non-progressive, for centuries witnessed no improvement in
+methods of instruction, reached no higher ideals, and marked no advance
+in civilization.
+
+3. They did not feel the need of trained teachers.
+
+4. The importance of the individual was not appreciated, and man was
+regarded as belonging to the State.
+
+5. The end sought was good conduct, which was to be attained through
+memorizing moral precepts. This gave undue importance to the memory.
+
+6. Little encouragement was given to free investigation; authority of
+teachers and ancestral traditions were the principal factors employed.
+The progress of civilization was therefore very slow.
+
+7. In general, excepting with the Jews, woman had no part in education,
+being regarded as incapable of any considerable intellectual
+development.
+
+8. In China the motive of education was to prepare for success in this
+life; in India, for the future life; in Persia, to support the State; in
+Israel, to rehabilitate the nation; and in Egypt, to maintain the
+supremacy of the priests.
+
+9. In no case was the conception reached that the aim of education
+should be to emancipate all the powers of man,--physical, intellectual,
+moral, spiritual.
+
+10. Finally, we may sum up the conditions that prepared the way for
+classical education in the words of Karl Schmidt: "In Greece at last the
+idea of human individuality as the principal end, and not as a means to
+that end, was grasped. Conformable to this truth, all human, social, and
+political conditions were shaped and education given its form. This idea
+of the emancipation of the individual became established in Greece with
+a brilliancy which attracts attention to that land until the present
+time."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] The student should bear in mind the fact that the purchasing power
+of a sum equivalent to four dollars was much greater in those days than
+now.
+
+[14] "Outlines of the World's History," p. 12.
+
+[15] "Outlines of History," p. 20.
+
+[16] It must be observed that the ancient volume, or roll, contained
+much less matter than the modern book.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+GREECE
+
+=Literature.=--_Davidson_, Education of the Greek People; _Felton_,
+Ancient and Modern Greece; _Grote_, History of Greece; _Curtius_,
+History of Greece; _Morris_, Historical Tales (Greek); _Mahaffy_, Old
+Greek Education; Social Life in Greece; The Greek World under Roman
+Sway; _Clarke_, Ten Great Religions; _Guhl_ and _Koner_, Life of Greeks
+and Romans; _Timayenis_, History of Greece; _Wilkins_, National
+Education in Greece; _Lord_, Beacon Lights; _Monroe_, Source Book of the
+History of Education.
+
+
+=Geography and History.=--Greece lies in the center of the ancient
+world. The numerous islands between it and the mainland of Asia made
+stepping-stones for the hardy mariners who, filled with the spirit of
+adventure, pushed out farther and farther from the Asiatic shores until
+they reached Greece--the first European country to be settled. Here we
+find another branch of the great Aryan race.
+
+The coast is broken up by many indentations which afford fine harbors
+and invite seafaring life. The surface is mountainous, the ranges
+cutting the country up into many sections or states. The climate is
+varying, depending upon proximity to the sea, and upon the elevation.
+The scenery is beautiful, and the soil in the valleys is fertile. The
+productions are fruit, grain, and silk. As might be expected from the
+nature of the country, the people show much commercial enterprise. The
+area is about twenty-five thousand square miles, and the population
+about 2,200,000.
+
+The Greeks were a brave and ambitious people, and their history is full
+of heroic deeds and stirring events. The many small states were often
+hostile to one another. Athens and Sparta were the two most important
+cities. Around them centered two diverse forms of civilization, and in
+them were developed two very different standards of education. It will
+be necessary, therefore, to discuss separately the education of these
+two cities. When the Grecian states were united in defense, no outside
+power was able to conquer them; but, unfortunately, jealousies often
+arose which brought them into conflict with one another, and which
+finally caused the overthrow of all. In art and literature Greece
+reached the summit of her glory in Athens in the age of Pericles, the
+fifth century B.C. The work accomplished by Athens has been the
+inspiration of the world for nearly twenty-four hundred years.
+
+In government, in manners, and in customs the Greeks were very different
+from the oriental nations. The spirit of political freedom prevailed
+here for the first time in the history of the world. Doubtless the small
+size of the states, which were separated from each other by natural
+boundaries, was an important factor in stimulating the people to secure
+and maintain this independence. "Man's character is formed by the
+surroundings of his home." The beautiful valleys and mountains, the
+varying climate, the sea with its many islands and harbors, the soil, in
+the main yielding its fruit only by hard labor, were elements well
+calculated to produce a hardy race,--a race with lofty ideals, loving
+beauty both of mind and body.
+
+=The Olympian Games.=--Because of their national popularity and their
+direct influence on the education of the people, a description of the
+Olympian games is not out of place in a history of education. At first
+they were religious in character. They were celebrated in honor of Zeus,
+at Olympia, in Elis, which became the Holy Land of Greece. They took
+place once in four years, and this period, called an Olympiad, furnished
+the basis of computing time. The first Olympiad begins with
+B.C. 776. All of the states took part in these contests, and
+when at war, hostilities were suspended during the games, that visitors
+might attend them unmolested. Thus once in four years the various states
+of Greece were united in friendly contest and joyous festivity.
+
+At first there was only the foot race, but afterward wrestling, jumping,
+and throwing the spear were added. Still later, chariot and horse races,
+and contests in painting, sculpture, and literature, were included. Only
+Greek citizens of good moral character could enter the contests. The
+prize, though but a simple wreath of laurel or olive, was most highly
+esteemed. At first spectators were attracted from the different parts of
+Greece only; but afterward the games became great fairs for the exchange
+of commodities, as well as contests which attracted people from all
+parts of Europe.
+
+The Olympian games tended to unite the people and cultivate the arts of
+peace. They encouraged the development of perfect bodies, the training
+being designed to produce superior athletes. They inculcated broader
+views, bringing together people from different parts of their own land
+and from other lands. They incited intellectual ambition by adding in
+later times literary productions. They created a manly spirit and
+stimulated a national patriotism.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+ATHENS
+
+=Literature.=--(See general literature for Greece.) _Harrison_, Story of
+Greece; _Macaulay_, Essays; _Curtius_, History of Greece; _Davidson_,
+Education of the Greeks; _Wilkins_, National Education in Greece;
+_Freeman_, Historical Essays.
+
+
+=History.=--The ideals of Athens--educational, political, and
+moral--were in direct contrast to those of Sparta. At Athens, love of
+liberty, love of knowledge, and love of beauty went hand in hand. Though
+the body was not neglected, as is proved by the beautiful types of
+manhood preserved for us in Athenian art, the Athenians believed that
+the truest beauty was to be reached only by the development of the mind.
+
+Hence Athens brought forth great men like Pericles, Socrates, Plato, and
+Aristotle, she created a literature that has influenced the world, she
+developed art to its highest excellence, and gained for herself a
+permanent and high place in the world's history. Sparta did none of
+these things, therefore her ruin was sure and speedy; while the decline
+of Athens was slow and her influence still lives.
+
+The spirit of Athens was liberty, while that of Sparta was tyranny. It
+is true that Athens had slaves; indeed, only one fourth of the
+inhabitants were free; but even the slaves had a large share of freedom,
+and enjoyed some means of education. We learn that children of the
+wealthy were committed to trusted slaves, called _pedagogues_, who
+escorted them to school, instructed them in many things, and had a
+right to punish them for disobedience. This could not have been allowed
+by parents with such high ideals had the slaves been debased as were
+those of Sparta.
+
+In Athens we find for the first time the democratic idea of government;
+this was by no means so completely realized as it is in modern times,
+especially in the western world. The "Age of Pericles" (B.C.
+480-430) forms the most brilliant period of Athens, a period hardly
+surpassed in some respects by any other in the world's history. Solon
+(B.C. 638) was the great lawgiver of Athens. His wise laws had
+much influence on the prosperity and intellectual development of the
+people.
+
+=The Home.=--In Athens the child was left with the mother until the
+sixth or seventh year. The toys were greater in variety than with any
+other people of antiquity. They were much the same in character as those
+of modern times, and their purpose was to amuse the children rather than
+to furnish a definite preparation for life, as in Persia and Sparta.
+Play, therefore, was recognized as an important factor in the child's
+life, and the toys in use stimulated and encouraged the joyous element
+in the child's nature. That toys are a potent influence toward healthful
+mental and physical growth is an educational truth that has been fully
+recognized by us only within recent years. And yet the Athenians
+appreciated it in the home, twenty-five centuries ago.
+
+The training was intellectual and humane, though strict obedience was
+enforced. Great attention was paid to the works of the poets, selections
+being taught to all the children. The father interested himself chiefly
+in the education of the boys, and when he was unable to discharge this
+duty an elderly male relative was selected as mentor, who devoted his
+leisure hours to such training. Little attention was paid to the mental
+training of the girls.
+
+Women were not held in so high esteem as in Sparta, nor were they as
+worthy of respect. The husband exercised over his wife the same
+authority as over his children. Neither by social position nor by
+intellectual attainment was she his equal. "Her own chamber was the
+world of the Athenian woman; her maids were her companions; household
+duties and the preparation of clothing for her family were her
+employment."
+
+=Education.=--The father was free to choose for his children their
+school and the character of their education. The State furnished
+gymnasia in which schools could be held, fixed the qualifications of
+teachers, the school hours, and the number of pupils to a teacher. Once
+a year public examinations were held, the expense of which the State
+defrayed. The schools were private institutions, supported by private
+means, though under State inspection. The teachers were philosophers or
+wise men, thoroughly competent to discharge the duties of their office.
+
+At six or seven years of age, the boy was sent to school in charge of a
+pedagogue, or leader of the young,--usually an old and trusted slave.
+While not intrusted with the actual teaching of his charge, he was
+responsible for his morals and manners, and was allowed, as we have
+seen, to administer punishment. The pedagogue was the constant attendant
+of the boy. The character of the school chosen depended upon the means
+of the parents.
+
+The first two years were devoted chiefly to gymnastics. The two subjects
+of the elementary course were _gymnastics_ and _music_, the latter term
+including reading and writing. But little arithmetic was taught, as the
+Athenians believed that the object of the study of arithmetic was
+simply utility, and but little arithmetic was needed for practical use.
+"Calculating boards" made the reckoning for all business needs a purely
+mechanical process. The idea of education was the development of the
+_beautiful_, and they held that arithmetic contributed but little to
+this end. The works of the poets were given prominence throughout the
+Athenian education, and pupils were required to commit to memory many
+selections.
+
+=The Sophists.=--The Sophists flourished during the fifth century
+B.C. Their greatest exponents were Protagoras and Gorgias. They
+introduced a movement of which Schwegler says, "It had struck its roots
+into the whole moral, political, and religious character of the Hellenic
+life of that time." They wandered about from place to place proclaiming
+themselves as philosophers and bidding for the patronage of the rich by
+charging large fees and considering public questions. They discussed
+error and wrong with the same eloquence and zeal that they discussed
+truth and justice, their purpose being to foster eloquence rather than
+discover truth. Hence, we have the word "sophistry," which means
+fallacious reasoning. And yet, in the words of Schwegler, "It cannot be
+denied that Protagoras also hit upon many correct principles of
+rhetoric, and satisfactorily established certain grammatical categories.
+It may in general be said of the Sophists that they gave the people a
+great profusion of general knowledge; ... that they called out
+investigations in the theory of knowledge, in logic, and in language;
+that they laid the basis for the methodical treatment of many branches
+of human knowledge, and that they partly originated and partly assisted
+the wonderful intellectual activity which characterized Athens at that
+time."
+
+Children of the poorer classes were kept in school until their
+fourteenth or fifteenth year, when they learned a trade. Those of the
+rich remained in school until their twentieth year. The course of study
+of the latter included music, rhetoric, grammar, and philosophy. At
+twenty the youth's education was regarded as completed, and the young
+man became a citizen. Teachers were paid fees and not fixed salaries.
+
+It was the atmosphere of Athens, more than the discipline of the school,
+that fostered culture and inspired learning. The aim of education was
+the _beautiful_, and the ideal was the aesthetic in mind and body.
+
+=Criticism of Athenian Education.=--1. It sought to educate the entire
+man, giving him beauty of form, keenness of intellect, and nobleness of
+heart.
+
+2. It acknowledged the right of parents to direct and determine the
+education of their children.
+
+3. It recognized the importance of the individual as no other people had
+before.
+
+4. Strict obedience was required of the children.
+
+5. It produced great men, with high moral and intellectual ideals, but
+these ideals were centered in Athenian culture.
+
+6. It excluded women and slaves from its benefits, and was by no means
+universal.
+
+7. It recognized the value of play as an educational force, thereby
+anticipating the kindergarten.
+
+8. The State exercised a certain control over the school by furnishing
+places where it might be held, by defraying the expense of examinations,
+by determining the number of pupils to a teacher, by fixing the limit of
+school hours, and by deciding upon the qualifications of teachers. And
+yet the choice of education was free, and its aim was the good of the
+individual and not the glory of the State.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ATHENIAN EDUCATORS
+
+=Literature.=--_Bulkley_, Plato's Best Thoughts; _Schwegler_, History of
+Philosophy; _Morris_, Historical Tales; _Curtius_, History of Greece;
+_Lord_, Beacon Lights; _Spofford_, Library of Historical Characters;
+_Jowett_, The Republic of Plato; _Vogel_, Geschichte der Paedagogik;
+_Emerson_, Representative Men; _De Quincey_, Plato's Republic; _Hegel_,
+Philosophy of History.
+
+
+SOCRATES (B.C. 470-399)
+
+Socrates was the son of a sculptor of Athens. Though he learned his
+father's trade and followed it in early manhood, he relinquished it to
+devote himself to the study of philosophy, for which he had a natural
+bent. In person he was far from fulfilling the Athenian ideal of beauty,
+being short of stature, corpulent, with protruding eyes, upturned nose,
+large mouth, and thick lips. His domestic life was not happy, his wife,
+Xantippe, being a noted shrew. His failure to provide for the material
+welfare of his family, though quite natural in a man to whom all
+material things seemed unessential, must have sorely tried her patience.
+But Socrates bore her scolding with resignation. Indeed, he seemed to
+regard it as furnishing an opportunity to practice the philosophic
+patience that he preached.
+
+Socrates believed that he had a divine call to "convince men of
+ignorance mistaking itself for knowledge, and by so doing to promote
+their intellectual and moral development." Like many other
+philosophers, he spent his time in the streets, markets, and other
+public places, arguing with any one who would stop to listen or
+converse. This manner of teaching was common in Athens, and he never
+lacked hearers. The whole atmosphere of the classic city was charged
+with the spirit of intellectual activity and philosophic discussion.
+Socrates did not teach positive doctrines, but assumed ignorance himself
+in order to convince others of ignorance. By a series of suggestive
+questions he would lead his pupils or opponents into admissions which
+finally established the truth that Socrates saw at the outset. This is
+known as the "Socratic Method," or the dialectical method, and this form
+of inductive teaching was an important contribution to education.
+
+Although Socrates left no writings, his great pupils, Xenophon and
+Plato, have given the world a full account of his teachings. Plato
+speaks in highest terms of his moral character, declaring that "he was
+not of this world." Xenophon also adds his testimony in the following
+words: "No one ever knew of his doing or saying anything profane or
+unholy." Socrates believed in one Supreme Being, the intelligent Creator
+of the universe. He also believed in the immortality of the soul. These
+doctrines were altogether contrary to Greek polytheism, the prevailing
+religion of Athens, and they prove him to have been far in advance of
+the age in which he lived. While he established no school, Socrates
+nevertheless must ever rank as one of the world's greatest teachers and
+thinkers.
+
+In his death he fully exemplified the truth of his own philosophy. He
+was accused of corrupting the youth and denying the deities, and was
+condemned to die by drinking a cup of hemlock. He calmly submitted to
+his fate, refusing to avail himself of an opportunity to escape.
+According to the account given in Plato's "Phaedo," he spent his last
+hours discussing with the friends who attended him the question of the
+immortality of the soul.
+
+
+PLATO (B.C. 429-347)
+
+Plato was a disciple of Socrates, and to him we are chiefly indebted for
+an account of the teachings of his great master. For twenty years he sat
+at the feet of the philosopher, and drank from the fountain of knowledge
+possessed by that wonderful man. He also traveled in other lands,
+particularly Egypt and Italy, in pursuit of knowledge. He became one of
+the most remarkable scholars and philosophers, not only of antiquity,
+but of all time. When forty years of age he founded a school at Athens,
+though it is not as a teacher that he is chiefly known, but as a writer
+and sage. "Plato among the Greeks, like Bacon among the moderns, was the
+first who conceived a method of knowledge." His great work is his
+"Republic," in which he pictures the ideal State and outlines his scheme
+of education, which is built on ideals of both Spartan and Athenian
+citizenship. From Sparta comes the thought of an education which shall
+be controlled by the State from birth; while Athens adds the aesthetical
+aspects to those purely physical.
+
+In his scheme he divided the people into the following classes:--
+
+1. The _common people_. They should be allowed to rise, but no education
+is provided for them in his scheme.
+
+2. The _guardians_ or _citizens_, who shall study music and gymnastics.
+Music includes literature, that is, human culture as distinguished from
+scientific knowledge. Writing and arithmetic are also included under
+music, the latter not being studied for practical purposes, but to
+develop the reason.
+
+3. The _rulers_, who, in addition to the preceding subjects, shall study
+geometry, astronomy, rhetoric, and philosophy.
+
+The State is to have absolute control of every citizen; it shall arrange
+marriages, destroy weak and unpromising children, and remove the healthy
+babes at birth to public nurseries, where mothers may care for the
+children in common, but will not recognize or take special interest in
+their own children. Boys and girls are to be educated alike. Great care
+is to be taken that nothing mean or vile shall be shown to children;
+their environments shall be beautiful and ennobling, though simple.
+
+From birth to seven years of age the child is to have plenty of physical
+exercise. He shall hear fairy tales and selections from the poets, but
+careful censorship must be placed on everything presented to him.
+Suitable playthings are to be provided, precaution taken against fear of
+darkness, and by gentleness combined with firmness a manly spirit is to
+be produced. Beauty of mind and body are to be harmoniously united.
+
+From seven to thirteen intellectual as well as physical activity is
+required.
+
+The special education begins at twenty by the selection of the most
+promising youths. At thirty another selection of those able to continue
+their education five years more is made.
+
+Higher mathematics, astronomy, harmony, and science constitute the work
+of the first ten years, and philosophical study that of the last five.
+Fifteen years then are to be given to the service of the State, after
+which, at fifty, the student may return to the study of philosophy for
+the remainder of his life.
+
+Education is to be compulsory, as the child belongs to the State and not
+to the parent.
+
+Plato gave predominance to intellectual rather than to physical culture,
+as he said, "If the mind be educated it will take care of the body, for
+the good soul improves the body, and not the good body the soul."
+
+He taught that it is the aim of education to bring all of the powers of
+man into harmonious cooeperation.
+
+It will thus be seen that Plato's scheme of education centers around the
+oriental idea that man belongs to the State, and the main purpose of
+education is to fit him to serve the State. And Plato clearly set forth
+how the education which he demanded should be attained, and therefore he
+is to be remembered as originating the _first systematic scheme of
+education in history_.
+
+
+ARISTOTLE (B.C. 384-322)[17]
+
+Aristotle was born in Stagira in Macedonia, and from this fact he is
+called the Stagirite. For twenty years he was a pupil of Plato, as Plato
+had been of Socrates. Aristotle was not only one of the greatest
+philosophers that ever lived, but he enjoyed the distinction of being
+the teacher and chosen counselor of Alexander the Great. Much of the
+greatness of the man who conquered the world and "wept because there
+were no more worlds to conquer" was due to his wise teacher. Alexander
+loved and revered Aristotle as much as his father, declaring "that he
+was indebted to the one for _living_, and to the other for living
+_well_." He assisted Aristotle in founding a school at his native place,
+Stagira.
+
+It is not simply as the teacher of Alexander the Great that Aristotle is
+to be remembered in the history of education, though that would entitle
+him to lasting fame. After the education of Alexander was finished,
+Aristotle went to Athens, where he founded the Lyceum. Here he lectured
+for many years, in the morning to his riper pupils on philosophical
+subjects, and in the evening to the masses on such topics as were within
+their comprehension and as would tend to elevate them.
+
+His _pedagogy_ may be briefly outlined as follows:--
+
+1. Education is a lifelong task, beginning at birth and continuing till
+death. The first seven years are to be spent in the home under the
+fostering care of the parents. During this period the child is to have
+no severe tasks, but chief attention is to be given to physical
+development. He must learn obedience, as the first step to an ethical
+life. His food and clothing are to be simple, and his toys and games of
+a character to stimulate wholesome activity. At the age of seven he is
+to enter upon the direct intellectual training, and nothing must
+interfere with this during the next seven years. From fourteen to
+twenty-one the education is to include such exercises as directly
+prepare for life. The diet is to be simple, the physical training
+severe, for the double purpose of counteracting the tendencies of the
+adolescent period, and of preparing for war.
+
+2. Education includes the development of the body, the character, and
+the intellect. Courage, endurance, self-denial, temperance,
+truthfulness, and justice are essential characteristics to be sought.
+The purpose of instruction is to develop the imperfect, untrained child
+into the well-rounded, intelligent, and patriotic citizen.
+
+3. The course of study, which begins seriously after the seventh year,
+includes music, gymnastics, drawing, grammar, rhetoric, and mathematics.
+Later, dialectics, philosophy, and political science are to be added.
+
+4. Woman is to have part in education that she may properly train her
+children, and may, by an intelligent understanding of the laws, uphold
+the State.
+
+5. Aristotle considered education as the most important and most
+difficult of all problems. He based his pedagogy upon a knowledge of the
+individual.
+
+6. His method was the analytical. He began with things and advanced from
+the concrete to the abstract.
+
+The foregoing will show that Aristotle began the study of problems that
+still occupy the minds of educational thinkers, after more than
+twenty-two centuries of search for the truth. Some of the problems he
+discussed have found their solution, and the seed sown by the great
+thinker has come to fruitage. Karl Schmidt says, "Aristotle is the
+intellectual Alexander. Rich in experience and profound in speculation,
+he penetrates all parts of the universe and seeks to reduce all
+realities to concepts. He is the most profound and comprehensive thinker
+of the pre-Christian world,--the Hegel of classical antiquity,--because,
+like Hegel, he seeks to unify all knowledge, brings together the
+scattered materials of the present into one system, constructs in a
+wonderful intellectual temple the psychical and physical Cosmos, the
+universe and God, proclaims the destruction of an earlier culture epoch,
+and sets in motion waves in the ocean of history that are destined to
+influence the intellectual life of all centuries to come.... Aristotle
+stands for the highest intellectual summit of antiquity,--the bridge
+which binds the Grecian to the modern world,--the philosophical
+mouthpiece and the intellectual master of twenty centuries."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[17] Brother Azarias, "Essays Philosophical."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SPARTA
+
+=Literature.=--(See general literature for Greece.) _Sankey_, Spartan
+and Theban Supremacies; _Smith_, History of Greece; _Plutarch's_ Lives;
+_Mombert_, Great Lives; _Spofford_, Library of Historical Characters.
+
+
+=History.=--Sparta was the capital of Laconia, the southern province of
+Greece. Its inhabitants consisted of:--
+
+1. _Citizens_, composed of nine thousand families of nobles, who ruled
+the other classes.
+
+2. _Perioeci_,[18] composed of thirty thousand families of freemen who
+lived in the territory surrounding Sparta, but who were subject to the
+nobles.
+
+3. _Helots_,[19] about three hundred thousand in number, who were
+slaves.
+
+The Perioeci and the helots, with the love of freedom characteristic
+among the Greeks, chafed under their yoke of subjugation, and eagerly
+watched for opportunities for revolt. Only by an exercise of superior
+force could the nobles maintain their supremacy, and they were obliged
+to seek by martial training the strength they lacked in numbers. Hence
+the education of the Spartan youth was of necessity military, and every
+citizen was trained to become a warrior.
+
+The Spartans were dignified, austere, and of few words, "laconic" in
+speech. The young were expected to be silent in the presence of their
+elders except when addressed. They were taught to give way to their
+seniors, especially to old men, whenever they met upon the street or in
+a public place.
+
+=The Home.=--The child was left in charge of the mother until six or
+seven years of age. Toys inciting to warlike sports were provided, and
+childhood was made happy. The father usually superintended the child's
+training, but sometimes an aged relative assumed the responsibility. The
+treatment was humane and intelligent. From the first the child was
+taught implicit obedience and modesty.
+
+The _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ have been called the Bible of the Greeks,
+and children early learned extracts from the works of the great poet,
+Homer. The Spartan mother was highly respected by her husband and her
+children, and she was noted for her chastity and nobility of character.
+She entered fully into the Spartan idea, and cheerfully gave her sons to
+her country, while she often inspired them to deeds of bravery and
+patriotism. The lofty and self-sacrificing patriotism of the Spartan
+mother is illustrated by her words upon sending her son to
+battle,--"Return either with your shield or on it!"
+
+It is said that weak and unpromising children were either killed as soon
+as they were born, or abandoned to the wild beasts upon the mountains.
+This was because the State would assume the training only of strong
+children, such as were likely to make good soldiers. It is probable
+that many of these abandoned children were rescued and reared by the
+lower classes, which would partially account for the fierce resistance
+so often offered by these classes to those who deprived them of liberty.
+If such an inhuman practice had been encouraged by other nations of the
+world, many of the greatest benefactors of the race would have been
+consigned to an untimely death, for some of the noblest men that have
+ever lived were weak in infancy.
+
+=Education.=--At six or seven the boy was taken from the home, and the
+State had entire jurisdiction over his education. The boys were placed
+in groups in charge of young men who were responsible for their
+education, which was almost wholly physical. They lived on very simple
+food, and were often obliged to appease hunger by theft. They were
+taught that crime did not lie in the commission of the offense, but in
+its detection. Their dress from seven to twelve consisted of a long coat
+of very coarse material, the same for summer and winter. They were
+taught to bear blows without a murmur, and instances are related of boys
+being whipped to death without crying out.
+
+Children sat at table with older men and listened to their conversation,
+but they were never allowed to speak except in answer to questions. Thus
+they absorbed wisdom and were incited to deeds of bravery by the stories
+of heroism related by their seniors.
+
+The State furnished barracks poorly provided with the comforts of life,
+in which the boys slept in severe weather; at other times they slept in
+the open air. They were wholly separated from their homes, and
+completely under control of the State. The purpose was to secure strong,
+beautiful, and supple bodies, inured to hardship, as a preparation for
+the life of the soldier. The only intellectual education was music,
+which consisted in playing the lyre as an accompaniment to the dance.
+Reading and writing were despised as being fit only for slaves.
+
+At the age of twelve the boy exchanged the long coat for the mantle,
+thereby entering upon manhood. From this time until the age of thirty,
+much the same form of training was continued, though it became more
+definitely military. At thirty the Spartan youth became a citizen and
+was expected to marry. Girls also received gymnastic training, in many
+cases with the boys. The purpose of this was to develop strong and
+beautiful wives and mothers. The effect of this coeducation of the sexes
+was in the highest degree salutary, impurity among women being unknown
+in Sparta. We have already noted the patriotism of the Spartan mother.
+Woman was highly esteemed in the home. Her praises and her reproofs were
+alike respected, and all her opinions bore much weight.
+
+=Criticism of Spartan Education.=--1. It produced men and women of
+beautiful physique.
+
+2. It inculcated obedience, politeness, modesty, sobriety, respect for
+the aged, courage, and patriotism.
+
+3. It checked luxury and extravagance.
+
+4. On the other hand, it gave little attention to intellectual training,
+hence it produced few men of lasting fame.
+
+5. Its aim was martial supremacy, and this attained, the State fell into
+a hasty decline because of the instability of such a foundation.
+
+6. It excluded a large part of the inhabitants from its benefits, only
+the nobles being included.
+
+7. It was selfish because it trained for Sparta and not for Greece, or
+for humanity.
+
+8. It taught the duty of man to the State, and not the duty of man to
+man.
+
+9. It took boys at an early age away from the influences of home, thus
+robbing the parents of the sacred prerogative of directing the education
+of their offspring.
+
+10. It produced men cruel in battle and revengeful in victory, men
+incapable of cultivating the arts of peace.
+
+
+LYCURGUS
+
+There is so much that is mythical and uncertain concerning Lycurgus that
+many have doubted whether he ever lived. Curtius, however, says, "There
+really lived in the ninth century B.C. a legislator of the name
+of Lycurgus." Lycurgus formed the constitution which gave Sparta its
+peculiar institutions, and which established its place in history. His
+laws were intended to check luxury and to inculcate the simplest habits.
+Some of his important laws led to the introduction of the following
+customs:--
+
+1. All the men ate at common tables, fifteen at a table.
+
+2. Children sat at these tables, but were required to maintain silence
+save when addressed. They were not allowed to ask for food. The object
+was to teach them good manners, to inculcate implicit obedience, and to
+impart to them the wisdom of the Spartan fathers.
+
+3. The food was of the simplest kind.
+
+4. Sparta was divided into nine thousand parts, a part for each of the
+nine thousand citizens, or noble families. The provinces under Spartan
+rule were divided into thirty thousand parts, a part for each Perioeci
+family.
+
+5. Iron was made the only money, so that the people could not become
+rich; for its great weight rendered burdensome the possession of a
+considerable amount.
+
+6. All children belonged to the State, to which only soldiers were
+valuable, therefore weak or deformed children were cast out. Marriage
+was also controlled by the State.
+
+Lycurgus exerted a great influence upon Sparta, and his laws were
+responsible for her peculiar political system and her resulting
+greatness.
+
+
+PYTHAGORAS
+
+Pythagoras, though not a Spartan, is associated with southern Greece.
+Little is known of his early life. He was born on the island of Samos,
+about B.C. 582. He was familiar with the Ionic philosophy, and
+probably visited Egypt for study, a custom common among scholars of that
+time. Such a visit would in part explain his knowledge of mathematics,
+as the Egyptians had long been masters in that science. One of his
+teachers was Thales, the father of philosophy. The fundamental thought
+of the Pythagorean philosophy was the idea of proportion and harmony.
+
+"Through number alone, the quantitative relations of things, extension,
+magnitude, figure (triangular, quadrangular, cubic), combination,
+distance, etc., obtain their peculiar character; the forms and
+proportions of things can all be reduced to number. Therefore, it was
+concluded, since without form and proportion nothing can exist, number
+must be the principle of things themselves, as well as the order in
+which they manifest themselves in the world." (Schwegler's "History of
+Philosophy.")
+
+While mathematics was the central idea of his system, medicine, physics,
+and philosophy were also taught in his school. He did the world great
+service in the discovery of the so-called Pythagorean theorem in
+geometry, that the square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle
+is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] The Perioeci (dwellers around) were the older population of the
+land, who inhabited the mountains and hillsides about Sparta. They were
+farmers, and they also worked the mines and quarries, manufactured
+articles for the Spartan market, and carried on the commerce. Though
+freemen, they were allowed no part in the government, could not bear
+arms, and had to pay tribute to Sparta.
+
+[19] The Helots were probably peasants who occupied the land about
+Helos, and, defeated in war, became Spartan subjects. They could not be
+sold or given away, but belonged to the inventory of the farm.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+ROME
+
+=Literature.=--_Bryce_, The Holy Roman Empire; _Bury_, The Roman Empire;
+_Church_, Pictures from Roman Life and Story; _Clarke_, Ten Great
+Religions; _Gibbon_, Decline and Fall of Roman Empire; _Lord_, Beacon
+Lights; _Capes_, Roman Empire; _Merivale_, History of the Romans;
+_Shumway_, A Day in Ancient Rome; _Mommsen_, History of Rome; _Liddell_,
+History of Rome; _Ploetz_, Epitome of Universal History; _Gilman_, Story
+of Rome; _Collins_, Ancient Classics; _Monroe_, Source Book of the
+History of Education.
+
+
+=The Age of Augustus.=--The history of Rome covers a period of a
+thousand years. From the little village on the Palatine Hill Rome grew
+to be the mightiest empire of the world. The "Age of Augustus"
+represents not only the summit of military glory, but also the highest
+civilization, and the noblest ideals of the Roman people. It was the age
+of Vergil, Horace, Ovid, Livy, and Seneca. Rome was at peace with the
+world, and therefore had time to devote to art, literature, and other
+intellectual pursuits. It was during this period that Christ was born.
+
+Like Sparta, Rome for a long time maintained her supremacy by force of
+arms, and therefore encouraged physical education. But when she became
+mistress of the world, and came in contact with the culture of the
+Greeks, she began to feel the need of an intellectual and aesthetic
+development. Accordingly it became the fashion to study Greek, to bring
+teachers from Athens to Rome, and to send young men to Athens to study.
+The Roman Empire was therefore the medium through which Grecian culture
+was transmitted to the western world, and during the Augustan Age the
+center of learning was transferred from Athens to Rome.
+
+Gibbon says, "The first seven centuries were filled with a rapid
+succession of triumphs; but it was reserved for Augustus to relinquish
+the ambitious design of subduing the whole earth, and to introduce a
+spirit of moderation into the public councils."[20] The Augustan Age
+shows Rome at her best, and a study of the educational system at that
+time will be most fruitful for the student of pedagogy.
+
+=Geography and History.=--We have seen that Rome began with a small
+territory in the center of Italy, and that province after province was
+added, until in the time of Augustus she ruled the world. Italy, the
+center of the empire, has a diversified surface, a mild climate, and a
+fertile soil. In the time of Augustus, the Roman Empire embraced all of
+the border of the Mediterranean, extended as far north as the North Sea,
+as far east as the Euphrates, as far south as the Sahara, and west to
+the Atlantic. With the great Mediterranean entirely under its control,
+including the seas, bays, and rivers tributary to it; with its rich
+territories; and with its vast population, which represented most of the
+enterprise and civilization of the world,--this great empire possessed
+wonderful advantages for the spread of Christianity, for the
+dissemination of intelligence, and for the improvement of the human
+race.
+
+The government of the Romans was generally some form of republic, the
+people always being jealous of their rights. Their religion took on
+gross forms of idolatry, for they readily adopted and worshiped the gods
+of the Grecians, Egyptians, and other conquered peoples. Temples to
+Faith, Hope, Concord, and other virtues were erected and maintained. The
+Romans were very superstitious. These facts have a bearing upon
+Christian education, and will explain some of the chief difficulties
+which it had to encounter.
+
+=The Home.=--While in Athens the father had charge of the education of
+the boy in his early years, in Rome that duty devolved almost entirely
+upon the mother. In early Roman history the matron was celebrated for
+her virtues--fidelity to her husband, love for her children, and queenly
+guardianship of the sacred precincts of the home. The name of the Roman
+matron became a synonym of all that is noble, wifely, and motherly in
+the home. Without doubt the character had sadly deteriorated at the
+period of which we write, but there still remained with many the lofty
+ideals which had been fostered in earlier times.
+
+The husband was the head of the house, but to the wife was committed the
+care of the children and their instruction for the first six or seven
+years of their lives. She taught them strict obedience and politeness,
+and instructed them in the "Twelve Tables of Roman Law."[21]
+
+The mother also took great pains to teach her children correct
+pronunciation. She taught them their letters, first the name and then
+the form, a practice which is pedagogically false, as Quintilian pointed
+out. She also taught them poems from the great masters. In taking pains
+with pronunciation she prepared the way for later training in oratory,
+which was the most important study in Roman education.
+
+Only when Rome had begun to decay did mothers commit the training of
+their children to nurses and slaves. When Rome was at her best, the
+child grew up in an atmosphere of love under direct care of the mother,
+who shaped his morals and guided his religious life as well as his early
+mental development. Around the mother centered all that was ennobling
+and elevating in the first seven years of the child's life. The father
+had but little to do with this period, and did not interfere with the
+mother's work. His duty lay in public life; hers lay within the home,
+and well did she meet her responsibilities until the time of her
+debasement with all the other elements of Roman society.
+
+=Elementary Education.=--At six or seven years of age the child was sent
+to school in charge of a slave, who carried his books and protected him
+from harm. This was in imitation of the practice in Athens, where the
+pedagogue performed a like office. But the duties of the Roman slave do
+not seem to have been as responsible as those of the Athenian pedagogue.
+As we have seen, in Rome the mothers looked after the morals of their
+children with great care, and the attendant of the child to school was
+regarded as but little else than a servant. In some of the wealthier and
+more aristocratic families, however, in addition to the slave who
+performed the menial duties mentioned, there was also a pedagogue who
+attended the youth to school and to the theater, superintended his
+games, and, in short, accompanied him wherever he went. This pedagogue
+was intrusted with full power to discipline and to direct the morals of
+his charge. In some cases several boys were placed in the care of the
+same pedagogue. On the other hand, it often happened that a boy had a
+whole retinue of slaves, each having his special duty to perform.
+
+The schools were in charge of _literators_, usually men of little
+culture and no social standing. These institutions were public, though
+supported by private means. The discipline was severe, strict obedience
+being exacted by the teacher, who made use of the rod when he thought it
+necessary. The subjects taught were reading, writing, and arithmetic.
+Great care was taken with pronunciation, just as had been done in the
+early years under the mother's instruction. In writing, the characters
+were traced with the stylus on waxed tablets. Arithmetic was learned for
+its utility. Indeed, the whole purpose of the schools was to prepare the
+children for practical life. The easier poets were read, explained, and
+committed to memory, not so much for their content as to fit youth for
+public speaking. Obedience, politeness, modesty, cleanliness, and
+respect for teachers were virtues insisted upon. These schools, which
+covered the instruction of children from five to twelve years of age,
+did not, as already intimated, reach the very highest classes, who
+preferred to employ private tutors.
+
+=Secondary Education.=--At twelve the boy entered a school taught by an
+educated man, called _literatus_. Many of the teachers of this class
+were Greeks. Here, in addition to the studies of the elementary school,
+the pupils were taught the Greek and Latin languages; and the poets,
+history, oratory, philosophy, and criticism were also studied. The
+school of the _literatus_ was much better than that of the _literator_,
+but it reached only a limited number of the Roman youth.
+
+=Higher Education.=--Upon entering his sixteenth year, the boy was
+inducted with ceremony into the dignity of manhood, and was clothed with
+the _toga virilis_, the dress of men. He now chose his calling and began
+definite preparation for it. Five vocations were open to him,--namely,
+oratory, politics, arms, law, and agriculture. Those without talent or
+inclination for any of the others devoted themselves to agriculture.
+They were taken to the farms, where they received definite instruction
+in the principles and practices of this occupation. To those who chose
+oratory, politics, or law, were assigned persons experienced in their
+respective fields, and the boys were taken to the forum, the senate, and
+other places where they could hear renowned orators and become familiar
+with public life. They had also definite instruction in their chosen
+branch. Those who entered the army were placed in charge of military
+officers, who taught them military tactics and the practical duties of
+life in camp. These learners also gave attention to oratory and other
+intellectual studies.
+
+It will thus appear that in their schools, as in life, the Romans were
+thoroughly practical. Each boy was carefully prepared for the life which
+he had chosen, by being inducted into it during his school course.
+Cicero asked the question, "What have we to learn?" and answered it, "To
+honor and strengthen the State, in order that we may become the rulers
+of the world." Roman parents demanded that their children should be
+trained in the practical duties of life, in order that they might know
+how to become rich. Therefore all training for children was in this
+direction.
+
+While this in general was the purpose of education, the Romans had their
+ideal of what an educated man should be, and that ideal found its
+expression in the name of _orator_. He who was the best orator was the
+best educated man. The schools, however, were for boys, little account
+being taken of the education of girls except in household duties. Still,
+women were more respected, and had wider privileges than they had before
+enjoyed. Most of the wealthy citizens employed Greek tutors for their
+sons, and sought to ape Grecian manners and culture. Education was
+completed by study in Athens and by travel--advantages within reach only
+of the very wealthy.
+
+=Criticism of Roman Education.=--1. It took great care to instill
+respect for law and obedience to parental and civil authority.
+
+2. It honored the home and taught respect for the mother. In this, Rome
+took a great step in advance over many nations of antiquity.
+
+3. It was not a State institution, and therefore could not offer equal
+advantages to all.
+
+4. Its end was to prepare the youth for practical life and to fit him
+for the acquirement of wealth, rather than for the development of all
+the human powers.
+
+5. It was superficial, and sought to apply Greek culture to Roman
+conditions and character.
+
+6. It did not take a strong hold upon the Roman people so as to shape
+the course of the nation.
+
+7. It ignored the claims of the masses, including women, to equal
+education and equal rights.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Vol. I, p. 2.
+
+[21] The "Twelve Tables" were formulated about B.C. 450. They
+constituted the code of written law, and were written or engraved on
+tables of wood. They settled usages long in practice, but never before
+written, defining the rights of _plebeians_ and _patricians_. They were
+agreed to only after ten years of dispute and mutual concession. They
+resembled Solon's laws, owing, doubtless, to the commission which was
+sent to Greece to study the laws of that country. These tables were
+destroyed when the Gauls sacked Rome (B.C. 390), but their contents had
+been widely committed to memory, and were handed down from generation to
+generation. The mothers saw to it that these laws were early taught to
+their children, who thus came to venerate them and to have respect for
+authority.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+ROMAN EDUCATORS
+
+=Literature.=--(See Literature, Chapter XI.) _Forsyth_, Life of Cicero;
+_Spofford_, Library of Historical Characters; _Watson_, Quintilian's
+Institutes (Pedagogy, in Bks. I & II).
+
+
+CICERO[22] (B.C. 106-43)
+
+Cicero was born B.C. 106, of noble parents. As a boy he had the
+advantage of the best schools and teachers that Rome could furnish.
+Later he studied at Athens, under the greatest Greek masters, and became
+proficient in the Greek language. According to the common practice among
+the better classes in Rome, he spent some time in travel to complete his
+education, visiting Egypt, Asia Minor, and other parts of the known
+world. But Cicero's education can hardly be said to have been
+"completed" as long as he lived, for he remained a student even in the
+midst of his most exacting duties of State, and often employed teachers,
+especially in oratory. Forsyth says of him, "Philosophy and oratory seem
+to have been the two chief objects of his study; but if of any man
+before Bacon appeared that might be said which the great master of
+modern philosophy claimed for himself, that he 'had taken all knowledge
+for his province,' it might be truly declared of the youthful Cicero.
+His appetite for knowledge was insatiable, and his desire for
+distinction boundless."[23]
+
+Becoming an advocate in Rome, he devoted himself chiefly to the defense
+of men high in position, often those who were charged with bribery,
+extortion, or other abuse of political trust. Some of his finest
+orations were delivered on these occasions. In the meantime he lost no
+opportunity to advance his own political interests. He was elected to
+one office after another until he reached the height of his political
+ambition,--the consulship of Rome, the loftiest position attainable by
+the Roman citizen. As consul he devoted himself with such zeal,
+integrity, and success as to win the title "Father of his Country."
+While he held this office he exposed the conspiracy of Catiline and
+saved Rome from civil war. He conducted the office with honesty and
+efficiency. Indeed, at a time of great corruption, Cicero stands out
+during his entire life of nearly sixty-four years as the purest patriot,
+the broadest-minded statesman, the noblest man of the age. His honesty
+in public or private life is unquestioned. Of his intellectual greatness
+Forsyth says, "The greatness of his intellect dwarfed that of every
+other man alive."[24]
+
+That he was vain of his accomplishments admits of no doubt. That he also
+sometimes lacked moral courage and was vacillating seems also true. But
+he was incorruptible in a corrupt age; above reproach when impure life
+was the rule; and when treason was common, he remained a firm patriot.
+His celebrated "Philippics" were delivered against practices which
+indicated the approaching ruin of the republic. That ruin was complete
+when the Second Triumvirate was formed,--an event which also sealed the
+doom of Cicero. Upon learning that he was proscribed, Cicero attempted
+to escape from Italy, but was overtaken and assassinated. His head and
+hands were carried to Rome and presented to Antony, who gave the head
+to his wife, Fulvia, whose crimes Cicero had often rebuked. Forsyth
+says, "She took it, and placing it on her lap, addressed it as if it
+were alive, in words of bitter insult. She dragged out the tongue, whose
+sarcasms she had so often felt, and with feminine rage pierced it with
+her bodkin. It was then taken and nailed to the rostra, together with
+the hands, to molder there in mockery of the triumphs of his eloquence,
+of which that spot had so often been the scene. A sadder sight was never
+gazed upon in Rome."[25]
+
+=Cicero's Pedagogy.=--It is not as a teacher, but as a writer, that
+Cicero demands a place in educational history. His writings furnish the
+finest examples of Latin style, and his orations are studied for their
+classic beauty and rhetorical finish. He wrote many philosophical works,
+in which are set forth advanced ideas on education. Especially was he in
+advance of his age in regard to the punishment of children. He held that
+corporal punishment should be resorted to only when all else has failed;
+that the child should not be degraded in the mode of punishment; that
+punishment should never be administered in anger, should be deferred
+until ample time for reflection has been allowed to both teacher and
+pupil; and that reasons for it should be given, so that, if possible,
+the child may be led to see the justice of the punishment inflicted. The
+teachings of Cicero on this subject are of great pedagogical importance,
+and they have at last come to be recognized in the school practice of
+the present day.
+
+While these were Cicero's most important pedagogical teachings, he also
+taught many other truths valuable in education. Among them are these:
+that education begins in childhood, and is a steady growth throughout
+life; that memory should be cultivated by learning extracts from classic
+authors; that great care should be taken to make the amusements and
+environments of the child such as to elevate and refine, as well as
+properly to develop its powers; that at the suitable time some calling
+should be chosen for which the youth has evident fitness; that religion
+is the basis of morals, therefore careful attention should be given to
+religious instruction.
+
+
+SENECA (B.C. 3-A.D. 65)
+
+Seneca was one of the most distinguished men that Rome produced. Even as
+a boy he showed remarkable talent, and his father furnished him the best
+educational opportunities by placing him under the greatest masters in
+the city. He also had the benefit of travel in Greece and Egypt, after
+which he practiced law in Rome. The student of education is interested
+in Seneca chiefly as the tutor of Nero, who was committed to his charge
+at the age of eleven. Without doubt the lad had already formed vicious
+habits, as his teacher had great trouble in managing him; nor did Seneca
+eradicate those evil tendencies which bore such terrible fruit in Nero's
+later years.
+
+Nero retained his love for his teacher for a long time, keeping him as a
+trusted counselor for several years. Seneca drew up all of Nero's state
+papers, among others one defending the crime of matricide, Nero having
+put his own mother to death. This brought deserved odium upon Seneca's
+name. It indicates that he was a time-server, lacking moral independence
+and firmness. This may explain his failure in the training of his royal
+pupil. Nero himself wearied of his old teacher and friend, and
+condemned him to death. Seneca, however, committed suicide, a mode of
+death quite in accord with his Stoic philosophy.
+
+Seneca was the most eminent writer, rhetorician, and orator of his time.
+He anticipated many modern ethical teachings, and in some of his
+writings we find a strong religious sentiment, quite like that of
+Christianity, leading one to think that he may have been influenced by
+Christ and his disciples, with whom he was contemporary. On the other
+hand, some of his teachings are decidedly repulsive to Christianity.
+
+=Seneca's Pedagogy.=--1. Like Cicero, he believed that punishment should
+be mild and reasonable. "Who condemns quickly, condemns willingly; and
+who punishes too much, punishes improperly."
+
+2. The office of education is to correct the evil tendencies in the
+child.
+
+3. The character of each child must be studied, and each individual
+should be developed according to his peculiarities.
+
+4. Do not flatter the child, but teach him truthfulness, modesty, and
+respect for his elders.
+
+5. Take great care that the environment of the child is elevating, and
+allow only pure and ennobling examples to be reflected before him.
+
+6. Give the child but few studies, in order that he may be thorough and
+acquire right habits of learning.
+
+7. The office of teacher is one of the most important of all offices.
+"What the teacher, who instructs us in the sciences, imparts to us in
+noble effort and intellectual culture, is worth more than he receives;
+for, not the matter, but the trouble; not the desert, but only the
+labor, is paid for.... Such a man, who consecrates his whole being to
+our good, and who awakens our dormant faculties, is deserving all the
+esteem that we give a benevolent physician or our most loved and dearest
+kindred."
+
+
+QUINTILIAN[26]
+
+No other Roman contributed so much pedagogy to the world as Quintilian.
+He was born in Spain, but early moved to Rome, in order to be trained in
+the atmosphere of culture which that city alone afforded. His education
+was conducted by his father, a celebrated rhetorician, to whom he owed
+the particular direction of his powers which afterward made him so
+famous. He chose the law as a profession, because it offered the best
+opportunity for the exercise of oratory. Not finding the practice of law
+congenial, he soon abandoned it, and devoted his time to teaching. He
+founded a school at Rome, and conducted it with great success for twenty
+years, having for pupils children from the most distinguished patrician
+families. Among these were the grandnephews of Domitian, possible heirs
+to the throne. This was the best school in Rome at that time. Vespasian
+honored Quintilian by creating for him a chair of rhetoric and
+conferring upon him the title "Professor of Oratory." This is the first
+instance in history of State endowment of a chair for teaching a
+specific subject. Royal recognition was not without effect upon the
+fortunes of Quintilian, as it placed him in the front rank of the
+teachers of Rome. This, together with his subject, the teaching and
+mastery of which were considered by the Romans to be the climax of
+education, enabled him to wrest supremacy from the Greek teachers who so
+long had enjoyed a monopoly of teaching in the city.
+
+When fifty-three years of age, Quintilian retired from his school, and
+devoted himself to authorship. In the first two books of his great work,
+"Institutes of Oratory,"[27] he sets forth his ideas on education. This
+is the most remarkable treatise on education bequeathed to us by
+antiquity.
+
+He taught that as oratory was the climax of Roman education, especial
+attention should be given to it. He was not in sympathy with the
+prevailing use that was made of oratory. Oratorical contests were
+frequent, and they excited popular interest. Courts, lawyers, and public
+speakers resorted to all the tricks of speech to win popular favor, and
+audiences demanded something startling, dramatic, and unusual.
+Quintilian tried to stay this tide, and taught that oratory should
+conceal itself. He met, however, with poor success in reforming the
+evil.
+
+=Quintilian's Pedagogy.=--His pedagogical teachings, some of which we
+present, are of the greatest importance.
+
+1. There should be no corporal punishment, as punishment administered to
+slaves is not suitable for children who are to be citizens.
+
+2. Nurses must be irreproachable in life and language, so that children
+be not brought in contact with anything impure.
+
+3. Amusements should be turned to account as a means of education.
+
+4. Teachers should be men of ability and of spotless character.
+
+5. Children should begin early with a foreign tongue, as their own
+language will come to them naturally in their intercourse with those
+about them.
+
+6. Education should begin with the earliest childhood.
+
+7. The forms and names of the letters should be learned simultaneously,
+playthings being utilized to assist in this.
+
+8. Care should be taken that children do not acquire a distaste for
+learning.
+
+9. In learning to read, advance very slowly.
+
+10. Writing should begin with tracing, and the copies should consist of
+moral precepts.
+
+11. The individuality of the child should be studied.
+
+12. Public schools are preferable to other means of education, because
+they do not subject the child to greater moral danger, while they
+stimulate him by association, friendship, and example, to nobler
+endeavor.
+
+13. Under the _literatus_, grammar, composition, music, geometry,
+astronomy, and literature are to be studied.
+
+14. The climax of education should be _rhetoric_.
+
+=Other Roman Educators.=--Among the other Roman educators may be
+mentioned Plutarch (50-138 A.D.) and the Emperor Marcus
+Aurelius. Plutarch in his "Parallel Lives" gives particular attention to
+morals. He offers valuable suggestions as to the training of children,
+laying great stress upon family life, an admonition particularly needed
+in Rome at that period. He also urges that women should be educated in
+order properly to train their children, being one of the first to
+consider this question.
+
+Marcus Aurelius, called "the philosopher on the throne," in his
+"Meditations" gave expression to most lofty thoughts, showing keenest
+self-examination and obedience to conscience. His moral teachings are
+among the noblest of all the writers of antiquity.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[22] Forsyth, "Life of Cicero." This is a very complete, just, and
+discriminating treatment of Cicero and his relation to the times in
+which he lived.
+
+[23] "Life of Cicero," Vol. I, p. 30.
+
+[24] Vol. II, p. 213.
+
+[25] Vol. II, p. 317.
+
+[26] Authorities differ as to the dates of Quintilian's birth and death,
+placing his birth at from A.D. 35 to 42, and his death from A.D. 95 to
+120. Drieser, who is perhaps the best authority, places his birth at
+A.D. 35, but does not fix the date of his death, which, however, was
+probably much later than A.D. 95 as he lived to a ripe old age.
+
+[27] _Institutio Oratoria._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+CHRISTIAN EDUCATION
+
+=Literature.=--_Bryce_, Holy Roman Empire; _Guizot_, History of
+Civilization; _Lord_, Beacon Lights; _Sheppard_, Fall of Rome; _Draper_,
+Conflict between Religion and Science; _Clarke_, Ten Great Religions;
+_Gibbon_, Decline and Fall of Roman Empire; _Laurie_, Rise of
+Universities; _Stille_, Studies in Mediaeval History; _Arnold_, Essays
+in Criticism; _Lecky_, History of European Morals; _Hegel_, Philosophy
+of History; _Allies_, The Formation of Christendom; _Chateaubriand_, The
+Genius of Christianity; _Azarias_, Essays Philosophical.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+Oriental civilization was based on the theory that the individual
+belonged to the State, and could have no interest except that which was
+bound up in the interests of the State. Christianity, on the other hand,
+taught that while the individual has duties which he owes to the State,
+and while he must look to the State for his protection, and for the
+preservation of his material interests, he owes a higher allegiance
+elsewhere, and no fetters can be placed on the aspirations or wants of
+his own soul. In a word, Christianity taught the importance and worth of
+the individual.
+
+The great teachers, Confucius, Buddha, Socrates, Plato, had many
+glimpses of truth, but Christ is truth itself. He discovered to the
+world the final principle of the value of the human soul, and brought to
+fruition the truth that "all men are equal before God." This thought
+made human development possible; a new principle was introduced upon
+which civilization could build and advance, and improve to the end of
+time. Perhaps the highest test of civilization is found in the respect
+shown to women. Measured by this test, the oriental nations have made
+but little progress, as the position of woman with them is much the same
+to-day as it was centuries ago. While this is true of each individual
+nation, we have found among the nations themselves, as we have traced
+the growth of civilization, steady improvement in the condition of
+woman. Thus, in Athens and Rome, where we find the highest types of
+ancient civilization, there was also the greatest respect for woman. In
+no country of the East was it equaled. If the Jews are mentioned as an
+exception, it must be admitted that the Jewish women held the highest
+place among those of antiquity; but this eminence was given by the Jews
+only to the women of their own race, and was by no means universally
+accorded to womankind, as it is by the spirit of Christianity. If we
+discover a greater respect for woman in Rome or Athens than in China or
+India, it only shows the movement of civilization toward the west.
+
+The coming of Christ marked a new era both in religion and education.
+Let us look at some of the lessons which Christianity teaches.
+
+1. _God is the common Father of all men._--This does not limit the
+blessings of the world to the Jew and exclude the Gentile. All men of
+whatever race or color may approach God as their Father, and all are
+equal in his sight. This gives hope to all, and makes possible an
+exercise of faith in the present and in the future life. It proclaims a
+higher citizenship than that of the State, and demands allegiance first
+of all to God.
+
+2. _The universal brotherhood of man._--This principle sweeps away
+castes, abolishes slavery, destroys class distinctions, and gives equal
+rights to all men. It stimulates love for fellow-men, checks
+selfishness, promulgates peace and good will, and implants the spirit of
+the Golden Rule in the hearts of men.
+
+3. _Marriage is a divine rite and husband and wife are equal._--Nothing
+like this teaching had been practiced in the pagan world. Woman was
+simply the servant, the creature, of man. She was to do his bidding, and
+might be divorced for trivial cause, or for none. Man was supreme and
+his will was law. The home in the Christian sense did not exist, because
+the husband and wife were not one.
+
+4. _Children are the gift of God._--This was a Jewish as well as a
+Christian teaching. If children are the gift of God, the power of life
+and death over them cannot rest with the father, as in China, Persia, or
+Rome. It is the duty of the father to preserve them, teach them, train
+them for this life, and prepare them for the life to come. Since the
+children come from God, the pious parent must consider them as a sacred
+trust which he does not neglect. Hence he must see to it that they are
+properly educated.
+
+5. _The central pedagogic truth of Christ's teaching is this: All
+education is for the individual._ Oriental education had for its end the
+interests of the State. Christian education has for its end the
+interests of the individual. The State is the creature of man, and not
+man the creature of the State. Man will create, and support, and
+preserve the State for his self-protection and for his own good. The
+highest ideal of the State is that in which the people rule, that which
+furnishes the greatest liberty. This is the logic of Christianity, and
+the logical conclusion of education. It is really for the individual.
+The world has been slow to learn this lesson taught by Christ; but now
+it is mastering it more thoroughly every day, as shown by the more
+liberal forms of government, the broader interpretation of courses of
+study, and the greater attention to the needs of the individual child.
+
+All these teachings of Christianity have a direct educational meaning,
+and suggest lessons for all humanity. For the school is not the only
+contributor to the education of a people. Every truth that affects
+mankind, every principle that touches the home or the State, has its
+influence upon the life and character of the individual, and is,
+therefore, an element in his education.
+
+The natural consequence of these principles is that education must be
+universal. Every child must be fitted for the duties of life, both for
+his own sake and for the sake of the State of which he is a part. As an
+individual, he must work out his destiny, and to make this possible in
+the broadest and best sense from the Christian standpoint both mind and
+heart must be developed. As a member of the State he must assume duties
+in public affairs which require the possession of superior intelligence.
+This is particularly true in free governments which are the logical
+product of the spirit of Christianity. While the idea of universal
+education had its beginning with the Christian era, we shall see that
+many centuries elapsed before it reached its fulfillment. There were
+many serious and almost insurmountable obstacles against which the early
+Christians had to contend, and these made progress necessarily slow. Let
+us look at some of these obstacles.
+
+=Their Poverty.=--The early Christians were almost without exception
+poor. Christ appealed to the poor and lowly, and chose his disciples
+from among them. The acknowledged followers of the Nazarene had to face
+confiscation of property, persecution, death. Homeless and without
+protection they wandered about, and had neither the opportunity nor the
+right to acquire property. They, therefore, had little means to apply to
+the education of their children. They could neither establish schools
+nor employ teachers; they could give only such instruction as the
+limitations of their poverty, their misery, and their fear permitted.
+Consequently, only the most meager training could be secured, and that
+almost wholly in religious matters.
+
+=Their Own Ignorance.=--Chosen as they were from the lowly ranks of
+life, many of the early Christians were ignorant. Most of them were
+servants and slaves, who had been converted from paganism, and who did
+not possess even the rudiments of education. They had to be instructed
+in the rites and ceremonies of the Church, and in the practices and
+requirements of their new belief. Unlettered as they were themselves,
+they could scarcely undertake to educate their children. It is marvelous
+that under these conditions any attempt was made to do it; yet we find
+that great pains were taken even in the early centuries of the Christian
+era to perform this duty toward those who were regarded as gifts of God
+and heirs of salvation.
+
+=Their Small Number.=--Even when free from persecution and under
+comparatively happy conditions, they were so scattered and so few in
+number, as well as so poor, that to maintain schools was almost an
+impossibility. They would not permit their children to attend the pagan
+schools, as they feared moral and intellectual contamination. The only
+safety, especially for the converts from paganism, was in being
+"separate from the world" about them. So where their numbers were
+sufficient they established schools of their own. But in many
+communities they could not do this; hence they could only teach their
+children at home.
+
+=Opposition of the Rulers.=--Rome ruled the world, and her highways, her
+commerce, her military expeditions, and her mighty enterprises furnished
+excellent means for the spread of Christianity. But while Rome had many
+religions, adopted from her conquered peoples, Christianity was so
+different from these that the rulers were readily brought to regard the
+Christians with suspicion. Humility, returning good for evil, refusal to
+avenge, were contrary to the Roman spirit. Therefore many persecutions
+followed, which disturbed the life of the Christians so as to make
+impossible the work of educating their children.
+
+=Lack of Christian Literature.=--The early Christian Fathers fully
+realized the dangers that surrounded their children. To come in contact
+with pagan schools, or even with pagan literature, they felt to be
+dangerous. How easy it would be for pagan converts to fall away, or even
+for others not pagan, attracted by popular influences. For Christianity
+was not yet popular. Hence the only safety of the converts lay in
+totally abstaining from the use of pagan literature. Here was introduced
+a discussion that affected the Church and educational progress for
+centuries, and caused learned men when converted to abjure their
+favorite authors who had furnished the material for their education in
+their early years. Having no literature of their own, and condemning the
+use of pagan literature, the Christians found it hard to overcome the
+obstacles which stood in the way of Christian education. As a result,
+almost the only things taught to children were certain parts of the
+Bible, and the rites and duties of the Church.
+
+=Other Difficulties.=--New ideas do not readily take hold of the world.
+Men naturally cling to the old and tried, and are not easily turned to
+new thoughts and practices. The teachings of Christ were so radically
+new that men were slow to adopt them. Their acceptance involved a change
+of habit, the abandonment of customs not before regarded as evil, the
+yielding up of social caste, the humbling of the individual. Herein
+existed a most serious obstacle to the establishment of Christian
+education.
+
+These are a few of the great difficulties that had to be met, many of
+which were not overcome for centuries. We shall see, as we trace the
+development of education, how the new ideas which had their birth with
+the Christian era struggled for recognition, how they have become
+established, how they have brought great blessings to mankind, how they
+have aroused ambition and awakened hope, and how they give promise of
+still greater advancement in times to come. The boundless field thus
+opened to mankind, and the knowledge of how to enter and possess it,
+constitute the world's great inheritance from Christ. But to know how to
+appreciate and use this inheritance, we must study the slow and painful
+growth of these new educational ideals from the Christian era till the
+present time.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE GREAT TEACHER
+
+=Literature.=--The Bible; _Beecher_, Life of Christ; _Hanna_, Our Lord's
+Life on Earth; _Geikie_, Life of Christ; _Azarias_, Philosophy of
+Literature; _Fouard_, Life of Christ.
+
+
+=Life and Character.=--Christ was born in Bethlehem, spent his early
+life at Nazareth, entered upon his ministry when thirty years of age,
+continued it for three years, and was then crucified by the Romans at
+the instigation of the Jews. These are simple facts of history
+corroborated by both sacred and profane writings. All agree that his was
+the most noble character that ever appeared on earth. The most careful
+study of his life for nineteen centuries, by friends and enemies, by
+scholars and critics, by philosophers and statesmen, by Christians and
+unbelievers, only adds to its luster, and sustains the conviction that,
+though he was a man, he was also more than man. The most critical
+research, the most careful examination of his life, his motives, his
+teachings, only compel the testimony that he was "without spot or
+blemish." The great have studied his sayings and his life, and have
+bowed in admiration before the sublime teachings of the Son of Man. The
+simple and unlettered have listened to his words of truth and been
+comforted. Faith has been awakened, hope inspired, love quickened, and
+man redeemed by the power of the Christ. Millions have been influenced
+by the sweetness and purity of his life. The spirit of Christianity has
+led to the founding of hospitals, asylums, and institutions of mercy
+everywhere; to the establishment of schools and colleges; to the
+universal spread of education; to the uplifting of the individual; to
+the furtherance of human brotherhood; and to the fostering of peace
+among men and nations.
+
+Christ produced a profound impression alike upon the great and the
+small. Rousseau says of him, "The life and death of Jesus Christ are
+those of a god." Napoleon says of Christ, "His birth and the story of
+his life; the profoundness of his doctrine, which overturns all
+difficulties, and is their most complete solution; his gospel; the
+singularity of his mysterious being; his appearance, his empire, his
+progress through all centuries and kingdoms,--all this is to me a
+prodigy, an unfathomable mystery. I defy you to cite another life like
+that of Christ." It has well been said that "Christ is the God who is
+man, and the man who is God."
+
+Nor was the impression upon the lowly less profound. He called ignorant
+fishermen to discipleship, and by three years' contact and instruction
+prepared them to "go into the world and teach all nations." The
+inspiration of his life and teachings made them able to stand before
+kings, and to "confound the wisdom of the wise."
+
+=His Work as a Teacher.=--But the question here is not concerning Christ
+as the founder of a religion, nor of his divine character or life, but
+of Christ as a _teacher_. He is justly entitled to be called "The Great
+Teacher." Karl Schmidt says, "By his doctrines and through his
+deeds,--in and with his entire life,--is Christ the teacher and educator
+of humanity." His method is the foundation of all true teaching. Let us
+note some of the important characteristics of this method.
+
+1. _It was suited to his hearers._--When Christ taught the people he
+used material that they could comprehend. Thus, when he spoke his
+parable of the sower, while he sat by the seaside, the multitude before
+him had gathered from the villages and farms of the country round about.
+They therefore could thoroughly appreciate the lesson. His parable of
+the vineyard was doubtless suggested by the vine-clad hills of Judea,
+and the lessons taught were made more forcible by their suitableness. In
+his conversation with the learned Nicodemus he plunged at once into the
+most profound doctrines, but when he talked with the ignorant Samaritan
+woman, his approach to the truth he would teach was most simple and
+gradual. No one ever failed to understand him, and he is a most
+remarkable example of the teacher suiting himself to the capacity of his
+pupils.
+
+2. _It was full of illustrations._--When he wished to teach the evil of
+covetousness he told of the rich man and his barns; he encouraged
+faithfulness by the parable of the talents; he stimulated to fruit
+bearing by the story of the fig tree; he taught mercy by the account of
+the Good Samaritan; joy over repentance was illustrated by the story of
+the ninety and nine. And so we find that by ample and suitable
+illustration the Savior enforced the sublime truths that he taught.
+
+3. _It was simple and yet logical._--There was no effort to be
+philosophical, yet the teachings of Christ are full of philosophy. The
+language used and the manner of putting the truth were so simple that
+the ignorant man and the child were never left in doubt as to his
+meaning. Nevertheless his teaching was not haphazard; it was connected
+and logical. It contained so much of truth, so systematically put and so
+much to the point in view, that, while it appealed at once to the
+understanding of his hearers, it also furnished material for thought
+for the most learned of all ages. Whether it was a parable or a story,
+an admonition or a rebuke, a sermon or a prayer, a word of comfort to
+the sisters of Bethany or an argument with the chief priests, a familiar
+conversation with his disciples or a stern rebuke of the scribes and
+Pharisees,--Christ always expressed himself with simplicity and
+clearness.
+
+4. _It drew from Nature._--Christ loved to walk in the fields with his
+disciples and draw lessons from the plants, the birds, the sowing of the
+farmer, the gathering of fruit from the vineyard, the ripening harvests,
+and the whispering breezes. "Consider the lilies of the field how they
+grow;" "behold the fowls of the air;" "a sower went forth to sow;" "a
+certain man had a fig tree planted in his vineyard; and he came and
+sought fruit thereon and found none;" "lift up your eyes and look on the
+fields; for they are white already to harvest;" "the wind bloweth where
+it listeth,"--these and many other texts show that Christ was familiar
+with Nature, and loved to call upon her for illustration and example.
+
+5. _It elevated the truth and sought to enforce it._--Christ gave
+himself a sacrifice for the truth. He allowed no thought of personal
+safety or success to overshadow the truth. All his words, his acts, his
+teachings, aimed at establishing the truth. He overthrew old systems and
+introduced a new spirit into the world, even the spirit of truth. He was
+the very essence of truth, declaring to Thomas, "I am the way, the
+truth, and the life." He thus gave to teachers for all time a noble
+example and an immortal principle, vital to their success in true
+teaching. It is the _truth_ that must be taught and practiced by every
+one worthy of the name of teacher.
+
+6. _It was earnest and full of sympathy._--The earnestness of Christ
+aroused the populace to shout "Hosanna!" and provoked the bitter
+hostility of his enemies. It drew multitudes into the wilderness and
+attracted crowds wherever he went. His sympathy went out to the people
+as "sheep having no shepherd." It led him to feed the multitude, heal
+the sick, raise the dead, take little children in his arms and bless
+them, and weep over Jerusalem. He came close to the lives and hearts of
+those whom he instructed. This is one of the grandest lessons that the
+Great Teacher left for teachers of all time.
+
+These are some of the chief characteristics of Christ's spirit and
+method. He loved little children, and taught his disciples, when he had
+set a little child in the midst of them, "Whosoever, therefore, shall
+humble himself as this little child, the same is greatest in the kingdom
+of heaven." Every one of the principles above stated is essential to the
+teacher, and these principles contain the sum and substance of all true
+pedagogy. Well has Karl Schmidt expressed the truth, when he says,
+"Christ, the perfect teacher, gave by his example and by his own
+teaching the eternal principles of pedagogy."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+GENERAL VIEW OF THE FIRST PERIOD OF CHRISTIAN EDUCATION
+
+=Literature.=--_Allies_, Peter's Rock in Mohammed's Flood; _Newman_,
+Historical Essays.
+
+
+This period covered the time from the birth of Christ till the
+Reformation. It included the early centuries of struggling Christianity,
+in which old customs had to be combated, and the new ideas, born with
+the coming of the Savior, and propagated by him and his followers, were
+slowly and surely to take possession of the world. These fifteen
+centuries embrace those generally known in history as the "Dark Ages,"
+during which progress was indeed slow. But when we remember the
+obstacles which, as we have seen, were to be met, the prejudice to be
+set aside, the great changes inaugurated, and the limited means at
+command, we marvel at the great results attained. Let us now briefly
+examine some of the factors that are prominent in Christian education
+during its first period.
+
+1. _The apostles and Church Fathers were foremost in all educational
+matters._--These men were not simply spiritual leaders; they caught the
+spirit of the Master, and sought to instruct the head as well as the
+heart. They established schools and themselves became teachers, directed
+educational movements, formed courses of study, and by fostering
+education furthered the success and perpetuity of Christianity. Men like
+Paul, Origen, Chrysostom, Basil the Great, and Augustine did much good,
+not only in building up the Church, but also in promoting education, the
+chief handmaid of the Church. Indeed, all educational progress during
+the early Christian centuries centers around the names of these men.
+
+2. _The Church was the sponsor of the schools._--During this long period
+the State had not yet assumed the obligation of educating her youth, and
+we find only rare instances of the State taking any part in the training
+of the young. No attempt at universal education was made, and none could
+be made, for the Church could not furnish the means to do it;
+consequently nearly all educational effort was directed to training the
+priesthood and providing for the perpetuity of the Church. The Church
+was the mother of the schools, and to her fostering care alone do we owe
+their establishment and maintenance during this long period. Her
+authority was supreme, and acknowledged by all temporal powers; hence
+the subjects studied in the schools and the persons chosen to share the
+benefits of education were such as would subserve the interests of the
+Church.
+
+3. _The monasteries rendered valuable service to education._--They were
+long the centers of learning, being the only places where schools
+existed. They were the repositories of valuable manuscripts, which were
+copied with marvelous diligence and preserved for future generations.
+The monasteries adopted courses of study which, however incomplete, were
+efficiently carried out, and formed the basis of future courses. The
+influence of the monasteries for many centuries was of great value to
+learning.
+
+4. _The crusades brought new life into education._--While the crusades
+were primarily religious movements, they were also educational in their
+results. They infused new life into the stagnant conditions of Europe.
+They aroused the people to physical and mental, as well as religious,
+activity. They led to the establishment of schools and universities.
+
+5. _The Teutonic peoples became an important instrument of
+progress._--Rome began to decline, and the Teutons of the north, whom
+Rome had never been able to subjugate, became her conquerors. The Latin
+race had served a noble purpose in the world's history, but now another,
+perhaps stronger race, joined in the work of civilization. The physical
+and intellectual vigor of the various branches of the Teutonic
+family,--the German, the Anglo-Saxon, the Scandinavian,--which has won
+for them leadership in evangelization, in commerce, in conquest, and in
+educational enterprise, showed itself unmistakably during the period
+under discussion. These peoples now joined with the Latin peoples in
+assuming the ever increasing responsibilities of Christian civilization,
+and the interests of education were greatly enhanced and furthered
+through these combined influences.
+
+These are the principal agencies to which were committed the most vital
+interests of humanity during the first fifteen centuries of the
+Christian era. We shall see that some grave errors were made, errors
+that blocked the path of improvement sometimes for centuries; we shall
+find that narrowness, bigotry, prejudice, and ignorance often hindered
+the introduction of truth because it did not coincide with tradition; we
+shall see how the Church assumed prerogatives that did not belong to
+her, especially in the field of scientific research, and thereby delayed
+human progress; nevertheless, we shall ever remain thankful to these
+agencies for the encouragement they gave to education, and for whatever
+good results they were instrumental in attaining.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE FIRST CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS
+
+=Literature.=--_White_, Eighteen Christian Centuries; _Durrell_, A New
+Life in Education; _Laurie_, Rise of Universities; _Lecky_, History of
+European Morals; _Allies_, The Formation of Christendom; _Azarias_,
+Philosophy of Literature; _Azarias_, Essays Philosophical.
+
+
+We have already seen that the early Christians were obliged to endure
+great hardships and surmount great difficulties in securing education
+for their children. Indeed, during the first two centuries almost all
+that was done was to train the converts in the rites and ceremonies of
+the Christian Church. But as they grew stronger in numbers, and as
+persecution diminished, they could give greater attention to education.
+Unwilling to make use of pagan schools, which could not satisfy their
+chief need--to prepare for the new religion--they gradually established
+their own.
+
+=Catechumen Schools.=--The first Christian schools were _catechumen
+schools_. A _catechumen_ was a person who desired instruction in the new
+faith with a view to baptism and admission into the Church. As many of
+the converts had been pagans, and as all were ignorant of the
+requirements of the Church as well as of the new doctrines, such
+instruction was absolutely necessary. Therefore the converts were
+divided into classes, at first two, later, four; and instruction was
+given them in the rudiments of Christianity. In the beginning the
+catechumen schools were for adults only, but afterward children were
+admitted, and reading and writing were taught. Previous to this change,
+if children received any secular instruction at all, it was given at
+their homes by parents or tutors, or in the pagan schools. At the close
+of the second century Protogenes established a school at Odessa, in
+which reading, writing, texts of Scripture, and singing of psalms were
+taught. This was the first _Christian common school_. Other schools
+followed rapidly as the persecutions ceased, until Rome became
+Christianized, and pagan schools gave place to Christian schools
+throughout the empire. Two great names are closely connected with this
+movement.
+
+
+CHRYSOSTOM (347-407)
+
+One of the greatest representatives of the early Christian Church
+interested in education was Chrysostom.[28] He was born at Antioch in
+Syria, and educated in the pagan schools, but the influence of his
+devout Christian mother kept him true to her faith. He was noted for his
+eloquence, hence the name by which he is known in history, for
+Chrysostom means _golden-mouthed_. John Malone says of him, "First of
+the great Christian preachers after the Church came from the caves, he
+was not less able as a teacher."[29] He became bishop of the Church, and
+was the greatest pedagogue of his time. Some of his educational
+principles may be stated as follows:--
+
+1. As Christ lowered himself to man's estate in order to raise man to
+his estate, so the teacher must lower himself to the capacity of his
+pupils in order to elevate them.
+
+2. Christ did not reveal everything to his disciples, suggesting
+sometimes truths for them to discover; so the teacher must not do for
+his pupils what they can do for themselves.
+
+3. The foundation of all true education is the Christian life and
+example; therefore teachers and parents must walk circumspectly before
+children.
+
+4. Women, especially mothers, are the natural educators of children.
+
+5. Religious instruction is an essential factor of the school work. It
+is of the highest importance that children should be brought up "in the
+nurture and admonition of the Lord."
+
+
+BASIL THE GREAT (329-379)
+
+Basil the Great was born at Caesarea. He studied at Constantinople and
+Athens, and sat at the feet of the greatest pagan philosophers and
+teachers of his time. He was not perverted by their teachings, but told
+them frankly that, though they possessed all learning, he had found
+something greater than this, and that was the Christ. Basil was one of
+the foremost Fathers of the Church, a great writer, and a promoter of
+education. He was very fond of classic literature, and, in face of the
+bitter opposition of many of the Church Fathers, urged its proper use in
+the schools. He was instrumental in founding monasteries, hospitals,
+orphanages, and refuges for the poor.
+
+=Pedagogical Teachings.=--1. Every misdeed should be punished in such a
+way that the punishment shall be an exercise in self-command and shall
+tend to correct the fault. For example, if a child has lied, used
+profane language, or been quarrelsome, give him solitude and fasting. If
+he is greedy and gluttonous, let him stand by and see others eat while
+he remains hungry.
+
+2. Orphan children and those that are dependent should be taught in the
+cloister.
+
+3. The Bible, with its stories, promises, history, and doctrines, should
+be the chief text-book.
+
+4. Not only monks and priests should be allowed to teach, but also the
+laity.
+
+5. Children while still young and innocent must be taught good habits
+and right precepts.
+
+It is worthy of note that Chrysostom and Basil were the first to mark
+out definite lines of Christian instruction. During this period, also,
+the first songs of the Christian Church originated in the huts and caves
+of the poor. Thus in religious instruction and church song the
+foundations of the Christian common school were laid.
+
+=Catechetical Schools.=--The principal catechetical school was
+established at Alexandria A.D. 181, by Pantaenus. Others were
+located later at Antioch, Odessa, and Nisibis. The Alexandrian school,
+however, was by far the most important. Alexandria, at the close of the
+second century, was the seat of philosophy, as Athens had formerly been.
+It possessed the most important library in the world, and students and
+sages from all parts of the world flocked to this place of learning.
+Laurie says, "The great Alexander, in founding Alexandria, connected
+Europe, Asia, and Africa, not merely by mercantile bonds, but in their
+intellectual and literary life. Here arose, under the Ptolemies, a
+complete system of higher instruction, and libraries such as the world
+had not before seen. The books were lodged in the temple of Serapis, and
+accumulated to the number of seven hundred thousand. They formed the
+record of all human thought, until they fell a prey to internal civic
+and religious dissensions. The Serapeum dates from B.C. 298,
+and, after recovering from the fire of B.C. 48, it finally
+disappeared about A.D. 640."
+
+Under the stimulus of these surroundings, and with such an abundance of
+literary material at command, pagans and Christians vied with each other
+in their search for truth. But the pagans had better schools and better
+means of preparing themselves for intellectual combat. Christian
+teachers were called upon to defend their faith against subtle
+philosophers and trained thinkers, who had had the advantage of
+excellent schools. In order to meet this apparent defect and fortify
+themselves against their skillful opponents, the Christians established
+the catechetical school at Alexandria, the most celebrated school of its
+kind at that period. It took the name _catechetical_ from the fact that
+the method of instruction was largely that of catechising, though
+lectures were also given. Many pagans had been converted to
+Christianity, and it was necessary that they should be taught the reason
+of their faith, in order that they might maintain their ground when they
+came in contact with unbelievers. This was particularly necessary, if
+Christianity was to hold its own, in a city like Alexandria, where so
+many learned men had gathered. It was also necessary for the extension
+of the new faith among men of superior intelligence. Thus the object of
+the catechetical school was to instruct learned men in the doctrines and
+usages of the Church, to prepare believers to meet the arguments of the
+philosophers, and to train teachers.
+
+While it was a sort of theological school, it also taught philosophy,
+rhetoric, grammar, and geometry. From the nature of things it will be
+seen that the catechetical school was for adults only, and it may be
+called a kind of university, whose chief attention was given to the
+study of the Scriptures and the promulgation of religious doctrine. The
+catechetical school was much higher than the catechumen school in its
+course of study, and in the intelligence and learning of its students
+and professors.
+
+
+CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA (150-220)
+
+Among the most promising of the pupils of Pantaenus was Clement of
+Alexandria, who was his successor in the direction of the school.
+Clement was brought up a pagan, but was not satisfied with the heathen
+religion, and made a careful study of Christianity. He traveled
+everywhere, and sought out old men who had listened to the apostles, or
+whose parents had done so; and thus he hoped to learn the truth
+directly. As a result of his research, he became profoundly impressed
+with the purity of the morals of the Christians and the truth of their
+religion. He was a great teacher as well as Father of the Church.
+
+=His Pedagogy.=--1. Faith is the cornerstone of knowledge.
+
+2. Mosaic law and heathen philosophy are not opposed to each other, but
+simply parts of the same truth. Both prepared the way for Christianity.
+Jewish law and Greek philosophy are steps in the development of the
+world which prepare the way for revelation. Christianity is the
+fulfillment of law and philosophy.
+
+3. He brought all the speculations of the Christians and the culture of
+the Greeks to bear upon Christian truth, and sought to harmonize the
+two.
+
+The teachings of Clement gain in importance when we remember the bitter
+strife in the Church over the use of classic literature, which lasted
+for centuries, and the scholastic movement a thousand years later, which
+also sought to harmonize philosophy and religion.
+
+
+ORIGEN (186-253)
+
+Origen was a pupil of Clement in the catechetical school at Alexandria,
+and became his successor. Besides being brought up in an atmosphere of
+culture in his native city, and surrounded by influences that stimulated
+intellectual growth, he was fortunate in having a man of learning for
+his father. From him he learned Greek, mathematics, grammar, rhetoric,
+logic, and a knowledge of the Holy Scriptures. He began to teach in the
+catechetical school when only eighteen years of age, a remarkable fact
+when one remembers that he had among his students learned pagan
+philosophers, and that it was very unusual for so young a man to be
+allowed to teach. He was abstemious in his habits, self-sacrificing,
+generous, and withal consistent in his life.
+
+=Origen's Pedagogy.=--1. Never teach pupils anything that you do not
+yourself practice.
+
+2. The end of education is to grow into the likeness of God.
+
+3. Pupils must be taught to investigate for themselves.
+
+4. The teacher must seek to correct the bad habits of his pupils, as
+well as to give them intellectual instruction.
+
+Under Origen, the catechetical school at Alexandria reached its highest
+prosperity, and its decay began soon after his death. Already in the
+middle of the fourth century its power and influence were practically
+gone.
+
+None of the other catechetical schools ever reached the fame of that at
+Alexandria, and they, too, gradually disappeared. Indeed, as the Roman
+Empire became Christianized, and as Christians gained in education and
+intelligence, there was less and less occasion for the existence of
+schools of this character.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[28] Warner's "Library of the World's Best Literature," Vol. VI, 3665.
+Lord, "Beacon Lights," Vol. I, Lecture on Sacred Eloquence.
+
+[29] Warner's Library, Vol. VI, 3666.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+CONFLICT BETWEEN PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN EDUCATION
+
+=Literature.=--_Lord_, Beacon Lights; _Spofford_, Library of Historical
+Characters; _White_, Eighteen Christian Centuries; _Fisher_, Beginnings
+of Christianity; _Azarias_, Essays Educational; _Allies_, The Formation
+of Christendom; _Allies_, The Monastic Life; _Maitland_, The Dark Ages.
+
+
+GENERAL DISCUSSION
+
+As Christianity became more powerful; as the Roman nation privately and
+officially accepted the new religion; as the bishops of the Church came
+more and more to be recognized as the vicegerents of Christ and the
+apostles; as the Church authorities became convinced that tolerance of
+paganism was dangerous to believers, and irreconcilable with the
+principles of Christianity,--as these things became apparent, it was
+seen that nothing would suffice short of the utter destruction of pagan
+schools. Pagan philosophy and art were tolerated only as they served the
+Church. Pagan education had an earthly purpose; the new education, a
+spiritual aim, a preparation for eternal life.
+
+The pagan temples and schools preserved the spirit of paganism long
+after the Roman Empire had become Christian, and the leaders of
+Christianity finally became convinced that ultimate success would be
+reached only when these institutions were destroyed. The conflict
+between these two parties continued during the fifth century and until
+529, when a complete victory was gained by the Christians. After 529 we
+have therefore only Christian schools to consider. For the next
+thousand years education was entirely in the hands of the Church, whose
+power was not always exercised for the good of humanity, but often for
+the furtherance of her own ends. Still, it must not be forgotten that
+all that was done for education was done by her, and therefore the world
+owes her a debt of gratitude, as later pages will show. She did not
+undertake the education of the masses, a task that was beyond her power,
+and perhaps beyond the scope of her vision. Yet great honor is due the
+Church for what was accomplished in education during the Middle Ages,
+and to her alone must be given credit for an advancement in civilization
+by no means small, considering the difficulties to be met and the
+obstacles to be overcome. During this long period there were many bright
+spots in the educational firmament, many brilliant leaders of the Church
+who also were conspicuous educators, and many important movements toward
+higher civilization. An examination of this period has led recent
+historians to abandon the term "Dark Ages." A more careful study of some
+of these leaders and the movements that they inaugurated will be
+reserved to later pages.
+
+We shall find the spirit of the period best illustrated by a study of
+two great men who are preeminent in the educational affairs of the
+time,--namely, Tertullian and St. Augustine.
+
+
+TERTULLIAN (150-230)[30]
+
+Tertullian was born at Carthage of pagan parents. He was converted to
+Christianity when forty years of age, and by his talent, his zeal for
+the new religion, and his faithfulness, he rose rapidly until he became
+Bishop of Carthage. He was an orator, a writer, and a teacher. His
+immoderate zeal led him into the vice of rigorism, quite foreign to the
+real spirit of the Christian religion. He joined the Montanists, a sect
+that believed in withdrawal from the world, the unlawfulness of second
+marriages, and the speedy second advent of the Savior. Having received a
+thorough training as a jurist at Rome, he became a great
+controversialist.
+
+He was the founder of Christian Latin literature, being bitterly opposed
+to everything pagan. He would use nothing manufactured by the pagans,
+would not dress like them, nor have anything to do with their schools or
+writings. This of course excluded classic literature, and was in direct
+opposition to the teachings of the catechetical schools, especially that
+of Alexandria. Tertullian's attempt to create a literature for the
+schools which should take the place of classic literature, while it
+produced discord for centuries, and influenced other great men to follow
+his example, had no permanent result. Perhaps the downfall of paganism
+may have removed all danger to the Christians from pagan philosophy and
+letters; at all events it is certain that in later centuries the Church
+was most efficient in preserving them. Tertullian held that philosophy
+of whatever kind is dangerous, claiming that it makes man arrogant, and
+less inclined to faith.
+
+In the fourth century the Fathers of the Church were opposed to pagan
+literature. The "Apostolic Constitutions" commanded, "Refrain from all
+writings of the heathen; for what hast thou to do with strange
+discourses, laws, or false prophets, which, in truth, turn aside from
+the faith those who are weak in understanding." It was urged that, "As
+the offspring of the pagan world, if not, indeed, inspired by demons,
+they were dangerous to the new faith." This introduced into education a
+narrow view, which evoked many bitter discussions, and which it took
+centuries to eradicate.
+
+
+ST. AUGUSTINE (354-430)
+
+Augustine was born in Numidia, Africa. His father was a pagan, and his
+mother a devout Christian. Augustine grew up in the faith of neither,
+and in his early years seems to have had no settled belief. As a
+student, he was wild and profligate, though attentive to his studies. He
+became thoroughly versed in Greek and Latin. He studied at Carthage and
+later at Milan. At the latter place he made the acquaintance of St.
+Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, who was instrumental in Augustine's
+conversion. His life was radically changed, and he who had been the
+wild, careless unbeliever became the greatest of the Church Fathers.
+Like Tertullian, he condemned the very classic literature to which he
+was indebted for his intellectual greatness. His greatest literary works
+are "City of God" and "Confessions."
+
+="Confessions."=--In this work are found his chief pedagogical
+teachings. Karl Schmidt says, "In his 'Confessions' he develops a
+complete psychology of the human soul, from which the pedagogue can
+learn more than from many theories of education."
+
+This work shows step by step his own development from childhood to
+mature manhood,--how a word, a look, an act may awaken passions, and
+lead to evil desire, or stimulate to noble deed or self-sacrificing
+consecration. From his own life and experiences he portrays the whole
+nature of man. Augustine is called the "St. Paul of the fifth century,"
+and he certainly was the greatest man, since Paul, that the Church has
+produced. In his writings is found the most luminous exposition of the
+Catholic doctrine, and probably Augustine is the most noted of all
+Catholic Fathers. In the domain of theology and morals he based all
+teaching on authority rather than on investigation, yet the excessive
+application of this principle to subjects of physical science was
+destined later on to hinder investigators in the fields of scientific
+research. Draper says, "Augustine antagonized science and Christianity
+for more than fifteen centuries." This was doubtless due to the
+application of the principle of authority in fields that Augustine did
+not contemplate. But we shall have occasion to recur to this subject in
+later pages.
+
+=Augustine's Pedagogy.=--1. All teaching is based on faith and
+authority.
+
+2. All pagan literature must be excluded from the schools.
+
+3. The chief subject in the school course is history pursued in the
+narrative form.
+
+4. Make abundant use of observation in instruction.
+
+5. The teacher must be earnest and enthusiastic.
+
+While the Roman Empire became officially Christian in the fourth century
+under Constantine, it was not until Justinian decreed the abolition of
+pagan schools and temples, A.D. 529, that paganism, as we have
+seen, was finally destroyed. Thus the long conflict was ended, and
+henceforth we have to do only with Christian education. We now enter
+upon the thousand years of the world's history known as the Middle Ages,
+the close of which brings us to the Reformation.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[30] See Draper, "Conflict between Religion and Science," p. 59.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+MONASTIC EDUCATION
+
+=Literature.=--_Lord_, Beacon Lights; _Lecky_, History of European
+Morals; _Myers_, Mediaeval and Modern History; _White_, Eighteen
+Christian Centuries; _Harper_, Book of Facts; _Mrs. Jameson_, Legends of
+Monastic Orders; _Gasquet_, Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries;
+_Chateaubriand_, The Genius of Christianity; _Allies_, The Monastic
+Life; _Taunton_, The English Black Monks of St. Benedict.
+
+
+=Monasteries.=--Monasteries were established as early as the third
+century A.D.; but it was not until the sixth century that they
+became powerful. The spirit of asceticism, urged by the Church as one of
+the most important virtues, took a strong hold upon the people, and led
+many to withdraw from the world. For such the founding of monasteries
+became a necessity. The monasteries were the result of the ascetic
+spirit, and their teaching was based upon authority and not upon free
+investigation or original research. Thus there was introduced into
+society and education a principle that, wrongly interpreted, impeded
+progress for a thousand years.
+
+Most of the time during this period the Church held supremacy over the
+State with authority unquestioned. This authority was carried not only
+into spiritual matters, but also into social, political, and educational
+affairs. Everything that conflicted with that authority, or with the
+decrees of the Church, was condemned. Even scientific discoveries that
+did not harmonize with preconceived and accepted theories were
+reluctantly received, if not absolutely rejected. Discoverers in the
+realm of science were silenced, and sometimes actually punished, for
+promulgating theories contrary to the teachings of the Church. A
+notable example is that of Galileo, who taught the Copernican theory of
+the universe, and for which teaching he was condemned to imprisonment
+and a ban put upon his work. This exaggerated interpretation of
+authority worked harm to the Church. It seemed to be forgotten that the
+Bible is a book of religion and morals and not a text-book of science.
+
+=The Benedictines.=--The most important monastic order from the
+standpoint of education was that of the Benedictines. St. Benedict
+founded the first monastery of the order that bears his name--Monte
+Cassino, near Naples,--in 529. It will be remembered that this is the
+date of the abolition of pagan schools by Justinian. On the site of
+Monte Cassino had stood a pagan school. The monastery which supplanted
+it remains to the present day.
+
+Benedict's two important principles--to which cloisters hitherto had
+been unaccustomed--were industry and strict discipline. These principles
+made the Benedictine the most successful and beneficent of all monastic
+orders. It grew rapidly, and within one hundred years from its
+foundation there were more than two hundred and fifty Benedictine
+monasteries. It is claimed that the order has produced 4600 bishops,
+1600 archbishops, 200 cardinals, 40 popes, 50 patriarchs, 4 emperors, 12
+empresses, 46 kings, 41 queens, 3600 canonized saints, and 15,700
+authors, and that prior to the French Revolution it possessed 37,000
+cloisters. There have been times when the wealth of this order in some
+states comprised more than half of all the property. The Benedictine
+monks tilled the soil of the country surrounding their monasteries,
+literally making the "desert blossom as the rose." They were untiring in
+zeal for the Church and in deeds of mercy. They established cloister
+schools in Italy, France, Spain, England, Ireland, Germany, and
+Switzerland. Monte Cassino (529), Italy; Canterbury (586) and Oxford
+(ninth century), England; St. Gall (613), Switzerland; Fulda (744),
+Constance, Hamburg, and Cologne (tenth century), Germany; Lyons, Tours,
+Paris, and Rouen (tenth century), France; Salzburg (696), Austria; and
+many other schools were founded chiefly by the Benedictines. Among the
+many great teachers that they produced were Alcuin of England, Boniface
+of Germany, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and Abelard. It thus appears
+that the Benedictine order took a deep interest in education, and their
+work deserves a most honorable place among the educational agencies of
+the period under discussion.
+
+=The Seven Liberal Arts.=--We have seen that much attention was always
+given to religious instruction in the Christian schools. The Bible, the
+doctrines of the Church, and its rites and ceremonies were at first
+exclusively taught. But later secular branches were introduced. These
+secular branches were known as the seven liberal arts, which comprised
+the following subjects:--
+
+ {Reading and
+ {1. Grammar. {Writing.
+ {I. Trivium[1] {2. Rhetoric.
+ The Seven { {3. Logic.
+ Liberal Arts. {
+ { {1. Arithmetic.
+ { {2. Music.
+ { II. Quadrivium[31] {3. Geometry.
+ { {4. Astronomy.
+
+This course required seven years. Latin was the only language used, and
+consequently the native tongues suffered. The _trivium_ was the most
+popular course; such knowledge was considered an absolute necessity for
+any one making claim to culture. After completing the _trivium_, those
+who wished for higher culture studied the _quadrivium_.
+
+Under the term _grammar_ were included reading and writing, as well as
+the construction and use of language. In _rhetoric_ the works of
+Quintilian and Cicero were studied, and sermons delivered in the
+churches were made to serve for a practical application of the rules. In
+_logic_ the works of St. Augustine were used in the exercises of
+constructing syllogisms, of disputation, and of definition. In
+_arithmetic_, before the introduction of the Arabic notation, numbers
+were considered to have a mysterious meaning. The hands and fingers were
+used to indicate numbers. For example, the left hand upon the breast
+indicated ten thousand; both hands folded, one hundred thousand. For the
+practical purposes of life the reckoning board was used. This was a
+board with lines drawn upon it, between which pebbles were placed to
+indicate the number to be expressed. For example, the number 3146 would
+be indicated as follows:--
+
+ | 3 | 1 | 4 | 6 |
+ | | | | |
+ | ''' | ' | '''' | '''''' |
+
+_Music_ was designed for the church service. Knowledge of music was held
+to be positively essential to priest and teacher. Under the term _music_
+were also sometimes included the fine arts, painting, drawing,
+architecture, sculpture, etc.
+
+In _geometry_ Euclid was used. Lines, angles, surfaces, and solids were
+studied. With geometry there seems to have been connected a meager study
+of _geography_. Early maps have been found, one dating from the seventh
+century, being in possession of St. Gall monastery. Astronomy was
+closely connected with _astrology_. Its practical application was
+limited to the formation of the Church calendar, fixing the date of
+Easter, etc.
+
+This celebrated course of study formed the basis of secular instruction
+in the monasteries, and, indeed, in all schools, for several centuries.
+Religious instruction always remained a prominent feature of the work.
+History had no place in the curriculum.
+
+=Summary of Benefits conferred upon Civilization by the
+Monasteries.=--1. They preserved classic literature. Though many of the
+Church Fathers, as we have seen, were bitterly opposed to pagan
+literature, the monasteries copied it with great industry and preserved
+it with care. The archives of these institutions have yielded up some
+most remarkable and valuable manuscripts that otherwise would have been
+lost to the world.
+
+2. They kept alive the flickering flame of Christianity. The Middle Ages
+were indeed dark for Christianity, as unbelief, ignorance, and
+faithlessness prevailed. But the monasteries were centers of religious
+interest and zeal.
+
+3. They maintained educational interest during this long, dark period.
+We have seen that the monasteries contained the only schools. Through
+them the Church kept up whatever educational interest survived during
+the Middle Ages, and her work then conserved the energies employed in
+later educational enterprise.
+
+4. They originated a great course of study by giving to the world the
+seven liberal arts.
+
+5. They furnished places of refuge for the oppressed.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] Laurie thinks that these names were first appropriately used about
+the end of the fourth century.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+SCHOLASTICISM
+
+=Literature.=--_Fisher_, History of the Reformation; _Lord_, Beacon
+Lights; _Thalheimer_, Mediaeval and Modern History; _Schwegler_, History
+of Philosophy; _Seebohm_, Era of the Protestant Revolution; _Hegel_,
+Philosophy of History; _Azarias_, Philosophy of Literature; _Azarias_,
+Essays Philosophical; _Schwickerath_, Jesuit Education, its History and
+Principles.
+
+
+Compayre remarks, "It has been truly said that there were three
+Renascences: the first, which owed its beginning to Charlemagne, and
+whose brilliancy did not last; the second, that of the twelfth century,
+the issue of which was Scholasticism; and the third, the great
+Renaissance of the sixteenth century, which still lasts, and which the
+French Revolution has completed."[32]
+
+As scholasticism, in a sense, was the rival of monasticism, and as it
+covered a large part of the Middle Ages, we shall discuss it at this
+point. Scholasticism was a movement having for its object the
+harmonizing of ancient philosophy, especially that of Aristotle, with
+the doctrines of Christianity. It covered a period reaching from the
+ninth to the fifteenth century, and displayed its greatest activity
+between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. It is called the
+philosophy of the Middle Ages. The term _scholastic_ is also applied
+generally to forms of reasoning which abound in subtleties.
+Scholasticism was a dissent from the teachings of St. Augustine and the
+ascetics. It laid chief stress upon _reason_ instead of _authority_,
+thus asserting a vitally different principle, which would tend to
+change the whole spirit of education.
+
+The first prominent leader of this movement was Erigena, who lived
+during the ninth century, and was the most interesting writer of the
+Middle Ages. He was also a great teacher, and was called to give
+instruction at the court of Charles the Bald, and afterward at Oxford.
+He opposed the prevailing tendencies of the monasteries to base all
+teaching on authority, and made its foundation philosophy and reason.
+Schwegler[33] denominates Anselm (born about 1033) as "the beginner and
+founder of scholasticism." Thus it was not till the eleventh century
+"that there was developed anything that might be properly termed a
+Christian philosophy. This was the so-called scholasticism."[34]
+
+Greater than either of these was Abelard (born 1079), who by his
+eloquence attracted great numbers of students to Paris. It is said that
+"few teachers ever held such sway as did Abelard for a time." He made
+Paris the center of the scholastic movement, attracting students from
+all parts of the world. He did more than any of his predecessors to give
+accepted ecclesiastical doctrines a rational expression. Scholasticism
+influenced the establishment of institutions of learning in England,
+Germany, Italy, and Spain, some of which later developed into great
+universities. Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and Occam may also be
+mentioned as great schoolmen. Of the first two Schwegler says,[35] "At
+the summit of scholasticism we must place the two incontestably greatest
+masters of the scholastic art and method, _Thomas Aquinas_ (Dominican,
+1225-1274) and _Duns Scotus_ (Franciscan, 1265-1308), the founders of
+two schools, into which after them the whole scholastic theology divides
+itself,--the former exalting the understanding (_intellectus_), and the
+latter the will (_voluntas_), as the highest principle, both being
+driven into essentially differing directions by this opposition of the
+theoretical and practical. Even with this began the downfall of
+scholasticism; its highest point was also the turning point to its
+self-destruction. The rationality of the dogmas, the oneness of faith
+and knowledge, had been constantly their fundamental premise; but this
+premise fell away, and the whole basis of their metaphysics was given up
+in principle the moment Duns Scotus placed the problem of theology in
+the practical. When the practical and the theoretical became divided,
+and still more when thought and being were separated by nominalism,
+philosophy broke loose from theology and knowledge from faith. Knowledge
+assumed its position above faith and above authority, and the religious
+consciousness broke with the traditional dogma."
+
+Toward the end, another thing contributed to the downfall of
+scholasticism. The philosophical subtleties of discussion made the
+schoolmen lose sight of the main issue, and devote themselves to the
+most ridiculous questions.[36] Schwickerath remarks,[37] "It can not and
+need not be denied that the education imparted by the mediaeval
+scholastics was in many regards defective. It was at once too dogmatic
+and disputatious. Literary studies were comparatively neglected;
+frequently too much importance was attached to purely dialectical
+subtleties.... The defects of scholasticism became especially manifest
+in the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when much time
+and energy were wasted in discussing useless refinements of thought."
+That it did a great deal of good will appear from the following
+summary:--
+
+=Summary of the Benefits of Scholasticism.=--1. It attempted to
+harmonize philosophy with Christianity, and may be called the first
+Christian philosophy.
+
+2. It sought to base learning on reason and investigation, rather than
+on authority. In this we find the first impulse of that movement which
+later led to the founding of science.
+
+3. Many universities were established through the scholastic influence,
+notably, Paris, Heidelberg, Bologna, Prague, and Vienna.
+
+4. While it failed to establish them, it at least recognized the
+desirableness of a universal language for schools, and a universal
+church for man.
+
+5. Although, with the exception of the universities which it founded,
+its direct work in education cannot be said to have been permanent, yet
+it imparted fresh vigor to educational endeavors.
+
+6. Schwegler says,[38] "It ... introduced to the world another principle
+than that of the old Church, the principle of the thinking spirit, the
+self-consciousness of the reason, or at least prepared the way for the
+victory of this principle. Even the deformities and unfavorable side of
+scholasticism, the many absurd questions upon which the scholastics
+divided, even their thousandfold unnecessary and accidental
+distinctions, their inquisitiveness and subtleties, all sprang from a
+rational principle, and grew out of a spirit of investigation, which
+could only utter itself in this way under the all-powerful
+ecclesiastical spirit of the time."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[32] "History of Pedagogy," p. 71.
+
+[33] "History of Philosophy," p. 186.
+
+[34] _Ibid._, p. 185.
+
+[35] _Ibid._, p. 186.
+
+[36] See K. Schmidt, "Geschichte der Paedagogik," Vol. II, p. 265, for
+subjects of these discussions.
+
+[37] "Jesuit Education," p. 46.
+
+[38] "History of Philosophy," p. 189.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+CHARLEMAGNE
+
+=Literature.=--_Ferris_, Great Leaders; _Emerton_, Introduction to the
+Middle Ages; _Guizot_, History of Civilization; _Wells_, The Age of
+Charlemagne; _Bryce_, The Holy Roman Empire; _Church_, The Beginning of
+the Middle Ages; _Lord_, Beacon Lights; _White_, Eighteen Christian
+Centuries; _Laurie_, Rise of the Universities; _Bulfinch_, Legends of
+Charlemagne; Encyclopaedia Britannica, Article on Charlemagne.
+
+
+=History, Character, and Purpose.=--Charlemagne was not only the
+greatest ruler of the Middle Ages, but one of the greatest and wisest
+rulers the world has known. By birth and instinct he belonged to the
+Teutonic race, to which, as before stated, the world's enlightenment has
+been committed. Like Alexander the Great, Charlemagne united many
+peoples into one, until he ruled over the territory now included in
+France, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, and Italy,--in fact, his
+empire comprised the richest part of central Europe. He designed to
+rebuild the Roman Empire, and was crowned "Emperor of Rome" by the Pope,
+in the year 800. While he protected the Pope and was loyal to him, he
+did not admit the papal supremacy in matters of State.
+
+Two very important influences were wisely utilized by Charlemagne in his
+work of civilization, namely, the political ideas of the Teutons, and
+the adhering power of the Christian church. He cherished German customs,
+and left, in various parts of Germany, many monuments of his love for
+that people. He was of commanding presence, being seven feet in height,
+and of good proportions, blond in type, and of genial manners. His real
+capital was at Aix-la-Chapelle, but Rome was a nominal capital. Bulfinch
+says of Charlemagne: "Whether we regard him as a warrior or legislator,
+as a patron of learning or as the civilizer of a barbarous nation, he is
+entitled to our warmest admiration." If his successors had possessed the
+ability, enterprise, and breadth of view that characterized him, the
+world might never have known the period in history commonly called the
+"Dark Ages."
+
+=Personal Education.=--When Charlemagne arrived at the estate of manhood
+and ascended the throne, he was ignorant of letters and lacked any
+considerable intellectual training. His education had been that of the
+knight who believed that skill in the use of arms and physical prowess
+were of far more importance than a knowledge of letters.[39] After he
+had come to the throne, and especially after he had conquered his foes
+and had leisure to study the welfare of his people, he realized his
+deficiencies, and sought to overcome them by diligent study.
+
+He called to his court the most learned men of the world, received
+personal instruction from them, and had them read to him and converse
+with him while at his meals. In this way he overcame, in a measure, the
+defects of his early education. He thoroughly mastered Latin, became
+familiar with Greek, and learned also grammar, rhetoric, logic, music,
+astronomy, and natural history. He never learned to write well, owing to
+the late period of life at which he began, and to the clumsiness of the
+hand accustomed to wielding the sword rather than the pen.
+
+Among his instructors was _Alcuin of England_, the most celebrated
+teacher of his time. Charlemagne established the "School of the Palace,"
+and placed Alcuin at its head. Here the children of the emperor as well
+as his courtiers were taught. He had his own daughters learn Latin and
+Greek. France is indebted to Alcuin for its polite learning. Alcuin was
+also the counselor of the emperor in the educational matters of the
+empire, and it was probably his influence that led Charlemagne to adopt
+such broad views concerning the culture of his people.
+
+=General Education.=--We have seen that the prevailing idea was that
+education should subserve the interests of the Church. Charlemagne
+turned the current of thought toward the national idea. He believed in
+religious training, but wanted to found a great State, and therefore
+insisted that those things which encouraged intelligent patriotism
+should be taught. He protected the Church, but insisted that the Church
+was subordinate to the State, and that his will was law over both.
+Consequently he required priests to preach in the native tongues rather
+than in Latin, and decreed that monasteries that would not open their
+doors to children for school purposes should be closed. The priests, he
+insisted, should be able to read and write, should have a knowledge of
+the Holy Scriptures and of the chief doctrines of the Church, and should
+instruct the people in these things.
+
+The seven liberal arts formed the basis of school instruction. Monks
+were not to remain in idleness and ignorance, but were required to
+teach, not only in the monasteries, but also outside of them. He also
+encouraged education among his nobles, and plainly intimated that merit
+and not noble birth would entitle them to favor. Charlemagne visited the
+schools himself, and required the bishop to report to him their
+condition. He thus became a superintendent of schools, being as familiar
+with the educational interests of his kingdom as he was with every other
+interest. He sought to teach first the priests and nobles, and after
+that the masses of his people. He introduced the practice of _compulsory
+education_ for all children, and decreed that truant children be first
+deprived of food as punishment, and if that did not suffice, that they
+be brought before him.
+
+Reading, writing, arithmetic, and singing were taught, especial
+attention being given to music, which was of use in the church services.
+The Apostles' Creed and the Lord's Prayer were also taught. In 801
+Charlemagne decreed that women and children should receive instruction
+in the doctrines of religion, because he believed religion to be the
+foundation of a civilized nation.
+
+Charlemagne's career shines out in brilliant contrast with the ignorance
+and superstition of his age. The world was not yet ripe for his advanced
+ideas, hence when the work lost the support of his strong personality,
+its effects soon became obliterated, and a retrogression of civilization
+resulted.
+
+The clergy, who had entertained but little sympathy for the enterprises
+of the emperor, soon closed the monasteries to outside students, and
+returned to the same practices from which the authority and energy of
+Charlemagne had aroused them. His work was not wholly in vain, however,
+for he laid the foundations of the Prussian school system.[40]
+
+=Summary of Charlemagne's Work.=--1. He elevated the clergy by demanding
+greater educational qualifications of them and by insisting that they do
+their duty.
+
+2. He gave dignity to native tongues by requiring the priests to preach
+more frequently in the vernacular of the people, and thus helped to make
+the services of the Church of greater profit to the people.
+
+3. He opened the cloisters to the purposes of education, and thereby
+greatly extended their usefulness.
+
+4. He sought to perpetuate religion and insure the stability of his
+empire by making education compulsory and universal.
+
+5. He believed in the education of women.
+
+6. He laid the foundations of future school systems, and indicated
+certain principles that are still recognized as valid.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[39] See "Feudal Education," Chap. XXII.
+
+[40] Professor Masius, Lectures in the University of Leipsic.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+ALFRED THE GREAT
+
+=Literature.=--_Ferris_, Great Leaders; _Lord_, Beacon Lights;
+_Mombert_, Great Lives; _Spofford_, Library of Historical Characters;
+_Green_, History of the English People.
+
+
+=History and Character.=--Alfred became king of the West Saxons in 871
+at the age of twenty-three. As a boy he had already shown remarkable
+energy and ability, and as a man he more than fulfilled the promise of
+his early years. England was divided into several kingdoms, the Danes
+having taken possession of the eastern part of the island. Alfred
+carried on war against them for many years with varying success, until
+he made peace by skillful diplomacy in giving them territory. He
+afterward showed remarkable statesmanship in winning them to peaceful
+acquiescence in his sovereignty, and thus he came to rule over united
+England.
+
+He laid the foundation of England's naval greatness by building ships to
+defend the country against Danish pirates. Many stories are told of his
+simplicity, his perseverance, his strategy in defeating his enemies, and
+the love with which he inspired his people. Karl Schmidt says, "Alfred,
+as victor in fifty-six battles, as lawgiver, as king and sage, as
+Christian and man, as husband and father, is rightly called--'The
+Great.'"
+
+He was very methodical in his habits, and divided his day into three
+equal parts of eight hours each: eight hours he gave to government,
+eight hours to religious devotion and study, and the other eight hours
+to sleep, recreation, and the recuperation of his body.
+
+=Education.=--Alfred did not learn to read until twelve years of age.
+His mother then stimulated him by the promise of a book to that one of
+her sons who should first commit to memory a Saxon poem. With
+indomitable energy he mastered reading, learned the poem, and secured
+the prize. Throughout his life he gave much attention to literary
+matters. He translated many portions of the Bible, as well as other
+books, into Anglo-Saxon, and encouraged literary efforts in others.
+
+Without doubt the intellectual activity of Charlemagne acted as a spur
+to Alfred's personal ambition and to his desire to elevate his people.
+Although he did not follow the example of Charlemagne in seeking
+universal education for his people, he did urge that the children of
+every freeman should be able to read and write, and should have
+instruction in Latin. The distinction thus made in the purposes of these
+two great rulers has been perpetuated till the present time, the Germans
+encouraging universal education, while the English have attended chiefly
+to the education of the higher classes. Alfred established many
+monasteries and made them centers of learning. It seems clear that he
+assisted in laying the foundations from which Oxford University grew. He
+left his impress upon the English people as no other ruler has done,
+implanting love for law, justice, freedom, national honor, and the
+domestic virtues which characterize that nation. His influence is felt
+upon English institutions to this day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+FEUDAL EDUCATION
+
+=Literature.=--_Stille_, Studies in Mediaeval History; _Bulfinch_,
+Legends of Charlemagne; _Emerton_, Mediaeval Europe.
+
+
+Emerton defines feudalism as "an organization of society based upon the
+absence of a strong controlling power at the center of the State."[41]
+It marks a step in the reorganization of society which was slowly going
+forward during the Middle Ages. It was an element in the movement toward
+freedom, in which men of large landed possessions gained the allegiance
+of vassals by gifts of land, in return for which the latter bound
+themselves to defend the former in case of attack. "The tie by which the
+higher freeman bound the lower one to himself was ordinarily a gift of
+the use of a certain tract of land, together with more or less extensive
+rights of jurisdiction over the dwellers thereon. By means of this gift
+he secured the service of the lesser man in war, and as war was the
+normal condition of things, such service was the most valuable payment
+he could receive."[42]
+
+While it is true that the feudal lords were in many cases little else
+than robber chieftains, especially in the earlier history of the system,
+it would be false to history to picture them in general as being of that
+character. The knights were chivalrous in battle, ever ready to fight
+for their religion, as shown in the crusades, to defend the weak, to
+show greatest respect for woman, and to maintain freedom. Fortified in
+an impregnable castle on some eminence, with his loyal retainers about
+him, the feudal baron was able to defy kings. The system marks a stage
+in the development of civilization, and when feudalism fell into decline
+its purpose had been fulfilled.
+
+With such an independent manner of living, and such ideas of their own
+rights, it is not strange that the knights had a form of education
+peculiar to themselves, and this education is full of interest to the
+student. There was little in the schooling of the monasteries that could
+appeal to them, and their ideas of manhood were very different from
+those of the ecclesiastics. Prowess in the use of arms, skill in
+horsemanship, acquaintance with the chivalric forms of politeness and
+with knightly manners, were of far more importance to them than ability
+to read and write. Indeed, they despised book-learning as something
+beneath their own dignity, however suitable it might be for their
+vassals. In such a school as this Charlemagne grew up. It was a school
+of action rather than of thought; a school which looked to the present
+rather than the future.
+
+The education of the knights was in striking contrast with the
+prevailing modes. Instead of the seven liberal arts, the seven
+perfections of the knight were taught,--horsemanship, swimming, use of
+bow and arrow, swordsmanship, hunting, chess-playing, and verse-making.
+Their purpose was to prepare for the activities of the life in which
+their lot was cast; that of the monasteries was to preserve learning to
+fit men for the duties of the Church, and to prepare them for the life
+to come. It must not be inferred, however, that the knight was unmindful
+of religion, for he was inducted into knighthood by most solemn
+religious ceremonies and vows.
+
+The education of the knight was divided into three periods.
+
+=First Period.=--The first seven years of the boy's life were spent in
+the home under the mother's careful direction. Obedience, politeness,
+and respect for older persons were inculcated, and stress was also laid
+upon religious training. By the development of strong and healthy bodies
+the boys were well prepared for the later education upon which they
+entered after the seventh year.
+
+=Second Period.=--After the seventh year the boy was generally removed
+from home to the care of some friendly knight, in order that he might
+receive a stricter training. Here he remained till his fourteenth year,
+chiefly under the care of the lady whom he served as page. He was taught
+music, poetry, chess, and some simple intellectual studies, besides the
+duties of knighthood, especially in relation to the treatment of women,
+and to courtly manners.
+
+=Third Period.=--At fourteen the boy left the service of his lady and
+became an esquire to the knight. He now attended his master upon the
+chase, at tournaments, and in battle. He was taught all the arts of war,
+of riding, jousting, fencing. It was necessary that he should have a
+watchful eye to avert danger, protect his master, and quickly anticipate
+his every wish. The service of this period completed his education, and
+at twenty-one he was knighted with imposing ceremonies. After partaking
+of the sacrament, he took vows to _speak the truth, defend the weak,
+honor womanhood, and use his sword for the defense of Christianity_.
+
+This form of education was most potent in preserving knighthood for
+several centuries and was a powerful factor in shaping the destinies of
+Europe. It was faithfulness to the vow _to defend Christianity_ that led
+finally to the overthrow of chivalry, as will appear in the study of the
+crusades.
+
+=Education of Women.=--The girls remained at home and were taught the
+domestic arts, as well as the forms of etiquette which were practiced in
+this chivalric age, and which the peculiar homage paid to woman made
+necessary. They were also taught reading and writing, and were expected
+to be familiar with poetry. Daughters of the better families were
+sometimes collected in some castle, where a kind of school was
+organized, in which they were instructed in reading, writing, poetry,
+singing, and the use of stringed instruments, religion, and sometimes in
+French and Latin. Among no other class during the Middle Ages was such
+great attention paid to the education of women. It was the duty of
+mothers to see that their daughters were carefully prepared to sustain
+the peculiar dignity of feudal womanhood.
+
+=Criticism of Feudal Education.=--1. It honored woman and gave her the
+highest position afforded by any system during the Middle Ages.
+
+2. It gave the world a splendid example of chivalry, teaching manliness,
+courage, devotion to the right as it was understood, and the espousal of
+the cause of the weak.
+
+3. It contributed to literature through the compositions of the
+_Minnesingers_.
+
+4. It counteracted the ascetic tendencies of the monastics by
+encouraging an active participation in life's affairs.
+
+5. It restricted its advantages to the privileged class.
+
+6. It despised intellectual training, while laying great stress upon
+physical prowess.
+
+7. It lacked the elements of progress.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[41] "Mediaeval Europe," p. 478.
+
+[42] _Ibid._, p. 480.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+THE CRUSADES AS AN EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT
+
+=Literature.=--_Michaud_, The Crusades; _Stubbs_, Mediaeval and Modern
+History; _Mombert_, Great Lives (see Godfrey); _Myers_, Mediaeval and
+Modern History; _Guizot_, History of Civilization; _Lord_, Beacon
+Lights; _Archer and Kingsford_, The Crusaders; _White_, Eighteen
+Christian Centuries; _Andrews_, Institutes of General History;
+_Ridpath_, Library of Universal History (article on the Crusades).
+
+
+Among the most remarkable movements that took place during the Middle
+Ages were the crusades. The Saracens had overrun and conquered the Holy
+Land, and the Christian nations of the west attempted to recover from
+the hands of the infidels the soil made sacred by the life and death of
+Christ. For a long time the pilgrims who made journeys to the tomb of
+the Savior were undisturbed, as their pilgrimages were a source of
+profit to the Saracens. But when the Turks gained possession of
+Jerusalem, they began to persecute both the native Christians and those
+who came from abroad. Peter the Hermit, who had suffered from these
+cruelties at Jerusalem, returned to Europe, and by his crude eloquence
+and earnestness stirred the people almost to a frenzy. Obtaining the
+sanction of the Pope, he gathered an immense crowd of men, women, and
+children, and started for the Holy Land.
+
+They encountered great hardships, many died of hunger, disease, and the
+hostility of the people through whose countries they passed, and the
+remnant who reached the Bosporus, were totally destroyed by Turkish
+soldiers.
+
+The first successful crusade was organized by the feudal lords, who
+gathered an army of six hundred thousand men under the leadership of
+Godfrey of Bouillon. They had connected with their army one hundred
+thousand splendidly mounted men. After untold losses and horrors, which
+reduced their forces to sixty thousand men, they succeeded in taking
+Jerusalem. They established a Latin kingdom with Godfrey at the head,
+and thus accomplished the purpose for which they had set out. This
+crusade lasted from 1096 to 1099.
+
+For about fifty years the Latin kingdom held its own; but it was
+constantly harassed by the Mohammedans, until it became necessary to
+organize a second crusade. The leaders in this were Conrad III. of
+Germany and Louis VII. of France. Jealousies soon arose between the
+rival leaders, who cared more for personal glory than for the purpose of
+the crusade. As a result, only a small portion of the three hundred
+thousand soldiers ever reached the Holy Land; and this crusade, which
+lasted from 1147 to 1149, resulted in failure.
+
+Forty years later Saladin, a Mohammedan ruler, having captured
+Jerusalem, a third crusade was organized. This was led by Richard the
+Lion-Hearted of England, Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, and Philip
+Augustus of France. Barbarossa went overland, but Richard and Philip,
+profiting by past experiences, made the journey by water, thus
+accomplishing it with greater ease and fewer losses. The rivalries
+between the different nationalities engaged prevented successful
+warfare; but a truce was made with the humane Saladin,[43] whereby he
+guaranteed protection to the Christians, and thus the crusade came to an
+end. This crusade lasted from 1189 to 1192.
+
+Other crusades followed from time to time for several centuries, with
+but little advantage gained over the conditions granted by Saladin.
+
+=Results of the Crusades.=--This, in brief, is a historical account of
+the crusades.[44] It remains for us to note their educational value.
+
+1. They drew various nations together by one common purpose.
+
+2. They increased the knowledge of the manners, customs, culture,
+products, and civilization of the East.
+
+3. They stirred up commerce, especially that of the Mediterranean,
+making Venice and Genoa great commercial centers.
+
+4. They broke up the power of feudalism. Lord and vassal together
+entered upon enterprises of danger and suffering, which were great
+levelers of class distinction. In the enthusiasm of the holy cause, many
+feudal lords disposed of all their worldly possessions, and became as
+poor as their vassals. This broke up the feudal estates.
+
+5. They widened the horizon of thought, made Europeans more liberal, and
+prepared the way for an intellectual and religious revival.
+
+6. They emancipated philosophy from theology. As a result of movements
+inaugurated by the crusades, the university of Paris established the
+faculty of philosophy separate from that of theology.
+
+7. G. W. Cox says, "By rolling back the tide of Mohammedan conquest from
+Constantinople for upward of four centuries they probably saved Europe
+from horrors the recital of which might even now make one's ears
+tingle."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[43] See Lessing's "Nathan der Weise."
+
+[44] It would be impossible to give a full historical account of the
+crusades in a work of this kind. The reader is referred to any standard
+work on that subject.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES
+
+=Literature.=--_Laurie_, Rise of the Universities; _Hallam_, Middle
+Ages; _Guizot_, History of Civilization; _Paulsen_, The German
+Universities; _Hurst_, Life and Literature in the Fatherland; _Brother
+Azarias_, Essays Educational.
+
+
+We have seen that the Church had almost entire control of education
+during the Middle Ages. Through her influence schools were established
+and maintained, learning was preserved, and the interests of
+civilization were promoted. She was also influential in the founding of
+universities, though not to her alone were these institutions due.
+Laurie says:--
+
+"Now looking first to the germ out of which the universities grew, I
+think we must say that the universities may be regarded as a natural
+development of the cathedral[45] and monastery schools; but if we seek
+for an external motive force urging men to undertake the more profound
+and independent study of the liberal arts, we can find it only in the
+Saracenic schools of Bagdad, Babylon, Alexandria, and Cordova. The
+Saracens were necessarily brought into contact with Greek literature,
+just when the western Church was drifting away from it; and by their
+translations of Hippocrates, Galen, Aristotle, and other Greek classics,
+they restored what may be quite accurately called the 'university life'
+of the Greeks."
+
+The first universities, however, can hardly be said to have been
+inspired by the influence of the Church. Nor did the State assist in
+their establishment, though it afterward sanctioned them, and conferred
+upon them their peculiar privileges. The first universities grew out of
+organizations of scholars and students who joined themselves together
+for the purpose of study and investigation. The oldest institution of
+this kind was that of Salerno, Italy, which Laurie says was a "public
+school from A.D. 1060, and a privileged school from 1100." It
+taught medicine only, and was established by a converted Jew. It was
+entirely independent of both Church and State, and attracted students
+from many countries.
+
+The next university was that of Bologna, Italy. It also had only one
+faculty, that of law. In 1158 Frederick I. recognized the institution by
+giving it certain privileges. It awakened widespread interest throughout
+Europe, so that by the end of the twelfth century it is estimated that
+twelve thousand students had flocked to Bologna, most of them from
+foreign lands. This is an indication that the revival of learning was
+quite general throughout the world.
+
+But the greatest university of the Middle Ages was that of Paris, which
+attracted at least twenty thousand students. The university of Paris was
+evolved from a cathedral school, and it always retained a strong
+theological tendency. Philip Augustus gave it privileges as a
+corporation, and Pope Innocent III. recognized it as a high school of
+theology. The course of study was by no means narrow, as it was held
+that broad knowledge was essential as a preparation for theological
+study. Consequently it was not long before a philosophical
+faculty[46]--the first in history--was added as separate from the
+theological faculty. The greatest name connected with the university of
+Paris is that of Abelard. Early in the twelfth century he attracted
+great numbers of students, and it was his personality that made Paris
+the greatest university of the Middle Ages.
+
+The university of Oxford, England, was founded in 1140,[47] that of
+Cambridge in 1200. The oldest German university is Prague, founded in
+1348. Then follow: Vienna, 1365; Heidelberg, 1386; Cologne,[3] 1388;
+Erfurt,[48] 1392; Wuerzburg, 1403; Leipsic, 1409; Rostock, 1419;
+Greifswald, 1456; Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1457; Trier, 1472; Tuebingen,
+1477; and Mainz, 1477. In France, after Paris, Toulouse, 1233; Orleans,
+Cahors, Caen, Poitiers, Nantes, and others during the fourteenth
+century. In the same century at Lund and Upsala in Sweden, Christiania
+in Norway, and Copenhagen in Denmark. Italy, Spain, England, Ireland,
+and Scotland also felt this wonderful impulse. These universities were
+usually modeled after that of Paris.
+
+The European universities were early granted certain privileges, many
+of which are accorded to this day. Indeed, some of these privileges were
+assumed and allowed before the institutions had official recognition by
+charter. These educational associations acquired so much influence and
+power that princes and popes vied with each other to gain favor with
+them by granting them special privileges. One of the most important of
+these is that the government of the student body rests with the
+university faculty, both as to their life in connection with the
+university, and also outside of it. Thus to this day if a student is
+arrested by the police, his case is turned over to the authorities of
+the university for trial and punishment. This was an important
+concession largely growing out of the fact that a great many of the
+students were citizens of other countries than that in which the
+university was located. It will readily appear that this privilege alone
+would have a tendency to create a world for university students and
+professors apart from that of the citizens. Doubtless the moral tone
+among the former was often very low. Students took advantage of the
+situation created by their peculiar privileges, and disregarded laws
+which the citizens were obliged to obey. Conflicts between these two
+classes, therefore, were frequent and bitter.
+
+The universities stimulated a desire for learning, created a respect for
+it, and began a movement toward free investigation, and for the
+promulgation of liberal ideas, which gains strength with each decade of
+the world's history. They have greatly contributed to the growth of
+knowledge, to the advancement of science, and to the elevation of
+mankind.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[45] The cathedral schools were institutions connected with each
+cathedral for the purpose of training priests for their sacred office,
+but they were not limited entirely to priests. Instructions in the seven
+liberal arts was imparted, and also in religion. Parochial schools were
+established in many places for the purpose of training children in the
+doctrines of the Church. Thus, as early as the ninth century, the Church
+sought to extend the benefits of education to the people as well as to
+the priesthood. While the parochial schools were limited in their
+instruction, somewhat after the manner of the early catechumen schools,
+the changed conditions of Christianity permitted a much broader training
+than formerly.
+
+[46] The complete university has four faculties, which embrace all human
+knowledge. The historical order of precedence is as follows: _Theology_
+(1259-60), _Law_ (1271), _Medicine_ (1274), and _Arts_ or _Philosophy_
+(1281). The last includes all subjects not embraced in the first three.
+Thus all branches of science, history, language, mathematics, etc.,
+belong to the "philosophical" faculty.
+
+[47] Laurie, "Rise of the Universities."
+
+[48] No longer in existence
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+MOHAMMEDAN EDUCATION
+
+=Literature.=--_Warner_, Library of the World's Best Literature (see
+article on the Koran); _Johonnot_, Geographical Reader; _Lane-Poole_,
+Story of the Moors in Spain; _Lord_, Beacon Lights of History;
+_Thalheimer_, Mediaeval and Modern History; _Stille_, Studies in
+Mediaeval History; _Irving_, Mahomet and his Successors; _Church_, The
+Beginnings of the Middle Ages; _Andrews_, Institutes of General History;
+_White_, Eighteen Christian Centuries; _Myers_, Mediaeval and Modern
+History; _Mombert_, Great Lives; _Clarke_, Ten Great Religions;
+_Ferris_, Great Leaders; _Laurie_, Rise of the Universities; _Walker,
+John Brisben_, The Building of an Empire ("Cosmopolitan," Feb.-Sept.,
+1899); "North American Review," Vol. 171, p. 754.
+
+
+We have thus far described the work of Christian education. Parallel
+with this and almost entirely independent of it grew the educational
+work of the Moslems. This was a very important movement most valuable to
+civilization.
+
+=History of Mohammedanism.=--Mohammedanism dates from the time of the
+Hegira, or flight of Mohammed from Mecca, A.D. 622. From this
+date Moslems reckon their time, as the Christian world reckons from the
+birth of Christ. Mohammed first appeared as prophet when forty years of
+age. The religion of the Arabs was a most degraded one, and there was
+great need of the reformation which Mohammed undertook. The prophet was
+not well received at first, and, being obliged to flee from Mecca, he
+retired to a cave at Medina, where he meditated and studied. It was
+during this retirement that he wrote the Koran, the Bible of the
+Mohammedans. He claimed that the angel Gabriel appeared to him, giving
+him a new revelation, which was more significant than that of the
+Christians. Indeed, these so-called revelations were strangely suited to
+the varying ambition of the founder of this religion. The Koran teaches
+that as Jesus was greater than Moses, so Mohammed was greater than
+Jesus.
+
+There is no doubt that the new religion was an improvement upon the
+degraded form of worship that Mohammed found among the Arabs, or that in
+the beginning of his activity he did much to purify and elevate his
+people. But as he gained great numbers of adherents, and as he acquired
+power, Mohammed became a warrior, and attempted by the sword to compel
+belief in his doctrines. Moslemism met with such wonderful success that
+already, during the life of Mohammed, all Arabia was conquered to this
+belief, while his successors spread his teachings into northern Africa,
+western Asia, Spain, and Turkey. They carried their triumphant arms into
+France, until they were checked by Charles Martel; they overran Austria
+and threatened the complete subjugation of southeastern Europe, until
+John Sobieski dealt them a crushing blow before the gates of Vienna, and
+forever destroyed their ambition for northern conquest; they occupied
+Spain for seven hundred years, and still retain Turkey as their sole
+European possession; they have extended their power over many parts of
+Asia and Africa, until now they number about two hundred million souls.
+
+The five chief Moslem precepts are:--
+
+1. Confession of the unity of God. "There is one God, and Mohammed is
+his prophet."
+
+2. Stated prayer.
+
+3. Almsgiving.
+
+4. The fast of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Mohammedan year.
+
+5. Observance of the festival of Mecca. Every Moslem is expected to make
+a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his lifetime.
+
+=Education.=--When Mohammedanism became secure in its power, it turned
+its attention to education. The successors of Mohammed were called
+caliphs, and the caliphs of Bagdad and Cordova rivaled each other in
+fostering learning. Schools were established in all large Moslem cities
+and in many smaller towns. Their scholars translated the works of
+Aristotle and other Greek authors. They taught mathematics, astronomy,
+philosophy, and grammar. They originated the science of chemistry, and
+made great advances in the study of algebra and trigonometry. They also
+measured the earth, and made catalogues of the stars. Every branch of
+knowledge was studied, and students were attracted from all parts of
+Europe to their schools, especially to Cordova.
+
+Students lived in colleges with the professors, and there was an
+atmosphere of culture and investigation not equaled in any of the
+Christian universities of the Middle Ages.
+
+Spain reached the summit of Moslem education during the reign of King
+Hakem III. (961-976). This king fostered education, being himself a man
+of learning. He had a private library of six hundred thousand volumes.
+
+Education was not confined simply to the higher schools and
+universities. There were also a great many elementary schools. The first
+work of these was to teach the Koran, which was used as a reading book.
+The Koran gives us the most perfect picture of the oriental mind that we
+possess. Children of the poor attended school from their fifth till
+their eighth year, when they were allowed to go to service. Children of
+the rich entered school at their fifth year and remained till their
+fourteenth or fifteenth year. After that, if parents could afford it,
+boys traveled until their twentieth year, under care of a tutor. This
+completed their education. Any person could teach who chose to do so, no
+authority fixing the qualifications of teachers.
+
+The Mohammedan schools began to decline in the eleventh century. At the
+present time, but little attention is paid to education in any of the
+countries under the sway of Islam.
+
+
+GENERAL SUMMARY OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES
+
+1. Paganism gave way to Christianity, and the benign influence of the
+latter began to be felt in the recognition of the importance of the
+individual.
+
+2. The Church undertook the direction of education, which, though
+necessarily limited chiefly to the ecclesiastics, had also a great
+influence upon the masses at large.
+
+3. The Church Fathers were the leaders in intellectual as well as in
+spiritual matters, while monks and priests were the principal teachers.
+
+4. The monasteries were the centers of educational activity, both in
+fostering scholarship and in preserving classic literature.
+
+5. Secular courses of study were established, the most important being
+the "seven liberal arts."
+
+6. Education was based on authority, and free investigation found but
+little encouragement, except among the scholastics.
+
+7. The State assumed no part in the training of the young. Charlemagne's
+educational work is an exception to this rule. He asserted the
+prerogative of the State to control education, recognized the necessity
+of universal education, and the principle of compulsory attendance.
+
+8. The crusades checked the growth of feudalism, aroused the
+intellectual as well as the spiritual energies of the people, led to a
+broader conception of man's duty to his fellow-man, and prepared the way
+for greater religious and political freedom.
+
+9. As an important result of the stimulated educational activity, both
+among Christians and Mohammedans, many universities were founded.
+
+10. "The Middle Ages," says Emerson, "gave us decimal numbers,
+gunpowder, glass, chemistry, and gothic architecture, and their
+paintings are the delight and tuition of our age."[49]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[49] Emerson, Progress of Culture in "Letters and Social Aims," p. 204.
+Boston, 1895.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+THE RENAISSANCE
+
+=Literature.=--_Williams_, History of Modern Education; _Quick_,
+Educational Reformers; _Bryce_, The Holy Roman Empire; _Andrews_,
+Institutes of General History; _Fisher_, History of the Reformation;
+_Reeve_, Petrarch; _Symonds_, Renaissance in Italy; _Seebohm_, Era of
+Protestant Revolution; _Spofford_, Library of Historical Characters;
+_Hegel_, Philosophy of History; _Draper_, Intellectual Development of
+Europe; _Azarias_, Philosophy of Literature; _Schwickerath_, Jesuit
+Education; _Dr. Ludwig Pastor_, History of the Popes, Vol. I, p. 54,
+etc.
+
+
+As the fifteenth century drew to a close there were unmistakable
+evidences of the dawn of a better day, and the long period known as the
+"Dark Ages" was to be succeeded by a brighter and more glorious era. The
+sway of the Church over the consciences, lives, and material interests
+of men was disputed; the feudal system had begun to disintegrate; the
+world had been aroused to new enterprise by the discovery and
+exploration of distant continents, by the invention of paper, the
+printing press, gunpowder, and the mariner's compass; the Ptolemaic
+system of astronomy had been superseded by that of Copernicus; the great
+empires of the Middle Ages had disappeared, and upon their ruins had
+been constructed smaller nationalities which spoke a language of their
+own. The period in which these remarkable changes were taking place is
+known as that of the Renaissance. It cannot be confined to definite
+chronological limits, but is the period of transition from one
+historical stage to another, in which there was a "gradual metamorphosis
+of the intellectual and moral state of Europe." The Renaissance must be
+viewed as "an internal process whereby spiritual energies latent in the
+Middle Ages were developed into actuality and formed a mental habit for
+the modern world." It prepared the way for the Reformation, and
+introduced the era of wonderful progress upon which modern civilization
+has entered. It was the new birth, the regeneration (renascence) of the
+world.
+
+A most important instrumentality for carrying forward the great work
+thus inaugurated was the Teutonic race. The despised northern
+barbarians, who had conquered Rome, had become civilized and
+Christianized, and were found to possess the sterling qualities which
+made them capable of bearing the great responsibilities of progressive
+civilization. The proud Roman Empire had at last succumbed to its
+internal weaknesses and vices, and had disappeared forever from the face
+of the earth.
+
+With the greater enlightenment of men had come once more an appreciation
+of the value of the classic languages, and Greek, the language of the
+Eastern Empire, was no longer regarded with antipathy. The revival of
+learning, which had its inception in Italy and spread northward, found
+its most important expression in the new interest awakened in the
+classic languages. It is in this, the so-called humanistic phase of the
+Renaissance, that the student of education is chiefly interested. To
+this we turn our attention.
+
+We have already alluded to the social conditions, the inventions, and
+discoveries, which prepared the way for the revival of learning. New
+and powerful impulses were shaping the progress of the world, and the
+leaders of the humanistic movement were not slow to utilize the
+instruments thus opportunely furnished them. Chief among these was the
+art of printing, which enabled them to multiply and distribute copies of
+the classics, that had been consigned to comparative oblivion.
+
+Another important element must be considered if we are to understand
+this revival. We have seen that during the Middle Ages the ecclesiastics
+largely shaped the intellectual activity of Europe, that mystery was
+made of science, and that the authority of the Church was supreme on all
+questions of education as well as of religion. A new and vital doctrine
+was taught which had much to do with the intellectual and spiritual
+emancipation of man. This new doctrine may be stated as follows:--
+
+_Man is a rational, volitional, self-conscious being, born with
+capabilities and rights to enjoy whatever good the world offers._
+
+This doctrine, it will readily appear, is capable of being perverted to
+an excuse for unbridled license, as was done by the Italians; or,
+rightly interpreted, of being productive of great good, as in the case
+of the Germans.
+
+Another new doctrine taught was that there was goodness in man and his
+works even previous to the Christian era, and that a study of the
+writings of all who have contributed to human progress is essential to
+culture, and of value to mankind. This was an argument for the revival
+of the study of Greek, which had for centuries been neglected. Indeed,
+Gibbon tells us that in the time of Petrarch, "No more than ten votaries
+of Homer could be enumerated in all Italy."
+
+Again, it was held that the gates of learning must be opened to all and
+not limited to the clergy, the recluse, and the sage. Intellectual
+culture must be offered to all men, to make them better and happier, and
+is not to be confined to the few for the purpose of increasing their
+power and widening the breach between the classes. The Renaissance made
+learning popular, it created a passion for culture, it aroused and
+stimulated widespread desire for greater enlightenment. Some of the
+leaders in the movement, however, merited opposition because of their
+efforts to introduce not only the beauties of pagan art and literature,
+but likewise some of their licentiousness.
+
+We may now turn our attention to a more detailed history of this revival
+and its effect upon different peoples, and to a brief study of some of
+its great leaders.
+
+=Humanism in Italy.=--Italy was the first to catch the impulse of
+humanism. Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio in the fourteenth century
+inspired men with their new ideas, and set in motion influences which
+were attended with results often far from good. They revived the study
+of Latin and Greek classics, extracted manuscripts from their hidden
+archives, incited in society a passion for learning, and created a
+popular literature in their own vernacular. They implanted a love of
+freedom of thought in the Italian masses. Their enthusiasm for the new
+learning attracted scholars from Germany, France, and other countries,
+who spread the influence in their own lands.
+
+The effect of humanism upon the Italian mind and life was pernicious in
+the extreme. It led to infidelity, to immorality, and to a return to
+many pagan practices. This was owing to two chief causes. First, the
+evil influence of many leaders of the Church, and second, the passionate
+nature of the Italian people. Karl Schmidt says, "Humanism, but not
+morality, ruled in the Vatican." Brother Azarias, in speaking of this
+period, says:[50] "The clergy loved their own ease too well; they were
+too great pleasure-seekers and gold-coveters to attend to their flocks
+with that pastoral spirit of simplicity and good faith that is to be
+witnessed in the Church to-day. The bishops were no better. They looked
+for emoluments and court favor. Even the better class of ecclesiastics
+gave themselves up to the intellectual luxury of admiring Plato and
+imitating Cicero. While a general laxity of morals in all orders of
+religious life--among priest and monk, pope and cardinal--was bringing
+odium on the Church, and weakening her hold upon the people--especially
+upon the Teutonic races--the seeds of regeneration were germinating in
+her own body. She was even then the mother of sanctity.... The Catholic
+hierarchy at last realized that with themselves should begin the
+reformation they would see established; they therefore pronounced the
+most withering denunciations upon the clerical and religious abuses of
+the day."
+
+The people interpreted the teaching of Petrarch that the world was made
+for man's enjoyment, as a plea for license and absence of restraint.
+Even monks and priests, who had been held to the rigid life of the
+cloister, imbued with this teaching, indulged in excesses that were
+subversive of both morals and religion.[51]
+
+But without doubt there was a great intellectual movement in Italy.
+Draper says, "Between 1470 and 1500 more than ten thousand editions of
+books and pamphlets were printed, and a majority of them in Italy,
+demonstrating that Italy was in the van of the intellectual movement."
+
+=Humanism in Germany.=--A far different result was attained among the
+Teutonic peoples. The best students of Germany went to Italy, and,
+becoming acquainted with the new education, returned to introduce it
+into their own universities. Being less directly under the influences
+that obtained in Italy, and possessing the moral stability which had
+brought the Teutonic race to the front, the Germans obtained good where
+the Italians had absorbed evil. The same principle, with different
+interpretation, under different conditions, and in different soil,
+brought forth far different fruit. Thus Petrarch's teaching was
+interpreted to mean that the good things of earth are not to be abused,
+and that man's acquirements are to be consecrated to his
+self-development and to the glory of God.
+
+The German humanists revived the study of the classics, Greek, Latin,
+and Hebrew, until, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, these
+languages were taught in every German university. The Bible was studied
+in the original, and classic writings were redeemed from obscurity,
+printed, and given to the world. Heidelberg and Tuebingen became centers
+of the humanistic movement, and Agricola, Reuchlin, and Erasmus were the
+great leaders.
+
+=Artisan Schools.=--During the 13th and 14th centuries another type of
+schools flourished, namely, the Buerger or Artisan Schools, whose
+purpose, contrary to that of the humanistic influences, was to prepare
+men for practical and useful work, and to fit for citizenship. The need
+of these schools grew out of the changed conditions of life, especially
+the growing tendency to live in cities and to divide labor into crafts.
+They were supported by the secular authorities, and ultimately they came
+to exert a great influence upon city governments, particularly those of
+the Hanseatic league. Many of the teachers were priests, and the
+instruction was usually given in the mother tongue. These schools
+flourished in Germany, France, Italy, Denmark, and other countries, and
+they doubtless furthered the idea of the maintenance of education at
+public expense, an idea that has come to have universal acceptance.
+
+=Summary of the Influence of Humanism.=--1. It laid the foundation for
+future liberty of thought and conscience.
+
+2. It revived the study of the classic languages, and gave them a place
+in education which they still hold.
+
+3. It utilized the art of printing by placing the works of ancient
+authors in form to be used by the world.
+
+4. It increased the number of students in the universities, and
+stimulated intelligence among the masses.
+
+5. It changed courses of study, making them more practical.
+
+6. It exerted an influence on schools of all kinds by giving better
+preparation to teachers.
+
+7. It stimulated all forms of elevating activity,--in art, in science,
+in exploration, in invention.
+
+8. It prepared the way for the Reformation, which broadened and
+perfected the work thus inaugurated.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[50] "Philosophy of Literature," p. 123.
+
+[51] _Ibid._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+HUMANISTIC EDUCATORS
+
+=Literature.=--_Spofford_, Library of Historical Characters; _Symonds_,
+Renaissance in Italy; _Reeve_, Petrarch; _Macaulay_, Essays; _Warner_,
+Library of the World's Best Literature (see articles on Dante, Petrarch,
+and Boccaccio); _D'Aubigne_, History of the Reformation; _Morris_, Era
+of the Protestant Revolution; _Leclerc_, Life of Erasmus; _Fisher_,
+History of the Reformation; _Mrs. Oliphant_, Dante; _Azarias_,
+Philosophy of Literature; _Schwickerath_, Jesuit Education.
+
+
+The mission of the humanistic leaders was to "awake the dead," for Greek
+had become in the fullest sense a dead language, and while classic Latin
+was still read, its spirit was not comprehended and therefore it also
+was practically dead. We have seen that the Italians were the first to
+catch the inspiration of this revival, and Germany, France, Spain, and
+England "were invited to her feast." The great leaders of Italy were
+Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. It is not the purpose here to discuss
+these men in all of their intellectual activities, but simply to
+consider the part of their work that had a bearing on education.
+
+
+THE ITALIAN HUMANISTS
+
+DANTE (1265-1321)
+
+Dante was born and educated in Florence. He was favored with a devoted
+teacher, Brunetto Latini, who was said to be "a great philosopher and a
+consummate master of rhetoric, not only knowing how to speak well, but
+to write well." Under him Dante became familiar with all of the great
+Latin poets, with philosophy, history, and theology. Dante always spoke
+of his teacher with great affection. Those were times of revolution and
+political disturbance, and Dante was readily drawn into politics. This
+caused his banishment and even endangered his life.
+
+Dante's greatest work is the "Divine Comedy," which has made his name
+immortal. His was the first great name in literature after the long dark
+period of the Middle Ages. It is said of him that "he was not the
+restorer of classic antiquity, but one of the great prophets of that
+restoration." He brought the Italian language into use in literature and
+gave to it a dignity that it has never lost. Dante prepared the way for
+the humanistic movement and was therefore an important factor in this
+great revival.
+
+
+PETRARCH (1304-1374)
+
+The father of Petrarch was an eminent jurist, and he desired his son to
+adopt his profession, but Petrarch had neither taste nor capacity for
+Roman law. He was determined to be a man of letters. Like Dante, he too
+mixed in politics, and several important diplomatic positions were given
+to him. Though he succeeded in learning a little Greek late in life,
+Petrarch was not a Greek scholar. This did not hinder him from being a
+warm advocate of the claims of the Greek language as an important
+element of a liberal education. Although he possessed a manuscript of
+Homer, "Homer was dumb to him, or rather he was deaf to Homer."
+
+Petrarch was the real founder of humanism. Being enthusiastic for the
+works of antiquity himself, he inspired the Italians with a remarkable
+zeal in the pursuit of classic lore; nor was his influence confined to
+the limits of his native country. He was the first to make a collection
+of classic works, and to bring to light the literary treasures which the
+monasteries had so carefully preserved for centuries. He inaugurated
+that great movement which "restored freedom, self-consciousness, and the
+faculty of progress to human intellect." He recognized that the most
+wonderful thing in the world is the human mind, the emancipation of
+which can be brought about only through its own activity. He was the
+first to appreciate the importance of Greek in human culture. Unlike
+Tertullian, Jerome, and Augustine, he believed that classic authors,
+together with the Holy Scriptures and the writings of the Church
+Fathers, produce the broadest intelligence. All of these have the same
+purpose, and all are necessary to human enlightenment. Petrarch broke
+down the unfruitful methods of the scholastics, and laid the foundations
+upon which modern education is based; namely, intellectual freedom,
+self-consciousness, and self-activity.
+
+
+BOCCACCIO (1313-1375)
+
+The third of the great Italian leaders in the humanistic movement was
+Boccaccio. At the age of twenty-five, while standing at the grave of
+Vergil, he decided to devote himself to a literary career. He admired
+the great work of Petrarch, and was proud that, "at his own expense, he
+was the first to have the works of Homer and other Greek authors brought
+to his native land; that he was the first to call and support a teacher
+of Greek; and that he was the first among all Italians who could read
+Homer in the original."
+
+
+THE GERMAN HUMANISTS
+
+The German mind is more earnest, disputative, and practical than the
+Italian, therefore the trend of German humanism was at first chiefly
+theological, and the study of the classic languages, especially Hebrew
+and Greek, was undertaken for the purpose of better understanding the
+Holy Scriptures. Only a few scholars, however, were interested, and not
+until a violent attack was made upon Reuchlin, was general attention
+attracted.
+
+
+AGRICOLA (1443-1485)
+
+Rudolphus Agricola was the first to prepare the northern countries for
+the reception of the classic revival. After studying for some time under
+the great Italian masters, he returned to Germany and accepted a
+professorship at Heidelberg, where he delivered courses of lectures on
+the literature of Greece and Rome. He lectured also at Worms at the
+request of the bishop, and drew around him a large number of students in
+both places. Hallam says of him, "No German wrote so pure a style, or
+possessed so large a portion of classic learning." He prepared the way
+for the introduction of humanistic teachings and some of his pupils
+became the great leaders of that movement among the Teutonic peoples.
+
+The testimony of Erasmus concerning Agricola is as follows: "There was
+no branch of knowledge in which he could not measure himself with the
+greatest masters. Among the Greeks, he was a pure Greek, among the
+Latins a pure Roman.... Even when he spoke _ex tempore_, his speech was
+so perfect and so pure that one could easily believe that one heard a
+Roman rather than a German. United with his powerful eloquence was the
+broadest erudition. He had investigated all the mysteries of philosophy,
+and thoroughly mastered every branch of music. In his later years he
+devoted his whole soul to the mastery of Hebrew and to the study of the
+Holy Scriptures. He cared but little for glory."
+
+
+REUCHLIN (1455-1522)
+
+Reuchlin may properly be called the first great German humanist. He was
+educated at Freiburg, Paris, and Basel, and gave especial attention to
+the classic studies, which had almost disappeared from the university
+courses in Germany. He took his master's degree at Basel, and then began
+to lecture on classical Latin and Greek. Being a born teacher, he drew
+about him a great number of students, who became interested in classic
+studies. He made several visits to Italy, where he imbibed the
+humanistic theories of the Italians, though he was already far advanced
+in those theories before he went to Italy. In 1481 he was appointed
+professor at Tuebingen, which thus became the first German university to
+teach humanistic doctrines.
+
+At Linz, where he had been sent on an embassy, he made the acquaintance
+of the emperor's Jewish physician, with whom he began the study of
+Hebrew. This marks an important epoch in his history, as he is best
+known for his Hebrew Grammar and Lexicon, published in 1506, and for his
+championship of the Hebrew literature. Owing to the scarcity of classic
+text-books, Reuchlin was obliged to mark out courses for his students,
+and, in a measure, to supply text-books for them. Much of his work in
+the university had to be dictated, and students were obliged to copy
+their work from manuscripts. He published a Latin lexicon and prepared
+the manuscript of a Greek grammar which he never published, but from
+which doubtless he drew in his work with students.
+
+In 1496 his friend Count Eberhard died, and Reuchlin's enemies succeeded
+in alienating the new prince, so he was glad to avail himself of the
+opportunity to go to the university of Heidelberg. Here he gave chief
+attention to Hebrew.
+
+While in Heidelberg he became involved in an unfortunate controversy
+regarding Hebrew literature, a controversy which was forced upon him.
+John Pfefferkorn, a converted Jew, zealous for the conversion of his
+race, obtained an order from the emperor to confiscate and destroy all
+Hebrew works which opposed the Christian faith. Reuchlin was appealed to
+as the highest authority on Hebrew, and he urged that, instead of
+destroying the literature, two professors should be appointed in each
+university to teach Hebrew and thereby refute the Jewish doctors by
+making the students acquainted with the Bible. The struggle continued
+for years, and although the Church and even the universities were
+against him, Reuchlin was finally victorious, thereby saving a noble
+literature to the world. This was a great victory for humanism. A short
+time before his death Reuchlin returned to Tuebingen, where he closed his
+illustrious career in 1522.
+
+Reuchlin was the first to introduce Greek into Germany, and the first to
+recognize the necessity of a knowledge of Hebrew in interpreting the
+Holy Scriptures. He began a reform in the schools which prepared the way
+for a like movement in the Church, and in Luther he saw the man who was
+destined to carry both of these reforms to fulfillment. "God be
+praised," said he, "in Luther they have found a man who will give them
+work enough to do, so that they can let me, an old man, go to my rest in
+peace."
+
+
+ERASMUS (1467-1536)
+
+Erasmus was born at Rotterdam. Though not a German, he belonged to the
+Teutonic race. He has well been called a "citizen of the world," as he
+lived in so many countries, and came to be the most learned man of his
+time. He was left an orphan at an early age, and his guardians placed
+him in a convent. They wished to make a monk of him so that they could
+inherit his patrimony, but this plan was resisted by the boy for a long
+time. The life of the convent was very distasteful to him, and though he
+afterward took vows, he never was in sympathy with asceticism. Possibly
+the condition of the monasteries at that time may have had something to
+do with the repugnance of Erasmus to the monastic life. He was certainly
+greatly relieved when the Pope absolved him from his vows.
+
+Erasmus was precocious as a child, and it was early predicted of him
+that he would be a great man, a prediction which he fully verified.
+Through the influence and help of the Bishop of Cambray, he was enabled
+to go to Paris for study, though the means furnished were not sufficient
+for his support. He took pupils and gave lectures, thereby supplying the
+deficiency in his funds. It is recorded that, in his eagerness for
+books, he said, "When I get money, I will first buy Greek books, and
+then clothing." He also studied at Oxford, and afterward at Turin, where
+he took the degree of Doctor of Divinity. Though many high offices in
+the Church, and many positions in universities, were offered to him, he
+refused them all, preferring to be an independent man of letters.
+Erasmus was recognized as the supreme literary authority of the world,
+and this lofty position was the summit of his ambition. Nothing could
+turn him aside from the path that led to that eminence, and, once
+attained, nothing could attract him away from it.
+
+Basel had become the center of the new printing industry. This led
+Erasmus to choose that city as his home for the latter part of his life,
+and here he furthered the cause of humanism as no other man had done, by
+editing and giving to the world many of the classic treasures of the
+monasteries. He translated Greek works into Latin, thereby making them
+available to the world, as Latin was better understood than Greek. His
+edition of the Greek Testament was his most eminent service, though his
+"Colloquies" are better known. His "Praise of Folly" is a satirical
+work, in which he holds up to ridicule the ignorance and vice of the
+monks.
+
+Though he never broke away from the Church, without doubt his sympathies
+were with the reformers. But neither the persuasions nor the
+denunciations of Luther could bring him to take a decided stand on
+either side. He thought that the reform could be wrought within the
+Church. He accepted the dogmas of the Church, and remained within it as
+long as he lived.
+
+Erasmus was the exact counterpart of Luther. He appealed to the limited
+few, Luther to the masses; he to the educated and higher classes, Luther
+to the ignorant and lowly; he was a man of reflection, Luther a man of
+action. The apparent vacillation of Erasmus may have been due to ill
+health, to the influence of the Pope, to the ties of the Church in which
+he had been reared, to the satisfaction he found in his eminent literary
+position, and to his dislike for controversy.
+
+Erasmus gives us some very valuable pedagogical teachings, which may be
+summed up as follows:--
+
+=Pedagogy of Erasmus.=--1. The mother is the natural educator of the
+child in its early years. The mother who does not care for the education
+of her children is only half a mother.
+
+2. Until the seventh year the child should have little to do but play,
+in order to develop the body. It must have no earnest work, but must be
+taught politeness.
+
+3. After the seventh year earnest work must begin. Latin and Greek
+(which should be studied together) must be taught early so that right
+pronunciation and a good vocabulary may be attained.
+
+4. The first subject to be learned is grammar. Language is necessary
+before a knowledge of other things can be gained.
+
+5. Teachers should be better trained and better paid, and suitable
+places must be furnished for the schools.
+
+6. The religious side of education must not be neglected.
+
+7. Great attention must be paid to the cultivation of the memory: (_a_)
+by a proper understanding of the subject; (_b_) by logical order in
+thinking; (_c_) by comparison.
+
+8. As the bee collects honey from many flowers, so knowledge is gathered
+from many sources.
+
+9. The foundation of all training of children must be laid in the home.
+Parents should know what their children ought to be taught. Above all
+things children must be taught to _obey_.
+
+10. The first care with girls is to inculcate in them religious
+feelings; the second to protect them from contamination; the third, to
+guard them from idleness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+THE REFORMATION AS AN EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE
+
+=Literature.=--_White_, Eighteen Christian Centuries; _Taylor_, History
+of Germany; _Draper_, Intellectual Development of Europe; _Guizot_,
+History of Civilization; _Lord_, Beacon Lights; _Seebohm_, The
+Protestant Revolution; _Gasquet_, Eve of the Reformation; _Spaulding_,
+History of the Reformation; _Bryce_, The Holy Roman Empire; _Morris_,
+Era of the Protestant Revolution; _Hurst_, History of the Reformation;
+Lewis, History of Germany; _Myers_, Mediaeval and Modern History;
+_Schiller_, The Thirty Years' War; _Hallam_, Literary History; _Kiddle
+and Schem_, Cyclopaedia of Education; _Dyer_, Modern Europe;
+_D'Aubigne_, History of the Reformation; _Yonge_, Three Centuries of
+Modern History; _Mombert_, Great Lives; _Schwickerath_, Jesuit
+Education.
+
+
+=Historical Conditions.=--At the beginning of the sixteenth century we
+find the stage of political, religious, and educational activity
+transferred from the shores of the Mediterranean to the north of the
+Alps. We have seen the great work of civilization taken from the Greek
+and Latin races and committed to the Teutonic race. We have traced the
+humanistic movement from its birthplace in Italy to Germany, where it
+found a more congenial atmosphere and a more suitable soil. The world
+was ripe for a great revolution, which was destined to advance the
+interests of mankind with gigantic strides.
+
+The invention of printing by Gutenberg, in the middle of the fifteenth
+century, must be mentioned as the primary material agency in forwarding
+this advance. It was said of this art that it would "give the deathblow
+to the superstition of the Middle Ages." It multiplied readers a
+hundredfold; it stimulated authorship; it revolutionized literature,
+because it made the preservation and dissemination of thought easy; it
+was a mighty influence in bringing about universal education, a
+principle for which the Reformation stood.
+
+Another event of great importance was the discovery of America, which
+stimulated various European enterprises. Thus, at the beginning of the
+sixteenth century, the world awakened from its long sleep, and
+educational enterprise was born anew.
+
+The German Reformation had been preceded by similar movements in other
+lands. Huss and Jerome of Prague, in Bohemia, Wyclif in England, Zwingli
+in Switzerland, the Waldenses in Italy, and the Albigenses in France,
+had raised their voices in solemn protest against clerical abuses,[52]
+and many of the reformers had paid for their temerity by martyrdom. But
+the German Reformation, under the leadership of Martin Luther, was
+destined to exert a mighty influence throughout northern Europe, and to
+set in motion impulses which were to shape all later history.
+
+The chief rulers of Europe were Frederick the Wise of Saxony, known as
+Luther's friend, Henry the Eighth of England, Francis the First of
+France, and Charles the Fifth, king of Spain, Naples, Sicily, and
+Austria, and afterward emperor of Germany. Leo the Tenth was Pope, and
+he had great influence in temporal affairs. Emperor Charles the Fifth
+was the most powerful ruler of this period. Though a foreigner in
+manners, customs, and sympathy, and unacquainted with the German tongue,
+he became emperor of Germany by bribing the electors who had a voice in
+selecting the ruler of that nation. It is said that he paid $1,500,000
+to these corrupt electors, besides making many promises of future
+favors. He was treacherous, and never hesitated to break the most solemn
+pledges when his interests so demanded. Bayard Taylor says of him, "His
+election was a crime, from the effects of which Germany did not recover
+for three hundred years."
+
+=Intellectual Conditions=.--These, then, were the external conditions
+which existed at the beginning of the sixteenth century. We have seen
+that the need of reformation was acknowledged on all sides. There were
+but few good teachers to be found, even in the Church which had so long
+been the mother of schools. Education was at such a low ebb, and the
+advantages offered by the schools were so poor, and of such a doubtful
+character, that but few persons cared to avail themselves of their
+privileges. Even the universities failed to educate. Luther says, "Is it
+not pitiable that a boy has been obliged to study twenty years or longer
+to learn enough bad Latin to become a priest, and read mass?" Again he
+says, "Such teachers and masters we have been obliged to have
+everywhere, who have known nothing themselves, and have been able to
+teach nothing good or useful."
+
+There was need, then, of reform in education as well as in religion, and
+Luther took the burden of both upon his shoulders. As an educational
+reformer, he has earned for himself the world's gratitude. It must be
+admitted that Luther's main purpose was the reformation of the Church,
+and that his educational work merely grew out of the need of general
+intelligence as a necessary adjunct to that work. Of the existing
+conditions, Compayre well says, "With La Salle and the foundation of the
+Institute of the Brethren of the Christian Schools, the historian of
+education recognizes the Catholic origin of primary instruction; in the
+decrees and laws of the French Revolution, its lay and philosophical
+origin; but it is to the Protestant Reformation,--to Luther in the
+sixteenth century, and to Comenius in the seventeenth,--that must be
+ascribed the honor of having first organized schools for the people. In
+its origin, the primary school is the child of Protestantism, and its
+cradle was the Reformation."[53]
+
+
+LUTHER (1483-1546)
+
+Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, Germany, of poor and humble parents.
+He was brought up under the rigid discipline of the typical German home,
+in which the rod was not spared. Upon this point he writes, "My parents'
+severity made me timid; their sternness and the strict life they led me
+made me afterward go into a monastery and become a monk. They meant
+well, but they did not understand the art of adjusting their
+punishments."
+
+When he was fourteen years of age, his parents, then in better
+circumstances, sent him to Magdeburg to prepare for the university. But
+the expense being too great, he was withdrawn from this school and sent
+to Eisenach, where he could live with relatives. Here he sang in the
+street for alms, and his sweet voice attracted the attention of Ursula
+Cotta, a wealthy lady, who took him to her own home and gave him an
+excellent teacher.
+
+When eighteen years of age he entered the university of Erfurt, then a
+center of humanistic learning. He made marvelous progress in his
+studies until he took his degree. His father had intended him for the
+law, but Luther determined to devote himself to the Church, much to his
+father's disappointment. Accordingly he became an Augustinian monk when
+twenty-two years of age. Unlike many of his brethren, he kept up his
+studies while in the monastery, and was called to a professorship in the
+new university at Wittenberg in 1508, where he found an ample field for
+his remarkable powers. Two years later, he went as a delegate to the
+papal court at Rome, where his eyes were opened to the condition of the
+Church in her holiest sanctuaries. Returning to Wittenberg, he continued
+his studies and his lectures, and drew about him a great number of
+students. His lectures and his writings against the practices of the
+Church became so pronounced that he was summoned before the Diet of
+Worms and commanded to retract. This he refused to do in the memorable
+words: "Here I stand; I cannot do otherwise. God help me! Amen." On his
+return from Worms, fearing for his safety, his friends took him prisoner
+and confined him in the Wartburg castle at Eisenach. During the nine
+months of his confinement he translated the Bible into German.[54]
+Luther took great pains to make the language so pure and plain that it
+could be understood by the common people, to whom he appealed. He was
+never ashamed of his humble origin. When he came to be the honored
+friend and trusted adviser of princes and kings, he was wont to say, "I
+am a peasant's son; my father, grandfather, and remote ancestors were
+nothing but veritable peasants."
+
+The language of Luther's translation of the Bible became the standard
+German, which was to supplant the many dialects.
+
+His great watchword was, "Make the people acquainted with the Word of
+God." But the Bible was of little use to the masses so long as they
+could not read. Luther therefore set himself sturdily to the improvement
+of the schools, which were in a deplorable condition. He urged the
+principle of parental responsibility for the education of children.
+"Believe me," said he, "it is far more important that you exercise care
+in training your children than that you seek indulgences, say many
+prayers, go much to church, or make many vows." His pedagogy constitutes
+the foundation of the German common school system of to-day. Luther,
+then, must be remembered as the greatest educator of his time for two
+reasons.
+
+1. _He gave the German people a language by his translation of the Holy
+Scriptures._
+
+2. _He laid the foundation of the German common school system._
+
+=Luther's Pedagogy.=--1. Parents are responsible for the education of
+their children.
+
+2. It is the duty of the State to require regular attendance at school
+of every child, and the parents must be held accountable for
+non-attendance.
+
+3. Religion is the foundation of all school instruction.
+
+4. Every child must learn not only the ordinary subjects taught at
+school, but also the practical duties of life,--boys, a trade; girls,
+housework.
+
+5. Every clergyman must have pedagogical training and experience in
+teaching before entering upon a pastorate.[55]
+
+6. The teacher must be trained, and in that training singing is
+included.
+
+7. Children must be taught according to nature's laws,--the knowledge of
+the thing must precede its name.
+
+8. Due respect should be shown to the office of teacher, and by example
+and precept every teacher should be worthy of respect.
+
+9. His course of study included Latin and Greek, history, mathematics,
+singing, and physical training, besides religion.
+
+10. Every school should have a library.
+
+11. It is the inherent right of every child to be educated, and the
+State must provide the means to that end.
+
+The principles above stated are fundamental in the German school systems
+of the present time. Religious instruction, trained teachers, compulsory
+and universal education, are the central principles of the schools of
+Germany and of many other nations. Luther could not give his chief
+attention to education, but with deep insight he saw the necessity of
+it, and laid the foundations upon which later generations have built a
+marvelous structure, true to the design of its architect.
+
+
+MELANCHTHON (1497-1560)
+
+Philipp Melanchthon was the friend, colaborer, and adviser of Luther.
+Luther was a resolute, energetic, impulsive man; Melanchthon was quiet,
+reserved, and conciliating. There is no doubt that these two men of
+such opposite dispositions exerted a salutary influence upon each
+other,--Luther stimulated and encouraged Melanchthon; Melanchthon
+checked and restrained Luther. It is certain that each was helpful to
+the other, and that the great cause of the Reformation, to which they
+mutually consecrated themselves, was furthered by their friendship and
+union.
+
+Melanchthon had excellent training as a boy, and early showed signs of
+unusual ability. At fifteen he took his bachelor's degree at Heidelberg
+University, and when only eighteen years of age Erasmus said of him,
+"What hopes may we not conceive of Philipp Melanchthon, though as yet
+very young, almost a boy, but equally to be admired for his proficiency
+in both languages! What quickness of invention! What purity of diction!
+What vastness of memory! What variety of reading! What modesty and
+gracefulness of behavior! And what a princely mind!"
+
+After completing his course at Heidelberg, he went to Tuebingen, where
+his studies were directed by Reuchlin, who was his kinsman. He gave
+public lectures at Tuebingen on rhetoric and on various classic authors,
+attracting worldwide attention. In 1518 he was called to the Greek
+professorship at Wittenberg, where he made the acquaintance of Luther.
+Bishop Hurst says, "The life of Melanchthon was now so thoroughly
+identified with that of Luther that it is difficult to separate the two.
+They lived in the same town of Wittenberg. They were in constant
+consultation, each doing what he was most able to do, and both working
+with unwearied zeal for the triumph of the cause to which they gave
+their life."
+
+His success at Wittenberg was assured from the first. Though youthful in
+appearance, being but twenty-one years of age, his pure logic, his
+profound knowledge of philosophy, his familiarity with the Scriptures,
+his perfect mastery of the classic languages, his fine diction, and his
+broad knowledge awoke enthusiasm at once. Wittenberg, possessing two
+such great men as Luther and Melanchthon, became the center of
+humanistic studies, not less than two thousand students being attracted
+to its university. Melanchthon was an inspiring teacher; among his
+pupils were men who afterward became leaders of thought in Germany, and
+who did much to shape the destiny of Europe.
+
+Perhaps Melanchthon's greatest service to the schools was his
+publication of text-books, which were very much needed. He wrote a Greek
+grammar for boys when himself but a boy of sixteen. Grammar he defined
+as "the science of speaking and writing correctly," a definition that
+has been scarcely improved upon. Ten years later his Latin grammar was
+published, after being tested for some years in his classes. For more
+than one hundred years this was the principal Latin grammar in use, and
+there were not less than fifty-one editions of it.
+
+He wrote also text-books on logic, rhetoric, and ethics. It will be seen
+that the trivium--grammar, rhetoric, logic--furnished the foundation of
+his literary activity, so far as the schools are concerned. He was
+active also in authorship of theological works, producing the first
+theological work of the Protestant Church, the "Loci Communes," which
+Luther placed next to the Bible for theological study.
+
+The interest of Melanchthon for education made him the chief adviser and
+leader among the school men. His advice was constantly sought in the
+educational movements of Germany. After visiting the schools of Saxony,
+he drew up the "Saxony School Plan," which furnished the basis of
+various similar organizations throughout Germany. There were three
+fundamental principles in this system.
+
+1. There must not be too many studies in the schools, and Latin should
+be the only language taught.
+
+2. There must not be too many books used.
+
+3. The children should be divided into at least three classes, or
+grades.
+
+In the first grade, reading, writing, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed,
+prayers and hymns, and some Latin should be taught. In the second, the
+Latin grammar, Latin authors, and religion. In the third, completion of
+the grammar, difficult Latin authors, rhetoric, and logic. Williams
+calls this "Melanchthon's somewhat artless ideas of a proper school
+system," which he excuses as being "marked possibly by the crudity of a
+first effort at organization, but more probably controlled in form by
+the fewness of teachers in the schools of his time."
+
+Melanchthon is also known as the first Protestant psychologist.
+
+To sum up the educational work of Melanchthon, we find that he was a
+"born teacher," attracting and inspiring thousands of young men whom he
+instructed; that he was the author of many text-books for the schools,
+and of theological works; that he was an educational authority; that he
+outlined a complete school system; and that he was the adviser and
+friend of Luther in the work of the Reformation.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[52] See Brother Azarias, "Philosophy of Literature," pp. 122-124.
+
+[53] "History of Pedagogy," p. 112.
+
+Karl Schmidt, in speaking of the spirit of the Reformation, says, "These
+ideas form the basis of the common school, which up to this time had
+been sporadically established only in isolated places." "Geschichte der
+Paedagogik," Vol. III, p. 16.
+
+[54] In 1877, Mr. H. Stevens published at South Kensington, a "List of
+Bibles in the Caxton Exhibition." He says: "Not only are there many
+editions of the Latin Vulgate long anterior to that time (1507 A.D.),
+but there were actually nine _German_ editions of the Bible in the
+Caxton exhibition earlier than 1483, the year of Luther's birth, and at
+least three more before the end of the century." The general use of the
+printing press about this time made popular translations opportune, as
+it placed the Bible within the reach of all. It thus became a powerful
+instrument for universal education.
+
+[55] This was because the pastor had an oversight of the school, a
+practice still very common in Germany.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+OTHER PROTESTANT EDUCATORS
+
+
+The educational work of Luther and Melanchthon bore remarkable fruit.
+Luther had urged parents to see to it that their children should be
+educated, and had appealed to magistrates to assist the Church in
+maintaining schools. He insisted upon compulsory education in the
+memorable words, "The authorities are bound to compel their subjects to
+send their children to school." As a result schools were organized in
+Nuremberg, Frankfort, Ilfeld, Strasburg, Hamburg, Bremen, Dantzic, and
+many other places. Eton, Rugby, Harrow, and other educational
+institutions were founded about this time in England.
+
+Melanchthon's course of study (Schulplan) for Saxony had appeared in
+1528, and in 1558 the school law of Wuertemberg, by far the best yet
+enacted, went into force. Other German provinces adopted more or less
+efficient school systems, and for the first time in the history of
+Christian education, the duty of the State to assume the responsibility
+of the education of its subjects was recognized. Out of these primitive
+systems have grown the completer systems of the present, after more than
+three centuries of experiment, study, and struggle.
+
+The Reformation taught the right of every person to an education,
+primarily, it is true, for religious ends, and it gradually came to be
+understood that the State must assume that duty. For the Church had
+neither the means nor the power to accomplish universal education. But
+it was not till the nineteenth century that this end was reached,
+whereby the advantages of education were offered to the child of every
+parent of whatever rank or station, and the State assumed full control
+of the schools.
+
+This was the great work marked out by Luther and Melanchthon, and their
+pupils and disciples carried that work to its fulfillment. Among these
+immediate followers we may mention Sturm,[56] Trotzendorf, and Neander,
+who contributed to educational reform.
+
+
+STURM[57] (1507-1589)
+
+Johann Sturm is counted among the greatest schoolmen that the
+Reformation produced, though he belonged to the French rather than the
+German reformers. He received an excellent training in the schools of
+Germany, and completed his education at Paris, where he afterward became
+professor of Greek. He soon gained such a wide reputation that when only
+thirty years of age he was called to the rectorship of the _Gymnasium_
+at Strasburg, a position which he held for forty-seven years, and where
+he gained lasting fame. This fame rests not on his work as a teacher,
+but as an organizer and an executive. Paulsen doubts his having been a
+great teacher. He says, "He was a man who gave his attention to great
+things. He had his hands in universal politics; he was in the service of
+nearly all the European potentates, drawing his yearly salary from
+all.... It is not probable that such a wonderful man was also a good
+schoolmaster."[58]
+
+But his great work was the organization of the Strasburg _Gymnasium_,
+especially its course of study, which became the model for the Latin
+schools for many years. Sturm's counsel was sought by schoolmen all over
+Europe, and he came to be the recognized leader of educational forces.
+His school course took the boy at six years of age and provided at first
+a nine years', afterward a ten years' course, ending at the sixteenth
+year of age. He added a five years' course to this later, and evidently
+planned to found a university.[59]
+
+Sturm believed that the mother should have charge of the child for the
+first six years of its life. In his ten years' course he required ten
+years of Latin, six of Greek, besides rhetoric, logic, religion, and
+music. He introduced the practice of translating Latin into German and
+then translating it back into Latin.[60] His course took no account of
+German, history, mathematics, or science. He thus sought to reinstate
+Greece and Rome, but entirely neglected those things which prepare for
+life. Williams says, "With regard to Sturm's plan of organization, it
+should be borne in mind that it is the very earliest scheme that we
+have, looking to an _extended_, _systematic_, _well-articulated_ course
+of studies for a school of several teachers, in which is assigned to
+each class such portion of the subject-matter of the course of
+instruction as is suited to the age and stage of advancement of its
+pupils."[61]
+
+This course of study attracted the attention of all Europe. Karl Schmidt
+says that in 1578 "his school numbered several thousand students, among
+whom were two hundred of noble birth, twenty-four counts and barons, and
+three princes--from Portugal, Poland, Denmark, England, etc."
+
+Paulsen, while not belittling the work of Sturm, thinks that the
+celebrated course has but little in it different from the courses of the
+Wittenberg reformers. He says, "If Melanchthon had had the planning of a
+school course for a large city, it would have been much the same (as
+Sturm's). The Saxon school plan of 1528 was effective only in small
+cities and country places. The basis of both (Melanchthon's and Sturm's)
+is the same,--grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, with music and religion. In
+the large schools, like those of Nuremberg and Hamburg, a beginning of
+Greek and mathematics was added."[62]
+
+Sturm's course has the merit of definiteness, thoroughness, and unity.
+There seems to be some doubt as to his success in carrying it out. It is
+certain that but few students completed his course compared with the
+number who began it. Instead of sixty to seventy pupils in the last
+class, there were only nine or ten. The influence of Sturm, however,
+spread not only over Germany, but also reached to many other countries,
+and his Strasburg course of study shaped the work in the classical
+schools for many years.
+
+
+TROTZENDORF (1490-1556)
+
+Valentine Trotzendorf was born in poverty and beset by many difficulties
+in boyhood. His mother was a constant inspiration to him, and when he
+was disposed to give up the struggle, her words, "My son, stick to your
+school," led him to continue until he overcame the obstacles. When ready
+for the university he went to Leipsic, where he studied Greek and Latin
+for two years. In 1515 he became a teacher in a village near Leipsic, a
+position that he retained for three years. He then went to Wittenberg,
+where he studied under Melanchthon for five years, and became very
+intimate with that great teacher. His fame as a teacher was made at
+Goldberg, where he was thirty-five years rector of a school. Like
+Melanchthon, he believed that the fear of the Lord is the beginning of
+wisdom, and that the school is an adjunct of the Church. With Sturm, he
+laid great stress upon the classic languages, and insisted that his
+pupils should speak in the Latin tongue. As a teacher he possessed
+remarkable power. He loved to mingle with his pupils, converse with and
+question them, and he had great skill in drawing them out. In his
+instruction he employed many illustrations, and proceeded from the
+concrete to the abstract.
+
+His discipline was unique and original. He introduced a practice before
+unknown, namely, that of self-government on the part of the students, an
+experiment that has been tried in recent years with excellent results in
+many American institutions for higher learning. Trotzendorf established
+a senate of twelve students, a consul, and other officers, who were made
+responsible for the government of the school. These constituted a court
+of which he was president. Offenders were brought before the tribunal
+and tried with great formality and dignity. This body sentenced the
+culprit to such punishment as his guilt merited, the master reserving to
+himself the right of being a court of final appeal. Besides the officers
+above named, there were others who were in charge of the boys in their
+domestic relations,--such as keeping guard over their punctuality, table
+manners, diligence in study, etc. It was considered a high honor to hold
+one of these offices. The scheme worked well under Trotzendorf; it
+taught self-government, and inculcated the spirit of freedom as well as
+an intelligent submission to law. Trotzendorf thus gives an example of
+school government which is quite in accord with the spirit of modern
+times. He also had his best pupils instruct the lower classes under his
+supervision, and thus prepared them to go forth as teachers. Teachers
+from his school were sought for by intelligent patrons of education in
+all parts of Europe.
+
+
+NEANDER (1525-1595)
+
+Michael Neander was another of Melanchthon's pupils who became great as
+a teacher. Neander was for forty-five years the sole teacher of a Latin
+school at Ilfeld. Though he never had many pupils, his school was
+pronounced by Melanchthon as "the best seminary in the country." He was
+a most successful teacher, and the students whom he sent to the
+university were found to possess the very best preparation, and always
+stood among the first. He was well versed in medicine and chemistry, and
+was one of the best Greek and Latin scholars of his time. Contrary to
+the practice of his contemporaries, he favored the teaching of
+geography, history, and the natural sciences. His position in regard to
+the sciences places him in advance of other educators, and in this he
+was a follower of Melanchthon, who also believed that science should be
+taught.
+
+Neander is celebrated also for the Greek and Latin text-books which he
+wrote. Speaking of these books, Paulsen says, "What he especially
+emphasized is: as few and as short rules as possible, and these rules
+are to be progressive; at the proper time they are to be committed to
+memory. The pupil must also commit words, phrases, and sentences to
+memory, which is equally important." Lastly, he gave a careful outline
+of the work of a boy for every year from the sixth to the eighteenth.
+This was especially valuable for that period when parents and teachers
+alike had nothing to guide them except the monastic course of study, and
+when the world was giving birth to new theories in education as well as
+in religion.
+
+Neander's whole life was concentrated on the work of teaching, and in
+the schoolroom he found his greatest joy. Here, also, he made a lasting
+impression upon his pupils and upon mankind. His father was mistaken
+when he addressed the boy, "Into a cloister with you; you will amount to
+nothing in the world."
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Other great teachers in the schools and in the universities carried
+forward the educational work begun by the great reformers. Many cities
+had founded schools, and several of the German states had established
+school systems. The educational ideas of the Protestant Reformation had
+taken deep root, and were destined to spread over the whole world,
+gaining in force with each succeeding century.
+
+The practical outcome of this great movement was the establishment of
+schools in every village in Germany under the direction of the pastor,
+and where he was unable to teach, under his clerk or assistant. As the
+chief purpose was to prepare the children for entrance to the church by
+confirmation, religion was the center of the school course. But reading,
+writing, arithmetic, and singing were also taught.
+
+The clerk of the church gradually became the schoolmaster, and while the
+relations of these two offices have materially changed, there is still a
+close official connection between the two, particularly in the country.
+In many cases the pastor is the local superintendent of the school, and
+the teacher is the clerk and chorister of the church. As fast as
+Lutheran churches were organized, schools were also established in
+connection with them. Nor were boys alone included in the work of
+education. Girls' schools were organized and an effort was made at
+universal education. Many provinces adopted advanced school laws, and
+the principle of compulsory education was recognized, though by no means
+successfully carried out.
+
+Thus was born in the middle of the sixteenth century the common school,
+and thus was recognized the right of all men to an education, and a
+practical illustration of the means of securing it was given to the
+world.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[56] Though Sturm was not a Lutheran, he was a Protestant, being a
+follower of Calvin.
+
+[57] See Quick, "Educational Reformers," and Williams, "History of
+Modern Education," p. 88.
+
+[58] "Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts."
+
+[59] Sturm's school course appeared in 1538. It was not the oldest
+school course of the Protestants. The oldest school course for a German
+school was prepared by Johannes Agricola and Hermann Talich in 1525 for
+the school at Eisleben, Luther's birthplace. Indeed, Paulsen thinks that
+Melanchthon had a hand in its preparation. He says ("Geschichte des
+Gelehrten Unterrichts," p. 182), "This is the oldest published school
+course of the Reformed Church, which, if not composed by Melanchthon,
+was without doubt outlined, or at least approved, by him." This was
+discovered in 1865 by F. L. Hoffmann in the Hamburg city library.
+
+[60] See Ascham, p. 191, and Ratke, p. 210.
+
+[61] "History of Modern Education," p. 91.
+
+[62] "Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts," p. 197.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+THE JESUITS AND THEIR EDUCATION
+
+=Literature.=--_Draper_, Intellectual Development of Europe; _Durrell_,
+A New Life in Education; _Dyer_, Modern Europe; _Fisher_, History of the
+Reformation; _Guizot_, History of Civilization; _Ferris_, Great Leaders;
+_Lord_, Beacon Lights; _Parkman_, The Jesuits in North America; _White_,
+Eighteen Christian Centuries; _Quick_, Educational Reformers; _Symonds_,
+Renaissance in Italy; _Hughes_, Loyola; _Larned_, History for Ready
+Reference; _Schwickerath_, Jesuit Education; _Chateaubriand_, The Genius
+of Christianity.
+
+
+=The Order.=--The remarkable spread of Protestantism, however, was not
+to go on unchallenged. Already before the rupture of the Church, the
+need of a better-educated clergy had been acknowledged. We have seen
+that Luther and the Reformers laid great stress upon the education of
+the young as a means of propagating the new faith, and they had employed
+this means with great success. It is not to be gathered from this that
+the Roman Church had been unmindful of her duty in the training of the
+young. It has already been shown that the Church maintained education
+from the beginning of the Christian era down through the Middle Ages,
+that she never slackened in her zeal for this work, and that she held it
+to be her right and duty, as she does to this day, to train the young.
+At this very time she was maintaining many schools. But the "Order of
+Jesus" was destined to systematize education in such a degree as the
+Church had never witnessed.
+
+It has been claimed that the founding of the "Society of Jesus" was a
+"Counter-Reformation," the purpose of which was to check the growth of
+Protestantism. Whatever may have been the effect of its work in this
+direction, it seems clear that such was not the purpose for which it was
+organized. Schwickerath shows that it is doubtful if the founder of the
+Jesuit order had ever heard the name of the German Reformer. He
+says,[63] "The Papal Letters and the Constitutions assign as the special
+object of the Society: 'The progress of souls in a good life and
+knowledge of religion; the propagation of faith by public preaching, the
+Spiritual Exercises and works of charity, and particularly the
+instruction of youth and ignorant persons in the Christian religion.'"
+It cannot be denied, whatever the original purpose of the Society, that
+it not only checked the onward march of Protestantism, but it even
+restored many provinces and communities to their fealty to the Mother
+Church. How well the last clause of the admonition above quoted was
+carried out will be seen when we remember that the Jesuits originated
+the most successful educational system of the sixteenth, seventeenth,
+and eighteenth centuries, a system having a definite end in view, and
+whose adherents by indomitable energy, by self-sacrifice, by oneness of
+purpose, secured remarkable success. Let us turn our attention to the
+founding of the "Order."
+
+=Loyola= (1491-1556), the originator of the order, was a Spanish
+nobleman. While recovering from a severe wound received in battle, he
+read some religious books which made such a profound impression upon him
+that he resolved to consecrate himself to religious work. Not being an
+educated man, he devoted some years to study, and while at the
+university of Paris he gathered around him other young men who also were
+ready to consecrate themselves to the service of God. They formed
+themselves into the "Order of Jesus," with the avowed purpose at first
+of rescuing Jerusalem from the hands of the infidels. This was not to
+be done by force of arms, as in case of the crusaders, but by peaceful
+means. This purpose was abandoned, but the zealous missionary spirit of
+the Jesuits endured. In 1540 Pope Paul III. recognized the new order and
+gave it the sanction of the Church. The organization was military in
+character, Loyola becoming its first general.
+
+=The Growth of the Society= was remarkable from the outset. In 1600 it
+had 200 schools; in 1710, 612 colleges, 157 boarding or normal schools,
+59 houses for novitiates, 340 residences, 200 missions, and 24
+universities. The college at Clermont had, in 1651, 2000 students, and
+in 1675, 3000 students. These institutions controlled the education of
+the Catholic Church in all Europe, and many Protestant young men also
+were attracted to the Jesuit schools by their superior teachers and
+their thorough training.
+
+The society became so strong that various attempts were made to check
+its power. It spread, however, to China and Hindustan, to the Indian
+tribes of North America, and to South America. Its spirit and its
+practices aroused the suspicion of princes and people, of many Catholics
+as well as Protestants. In 1773 the Jesuits were in possession of 41
+provinces, and had 22,589 members, of whom 11,295 were priests. Since
+that time popes have suppressed them, rulers have expelled them from
+their countries, their property and power have been taken from them,
+until their influence has been greatly lessened and their progress
+checked.
+
+=Jesuit Education.=--Unlike the monastics, the Jesuits mingled with the
+world; they assumed no peculiarities of dress, and held themselves ready
+to act as missionaries to the most remote parts of the world, as agents
+of the Church to which they so fully consecrated themselves, and as
+teachers of youth. They established schools everywhere, and placed them
+in charge of teachers of remarkable skill and pedagogical training.[64]
+We have seen that their efforts were chiefly directed to higher
+education, their schools being designed for boys not less than fourteen
+years of age. In general, primary education did not enter into their
+scheme. Schwickerath thinks that the "Jesuits could not undertake
+elementary education" because "they had never men enough to supply the
+demands for higher education."[65] This shows that they held higher
+education as of the greater importance, and the same author further
+adds: "Besides, the whole intellectual training of the Jesuits fitted
+them better for the higher branches." They reached sons of princes,
+noblemen, and others who constituted the influential classes,[66] but
+"the Constitutions expressly laid down that poverty and mean extraction
+were never to be any hindrance to a pupil's admission."[67] Instruction
+was free.
+
+Their schools became the most efficient and the most popular means of
+education furnished throughout Europe,--and justly so, for their work
+was thorough, their teachers were competent and well trained, and their
+course of study comprehensive. It is worthy of especial note that all
+teachers of the Jesuit schools were carefully trained before they were
+allowed to give instruction. This is the first time in history that the
+necessity of special preparation for the work of teaching was recognized
+as an essential element in the work of education.
+
+Every Jesuit school was divided into two departments, the lower,
+_studia inferiora_, consisting of five classes, and the higher, _studia
+superiora_, requiring two or three years. Boys were admitted to the
+lower course at the age of fourteen, and the work consisted chiefly of
+the study of the humanities, while that of the advanced course embraced
+philosophy and theology.[68] With reference to these courses of study,
+Quick says, "The Jesuit system stands out in the history of education as
+a remarkable instance of a school system elaborately thought out and
+worked as a whole." Again, he says of the _Ratio Studiorum_:[69] "It
+points out a perfectly attainable goal, and carefully defines the road
+by which that goal is to be approached. For each class was prescribed
+not only the work to be done, but also the end to be kept in view."
+Surely these are most commendable features of any course of study. The
+work was remarkably thorough in every detail.
+
+After the society had been in existence some forty years, Claudius
+Aquaviva became its General Superior. He at once began the study of the
+educational problem, using all the resources of his office in obtaining
+information, and employing his executive ability in producing an
+improved method of study. A committee of twelve most eminent churchmen
+was appointed in 1581 to study the question, and three years later a
+commission of six, representing different countries, began the labor of
+preparing a course of study. Their work, called the _Ratio
+Studiorum_,[70] completed in 1599, has remained, with some
+modifications, the guide of Jesuit institutions of learning.
+
+=Emulation=.--Emulation was employed to stimulate pupils to work and to
+secure good conduct. Prizes, decorations, rewards, titles, were offered
+as a means of attaining desired ends. Emulation is a natural instinct in
+mankind, and it may be utilized to stimulate endeavor and "foster
+ambition." The principle ever to be kept in mind should be _excellency
+without degrading others_. Schwickerath thinks that such was the spirit
+in which the Jesuits employed this incentive.[71] He admits, however,
+that there are dangers connected with prizes, and, on the whole, that
+certain methods of fostering emulation recommended by the _Ratio
+Studiorum_ are less suitable to northern countries and less in
+accordance with modern taste.
+
+While corporal punishment was allowed, it was generally administered by
+an official disciplinarian. It was seldom used, however, the discipline
+being mild and humane.
+
+=Criticism of Jesuit Education.=--As to the efficiency of the
+instruction in the Jesuit schools, opinions widely differ. Bacon and
+Descartes indorse it in highest terms, while Leibnitz, Voltaire, and
+others are equally strong in its condemnation. Bacon remarks, "As to
+whatever relates to the instruction of the young, we must consult the
+schools of the Jesuits, for there can be nothing that is better done."
+Leibnitz, on the other hand, says, "In the matter of education, the
+Jesuits have remained below mediocrity." Ranke, in speaking of the
+success of the Jesuit schools, says, "It was found that young persons
+learned more under them in half a year than with others in two years."
+
+Mr. Quick says: "I have said that the object which the Jesuits proposed
+in their teaching was not the highest object. They did not aim at
+developing _all_ the faculties of their pupils, but merely the receptive
+and reproductive faculties. When the young man had acquired a thorough
+mastery of the Latin language for all purposes, when he was well versed
+in the theological and philosophical opinions of his preceptors, when he
+was skillful in dispute, and could make a brilliant display from the
+resources of a well-stored memory, he had reached the highest point to
+which the Jesuits sought to lead him."[72] Some critics of the Jesuits
+claim that they lack in originality of thinking, and that they neglect
+training in the power of forming correct judgments. They have produced,
+however, many great men.
+
+=Summary.=--Summarizing the educational work of the Jesuits, the
+following would appear to us to be just:--
+
+1. Their educational system was by far the most efficient and successful
+of any during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries.
+
+2. This, however, applies only to higher education, as primary education
+was not undertaken by them.
+
+3. They made their schools interesting, and learning pleasant. Their
+work was thorough, their consecration complete, their success as
+teachers marvelous, they being the greatest schoolmasters of their time.
+
+4. They produced a course of study, the _Ratio Studiorum_, which lays
+principal stress upon the humanities and religious instruction.
+
+5. They taught the necessity of trained teachers, and developed a
+remarkable power and tact in the work of instruction and school
+management.
+
+6. They made use of emulation as a means of stimulating ambition,--a
+principle that tends to arouse the baser motives, and which is therefore
+to be used guardedly.
+
+7. They were indefatigable in missionary enterprise, and zealous in the
+propagation of their principles, both religious and educational.
+
+8. They stimulated authorship, advanced learning, and produced many
+great men.
+
+9. They exerted a powerful influence upon the intellectual, social, and
+political movements of their time.
+
+
+THE PORT ROYALISTS
+
+Opposed to the Jesuits was another body of Catholics, sometimes called
+Jansenists from the organizer of the movement, and sometimes Port
+Royalists, because their chief school was at Port Royal near Paris.
+Their purpose was to check the progress of the Jesuits, to promote
+greater spirituality in the Church, and to revive the pure Catholicism
+of St. Augustine. Among their great leaders may be mentioned Pascal,
+Nicole, and Launcelot. The purpose of the Jansenists was very different
+from that of the Jesuits, and their methods were more modern. They gave
+preference to modern languages, while the Jesuits gave chief attention
+to the classic tongues. Their discipline, like that of the Jesuits, was
+humane, but firm.
+
+Their greatest contribution to education is the _phonic method_ of
+spelling. They also laid stress upon the use of objects, the development
+of the sense perceptions, especially in early childhood. One of their
+axioms was, "The intelligence of childhood always being very dependent
+on the senses, we must, as far as possible, address our instruction to
+the senses, and cause it to reach the mind, not only through hearing,
+but also through seeing." This appears to be the first instance in which
+_object teaching_ was taught as a principle, a principle which Bacon,
+Comenius, Pestalozzi, and Froebel worked out, and which has been one of
+the most important factors of modern educational progress.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[63] "Jesuit Education," p. 77.
+
+[64] See Hughes, "Loyola," pp. 46, 113, 156, 282. Also Schwickerath,
+"Jesuit Education," p. 415.
+
+[65] "Jesuit Education," p. 105. See also Hughes, "Loyola," pp. 4, 14,
+43, 46, 68, 72, 82, and 86 (lines 12-23).
+
+[66] See Hughes, "Loyola," pp. 72, 151.
+
+[67] "Educational Reformers" p. 26.
+
+[68] K. Schmidt, Vol. III, p. 230.
+
+[69] "Educational Reformers," p. 34.
+
+[70] See Hughes, "Loyola," p. 141, for full description of this work and
+outline of the course. Also Schwickerath, "Jesuit Education," p. 191.
+
+[71] See Hughes, "Loyola," p. 511.
+
+[72] "Educational Reformers," p. 35.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+OTHER EDUCATORS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+
+=Literature.=--_H. M. Skinner_, The Schoolmaster in Literature, The
+Schoolmaster in Comedy and Satire; _Gill_, Systems of Education;
+_Quick_, Educational Reformers; _Williams_, History of Modern Education;
+_Besant_, Rabelais; _Monroe_, Educational Ideal; _Collins_, Montaigne;
+_Emerson_, Representative Men; _Vogel_, Geschichte der Paedagogik;
+_Carlisle_, Two Great Teachers (Ascham and Arnold); _Azarias_, Essays
+Educational; _Davidson_, History of Education.
+
+
+We have thus far discussed educators who were directly connected with
+the great Protestant and Catholic movements. There were others who were
+more or less independent of these movements. Among these we may mention
+Roger Ascham, Rabelais, and Montaigne.
+
+
+ASCHAM (1515-1568)
+
+Roger Ascham was the most celebrated English educator of the sixteenth
+century. He was educated at Cambridge, and studied three years in
+Germany. He had a thorough knowledge of the classic languages. For these
+reasons he was chosen tutor to Elizabeth, a position which he held for
+two years. Upon her accession to the throne, Ascham came to read with
+her several hours a day, and she retained her affection for her old
+teacher throughout his life.
+
+His chief literary work is his "Scholemaster," which is the first
+educational classic in English. Dr. Johnson says of this book, "It
+contains, perhaps, the best advice that ever was given for the study of
+languages." This method was as follows, given in Ascham's words: "First,
+let him teach the child, cheerfully and plainly, the cause and matter of
+the letter (Cicero's Epistles); then, let him construe it into English
+so oft as the child may easily carry away the understanding of it;
+lastly, parse it over perfectly. This done, then let the child by and by
+both construe and parse it over again; so that it may appear that the
+child doubteth in nothing that his master has taught him before.
+
+"After this, the child must take a paper book, and sitting in some place
+where no man shall prompt him, by himself let him translate into English
+his former lesson. Then showing it to his master, let the master take
+from him his Latin book, and pausing an hour at the least, then let the
+child translate his own English into Latin again in another paper book.
+When the child bringeth it turned into Latin, the master must compare it
+with Tully's book, and lay them both together, and where the child doth
+well, praise him, where amiss, point out why Tully's use is better.
+
+"Thus the child will easily acquire a knowledge of grammar, and also the
+ground of almost all the rules that are so busily taught by the master,
+and so hardly learned by the scholar in all common schools. The
+translation is the most common and most commendable of all other
+exercises for youth; most common, for all your constructions in grammar
+schools be nothing else but translations; but because they be not
+_double_ translations (as I do require), they bring forth but simple and
+single commodity; and because also they lack the daily use of writing,
+which is the only thing that breedeth deep root, both in the wit for
+good understanding, and in the memory for sure keeping of all that is
+learned; most commendable also, and that by the judgment of all authors
+which entreat of these exercises."[73]
+
+Ascham often refers to his illustrious pupil in claiming merit for his
+system. He says, "And a better and nearer example herein may be our most
+noble Queen Elizabeth, who never took yet Greek nor Latin grammar in her
+hand after the first declining of a noun and a verb; but only by this
+double translating of Demosthenes and Isocrates daily, without missing,
+every forenoon, and likewise some part of Tully every afternoon, for the
+space of a year or two, hath attained to such a perfect understanding in
+both tongues, and to such a ready utterance of the Latin, and that with
+such a judgment as there be few now in both universities, or elsewhere
+in England, that be in both tongues comparable with her Majesty." Mr.
+Quick thinks that while Ascham may have thus flattered his royal pupil,
+there is no doubt that she was an accomplished scholar.
+
+We have seen that Sturm made some use of double translation, but Ascham
+is entitled to full credit for the method, which he adopted from Pliny
+and perfected. Many teachers of language since that time have employed
+this method with excellent results.
+
+
+RABELAIS[74] (1483-1553)
+
+Though there is some obscurity as to the exact date of the birth of
+Rabelais, it is generally believed that he was born the same year as
+Luther, 1483. He was the son of a French innkeeper, and, after
+completing a classical course, was consecrated to the priesthood. His
+great ability and independent thinking, and his humanistic tendency
+brought reproof from his superiors, and he was ordered to perform works
+of penance in his cell; but through the influence of powerful friends he
+was freed and allowed to go over to the Benedictines, with whom,
+however, he did not remain long. He became an independent preacher, and
+as such had many friends among the reformers, chief among whom was
+Calvin. His intimacy with Calvin led the more radical reformers to be
+suspicious of him, and not without reason. Walter Besant tells us that,
+"One hears he is a buffoon--he is always mocking and always laughing.
+That is perfectly true. He laughs at the pretensions of pope, cardinal,
+bishop, and priest; he laughs at monkery and monks; he mocks at the
+perpetual iteration of litanies; he laughs at the ignorance and
+superstition which he thinks are about to vanish before the new day of
+modern learning."[75] Nor was his sympathy with the reformers any more
+marked. Besant further adds, "It was at that time all important that, as
+in England, the scholars should range themselves on the Protestant side.
+Rabelais refused to do this. More, he set an example which deterred
+other scholars, and kept them, in sheer impatience, in the enemy's
+camp."[76]
+
+The great literary work of Rabelais is embodied in a series of
+chronicles, the first of which is called "Gargantua" and the second,
+"Pantagruel." It is believed that these were popular names of giants in
+the Middle Ages. In these books we find Rabelais's pedagogy.[77] The
+giant Gargantua attends a school in which scholastic methods are
+employed. The author skillfully ridicules the methods, and shows the
+utter inefficiency of the instruction by contrasting the result in
+Gargantua and Eudemon, a page of the king. Gargantua, a man of
+fifty-five, is introduced to Eudemon, a boy of twelve. The former is
+awkward, bashful, and does not know what to say, while the latter meets
+Gargantua cap in hand, with open countenance, ruddy lips, steady eyes,
+and with modesty becoming a youth. In reply to the polite and
+intelligent conversation of the lad, Gargantua "falls to crying like a
+cow, casting down his face, and hiding it with his cap." Compayre says,
+"In these two pupils, so different in manner, Rabelais has personified
+two contrasted methods of education: that which, by mechanical exercises
+of memory, enfeebles and dulls the intelligence; and that which, with
+large grants of liberty, develops intelligences and frank and open
+characters."
+
+The deficiencies of the old education (the scholastic) being thus shown,
+Rabelais places his pupil under Ponocrates, Eudemon's teacher, who has
+produced such practical results. He then opens up his system of pedagogy
+in the plan pursued for the redemption of Gargantua.
+
+=Realism in Education.=--Compayre's estimate of this pedagogy is as
+follows: "The pedagogy of Rabelais is the first appearance of what may
+be called _realism_ in instruction, in distinction from the scholastic
+_formalism_. The author of 'Gargantua' turns the mind of the young man
+toward objects truly worthy of occupying his attention. He catches a
+glimpse of the future reserved to scientific education, and to the study
+of nature. He invites the mind, not to the labored subtleties and
+complicated tricks which scholasticism had brought into fashion, but to
+manly efforts, and to a wide unfolding of human nature."[78]
+
+In comparing Rabelais with Lucretius, Walter Besant says, "Both, at an
+interval of fifteen hundred years, anticipated the nineteenth century
+in its restless discontent of old beliefs, its fearless questioning, its
+advocacy of scientific research."[79] Compayre thinks that Rabelais is
+"certainly the first, in point of time, of that grand school of
+educators who place the sciences in the first rank among the studies of
+human thought."[80] It would seem, then, that the author of "Gargantua"
+is worthy of a most honorable place among educational writers. Rabelais
+began a movement, which was destined to revolutionize educational
+methods.
+
+The educational scheme of Rabelais embraced the study of letters, of
+nature, of science, of morals and religion, of the physical
+well-being,--in short, of everything necessary, as Herbert Spencer would
+say, to complete living.
+
+
+MONTAIGNE[81] (1533-1592)
+
+Of a very different character from Rabelais was Montaigne. Rabelais was
+radical and extravagant, Montaigne conservative and discreet; Rabelais
+sought development of all the faculties alike, Montaigne gave preference
+to the training of the judgment; Rabelais would thoroughly master every
+branch of human knowledge, Montaigne was content to skim over the
+sciences. And yet, Montaigne must be recognized as an important factor
+in education, not only for his own teachings, but because undoubtedly
+Bacon, Locke, Rousseau, and other apostles of reform were greatly
+influenced by him. Bacon furthered Montaigne's theories concerning the
+importance of science, and by his inductive method rendered the world a
+far greater service than his great French contemporary. Locke enlarged
+upon Montaigne's ideas of physical training. Rousseau accepted a vital
+doctrine of Montaigne in the following words: "He (Emile) possesses a
+universal capacity, not in point of actual knowledge, but in the faculty
+of acquiring it; an open, intelligent genius adapted to everything, and,
+as Montaigne says, if not instructed, capable of receiving instruction."
+
+Montaigne's father was a French nobleman, who fully appreciated the
+responsibility laid upon him in the education of his son. Doubtless his
+training had much to do in shaping the pedagogy of the illustrious son.
+It was wise, mild but firm, natural, and thorough. The tutors and
+servants who surrounded him were allowed to speak only in Latin. That
+tongue thus became as familiar as his native tongue. Indeed, it is said,
+that at the age of six he was so proficient in the language of Cicero,
+that the best Latinists of the time feared to address him. Nor was his
+knowledge confined to Latin alone. He was instructed in modern lore as
+well. At the age of six he was placed in the college of Guienne, where
+he remained seven years. His experience there, so contrary to that under
+which he had been brought up, led him to be utterly opposed to corporal
+punishment. Of the methods of discipline employed in the school, he
+says, "The discipline of most of our colleges has always displeased me.
+They are veritable jails in which youth is held prisoner. The pupils are
+made vicious by being punished before they become so. Pay a visit there
+when they are at their work; you will hear nothing but cries,--children
+under execution, and masters drunk with fury. What a mode of creating in
+these tender and timid souls an appetite for their lessons, to conduct
+them to their tasks with a furious countenance, rod in hand!--it is an
+iniquitous and pernicious fashion. How much more becoming it would be
+to see the classroom strewed with leaves and flowers than with
+blood-stained stumps of birch rods! I would have painted up there scenes
+of joy and merriment, Flora and the Graces, as Speusippus had his school
+of philosophy: where they are to gain profit, there let them find
+happiness too. One ought to sweeten all food that is wholesome, and put
+bitter into what is dangerous."[82]
+
+Here we find a strong plea for humane forms of punishment and a severe
+criticism of the prevailing practice of flogging, a practice which did
+not cease until long after Montaigne's time. It is an equally forcible
+plea for beautiful and pleasant schoolrooms, decorated with works of art
+intended to awaken and cultivate the aesthetic sense of the children,
+while contributing to their happiness. It has been left to the educators
+of the end of the nineteenth century to take up and seriously act upon
+this suggestion made over three hundred years ago. "The purpose of
+education," said Montaigne, "is the training, not of a grammarian, or a
+logician, but of a complete gentleman." Education should be of a
+practical nature. The child must become familiar with the things about
+him. He must learn his own language first and then that of his
+neighbors, and languages should all be learned by conversation.
+
+A decided weakness in his system is found in his ideas concerning women.
+He made no provision for their education, and, indeed, expressed great
+contempt for their abilities of either mind or heart.
+
+Montaigne's chief literary work is his "Essays." Compayre pronounces
+Montaigne's pedagogy, "a pedagogy of good sense," and further adds that
+he has "remained, after three centuries, a sure guide in the matter of
+intellectual education."
+
+Observation and experience were to be abundantly employed, and visits to
+other lands, together with intercourse with intelligent men everywhere,
+were to "sharpen our wits by rubbing them upon those of others."
+
+To sum up, we may say that the pedagogy of Montaigne teaches the
+training and use of the senses; the study of science; the learning of
+the mother tongue first by conversation, and then the language of our
+neighbors with whom we come in contact; the abolition of corporal
+punishment, and the beautifying of schoolrooms. This surely is no small
+contribution to education. His definition of education is worthy of
+note. He says, "It is not the mind only, nor the body, but the whole man
+that is to be educated."[83]
+
+=Summary of Educational Progress during the Sixteenth Century.=--1.
+Humanism had reached its climax and begun to decline. It stimulated
+invention and discovery; it revived classic literature and put it in
+such form that it could be used; it emancipated the mind; it prepared
+the way for later reforms; it produced great educators such as Petrarch,
+Erasmus, and Reuchlin.
+
+2. The Reformation took up the educational work of humanism, and carried
+it forward. It instituted primary education, the education of the
+masses, compulsory education and parental responsibility therefor; it
+asserted the right and duty of the State to demand and secure universal
+education; it elevated and gave dignity to the office of teacher; it
+formulated several school systems, and laid the foundation of the
+present German school system. Among its great educators were Luther,
+Melanchthon, Sturm, and Neander.
+
+3. The Jesuits established a remarkable system of schools, noted for
+their thoroughness, for their singleness of purpose, for their rapid
+growth, and for their trained teachers. They gave little attention to
+primary education, but sought to reach the higher classes. Emulation was
+the principal incentive employed.
+
+4. Opposed to the Jesuit education was that of the Port Royalists. They
+appealed to the intelligence of the children and cultivated the
+sense-perceptions. They invented the phonic method of spelling.
+
+5. Sturm's celebrated course of study was introduced during this century
+at Strasburg.
+
+6. The method of double translations in learning a language was taught
+by Ascham and Sturm.
+
+7. In Rabelais we find the first appearance of _realism_, which bore
+rich fruit in later scientific education.
+
+8. Montaigne opposed the use of the rod, and taught that the schoolroom
+should be made attractive. He also advocated the study of modern
+languages by conversation, and gave science an honorable place in the
+curriculum.
+
+It thus appears that the sixteenth century surpassed many previous eras
+in its contributions to educational progress.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[73] H. M. Skinner, "The Schoolmaster in Literature," p. 20.
+
+[74] For special reference see Besant's "Rabelais."
+
+[75] "Rabelais," 192.
+
+[76] Ibid., 193.
+
+[77] "Schoolmaster in Comedy and Satire," 9-33.
+
+[78] "History of Pedagogy," p. 91.
+
+[79] "Rabelais," p. 187.
+
+[80] "History of Pedagogy," p. 96.
+
+[81] See Collins, "Montaigne."
+
+[82] Collins, "Montaigne," p. 14.
+
+[83] A good summary of Montaigne's educational ideas may be found in
+Collins's "Montaigne," p. 102.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXII
+
+EDUCATION DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+
+=Literature.=--_Taylor_, History of Germany; _Guizot_, History of
+Civilization; _Schiller_, The Thirty Years' War; _Dyer_, Modern Europe;
+_Lewis_, History of Germany; _Macaulay_, History of England.
+
+
+=Political and Historical Conditions.=--The seventeenth century was
+remarkable for the wars for religious supremacy. The Reformation had
+challenged the authority of the Church, aroused a questioning spirit,
+and instilled into men's minds a love for religious liberty. During the
+latter half of the sixteenth century, Europe had swayed back and forth
+between Protestantism and Catholicism, according as success in arms had
+favored one side or the other. The spirit of Protestantism had taken
+possession more especially of the common people, who formed the bone and
+sinew of the armies. Bitter animosities existed between the adherents of
+the papal church and the reformers, which found expression in bloodshed,
+rapine, and destruction of property.
+
+England was torn asunder by civil war, which resulted in the death of
+Charles I. and the establishment of the Commonwealth under
+Cromwell,--the struggle between _Cavalier_ and _Roundhead_, between
+established church and Puritan, ending finally in the revolution of
+1688. The country was in a religious ferment during the greater part of
+this century, caused by a growing jealousy for the maintenance of the
+principle of the right to worship God according to the dictates of one's
+own conscience. Nor was the struggle less virulent or disastrous in
+continental Europe. The religious upheaval of the previous century
+culminated in the terrible conflict known as the Thirty Years' War; this
+lasted from 1618 till 1648, when the Peace of Westphalia secured
+religious liberty to all men. Northern Germany, Austria, France,
+Holland, Denmark, and Sweden, as well as minor countries, were involved
+in this great war.
+
+Let Bayard Taylor paint the result of this fearful struggle. "Thirty
+years of war! The slaughters of Rome's worst emperors, the persecution
+of the Christians under Nero and Diocletian, the invasions of the Huns
+and Magyars, the long struggle of the Guelfs and Ghibellines, left no
+such desolation behind them. At the beginning of the century, the
+population of the German Empire was about 30,000,000; when the Peace of
+Westphalia was declared, it was scarcely more than 12,000,000! Electoral
+Saxony, alone, lost 900,000 lives in two years.... The city of Berlin
+contained but 300 citizens, the whole of the Palatinate of the Rhine but
+200 farmers. In Hesse-Cassel, 17 cities, 47 castles, and 300 villages
+were entirely destroyed by fire; thousands of villages, in all parts of
+the country, had but four or five families left out of hundreds, and
+landed property sank to about one twentieth of its former value.... The
+horses, cattle, and sheep were exterminated in many districts, the
+supplies of grain were at an end, even for sowing, and large cultivated
+tracts had relapsed into a wilderness. Even orchards and vineyards had
+been wantonly destroyed wherever armies had passed. So terrible was the
+ravage that, in a great many localities, the same amount of population,
+cattle, acres of cultivated land, and general prosperity was not
+restored until the year 1848, two centuries afterward!
+
+"This statement of the losses of Germany, however, was but a small part
+of the suffering endured.... During the last ten or twelve years of the
+war, both Protestants and Catholics vied with each other in deeds of
+barbarity; the soldiers were nothing but highway robbers, who maimed and
+tortured the country people to make them give up their last remaining
+property.... In the year 1637, when Ferdinand II. died, the want was so
+great that men devoured each other, and even hunted down human beings
+like deer or hares, in order to feed upon them.
+
+"In character, in intelligence, and in morality, the German people were
+set back two hundred years. All branches of industry had declined,
+commerce had almost entirely ceased, literature and the arts were
+suppressed, and except the astronomical discoveries of Copernicus and
+Kepler, there was no contribution to human knowledge. Even the modern
+High German language, which Luther had made the classic tongue of the
+land, seemed to be on the point of perishing. Spaniards and Italians on
+the Catholic, Swedes and French on the Protestant side, flooded the
+country with foreign words and expressions, the use of which soon became
+an affectation with the nobility, who did their best to destroy their
+native tongue.
+
+"Politically, the change was no less disastrous. The ambition of the
+house of Hapsburg, it is true, had brought its own punishment; the
+imperial dignity was secured to it, but henceforth the head of the 'Holy
+Roman Empire' was not much more than a shadow.... As for the mass of the
+people, their spirit was broken; for a time they gave up even the
+longing for the rights which they had lost, and taught their children
+abject obedience in order that they might simply live."[84]
+
+=The Educational Situation.=--These political conditions had a marked
+influence upon education. Schools were abandoned, colleges gave up their
+charters, and people were content to allow their children to grow up in
+ignorance. Indeed, it was not to be expected that, in the midst of their
+poverty and sorrow, parents should care for education. And yet, some
+most important and wise school laws were enacted and put into force,
+which form the basis of the present German school system, as well as the
+school systems of many other countries. In 1619 the Duke of Weimar
+decreed that all children, girls as well as boys, should be kept in
+school for at least six years,--from six to twelve. This is the first
+efficient compulsory education law on record intended for all classes of
+children.
+
+Besides Weimar, Wuertemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt, Mecklenburg, Holstein,
+Hesse-Cassel, and other provinces were active in school work. They
+organized schools, appointed teachers, and formulated school
+regulations. In 1642, Duke Ernst of Gotha adopted a new school
+regulation which was a century in advance of the time, and this action
+was taken when the Thirty Years' War was at its height and in a
+territory sadly devastated by contending armies.
+
+This law required every child to enter school at the beginning of his
+sixth year, and to remain in school until he could read his mother
+tongue, had mastered Luther's catechism, and was well grounded in
+arithmetic, writing, and church songs. A course of study was marked out,
+the schools were graded, and methods of instruction were outlined. The
+greatest defect in the system was the lack of competent teachers.
+Discharged soldiers, worthless students, and degraded craftsmen who
+could read and write, and who possessed a little knowledge of music,
+continued for many years to be employed as schoolmasters. But little
+progress could be made under these adverse circumstances; and the only
+reason for encouragement was the fact that the duty of parents to keep
+their children at school was everywhere recognized.
+
+=The Innovators.=--We must here mention also the Innovators or
+Reformers, whose period of educational activity falls chiefly within the
+seventeenth century. Among these appear the names of Francis Bacon,
+Ratke, Milton, Comenius, Rollin, Fenelon, and Locke. These men started
+movements which revolutionized education and laid the foundation of
+modern methods. The demands of the Reformers are summed up by Quick as
+follows: "First, that the study of _things_ should precede, or be united
+with, the study of _words_; second, that knowledge should be
+communicated, where possible, by appeal to the senses; third, that all
+linguistic study should begin with that of the mother tongue; fourth,
+that Latin and Greek should be taught to such boys only as would be
+likely to complete a learned education; fifth, that physical education
+should be attended to in all classes of society for the sake of health,
+not simply with a view to gentlemanly accomplishments; sixth, that a new
+method of teaching should be adopted, framed 'According to nature.'"[85]
+In another chapter we shall study the life and work of some of these
+men.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[84] "History of Germany," p. 409.
+
+[85] Quick, "Educational Reformers," p. 50.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIII
+
+EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+
+=Literature.=--_Church_, Bacon; _Macaulay_, Essays; _Spofford_, Library
+of Historical Characters; _Lord_, Beacon Lights; _Montagu_, Life of
+Bacon; _Barnard_, English Pedagogy; _Quick_, Educational Reformers;
+_Williams_, History of Modern Education; _Laurie_, Life and Works of
+Comenius; _Comenius_, Orbis Pictus; _Barnard_, Journal of Education;
+_Milton_, Tractate on Education; _Pattison_, Milton; _Fowler_, Locke;
+_Leitch_, Practical Educationists; _Gill_, Systems of Education;
+_Schwegler_, History of Philosophy; _Courtney_, John Locke; _Vogel_,
+Geschichte der Paedagogik; _Compayre_, History of Pedagogy; _Fenelon_,
+Education of Girls; _Azarias_, Philosophy of Literature; _Monroe_,
+Comenius.
+
+
+BACON[86] (1561-1626)
+
+But little is known of the early years of Francis Bacon, but it is
+probable that he was well trained, as his father was a man of good
+education, and the boy was able to enter Cambridge when only a little
+over twelve years of age. His father was for many years Lord Keeper of
+the Seals, and this brought Francis in contact with court life, where
+his precocity made him a favorite with the queen. He thus early acquired
+that taste for the court, by which he climbed to the height of his
+ambition only to fall therefrom in ignominious defeat.
+
+He remained at Cambridge only about three years. Lord Macaulay sums up
+the result of Bacon's university experience in the following words:
+"Bacon departed, carrying with him a profound contempt for the course of
+study pursued there, a fixed conviction that the system of academic
+education in England was radically vicious, a just scorn for the trifles
+on which the followers of Aristotle had wasted their powers, and no
+great reverence for Aristotle himself."[87]
+
+Some think that thus early, while not yet fifteen years of age, Bacon
+began to formulate that inductive system which made him a great
+benefactor of the human race. There seems to be but little proof of
+this; and, if it be so, he laid it aside until near the close of his
+life, and devoted himself to politics. After leaving Cambridge, he went
+abroad with the English ambassador at Paris, with whom he served until
+the death of his father compelled his return to England. Unexpectedly
+finding that his patrimony was gone, he began a career at the bar, and
+rose step by step, amid many discouragements, until he reached the
+height of his ambition, the Lord High Chancellorship of the realm. In
+reaching this position he resorted to many of the tricks of the
+politician, and sacrificed his best friends to further his selfish
+interests. Concerning his actions toward his benefactor, Essex, Macaulay
+says, "This friend, so loved, so trusted, bore a principal part in
+ruining the earl's fortunes, in shedding his blood, and in blackening
+his memory. But let us be just to Bacon. We believe that, to the last,
+he had no wish to injure Essex. Nay, we believe that he sincerely wished
+to serve Essex, as long as he could serve Essex without injuring
+himself."[88] Such seeming mitigation of Bacon's ingratitude serves only
+to bring the Lord Chancellor's cowardice more completely to light.
+
+This lack of principle and greed for office, together with the luxurious
+tastes which kept Bacon constantly in debt, made him susceptible to
+corruption. Accordingly he accepted bribes; and, when exposed, his
+degradation from the highest office under the crown was most complete
+and humiliating. He was summoned before the bar of Parliament; and,
+finding the evidence against him complete, he admitted his guilt and
+pleaded for clemency. These are the words of his confession, "Upon
+advised consideration of the charges, descending into my own conscience
+and calling upon my memory to account so far as I am able, I do plainly
+and ingenuously confess that I am guilty of corruption, and do renounce
+all defense."
+
+He was found guilty and condemned to imprisonment in the Tower during
+the pleasure of the king, and to a fine of L40,000; he was forbidden
+ever to sit in Parliament or come within the verge of the court, and was
+forever debarred from holding office. He never paid the fine, was
+released from the Tower after two days, was permitted to visit the
+court, and was summoned to the meetings of Parliament.[89] He never,
+however, took any part in public affairs. The king granted him a pension
+upon which he lived the remainder of his days. Thus disappeared from
+public life one of England's greatest statesmen, whose political career
+ended in disgrace. But during the remaining six years of his life, he
+wrote his principal works, which made him famous for all time, and which
+mark a new era in education as well as in the world's progress.
+
+In 1620 his greatest work, the "Novum Organum," was published. In this
+appears his _Inductive Method_, a great educational discovery, which has
+been of inestimable value to mankind. It revolutionized science, and
+suggested the application of the forces of nature to the wants of man,
+thus opening to man's enterprise an illimitable field for research. In
+the three centuries since Bacon's discovery, science has made vast
+strides, and yet is only at the threshold of its possible development.
+The watchwords of the inductive method--experiment, investigate,
+verify--have led to the establishment of laboratories, to the founding
+of experimenting stations, and to the study of Nature herself. As
+Macaulay puts it, "Two words form the key of the Baconian doctrine,
+Utility and Progress." Again he says, "The philosophy of Plato began in
+words and ended in words.... The philosophy of Bacon began in
+observation and ended in arts."[90]
+
+Macaulay depreciates the work of Bacon, and shows that he was not the
+original inventor of the inductive method, "which," he says with truth,
+"has been practiced ever since the beginning of the world by every human
+being."[91] Nor was he the "first person who correctly analyzed that
+method and explained its uses," as Aristotle had done so long before.
+But these facts do not detract from the glory of Bacon any more than the
+discovery of America by the Norsemen five hundred years before the time
+of Columbus detracts from his glory. The same process of reasoning would
+take all credit from every philosopher that has ever lived, for with
+equal truth it may be said that every mental process "has been practiced
+ever since the beginning of the world by every human being."
+
+Bacon's teachings resemble those of Montaigne, though Bacon's work was
+far more important and complete than that of his French contemporary.
+His pedagogy may be summed up in these pregnant words from his own pen:
+"A judicious blending and interchange between the easier and more
+difficult branches of learning, adapted to the individual capabilities
+and to the future occupation of pupils, will profit both the mental and
+bodily powers, and make instruction acceptable."
+
+We find in Bacon, then, the beginning of a new era in education. It
+remained for Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and their compeers
+to apply to specific educational systems the great truth contained in
+the inductive method; and to scientists and investigators of all kinds
+has been intrusted the mission of furthering, through this method, the
+marvelous scientific development which has almost re-created the world.
+
+
+RATKE[92] (1571-1635)
+
+Perhaps the first to urge the reforms which constitute the basis of
+educational theory was Ratke, a German, born in the province of
+Holstein. He originated a scheme by which he promised to teach any
+language, ancient or modern, in six months. He traveled throughout
+Europe, endeavoring to sell his discovery to princes and men of
+learning. Purchasers had to agree strictly to maintain the secret.
+Professor Williams speaks of this conduct as follows: "These were the
+acts of a charlatan peddling some secret quack nostrum."[93] Mr. Quick
+says, "He would also found a school in which all arts and sciences
+should be rapidly learned and advanced; he would introduce, and
+peacefully maintain throughout the continent, a uniform speech, a
+uniform government, and, more wonderful still, a uniform religion. From
+these modest proposals we should naturally infer that the promiser was
+nothing but a quack of more than usual impudence; but the position which
+the name of Ratich holds in the history of education is sufficient proof
+that this is by no means a complete statement of the matter."[94]
+
+Many thinkers fully believed that the schools were in bondage to the
+classic studies, that they did not prepare for life, and that science,
+which had begun to show signs of awakening, should have a place in
+education. The extravagant theories of Ratke, therefore, attracted
+attention. Opportunity was given him to put his theories into practice,
+first at Augsburg, then at Koethen, and finally at Magdeburg. In each
+instance he utterly failed, more from want of tact in dealing with
+men,--with those in authority, as well as with his teachers and
+pupils,--than from lack of soundness in theory. Of course much of his
+theory was worthless, especially that referring to the mastery of a
+language in six months, and that proposing uniformity in speech,
+government, and religion.
+
+Ratke's method of teaching a language was not original with him, being
+similar to, though not so effective as, that advocated by Roger Ascham,
+more than a hundred years before (see p. 191), and suggested first by
+Pliny, fifteen centuries earlier. Ratke required the pupil to go over
+the same matter many times, to learn the grammar in connection with
+translation, and finally to translate back into the original. He
+proposed to follow the same course with all languages, and have all
+grammars constructed on the same plan.
+
+The work which Ratke began was more successfully carried out by others
+who followed him, and thus fruit has been borne to these new and radical
+ideas.
+
+Quick sums up Ratke's pedagogy in a few words, as follows:[95]--
+
+1. Everything after the order and course of nature.
+
+2. One thing at a time.
+
+3. One thing again and again repeated.
+
+4. Nothing shall be learned by heart.
+
+5. Uniformity in all things.
+
+6. Knowledge of the thing itself must be given before that which refers
+to the thing.
+
+7. Everything by experiment and analysis.
+
+8. Everything without coercion;[2] that is, by gentle means, and not by
+the use of the rod.
+
+Others have worked out these principles until they have become
+thoroughly incorporated into every system of modern pedagogy.
+
+
+COMENIUS[96] (1592-1670)
+
+By far the greatest educator of the seventeenth century, and one of the
+greatest in educational history, was Johann Amos Comenius. He was born
+in Moravia, and belonged to the Protestant body known as the Moravian
+Brethren. His early education was neglected, a fact that was not without
+its compensation, for, not beginning the study of Latin until sixteen
+years of age, he was mature enough to appreciate the defects in the
+prevalent method of instruction. One of his most valuable services to
+education grew out of his attempt to remedy the defects thus discovered.
+
+Of the schools he attended, he says, "They are the terror of boys, and
+the slaughterhouses of minds,--places where a hatred of books and
+literature is contracted, where ten or more years are spent in learning
+what might be acquired in one, where what ought to be poured in gently
+is violently forced in, and beaten in, where what ought to be put
+clearly and perspicuously is presented in a confused and intricate way,
+as if it were a collection of puzzles,--places where minds are fed on
+words."[97]
+
+In speaking of his own experience at school, he says, "I was continually
+full of thoughts for the finding out of some means whereby more might be
+inflamed with the love of learning, and whereby learning itself might be
+made more compendious, both in the matter of charge and cost, and of
+labor belonging thereto, that so the youth might be brought by a more
+easy method unto some notable proficiency in learning."[98]
+
+The life of Comenius, which extended over nearly eighty years, was full
+of vicissitudes and trials. Briefly told, it is as follows: He was left
+an orphan at an early age, had poor educational advantages in childhood,
+began the study of Latin at sixteen, and completed his studies at
+Heidelberg at twenty-two, having previously studied at Herborn. After
+leaving the university, he was teacher of the Moravian School at Prerau
+for two years, and then having been ordained to the ministry, became
+pastor of Fulnek. Here he remained for a number of years, living a happy
+and useful life. In the meantime, the Thirty Years' War had broken out,
+the battle of Prague had been lost by the Protestants, and the town of
+Fulnek sacked. Comenius lost everything he possessed, and this
+misfortune was soon followed by the death of his wife and child. After
+hiding in the mountains for some time, he was banished from his native
+land, together with all the other Protestants. This took place in 1627,
+when Comenius was thirty-five years old. Though he often longed to
+return to his fatherland, he was never permitted to do so.
+
+He settled in Poland, and began by the study of the works of Ratke,
+Bacon, and other writers to prepare himself for the great task of
+educational reform. Of this experience he writes, "After many workings
+and tossings of my thoughts, by reducing everything to the immovable
+laws of nature, I lighted upon my 'Didactica Magna,' which shows the art
+of readily and solidly teaching all men all things."
+
+He visited England, Sweden, and Hungary in the interests of education,
+and was invited to France, but did not accept the invitation. While
+living at Leszno, Poland, for a second time his house was sacked and all
+his property destroyed. Among other things, his work on Pansophia, and
+his Latin-Bohemian dictionary, on which he had labored for forty years,
+were burned. He closed his days at Amsterdam, Holland. In addition to
+the great honors bestowed upon him by the various countries that sought
+his advice on educational matters, he was made the chief bishop and head
+of the Moravian Brethren. Raumer forcibly sums up the life of Comenius
+as follows: "Comenius is a grand and venerable figure of sorrow. Though
+wandering, persecuted, and homeless, during the terrible and desolating
+Thirty Years' War, yet he never despaired, but with enduring courage,
+and strong faith, labored unweariedly to prepare youth by a better
+education for a happier future. Suspended from the ministry, as he
+himself tells us, and an exile, he became an apostle to the Christian
+youth; and he labored for them with a zeal and love worthy of the chief
+of the apostles."[99]
+
+=Pedagogical Work.=--The great educational works of Comenius are his
+"Gate of Tongues Unlocked," the "Great Didactic," and his "Orbis
+Pictus." Mr. Quick thinks that the "Great Didactic" contains, in the
+best form, the principles he afterward endeavored to work out"[100] in
+his other educational writings. "The services of Comenius to pedagogy,"
+says Professor Williams, "were of a threefold character, in each of
+which his merit was very great. First, he was the true originator of the
+principles and methods of the Innovators. Second, he was a great
+educational systematist. Third, he was the author of improved
+text-books, which were long and widely famous."[101] This is a fair
+summing up of the remarkable activity of this man with the exception of
+the first point. Montaigne, Ratke, and Bacon had previously taught many
+of the fundamental truths which Comenius merely amplified and brought to
+practical fruition, and he himself acknowledged the influence of the
+last two men upon him. That the whole purpose of the life of Comenius
+was far nobler than that of Ratke or Bacon, there remains no room for
+doubt. Compayre says, "The character of Comenius equals his
+intelligence. Through a thousand obstacles he devoted his long life to
+the work of popular instruction. With a generous ardor he consecrated
+himself to infancy. He wrote twenty works and taught in twenty cities.
+Moreover, he was the first to form a definite conception of what the
+elementary studies should be."[102]
+
+Bacon gave the inspiration and Comenius worked the truth into practical
+form; Bacon invented a new theory of scientific investigation, Comenius
+employed that theory in education; Bacon originated and Comenius
+applied. This does not detract from the merit of Comenius any more than
+his work detracts from the merit of Rousseau, Pestalozzi, or Horace
+Mann, all of whom gathered inspiration from him.
+
+=Summary of the Work of Comenius.=--(1) He was the author of the first
+illustrated text-book, the "Orbis Pictus."[103] The cost of
+illustrations was for a long time a serious barrier to their general
+adoption in schoolbooks; but modern inventions and improvements have
+removed this obstacle, and many of the text-books of to-day are as
+valuable for their illustrations as for their text. The "Orbis Pictus"
+appeared in 1658.
+
+(2) In his "Great Didactic," he presents a scheme for general
+organization of the school system which covers the first twenty-four
+years of life. It divides this time into four equal periods of six
+years, each as follows:--
+
+1. _Infancy_, or the mother school, from birth up to six years of age.
+
+2. _Boyhood_, the vernacular or national school, from six to twelve.
+
+3. _Adolescence_, the _Gymnasium_ or Latin school, from twelve to
+eighteen.
+
+4. _Youth_, the university (including travel), from eighteen to
+twenty-four.
+
+"The infant school should be found in every house, the vernacular school
+in every village and community, the gymnasium in every province, and the
+university in every kingdom or large province." This scheme, with
+variation of details, forms the basis of present school systems: first,
+the period in the home with the mother till six; second, the period of
+general education in the common school, from six to twelve or fourteen;
+third, the period of preparation for the professional schools, from
+twelve or fourteen to eighteen; and fourth, the professional or
+university course, from eighteen to twenty-four. The last is usually
+divided into a college and a university course.
+
+(3) The educational principles of Comenius were revolutionary as to the
+school practices of the time. They have come to be almost universally
+accepted at present. We can here state only a few of the most
+essential.[104]
+
+1. If we would teach and learn surely, we must follow the order of
+Nature.
+
+2. Let everything be presented through the senses.
+
+3. Proceed from the easy to the difficult, from the near to the remote,
+from the general to the special, from the known to the unknown.
+
+4. Make learning pleasant by the choice of suitable material, by not
+attempting too much, by the use of concrete examples, and by the
+selection of that which is of utility.
+
+5. Fix firmly by frequent repetitions and drills.
+
+6. Let all things advance by indissoluble steps, so that everything
+taught to-day may give firmness and stability to what was taught
+yesterday, and point the way to the work of to-morrow.[105]
+
+7. Let everything that is useless be eliminated from teaching.
+
+8. Learn to do by doing.
+
+9. Each language should be learned separately, have a definite time
+assigned to it, be learned by use rather than precept,--that is, the
+practice in learning should be with familiar things,--and all tongues
+should be learned by one and the same method.
+
+10. The example of well-ordered life of parents, nurses, teachers, and
+schoolfellows is very important for children; but precepts and rules of
+life must be added to example.
+
+11. As knowledge of God is the highest of all knowledge, the Holy
+Scriptures must be the alpha and omega of the Christian schools.
+
+Comenius gives explicit directions as to methods of instruction, class
+management, discipline, courses of study, including a discussion of each
+branch, and moral and religious teaching. He presents these directions
+in the most remarkable and complete series of precepts and principles to
+be found in educational literature.[106]
+
+
+MILTON (1608-1674)
+
+John Milton was "the most notable man who ever kept school or published
+a schoolbook." While his fame rests on "Paradise Lost" and other great
+literary works, he deserves a place among educators for his "Tractate on
+Education," and for his sympathy with educational reform. He anticipated
+Herbert Spencer's celebrated definition,--"To prepare us for complete
+living is the function which education has to discharge,"--in the
+following words: "I call, therefore, a complete and generous education
+that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously
+all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war."
+
+He criticised the schools of his time and sought to make them more
+practical. Like the earlier Innovators, and in harmony with the spirit
+that was rapidly growing, he thought that too much time was given to the
+study of Latin, and urged that science, music, physical culture, and
+language as a means of acquiring a knowledge of useful things, should
+receive more attention in the schools. Quick says, "A protest against a
+purely literary education comes with tremendous force from the student
+who sacrificed his sight to his reading, the accomplished scholar whose
+Latin works were known throughout Europe, and the author of 'Paradise
+Lost.'"[107]
+
+Milton's experience in teaching was confined to a small boarding school,
+such as those usually resorted to for educating the sons of the better
+classes in England at that time. For pupils he began with two nephews,
+to whom were soon added a few other boys. These were sons of Milton's
+friends, and some of them came as boarders, others as day students.
+Milton seemed to like the work of teaching, and it was during this
+period that his "Tractate" was written. He probably taught school in
+this way for eight or nine years, and then was appointed to a small
+office under the government, which secured his living. The rest of his
+life was devoted chiefly to literary work.
+
+=Milton's "Tractate."=--The principal lessons from this educational work
+are embodied in the following quotation: "The end then of Learning is to
+repair the ruines of our first Parents by regaining to know God aright,
+and out of that knowledge to love him, and to imitate him, to be like
+him, as we may the nearest by possessing our souls of true virtue, which
+being united to the heavenly grace of faith makes up the highest
+perfection."[108] This rather cumbersome definition shows how fully
+Milton was possessed of the Puritan spirit, which then controlled
+England, and which magnified religious zeal.
+
+Milton's scheme of education may be briefly summed up as follows:--
+
+1. The school premises should consist of a spacious house with large
+school grounds, intended for about one hundred and thirty students from
+twelve to twenty-one years of age, who should receive their complete
+secondary and university education in the same school. This scheme, so
+unique in Milton's time, is practically carried out in France and the
+United States, where the connection between the lower and higher schools
+is direct. In England, the land of its inception, and in Germany, there
+is no such direct articulation between the lower and the higher schools.
+
+2. The course of study embraces, first, the Latin grammar, arithmetic,
+geometry, religion, and Greek authors to be read in translation; second,
+Latin authors, geography, natural philosophy; third, Greek,
+trigonometry,--intended to prepare for fortification,--architecture,
+engineering, and navigation, anatomy, and medicine.
+
+This course is supposed to be completed at about the age of sixteen. The
+harder topics now follow, together with the study of those subjects
+intended to teach ethical judgment. Milton says, "As they begin to
+acquire character, and to reason on the difference between good and
+evil, there will be required a constant and sound indoctrinating to set
+them right and firm, instructing them more amply in the knowledge of
+virtue and the hatred of vice." Then come Greek authors, Holy Writ,
+poetry, and "at any odd hour, the Italian tongue," ethics, and politics.
+He is consistent with his definition of education,--"that which fits a
+man to perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously all the offices,
+both public and private, of peace and war," when he would train men to
+be "steadfast pillars of the State." He adds in his course also the
+study of law, including Roman edicts and English common law, a knowledge
+of Hebrew, and possibly Syrian and Chaldaic.
+
+Nor were physical exercises omitted. Sword exercises, wrestling,
+military tactics, riding, etc., were to be daily practiced, each in its
+proper time. Finally, the young man, when about twenty-three years of
+age, should travel abroad, and thus, when mature enough to comprehend
+them, become acquainted with the geography, history, and politics of
+other countries. This was to be the final preparation for citizenship
+and service of country. Mr. Browning pronounces this a "magnificent and
+comprehensive scheme." The most serious criticism of it is, that it
+marks out much more than the average young man can accomplish.
+
+
+LOCKE[109] (1632-1704)
+
+John Locke was the son of a Puritan gentleman who took active part in
+the wars for religious freedom fought during the latter part of the
+seventeenth century. Without doubt the stirring scenes enacted and the
+great moral movements which occupied England had a great influence upon
+Locke's life. He was carefully trained at home until he was about
+fourteen years old, when he entered Westminster School, a Puritan
+institution, where he remained for six years. He then entered Oxford,
+and in due time took his bachelor's and master's degrees. In 1660, when
+twenty-eight years old, he was made tutor of Christ Church, Oxford,
+where he lectured on Greek, rhetoric, and philosophy. He interested
+himself in theology, but never took orders; and he also studied medicine
+and for a time practiced it. His own health was precarious, he having
+suffered, from chronic consumption nearly all his life. Nevertheless, he
+accomplished a tremendous amount of work. The friendship of the Earl of
+Shaftesbury gave Locke some political prestige. He lived in the family
+of that nobleman for many years, and was the tutor of his son and
+grandson.
+
+Locke's great work, on which his fame securely rests, is the "Essay
+concerning Human Understanding," which stamps him as the greatest of
+English philosophers. This appeared in 1690. His most important
+educational work is entitled "Some Thoughts concerning Education."
+Compayre says, "From psychology to pedagogy the transition is easy, and
+Locke had to make no great effort to become an authority on education
+after having been an accomplished philosopher." Further, the same author
+says concerning the essential principles discussed in "Thoughts
+concerning Education," "These are: 1, in physical education, the
+hardening process; 2, in intellectual education, practical utility; 3,
+in moral education, the principle of honor, set up as a rule for the
+free self-government of man."
+
+In Locke, for the first time, we find a careful set of rules as to the
+food, sleep, physical exercise, and clothing of children. While modern
+science rejects some of these, most of them are regarded as sound in
+practice. Plenty of outdoor exercise, clothing loose and not too warm,
+plain food with but little meat or sugar, proper hours of sleep, and
+beds not too soft, early retiring and rising, and cold baths, are means
+prescribed to harden the body and prepare it to resist the attacks of
+disease. "_A sound mind in a sound body_" is the celebrated aphorism
+which sums up Locke's educational theory.
+
+As to moral education, Locke declares, "That which a gentleman ought to
+desire for his son, besides the fortune which he leaves him, is, 1,
+virtue; 2, prudence; 3, good manners; 4, instruction." In his course of
+study the idea of utility prevails. After reading, writing, drawing,
+geography, and the mother tongue are mastered, Locke, like Montaigne,
+would teach the language of nearest neighbors, and then Latin. Even the
+Latin tongue should be learned through use, rather than by rules of
+grammar and by memorizing the works of classic authors.
+
+While his system of education was planned for sons of gentlemen, Locke
+urged the establishment of "working schools" for children of the
+laboring classes. This was in line with his utilitarian ideas, as the
+intent was not so much intellectual training, as the formation of steady
+habits and the preparation for success in industrial pursuits. Locke's
+plan was for a sort of manual training school, the first appearance of
+such a project in history.
+
+Locke did not believe in universal education, nor in the public school.
+Only gentlemen were provided for in his formal scheme, and herein he
+followed the path marked out by Alfred the Great eight hundred years
+before, which England has not completely forsaken to this day. Since he
+had done all his teaching as a private tutor in the family of a
+gentleman, one can easily understand his advocacy of that form of
+instruction for the favored few. Locke's teachings in this respect are
+gradually losing their hold even in England, the most conservative of
+all countries in educational matters, and the latest great nation to
+accept the principle of universal education. During the last quarter of
+a century England has been earnestly seeking to give every child,
+whether of gentle or of humble birth, rich or poor, what his birthright
+demands,--a good common school education.
+
+The influence of Locke upon education, then, has been very great.
+Williams remarks that "he inspired Rousseau with nearly every valuable
+thought which appears in the brilliant pages of his 'Emile.' He seems
+himself to have derived some of his most characteristic ideas from
+Montaigne, and possibly also from Rabelais."[110] Although Locke
+differed from other educational reformers in many respects, though he
+was somewhat narrow in his conception of education, owing to his
+environment, he opposed the dry formalism that characterized the
+educational practice of his time, and sought to emancipate man both
+intellectually and physically.
+
+
+FENELON (1651-1715)
+
+Fenelon was born of noble parents in the province of Perigord, France.
+During his early years his father attended very carefully to his
+education, and later his uncle, the Marquis de Fenelon, became his
+guardian. Though delicate in health, the boy showed remarkable aptness
+in learning. At the age of twelve he entered the college of Cahors, and
+thence went to the university of Paris. He was destined by his parents
+for the Church, for which, by natural temperament and pious zeal, he was
+well fitted. He preached at fifteen with marked success, and took up a
+theological course at St. Sulpice. At the age of twenty-four he was
+ordained priest. He desired to enter the missionary field, first in
+Canada, and later in Greece, but had to abandon this purpose on account
+of ill health.
+
+Saint-Simon, in his "Memoires," describes Fenelon as a man of striking
+appearance, and says, "His manner altogether corresponded to his
+appearance; his perfect ease was infectious to others, and his
+conversation was stamped with the grace and good taste which are
+acquired by habitual intercourse with the best society and the great
+world."
+
+For ten years Fenelon was at the head of the convent of the _New
+Catholics_, an institution which sought to reclaim Protestant young
+women to Catholicism. In this position, as well as in all his lifework,
+though himself an ardent Catholic, Fenelon's course was so temperate and
+just that he won the warmest admiration even of Protestants, who did not
+accept his faith. Among his friends were the Duke and Duchess of
+Beauvilliers, who had eight daughters and several sons. At their
+suggestion, and for the purpose of helping them in educating their
+daughters, he wrote his first and most important educational work, "The
+Education of Girls." Compayre pronounces this "the first classical work
+of French pedagogy." He further speaks of this book as "a work of
+gentleness and goodness, of a complaisant and amiable grace, which is
+pervaded by a spirit of progress."[111] It appeared in 1687.
+
+In 1689, when thirty-eight years of age, Fenelon was chosen preceptor of
+the grandson of Louis XIV., the young Duke of Burgundy. In this position
+his remarkable powers as a teacher were brought to light, and he applied
+the theories which he had promulgated. The young duke, who was eight
+years of age, was of a passionate nature, hard to control, and yet,
+withal, of warm-hearted impulses. It is said that "he would break the
+clocks which summoned him to unwelcome duty, and fly into the wildest
+rage with the rain which hindered some pleasure." The "Telemachus"[112]
+of Fenelon, perhaps his greatest literary work, was composed at this
+time, as were also his "Dialogues of the Dead" and his "Fables." The
+inspiration of all these works was found in the charge committed to
+him--that of properly instructing his royal pupil. Fenelon thus created
+the material through which he interested the boy and taught him the
+intended lessons. The "Telemachus" was designed for the moral and
+political instruction of the prince; through his "Dialogues of the Dead"
+he taught history; and his "Fables" were composed for the purpose of
+teaching the moral and intellectual lessons which he wished to impart to
+his illustrious, but headstrong, pupil. Fenelon's success with the
+prince was phenomenal, as the passionate boy became affectionate,
+docile, and obedient.
+
+The success of the experiment, however, was never put to the final test,
+as the duke died before coming to the throne. There seems to be no doubt
+that the cure was permanent, and it is not believed that, like Nero, he
+would have relapsed into his former viciousness and cruelty.
+
+One naturally compares Fenelon with Seneca. To both were committed
+children, heirs apparent to thrones,--willful, cruel, disobedient, and
+hard to control. In Seneca's pupil the seeds of cruelty remained, to
+germinate into the awful tyrant; in Fenelon's the evil seemed to be
+permanently eradicated, and the result was a prince with generous
+impulses and noble intentions. And this result was largely owing to the
+difference in the teachers,--Fenelon, the gentle, but firm, patient,
+painstaking conscientious man; Seneca, the more brilliant, but
+vacillating and timeserving sycophant.
+
+=Fenelon's Pedagogy.=--1. There must be systematic care of the body.
+Therefore regular meals and plain food, plenty of sleep, exercise, etc.,
+are essential.
+
+2. All instruction must be made pleasant and interesting. Play is to be
+utilized in teaching. In this he anticipated Froebel.
+
+3. Let punishments be as light as possible. Encourage children to be
+open and truthful, and do not prevent confession by making punishments
+too frequent or too severe. Punishment should be administered privately,
+as a rule, and publicly only when all other means have failed.
+
+4. Present the thing before its name,--the idea before the word. Study
+things, investigate. Employ curiosity. In this he was a disciple of
+Bacon and Comenius, and a prophet to Pestalozzi.
+
+5. Allow nothing to be committed to memory that is not understood.
+
+6. Girls, also, must share the benefits of education. Especial attention
+should be given to teaching them modesty, gentleness, piety, household
+economy, the duties of their station in life, and those of motherhood.
+
+7. Morality should be taught early and by means of fables, stories, and
+concrete examples.
+
+8. Proceed from the near at hand to the remote, from the known to the
+unknown. Thus in language, after the mother tongue, teach other living
+languages, and then the classics. The latter are to be learned by
+conversation about common objects, and by application of the rules of
+grammar in connection therewith. In geography and history one's own
+environment and country should be learned first, then other countries.
+
+9. Example is of great importance to all periods of life, but especially
+to childhood. This Fenelon practically illustrated by his own life and
+by the concrete cases which he used. Voltaire says of Fenelon, "His wit
+was overflowing with beauty, his heart with goodness."
+
+
+LA SALLE AND THE BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS[113]
+
+In 1681, La Salle, a devoted priest of the Catholic Church, organized
+the _Brothers of the Christian Schools_.
+
+The idea primarily was to awaken interest in elementary education. He
+perfected the work already done by Peter Faurier, Charles Demia, and
+others. The method of instruction, up to this time, had been largely
+individual. The pupils were called up to the teacher, one by one, or at
+most two by two, and, after the lesson had been heard, they were sent
+back to their seats to study. La Salle conceived the idea of grading
+together pupils of the same advancement, and teaching them
+simultaneously,--a practice now employed in primary schools everywhere.
+It is known as the _Simultaneous Method_. Brother Azarias says of this
+method, "Because we all of us have been trained according to this
+method, and see it practiced in nearly all of our public and many of our
+private schools throughout the land, and have ceased to find it a
+subject of wonder, we may be inclined to undervalue its importance. Not
+so was it regarded in the days of La Salle. Then a Brothers' School was
+looked upon with admiration. Strangers were shown it as a curiosity
+worth visiting."
+
+La Salle laid down many explicit rules concerning punishment, methods of
+teaching, and school organization in a book called "The Conduct of
+Schools." While modern criticism would condemn many of these rules, we
+think, with Compayre, that "whatever the distance which separates these
+gloomy schools from our modern ideal,--from the pleasant, active,
+animated school, such as we conceive it to-day,--there is none the less
+obligation to do justice to La Salle, to pardon him for practices which
+were those of his time, and to admire him for the good qualities that
+were peculiarly his own."[114]
+
+He established the first normal school in history at Rheims in 1684,
+thirteen years before Francke organized his teachers' class at Halle,
+and fifty years before Hecker founded the first Prussian normal school
+at Stettin. La Salle magnified the teacher's office, and urgently
+demanded professional training for instructors of the young. Brother
+Azarias forcibly sums up La Salle's great work in this respect as
+follows: "He is the benefactor of the modern schoolmaster. He it was who
+raised primary teaching out of the ruts of never ending routine, carried
+on in the midst of time-honored noise and confusion, and, in giving it
+principles and a method, made of it a science. He hedged in the dignity
+of the schoolmaster. He was the first to assert the exclusive right of
+the master to devote his whole time to his school work."[115]
+
+Education, therefore, owes to La Salle three important
+contributions,--(1) the Simultaneous Method of Instruction, whereby a
+number of children of the same advancement are taught together; (2) the
+first Normal School, established at Rheims, France, in 1684; and (3) a
+dignifying of the teacher's profession by setting apart trained persons
+who should give all their time to the work of teaching.
+
+=Rollin (1661-1741).=--This great teacher, connected for many years with
+the University of Paris, and deposed therefrom in connection with the
+Jansenists to whom he adhered, was not merely a university lecturer, but
+also an author of educational works and a student of general education.
+His most important educational work is his "Treatise on Studies." Rollin
+anticipated modern practice by seeking to make learning pleasant and
+discipline humane. He would use the rod only as a last resort--a theory
+quite contrary to the practice of that time. Too much freedom, he
+thought, would have a tendency to make children impudent; too frequent
+appeal to fear breaks the spirit; praise arouses and encourages the
+child, but too much of it makes him vain. Therefore the teacher must
+avoid both extremes. While he would have girls know the four ground
+rules of arithmetic, that is about all they should have except domestic
+training. Rollin had no connection with elementary schools and but
+little contact with children; therefore his precepts do not always have
+the sound basis that experience furnishes. Nevertheless, he exerted a
+salutary influence upon the education of his time.
+
+=Summary of the Educational Progress of the Seventeenth Century.=--1.
+School systems were established and compulsory attendance made efficient
+in Weimar in 1619, in Gotha in 1642, and in many other cities, showing a
+growing recognition of the principle of universal education and the duty
+of the State to assume the responsibility for its attainment.
+
+2. A school of educators, known as the "Innovators," laid emphasis on
+_sense-realism_,--the study of things, the contact with nature, the
+education that is of practical use.
+
+3. Bacon laid the foundation of all future scientific research by his
+_inductive method_. This increased the riches of the world beyond
+calculation, taught how investigation is to be made, laid the foundation
+of modern science, and gave direction to all later education.
+
+4. Ratke, though erratic and vulgar, instituted wholesome reforms in the
+teaching of languages, and promulgated theories which, under later
+reformers, bore rich fruitage.
+
+5. Comenius, one of the greatest educators of all time, produced the
+first illustrated text-book, planned a general organization for schools
+in several countries, which is the basis of present systems, and
+proclaimed theories which are now universally accepted as the guide of
+modern pedagogical practice.
+
+6. Milton, though primarily a literary man, lent the weight of his
+genius and his great name to school reform. He marked out a course of
+study which contemplates a unity of purpose from the elementary school
+to the university.
+
+7. The great English philosopher, Locke, also found time to devote to
+education. His principle, "_A sound mind in a sound body_," directed
+attention to physical education.
+
+8. In the noble French priest, Fenelon, we find an example of theory
+practically applied. He gives, also, for the first time, a place in
+pedagogy to the education of girls.
+
+9. In general, we find that the seventeenth century laid stress upon the
+principle of utility, gave great impulse to science, called attention to
+the care of the body, decreased the influence of classic studies,
+brushed away the fabric which superstition and conservatism had woven,
+produced some of the greatest educators that have ever lived, and laid
+the foundations on which modern education is built.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[86] For special reference see Macaulay's "Essays," Vols. II and III.
+
+[87] "Essays," Vol. III, p. 354.
+
+[88] _Ibid._, Vol. III, p. 368.
+
+[89] For a full description of his trial consult Macaulay's "Essays."
+Also his biographer, Montagu, whose judgment of Bacon is much milder
+than Macaulay's.
+
+[90] "Essays," Vol. III, p. 459.
+
+[91] _Ibid._, Vol. III, p. 470.
+
+[92] Also Rateke, Radtke, and Ratich. Paulsen pronounces the last "an
+abominable mutilation of Latinization."
+
+[93] "History of Modern Education," p. 141.
+
+[94] Quick, "Educational Reformers," p. 51.
+
+[95] "Educational Reformers," p. 53.
+
+[96] Especial attention is called to Laurie's "Life of Comenius," and
+Monroe's "Comenius." For other works, see Appendix of Bardeen's edition
+of Laurie's "Comenius."
+
+[97] Laurie, "Life of Comenius," p. 14.
+
+[98] Preface to the "Prodromus."
+
+[99] Raumer, "Geschichte der Paedagogik."
+
+[100] "Educational Reformers," p. 73.
+
+[101] "History of Modern Education," p. 151.
+
+[102] "History of Pedagogy," p. 122.
+
+[103] See "Orbis Pictus," edited and published by C. W. Bardeen,
+Syracuse, N.Y.
+
+[104] Laurie's "Life and Works of Comenius," p. 77.
+
+[105] _Ibid._, p. 105.
+
+[106] For full discussion of the pedagogical principles of Comenius, see
+Professor Laurie's great work.
+
+[107] "Educational Reformers," p. 59.
+
+[108] "Tractate," p. 3.
+
+[109] See Fowler's "Locke." Also Quick, Compayre, and Williams.
+
+[110] "History of Modern Education," p. 181.
+
+[111] "History of Pedagogy," p. 165.
+
+[112] "Schoolmaster in Comedy and Satire," pp. 73-100.
+
+[113] Especial reference is made to Brother Azarias, "Essays
+Educational."
+
+[114] "History of Pedagogy," p. 276.
+
+[115] "Essays Educational," p. 238.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIV
+
+AUGUST HERMANN FRANCKE AND THE PIETISTS (1663-1727)
+
+=Literature.=--_Rein_, Encyklopaedisches Handbuch; _Strack_, Geschichte
+des Volkschulwesens; _Dyer_, Modern Europe; _Rein_, Am Ende der
+Schulreform? _Russell_, German Higher Schools.
+
+
+PIETISM
+
+Pietism is the name of a movement in Germany which sought to revive
+spiritual life in the Lutheran Church. In that church, religion had
+become purely a matter of intellect, instead of heart. Cold formality
+and adherence to the letter, rather than the spirit, had taken
+possession of the Protestant Church. Like the Jansenists in France, who
+had a similar purpose with reference to the Catholic Church, and later
+the Methodists in England, who sought to awaken religious zeal in the
+Church of England, the Pietists of Germany endeavored to vitalize
+religious life, and to lead men away from creeds promulgated by human
+agency, to the pure word of God. The Pietists differed from the orthodox
+Lutherans not in doctrine, but in insisting on the necessity of a change
+of heart and a pious life, instead of mere adherence to formal doctrine.
+
+The Pietists founded the university of Halle, and this remained the
+center of the movement until it had run its course. Pietism had its
+inception during the latter part of the seventeenth century, and it
+extended through the first half of the eighteenth century. Its
+originator was Philipp Jakob Spener, a man of remarkable zeal and godly
+life. Though it met with bitter opposition on the part of the orthodox
+Lutherans, it certainly did great good, not only to its adherents, but
+to the Church at large, by awakening deeper spiritual life. Its
+influence was also great in reviving Biblical study in Germany, in
+improving the character of teachers, and in giving a spiritual direction
+to the studies of the schools. It has left an enduring monument in the
+great _Institutions_ that it founded at Halle. The greatest of the
+Pietists was August Hermann Francke, who is celebrated, not only as a
+theologian, but as a philanthropist and teacher.
+
+
+FRANCKE[116] (1663-1727)
+
+Francke's early education was conducted by private teachers, though his
+parents, who were intelligent and God-fearing people, exerted a strong
+influence upon him. At thirteen he entered the highest class of the
+_Gymnasium_ at Gotha, where he remained for one year. Here he was
+introduced to the reform teachings of Ratke and Comenius. Two years
+later he entered the university of Erfurt as a student of theology. He
+studied also at Kiel and Leipsic. While he gave particular attention to
+Hebrew and Greek, he also learned French, English, and Italian. He
+seemed to be gifted with a talent for learning languages, for during a
+short residence in Holland in later life he learned the Dutch language
+so well that he was able to preach in it. Under the instruction of a
+Jewish rabbi, he read the Hebrew Bible through seven times in one year.
+After spending some time as teacher in a private school, he returned to
+Leipsic as _Privat Docent_[117] in the university.
+
+Having become acquainted with Spener and his teachings, Francke became
+an earnest Pietist. His success in lecturing and his zeal in religious
+work drew around him a large number of students. This awakened the envy
+of the old professors of the university, and they began a persecution
+which caused his dismissal. He then went to Erfurt and preached with
+remarkable success, drawing great crowds by his earnestness and
+eloquence. Persecution again followed him, and he was banished from the
+city.
+
+About this time the new university of Halle called Francke to the chair
+of Greek and oriental languages and afterward to that of theology. He
+began his work in 1692, and remained in that position for nearly
+thirty-six years, until his death. As this position did not furnish
+enough to live upon, he became pastor of the church in the neighboring
+village of Glaucha. In his pastoral work he came in contact with
+poverty, drunkenness, and every form of immorality. Moved with pity, he
+collected small sums of money, which he distributed among the poor after
+catechising the children.
+
+At Easter, 1695, he found seven guldens ($2.80) in the collection boxes,
+which he declared to be "A splendid capital with which something of
+importance can be founded; I will begin a school for the poor with it."
+This was the beginning of the great orphan asylum at Halle,--an
+enterprise the magnitude of which we shall describe later. Without
+visible income, with no means at command, but with a sublime faith in
+God and humanity, and an overwhelming sense of the ignorance and misery
+of the children about him, Francke began at once the great work; nor was
+his faith misplaced, as the result shows. He gathered together a few
+children and placed a student over them as a teacher. Soon the better
+class of citizens took an interest, and desired him to provide a school
+for their children. Two rooms were rented, one for those who could not
+pay and the other for those who could. This was the foundation of the
+_free school_ and the _citizens' school_ still connected with the
+_Institutions_. In the fall of 1695, Francke founded the orphan asylum.
+Money flowed in from all parts of the country as people began to
+understand the great work. Francke was thus able to branch out in many
+directions. He established a _Pedagogium_ to prepare teachers for his
+and other schools; free meals were furnished to students who devoted a
+part of their time to teaching in the institutions; separate schools for
+boys and girls, a _Gymnasium_, a _Real-school_, a bookbindery and
+printing establishment, and many other institutions were founded.
+
+=The Institutions at Halle.=--In a few years Francke had in successful
+operation a marvelous system, a work founded upon love of humanity and
+dependent upon philanthropy for its support. The results attracted
+attention from all Europe, and students came from many lands. "At the
+death of Francke in the year 1727, the following report of the
+_Institutions_ was sent to King Frederick William I.: (1) In the
+_Pedagogium_, 82 scholars, 70 teachers and other persons; (2) in the
+Latin school, 3 inspectors, 32 teachers, 400 pupils, and 10 servants;
+(3) in the common school, 4 inspectors, 98 male teachers, 8 female
+teachers, 1725 boys and girls; (4) orphans, 100 boys, 34 girls, 10
+overseers; (5) at the free table, 225 students, 360 poor children; (6)
+employed in the drug store, bookstore, etc., and other persons in the
+establishment, 82."[118] This makes a total of over 3200 persons
+instructed, sheltered, employed, or otherwise connected with these great
+_Institutions_. The foundations were so firmly laid that the progress
+has been steady from that time to this. At present there are no less
+than twenty-five different enterprises connected with the
+_Institutions_, among which may be mentioned a free school for boys, and
+one for girls; a common school for boys, and one for girls; a royal
+_Pedagogium_; a Latin school; a higher girls' school; a _Realgymnasium_;
+a preparatory school for the high school; a _Real-school_; an orphan
+asylum for boys, and one for girls; a boarding house for students; a
+Bible house, which has distributed about 6,500,000 Bibles and religious
+works; a teachers' seminary (normal school) for each sex; a bookstore, a
+printing house, and a drug store.[119] About 3000 children receive
+instruction in the various schools, and about 118,000 have been
+recipients of the benefits since the _Institutions_ were founded two
+hundred years ago. The cost is about one million marks a year, which is
+covered by endowments, by tuition fees, by profits from the productive
+departments (bookstores, printing establishment, etc.), and by moneys
+received from the State. Francke's idea of depending upon voluntary
+gifts has been abandoned.
+
+All this work is the result of the energy of a man who began with a
+capital of less than three dollars, and a vast amount of faith to found
+"something of importance."
+
+=The Training of Teachers.=--While Francke's greatest work for mankind
+was the _Institutions_ mentioned above, we must notice one field of his
+activity that is of especial importance to us,--that of the training of
+teachers. We have seen that, on account of the scarcity of funds, he was
+obliged to rely upon students to do the work of instructing the children
+committed to his care. The young theologians made use of this
+opportunity as a stepping-stone to their future calling, the ministry,
+and Francke, perceiving this, sought to secure the most pious and gifted
+among his theological students for this work. He also established a
+pedagogical class (_Pedagogium_). After two years' membership therein,
+the student was allowed to teach provided he pledged himself to devote
+three years to teaching in the schools. This class met once a week for
+criticism and discussion under the leadership of the inspector of the
+school, and the various inspectors met Francke every evening for further
+instruction. The results soon attracted widespread notice, and created a
+great demand for Francke's teachers. Although this was very crude
+pedagogical training, it may be regarded as the inception of the normal
+school, which has now come to be an essential part of every educational
+system.
+
+=The Real-school.=--A third service is credited by many to Francke,
+namely, the founding of the _Real-school_[120] of Germany. The best
+authorities give that credit to Professor Erhard Weigel of Jena. Whether
+or not the idea originated with Francke, he was ready to accept the
+necessity of such a change, and founded schools for higher learning in
+which Greek and Latin were not required, and in which more attention was
+given to modern languages and science.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[116] Rein's "Encyklopaedisches Handbuch," Vol. II, p. 336.
+
+[117] The _Privat Docent_ is the first step in the professor's career in
+the German university. He is allowed to lecture in the university, but
+receives no pay except fees from the students who hear him.
+
+[118] K. Schmidt, "Geschichte der Paedagogik," Vol. III, p. 462.
+
+[119] See Rein, "Encyklopaedisches Handbuch," Vol. II, p. 348.
+
+[120] The _Real-school_ is the great rival of the _Gymnasium_ in
+Germany. The latter is the old established school which bases culture on
+the _Humanities_,--the classic languages, and literature. The
+_Real-school_ is more modern and gives greater attention to the
+_Realities_,--to things of practical utility. Precedence is given to the
+modern languages, sciences, and arts. While the chief purpose of the
+_Gymnasium_ is to prepare for the learned professions, that of the
+_Real-school_ is to prepare for practical life. The relation of these
+two institutions to each other and to the university led to the _Berlin
+Conference_ in 1890, at which it clearly appeared that the younger is
+outstripping the older and more conservative institution. See Russell,
+"German Higher Schools."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXV
+
+GENERAL VIEW OF THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES
+
+=Literature.=--_Dyer_, Modern Europe; _Duruy_, The French Revolution;
+_Yonge_, Three Centuries of Modern History; _Andrews_, Institutes of
+General History; _Lord_, Beacon Lights; _Taylor_, History of Germany;
+_Guizot_, History of Civilization; _Draper_, Conflict between Religion
+and Science; _Schwickerath_, Jesuit Education.
+
+
+The history of the world since the seventeenth century has been crowded
+with events, and characterized by movements of greatest moment to
+mankind. It is not the purpose of this work to discuss political
+movements, to chronicle wars, or to study the great upheavals of society
+except in so far as they have a direct bearing upon educational
+questions.[121]
+
+The political chains that fettered the nations of the world have
+gradually been broken until greater liberty has been secured, a more
+perfect acknowledgment of the rights of the individual brought about,
+and a more tolerant religious spirit fostered in every civilized land.
+These things have exerted a tremendous force in the intellectual
+emancipation of man. At last the long struggle of the centuries begins
+to bear legitimate fruit, and the supreme educational purpose of
+Christianity, that of asserting and maintaining the importance of the
+individual, seems destined to complete realization. The noble truths of
+brotherly love, equality before God, and human rights were obscured
+during the long centuries,--obscured sometimes by the very institution
+whose chief aim is to scatter light and give gladness to men. It has
+remained for modern education to rediscover the educational principles
+which the Great Teacher promulgated, and which through the struggle of
+centuries failed of recognition, and bore indifferent fruit.
+
+Among the many social and political changes that have taken place during
+the last two centuries, we may mention a few that have a direct
+influence upon education. Preceding centuries had prepared the way,--had
+broken the ground and sown the seed, and now the world was ready to reap
+an abundant harvest.
+
+The great political events of this period may be briefly summarized as
+follows:--
+
+1. _The abolition of human slavery._--Great Britain, Spain, France,
+Russia, and finally our own country have forever removed the shackles of
+the slave within their borders. Perhaps the greatest of all emancipation
+acts was that of Russia, which, in 1861, without bloodshed and without
+serious disturbance, by royal decree, set free forty million serfs. The
+abolition of slavery in nearly all civilized countries is the greatest
+political triumph of Christian civilization. Without this there could
+never have come that higher intellectual emancipation which is the aim
+sought in all education.
+
+2. _The extension of political rights._--This is another victory that
+must be credited to the period under discussion. At the beginning of the
+eighteenth century there was scarcely a nation that acknowledged the
+right of the individual to a part in government, or to personal
+freedom. Men were in vassalage to their immediate lord, who, in turn,
+was obliged to acknowledge the "divine right" of the king over him. With
+the exception of Switzerland, who for centuries had maintained her
+freedom, and of England, who had secured the rights of man only by much
+bloodshed, there was scarcely a people in the world that possessed the
+right of self-government. Even England had secured that right only in
+the latter half of the seventeenth century under the leadership of
+Cromwell. This right she did not concede to her colonies, however, until
+the American Revolution wrested her richest dependency from her, and
+forever established the principle of self-government for a sovereign
+people.
+
+Immediately following the American Revolution came the French
+Revolution, which taught the Old World the ideas so heroically
+conceived, so bravely supported, and so successfully realized in the New
+World. Nor is this all. The same principle has compelled the rulers of
+most of the European nations to divide the responsibility of government
+with their subjects, and to grant their people enlarged powers but
+little short of absolute sovereignty.
+
+3. _Science has been recognized as a powerful instrument of
+civilization._--Through scientific discoveries there has been a
+wonderful accession to material wealth, invention has been stimulated,
+and progress has been made in all directions. The spirit of
+investigation has been fostered, old theories and superstitions have
+been abandoned, and truth has been established upon their ruins. In this
+direction more has been done by science during the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries than during the whole previous history of the
+world. Man has now become master of heretofore unknown forces which he
+may utilize as a blessing for the human race. We shall see in later
+pages that scientific investigation has become the greatest educational
+principle of modern times.
+
+4. _Religious freedom has been attained._--The sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries witnessed many struggles for religious liberty, which resulted
+in no decided victory. It was not until the last two centuries that
+complete religious freedom was gained. Men are no longer bound to accept
+ecclesiastical decrees without question, but every one may weigh and
+consider, and freely decide for himself. Civil law protects, civil
+society sustains, and public opinion justifies men in the exercise of
+personal liberty in religious matters.
+
+By the realization of these great principles educational progress has
+been encouraged. The greatest obstacles have been removed, and the
+future opens with possibilities of universal brotherhood, universal
+peace, and universal education.
+
+It remains for us to study some of the men who have contributed to the
+educational progress of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, to
+trace the chief movements in the intellectual development of the race,
+and to examine the school systems of the representative nations of the
+world at the present time.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[121] It must be freely admitted that such influences are powerful in
+shaping the destiny of man, and that they have had much to do with
+education, as we have often shown in the foregoing pages. We must,
+however, leave the tracing of the movements to each individual student.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVI
+
+MODERN EDUCATORS
+
+=Literature.=--_Davidson_, Rousseau; _Graham_, Rousseau; _Morley_, Life
+of Rousseau; _Rousseau_, Emile; _Munroe_, Educational Ideal; _Vogel_,
+Geschichte der Paedagogik; _Quick_, Educational Reformers; _Weir_, The
+Key to Rousseau's Emile (article in _Educational Review_, Vol. XVI, p.
+61); _Compayre_, History of Pedagogy.
+
+
+ROUSSEAU (1712-1778)
+
+Jean Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva, Switzerland. His father was a
+watchmaker, and upon him devolved the education of the boy, as the
+mother died in childbirth. Rousseau's father was a man of dissipated
+habits, careless of responsibility, and of very violent temper. He
+interested himself in his son far enough to teach him to read, and
+supplied him with the worthless novels which he himself was fond of
+reading. This unwise course doubtless had much to do in shaping the
+character of the boy. Probably it was the evil effects of this early
+literature that led Rousseau later in life to oppose teaching young
+children to read. Quick says, "Rousseau professed a hatred of books,
+which he said kept the student so long engaged upon the thoughts of
+other people as to have no time to make a store of his own."
+
+Abandoned by his father at the age of ten, he was taken into the family
+of his uncle, who apprenticed him, first to a notary, and afterward to
+an engraver. At the age of sixteen he ran away, and began a life of
+vagabondage. While yet a young man, he became involved in intrigues,
+which, according to his own account in his "Confessions," were no credit
+to him. Madame de Warens, a young widow with whom he lived for some
+years, sent him to school at St. Lazare, where he studied the classics
+and music; but he soon lapsed again into vagabondage. He picked up a
+little music, and attempted to give lessons in it, but with small
+success. He also took a position as private tutor, but he had no talent
+for teaching. Later in life he married Therese le Vasseur, a woman from
+the common ranks of life. She bore him five children, all of whom he
+committed to foundling hospitals without means of identification. He did
+this because he was not willing that his own comfort or plans should be
+disturbed by the presence of children. Rousseau had reason to regret
+this heartless and unnatural course when, in later years, he sought in
+vain to find some trace of his children. Compayre says, "If he loved to
+observe children, he observed, alas, only the children of others. There
+is nothing sadder than that page of the 'Confessions,' in which he
+relates how he often placed himself at the window to observe the
+dismission of a school, in order to listen to the conversations of
+children as a furtive and unseen observer!"[122]
+
+In 1749 Rousseau successfully competed for a prize offered by the
+Academy of Dijon on the subject, "Has the restoration of the sciences
+contributed to purify or to corrupt manners?" Rousseau entered this
+contest quite accidentally. He saw the notice of the contest in a
+newspaper, and decided at once to compete. Of this event he says, "If
+ever anything resembled a sudden inspiration, it was the movement which
+began in me as I read this. All at once I felt myself dazzled by a
+thousand sparkling lights; crowds of vivid ideas thronged into my mind
+with a force and confusion which threw me into unspeakable agitation; I
+felt my head whirling in a giddiness like that of intoxication. A
+violent palpitation oppressed me; unable to walk for difficulty of
+breathing, I sank under one of the trees of the avenue, and passed half
+an hour there in such a condition of excitement that when I rose I saw
+that the front of my waistcoat was all wet with tears, though I was
+wholly unconscious of shedding them. Ah, if I could have written the
+quarter of what I saw and felt under that tree, with what clearness
+should I have brought out all the contradictions of our social system;
+with what simplicity should I have demonstrated that man is good
+naturally, and that by institution only is he made bad."
+
+This essay made him famous, and its publication was the beginning of a
+remarkable literary career. His principal literary works are his
+"Confessions," in which he declares that he conceals nothing concerning
+himself; the "Social Contract," an anti-monarchic work, which many
+believe incited the French Revolution; "Heloise," a novel over-strained
+in sentiment and immoral in its teachings, but "full of pathos and
+knowledge of the human heart"; and "Emile," his greatest work, which
+contains his educational theories. The "Emile"[123] was an epoch-making
+book, which excited great interest throughout Europe. It is said that
+the philosopher Emanuel Kant became so absorbed in reading it that he
+forgot to take his daily walk.
+
+=Pedagogy.=--(_a_) Rousseau's first principle is, "Everything is good as
+it comes from the hands of the Author of nature; everything degenerates
+in the hands of man." It follows, then, that education has only to
+prevent the entrance of evil, and let nature continue the work begun.
+It is to be a negative, as well as a natural, process. The fallacy of
+this principle is very forcibly shown by Vogel[124] as follows: "The
+very first sentence of 'Emile,' that man by nature is good, is a
+fundamental error; for by nature, that is, from birth, man is neither
+good nor bad, but morally indifferent. Only when the individual
+possesses mature self-consciousness does he have a correct idea of good
+and evil. If man by nature is good, it is inexplicable how evil can
+originate within him. External things may, indeed, furnish motives to
+evil, but are never in themselves evil; the evil arises rather from the
+conduct of the individual toward outside objects. If, then, evil does
+not come from without, and is not by nature already within the heart, it
+is impossible that there shall be such a thing as evil."
+
+(_b_) The first education is physical and it begins at birth. As the
+physical wants of the child are natural they should be satisfied, but
+the clothing should be of such character as not to interfere with the
+perfect freedom of the body. Great care must be taken to distinguish
+between the real wants of the child and its passing whims. To gratify
+the latter because of the crying of the child will tend to form bad
+habits. In this connection may be taught the first moral lessons. It
+thus becomes important that the speech, gestures, and expressions of the
+young child shall be carefully studied. This is the first suggestion of
+the necessity for child study. The idea was later developed by
+Pestalozzi and Froebel, and is one of the most important features of
+recent pedagogical activity.
+
+(_c_) The child's second period begins with his ability to speak and
+continues till the twelfth year. No attempt must be made to educate the
+child for his future, but he must be allowed to get the full enjoyment
+of childhood by freedom to play as he will. Let him run, jump, and test
+his strength, thereby acquiring judgment of the material forces about
+him, and learning how to take care of himself. Leave him free to do what
+he will, let him have what he wishes, but, as far as possible, he should
+be led to depend upon himself to satisfy his wants. Give him perfect
+freedom, for freedom is the fundamental law of education. If he
+disobeys, do not punish him,--disobedience works its own punishment;
+therefore, do not command him. The training of the senses is the
+important work of this period; therefore, there should be as little
+moral training as possible, and absolutely no religious training. The
+only moral idea for the child to learn is that of ownership. He is to be
+prevented from vice in a negative manner, that is, by never being
+allowed to meet it. "The only habit that a child should be allowed to
+form is to contract no habit."
+
+He is to have a preceptor devoted entirely to him, not to instruct or
+control him, but to lead him to discover and experience for himself. In
+regard to his intellectual instruction, Rousseau says of _Emile_ at
+twelve years of age, "that he has not learned to distinguish his right
+hand from his left." Books are entirely proscribed, and, indeed, they
+are useless to him as he cannot read; the only intellectual knowledge
+the child receives is that which comes from things through his own
+experience.
+
+This is a brief outline of the erratic, impossible, and inconsistent
+training that Rousseau provides for _Emile_ during this period when the
+foundation of character in the child must be laid. Greard says,
+"Rousseau goes beyond progressive education to recommend an education
+in fragments, so to speak, which isolates the faculties in order to
+develop them one after another, which establishes an absolute line of
+demarkation between the different ages, and which ends in distinguishing
+three stages of progress in the soul. Rousseau's error on this point is
+in forgetting that the education of the child ought to prepare for the
+education of the young man."
+
+(_d_) The third period extends from the twelfth to the fifteenth year.
+It is the period of intellectual development. With no habits of thought
+or study, being little else than a robust animal, in three years _Emile_
+is to obtain all needed intellectual training. True, Rousseau excludes
+everything that is not useful, and places limitations even on that. For
+example, he naturally lays great stress upon the physical sciences which
+are to be taught in connection with things themselves,--out of doors, by
+travel, and in actual life; but he allows no history, or grammar, or
+ancient languages. No books are permitted save "Robinson Crusoe," which
+Rousseau finds entirely suitable for _Emile_. A trade is to be learned
+during this period.
+
+While in general we condemn Rousseau's scheme of education, there is
+much in his methods that is most excellent. On this point Compayre
+comments as follows: "At least in the general method which he commends,
+Rousseau makes amends for the errors in his plan of study: 'Do not treat
+the child to discourses which he cannot understand. No descriptions, no
+eloquence, no figures of speech. Be content to present to him
+appropriate objects. Let us transform our sensations into ideas. But let
+us not jump at once from sensible to intellectual objects. Let us always
+proceed slowly from one sensible notion to another. In general, let us
+never substitute the sign for the thing, except when it is impossible
+for us to show the thing.'"[125]
+
+(_e_) The fourth period of education begins at fifteen, the period of
+adolescence. At this time, "_Emile_ will know nothing of history,
+nothing of humanity, nothing of art and literature, nothing of God; but
+he will know a manual trade." Rousseau himself says, "_Emile_ has but
+little knowledge, but that which he has is really his own; he knows
+nothing by halves." He has a mind which, "if not instructed, is at least
+capable of being instructed." The remaining work to be done in the
+education of _Emile_ consists in training the sentiments of affection,
+the moral and the religious sentiments. The feeling of love for his
+fellow-beings is now to be cultivated. The error of this is shown by
+Compayre, who says, "For fifteen years Rousseau leaves the heart of
+_Emile_ unoccupied.... Rousseau made the mistake of thinking that a
+child can be taught to love as he is taught to read and write, and that
+lessons could be given to _Emile_ in feeling just as lessons are given
+to him in geometry."
+
+In morals Rousseau taught that the first duty of every one is to take
+care of himself; we must love ourselves first of all, and find our
+greatest interest in those things that best serve us. We must seek that
+which is useful to us and avoid what harms us, instead of loving our
+enemies and doing good to those that hate us, as taught by Christ. We
+must love those who love us, while we must avoid and hate those who hate
+us.
+
+As to religion, _Emile_ does not yet know at fifteen that he has a soul,
+and Rousseau thinks that perhaps the eighteenth year is still too early
+for him to learn that fact; for, if he tries to learn it before the
+proper time, he runs the risk of never really knowing that he possesses
+an immortal soul. But as religion furnishes a check upon the passions,
+it should be taught to the boy when eighteen years of age. He is not to
+be instructed in the doctrines of any particular sect, but should be
+allowed to select that religious belief which most strongly appeals to
+his reason. Modern investigation has proven the utter fallacy of
+Rousseau's teachings in this respect. Indeed, it seems to be established
+that the most orthodox period of the child's life occurs before the
+fifteenth year, the time when Rousseau would begin his religious
+training. Conformable to this truth, many sects confirm children and
+receive them into the church at or before the fifteenth year.[126]
+
+(_f_) Having brought _Emile_ to the period of life at which he is to
+marry, Rousseau proceeds to create in Sophie the ideal wife. It is not
+the education of women as such that Rousseau discusses, but their
+education with reference to man. He says, "The whole education of women
+should be relative to men; to please them, to be useful to them, to make
+themselves honored and loved by them, to educate the young, to care for
+the older, to advise them, to console them, to make life agreeable and
+sweet to them,--these are the duties of women in every age."
+Consequently the sole instruction woman needs is in household duties, in
+care of children, in ways to add to the happiness of her husband. Her
+own happiness or development does not enter into Rousseau's scheme. This
+is the weakest part of his educational theory. The world is gradually
+awakening to the fact that woman's intellectual capacity is not
+inferior to that of man, and the prejudices of ages are slowly
+disappearing.
+
+Rousseau's pedagogical theories made a profound impression throughout
+Europe, and though often inconsistent, extravagant, and visionary, they
+set the world to thinking of the child and his psychological
+development. A new direction was thus given to educational theory and
+practice, and upon this basis Pestalozzi, Froebel, and other modern
+educators have built. Rousseau must, therefore, be reckoned among the
+greatest pedagogical writers of modern times. Karl Schmidt pronounces
+the "Emile" "a Platonic republic of education,--nevertheless, Rousseau's
+work is a great universal achievement, the importance of which Goethe
+recognizes when he calls the book the _nature-gospel_ of education."[127]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[122] "History of Pedagogy," p. 286.
+
+[123] "Schoolmaster in Literature," pp. 40-63.
+
+[124] "Geschichte der Paedagogik," p. 127. See also Compayre, "History of
+Pedagogy," p. 286.
+
+[125] "History of Pedagogy," p. 298.
+
+[126] See address of Professor Earl Barnes, Proceedings of the National
+Educational Association for 1893, p. 765. Also article by Dr. G. Stanley
+Hall in _Pedagogical Seminary_, Vol. I, p. 196. Note also the religious
+development of Laura Bridgman.
+
+[127] "Geschichte der Paedagogik," Vol. III, p. 559.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVII
+
+MODERN EDUCATORS (_Continued_)
+
+
+BASEDOW[128] (1723-1790)
+
+The name of Basedow is connected with what is known as the
+_Philanthropinic_ experiment. He was born at Hamburg, his father being a
+wigmaker. Not being appreciated in his home, the son ran away and bound
+himself out as servant in the household of a gentleman. Through the
+influence of this man, who discovered his extraordinary abilities, he
+was reconciled with his father, and returned home. He was sent to the
+_Gymnasium_ at Hamburg, and afterward, through the assistance of
+friends, went to the university of Leipsic, where he studied theology.
+Here he lived a rather wild life, and upon the completion of his studies
+was found too unorthodox to take orders. Accordingly, he became tutor
+(Hauslehrer) to the children of Herr von Quaalen. In this position he
+showed great aptitude and originality in the instruction of children.
+His method of teaching included conversation, adaptation of play, and
+use of the woods, fields, plants, birds, and other works of nature.
+
+"Owing to his original manner of teaching, Basedow obtained the best
+results. In teaching Latin, for instance, he began by pointing to
+objects and giving their Latin names. His pupils, in a very short time,
+learned to speak Latin almost as well as their native language. Basedow
+himself learned French, after the same manner, of the governess of the
+house."[129]
+
+He next became Professor of Morals and Polite Literature at Soroee,
+Denmark, where his unorthodox writings again led him into trouble. He
+was removed to the _Gymnasium_ at Altona. Rousseau's "Emile" produced a
+profound impression upon him, as it had done upon many other thinkers in
+Europe, and many of his theories are probably traceable to that book.
+Basedow was convinced of the need of a radical reform in the schools of
+Germany, and set himself the task of effecting it. Bernsdorf, the Danish
+minister of education, became interested in his writings, and, together
+with several of the crowned heads of Europe, assisted him in bringing
+out his "Elementary Book" (Elementarbuch), which foreshadowed his plans.
+It was modeled after the "Orbis Pictus" of Comenius. The interest of
+these distinguished patrons shows how urgent was the need of an
+educational reform. Basedow also made the acquaintance of the great
+literary men of the time, chief among whom was Goethe. In temperament he
+was misanthropic and peevish, owing in part, doubtless, to ill health
+brought on by overwork and worry.
+
+=The Philanthropin.=--Indirectly through Goethe, Prince Leopold of
+Dessau was attracted to Basedow. The prince determined to found an
+institute in which the plans of the great educator could be carried out.
+The institute, called the Philanthropin, was established, and became
+celebrated throughout Europe. Quick says: "Then, for the first and
+probably for the last time, a school was started in which use and wont
+were entirely set aside, and everything done on 'improved principles.'
+Such a bold enterprise attracted the attention of all interested in
+education, far and near; but it would seem that few parents considered
+their own children _vilia corpora_ (vile bodies), on whom experiments
+might be made for the public good. When, in May, 1776, a number of
+schoolmasters and others collected from different parts of Germany, and
+even from beyond Germany, to be present by Basedow's invitation at an
+examination of the children, they found only thirteen pupils in the
+Philanthropin, including Basedow's own son and daughter."[130]
+
+The main purpose of the Philanthropin was to give Basedow an opportunity
+to carry out his new educational ideas. A prominent feature of the
+undertaking was that it should be a model institute "for the preparation
+of teachers in the theory and practice of the new education." The
+institution, was to be a "school of true humanity. Its name was to give
+evidence of its object--the education of youth in accordance with the
+laws of nature and humanity." In it Basedow was to exemplify his ideas
+of education. The best of teachers were to be employed, the best
+appliances furnished, and the instruction was to be founded entirely on
+sense-perception. The Philanthropin was opened in 1774, and at once
+awoke universal interest.
+
+But this school, conceived in love for humanity, founded with the
+noblest of purposes, and exemplifying much of sound educational
+philosophy, was destined to be shortlived. It was abandoned in less than
+twenty years. This downfall was owing to several causes, some of which
+may be mentioned. 1. The institution was purely secular in character,
+and the world was not yet ready for this. Parents were suspicious of a
+non-sectarian school, the idea of which was so contrary to that of the
+traditional church-school. Hence the small number of pupils in the
+Philanthropin, even at the height of its prosperity under Basedow.
+
+2. Altogether too many subjects were included in the course. Quick
+outlines the work undertaken as follows: "(1) Man. Here he would use the
+pictures of foreigners and wild men, also a skeleton, a hand in spirits,
+and other objects still more appropriate to a surgical museum. (2)
+Animals. Only such animals are to be depicted as it is useful to know
+about, because there is much that ought to be known, and a good method
+of instruction must shorten rather than increase the hours of study.
+Articles of commerce made from the animals may also be exhibited. (3)
+Trees and plants. Only the most important are to be selected. Of these
+the seeds also must be shown, and cubes formed of the different woods.
+Gardeners' and farmers' implements are to be explained. (4) Mineral and
+chemical substances. (5) Mathematical instruments for weighing and
+measuring; also the air pump, siphon, and the like. The form and motion
+of the earth are to be explained with globes and maps. (6) Trades. The
+use of various tools is to be taught. (7) History. This is to be
+illustrated by engravings of historical events. (8) Commerce. Samples of
+commodities may be produced. (9) The younger children should be shown
+pictures of familiar objects about the house and its surroundings."[131]
+
+There are very many suggestive ideas in Basedow's course, which have
+been adopted in modern schools; but the trouble was that he demanded too
+much, and he himself acknowledged later in life that "he had exaggerated
+notions of the amount boys were capable of learning," and accordingly
+his curriculum was very much shortened.
+
+3. Another reason for the failure of the Philanthropin was Basedow's
+indiscriminate condemnation of everything that had been done before, and
+of all who failed to agree with him. This awoke the antagonism of
+teachers everywhere. All reformers are apt to be radical in their own
+views and denunciatory of the opinions of others. Had there been less to
+criticise in Basedow himself, he would doubtless have triumphed over all
+opposition. But his educational theories and practices did not produce
+the results which he predicted for them, and his opponents were quick to
+mark every weakness that his system betrayed.
+
+4. More fatal still, perhaps, was the unfitness of Basedow for the
+directorship of the institution. He was capricious, lacking in
+self-command and proper balance, visionary, and often suspicious of the
+teachers under his direction. Such causes prevented the experiment at
+Dessau from fulfilling the bright hopes of Basedow and the friends who
+assisted him in starting the enterprise.
+
+Basedow retired after four years' leadership, and the institution
+continued for a few years with varying success, under such men as Campe,
+Salzmann, and Matthison. Yet, when the Philanthropin was closed in 1793,
+the teachers, dispersed throughout Germany, carried the new gospel
+wherever they went, arousing fresh interest in education and doing much
+for its advancement.
+
+Quick thinks that Basedow's system possessed great merits "for children,
+say, between the ages of six and ten." Kant was greatly disappointed at
+the result. Rousseau's "Emile" had awakened his interest in education,
+and he looked to the experiment at Dessau for an exemplification of the
+new ideals. His estimate of the work accomplished is as follows:
+"Experience shows that often in our experiments we get quite opposite
+results from what we had anticipated. We see, too, that since
+experiments are necessary, it is not in the power of one generation to
+form a complete plan of education. The only experimental school which,
+to some extent, made a beginning in clearing the road, was the Institute
+at Dessau. This praise at least must be allowed, notwithstanding the
+many faults which could be brought up against it--faults which are sure
+to show themselves when we come to the results of our experiments, and
+which merely prove that fresh experiments are necessary. It was the only
+school in which teachers had liberty to work according to their own
+methods and schemes, and where they were in free communication both
+among themselves and with all learned men throughout Germany."[132]
+
+=Writings.=--Basedow's chief educational writing is the book called the
+"Elementary." The "Book of Method" was the first to appear, and was
+really the first part of the "Elementary." Concerning the "Book of
+Method," Lang says, "This famous manual was undoubtedly the greatest of
+Basedow's educational writings.... It was full of valuable suggestions.
+It set educators to thinking, and has been a powerful motor in bringing
+about a change in school instruction."
+
+The "Elementary," containing Basedow's complete scheme of education, has
+been called the "Orbis Pictus of the eighteenth century." The general
+opinion is that Basedow obtained the root ideas of this work from
+Comenius, Locke, and Rousseau. There is but little that is original in
+his pedagogical principles, but he made an effort to carry out the
+progressive teachings which had entered into the theories of advanced
+thinkers but had not been worked into practice. Still, the problem of
+education became through Basedow better understood, and he is deserving
+of a place among the great educators of the world for his experiment at
+Dessau toward the solution of that problem. The experiment was crude,
+but it has borne fruit in modern schools and their methods, in better
+school buildings and apparatus, in trained teachers, in milder forms of
+discipline, in the improved study of nature, and in a broader and more
+philanthropic view of man's duty to his fellow-man.
+
+=Jacotot (1770-1840).=--Perhaps the most famous of the French educators
+and writers of this period was Jacotot, for a time professor of
+languages and mathematics at Paris, and later professor of the French
+language and literature at Loewen. His principal educational work is
+entitled "Universal Instruction." Jacotot is best known for his
+paradoxes, two of the most famous of which are, "Everything is in
+Everything," and "All men have equal intelligence." But his method
+rather than his paradoxical statements has proved his greatest
+contribution to educational progress. His method consisted in the
+selection of fundamental examples or types, having the pupils commit
+them to memory, repeating this work daily, amplifying it, deriving the
+rules or principles in relation to it, until the mastery in all
+directions is complete. Thus in studying Latin a page of Caesar might be
+taken and drilled upon until the style, rules of grammar, and meaning of
+the passage are mastered; in mathematics the fundamental rules,--the
+Pythagorean theorem must be repeated daily; in geography begin with a
+map and master all its details. Gain a complete understanding of one
+subject before taking up another. His method attracted much attention.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[128] Special References, Williams, "History of Modern Education";
+Quick, "Educational Reformers," pp. 144, 288; Lang, "Basedow" (Teachers'
+Manuals, No. 16).
+
+[129] Lang, "Basedow," p. 6.
+
+[130] "Educational Reformers," p. 150.
+
+[131] "Educational Reformers," p. 151.
+
+[132] Kant, "Ueber Paedagogik."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVIII
+
+MODERN EDUCATORS (_Continued_)
+
+
+PESTALOZZI (1746-1827)
+
+=Literature.=--_De Guimps_, Pestalozzi, his Life and Works; _Kruesi_,
+Life, Work, and Influence of Pestalozzi; _Quick_, Educational Reformers;
+_Von Raumer_, Life and System of Pestalozzi; _Durrell_, New Life in
+Education; _Gill_, Systems of Education; _Skinner_, The Schoolmaster in
+Literature; _Barnard_, Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism; _Vogel_,
+Geschichte des deutschen Volksschulwesens; _Rein_, Encyklopaedisches
+Handbuch der Paedagogik.
+
+Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in Zurich, Switzerland, January 12,
+1746. His father was a physician of great intelligence, and his death
+before the boy reached his sixth year deprived the latter of a wise
+counselor. The character of the mother is shown by the dying appeal of
+Pestalozzi's father to his servant Baebeli: "For God's sake and in the
+name of mercy do not forsake my wife. When I am dead she will be
+helpless, and my children will fall into the hands of strangers."
+
+Baebeli replied, "I will never leave your wife, if it should please God
+to take you hence. I will remain with her till death, if she wishes me
+to do so," a promise which she faithfully kept. Kruesi thinks that, "The
+sacrifices of a mother for her children do not show more nobility of
+soul than was displayed by this poor, uneducated girl, who gave up all
+her worldly interest for a family not her own." Who can say that
+Pestalozzi himself was not inspired to his long life of devotion to the
+interests of the lowly by the unselfish consecration of this lowly woman
+to his family?
+
+Pestalozzi did not care for companions of his own age. He was peculiarly
+a mother's boy, content to grow up dreamy and impractical at her quiet
+hearthstone. Consequently he was awkward and reserved, easily imposed
+upon, and lacking in self-reliance. These qualities remained with him as
+long as he lived, and caused him many painful failures. On the other
+hand, the pious example of his mother and the tranquil life he led with
+her made the boy reflective and imaginative, while his soul became
+filled with great thoughts for the well-being of mankind. His
+grandfather, a country pastor, whom he often visited, by his simple,
+godly life exerted a great influence in shaping Pestalozzi's religious
+character.
+
+=Schooling.=--At school he was the butt of ridicule among the scholars
+because of his awkwardness, his simplicity, and his ingenuousness. His
+comrades dubbed him "Harry Oddity of Follyville," a nickname that
+carried no reproach with it, but was intended to express good-natured
+appreciation of his characteristics. Mr. Quick tells us that "his good
+nature and obliging disposition gained him many friends. No doubt his
+friends profited from his willingness to do anything for them. We find
+that when, on the shock of an earthquake, teachers and scholars alike
+rushed out of the schoolhouse, Harry Oddity was the boy sent back to
+fetch out caps and books." While not brilliant as a scholar, he was by
+no means dull. He was more ready in grasping the _content_ than the
+_form_ of the subject. Consequently all through life he never overcame
+his weakness in some of the commonest requirements of education.[133]
+
+=Life Purpose.=--After completing the work of the elementary schools, he
+entered the university of Zurich, where he sustained himself with
+credit. Even while yet a boy he joined a league of students which was
+intended to resist injustice. Of himself and his fellow-students, he
+says, "We decided to live for nothing but independence, well-doing, and
+sacrifice for love of country."
+
+Speaking of society as he saw it, he says, "I saw the unfortunate
+condition of all mankind, especially of my own countrymen, in all its
+hollowness. I saw indulgence despoiling the highest moral, spiritual,
+and civil interests, and sapping the lifeblood of our race as never
+before in the history of Europe. I saw finally the people of our nation
+steeped in poverty, misery, and universal want. From youth up the
+purpose of my life has been to secure to the poor of my country a
+happier fate by improving and simplifying their educational privileges.
+But the only sure foundation upon which we may hope to secure national
+culture and elevate the poor is that of the home where the love of
+father and mother is the ruling principle. Through the unselfishness,
+truth, strength, and purity of their love, parents kindle faith in their
+children. This leads to that implicit obedience which is based on
+confidence and love."
+
+Love for humanity, desire to ameliorate suffering, and thorough
+unselfishness furnished the key to Pestalozzi's purpose and lifework.
+
+=The Christian Ministry.=--It was this lofty purpose that led him first
+to attempt the work of the Christian ministry, a work which his aged
+grandfather encouraged. But he failed in his first sermon, and at once
+decided that he had mistaken his calling. Kruesi[134] says that "he
+stopped short in his sermon and made mistakes in the Lord's Prayer. This
+may have been due to embarrassment, which made the young minister forget
+the sermon which he had been obliged to commit to memory. More likely,
+however, it was an exalted idea of the proper qualifications of a
+clergyman, compared with his own humble merits, which induced him to
+exchange the study of theology for that of law."
+
+=The Law.=--His motive in devoting himself to law was the same that had
+led him to the ministry,--his desire to be a blessing to his
+fellow-beings. He saw the peasantry cheated and imposed upon because of
+their ignorance, and determined to become their champion. Kruesi thinks
+that his study of the law must "have produced negative results by
+showing him the insufficiency of human legislation to do away with
+abuses, unless supported by principles of charity and justice." He
+therefore gave up this enterprise also.
+
+=Farming.=--The advice of a dying friend, Bluntschli, "Never embark in
+any operation which might become dangerous to your peace of mind,
+because of the simplicity and tenderness of your disposition," may have
+had its effect upon Pestalozzi. He now entered upon his third venture.
+Having induced a wealthy firm in Zurich to advance him money, he bought
+about one hundred acres of unimproved land in the canton of Aargau,
+where he proposed to raise madder as a means of profit. Once more his
+real purpose was philanthropic, as he intended to show the poor peasants
+improved methods of farming whereby they could obtain better results for
+their labor and thereby be enabled to live more comfortably. He named
+the place Neuhof.
+
+=Marriage.=--At this time he had just passed his twenty-first year. We
+pause to mention an event that had much to do with his happiness and
+with his later life. He had made the acquaintance of Anna Schulthess, a
+young lady of considerable means, and sought her hand in marriage. His
+letter to her, proposing marriage, is remarkable for its frankness, for
+the ingenuous confession of his own weaknesses, and for its correct
+estimate of himself. A few quotations from this letter must
+suffice.[135] "My failings, which appear to me the most important in
+relation to the future, are improvidence, want of caution, and want of
+that presence of mind which is necessary to meet unexpected changes in
+my future prospects. I hope, by continued exertions, to overcome them;
+but know that I still possess them to a degree that does not allow me to
+conceal them from the maiden I love.... I am further bound to confess
+that I shall place the duties toward my fatherland in advance of those
+to my wife, and that, although I mean to be a tender husband, I shall be
+inexorable even to the tears of my wife, if they should ever try to
+detain me from performing my duties as a citizen, to their fullest
+extent. My wife shall be the confidant of my heart, the partner of all
+my most secret counsel. A great and holy simplicity shall reign in my
+house.... My dear friend, I love you so tenderly and fervently that this
+confession has cost me much, since it may even take from me the hope of
+winning you."
+
+Anna was not discouraged by the picture which the man she loved drew of
+himself, and she consented to become his wife. They were married in his
+twenty-fourth year, and thus began a long period of happy wedded life
+that extended over fifty years. Quick tells us that "the forebodings of
+the letter were amply realized, ... and yet we may well believe that
+Madame Pestalozzi never repented of her choice."
+
+=Neuhof.=--But to return to Pestalozzi's experiment in farming, matters
+had not progressed well. The Zurich capitalists became suspicious, and
+after an investigation decided to withdraw their support, thus
+precipitating failure. Of this Pestalozzi himself says, "The cause of
+the failure of my undertaking lay essentially and exclusively in myself,
+and in my pronounced incapacity for every kind of undertaking which
+requires practical ability." One cannot fail to admire the energy and
+courage of the man, who, conscious of his own weakness, still persevered
+in great enterprises until he achieved success.
+
+It was not for himself, but for humanity, that Pestalozzi labored, and
+no discouragement could daunt, no failure defeat, no lack of
+appreciation or misunderstanding check, the ardor of his zeal for the
+great work that absorbed his life. Around him were men and women in
+poverty and misery, whose children were growing up in vice and
+ignorance, to perpetuate the evils under which their parents suffered.
+With the spirit of his divine Master, Pestalozzi sought to elevate and
+bless those around him.
+
+Accordingly, after the failure caused by the withdrawal of the financial
+support heretofore mentioned, he started again at Neuhof, using his
+wife's money. He opened an "industrial school for the poor," which Kruesi
+calls "the first school of its kind ever conceived, and the mother of
+hundreds now existing on both sides of the Atlantic." This was in 1775.
+He gathered fifty children together, and fed, clothed, housed, and
+taught them without compensation; in return for this they were to work
+in the fields in summer and at spinning in the winter. But this
+experiment also was doomed to bring disappointment. The children were
+lazy, shiftless, and dishonest; their work was of little use to
+Pestalozzi, because of their lack of skill and their bad habits. They
+would often run away as soon as they were well fed and had a new suit of
+clothes. Parents were unappreciative and dissatisfied, demanding pay for
+the labor of their children. Was there ever a more discouraging
+situation than this which Pestalozzi had to confront, when people
+demanded pay for accepting the philanthropic and unselfish measures
+taken for the good of their children and for their own elevation?
+
+This could not continue long, and in 1780 Pestalozzi was obliged to
+close his school. He found himself badly in debt, with his wife's
+property gone. But even under these overwhelming misfortunes he says,
+"My failure showed me the truth of my plans," and this has long since
+been verified, both in his ideas of farming and in the industrial
+school.
+
+=Authorship.=--The next eighteen years, though passed by Pestalozzi in
+extreme poverty, were not unfruitful. He began to write pamphlets and
+books, the first book being, "The Evening Hours of a Hermit," which
+appeared in 1780. His second book, "Leonard and Gertrude,"[136] was
+published the year following. It created great interest and brought
+Pestalozzi immediate fame. The government of Berne presented him a gold
+medal, which, however, he was obliged to sell to procure the necessities
+of life for his family. In "Leonard and Gertrude" Pestalozzi gives a
+homely and touching picture of life among the lowly, and shows how a
+good woman uses her opportunities for uplifting and educating, first her
+own family, and then her neighbors. In this work she is aided by the
+village schoolmaster and the magistrate, who are inspired by her example
+and leadership. Pestalozzi wrote several other books during this period,
+but none to equal "Leonard and Gertrude."
+
+=Stanz.=--In the meantime, the French Revolution broke out, and
+Pestalozzi, influenced by the writings of Rousseau, became an ardent
+champion of the new order of things. He seems to have acquired
+considerable political influence, as the Directors of the Government of
+Switzerland thought it necessary to win him to their cause by giving him
+a political office. They therefore asked him what office he wanted, and
+he replied, "I want to be a schoolmaster." Accordingly, when the French
+had pillaged the inhabitants and burned their homes, Pestalozzi was sent
+to Stanz,--the only village left in the canton of Nidwalden,--to
+establish a school.[137] Now for the first time he found himself in the
+calling for which his whole nature had yearned, for which he was
+peculiarly suited, and in which he was destined to become famous.
+
+At the age of fifty-three Pestalozzi began his work at Stanz. The
+government gave him an empty convent in which to hold his school, and,
+before it was ready for occupancy, children flocked to it for admission.
+The devastation of the land by the French and the consequent lack of the
+necessities of life among the people increased the difficulties of
+Pestalozzi's task. His own description of the beginning of his work is
+full of eloquence. Speaking of the school, he says, "I was among them
+from morning till evening. Everything tending to benefit body and soul I
+administered with my own hand. Every assistance, every lesson they
+received, came from me. My hand was joined to theirs, and my smile
+accompanied theirs. They seemed out of the world and away from Stanz;
+they were with me and I with them. We shared food and drink. I had no
+household, no friends, no servants around me; I had only them. Was their
+health good, I enjoyed it with them; were they sick, I stood at their
+side. I slept in their midst. I was the last to go to bed and the first
+to rise. I prayed with them, and taught them in bed till they fell
+asleep." How true is the saying that, "He lived with beggars in order
+that beggars might learn to live like men."
+
+Thus living with them, teaching them, inspiring them to be good,
+devoting his whole thought to their welfare, Pestalozzi, who was
+described as "either a good-natured fool, or a poor devil, who was
+compelled, by indigence, to perform the menial office of schoolmaster,"
+began a work that has revolutionized educational method.
+
+But the same discouragements that had met him at Neuhof attended him at
+Stanz. Parents brought their children to the asylum only to be clothed,
+and then removed them upon the slightest pretexts. Nevertheless, the
+work of Pestalozzi at Stanz was not a failure, though the school was
+rendered houseless by the French soldiers in 1799, and had to be
+abandoned after less than five months' existence. Kruesi comments upon
+this period of Pestalozzi's life as follows: "Let those who now witness
+the mighty changes that have taken place in education pay grateful
+tribute to the man who first took up arms against the hollow systems of
+the old school routine, and who showed the path to those delightful
+regions of thought, in whose well-tilled soil rich harvests will ever be
+reaped by the patient laborer.
+
+"To the philanthropist and friend of education, Stanz will always be a
+hallowed spot, exhibiting, as it does, the picture of this venerable
+teacher sitting among the outcast children, animated by the very spirit
+of Christ, and by a great idea which not only filled his own soul, but
+also inspired those who witnessed his labors."[138]
+
+=Burgdorf.=--But Stanz proved the turning point in Pestalozzi's career.
+He was soon chosen assistant teacher at Burgdorf. His experience at
+Stanz, without books and without appliances, had compelled him to invent
+methods of interesting the children. He was thus brought to the use of
+objects, and here we have the beginning of practical object teaching. It
+was not long, however, before the head master of the school became
+jealous of him because he secured the attention and affection of the
+pupils, and Pestalozzi's dismissal was obtained on the ground that he
+did not know how to read and spell correctly, a charge which, as we have
+seen, was without doubt true. As to his method of teaching, Ramsauer,
+one of his pupils, tells us that "there was no regular plan, not any
+time-table.... As Pestalozzi, in his zeal, did not tie himself to any
+particular time, we generally went on until eleven o'clock with whatever
+we commenced at eight, and by ten o'clock he was always tired and
+hoarse. We knew when it was eleven by the noise of the other school
+children in the street, and then we usually all ran out without bidding
+good-by." Certainly no one will commend such schoolroom practice, and at
+first glance Pestalozzi would seem to merit only censure; but his
+enthusiasm, his zeal for the good of his fellow-beings, and his
+consciousness of possessing the truth triumphed over his lack of system
+as well as over other obstacles. The school committee of Burgdorf
+appreciated this, as is shown by their report. "He (Pestalozzi) has
+shown what powers are hidden in the feeble child, and in what manner
+they can be developed. The pupils have made astonishing progress in some
+branches, thereby proving that every child is capable of doing something
+if the teacher is able to draw out his talent, and awaken the powers of
+his mind in the order of their natural development."
+
+Upon his dismissal from this position he united with Hermann Kruesi in
+founding a private school. Pupils increased in numbers, and at last
+Pestalozzi was on the road to success as well as fame. He gathered a
+strong corps of teachers about him, who not only contributed to the
+success of the institution, but sat at the feet of their recognized
+master, and loyally supported his measures. During his life at Burgdorf,
+he issued his work entitled "How Gertrude teaches her Children" (1801),
+in which he attempts to give his system of education. "A work," says
+Professor Hunziker,[139] "whose contents in no way meet the demands of
+the subtitle." (The full title is, "How Gertrude teaches her Children;
+an Attempt to direct Mothers how to teach their own Children.")
+
+=Yverdon.=--In 1804 Pestalozzi was obliged to vacate his quarters at
+Burgdorf, and after some hesitation he moved his school to Yverdon, into
+an old fortress, "which," says Kruesi, "having stood many a siege of
+invading armies, was now captured by a schoolmaster; and it was
+henceforth to become more formidable in its attack upon ignorance, than
+it had before been in its defense of liberty." At Yverdon Pestalozzi was
+enabled to carry out the principles of education which he had so long
+held, and this place must be recognized as the Mecca of
+Pestalozzianism. His success at Burgdorf had drawn to him the attention
+of the world, and now educators, philosophers, and princes began to
+study his theories, while many visited the institution to witness its
+peculiar workings. Without doubt the many visitors seriously disturbed
+the work, as Pestalozzi took great pains to show what his pupils could
+do, especially when men of influence came. During the first five years
+there was great prosperity, the number of students reaching one hundred
+and fifty. Pestalozzi usually arose at two in the morning, and commenced
+literary work; and his example was followed by his teachers, one of whom
+testifies, "There were years in which not one of us was found in bed
+after three o'clock, and summer and winter we worked from three to six
+in the morning."[140]
+
+At first the teachers were thoroughly united, cordially carrying out the
+teachings of "Father Pestalozzi." But after a time private ambitions and
+personal jealousies crept in and destroyed harmony. Many of the best
+teachers left and the school was closed.[141] In 1825, after an
+existence of twenty years, the institute at Yverdon was abandoned, and
+once more Pestalozzi saw the apparent failure of his hopes. He died two
+years later, at the age of eighty-one.
+
+Mr. Quick comments upon this event as follows: "Thus the sun went down
+in clouds, and the old man, when he died at the age of eighty,[142] in
+1829,[143] had seen the apparent failure of all his toils. He had not,
+however, failed in reality. It has been said of him that his true
+function was to educate ideas, not children, and when twenty years later
+the centenary of his birth was celebrated by schoolmasters, not only in
+his native country, but throughout Germany, it was found that
+Pestalozzian ideas had been sown, and were bearing fruit, over the
+greater part of central Europe."[144]
+
+Professor Hunziker says of Pestalozzi's influence, "Eighty years have
+passed since Pestalozzi was laid in the grave. The social thinker, who
+pointed out the way of reform for humanity in his 'Leonard and
+Gertrude,' who attempted to solve the enigmas and inequalities of social
+life in his 'Inquiries concerning the Course of Nature in the
+Development of Mankind,' is almost forgotten. But the name of Pestalozzi
+shines brighter than ever in the field of pedagogics. In every branch of
+education we hear the warning cry, return to Pestalozzi! Let the
+watchword for the future be: _Pestalozzi forever_!"[145]
+
+=Summary of Pestalozzi's Work.=--No one can study the history of
+Pestalozzi without discovering the secret of his educational purpose. It
+is revealed in every enterprise he undertook, in every book he wrote, in
+his whole lifework.[146] Let us briefly sum up the work he
+accomplished:--
+
+1. He showed how the theories of Comenius and Rousseau could be applied.
+By this a decided impulse was given to educational reform, and the way
+was prepared for the wonderful educational revival of the present
+century.
+
+2. His greatest pedagogical principle is that education consists in the
+harmonious development of all the human powers.
+
+3. Development should follow the order of nature. While he doubtless
+borrowed this thought from Rousseau, unlike Rousseau he held that the
+order of nature requires the child to be taught with other children.
+
+4. All knowledge is obtained through the senses by the self-activity of
+the child.
+
+5. Instruction should be based on observation, especially with young
+children. Hence objects must be freely used. There are three classes of
+object lessons,--those applying to _form_, to _number_, and to _speech_.
+Mr. Quick says, "By his object lessons Pestalozzi aimed at,--(1)
+enlarging gradually the sphere of the child's intuition, that is,
+increasing the number of objects falling under his immediate perception;
+(2) impressing upon him those perceptions of which he had become
+conscious, with certainty, clearness, and precision; (3) imparting to
+him a comprehensive knowledge of language for the expression of whatever
+had become or was becoming an object of his consciousness, in
+consequence either of the spontaneous impulse of his own nature, or of
+the assistance of tuition."
+
+6. The mother is the natural educator of the child in its early years.
+"Maternal love is the first agent in education; ... through it the child
+is led to love and trust his Creator and his Redeemer." It follows,
+therefore, that mothers should be educated.
+
+7. He illustrated his principles in his methods of instruction. He
+employed the phonic method in spelling;[147] made use of objects in
+teaching number; graded the work according to the capacity of the
+children; taught drawing, language, composition, etc., by use, thus
+illustrating one of the aphorisms of Comenius,--"_We learn to do by
+doing_."
+
+8. But the greatest lesson that Pestalozzi taught is embodied in the
+word _love_. He loved little children, he loved the distressed and
+lowly, he loved all his fellow-men. By the spirit which actuated him, by
+the methods of instruction employed, by a life of disappointment and
+apparent failure, by the appreciation of his service after he had gone
+to his rest, by the accelerated growth of his teachings throughout the
+world, he more closely resembles the Great Teacher than any other man
+that has ever lived. Dr. Harris says, "He is the first teacher to
+announce convincingly the doctrine that all people should be
+educated,--that, in fact, education is the one good gift to give to all,
+whether rich or poor."[148] Hence there is no character in educational
+history more worthy of study and more inspiring to the teacher than
+Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[133] In regard to the criticisms made against him at Burgdorf,
+Pestalozzi says: "It was whispered that I myself could not write, nor
+work accounts, nor even read properly. Popular reports are not always
+entirely wrong. It is true I could not write, nor read, nor work
+accounts well."
+
+[134] "Life, Work, and Influence of Pestalozzi," p. 17.
+
+[135] Both Quick and Kruesi give this letter in full.
+
+[136] "Schoolmaster in Literature," pp. 83-110.
+
+[137] See Kruesi, p. 28, for an account of his appointment.
+
+[138] "Pestalozzi," p. 36.
+
+[139] "Encyklopaedisches Handbuch der Paedagogik," Vol. V, p. 315.
+
+[140] "Encyklopaedisches Handbuch," Vol. V, p. 319.
+
+[141] Kruesi, whose father was associated with Pestalozzi, gives a full
+account of these dissensions. He also tells many interesting incidents
+connected with Pestalozzi and his school at Yverdon, p. 45.
+
+[142] Should be eighty-one.
+
+[143] 1827.
+
+[144] "Educational Reformers," p. 183.
+
+[145] "Encyklopaedisches Handbuch," Vol. V, p. 320.
+
+[146] "In him the most interesting thing is _his life_."--QUICK.
+
+[147] Not original with Pestalozzi,--see Port Royalists.
+
+[148] For statement of his principles, see Compayre, p. 438; Williams,
+p. 312; Kruesi, p. 169.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIX
+
+MODERN EDUCATORS (_Continued_)
+
+
+FROEBEL (1782-1852)
+
+=Literature.=--_Lange_, Collected Writings of F. Froebel; _Kriege_,
+Friedrich Froebel; _Bowen_, Froebel and Education by Self-activity;
+_Herford_, The Student's Froebel; _Froebel_, Education of Man; _Quick_,
+Educational Reformers; _Munroe_, Educational Ideal; _Williams_, History
+of Modern Education; _Marenholtz-Buelow_, Reminiscences of F. Froebel;
+_Rein_, Encyklopaedisches Handbuch der Paedagogik.
+
+Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel was born at Oberweisbach, a village in
+the beautiful Thueringian Forest of Germany. The first ten years of his
+life were spent at home under the instruction of his father, who was a
+Lutheran clergyman and had six villages under his pastorate. The many
+cares of his office prevented the pastor from giving his son much
+attention, and as the stepmother neither understood the boy, nor took
+much interest in him, he spent most of his time in the woods, with birds
+and flowers as his companions, and received far less rudimentary
+training than most boys of his age. But at the age of ten an important
+change took place in his life. He went to live with his mother's
+brother, who sent him to school for four years. Here he was taught the
+elementary branches and a little Latin. He tells us of the profound
+impression made upon him the first day of school by the text of
+Scripture that the children repeated. It was, "Seek ye first the kingdom
+of God." He says, "The verse made an impression on me like nothing
+before or since. Indeed, this impression was so lively and deep, that
+to-day every word lives fresh in my memory with the peculiar accent with
+which it was spoken; and yet since that time nearly forty years have
+elapsed." His progress in the school does not seem to have been very
+great.
+
+At fourteen he returned to his father's home, and soon thereafter was
+apprenticed to a forester. Here he was entirely in his element, and he
+tells of four aspects of this life: "The homelier and more practical
+life; the life spent with nature, especially forest nature; the life of
+study, devoted to mathematics and languages, for which he found a good
+supply of books ready to hand; and the time spent in gaining a knowledge
+of plants, in which he was much helped by books on botany lent him by a
+neighboring doctor."[149] But he obtained little help from the forester,
+so at the end of three years Froebel withdrew, and soon thereafter
+entered the university of Jena. He seems to have studied hard during the
+year and a half he spent at Jena, but to have accomplished little. He
+became involved in debt, and was imprisoned for nine weeks in the
+university "Carcer."[150] After his liberation, he left the university.
+
+=As Teacher.=--Meeting with little success in various enterprises in
+which he engaged, he at last drifted to Frankfurt-am-Main, where he made
+the acquaintance of Dr. Gruner, head master of the Model School. Dr.
+Gruner quickly discovered Froebel's talent, and urged him to accept a
+position under him as teacher. Froebel reluctantly consented, but in
+speaking later of his first experience in the schoolroom, he says, "It
+seemed as if I had found something I had never known, but always longed
+for, always missed; as if my life had at last discovered its native
+element. I felt as happy as the fish in the water, the bird in the air."
+
+Although Froebel succeeded at once in his new profession, thereby
+justifying Dr. Gruner's opinion of him, he felt that he needed special
+preparation for the work of teaching. Accordingly, in 1808, after two
+years' experience in teaching, having in the meantime visited Pestalozzi
+at Yverdon, and having read his works, he gave up his position and
+joined the institute at Yverdon.
+
+He took with him three of his pupils to tutor, and "it thus happened,"
+he tells us, "that I was there both as teacher and scholar, educator and
+pupil." Froebel spent two years at Yverdon, and his testimony concerning
+Pestalozzi is interesting. He says, "He set one's soul on fire for a
+higher and nobler life, though he had not made clear or sure the exact
+road toward it, nor indicated the means whereby to attain it." This sums
+up in a word the secret and extent of Pestalozzi's power. Dittes thinks
+that "the origin of the kindergarten is due to the pedagogical revival
+of Pestalozzi." Froebel himself, speaking of his experience at Yverdon,
+says, "I studied the boys' play, the whole series of games in the open
+air, and learned to recognize their mighty power to awaken and to
+strengthen the intelligence and the soul as well as the body." Here we
+find the first suggestion of the kindergarten, which has made Froebel
+famous.
+
+After leaving Yverdon, Froebel spent about two years at the universities
+of Goettingen and Berlin in furthering his preparation for educational
+reform, to which he had devoted himself. In 1813 war for German liberty
+broke out, and Froebel, with many other students, enlisted. It is not
+the purpose here to follow his fortunes as a soldier, but while in the
+army he made the acquaintance of two young men who afterward became
+associated with him in educational enterprise,--Wilhelm Middendorff and
+Heinrich Langethal.
+
+=His First School.=--In 1816 Froebel opened his first school at
+Griesheim, under the high-sounding title of "Universal German
+Educational Institute." At first he had his five nephews as his only
+pupils. Soon after, the school was removed to Keilhau, near Rudolstadt,
+in the Thueringian Forest. Here he was joined by his old friends
+Middendorff and Langethal. This institution continued for a number of
+years with some success, until 1833, when Froebel removed to Burgdorf,
+Switzerland. The Prussian government, far from giving encouragement to
+the institution at Keilhau, had regarded it with suspicion. A commission
+was sent by the government to examine the institution, and although the
+report was highly complimentary to Froebel's work,[151] the persecution
+did not cease. In 1851 the government prohibited kindergartens, as
+forming "a part of the Froebelian socialistic system, the aim of which
+is to teach children atheism"; and this decree was in force till 1860!
+
+Indeed, to this day, Prussia does not regard the kindergarten as an
+educational institution, nor does she give aid to it as such. The
+kindergarten is officially recognized as a sort of _day nursery_, its
+teachers are not licensed,--hence have no official standing,--and
+"everything that pertains to the work of the elementary schools, every
+specific preparation for the work of the latter, must be strictly
+excluded, and these schools can in no way be allowed to take the
+character of institutions of learning. Especially can neither reading
+nor arithmetic be allowed a place in them."[152]
+
+But Froebel received more encouragement in Switzerland. He admitted
+children from four to six years of age, and organized a teachers' class
+to study his theories. Although Froebel did not remain long in
+Switzerland, that land proved congenial to his ideas, and the
+kindergarten has flourished there from his time to the present. Great
+credit is due to this country, which extended its hospitality to the two
+great educational modern reformers, Pestalozzi and Froebel!
+
+=The Kindergarten.=--Mr. Herford says of Froebel's institution at
+Burgdorf, that, "Here we recognize the rise of the kindergarten, not yet
+so named."[153] The name came to Froebel a few years later as an
+inspiration. He had returned to Keilhau and opened a school in the
+neighboring town of Blankenburg. For a long time he had been pondering
+over a suitable name for the new institution. "While taking a walk one
+day with Middendorff and Barof to Blankenburg over the Steiger Pass,
+Froebel kept repeating, 'Oh, if I could only think of a good name for my
+youngest born!' Blankenburg lay at our feet, and he walked moodily
+toward it. Suddenly he stood still as if riveted to the spot, and his
+eyes grew wonderfully bright. Then he shouted to the mountain so that it
+echoed to the four winds, 'Eureka! _Kindergarten_ shall the institute be
+called!'"
+
+But, like Pestalozzi, Froebel was wholly incapable of financial
+management, and the institution at Blankendorf had to be closed. He
+devoted the remainder of his life to lecturing upon his theories in
+different parts of Germany. He appealed to mothers, and endeavored to
+instruct them in the duty of training young children. He taught that the
+mother is the natural teacher of the child, and that it is her duty to
+fit herself for the sacred responsibility that God has placed upon her.
+Froebel's greatest discovery was that education comes only through
+self-activity, though he never clearly formulated his discovery. The
+Baroness Bertha von Marenholtz-Buelow has published one of the best
+accounts of his life and work.[154]
+
+=The "Education of Man."=--Froebel gives his philosophy of education in
+his "Education of Man," but his most popular work is "Songs for Mother
+and Nursery." His chief contribution to the work of educational reform
+is the kindergarten, an institution that has been ingrafted upon the
+school systems of many lands, and that is destined to become ever
+increasingly potent for good. In no country in the world has the
+kindergarten taken so strong a hold and made so great progress as in
+America. The purpose of the kindergarten, according to Froebel himself,
+is, "to take the oversight of children before they are ready for school
+life; to exert an influence over their whole being in correspondence
+with its nature; to strengthen their bodily powers; to exercise their
+senses; to employ the awakening mind; to make them thoughtfully
+acquainted with the world of nature and of man; to guide their heart and
+soul in the right direction, and to lead them to the Origin of all life,
+and to unison with Him."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[149] Bowen, "Froebel," p. 11.
+
+[150] For a part of this debt Froebel's brother, also a student, was
+responsible. The amount of the debt was less than twenty-five dollars.
+
+[151] The sole recommendation of the commission that might be
+interpreted as a criticism was that the boys should have their hair cut!
+See Bowen's "Froebel," p. 26, for the full report of the visiting
+commission.
+
+[152] Rescript from the Prussian Minister of Education, April 7, 1884.
+
+[153] "The Student's Froebel," XV.
+
+[154] "Handbuch der Froebelischen Erziehungslehre," "Reminiscences of
+Friedrich Froebel, Child and Child-nature."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XL
+
+MODERN EDUCATORS (_Continued_)
+
+
+HERBART (1776-1841)
+
+=Literature.=--_De Garmo_, Herbart and the Herbartians; _Felkin_,
+Introduction to Herbart; _Van Liew_, Life of Herbart and Development of
+his Pedagogical Doctrines; Yearbooks of the Herbart Society; _Lange_,
+Apperception; _Rein_, Outlines of Pedagogics; also, Encyklopaedisches
+Handbuch der Paedagogik; _Willmann_, Herbart's paedagogische Schriften.
+
+It is probable that no system of pedagogy is attracting so much
+attention and awakening so much interest at the present time as that of
+Herbart. Professor Rein says, "He who nowadays will aspire to the
+highest pedagogical knowledge, cannot neglect to make a thorough study
+of Herbart's pedagogy." Johann Friedrich Herbart was born at Oldenburg,
+May 4, 1776. His grandfather was rector of the _Gymnasium_ at Oldenburg
+for thirty-four years; his father was a high official under the
+government; but his mother seems to have wielded the most influence over
+him. She watched over his studies with greatest care, and, indeed,
+studied Greek herself to spur him on. Though gentle and mild, she was
+firm in discipline. The father was satisfied to leave the direction of
+the education of his son to her. There was, however, little sympathy
+between the father and mother, and there were frequent family
+dissensions, that must have had a bad influence on the lad. These
+disagreements finally led to a separation. A tutor employed for Herbart
+at this period developed in him a speculative tendency and taught him
+the power of forcible expression. Herbart learned to play on several
+musical instruments, and at the age of eleven displayed considerable
+talent as a pianist.
+
+When twelve years of age he entered the _Gymnasium_ at Oldenburg, and
+six years later completed the course. He entered the university of Jena
+in 1794 and became a student of Fichte, who was sure to inspire a young
+man of Herbart's philosophical bent. His attention seems to have been
+directed to educational questions, though he had not yet decided to be a
+teacher.[155]
+
+=As Teacher.=--After three years at Jena, Herbart became tutor
+(Hauslehrer) in the family of Herr von Steiger, governor of Interlaken.
+This was his only experience in teaching children. "Herbart's experience
+as a teacher," says De Garmo, "would seem too small a thing to
+mention--some two or three years in a private family in Switzerland with
+three children aged respectively eight, twelve, and fourteen. Yet to a
+man who can see an oak tree in an acorn, who can understand all minds
+from the study of a few, such an experience may be most fruitful." It is
+certain that Herbart often drew upon this experience in his later
+writings. While in Switzerland he visited Pestalozzi, with whom he was
+deeply impressed. Opinions differ as to the harmony of theory between
+Pestalozzi and Herbart. Professor Rein thinks that, "In the ideas of
+Pestalozzi are found the outlines of Herbart's pedagogical structure."
+
+Having decided to devote himself to academic teaching, he gave up his
+position in Switzerland and went to Bremen for further study. During the
+two years spent there, he wrote several essays on educational subjects,
+but gave his chief attention to the study of Greek and mathematics.
+
+=As Professor.=--In 1802 he took the first step in his academic career
+as _Privat Docent_ at the university of Goettingen. This with him was a
+period of great literary activity.[156] In 1809, he was called to the
+chair of philosophy at Koenigsberg once occupied by Kant. He calls this
+"the most renowned chair of philosophy, the place which when a boy I
+longed for in reverential dreams, as I studied the works of the sage of
+Koenigsberg."[157]
+
+=His Practice School.=--Here he established a pedagogical seminary,
+having a practice school in which the students instructed children under
+the criticism of Herbart himself. Concerning his pedagogical activity at
+Koenigsberg, Herbart says, "Among my many duties, the consideration of
+educational questions is of especial interest to me. But it is not
+enough to theorize merely; there must be experiment and practice.
+Furthermore, I desire to extend the range of my own experience (already
+covering ten years) in this field. Therefore, I have long had in mind to
+teach daily for one hour a few selected boys in the presence of such of
+my students as are familiar with my pedagogical theory. After a little,
+these students are to take up the work I have begun, and give
+instruction under my observation. In time, in this way, teachers would
+be trained, whose method by means of reciprocal observation and
+discussion must be perfected. As a plan of teaching is valueless without
+a teacher, and indeed a teacher that is in sympathy with that plan, and
+is master of the method,--so perhaps a small experimental school, such
+as I have in mind, would prepare the way for future greater
+undertakings. There is a word from Kant, 'first experimental schools and
+then normal schools!'"[158]
+
+This was the first practice school in connection with the chair of
+pedagogy in a university; the idea, however, does not seem to have taken
+very deep root, as, with the exception of the celebrated practice school
+at Jena, under Professor Rein, there is not one now in Germany. Most
+professors of pedagogy conduct a _Seminar_, in which some practice work
+with children is done, but none of them maintain a practice school.
+
+=Literary Activity.=--Herbart's literary activity at Koenigsberg was
+great. He worked out his psychological system, and wrote also on
+philosophy, history, and pedagogy. But his greatest works in the latter
+field are his "A B C der Anschauung,"[159] and his "Allgemeine
+Paedagogik,"[160] both of which appeared while he was still at
+Goettingen.[161] In 1833, after twenty-four years in Koenigsberg, he
+returned to Goettingen, where his lifework was completed in 1841. Upon
+his retirement from Koenigsberg, the practice school was closed. Ten
+years later, a pupil of Herbart, Karl Volkmar Stoy, established the
+practice school at Jena, of which mention has already been made. Two
+schools of Herbartians exist in Germany, the Stoy school, which attempts
+to follow Herbart very closely, and the Ziller school, which is freer in
+its interpretation of him. The chief exponent of the latter is Professor
+Wilhelm Rein of Jena, the place which is at present the center of
+Herbartian activity. In America this movement is under the direction of
+the National Herbart Society.
+
+=His Pedagogical Work.=--Aside from the educational movements organized
+by Herbart and his followers, the credit is due to him of being the
+_first to elevate pedagogy to the dignity of a science_. Professor Rein
+says, "Herbart has rendered an undisputed service in that he has
+elevated pedagogics to the rank of a science. No one has ever repented
+of having become familiar with Herbart's teachings, for, in any case, he
+has thereby added richly to his own attainments. The development of our
+people will be fortunate if the education of the youth shall be
+intrusted more and more to those who stand and work upon the lines laid
+down by Comenius, Pestalozzi, Herbart.
+
+"The pedagogic thinking of Herbart has indeed borne rich fruit in
+Germany. Other peoples, also, have been blessed by his teachings. Thus
+Herbart, whose span of life did not reach to the middle of this century,
+lives in the present. He created the basis of a science of education,
+which furnishes a safe starting point for all pedagogical theories, and
+which bears in itself the most fruitful germs for future
+development."[162]
+
+=Modern Herbartians= have carried forward that development far beyond
+its original outline. The terms "many-sided interest," "apperception,"
+"concentration," "culture-epochs," "the formal steps of instruction,"
+"correlation," and "harmonious development," are phrases that have
+become common in educational literature. The limits of this volume do
+not permit a discussion of these subjects. Indeed, many of them belong
+more properly to the disciples of Herbart, rather than to Herbart
+himself.[163] Herbart's ideal was that education should aim to produce
+well-rounded men, fit for all the duties of life; men well developed
+physically, intellectually, morally, and spiritually. He himself was not
+one-sided, being an enthusiastic teacher as well as psychologist and
+philosopher.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[155] Professor Rein indicates that Herbart discussed educational
+questions at this period. See "Encyklopaedisches Handbuch," Vol. III, p.
+468.
+
+[156] For list of works produced, see De Garmo's "Herbart and the
+Herbartians," p. 17.
+
+[157] Felkin's translation of "Science of Education," p. 16.
+
+[158] Willmann's "Herbart," Vol. II, p. 3.
+
+[159] "The A B C of Observation."
+
+[160] "General Pedagogy."
+
+[161] The best collection of his works is that by Willmann, "Herbart's
+Paedagogische Schriften," which has not been translated into English.
+
+[162] "Encyklopaedisches Handbuch der Paedagogik," Vol. III, p. 485.
+
+[163] For discussion of these subjects see the Yearbooks of the
+Herbartian Society, and other works referred to on page 278. For the
+completest list of references to Herbartian literature, see
+"Encyklopaedisches Handbuch," Vol. III, p. 485.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLI
+
+MODERN EDUCATORS (_Continued_)
+
+
+HORACE MANN (1796-1859)
+
+=Literature.=--_Mrs. Mary T. Mann_, Life of Horace Mann; _Hinsdale_,
+Horace Mann; _Winship_, Horace Mann, the Educator; _Lang_, Horace Mann;
+_F. W. Parker_, Article in Educational Review, Vol. XII, p. 65; _Wm. T.
+Harris_, Educational Review, Vol. XII, p. 105; _Martin_, Education in
+Massachusetts.
+
+Colonel Parker says, "It would be difficult to find a child ten years of
+age in our sixty-five millions who does not know of Abraham Lincoln or
+George Washington; but the third, at least, in the list of the builders
+of the American republic is not known to millions of intelligent people.
+Washington and Lincoln represent the highest types of heroism,
+patriotism, and wisdom in great crises of republic-building; Horace
+Mann, the quiet inner building, the soul-development of the
+nation."[164]
+
+Horace Mann was born at Franklin, Massachusetts, May 4, 1796. Inured to
+the hard work of the farm, with but a few weeks' schooling in the
+winter, never blessed with very rugged health, left at the age of
+thirteen by the death of his father with the responsibilities of a man,
+it is no wonder that he "retained only painful recollections of the
+whole period which ought to be, with every child, a golden age to look
+back upon."[165]
+
+When nearly twenty years of age, through the influence of Mr. Barrett,
+an eccentric teacher who came to the village, he decided to go to
+college, and in six months he prepared for the sophomore class of Brown
+University. This preparation was a tremendous undertaking which broke
+down his health for life. He now had an opportunity to satisfy the
+cravings for knowledge, which the hardships of his early life had not
+been able to stifle. He was graduated with the highest honors of his
+class and decided to study law. He spent two years at Brown University
+as tutor, meanwhile privately studying law, and then resigned that
+position to enter the law school at Litchfield, Connecticut. Two years
+later, at the age of twenty-seven, he was admitted to the bar.
+
+=As Statesman.=--He was called upon to serve his state in the
+legislature, and later as representative in Congress.[166]
+
+The year 1837 marks a new epoch in the educational history of
+Massachusetts. "Although Massachusetts had had schools for nearly two
+centuries, the free school had been, to a great degree, a charity school
+the country over.... Horace Mann, like Thomas Jefferson, saw clearly
+that there could be no evolution of a free people without intelligence
+and morality, and looked upon the common school as the fundamental means
+of development of men and women who could govern themselves. He saw
+clearly that the whole problem of the republic which was presenting
+itself to intelligent educated men rested upon the idea of public
+education."[167]
+
+=As Educator.=--Accordingly, having secured the passage of a law
+establishing a State Board of Education, Mr. Mann was made its
+secretary at a salary of one thousand dollars a year. To accept this
+work, he gave up a lucrative law practice, fine prospects of political
+preferment, and probable fortune, as well as professional fame. He
+entered upon an educational campaign full of discouragement, colossal in
+its undertaking, and sure to arouse bitterest animosities. Of this
+period Colonel Parker says, "The story of his early struggles in this
+direction has not yet been written. When it is, it will reveal a
+profound depth of heroism rarely equaled in the history of the world."
+Mr. Mann visited all parts of the state, lecturing to parents and
+stimulating the teachers. He was often received with coldness, sometimes
+with active hostility.
+
+=His Annual Reports.=--But he persevered until the whole state was
+awakened. He continued in this work for twelve years, and presented its
+results in his Annual Reports, the most remarkable documents of American
+educational literature.[168] In the meantime, he visited Europe, studied
+the schools, and gave the results of his investigations in his
+celebrated Seventh Annual Report.
+
+Mr. Martin summarizes the work of Horace Mann during these twelve years
+as follows: "In the evolution of the Massachusetts public schools during
+these twelve years of Mr. Mann's labors, statistics tell us that the
+appropriations for public schools had doubled; that more than two
+million dollars had been spent in providing better schoolhouses; that
+the wages of men as teachers had increased sixty-two per cent, of women
+fifty-one per cent, while the whole number of women employed as teachers
+had increased fifty-four per cent; one month had been added to the
+average length of the schools; the ratio of private school expenditures
+to those of the public schools had diminished from seventy-five per cent
+to thirty-six per cent; the compensation of school committees had been
+made compulsory, and their supervision was more general and more
+constant; three normal schools had been established, and had sent out
+several hundred teachers, who were making themselves felt in all parts
+of the state."[169]
+
+=Love for the Common Schools.=--He believed most fully in the common
+school, declaring that, "This institution is the greatest discovery ever
+made by man.... In two grand characteristic attributes, it is
+supereminent over all others: first in its universality, for it is
+capacious enough to receive and cherish in its parental bosom every
+child that comes into the world; and second, in the timeliness of the
+aid it proffers,--its early, seasonable supplies of counsel and guidance
+making security antedate danger."
+
+In his first Annual Report Mr. Mann asserts that, "The object of the
+common school system is to give to every child a free, straight, solid
+pathway, by which he can walk directly up from the ignorance of an
+infant to a knowledge of the primary duties of man." Horace Mann could
+hardly have anticipated the kindergarten for the infant years, and the
+high school at the end of the course, as they now stand in the common
+school systems of our country. And yet, what has already been
+accomplished in our educational scheme fulfills the prophecy implied in
+his words.
+
+The best known and most important of Mr. Mann's written documents is his
+Seventh Annual Report, in which he gives an account of European schools.
+Concerning this Mr. Winship says, "He had made a crisis, and his Seventh
+Report was an immortal document; opposition to the normal schools was
+never more to be heard in the land, and oral instruction, the word
+method, and less corporal punishment were certain to come to the Boston
+schools."[170]
+
+After severing his connection with the State Board of Education, Mr.
+Mann served in Congress from 1848 to 1853, and was defeated in his
+candidacy for governor of Massachusetts. At the age of fifty-six he
+accepted the presidency of Antioch College at Yellow Springs, Ohio, a
+position which he held until his death in 1859. He closed his last
+address to the graduating class at Antioch with these noble words: "_Be
+ashamed to die until you have won some victory for humanity_." He
+himself had won many great victories for humanity,--in the improvement
+of the common school systems of his native country; in the establishment
+of free schools; in the founding of normal schools where teachers might
+be trained; in the adoption of milder means of discipline; in the
+improvement of schoolhouses; in the better support of schools; in better
+methods of instruction; and in the inspiration he gave to teachers for
+all time. Therefore he at least had no need to be "ashamed to die."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[164] _Educational Review_, Vol. XII, p. 65.
+
+[165] Mrs. Mann, "Life of Horace Mann," p. 10.
+
+[166] Mr. Mann completed the term made vacant by the death of John
+Quincy Adams, and was reelected for the two succeeding terms.
+
+[167] Colonel Parker in article cited.
+
+[168] For an analysis of these Reports, see Dr. Harris's article in
+_Educational Review_, Vol. XII, p. 112.
+
+[169] "Education in Massachusetts," p. 174.
+
+[170] "Horace Mann," p. 76.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLII
+
+THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY
+
+=Literature.=--_Parsons_, Prussian Schools through American Eyes;
+_Klemm_, European Schools; _Prince_, Methods in the German Schools;
+_Seeley_, The German Common School System; _Russell_, German Higher
+Schools; _Bolton_, Secondary Education in Germany.
+
+
+We have traced the historical development of education to the present
+time. It now remains for us to examine briefly the educational systems
+of a few leading countries, in order that comparisons may be made,
+lessons drawn, and the present condition of education clearly set
+forth.[171]
+
+The plan of discussion to be followed in each of the four systems
+considered will embrace, 1, _Administration_; 2, _School Attendance_; 3,
+_the Schools_; 4, _Support of Schools_; 5, _the Teachers_.
+
+=Administration.=--Each German state is independent in its school
+system, though there are many features in common, and there is a mutual
+understanding on most educational questions between the various states,
+which makes their systems practically uniform. The system here described
+is that of Prussia, which, being the largest, most populous, and most
+influential of the states comprised within the German Empire, as well as
+the foremost in educational development, may well be taken as a type.
+
+There is a minister of education whose jurisdiction extends over the
+whole kingdom. He represents the school interests in the Prussian diet
+or _Landtag_, listens to appeals, distributes school moneys, and is the
+general educational executive officer. Each of the thirteen royal
+provinces has a school board whose presiding officer is _ex officio_ the
+royal president of the province. With him are associated other royal
+counselors, and pedagogically trained men,--school superintendents and
+principals. This board consists of men of highest integrity and
+intelligence. Their duties extend to the higher institutions of
+learning, and to institutions for the unfortunate; they have charge of
+the school finances of their provinces, adopt the school books that are
+used in the higher schools, and appoint teachers in the normal schools.
+They report annually to the minister, and as much more frequently as he
+may require.
+
+The thirteen royal provinces are subdivided into the so-called
+_governments_ (_Regierungen_), of which Prussia contains thirty-six.
+These _governments_ have an administrative school board similar to that
+of the province, with duties within their territory corresponding to
+those of the provincial board. They come into close touch with the
+schools, have a voice in the appointment of teachers and in the
+selection of text-books for the elementary schools. Their work is
+especially with the common schools, while that of the provincial boards
+is with the higher schools.
+
+The _governments_ are subdivided into districts. There is a district
+school board similar to that of the larger territories mentioned, but
+the chief and most important school officer of the district is the
+school inspector. The district inspector is always a man of pedagogical
+training and experience. He is appointed for life and devotes his whole
+time to the schools in his district. His efficient and wise inspection
+of the schools insures their success. The district school board erects
+school buildings, determines the amount of the teachers' salaries,
+oversees their pensions, enforces compulsory attendance laws, decides
+upon taxable property, fixes boundary lines, and provides for the
+finances.
+
+Finally, there is the local school board for each separate school. These
+men have charge of the external matters of the school such as the direct
+enforcement of attendance, the repairs, supplies, etc.; but they may not
+interfere with the teacher in his work. In the country villages they
+have a voice in the choice of the teacher. The teacher may appeal to
+them in matters that need immediate attention.
+
+In the administration of the schools men of the highest character are
+chosen without reference to their political leanings. There are usually
+teachers among the number, on the principle that those who have made the
+most careful study of education are the most competent to administer it.
+
+=School Attendance.=--Every child in normal health is required to attend
+school between the ages of six and fourteen for every day that the
+school is in session. Parents are held responsible for the attendance of
+their children, and may be fined or imprisoned for non-fulfillment of
+the requirements of the law. In case parents are unable to secure the
+attendance of their children, the latter are placed in reform schools.
+The law is carried out with great strictness and wonderful efficiency.
+For example, in 1893, out of 5,299,310 children of school age in
+Prussia, there were only 945 unexcused absentees,--that is, 2 in
+10,000. All parents expect their children to be in school every day, and
+the children grow up fully impressed with the idea that they are to
+attend school regularly. The chief reason for the efficiency of
+compulsory attendance in Germany lies in the fact that it covers every
+school day, and therefore does not allow the formation of habits of
+truancy.
+
+=The Schools.=--The common school (Volksschule) of Germany reaches every
+child, as we have seen. In villages the sexes are taught together; but
+in cities they are generally separated. The school hours are from eight
+to eleven in the forenoon, for six days in the week, and from two to
+four for four days in the week, Wednesday and Saturday afternoons being
+holidays. These hours may be varied to suit local conditions. The school
+is in session for about forty-two weeks each year. Each teacher is
+required to give about twenty-eight hours of service per week, while the
+pupils must attend from sixteen hours (for beginners) to twenty-eight.
+The common schools of Prussia are now practically free. The common
+school is intended for the common people, and it is not followed by a
+high or secondary school. This is the greatest weakness of the German
+school system. It perpetuates the class system, and effectually prevents
+the child from rising above his station.
+
+The sole opportunity for the child of the lower classes to receive a
+higher education is through the normal school, and even this privilege
+is limited to a small number of the pupils who show special ability. We
+may mention also the _Continuation_ schools, which are held evenings and
+Sundays. These schools are rapidly multiplying and becoming more
+efficient, as many of them are held in the daytime. They furnish an
+opportunity for the child who has completed the common school to review
+his work, and also to add some subjects that will be of utility in his
+lifework.
+
+In general, there are three classes of secondary schools,--the
+_Gymnasium_, the _Realgymnasium_, and _Oberrealschule_. Each prepares
+for the university, and each has nine classes; namely, _Sexta_,
+_Quinta_, _Quarta_, _Untertertia_, _Obertertia_, _Untersecunda_,
+_Obersecunda_, _Unterprima_, and _Oberprima_. These schools differ
+chiefly in the amount of classics they offer, the _Gymnasium_ laying
+stress upon the classics and the _Realschule_ upon the realities.[172]
+Neither of these schools succeeds the common school, and the boy who is
+to pursue one of these courses of study must begin at not later than
+nine or ten years of age.[173] Thus, if a professional life is chosen
+for a boy, he cannot attend the common school,--at least not for more
+than the first three or four years,--but must be sent to one of the
+schools above mentioned, for they alone prepare for the university, and
+without a university course he cannot enter a profession. The university
+is the crowning institution of the German school system.
+
+=Support of Schools.=--About one half of the expense of the schools is
+paid from the general state fund, one third from local taxation, and the
+balance comes from income from endowments, church funds, tuition, etc.
+The general tendency is to make the schools free, according to the
+recommendation of the minister of education, but some communities still
+continue to charge tuition. In these cases, there are poor schools for
+those who cannot pay tuition, thus affording school privileges to all.
+
+=The Teachers.=--All teachers of the Prussian common schools are normal
+graduates, or have had an equal pedagogic preparation.[174] Graduates of
+the university seldom enter the common school work; they teach in the
+secondary schools, in private schools, and as tutors. The common school
+teachers generally come from the common schools. If a child shows
+special aptness for teaching, the attention of the school inspector is
+called to him, and, with consent of his parents, he is sent to a
+preparatory school for three years. His work there is entirely academic
+in character. At seventeen he enters the normal school and has another
+year of academic work, after which he begins his technical work. His
+normal course is three years, the last year being given almost entirely
+to professional work. Each class in the normal school contains from
+thirty to thirty-six students, thus making the total number of students
+in a German normal school about one hundred. As only about thirty can
+enter from the whole district, it will appear that the opportunities for
+children to extend the common school course are very limited.
+
+After completing the normal course, the graduate is provisionally
+appointed to a position for three years. He is now under the oversight
+of his former principal, as well as of the district inspector. If he
+proves successful in teaching, he is required to pass a final
+examination, chiefly on pedagogical questions, and then has a life
+tenure, and can be removed only on the ground of inefficiency or
+immorality. The average tenure of office with teachers is twenty-five
+years. The salary is often very low, but with free rent, fuel, and
+light, the schoolmaster's income is by no means inadequate. His salary
+increases with the years of service, and his prospective pension also
+increases year by year.[175]
+
+The German schoolmaster is a state officer. He commands, by virtue of
+his position, the respect which his character, his self-sacrifice, his
+efficiency, and the great work that he is doing deserve. "It is the
+schoolmaster that has won our battles," said Von Moltke; and it is he
+that is preparing Germany for the arts of peace as well as those of war.
+
+The Prussian school system is the most efficient in the world, at least
+so far as the education of the masses is concerned. It has practically
+obliterated illiteracy in the kingdom, more than 991/2 per cent of the
+recruits received into the army in 1893 being able to read and write.
+Many countries have materially improved their school systems by adopting
+some of the lessons taught by Prussia.
+
+The three most important features of the German school system are:--
+
+1. _Only professionally trained teachers can be employed._
+
+2. _Such teachers are appointed to permanent positions._
+
+3. _The attendance of every child during the entire school year is
+compulsory._
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[171] It will, of course, be impossible within the limitations of this
+work to give more than a mere outline of these systems. The reader will
+find full discussions in the works referred to in the Literature.
+Particular attention is called to the Reports of the United States
+Commissioner of Education from the year 1895 to the present time.
+
+[172] In addition to these schools, there are also the Progymnasium, the
+Realprogymnasium, and the Realschule, which, as their names indicate,
+are modified forms of the principal types. These schools do not offer
+the full nine years' course. See footnote on p. 236 for explanation of
+the work of these schools.
+
+[173] Russell's "German Higher Schools" fully describes these
+institutions.
+
+[174] In 1893 there were only 241 teachers out of 71,731 in Prussia, who
+were outside of the above requirement. These 241 were old teachers who
+began before the law was so strict, and who, because of their
+efficiency, are retained. In a few years this band will entirely
+disappear, and all will be normal graduates.
+
+[175] For full statement of salaries and pensions, see "German Common
+School System," pp. 172, 195. Though the German teacher's salary is much
+smaller than that of the average American teacher, taking into account
+the greater purchasing power of money in Germany, the simple habits, and
+fewer demands upon the purse, the German teacher is fully as well off as
+the American.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLIII
+
+THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE
+
+=Literature.=--_Parsons_, French Schools through American Eyes;
+_Richard_, The School System of France; _Weigert_, Die Volksschule in
+Frankreich; _Schroeder_, Das Volksschulwesen Frankreichs; United States
+Commissioner's Reports.
+
+
+=Administration.=--France, like Germany, has a minister of education who
+sits in the cabinet of the president. The work of his office is divided
+into three departments, _higher_, _secondary_, and _primary_, and at the
+head of each there is a director. There are two advisory bodies in
+charge of education. One has general oversight of all the school
+interests of France. The other is divided into three boards, appointed
+by the minister himself, for supervision of the three departments above
+mentioned. The general board consists of sixty members, fifteen
+appointed by the president of the republic, and the others appointed by
+the board itself whenever vacancies occur. This body meets once a year
+to hear reports, to pass upon the general school policy, and to
+legislate for the schools. Out of its membership is chosen an executive
+committee that meets once a week, and upon which devolves the chief
+management of educational affairs. This committee is answerable to the
+general board, to which it renders an annual report. Men of the highest
+character and intelligence constitute this board.
+
+The whole of France is divided into seventeen parts called _academies_.
+These divisions do not coincide with the political divisions, but are
+made merely for convenience in school administration. Each _academie_
+has a school board to which is committed the general oversight of all
+educational interests within its territory, and particularly the care of
+the higher schools.
+
+A narrower division is into _departements_. There are ninety of these in
+France and Algiers. Each is governed by an educational council which has
+charge of the elementary schools. The principal officer of a
+_departement_ is a school inspector, a trained educator who devotes all
+his time to the schools. In each _departement_ there is a normal school
+for each sex, though in a few instances two _departements_ combine to
+maintain one normal school.
+
+The _departement_ is subdivided into _arrondissements_. Each has an
+executive officer and a council in close touch with the schools. Lastly
+there are the _cantons_, whose school board has direct control of each
+individual school.
+
+In this manner from the highest to the lowest division there are
+executive officers with well-defined duties--all working together in
+perfect harmony and with great efficiency. Trained teachers often sit in
+these councils as members and advisers. Thus the highest pedagogical
+training of the republic is utilized to obtain the best administration
+of the school interests.
+
+=School Attendance.=--School attendance is compulsory upon children from
+six to thirteen years of age for every school day. As in Germany, the
+child is not compelled to attend the public school, but must receive
+instruction for the required time and in a manner approved by the State.
+It is the right of the child to be educated, and the State asserts its
+prerogative to secure that right to the child, whatever be the attitude
+of the parent. But the manner of securing it is left to the parent if
+he chooses to exercise that privilege. Although France has had
+compulsory education only since 1882, the law is effective, and grows
+more so each year. In 1895, 91 per cent of all the children of school
+age attended school regularly.
+
+=The Schools.=--In the arrangement of her schools, and the perfect
+articulation between them from the mother school to the university,
+France has the most perfect system in the world. The _mother_ schools
+(_ecoles maternelles_) take children from two to six years of age and
+care for them from early morning till evening, thereby permitting
+parents to go out to service. They combine the idea of the day nursery
+and the kindergarten. These schools, in communes of 2000 or more, are
+supported by the State, as are other schools.
+
+Instead of the _mother_ school, sometimes the _infant_ school (_ecole
+infantine_) takes the child from four to seven and prepares him for the
+primary school. This school is more nearly like the kindergarten than
+the _mother_ school. It is supported wholly by the State and is a part
+of the school system, its work being entirely in sympathy with that
+which follows. In this respect, France has taken a more advanced step
+than any other nation.
+
+With the lower _primary_ school (_ecole primaire elementaire_), which
+covers the period of from six to thirteen years of age, begins
+compulsory education. The sexes are always taught separately except in
+villages of less than five hundred inhabitants. The pupils all dress in
+the same garb. The school is in session five days in the week, Thursdays
+being free. There is no religious instruction in the schools. A peculiar
+and very important factor is a book of registration for each child, in
+which specimens of work in each subject are entered once a month for
+the whole school course. This book is kept at the school, and furnishes
+an accurate indication of progress to parents or inspectors.[176]
+
+Following the _lower primary_ school is the _higher primary_ (_ecole
+primaire superieure_), which has two courses, one for pupils who wish to
+review their elementary work and add some subjects, with the view of
+better preparing for the ordinary walks of life; and the high school
+course for those who wish to prepare for academic life. The former is
+indefinite in length; the latter requires five years, thus being
+completed at the eighteenth year. Here appears another superiority over
+the German system, in which, it will be remembered, there is no
+connection between the common and the high school.
+
+These high schools prepare for the normal school and for the university.
+There are also many other kinds of schools under State support,--such as
+technical schools, apprentice schools, schools of mines, etc. In the
+advantages offered to young men for perfecting themselves in a trade or
+calling, France surpasses all other countries.
+
+Finally there are the State universities, fifteen in number, the
+professors of which are appointed by the State. While the State pays all
+salaries, the maintenance of the buildings depends upon fees,
+endowments, and such local support as is obtainable. These institutions
+are open to students from the higher primary schools, thus making a
+complete system from the lowest school to the highest, and offering
+remarkable advantages to all. All degrees are given by the State,
+thereby securing perfect uniformity.
+
+=Support of Schools.=--All of the schools above mentioned, from the
+_mother_ school to the university, are free. The expenses are
+distributed as follows: (1) The State pays the salaries of all teachers,
+administrators, and inspectors, and all the expenses of the normal
+schools. Thus it will be seen that the bulk of the expense of education
+is borne by the State in general. (2) The _departements_ erect the
+normal school and furnish the apparatus and supplies for the same. (3)
+The _communes_ pay for the needed supplies, for the janitor, and for
+other local necessities of the elementary schools. They may also tax
+themselves to increase the salaries of teachers beyond the State
+allowance. Each community thus has the power to decide whether it will
+be content with an average school, merely fulfilling the State
+requirements, or whether it will have a superior school taught by the
+best teachers obtainable.
+
+=The Teachers.=--There are two classes of normal schools in France, the
+elementary, of which there are eighty-seven for men and eighty-five for
+women,--practically one for each sex in each of the departments,--and
+the higher, of which there is one for men, one for women, and one for
+kindergartners. Nearly all teachers are graduates of normal schools, and
+as no candidates for positions are considered unless they hold a normal
+certificate, in the near future all the teachers of France will be
+professionally trained.
+
+Candidates for admission to the normal school must be at least sixteen
+years of age, of good moral character, and of fair abilities. They must
+pledge themselves to teach for not less than ten years.[177] The
+elementary course covers three years. After graduation, the young
+teacher is appointed provisionally until he has taken a final
+examination, which must be within ten years. If he has been successful
+in the schoolroom, as well as in this second examination, he becomes a
+permanent teacher, and can be removed only for immorality.
+
+The course in the advanced normal school takes three or more years,
+depending upon the preparation with which the candidate enters. Only
+those between eighteen and twenty-five can be admitted. These schools
+train principals, superintendents, inspectors, and teachers for the
+elementary normal schools. They are the model schools of France, and
+shape the educational practice of the republic. Graduates from the
+elementary normal schools are not debarred from entering the higher
+normal schools; thus ambitious teachers are encouraged to prepare
+themselves for higher work.
+
+No other country in the world does so much as France to assist young
+teachers in their preparation. In all of the normal schools mentioned,
+tuition, board, room, and books are free. And when the young teacher has
+been graduated, the State recognizes its own work by giving him the
+preference in appointments.
+
+There are five classes of teachers in the elementary schools, the lowest
+being the fifth. The young graduate teacher begins in the lowest class
+and works his way up. The annual salaries for the different classes are
+indicated by the following table:--
+
+ --------------------+-------------+-----------
+ CLASSES OF TEACHERS | MEN | WOMEN
+ --------------------+-------------+-----------
+ Fifth Class | $200.00 | $200.00
+ Fourth Class | 240.00 | 240.00
+ Third Class | 300.00 | 280.00
+ Second Class | 360.00 | 300.00
+ First Class | 400.00 | 320.00
+ --------------------+-------------+-----------
+
+Additional allowances are made in large schools, and the _communes_
+often supplement the above amounts.
+
+The annual salaries of principals are as follows:--
+
+ -------------+------------+-------------------
+ | HIGHER |
+ | PRIMARY | NORMAL SCHOOLS
+ PRINCIPALS |------------+---------+---------
+ | Both Sexes | Men | Women
+ -------------+------------+---------+---------
+ Fifth Class | $360.00 | $700.00 | $600.00
+ Fourth Class | 400.00 | 800.00 | 700.00
+ Third Class | 450.00 | 900.00 | 800.00
+ Second Class | 500.00 | 1000.00 | 900.00
+ First Class | 560.00 | 1100.00 | 1000.00
+ -------------+------------+---------+---------
+
+The assistants in these schools receive:--
+
+ -------------+------------+-------------------
+ | HIGHER |
+ | PRIMARY | NORMAL SCHOOLS
+ ASSISTANTS |------------+---------+---------
+ | Both Sexes | Men | Women
+ -------------+------------+---------+---------
+ Fifth Class | $240.00 | $500.00 | $440.00
+ Fourth Class | 280.00 | 540.00 | 480.00
+ Third Class | 320.00 | 580.00 | 520.00
+ Second Class | 380.00 | 620.00 | 560.00
+ First Class | 440.00 | 680.00 | 600.00
+ -------------+------------+---------+---------
+
+In addition to these amounts there is also a small allowance for rent.
+
+After thirty-five years of service, the teacher may retire upon three
+fourths of his salary as a pension.
+
+Without doubt France has outstripped all other nations in educational
+progress during the last twenty-five years,--the period in which her
+school system has been constructed. The three great signs of advance in
+French education are _the establishment of free schools_ (1881);
+_compulsory education and the secularization of the schools_ (1882); and
+_the restriction of teachers to lay persons_ (1886).[178] The strong
+features of the French school system may be stated as follows:--
+
+1. _Completeness and harmony of the system_, covering the period from
+early childhood till the prescribed education is finished.
+
+2. _Thoroughly trained teachers._
+
+3. _Two kinds of normal schools_ to meet the various educational
+requirements of teachers.
+
+4. _Liberal support_ of schools of all kinds.
+
+5. _Admirable administration_ of the schools.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[176] See Parsons, "French Schools through American Eyes," p. 82.
+
+[177] This is no hardship, as they fully expect to devote their lives to
+teaching.
+
+[178] Previous to this the members of religious orders could teach in
+the public schools.
+
+NOTE.--In 1902 the government still further restricted the teaching by
+religious orders. It is now proposed not only to forbid all teaching by
+these orders, but also to sequestrate the property of such congregations
+as exist solely for teaching purposes. This will close about 3500
+schools of the Christian Brothers which have existed for a long time,
+and necessitate the organization by the government of corresponding
+school facilities to supply their place. Five years are allowed to
+effect the change..
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLIV
+
+THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND
+
+=Literature=.--_Sharpless_, English Education; _Craik_, Education and
+the State; _Barnard_, English Pedagogy; _Clark_, The State and
+Education; _Gill_, Systems of Education; _Balfour_, Educational Systems
+of Great Britain and Ireland; United States Commissioner's Reports for
+1889 to 1902.
+
+
+Nearly a thousand years ago Alfred the Great encouraged education of the
+higher classes to the exclusion of the masses--a principle that has
+governed education in England until within recent times. Statistics
+taken in 1845 showed that only one in six of the inhabitants could read,
+one in four write, and one in fifty cipher as far as the Rule of Three.
+Since 1870 important changes have been made, and the number of children
+in the elementary schools of England has increased from 1,500,000 in
+1870 to nearly 6,000,000 in 1902.[179]
+
+"The principal features of the law of 1870 were (1) the obligation
+assumed by the government to secure school provision for all children of
+ages 5 to 14; (2) the recognition or creation of local agencies (private
+or church managers or elected boards) for the execution of this purpose;
+(3) provision for securing efficient instruction by means of an annual
+grant from the treasury to be distributed to the local managers upon the
+results of examination and inspection by government inspectors; (4) the
+creation of a central agency to carry out the provisions on the part of
+the government and of new local agencies or school boards which every
+school district must elect except upon satisfactory evidence that
+schools efficient and adequate to the needs of the district were
+otherwise provided; (5) the admission of private and public elementary
+schools to a share in the government grant upon the same conditions; (6)
+the requirements that board schools should be strictly non-sectarian and
+the children of private schools protected from enforced sectarian
+instruction by a conscience clause."[180]
+
+The most important modifications of this law are the laws of 1899 and
+1903. The law of 1899 has reference to the general administration of
+education in England and Wales, while that of 1903 entirely changes the
+local management of schools and extends the sphere of public education
+to secondary as well as elementary schools.
+
+=Administration.= 1. _General._--Under the provisions of the law of 1899
+the general administration of educational affairs is committed to a
+board of education consisting of a president, appointed by the crown,
+lord president of the council, the principal secretaries of state, the
+first commissioner of the treasury, and the chancellor of the
+exchequer--not less than five nor more than fifteen members. By means of
+a sufficient number of royal inspectors who are trained educators, whose
+duty it is to visit the schools and report thereon, the board of
+education is able to reach every school in the kingdom. There is also a
+consultation committee, two-thirds of whom are "persons representing
+universities and bodies interested in education," whose office is to
+advise the board of education.
+
+2. _Counties and County Boroughs._--By the terms of the law of 1903 the
+council of every county and of every county borough are constituted a
+"local education authority," which controls secular instruction in all
+elementary schools within its district, and performs the duties of
+former school boards and school attendance committees. They may also
+establish high schools. In boroughs of over 10,000 and cities of over
+20,000 inhabitants a special board or "local education authority" is
+allowed.
+
+3. _Local Managers._--All public undenominational (board) schools have a
+body of six managers, four of whom are appointed by the "local education
+authority" and two by the minor local authority. All public
+denominational (voluntary) schools shall also have six managers, four of
+whom are foundation managers and two are appointed by state authority. A
+greater number of local managers may be chosen, but the above proportion
+of members must hold.
+
+=School Attendance.=--The school age is from five to fourteen, and the
+local authorities are required to compel attendance for that period
+excepting in case where the pupil has obtained the educational
+certificate of exemption, which cannot be given before the child is
+twelve years of age. The average attendance in 1902 reached nearly 83
+per cent of the enrollment. England has stringent laws in regard to the
+employment of children in factories, mines, etc., which are well
+enforced.
+
+=The Schools.=--We have already mentioned the _board_ and the
+_voluntary_ schools which supply the principal means of elementary
+education. The voluntary schools are under the fostering care of the
+Church, and their enrollment includes more than half of the children.
+Secondary education is carried on chiefly in private schools, though the
+law of 1903 permits the establishment of high schools to follow
+elementary education. The private secondary schools are of two general
+classes, "grammar" and "public" schools. The former are intended for the
+middle classes, their main purpose being to prepare for civil service,
+while the latter are the great endowed schools like Rugby, Eton, etc.
+
+=Support of Schools.=--The expense of the elementary schools is met by
+parliamentary grants, by local taxes, and by endowments. Parliamentary
+grants cover about 62 per cent of the total, and the balance is made up
+from the other sources. Formerly both denominational and
+undenominational schools participated alike in the government grants,
+but the former were compelled to make up the balance needed by private
+subscriptions, school pence, etc., while the latter were allowed to levy
+a local tax for this purpose. Under the law of 1903 both may share alike
+in the local tax, thereby removing the necessity for private
+subscriptions.
+
+=The Teachers.=--The training of teachers is as peculiar as the other
+features of the English system. Lancaster and Bell introduced the
+monitorial system, by which one teacher could take charge of a large
+school, the older pupils teaching the younger ones. This idea has been
+perpetuated in the "pupil teacher" scheme. Children fifteen years old
+are apprenticed to a school to assist in the work, and in return receive
+instruction and a small stipend. At eighteen or nineteen they enter the
+teachers' college for a two years' course. They may instead at this time
+take an examination for the teachers' certificate, and if successful,
+they are known as "assistant teachers." That the "pupil teacher" idea
+has lost its force is shown by the following facts: From 1876 to 1893
+the increase of graduate teachers was 114 per cent, the increase of
+"assistant teachers" 691 per cent, while there was a decrease of 15 per
+cent in the number of "pupil teachers." This would seem to indicate that
+England is demanding better prepared teachers. The 131 teachers'
+colleges graduate about 1900 students each year, which is about two
+thirds of the number of teachers needed.
+
+Teachers' positions are practically permanent, and the salaries are
+good, being in 1901 an average for certificate teachers of $644 a year
+for men and $432 for women.
+
+Each teacher is entitled to a pension at the age of 65. This amounts to
+at least $330 for men who have been in the service from their
+twenty-first year, and $225 for women. If obliged to retire earlier on
+account of breakdown, the amount of pension will be proportionate to the
+length of service. Men teachers contribute three pounds annually and
+women two pounds to this fund, while the State appropriates the balance
+needed.
+
+When one considers the traditions that have controlled English education
+for centuries, and recalls the conservatism that rules English life, one
+can only marvel at the tremendous strides taken by England during the
+last third of a century. Victor Hugo says: "The English patrician order
+is patrician in the absolute sense of the word. No feudal system was
+ever more illustrious, more terrible, and more tenacious of life."
+England has had to overcome her patrician ideas in regard to education,
+and her growth in the last thirty years has been more rapid and more
+effectual than for a thousand years before. Although she still has many
+problems to solve, her recent educational enterprise places her in the
+front rank among the nations of the world in school matters. The law of
+1903 consisted of many compromises which satisfy neither party. It will
+doubtless be followed by still further changes in the near future.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[179] The total enrollment in 1902 was 5,881,278, or 18.08 per cent of
+the population.
+
+[180] Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for
+1896-1897, Vol. I, p. 12.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLV
+
+THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+=Literature.=--_Boone_, Education in the United States; _Williams_,
+History of Modern Education; _Barnard_, _American Journal of Education_;
+_Horace Mann_, Annual Reports; United States Commissioners Reports,
+especially the more recent ones.
+
+
+Each state in the United States has its own independent system of
+education; there is no national system. In 1867 Congress established a
+National Bureau of Education, the function of which is "to collect
+statistics and facts showing the condition and progress of education in
+the several states and territories, and diffuse such information
+respecting the organization and management of schools and school systems
+and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in
+the establishment and maintenance of efficient school systems, and
+otherwise promote the cause of education throughout the country." The
+bureau issues an annual report, which is replete with information
+concerning the educational interests of our own and other lands.
+
+The United States government has given vast tracts of the public domain,
+as well as large sums of money, to the various states, out of which have
+been created, in some cases, large school funds which yield a permanent
+income.[181] Up to 1876 the United States had granted nearly eighty
+million acres of land for educational purposes.
+
+The Bureau of Education is obliged to rely on such statistics as its
+correspondents are willing to give, yet its work has been so valuable,
+its information so extensive and accurate, and its educational purpose
+so high, that cordial cooeperation is generally given. This annual report
+is the finest issued by any nation in the world.[182]
+
+
+THE STATE SYSTEMS
+
+=Administration.=--At the head of each state school system, there is an
+executive officer usually called the State Superintendent of Public
+Instruction. He is chosen for from two to five years, sometimes by
+popular vote, sometimes by the joint houses of the Legislature,
+sometimes by the State Board of Education, and in some cases is
+appointed by the governor. His duties are to make reports, to examine
+teachers, to inspect schools, to distribute school moneys, to hear
+appeals in school matters, and to have general oversight of the
+educational interests of the state. In some states there is a State
+Board of Education that cooeperates with the State Superintendent. The
+interests of education seem to be best conserved when there is a
+non-partisan State Board of Education, which appoints the executive
+officers and has general charge of the schools.
+
+The second administrative unit is the county, over which is placed a
+Superintendent of Schools. He is chosen by popular vote or is appointed
+by the State Board of Education, and holds office generally about three
+years. He must visit the schools, examine teachers, hold institutes,
+distribute school moneys, and oversee the educational work. The number
+of schools under the inspection of the county superintendent is often so
+great, and the territory so large, that his work cannot be well done. In
+many cases the compensation is so small that he is obliged to devote a
+part of his time to some other occupation. The work is of sufficient
+importance to demand the full time of a competent man; and the salary
+ought to be proportionate to such needs.
+
+The next division is that of the township, though in most states the
+school district is the next unit. The so-called "township system" has
+been adopted in several states, and recommended in others. This system
+has a board of education which appoints teachers, purchases supplies,
+and manages the schools of the whole township. The district system has
+outlived its usefulness. It maintains more schools than are warranted by
+the small number of pupils. Many of these could be abandoned in favor of
+better schools in neighboring districts, to which the children could be
+sent. It often secures for its trustee a man of limited education and
+narrow views, who conducts the school on the cheapest plan possible,
+while the larger territory of the township furnishes better material
+from which to choose; it limits its educational plan to the most
+elementary course, whereas the "township system" contemplates a central
+high school open to all children of the township. The "township system"
+also admits of the employment of a special school inspector or
+superintendent if desired. In some instances, two or more townships
+unite in the employment of such a superintendent.
+
+=School Attendance.=--The school age commences at from four to six and
+extends to from eighteen to twenty-one, varying greatly in the
+different states. The United States Commissioner's Report now covers the
+period of from five to eighteen. On this basis he reports that 71.54 per
+cent of the children who are of school age are enrolled in the schools,
+while the average attendance is about 69 per cent of the enrollment.
+This is a very low percentage as compared with that in Germany, France,
+and England. The longer period covered by us (five to eighteen) thus
+acts unfavorably. The natural period of the child's life to be devoted
+to education is from six to fourteen.
+
+School attendance in the United States is by no means so regular as it
+should be, even during the period (six to fourteen). To remedy this,
+compulsory education laws have been passed in most states. They cover
+periods varying from eight consecutive weeks and a total of twenty weeks
+during the year, to the full school year. These laws are generally a
+dead letter, partly because of their own weakness, and partly because of
+the indifference of the people. Compulsory attendance to be effective
+must cover the whole school year, and must carry a sufficient penalty
+for non-enforcement.
+
+=The Schools.=--The schools of the United States may be classified as
+follows: 1, the _elementary school_ having an eight years' course which
+should be completed at fourteen; 2, the _secondary school_ with a four
+years' course that fits for college or its equivalent training; 3, the
+_undergraduate school_ or college with its four years' course; and the
+_graduate school_ or university. The elementary school is generally
+separated into primary and grammar grades, and is sometimes preceded by
+the kindergarten. The secondary school usually offers commercial or
+other practical courses to those who do not wish to prepare for college.
+Colleges differ greatly in the scope of their work and in their courses
+of instruction. Most universities open their doors to those who are not
+graduates of colleges. In all states the elementary and the high schools
+are free, while in some, particularly the western states, the entire
+expense of the child's education from kindergarten to university is
+defrayed at public expense.
+
+=Support of the Schools.=--The annual cost of the schools of the country
+is about two hundred and fifty million dollars. About two thirds of this
+is raised by local tax, about one fifth by state tax, and the balance is
+derived chiefly from permanent funds, etc. The preponderance of the
+local tax shows that to each community is intrusted the important matter
+of deciding as to the quality of school it will maintain. The American
+people have always been liberal toward education, and no money is voted
+so freely by legislative bodies as that necessary for the education of
+the young.
+
+=The Teachers.=--There are over 440,000 teachers in the United States,
+of whom about 28 per cent are men and 72 per cent women. Only about 10
+per cent of these have had a professional training. The average term of
+service is five years, and about 100,000 new teachers are needed every
+year. To supply this number the normal schools and other institutions
+for training teachers are utterly inadequate, and will remain so until
+the average term of service is lengthened.
+
+The principal institutions for training teachers are the normal school,
+the city training school, the pedagogical departments of universities,
+and teachers' training classes. To these may be added the teachers'
+institute and the summer school, which while they stimulate and instruct
+the teachers, cannot be said to give them a professional training.
+
+The course of the normal school usually covers three years, and embraces
+both the theory of education and practice in teaching children. Within
+the last few years, many colleges have established chairs of pedagogy,
+but the work remains inadequate for a professional training so long as
+practice in teaching is not added to the requirements.
+
+Teachers are appointed by local boards generally for one year, though
+they often remain undisturbed year after year. The average monthly
+salary of men in 1902 was $49.05, and of women $39.77.
+
+So long as professional training of the teacher guarantees neither
+permanence of position nor adequate remuneration, many men and women
+with ability to teach will be tempted to devote their energies to other
+work, leaving the nation's most sacred trust, the education of its
+children, to those who will not or cannot properly prepare themselves
+for that great responsibility.
+
+But there is in present tendencies no need for discouragement.
+Everywhere brave men and women are preparing themselves in earnest for
+the high calling of teacher, hopeful that the future will bring them the
+recognition they deserve.
+
+With free schools, abler teachers, consecrated to their calling, and
+better courses of instruction; with a people generous in expenditures
+for educational purposes, a cooeperation of parents and teachers, and a
+willingness to learn from other nations; with the many educational
+periodicals, the pedagogical books, and teachers' institutes to broaden
+and stimulate the teacher,--the friends of education in America may
+labor on, assured that the present century will give abundant fruitage
+to the work which has so marvelously prospered in the past.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[181] In 1836 there was a large surplus in the national treasury, which,
+by act of Congress, was ordered "to be deposited with the several
+states, in proportion to their representation in Congress." The amount
+so distributed equaled about $30,000,000. Most of the states receiving
+this deposit set it aside as a permanent school fund. See Boone,
+"History of Education in the United States," p. 91.
+
+[182] See an article by M. Stevens on "The National Bureau of
+Education," in the _New York School Journal_, Vol. LVI, p. 743, for a
+full description of this bureau and its work.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+RECENT EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS
+
+
+=Literature.=--Proceedings of the National Educational Society; Reports
+of the Commissioner of Education; Yearbooks of the National Society for
+the Scientific Study of Education; Parker Memorial Number of the New
+York School Journal, April 5, 1902.
+
+
+In order to bring the history of education down to the present and
+awaken an interest in questions that are now occupying the attention of
+educational thinkers, a brief study of recent educational movements,
+theories, and organizations is here presented. Such study should serve
+as an introduction of the young teacher to the actual world of thought,
+in which he is to live, and present to him the questions which he must
+aid in solving.
+
+=The National Educational Association.=--One of the most potent factors
+of education in the United States is the National Educational
+Association, founded in Philadelphia in 1857. The purpose of this
+organization, in the language of the preamble to its constitution, is,
+"To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of
+teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United
+States." It holds its meetings annually in different parts of the
+country, attracting large numbers of teachers of all ranks and from
+every section.[183] There are eighteen departments, each of which holds
+special sessions during the time of the general meeting, which occurs
+early in the summer vacation. The department of superintendence,
+however, holds a midwinter meeting which attracts the leading educators
+of the country.
+
+Very valuable service has been rendered by the Association through its
+committees that have been appointed from time to time to investigate and
+report upon special problems. Among the notable reports may be mentioned
+the following: Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary Schools;
+Report of the Committee of Fifteen on Elementary Schools; Report of the
+Committee on Normal Schools; Report of the Committee on Rural Schools.
+
+The discussions of the Association are preserved in an annual volume of
+proceedings. Its committee reports often appear also in special
+bulletins. It must be admitted in general that the National Educational
+Association fulfils its mission, as outlined in the preamble quoted, in
+an admirable way.
+
+
+THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF EDUCATION
+
+While the United States has no national system of education, each state
+having entire charge of its own educational affairs, there is a national
+bureau whose office is twofold; namely: (1) to collect statistics, and
+(2) to diffuse information concerning educational affairs. This bureau
+was established by Congress in 1867, and since 1869 it has been a bureau
+of the Department of the Interior. Henry Barnard was appointed the first
+commissioner, and he has been succeeded in that office by John Eaton, N.
+H. R. Dawson, William T. Harris, and Elmer E. Brown, the present
+incumbent.
+
+This bureau fosters the interests of education in three important
+directions: (1) by its publications; (2) by its maintenance of a
+pedagogical library, the most extensive in the country; and (3) by its
+pedagogical museum, in which every feature of educational enterprise is
+exhibited.
+
+The most valuable service rendered, however, is through its
+publications. It issues an annual report which has grown to two large
+volumes of more than twenty-four hundred pages, in which are found
+statistics concerning all kinds of schools and educational enterprises
+throughout the United States. Nor are its investigations limited to our
+own country and its territories. Educational movements in other
+countries are described from time to time by experts with a view to
+furnish complete information concerning current educational history
+throughout the world. These reports are recognized as by far the best
+furnished by any country.
+
+In addition to the annual report the bureau issues many pamphlets
+bearing upon special topics and furnishing valuable information.
+
+In view of the fact that such vast interests are involved,--the
+instruction of over twenty million pupils, requiring the service of more
+than half a million teachers, involving the expenditure of nearly three
+hundred million dollars per annum, and of vital interest to the whole
+population,--many educators believe that the bureau should be elevated
+to the dignity of a department of the government with a cabinet officer
+at its head.
+
+
+THE QUINCY MOVEMENT
+
+In 1873 the School Board of Quincy, Massachusetts, took a new and very
+important departure, namely, that of calling an educational expert to
+take charge of their schools. They realized that the office of a school
+board is to administer the external matters, but trained experts should
+have entire direction of the internal affairs of the schools, such as
+discipline, methods of instruction, course of study, etc. They called
+Colonel Francis W. Parker (1837-1902) to the superintendency and said to
+him practically: "We will furnish the equipment and the teachers, and it
+is your business to run the schools. We will not interfere with your
+methods or your plans, but will hold you responsible for results."
+Colonel Parker, who had just returned from a careful study of European
+schools, accepted this responsibility and at once began reforms in
+primary education not second in importance to those of Horace Mann a
+generation earlier. The "New Education" and "Quincy Methods" began to be
+discussed everywhere, and Quincy became the educational Mecca for
+teachers from every part of the land. Some of the reforms inaugurated
+were the following: Text-books were abolished, the learning of the
+alphabet discontinued, mere memorizing of facts discountenanced, nature
+work was emphasized, concrete methods employed, and all school work made
+natural and interesting. The results in comparison with those of other
+schools were phenomenal, and it was recognized that a great reform
+movement had been started.
+
+Doubtless, like reformers generally, Colonel Parker was too extreme.
+Some of his innovations were later modified, even by the originator
+himself. Nevertheless, the Quincy Movement did incalculable good by
+breaking up the formalism that prevailed, by making the work practical
+and interesting, by offering suitable material, by improving the methods
+of instruction, and by awakening great interest in educational problems
+among both the teachers and the public at large. For this great work at
+Quincy, for his many years' service as the head of the Chicago Normal
+School, and for his stimulating influence upon elementary education
+throughout the country, Colonel Parker deserves a place among the
+foremost educators of recent times. The example of the Quincy School
+Board in placing an educational expert over their schools has been
+followed by many cities. The office of city superintendent has been
+created, and to him is now committed duties that formerly were
+undertaken by members of the School Board who were without professional
+training. This change marks a decided step forward in the educational
+progress of our country.
+
+
+THE HERBARTIAN MOVEMENT
+
+One of the most important educational movements of recent years, is that
+inaugurated by the disciples of Herbart[184] in this country. At the
+meeting of the New England Association in Denver in 1895 a number of
+men, most of whom had studied under Stoy and Rein in Germany, formed the
+National Herbart Society, whose purpose was declared to be "the
+aggressive discussion and spread of educational doctrines." This society
+was the outgrowth of the Herbart Club, formed three years before at
+Saratoga. It is now known as the National Society for the Scientific
+Study of Education. It holds semiannual meetings in connection with the
+National Association, but is not a department of said Association. It
+issues "Yearbooks" which contain the results of the investigations of
+its members and which are valuable contributions to current educational
+literature.
+
+Among the most important educational theories brought forward by this
+school may be mentioned that of Apperception, the Doctrine of Interest,
+the Correlation of Studies, Concentration, the Culture Epoch Theory, and
+Character Building as an end of education. The practical application of
+these theories to school problems has not been neglected. There is no
+doubt that the Herbartian teachings have served to bring education in
+this country to a scientific basis. The members of this society have
+been among the foremost contributors to the pedagogical literature of
+the last decade.
+
+
+VARIOUS TENDENCIES
+
+=Child Study.=--The old psychologists based their theories and
+deductions upon a study of the activities of the adult mind. Modern
+educators have turned their attention to the being whom they are to
+educate--the child. Questionnaires have been issued and syllabi
+formulated concerning many characteristics of children, such as their
+fears, their imaginations, their lies, their views of God, etc., for the
+purpose of discovering laws governing the same. While as yet the
+movement cannot claim to have added much to educational theory, it has
+stimulated careful study and observation of children, brought teachers
+into more genuine sympathy with them, suggested suitable material for
+instruction, and fostered rational discipline. It offers an unlimited
+and fruitful field for further investigation.
+
+=Parents' Meetings.=--In the early history of the race parents assumed
+the entire education of their offspring. When schools became numerous
+and teachers efficient, parents largely absolved themselves from direct
+responsibility in the matter of education. To arouse proper interest and
+to unite all the agencies of the community in this work, parents'
+meetings have been organized in many places. Thus the patrons of the
+school have not only been led to cooeperate with their teachers, but also
+to study educational problems. Such organizations have strengthened the
+hands of the teachers, stimulated educational interest, and aroused a
+genuine and intelligent pride in the work of the school.
+
+=Manual and Industrial Training.=--The marvelous industrial development
+of recent years, together with the attitude of labor unions towards
+apprenticeships, creates a demand for a reconstruction of courses of
+study. Much of education that was secured in the shop and field must now
+be furnished in the school. "Educate the whole child" is the watchword.
+The motor activities must be trained as well as the mental activities.
+Indeed, the latter cannot attain their proper development without the
+former. Hence, manual training has been adopted as a part of the
+curriculum.
+
+=Material Improvements.=--A careful study of the ventilation, lighting,
+seating, and other hygienic conditions, as well as construction of
+school buildings, has characterized recent times. In many places not
+only school materials, but also text-books, are furnished free of cost
+to the pupil. Physicians are also employed periodically to visit the
+schools and examine the children as to the condition of eyes and ears,
+as to the prevalence of disease, and as to their general health.
+Safeguards are inaugurated to prevent the spread of contagious diseases.
+All of these material measures are founded upon the theory that only
+under best conditions can the best results be obtained in education, and
+therefore it is true economy for the community to furnish these
+conditions.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[183] The membership at the Boston meeting in 1903 was 34,984. This,
+however, is far in excess of the average attendance.
+
+[184] See p. 278.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+The following works have a bearing upon some phase of the many topics
+considered in this book. Most of them have been mentioned in abbreviated
+form either in the literature at the beginning of each chapter or in the
+footnotes. They are here given with their full titles.
+
+
+ A
+
+ ADAMS, FRANCIS. The Free School System of the United States.
+
+ ALLEN, W. F. A Short History of the Roman People.
+
+ ALLIES. The Monastic Life.
+ The Formation of Christendom.
+
+ ANDREWS, E. B. Brief Institutes of General History.
+
+ ARCHER, T. A., and Kingsford, C. L. Crusaders.
+
+ ARNOLD, EDWIN. The Light of Asia.
+
+ ARNOLD, MATTHEW. Essays in Criticism.
+
+ ARNSTAeDT, F. A. Rabelais und sein Traite d'Education.
+ Fenelon.
+
+ ASCHAM, ROGER. The Scholemaster (edited by E. Arber).
+
+ AZARIAS, BROTHER. Essays Educational.
+ Essays Philosophical.
+ Philosophy of Literature.
+
+
+ B
+
+ BALFOUR, GRAHAM. Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland
+
+ BALLANTINE, H. Midnight Marches through Persia.
+
+ BALLOU, M. M. Due West; or, Round the World in Ten Months.
+ Footprints of Travel.
+
+ BARDEEN, C. W. The Orbis Pictus of John Comenius.
+
+ BARNARD, HENRY. English Pedagogy.
+ Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism.
+ American Journal of Education.
+
+ BARNES, EARL. Studies in Education.
+
+ BARROWS, JOHN HENRY. World's Parliament of Religions.
+
+ BEECHER, H. W. Life of Jesus the Christ.
+
+ BEEGER UND LEUTBECHER. Comenius Ausgewaehlte Schriften.
+
+ BENJAMIN, S. G. W. The Story of Persia.
+ Persia and the Persians.
+
+ BESANT, WALTER. Rabelais.
+
+ BOONE, RICHARD G. Education in the United States: Its History from the
+ Earliest Settlements.
+
+ BORMANN, K. Paedagogik Fuer Volksschullehrer.
+
+ BOWEN, H. COURTHOPE. Froebel and Education by Self-activity.
+
+ BROOKS, PHILLIPS. Letters of Travel.
+
+ BROWNING, OSCAR. Milton's Tractate on Education.
+
+ BRUGSCH-BEY, H. History of Egypt Under the Pharaohs.
+
+ BRYCE, JAMES. The Holy Roman Empire.
+ A Short History of the Roman Empire.
+
+ BULFINCH, T. Legends of Charlemagne.
+
+ BULKLEY, REV. C. H. A. Plato's Best Thoughts.
+
+ BURY, J. B. a History of the Later Roman Empire From Arcadius To Irene.
+
+ BUTLER, N. M. the Place of Comenius in the History of Education.
+
+ BUTLER, W. Land of the Veda.
+
+
+ C
+
+ CAPES, W. W. Roman Empire of the Second Century: Age of Antonines.
+
+ CARLISLE, JAMES H. Two Great Teachers--Ascham and Arnold.
+
+ CARLYLE, THOMAS. French Revolution.
+
+ CHAMBERLAIN. Education in India.
+
+ CHATEAUBRIAND. The Genius of Christianity.
+
+ CHURCH, ALFRED J. Pictures From Roman Life and Story.
+ Pictures From Greek Life and Story.
+
+ CHURCH, R. W. The Beginnings of Middle Ages.
+ Bacon.
+
+ CLARK, HENRY. The State and Education.
+
+ CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN. Ten Great Religions.
+
+ COLLINS, W. LUCAS. Montaigne.
+
+ COMBE, GEORGE. Education: Its Principles and Practice.
+
+ COMENIUS. The Orbis Pictus.
+ Grosse Unterrichtslehre (see Zoubek).
+
+ COMPAYRE, GABRIEL. The History of Pedagogy (trans, by W. H. Payne).
+
+ COURTNEY, W. L. John Locke.
+
+ COX, SIR G. W. The Crusades.
+
+ CRAIK, H. The State in Relation To Education.
+
+ CURTIS, G. W. Nile Notes of a Howadji.
+
+ CURTIUS, ERNST. History of Greece (5 Vols.).
+
+
+ D
+
+ D'AUBIGNE, J. H. MERLE. History of the Reformation of the Sixteenth
+ Century.
+
+ DAVIDSON, THOMAS. Rousseau and Education According To Nature.
+ The Education of the Greek People and Its Influence on Civilization.
+ Aristotle and the Ancient Educational Ideals.
+ History of Education.
+
+ DE GARMO, CHARLES. Herbart and the Herbartians.
+
+ DE GUIMPS, R. Pestalozzi, His Life and Works (trans. by J. Russell).
+
+ DE QUINCEY, T. Plato's Republic.
+
+ DITTES, F. Geschichte Der Erziehung Und Des Unterrichts.
+
+ DOOLITTLE, REV. J. Social Life of the Chinese.
+
+ DRAPER, JOHN W. Conflict Between Religion and Science.
+ History of the Intellectual Development of Europe.
+
+ DURRELL, FLETCHER. A New Life in Education.
+
+ DURUY, VICTOR. History of France (trans. by Mrs. Carey).
+ A History of the Middle Ages.
+ History of Modern Times, From the Fall of Constantinople To The
+ French Revolution.
+
+ DYER, T. H. History of Modern Europe (3 Vols.).
+
+
+ E
+
+ EBERS, GEORG. Uarda.
+ An Egyptian Princess.
+
+ EDUCATIONAL REVIEW.
+
+ EDWARDS, AMELIA B. a Thousand Miles Up the Nile.
+
+ EMERSON, RALPH WALDO. Representative Men.
+
+ EMERTON, E. An Introduction To the Study of the Middle Ages.
+ Mediaeval Europe.
+
+ ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
+
+ ENCYKLOPAeDISCHES HANDBUCH DER PAeDAGOGIK.
+
+
+ F
+
+ FELKIN, HENRY M. and EMMIE. Herbart's Science of Education.
+
+ FELTON, C. C. Greece, Ancient and Modern.
+
+ FENELON, F. Treatise on the Education of Girls.
+
+ FERGUSSON, JAMES. History of Architecture in All Countries.
+
+ FERRIS, G. T. Great Leaders.
+
+ FISHER, G. P. History of the Reformation.
+ The Beginnings of Christianity.
+
+ FORSYTH, W. Life of Cicero.
+
+ FOWLER, THOMAS. Locke.
+ Bacon.
+
+ FRAZER, ROBERT W. British India.
+
+ FREEMAN, EDWARD A. Historical Essays.
+
+ FROEBEL, F. The Education of Man (trans. by W. N. Hailmann).
+
+ FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY. Short Studies on Great Subjects.
+ Life and Letters of Erasmus.
+
+
+ G
+
+ GASQUET. Henry VIII and the English Monasteries.
+
+ GEIKIE, C. Life of Christ.
+
+ GIBBON, EDWARD. History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
+
+ GILL, JOHN. Systems of Education.
+
+ GILMAN, A. Story of Rome From the Earliest Times To the End Of The
+ Republic.
+
+ GRAHAM, H. G. Rousseau.
+
+ GREEN, J. R. History of the English People (4 Vols.).
+
+ GROTE, GEORGE. History of Greece (12 Vols.).
+
+ GUHL AND KONER. The Life of Greeks and Romans. From Antique Monuments.
+
+ GUIZOT. History of Civilization (4 Vols.).
+
+
+ H
+
+ HAILMANN, W. N. History of Pedagogy.
+
+ HALLAM, HENRY. View of the State of Europe During the Middle Ages (3
+ Vols.).
+ Literary History of Europe.
+
+ HANNA, WILLIAM. Life of Christ.
+
+ HANUS, PAUL H. The Permanent Influence of Comenius (ed. Review, N.Y.,
+ Vol. III, 226).
+
+ HARPER'S Book of Facts (compiled by J. H. Willsey).
+
+ HARRISON, J. H. Story of Greece.
+
+ HEGEL, G. W. F. The Philosophy of History.
+
+ HERBART, J. F. The Science of Education. (see Felkin.)
+
+ HERFORD, WILLIAM H. The Student's Froebel.
+
+ HINSDALE, B. A. Horace Mann.
+
+ HORTON, R. F. A History of the Romans.
+
+ HOSMER, J. K. Story of the Jews.
+
+ HOUGHTON, R. C. Women of the Orient.
+
+ HUGHES, THOMAS. Loyola and the Educational System of the Jesuits.
+
+ HURST, JOHN F. A Short History of the Reformation.
+ Life and Literature in the Fatherland.
+
+
+ I
+
+ IRVING, WASHINGTON. Mahomet and His Successors.
+
+
+ J
+
+ JAMESON, MRS. ANNA. Legends of the Monastic Orders.
+
+ JOHONNOT, JAMES. Geographical Reader.
+
+ JOSEPHUS, F. The Works Of.
+
+ JOWETT, B. The Republic of Plato.
+
+
+ K
+
+ KEMP. History of Education.
+
+ KIDDLE AND SCHEM. Cyclopaedia of Education.
+
+ KINGSFORD, C. L. (see Archer.)
+
+ KITCHIN, G. W. History of France.
+
+ KLEMM, L. R. European Schools.
+
+ KNOX, THOMAS W. The Boy Travelers in the Far East.
+ In Egypt and the Holy Land.
+
+ KOeNIGBAUER, J. Geschichte Der Paedagogik Und Methodik.
+
+ KRIEGE, MATILDA H. Friedrich Froebel.
+
+ KUeRSI, H. Life, Work, and Influence of Pestalozzi.
+
+
+ L
+
+ LABBERTON, R. H. New Historical Atlas and General History.
+
+ LANE, EDWARD W. Account of the Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians.
+
+ LANE-POOLE, S. The Story of the Moors in Spain.
+
+ LANG, OSSIAN H. Rousseau: His Life, Work, and Educational Ideas.
+ Basedow: His Life and Educational Work.
+ Horace Mann.
+
+ LANGE, WICHARD. Gesammelte Paedagogische Schriften von F. Froebel.
+
+ LANGHORNE, J. and W. Life of Plutarch.
+
+ LARNED, J. N. History for Ready Reference (5 vols.).
+
+ LAURIE, S. S. Rise and Early Constitution of Universities.
+ Comenius: His Life and Educational Works.
+
+ LAVISSE, ERNST. General View of the Political History of Europe (trans.
+ by Charles Gross).
+
+ LECKY, W. E. H. History of European Morals (2 vols.).
+
+ LE CLERC. Life of Erasmus.
+
+ LEITCH, J. MUIR. Practical Educationists and their Systems of Teaching.
+
+ LEROY-BEAULIEU. The Awakening of the East.
+
+ LESSING, G. E. Nathan der Weise.
+
+ LEWIS, CHARLES T. History of Germany.
+
+ LIDDELL, H. G. Student's History of Rome.
+
+ LORD, JOHN. Beacon Lights of History.
+
+
+ M
+
+ MACAULAY, T. B. Essays.
+ History of England.
+
+ MAHAFFY, J. P. Social Life in Greece.
+ Old Greek Education.
+ The Greek World under Roman Sway.
+
+ MAITLAND. The Dark Ages.
+
+ MANN, MARY, and GEORGE COMBE MANN. The Life and Works of Horace Mann.
+ Educational Writings of Horace Mann.
+
+ MARDEN, ORISON SWETT. Pushing to the Front.
+
+ MARENHOLTZ-BUeLOW, BERTHA VON. Reminiscences of Friedrich Froebel (trans.
+ by Mary Mann).
+
+ MARSHMAN, J. C. History of India.
+
+ MARTIN, G. H. Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System.
+
+ MARTIN, W. A. P. The Chinese: Their Education, Philosophy, and Letters.
+
+ MASPERO, G. Egyptian Archaeology (trans. by Amelia B. Edwards.)
+
+ MERIVALE, C. History of the Romans (7 Vols.).
+
+ MICHAUD, J. F. History of the Crusades (trans. by W. Robson).
+
+ MILTON, J. Tractate on Education. (see Oscar Browning.)
+
+ MOMBERT, J. I. Great Lives.
+ History of Charles the Great (Charlemagne).
+
+ MOMMSEN, TH. History of Rome.
+
+ MONROE, PAUL. Source Book of the History of Education.
+
+ MONTAGU, BASIL. Life of Francis Bacon.
+
+ MORLEY, JOHN. Life of Rousseau.
+
+ MORRIS, CHARLES. Historical Tales (Greek-Roman).
+
+ MORRIS, WILLIAM O'CONNOR. The French Revolution and First Empire.
+
+ MORRISON, W. DOUGLAS. The Jews Under Roman Rule.
+
+ MUNROE, JAMES P. The Educational Ideal.
+
+ MYERS, P. V. N. Mediaeval and Modern History.
+ Ancient History.
+
+
+ N
+
+ NIEDERGESAeSS. Geschichte Der Paedagogik.
+ North American Review, Vol. 171.
+
+
+ O
+
+ OLIPHANT, MRS. MONTAIGNE. (see W. Lucas Collins.) Dante.
+
+
+ P
+
+ PAINTER, F. V. N. A History of Education.
+
+ PARKMAN, FRANCIS. The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century.
+
+ PARSONS, J. RUSSELL. Prussian Schools Through American Eyes.
+ French Schools Through American Eyes.
+
+ PASTOR, LUDWIG. History of the Popes.
+
+ PATTISON, MARK. Milton.
+
+ PAULSEN, FRIEDRICH. The German Universities: Their Character And
+ Historical Development (trans. by E. P. Perry).
+ Geschichte Des Gelehrten Unterrichts, Auf Den Deutschen Schulen Und
+ Universitaeten.
+
+ PETERS. Justice To the Jew.
+
+ PLOETZ. Epitome of Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern History.
+
+ PRINCE, JOHN T. Methods of Instruction, and Organization of Schools In
+ Germany.
+
+
+ Q
+
+ QUICK, ROBERT H. Educational Reformers.
+
+ QUINTILIAN. Institutes of Oratory; Or, Education of an Orator. (see
+ Watson.)
+
+
+ R
+
+ RAGOZIN, Z. A. the Story of Chaldea: From Earliest Time To Rise Of
+ Assyria.
+ The Story of Media, Babylon, and Persia.
+
+ RAGOZIN, MRS. J. A. The Story of Vedic India.
+
+ RAUMER, KARL VON. Geschichte Der Paedagogik.
+ Life and System of Pestalozzi (trans. by Tilleard).
+
+ RAWLINSON, G. Five Great Monarchies.
+ Ancient Egypt.
+ Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy.
+
+ REEVE, HENRY. Petrarch.
+
+ REIMER, KARL. Michel de Montaigne.
+ Emil, Oder Ueber Die Erziehung.
+
+ REIN, W. Am Ende Der Schulreform?
+ Encyklopaedisches Handbuch Der Paedagogik.
+
+ REPORTS of the United States Commissioner of Education.
+
+ RICHARD, ERNST. The School System of France.
+
+ RICHTER, KARL. Pestalozzi.
+ A. H. Francke.
+
+ RIDPATH, J. C. Library of Universal History.
+
+ ROUSSEAU. Emile.
+
+ ROUTLEDGE. The Modern Seven Wonders of the World.
+
+ RUSSELL, JAMES E. German Higher Schools.
+
+
+ S
+
+ SANKEY, C. the Spartan and Theban Supremacies.
+
+ SCHILLER, FRIEDRICH. History of the Thirty Years' War (trans. By
+ Morrison).
+
+ SCHMID, K. A. Encyklopaedie Des Gesammten Erziehungs Und
+ Unterrichtswesens (11 Vols.).
+
+ SCHMIDT, KARL. Geschichte Der Paedagogik (4 Vols.) (edited By Wichard
+ Lange).
+
+ SCHNEIDER, E., und E. VON BREMEN. Das Volksschulwesen Im Preussischen
+ Staate (3 Vols.).
+
+ SCHROEDER, CHR. Das Volksschulwesen in Frankreich.
+
+ SCHWEGLER, A. A History of Philosophy (trans. by Julius H. Seelye).
+
+ SEEBOHM, F. Era of the Protestant Revolution.
+
+ SEELEY, L. Common School System of Germany.
+
+ SEIDEL, F. Froebel's Paedagogische Schriften (3 Vols.).
+
+ SHARPLESS, ISAAC. English Education in Elementary and Secondary Schools.
+
+ SHEPPARD, J. Y. The Fall of Rome and the Rise of New Nationalities.
+
+ SHOUP, WILLIAM J. The History and Science of Education.
+
+ SHUMWAY, E. S. A Day in Ancient Rome.
+
+ SINE, JAMES. History of Germany.
+
+ SKINNER, H. M. The Schoolmaster in Literature.
+ The Schoolmaster in Comedy and Satire.
+
+ SMITH, WILLIAM. History of Greece.
+ History of Rome.
+
+ SONNENSCHEIN & CO. Cyclopaedia of Education.
+
+ SPOFFORD, A. R. Library of Historical Characters (10 Vols.).
+
+ STEEG, M. JULES. Emile; Or, Concerning Education (trans. By Eleanor
+ Worthington).
+
+ STILLE, C. J. Studies in Mediaeval History.
+
+ STODDARD, JOHN L. Lectures on Travel.
+
+ STRACK, K. Geschichte Des Deutschen Volksschulwesens.
+
+ SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON. The Renaissance in Italy.
+
+
+ T
+
+ TAUNTON. The English Black Monks of St. Benedict.
+
+ TAYLOR, BAYARD. History of Germany.
+
+ THALHEIMER, M. E. Mediaeval and Modern History.
+
+ TIMAYENIS, T. T. History of Greece (2 Vols.).
+
+
+ U
+
+ UFER, C. Introduction To the Pedagogy of Herbart.
+
+ UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION REPORTS.
+
+
+ V
+
+ VAN LIEW, C. C. Life of Herbart and Development of His Pedagogical
+ Doctrines.
+
+ VOGEL, AUGUST. Geschichte Der Paedagogik Als Wissenschaft.
+
+
+ W
+
+ WALKER, JOHN BRISBEN. The Building of an Empire. ("Cosmopolitan,"
+ Feb.-Sept., 1899.)
+
+ WARNER, CHARLES DUDLEY. Library of the World's Best Literature.
+
+ WATSON, J. S. Quintilian's Institutes of Oratory; Or, Education Of An
+ Orator.
+
+ WEIGERT, MAX. Die Volksschule in Frankreich.
+
+ WEIR, SAMUEL. Key To Rousseau's Emile.
+
+ WELLS, C. L. The Age of Charlemagne.
+
+ WEST, ANDREW F. Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools.
+
+ WHITE, REV. JAMES. The Eighteen Christian Centuries.
+
+ WILKINS, A. S. National Education in Greece in the Fourth Century B.C.
+
+ WILKINSON, SIR J. G. Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians
+ (3 Vols.).
+
+ WILLIAMS, SAMUEL G. the History of Modern Education.
+
+ WILLMANN, OTTO. Herbart's Paedagogische Schriften (2 Vols.).
+
+ WINSHIP, ALBERT E. Horace Mann, Educator.
+
+
+ Y
+
+ YONGE, C. D. Three Centuries of Modern History.
+
+
+ Z
+
+ ZOUBEK, FR. E. A. COMENIUS. Grosse Unterrichtslehre.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ _A. B. C. der Anschauung_, Herbart's, 281.
+
+ Abelard at University of Paris, 141.
+ Benedictine teacher, 118.
+ leader of scholasticism, 122.
+
+ Academies, in French school administration, 296, 297.
+
+ Agricola, Johannes, school course of, 176 _n_.
+
+ Agricola, Rudolphus, father of German humanism, 153, 158.
+ lectures of, 158.
+
+ Ahriman, principle of darkness in Persian religion, 39.
+
+ Albigenses, reformers in France, 165.
+
+ Alcohol, Arabians discover, 145.
+
+ Alcuin of England, Benedictine teacher, 118.
+ teacher of Charlemagne, 127.
+
+ Alexander the Great, pupil of Aristotle, 65.
+
+ Alexandria, catechetical school at, 107, 108.
+ Museum of, 50.
+ Saracenic school at, 140.
+ school of rabbis at, 44.
+ seat of philosophy, 107.
+
+ Alexandrian library fostered by the Ptolemies, 50.
+
+ Alfred the Great, becomes king, 130.
+ character and history of, 130.
+ education of, 131.
+ encourages education of higher classes, 302.
+ establishes monasteries, 131.
+ founds Oxford University, 131.
+ influence on English education, 131.
+ literary work of, 131.
+ statesmanship of, 130.
+
+ Algebra, modern form of, 145.
+
+ _Allgemeine Paedagogik_, Herbart's, 281.
+
+ Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan, 114.
+
+ America, discovery of, 165.
+
+ American Revolution, establishes principle of self-government, 239.
+
+ Analects of Confucius, 28.
+
+ Analytical method of Aristotle, 67.
+
+ Anatomy, in Milton's scheme of education, 219.
+
+ Annual Reports, Horace Mann's, 286.
+ of Bureau of Education, 310.
+
+ Anselm, founder of scholasticism, 122.
+
+ Antioch, catechetical school at, 107.
+
+ Antioch College, Horace Mann president of, 288.
+
+ Apostles, active in education, 101.
+
+ Apostles' Creed, taught during Charlemagne's reign, 128.
+
+ _Apostolic Constitution_ quoted, 113.
+
+ Apprentice schools, in France, 299.
+
+ Aquinas, Thomas, Benedictine teacher, 118.
+ leader of scholasticism, 122.
+
+ Arabians, services to education, 145.
+
+ Architecture, in Milton's scheme of education, 219.
+
+ Aristotle, analytical method of, 67.
+ Athenian philosopher, 56.
+ called the Stagirite, 65.
+ pedagogy of, outlined, 66, 67.
+ pupil of Plato, 65.
+ teacher of Alexander the Great, 65.
+
+ Arithmetic, in Charlemagne's reign, 128.
+ in Chinese schools, 24.
+ in India, 32, 33.
+ in Jewish education, 43.
+ in Milton's scheme of education, 219.
+ in monastic education, 119.
+ in Roman schools, 78.
+
+ Arrondissements, in French school system, 297.
+
+ Art, in Athens, 56.
+ in Egypt, 47.
+
+ Arts, seven liberal, 118, 127.
+
+ Aryans, in Greece, 53.
+ in India, 30.
+ in Persia, 36.
+
+ Asceticism, influence on civilization, 116.
+
+ Ascham, Roger, English educator, 190.
+ method of, 191.
+ _Scholemaster_, 190.
+ tutor to Elizabeth, 190.
+
+ Assistant teachers, 307.
+
+ Astrology, applications of, 120.
+
+ Astronomy, applications of, 120.
+ Arabians' services to, 145.
+ Copernican system, 148.
+
+ Astronomy taught in Egypt, 50.
+ taught in Mohammedan schools, 145.
+ taught to Jews, 43.
+
+ Athenian education, criticism of, 59.
+
+ Athenian educators, 61-67.
+ Aristotle, 65-67.
+ Plato, 63-65.
+ Socrates, 61, 62.
+
+ Athens, 56-60.
+ aesthetic education in, 58, 59.
+ Aristotle founds Lyceum at, 66.
+ art and literature in, 54.
+ center of learning, 75.
+ contrasted with Sparta, 56.
+ criticism of education in, 59.
+ democratic government in, 57.
+ history of, 56.
+ home in, 57.
+ laws of Solon, 57.
+ Pericles, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, 56.
+ philosophers from, at Museum of Alexandria, 50, 51.
+ play important factor in child life, 57.
+ Romans study at, 74.
+ study of poets, 57, 59.
+ training of children, 57.
+ woman's status in, 58, 90.
+
+ Attendance, compulsory, in English schools, 306.
+ in French schools, 297, 298.
+ in German schools, 291, 292.
+ in United States schools, 312.
+
+ Augustine, St., _City of God_, _Confessions_, 114.
+ conversion of, 114.
+ influence of, 18, 115.
+ life of, 114.
+ pedagogy, 115.
+ services to education, 101.
+ works of, used in monasteries, 119.
+
+ Augustus, age of, 74, 75.
+
+ Azarias, Brother, on La Salle, 228.
+ on the Simultaneous Method, 227.
+
+
+ Babylon, Saracenic school at, 140.
+ school of rabbis at, 44.
+
+ Bacon, Francis, character of, 206.
+ Comenius applies principles of, 214.
+ degradation of, 207.
+ Inductive Method introduced, 207, 208.
+ influence of, 18.
+ life of, 205.
+ Montaigne's influence on, 195.
+ new era in education, 209.
+ _Novum Organum_, 207.
+ object teaching of, 189.
+ on Jesuit schools, 186, 187.
+ pedagogy of, 208, 209.
+ political advancement of, 206.
+ reforms of, 204.
+
+ Bagdad, caliphs foster education, 145.
+ Saracenic school at, 140.
+
+ Barrett, influences Horace Mann, 285.
+
+ Basedow, _Elementary Book_ (_Elementarbuch_), 251.
+ failure of, 254.
+ life of, 250.
+ methods of teaching, 250.
+ pedagogy of, 253, 255, 256.
+ Philanthropin established, 251, 252.
+ professor at Soroee, 251.
+ writings of, 255.
+
+ Basel, center of printing industry, 162.
+
+ Basil the Great, life of, 106.
+ pedagogy of, 106.
+ services to education, 101.
+
+ Beautifying of schoolrooms, 197, 198.
+
+ Bell, Andrew, founds National Schools, 305.
+ Monitorial system of, 307.
+
+ Belles-Lettres, in Chinese education, 25.
+
+ Benedict, St., principles of, 117.
+
+ Benedictines, growth of, 117.
+ principles of, 117.
+ schools founded by, 118.
+ teachers, 118.
+
+ Berlin Conference, 236 _n_.
+
+ Bernsdorf, Danish minister of education, 251.
+
+ Besant, Walter, on Rabelais, 193, 194, 195.
+
+ Bible, only literature of early Christians, 95.
+ study of, 153.
+ translated by Alfred the Great, 131.
+ translated into German, 168.
+
+ Biographies of educators, 18.
+
+ Blankenburg, Froebel's school at, 276.
+
+ Bluntschli, advice to Pestalozzi, 260.
+
+ Board of Education in United States school system, 310, 311.
+
+ Board schools, established in England, 305.
+
+ Boatman, third caste in Egypt, 48.
+
+ Boccaccio, humanistic leader of Italy, 155, 157.
+ influences of, 151.
+
+ Body, care of, 221, 230.
+
+ Bologna, university established at, 124.
+
+ Boniface, of Germany, Benedictine teacher, 118.
+
+ _Book of Method_, Basedow's, 255.
+
+ Books, school, adoption of, 290.
+
+ Bouillon, Godfrey of, leads first crusade, 137.
+
+ Brahma, Hindu worship of, 33.
+
+ Brahmanism, Buddha seeks to overthrow, 35.
+
+ Brahmans, highest caste in India, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34.
+ marriage of, 32.
+
+ Brotherhood of man, value of principle, 91.
+
+ _Brothers of the Christian Schools_, La Salle organizes, 227.
+
+ Brown University, Horace Mann at, 285.
+
+ Browning, on Milton's scheme of education, 220.
+
+ Buddha, religion and spirit of, 35.
+
+ Buddhism, in China, 21, 22, 27.
+ in India, 31.
+ religion based on moral acts, 35.
+
+ Budding Intellect, Chinese degree, 26.
+
+ Bulfinch, on Charlemagne, 126.
+
+ Bureau of Education, U. S., 309.
+
+ Burgdorf, Froebel at, 275.
+ Pestalozzi teaches at, 266.
+
+ Burgundy, Duke of, taught by Fenelon, 224, 225.
+
+
+ Caen, university at, 141.
+
+ Cahors, university at, 141.
+
+ Calculating boards, in Athens, 59.
+
+ Caliphs, foster education, 145.
+
+ Cambray, Bishop of, aids Erasmus, 161.
+
+ Cambridge, University of, 141.
+
+ Campe, leader of Philanthropin, 254.
+
+ Canterbury, cloister school at, 118.
+
+ Cantons, in French school system, 297.
+
+ Caste system, in Egypt, 47-49.
+ in India, 30, 32.
+
+ Catechetical schools, 107, 108.
+ decay of, 110.
+
+ Catechumen schools, 104.
+
+ Cathedral schools, 139 _n_.
+
+ Catholic Church. See Church.
+
+ Cavaliers, struggle with Roundheads, 200.
+
+ Celestial Empire, civilization of, 20.
+
+ Ceylon, Buddhism in, 35.
+
+ Charity schools, in China, 23.
+
+ Charlemagne, education of, 133.
+ encourages education, 127, 128.
+ history, character, purpose of, 125, 126.
+ influence of, 18.
+ School of Palace established, 127.
+ summary of work of, 128, 129.
+
+ Charles V., of Spain, Emperor of Germany, 165, 166.
+
+ Chemistry, taught in Mohammedan schools, 145.
+
+ Child study, 319.
+
+ Children, a sacred trust, 91.
+ home training of early Christians, 94.
+ among Jews, 41, 42.
+ in Athens, 57.
+ in Egypt, 49.
+
+ Children, in India, 32.
+ in Persia, 37.
+ in Rome, 76, 77.
+ in Sparta, 69.
+ weak, cast out in Sparta, 69, 73.
+
+ China, 20-28.
+ belief in transmigration of souls, 22.
+ civilization of 20.
+ classics of, 25.
+ Confucius, 18, 24, 27, 28.
+ conservative character of, 21.
+ criticism of education, 27.
+ degrees in, 25, 26.
+ elementary schools in, 23, 25.
+ examinations in, 26.
+ geography and history of, 20, 21.
+ government and language in, 21.
+ higher education in, 25.
+ home in, 22.
+ lack of toys, 23.
+ motive for education, 52.
+ relation of parents and children, 22, 23.
+ religion in, 21.
+ science and inventions in, 26.
+ treatment of women in, 22.
+
+ Christ, disciples of, 92, 93.
+ influence of, 96, 97.
+ life and character of, 96, 97.
+ methods of, 97, 98.
+ nature study of, 99.
+ principles of, 90, 91.
+ teacher, 97-100.
+ truth preached by, 99.
+ type of perfect manhood, 16.
+ value of teachings of, 89, 95.
+
+ Christian education, 89-314.
+ aim of, 91.
+ Alfred the Great's influence, 130, 131.
+ Basil the Great, 106, 107.
+ Benedictines, 117, 118.
+ catechetical schools, 107.
+ catechumen schools, 104.
+ Charlemagne, 125-129.
+ Chrysostom, 105, 106.
+ church connection with, 101.
+ Clement of Alexandria, 109.
+ conflict with pagan education, 111-115.
+ crusades, 102, 136-138.
+ difficulties in establishment of, 95.
+ feudal education, 132-135.
+ first Christian schools, 104, 105.
+ general view of, 89, 101, 103.
+ importance of individual, 91.
+ lessons and principles of, 90, 91.
+ monastic education, 102, 116-120.
+ Origen, 110.
+ St. Augustine, 114, 115.
+ scholasticism, 121-124.
+ seven liberal arts, 119, 120.
+
+ Christian education, slow growth of, 92, 93.
+ See also Renaissance, Humanistic educators, Reformation, Protestant
+ educators, Jesuits, Modern educators, School systems, and sixteenth,
+ seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth century education.
+ Tertullian, 112, 113.
+ Teutonic peoples, instrument of civilization, 103.
+ universities, 139-141.
+
+ Christiania, university at, 141.
+
+ Christianity, influence of, 96, 97.
+ lessons of, 90-92.
+ See also Christian education.
+
+ Chrysostom, educational principles of, 105, 106.
+ life of, 105.
+ services to education, 101.
+
+ Church, animosities between Catholics and Protestants, 200.
+ authority in Renaissance, 150.
+ controls education, 112, 139.
+ corruption of, 151, 152, 166, 168.
+ degradation of, 151, 152.
+ influence of St. Augustine's writings on, 115.
+ supremacy of, 116.
+ the mother of schools, 102.
+
+ Church Fathers, direct educational movements, 101.
+ opposed to pagan literature, 113, 120.
+
+ Cicero, called Father of his Country, 82.
+ character of, 82.
+ death of, 82.
+ education of, 81.
+ life of, 81.
+ pedagogy of, 83.
+ _Philippics_ of, 82.
+ Roman consul, 82.
+ services to education, 83.
+ works of, studied in monastic education, 119.
+
+ Citizens in Sparta, 68.
+
+ _City of God_, St. Augustine's, 114.
+
+ Classic languages, Humanists revive study, 149.
+ in Trotzendorf's pedagogy, 178.
+ new interest in, 149, 150.
+
+ Classic literature, revival of study of, 155-157.
+ Tertullian excludes, 113.
+
+ Clement of Alexandria, pedagogy, 109.
+ pupil of Pantaenus, 109.
+ teacher, 109.
+
+ Clermont, Jesuit college of, 183.
+
+ Climate a factor in education, 16.
+
+ Cloister schools established, 118.
+
+ Clothing of children, Locke's rules regarding, 221.
+
+ Coeducation, in France, 298.
+ in German villages, 292.
+ in Sparta, 71.
+
+ Colleges, in United States school system, 312, 313.
+
+ _Colloquies_, Erasmus's, 162.
+
+ Cologne, cloister school at, 118.
+ university of, 141.
+
+ Comenius, Johann Amos, banished, 212.
+ _Didactica Magna_, 213.
+ education of, 211, 212.
+ educational works of, 214.
+ honors bestowed on, 213.
+ influence of, 18.
+ influence of Bacon on, 214.
+ Latin Bohemian dictionary of, 213.
+ member of Moravian Brethren, 211.
+ object teaching of, 189.
+ Pestalozzi applies principles of, 269.
+ reforms of, 204.
+ settles in Poland, 213.
+ summary of his work, 215.
+ trials of, 212.
+
+ Commandments, Ten, oldest writing among Israelites, 44.
+
+ _Committee of Council on Education_, in England, 305.
+
+ Common schools, importance of, 287.
+ in Germany, 292.
+ in United States, 310.
+
+ Commonwealth, established, 200.
+
+ Communes, in French education, 300.
+
+ Compass, invention of, 148.
+
+ Compayre, on Comenius, 214.
+ on Jesuit schools, 185, 187.
+ on Jesuits and Jansenists, 189.
+ on La Salle, 228.
+ on Locke, 221.
+ on Montaigne's pedagogy, 198.
+ on Rabelais's Gargantua, 194, 195.
+ on Rousseau, 242, 246.
+ on the Reformation, 166, 167.
+ on the Renaissance, 121.
+
+ Composition, in Chinese education, 25.
+
+ Compulsory education, among Jews, 42.
+ Charlemagne introduces, 128.
+ in England, 306.
+ in France, 297, 298.
+ in Germany, 170, 181, 203, 291.
+ in United States, 312.
+ Luther insists on, 174.
+ Plato's scheme of, 65.
+
+ _Conduct of Schools_, La Salle's, 228.
+
+ _Confessions_, Rousseau's, 242, 243.
+
+ _Confessions_, St. Augustine's, 114.
+
+ Confucius, altar to, in Chinese schoolrooms, 24.
+
+ Confucius, analects of, 28.
+ influence of, 18, 27.
+
+ Conrad III., of Germany, leads second crusade, 137.
+
+ Constance, cloister school at, 118.
+
+ Continuation schools, in Germany, 292.
+
+ Copenhagen, university at, 141.
+
+ Copernicus, astronomical discoveries of, 148, 202.
+
+ Cordova, caliphs of, foster education, 145.
+ Saracenic school at, 140.
+
+ Corporal punishment, among Jews, 43.
+ Basil the Great on, 106.
+ Cicero's views regarding, 83.
+ in Jesuit schools, 186.
+ Quintilian's views regarding, 87.
+
+ Council, Educational, governs French departements, 297.
+
+ Counter-Reformation, 182.
+
+ County, school administration of, 310.
+
+ Cramer, on the crusades, 138.
+
+ Criticism, of Athenian education, 59.
+ of Chinese education, 27.
+ of Egyptian education, 51.
+ of Feudal education, 135.
+ of Hindu education, 34, 35.
+ of Jesuit education, 188.
+ of Jewish education, 44, 186.
+ of Persian education, 38.
+ of Roman education, 80.
+ of Spartan education, 71.
+
+ Cromwell, Commonwealth under, 200.
+
+ Crusades, influence on education, 102, 103, 136-138.
+ results of, 138.
+
+ Curtius, quoted, 72.
+
+
+ Dancing, taught among Jews, 42.
+
+ Dante, banishment of, 156.
+ birth of, 155.
+ _Divine Comedy_, 156.
+ education of, 155, 156.
+ humanistic leader of Italy, 155.
+ influence of, 151.
+
+ Dark Ages, slow progress during, 101.
+ end of, 148.
+
+ David, founder of Hebrew literature, 44.
+
+ Dean, M. Ida, on schools in India, 33.
+
+ Decimal system originated by Hindus, 34.
+
+ De Garmo, on Herbart as a teacher, 279.
+
+ Degrees in China, 25, 26.
+ in French Universities, 299.
+
+ Demia, Charles, 227.
+
+ Democratic government in Athens, 57.
+
+ Departements, erect normal schools, 300.
+ in French school system, 297.
+
+ Dervishes, in Persia, 38.
+
+ Descartes on Jesuit schools, 186.
+
+ Deserving of Promotion, Chinese degree, 26.
+
+ Dessau, institute at. See Philanthropin.
+
+ Dialectical method, of Socrates, 62.
+
+ _Dialogues of the Dead_, Fenelon's, 225.
+
+ _Didactica Magna_, Comenius's, 213.
+ See Great Didactic.
+
+ Discipline, in Chinese schools, 24.
+ in Indian schools, 32.
+ in Jewish schools, 43.
+ in Roman schools, severe, 78.
+
+ Discoveries, during Renaissance, 148.
+
+ District inspector, in German schools, 291.
+
+ District school board, in Germany, 290, 291.
+
+ District system of education, in United States, 311.
+
+ Dittes, quoted, 42, 274.
+
+ Draper, on St. Augustine, 115.
+
+ Drieser, on Quintilian, 86 _n_.
+
+ Dualistic philosophy, of Zoroaster, 39.
+
+ Duns Scotus, Benedictine leader, 118.
+ leader of scholasticism, 122.
+
+ Dyeing, in ancient Egypt, 47.
+
+
+ Earth, size of, ascertained, 145.
+
+ Eberhard, Count, Reuchlin's friend, 159.
+
+ _Education of Girls_, Fenelon's, 224.
+
+ _Education of Man_, Froebel's, 277.
+
+ Egypt, 46-52.
+ antiquity of its history, 47.
+ caste system in, 47-49.
+ criticism of education in, 51.
+ dyeing, embalming, etc., in, 47.
+ geography and history of, 46, 47.
+ higher education in, 50.
+ home in, 49.
+ influence of priests in, 47, 48.
+ mechanic arts in, 47.
+ military class in, 48.
+ motive for education in, 52.
+ pilgrimages to, for study, 47.
+ polygamy in, 49.
+ status of woman in, 49.
+
+ Egyptian education, criticism of, 51.
+
+ Eighteenth century education, general view of, 237-240.
+ See also Modern educators.
+
+ _Elementary Book_ (_Elementarbuch_), Basedow's, 251, 255.
+
+ Elementary education, among Arabians, 145.
+ in Athens, 58.
+ in China, 23.
+ in England, 306.
+ in France, 298, 299.
+ in Germany, 192.
+ in India, 32-34.
+
+ Elementary education in Rome, 77.
+ in United States, 312.
+ neglected by Jesuits, 184, 187.
+
+ Elizabeth, Queen, taught by Roger Ascham, 190, 192.
+
+ Emerson, on the Middle Ages, 147.
+
+ _Emile_, Rousseau's, 243-249.
+
+ Emulation, as incentive in Jesuit schools, 186, 188.
+
+ Engineering, in Ancient Egypt, 47-50.
+ in Milton's scheme of education, 219.
+
+ England, administration of schools, 305.
+ attendance in schools, 306.
+ educational enterprise in, 308.
+ school system of, 303-308.
+ support of schools in, 307.
+ teachers in, 307, 308.
+
+ English rule in India, 31.
+
+ Environment, a factor in education, 16, 17.
+
+ Erasmus, _Colloquies_, 162.
+ compared with Luther, 162.
+ humanistic leader, 153.
+ life of, 161.
+ literary authority of world, 162.
+ on Agricola, 158.
+ on Melanchthon, 171.
+ pedagogy of, 162, 163.
+ _Praise of Folly_, 162.
+ studies of, 161.
+ translation of Greek testament, 162.
+
+ Erfurt, Francke preacher at, 233.
+ university of, 141.
+
+ Erigena, leader of scholasticism, 122.
+ principles of, 122.
+
+ Ernst of Gotha, Duke, school law of, 203.
+
+ _Essay Concerning Human Understanding_, Locke's, 221.
+
+ Essays, Montaigne's, 198.
+
+ Essex, benefactor of Bacon, 206.
+
+ Eton, college at, 174, 306.
+
+ Euclid, used in monastic education, 119.
+
+ _Eudemon_, page in Rabelais's _Gargantua_, 194.
+
+ _Evening Hours of a Hermit_, Pestalozzi's, 263.
+
+ Examinations in Athens, 58.
+ in China, 25, 26.
+
+ Exercise, Locke's rules regarding, 221.
+
+
+ _Fables_, Fenelon's, 225.
+
+ Factory laws, in England, 306.
+
+ Family, the foundation of education, 17.
+ See Home.
+
+ Farmers, caste in India, 30.
+ education of, 34.
+ third caste in Egypt, 48.
+
+ Fathers of church, opposed to pagan
+ literature, 113.
+
+ Faurier, Peter, 227.
+
+ Fear, motive for study in China, 24, 27.
+
+ Fenelon, compared with Seneca, 225, 226.
+ education of, 223, 224.
+ _Education of Girls_, 224.
+ head of convent of new Catholics, 224.
+ pedagogy of, 226, 227.
+ preceptor of grandson of Louis XIV, 224.
+ priest, 224.
+ reforms of, 204.
+ works of, 225.
+
+ Feudal barons, influence of, 133.
+
+ Feudal education, 132-135.
+ criticism of, 135.
+
+ Feudalism, crusades break power of, 138.
+ defined, 132.
+
+ Fichte, Herbart student of, 279.
+
+ Finances, school, 290.
+
+ Fit for Office, Chinese degree, 26.
+
+ Food of children, Locke's rules regarding, 221.
+
+ Forest of Pencils, Chinese degree, 26.
+
+ Formalism in instruction, 194.
+
+ Forsyth, on Cicero, 81, 82, 83.
+
+ France, administration of schools, 296, 297.
+ attendance in schools, 297.
+ mother schools in, 298.
+ normal schools in, 297.
+ school system, 296.
+ support of schools, 299, 300.
+ teachers, 300, 302.
+
+ Francis I., of France, 165.
+
+ Francke, August Hermann, called to University of Halle, 233.
+ education of, 232.
+ founds orphan asylum at Halle, 234.
+ Institutions at Halle, 234, 235.
+ organizes teachers' class at Halle, 228.
+ Privat Docent at Leipsic, 232.
+ _Real-school_, 236.
+ training of teachers, 235.
+ work among poor, 233, 234.
+
+ Frankfurt-am-Main, Froebel teaches in, 273.
+
+ Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, leads third crusade, 137.
+
+ Frederick I., recognizes university at Bologna, 140.
+
+ Free schools, established in France, 298-300.
+ in Germany, 293.
+ in United States, 313.
+
+ Freiburg-im-Breisgau, university at, 141.
+
+ French Revolution, lessons of, 239, 264.
+
+ Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm August, as teacher, 273.
+ at Burgdorf, 275.
+
+ Froebel, F. W. A., at Universities of Goettingen and Berlin, 274.
+ at Yverdon, 274.
+ _Education of Man_, _Songs for Mother and Nursery_, 277,
+ Fenelon anticipates, 226.
+ first school of, 275.
+ influence of, 18.
+ kindergarten of, 276.
+ lectures of, 277.
+ life of, 272, 273.
+ object teaching of, 189.
+ on Pestalozzi, 274.
+ school at Griesheim and Keilhau, 275.
+ soldier, 275.
+
+ Fulda, cloister school at, 118.
+
+
+ Galileo, punishment of, 117.
+
+ _Gargantua_, Rabelais's, 193.
+
+ _Gate of Tongues Unlocked_, Comenius's, 214.
+
+ Geography, a factor in education, 16.
+ in Milton's scheme of education, 219
+ in monastic education, 119.
+ Neander favors study of, 179.
+
+ Geometry, discovery of Pythagorean theorem, 73.
+ in catechetical schools, 108.
+ in Jewish schools, 43.
+ in Milton's scheme of education, 219.
+ in monastic education, 119.
+
+ Germany, administration of schools, 289.
+ attendance in schools, 291.
+ effects of 30 Years' War on, 201, 202.
+ humanism in, 157.
+ school system of, 169, 199, 289-295.
+ State assumes responsibility of education, 174.
+ support of schools, 293.
+ teachers in, 294.
+
+ Gibbon, Edward, quoted, 75, 150.
+
+ Girls, education of, among Jews, 41.
+ Fenelon advocates education of, 226.
+ in Athens, 58.
+ in China, 22.
+ in Egypt, 50.
+ in Rome, 80.
+ in Sparta, 71.
+ sale of, in India, 31.
+ schools for, in Germany, 181.
+
+ Glaucha, Francke pastor at, 233.
+
+ Goethe, on the _Emile_, 249.
+
+ Goldberg, Trotzendorf rector at, 178.
+
+ Goettingen, University of, 280.
+
+ Government, administrative school board of, in Germany, 290.
+ democratic, in Athens, 57.
+ no control of schools in China, 23.
+ of Romans, 75.
+
+ Government, self, in schools, 178, 179.
+
+ Graduate school in United States school system, 312.
+
+ Grammar, study of, begun, 59.
+ in Athenian schools, 59.
+ in catechetical schools, 108.
+ in Mohammedan schools, 145.
+ in monastic schools, 119.
+
+ Greard on Rousseau, 246.
+
+ _Great Didactic_, Comenius's, 213, 214.
+ organization of school system in, 215-217.
+
+ Great Teacher, The. See Christ.
+
+ Greece, 53-55.
+ art and literature in, 54.
+ Athens and Sparta, 54.
+ geography and history in, 53, 54.
+ manners and customs in, 54.
+ Olympian games in, 54, 55.
+ political freedom in, 54.
+
+ Greek culture, influence on Rome, 74, 75, 80.
+
+ Greek language, importance of, in human culture, 157.
+ in Milton's scheme of education, 219.
+ in pedagogy of Innovators, 204.
+ introduced into Germany, 160.
+ Reuchlin introduces study of, 160.
+ revival of study of, 150, 151, 153.
+ study of, in Rome, 74.
+ taught in Sturm's school course, 176.
+
+ Greek text-books, Neander's, 180.
+
+ Greifswald, University of, 141.
+
+ Griesheim, Froebel's first school at, 275.
+
+ Gruner, Dr., head master of Model School at Frankfurt-am-Main, 273.
+
+ Guienne, Montaigne studies at, 196.
+
+ Gunpowder, invention of, 148.
+
+ Gutenberg, invents printing, 164.
+
+ Gymnasia, furnished by State in Athens, 58.
+
+ _Gymnasium_, course in, 293.
+ established by Francke, 234.
+ purpose of, 236 _n_.
+
+ Gymnastics, taught in Athens, 58.
+ in Sparta, 71.
+
+
+ Hakem III., fosters education, 145.
+
+ Hallam, on Agricola, 158.
+
+ Halle, Institutions at, 234.
+ Pietists found university at, 231, 232.
+ teacher's class at, 228.
+
+ Hamburg, cloister school at, 118.
+
+ _Hanlin_, Royal Academy, in China, 26.
+
+ Harris, Dr., on Pestalozzi, 271.
+
+ Harrow, college at, 174, 306.
+
+ Hebrew, revival of study, 153.
+ used in interpreting Scripture, 158, 160.
+
+ Hebrew Grammar and Lexicon, Reuchlin's, 159.
+
+ Hecker, founds first Prussian Normal School, 228.
+
+ Hegel, Aristotle compared to, 67.
+
+ Hegira, Mohammedanism dates from, 143.
+
+ Heidelberg, center of humanistic movement, 153.
+ Reuchlin at, 160.
+ University of, 124, 141.
+
+ Heliopolis, institution for higher learning at, 50.
+
+ _Heloise_, Rousseau's, 243.
+
+ Helots, in Sparta, 68.
+
+ Herbart, Johann Friedrich, enters Gymnasium at Oldenburg, 279.
+ in Bremen and Switzerland, 279.
+ life of, 278.
+ literary activity of, 281.
+ on importance of common schools, 287.
+ pedagogy of, 282, 283.
+ practice school at Koenigsberg, 280.
+ professor of philosophy at Koenigsberg, 280.
+ student of Fichte, 279.
+ teacher in Switzerland, 279.
+
+ Herbartians, work of modern, 282, 318.
+
+ Herford, on Froebel, 276.
+
+ Hesse-Cassel, active in school work, 203.
+
+ Hesse-Darmstadt, active in school work, 203.
+
+ Hieroglyphics, Rosetta stone furnishes key to interpretation of, 47.
+
+ High Schools, connected with common in France, 299.
+ in United States, 313.
+
+ Higher education, among Jews, 44.
+ in China, 25, 27.
+ in Egypt, 50.
+ in India, 34.
+ in Rome, 79.
+
+ Hindu education, criticism of, 34, 35.
+
+ Hindus. See India.
+
+ History, a factor in education, 16.
+ natural, taught in Jewish schools, 43.
+ Neander favors study of, 179.
+ taught in Roman schools, 78.
+ taught in schools of prophets, 44.
+
+ Holstein, active in school work, 203.
+
+ Holy Land, of Greece, at Olympia, 55.
+ pilgrimages to, 136.
+
+ Home, foundation of education, 17.
+ in Athens, 57.
+ in China, 22.
+ in Egypt, 49.
+ in India, 32.
+ in Persia, 37.
+ in Rome, 76.
+
+ Home, in Sparta, 69.
+ of Jews, 41.
+
+ Home training, among early Christians, 94.
+
+ Horace, Roman poet, 74.
+
+ _How Gertrude teaches her Children_, Pestalozzi's, 267.
+
+ Humanism, art of printing aids, 150.
+ decline of, 198.
+ in Germany, 157.
+ in Italy, 149-151.
+ Petrarch founder of, 156.
+
+ Humanistic educators, 155-163.
+ Agricola, 158.
+ Boccaccio, 157.
+ Dante, 155.
+ Erasmus, 161.
+ German, 157-163.
+ Italian, 156, 157.
+ mission of, 155.
+ Petrarch, 156.
+ Reuchlin, 159.
+
+ Humanities, studied in Jesuit schools, 185.
+
+ Hunziker, Professor, on Pestalozzi, 267, 269.
+
+ Hurst, Bishop, on Melanchthon, 171.
+
+ Huss, reformer, 165.
+
+
+ Ilfeld, Neander's school at, 179.
+
+ Iliad and Odyssey, called Bible of Greeks, 69.
+
+ Illustrated text-books, first, 215, 229.
+
+ Illustration, teaching by, 98.
+
+ India, 29-35.
+ Brahminism and Mohammedanism in, 31.
+ Buddha, 35.
+ caste system in, 30.
+ criticism of education in, 34.
+ elementary schools in, 32-34.
+ English reforms in, 31.
+ geography and history of, 29.
+ higher education in, 34.
+ home in, 32.
+ motive for education in, 52.
+ polygamy in, 31.
+ religious ceremonies in schools, 33.
+ schoolhouses described, 33.
+ skill of craftsmen in, 30, 31.
+ status of woman in, 31.
+
+ Individual, education for, 91.
+
+ Individuality, of children, 88.
+
+ Inductive method, Bacon's, 207, 208, 229.
+
+ Industrial School, Pestalozzi establishes, 262.
+
+ Infant school (_ecole infantine_) in France, 298.
+
+ Innocent III., Pope, recognizes University of Paris, 141.
+
+ _Inquiries concerning Course of Nature in Development of Mankind_,
+ Pestalozzi's, 269.
+
+ Inspector, in German schools, 290, 291.
+ Royal, in English school system, 305.
+
+ _Institutes of Oratory_, Quintilian's, 87.
+
+ Institutions at Halle, 234.
+
+ Instruction, method of, in India, 33.
+
+ Introduction, 15-19.
+
+ Inventions, Chinese, 26.
+ during Renaissance, 148.
+
+ Isaiah, founder of Hebrew literature, 44.
+
+ Israel. See Jews.
+
+ Italy, humanism in, 149-151.
+ intellectual movement in, 152.
+
+
+ Jansenists, introduce phonic spelling, 189.
+ purpose of, 188.
+ services to education, 189.
+
+ Jena, center of Herbartian activity, 279, 282.
+
+ Jerome of Prague, reformer, 165.
+
+ Jerusalem, Latin Kingdom established at, 137.
+ pilgrimages to, 136.
+ school of rabbis at, 44.
+
+ Jesuits, criticism of education, 186.
+ education of, 184.
+ emulation as an incentive, 186.
+ founding of order, 182, 183.
+ growth of society, 184.
+ Loyola, 183.
+ military character of order, 183.
+ opposition of Port Royalists to, 189.
+ school system of, 183-188, 199.
+ spread of power, 184.
+ summary of educational work, 188, 189.
+
+ Jews, 40-45.
+ compulsory education among, 42.
+ criticism of education, 44.
+ education in home, 17.
+ esteem of teachers, 43.
+ geography and history, 40, 41.
+ higher education among, 44.
+ home of, 41.
+ mission of, 40.
+ motive for education of, 52.
+ prophets, 44.
+ religion of, 41, 42.
+ schools of, 42.
+ schools of the prophets, 44.
+ schools of the rabbis, 44.
+ status of women, 41.
+ the Talmud, 45.
+ theocratic education of, 40.
+ training of children, 41, 42.
+
+ Johnson, Dr., on Ascham's _Scholemaster_, 190, 191.
+
+ Justinian, abolishes pagan schools, 115.
+
+
+ Kant, Emanuel, quoted, 254, 255, 281.
+
+ Keilhau, Froebel's school at, 275.
+
+ Kepler, astronomical discoveries of, 202.
+
+ Kindergarten, Froebel founder of, 276.
+ in Prussia, 275.
+ in Switzerland, 276.
+ in United States, 277, 312.
+ prohibited, 275.
+ purpose of, 277.
+
+ Knight, chivalry of, 133.
+ education of, 133.
+ seven perfections of, 133.
+
+ Knowledge, defined by Confucius, 28.
+
+ Koenigsberg, Herbart teaches philosophy at, 280.
+ practice school at, 281.
+
+ Koran, Mohammed writes, 143.
+ used as reading book, 145.
+
+ Kruesi, Hermann, on Pestalozzi, 260, 261, 265, 266.
+ on the sacrifices of Baebeli, 257.
+ Pestalozzi founds school with, 267.
+
+
+ La Salle, _Conduct of Schools_, 228.
+ organizes Brothers of the Christian Schools, 227.
+ services to education, 228.
+ simultaneous method introduced, 227.
+
+ Laborers, third caste in Egypt, 49.
+
+ Lancaster, Joseph, establishes Board Schools, 307.
+ monitorial system of, 307.
+
+ Land grants, for educational purposes, 310.
+
+ Lang, on Basedow's _Book of Method_, 255.
+
+ Langethal, Heinrich, joins Froebel, 275.
+
+ Language, Ascham's method for study of, 191.
+ classic, see Latin, Greek, classic languages,
+ double translation in teaching, 199.
+ in pedagogy of Innovators, 204.
+ modern conversational method, 197-199.
+ taught in Egypt, 50.
+ taught in Roman schools, 78.
+
+ Latin, in Locke's system of education, 222.
+ in Melanchthon's course, 173.
+ in Milton's pedagogy, 219.
+ in pedagogy of Innovators, 204.
+ in Sturm's school course, 176.
+ in Trotzendorf's school course, 188.
+ revival of study, 151, 153.
+
+ Latin Kingdom, established at Jerusalem, 137.
+
+ Latin Schools, Strasburg _Gymnasium_ the model for, 176.
+
+ Latin text-books, Neander's, 180.
+
+ Latini, Brunetto, teacher of Dante, 155.
+
+ Launcelot, leader of Port Royalists, 188.
+
+ Laurie, S. S., quoted, 107, 139, 140.
+
+ Law, in Milton's scheme of education, 220.
+ studied in Egypt, 47.
+ taught in _Gymnasia_, 293.
+ taught in schools of prophets and rabbis, 44.
+
+ Leibnitz, on Jesuit schools, 187.
+
+ Leipsic, University of, 141.
+
+ Leonard and Gertrude, Pestalozzi's, 263, 264.
+
+ Leopold of Dessau, establishes the Philanthropin, 251.
+
+ Letters, forms and names to be learned simultaneously, 88.
+
+ Library at Alexandria, 107.
+ at Pekin, 25.
+
+ _Literators_, in charge of Roman schools, 78.
+
+ Literature, Hebrew, 44.
+ in Athens influences world, 56.
+ lack of Christian, 94.
+ opposition to pagan, 94, 113, 115, 126.
+ pilgrimages to Egypt to study, 47.
+
+ _Literatus_, teacher of Roman school, 78.
+
+ Local school board in Germany, 291.
+
+ _Loci Communes_, Melanchthon's, 172.
+
+ Locke, John, education of, 220, 221.
+ educational works of, 221.
+ _Essay Concerning Human Understanding_, 221.
+ his influence on education, 223.
+ Montaigne's influence on, 195, 196.
+ reforms of, 204.
+ tutor at Christ Church, 221.
+
+ Logic, in monastic education, 119.
+ taught in Sturm's school course, 176.
+
+ Lord's Prayer, taught in Charlemagne's reign, 128.
+
+ Louis VII. of France, leads second crusade, 137.
+
+ Loyola, founds Jesuit order, 183.
+
+ Lucretius, 74.
+ compared with Rabelais, 194, 195.
+
+ Lund, university at, 141.
+
+ Luther, Martin, Augustinian monk, 168.
+ contrasted with Erasmus, 162.
+ educational reforms of, 166.
+ influence of, 18.
+ lays foundation of German school system, 169.
+ leader German Reformation, 165.
+ life and struggles of, 167.
+ pedagogy of, 169.
+ professor at Wittenberg, 168.
+ Reuchlin on, 160.
+
+ Luther, Martin, summoned before Diet of Worms, 168.
+ translates Bible, 168.
+ work marked out by, 175.
+
+ Lutheran churches, schools in connection with, 181.
+
+ Lyceum at Athens, founded by Aristotle, 66.
+
+ Lycurgus, influence in Sparta, 73.
+ laws of, 72.
+
+ Lyons, cloister school at, 118.
+
+
+ Macaulay, Lord, on Bacon, 205, 206, 208.
+
+ Magi, Persian priests, 37, 38.
+
+ Mainz, university at, 141.
+
+ Malone, John, on Chrysostom, 105.
+
+ Mann, Horace, _Annual Reports_, 286.
+ at Brown University, 285.
+ at Litchfield, 285.
+ educational campaign of, 286.
+ life of, 284, 285.
+ on common schools, 285.
+ president of Antioch College, 288.
+ Secretary of State Board of Education, 286.
+ services to education, 288.
+ statesman, 285, 288.
+
+ Manual and industrial training, 320.
+
+ Manual training school, Locke advocates, 222.
+
+ Maps, early, 120.
+
+ Marenholtz-Buelow, Bertha von, disciple of Froebel, 277.
+
+ Mariner's compass invented, 148.
+
+ Marriage, Christ's teaching on, 91.
+ controlled by State in Sparta, 73.
+
+ Martel, Charles, checks Mohammedanism, 144.
+
+ Martial training, in Sparta, 69-71.
+
+ Martin, on work of Horace Mann, 286.
+
+ Massachusetts, new epoch in educational history, 285-287.
+ normal schools established in, 287.
+
+ Mathematics, central idea of Pythagorean system, 73.
+ discoveries of Hindus, 35.
+ taught in Egypt, 50.
+ taught in Mohammedan schools, 145.
+
+ Matthison, leader of Philanthropin, 254.
+
+ Mecca, Mohammed's flight from, 143.
+ pilgrimages to, 145.
+
+ Mechanics, third caste in Egypt, 47, 48.
+ third caste in India, 30.
+
+ Mecklenburg, active in school work, 203.
+
+ Medicine, in Milton's scheme of education, 219.
+ taught in Egypt, 50.
+ taught in _Gymnasium_, 293.
+
+ Medicine taught in schools of prophets, 44.
+
+ Medina, Mohammed flees to, 143.
+
+ Melanchthon, Philipp, colaborer of Luther, 170, 171.
+ early life and studies of, 171.
+ educational work of, 172, 173.
+ first Protestant psychologist, 173.
+ Greek professor at Wittenberg, 171.
+ lectures at Tuebingen, 171.
+ _Loci Communes_, 172.
+ Saxony school plan, 172, 173.
+ service to schools, 172.
+ text-books, 172.
+ work marked out by, 175.
+
+ Memory, cultivation of, in Chinese education, 24, 25, 27.
+ in Cicero's pedagogy, 84.
+ in Fenelon's pedagogy, 226.
+ in humanistic education, 163.
+ in India, 32-34.
+
+ Memphis, institution for higher learning at, 50.
+
+ Merchants, third caste in India, 30.
+
+ Methodists, purpose of, 231.
+
+ Middendorff, Wilhelm, joins Froebel, 275.
+
+ Middle Ages, progress during, 146, 147.
+
+ Military class, in Egypt, 48.
+
+ Military schools, in China, 27.
+
+ Military training, in Persia, 38.
+ in Sparta, 69.
+
+ Milton, John, defines education, 217.
+ reforms of, 204.
+ scheme of education, 219, 220.
+ teacher, 218.
+ _Tractate_, 218.
+
+ Mines, schools of, in France, 299.
+
+ Minister of education in France, 290, 296.
+
+ Minnesingers, compositions of, 135.
+
+ Missionary enterprise in India, 32.
+
+ Model school at Frankfurt-am-Main, 273.
+
+ Modern educators, 241-314.
+ Basedow, 250-256.
+ Froebel, 272-277.
+ Herbart, 278-283.
+ Mann, 284-288.
+ Pestalozzi, 257-271.
+ Rousseau, 241-249.
+
+ Mohammed, flight of, 143.
+ precepts of, 144, 145.
+ spread of doctrines of, 144.
+ writes Koran, 143.
+
+ Mohammedan education, 143-147.
+ five Moslem precepts, 144.
+ history of Mohammedanism, 143-145.
+ scientific progress made, 145.
+
+ Mohammedanism, history of, 143-145.
+ in India, 31.
+
+ Monasteries, Alfred the Great establishes, 131.
+ benefits to civilization by, 120.
+ center of educational activity, 146.
+ center of religious interest, 120.
+ power of, 116.
+ services to education, 102.
+ suppress scientific discoveries, 116, 117.
+
+ Monastic education, 116-120.
+
+ Monitorial System, defined, 307.
+
+ Montaigne, education of, 196.
+ _Essays_, 197.
+ influence on Locke, 223.
+ pedagogy of, 195, 197, 198.
+
+ Montanists, teachings of, 113.
+
+ Monte Cassino, monastery at, 117, 118.
+
+ Moravian Brethren, Comenius member of, 211, 213.
+
+ Moravian School, Comenius teacher of, 212.
+
+ Moses founder of Hebrew literature, 44.
+
+ Moslemism. See Mohammedanism.
+
+ Mother-school (_ecole maternelle_) in France, 298.
+
+ Motive of education, among Jews, 52.
+ in Athens, 59.
+ in China, 27, 52.
+ in Egypt, 52.
+ in India, 34, 52.
+ in Persia, 38, 52.
+ in Rome, 80.
+ in Sparta, 69, 71.
+
+ Music, cultivation of, among Jews, 42.
+ during Charlemagne's reign, 128.
+ in Athens, 58, 59.
+ in Egypt, 50.
+ in monastic education, 119.
+ in Sparta, 71.
+ in Sturm's school course, 176.
+
+
+ Nantes, university at, 141.
+
+ Napoleon, quoted, 97.
+
+ National Bureau of Education, in United States, 309, 310.
+
+ National Herbart Society in America, 282.
+
+ National Schools, Andrew Bell establishes, 305.
+
+ Nature study, Christ advocates, 99.
+ inductive methods lead to, 208.
+
+ Navigation, in Milton's scheme of education, 219.
+
+ Neander, Michael, teacher at Ilfeld, 179.
+ text-books of, 180.
+
+ Nero, pupil of Seneca, 84.
+
+ Neuhof, Pestalozzi's experiment at, 261, 262.
+
+ Nicole, leader of Port Royalists, 188.
+
+ Nile, importance to Egypt, 46.
+
+ Nile, inundations encourage mathematical study, 50.
+
+ Nineteenth century education, general view, 237-240. See also Modern
+ Educators and School Systems.
+
+ Nisibis, catechetical school at, 107.
+
+ Nitric acid discovered, 145.
+
+ Normal schools, in France, 297, 300, 301.
+ in Germany, 290, 294.
+ in Massachusetts, 287.
+ in United States, 314.
+ La Salle establishes first, 228.
+ teachers appointed in, 290.
+
+ _Novum Organum_, Bacon's, 207.
+
+
+ Obedience, cardinal Chinese virtue, 23.
+
+ Object teaching, beginning of, 266.
+ of Jansenists, 189.
+ Pestalozzi's, 270.
+
+ Occam, leader of scholasticism, 122.
+
+ Occupation, a factor in education, 16.
+
+ Odessa, catechetical school at, 107.
+ first Christian common school at, 105.
+
+ Olympia, Holy Land of Greece, 55.
+
+ Olympiad, basis for computing time, 55.
+
+ Olympian games, influence and character of, 54, 55.
+
+ Orations of Cicero, 82, 83.
+
+ Oratory, ideal of education in Rome, 77, 78, 80.
+ Quintilian's views regarding, 87.
+
+ _Orbis Pictus_, Comenius's first illustrated text-book, 214, 215.
+
+ Order of Jesus. See Jesuits.
+
+ Oriental civilization, basis of, 89.
+
+ Oriental education, aim of, 91.
+ summary of, 51, 52.
+
+ Origen, character of, 110.
+ education of, 110.
+ pedagogy of, 110.
+ service to education, 101.
+
+ Orleans, university at, 141.
+
+ Ormuzd, principle of light in Persian religion, 39.
+
+ Orphan asylum, at Halle, founded, 233, 234.
+
+ Oxford, cloister school at, 118.
+ Locke tutor at, 221.
+ University of, 131, 141.
+
+
+ Pagan education, conflict with Christian, 111-115.
+
+ Pagan literature, opposition to, 94, 113, 115, 120.
+
+ Pantaenus, establishes catechetical school, 107.
+
+ _Pantagruel_, Rabelais's, 193.
+
+ Paper, invented, 148.
+
+ _Paradise Lost_, Milton's, 217.
+
+ Paris, cloister school at, 118.
+ university at, 124, 140, 141.
+
+ Parker, Colonel, on Horace Mann, 284, 286.
+
+ Parliamentary grants for school expenses, 306.
+
+ Parochial schools, 139 _n_.
+
+ Pascal, leader of Port Royalists, 188.
+
+ Pastor, superintendent of German schools, 181.
+
+ Paul, services to education, 102.
+
+ Paul III., Pope, recognizes Jesuits, 183.
+
+ Paulsen, on John Sturm, 175, 176, 177.
+ on Neander's text-books, 180.
+
+ Pedagogium, established by Francke, 234, 236.
+
+ Pedagogue, duty of, in Athens, 56, 58.
+ in Rome, 77.
+
+ Pedagogy, begins with history of education, 15.
+ elevated to dignity of a science, 282.
+ of Agricola, 158.
+ of Alfred the Great, 131.
+ of Aristotle, 66, 67.
+ of Ascham, 190-192.
+ of Bacon, 207-209.
+ of Basedow, 251-256.
+ of Basil the Great, 106.
+ of Benedictines, 118, 119.
+ of Boccaccio, 157.
+ of Charlemagne, 127-129.
+ of Christ, 91, 97-100.
+ of Chrysostom, 105.
+ of Cicero, 83.
+ of Clement of Alexandria, 109.
+ of Comenius, 214-217.
+ of Confucius, 28.
+ of Dante, 156.
+ of Erasmus, 162, 163.
+ of Fenelon, 226, 227.
+ of Feudalism, 132-135.
+ of Francke, 234-236.
+ of Froebel, 275-277.
+ of Herbart, 282, 283.
+ of Humanists, 153.
+ of Innovators, 204.
+ of Jesuits, 184-188.
+ of La Salle, 227, 228.
+ of Locke, 221-223.
+ of Loyola, 183.
+ of Luther, 169.
+ of Mann, 285-288.
+ of Melanchthon, 172.
+ of Milton, 218, 219.
+ of Mohammedans, 145.
+ of Montaigne, 195-198.
+ of Neander, 179-181.
+
+ Pedagogy, of Origen, 110.
+ of Pestalozzi, 269-271.
+ of Petrarch, 151.
+ of Plato, 63-65.
+ of Port Royalists, 189.
+ of Pythagoras, 73.
+ of Quintilian, 87.
+ of Rabelais, 194, 195.
+ of Ratke, 211.
+ of Reuchlin, 160.
+ of Rousseau, 243-249.
+ of St. Augustine, 115.
+ of Scholastics, 124.
+ of Seneca, 85.
+ of Socrates, 62.
+ of Sturm, 176, 177.
+ of Tertullian, 113.
+ of Trotzendorf, 178, 179.
+
+ Pekin, royal library at, 25.
+
+ Pendulum, applied to reckon time, 145.
+
+ Pensions to teachers, in England, 308.
+ in France, 302.
+ in Germany, 294.
+
+ Pericles, Age of, 54, 57.
+ Athenian statesman, 56.
+
+ Perioeci, in Sparta, 68.
+
+ Persia, 36, 39.
+ criticism of education, 38.
+ geography and history, 36.
+ home, religion in, 37.
+ military education in, 16, 38.
+ motive for education in, 52.
+ state education in, 37, 38.
+ status of women in, 37.
+ training of children in, 37.
+ Zoroaster, 39.
+
+ Persian education, criticism of, 38.
+
+ Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, childhood and character, 257, 258.
+ Christian ministry, 259.
+ failures of, 259, 260, 262.
+ farming, 260.
+ influence of, 18.
+ law, 260.
+ lesson of love taught by, 271.
+ marriage, 261.
+ Neuhof, experiences at, 262.
+ object teaching of, 189.
+ pedagogy of, 269, 271.
+ purposes of, 259.
+ school at Burgdorf, 266.
+ school at Stanz, 264, 265.
+ school at Yverdon, 267, 268.
+ schooling of, 258.
+ unites with Kruesi, 267.
+ work of, 269.
+ writings of, 263, 264.
+
+ Peter the Hermit, crusade of, 136.
+
+ Petrarch, father of humanism, 155, 156.
+
+ Petrarch, influence of, 151-153.
+ lays foundation of modern education, 157.
+
+ Pfefferkorn, John, antagonism to Hebrew works, 160.
+
+ _Phaedo_, Plato's, 63.
+
+ Philanthropin, established, 251.
+ failure of, 252-254.
+ purpose of, 252.
+
+ Philip Augustus, of France, aids university at Paris, 141.
+ leads third crusade, 137.
+
+ _Philippics_, of Cicero, 82.
+
+ Philosophical discoveries, of Hindus, 35.
+
+ Philosophy, in Athens, 59.
+ in catechetical schools, 108.
+ in Egypt, 47.
+ in gymnasium, 293.
+ in Jesuit schools, 185.
+ in Mohammedan schools, 145.
+ in Roman schools, 78.
+ in schools of prophets, 44.
+ natural, in Milton's scheme of education, 219.
+ of Christ, 98.
+ scholasticism, 124.
+
+ Phoenicians, invent alphabet, glass making, and purple dyeing, 51.
+
+ Phonic method of spelling, introduced, 189.
+
+ Physical education, in Aristotle's scheme, 66.
+ in Athens, 58.
+ in Erasmus's scheme, 163.
+ in Fenelon's scheme, 226.
+ in Feudalism, 133, 135.
+ in Innovators' scheme, 204.
+ in Locke's scheme, 221, 229.
+ in Luther's scheme, 170.
+ in Milton's scheme, 220.
+ in Persia, 38.
+ in Pestalozzi's scheme, 263.
+ in Plato's scheme, 64, 65.
+ in Rome, 77.
+ in Rousseau's scheme, 244.
+ in Sparta, 70.
+
+ Pietism, influence of, 232.
+ purpose of, 231.
+
+ Plato, Athenian philosopher, 56.
+ disciple of Socrates, 63.
+ first systematic scheme of education, 65.
+ founds school at Athens, 63.
+ republic, 63.
+ State to have control of citizens, 64.
+ testimony to Socrates, 62.
+
+ Play, educational force in Athens, 57, 60.
+ in Fenelon's pedagogy, 226.
+ in Froebel's system, 274.
+
+ Poetry, in Athens, 57, 59.
+ in Roman schools, 78.
+ in schools of prophets, 44.
+
+ Poitiers, university at, 141.
+
+ Political freedom of Greeks, 54.
+
+ Political rights, extension of, 239.
+
+ Polygamy, in China, 22.
+ in Egypt, 49.
+ in India, 31.
+
+ Polytechnic schools, in China, 27.
+
+ Port Royalists, purpose of, 189.
+ services to education, 199.
+
+ Practical training of Roman children, 79.
+
+ Practice school, at Jena, 281.
+ at Koenigsberg, 280.
+ Herbart's, 280.
+
+ Prague, battle of, 212.
+ university established at, 124, 141.
+
+ _Praise of Folly_, Erasmus's, 162.
+
+ Prerau, Moravian School at, 212.
+
+ Priests, influence in Egypt, 47, 48.
+
+ Primary education. See Elementary Education.
+
+ Printing, invented, 26, 148.
+ influence on universal education, 150, 164, 165.
+
+ Printing press, invented, 148.
+
+ Privat Docent, in German universities, 232 _n._ 2.
+
+ _Progymnasia_, in Germany, 292 _n_.
+
+ Pronunciation, in Roman education, 76, 78.
+
+ Prophets, schools of, 44.
+
+ _Prorealgymnasia_, 292 _n_.
+
+ Protestant educators, 174-181.
+ _Gymnasium_ at Strasburg, 175.
+ Melanchthon's course of study, 174.
+ Neander, 179.
+ Sturm, 175.
+ Trotzendorf, 178. See also Humanistic Educators and Reformation.
+
+ Protestant Reformation, 165-173.
+
+ Protestantism, spirit of, among common people, 200.
+ spread of, checked, 182.
+
+ Protogenes, establishes school at Odessa, 105.
+
+ Provinces, thirteen royal, school administration in, 290.
+
+ Prussia, kindergarten in, 275, 276.
+ school system of, 128, 289-295.
+
+ Psalms, translated into Anglo-Saxon, 131.
+
+ Ptolemaic system of astronomy, 148.
+
+ Ptolemies, found Alexandrian library, 50.
+
+ Public schools, first Christian, 105, 107.
+ in England, 306.
+ in France, 298.
+ in Germany, 293.
+ in Massachusetts, 286.
+
+ Public schools, in Rome, 78.
+ in United States, 313.
+ Quintilian advocates, 88.
+
+ Punishment, Basil the Great's views regarding, 106.
+ Cicero's views regarding, 83.
+ Fenelon's views regarding, 226.
+ in Jesuit schools, 186.
+ Montaigne's views regarding, 196, 197.
+ Quintilian's views regarding, 87.
+ Seneca's views regarding, 85.
+ See also Corporal Punishment.
+
+ Pupil teachers, 307.
+
+ Pupils, number assigned to one teacher among Jews, 43.
+ number of, fixed by State in Athens, 58.
+
+ Puritans, struggles with established church, 200.
+
+ Pythagoras, life of, 73.
+ mathematical system of, 73.
+ philosophy of, 73.
+
+
+ Quadrivium, second course in seven liberal arts, 118, 119.
+
+ Quick, on Ascham, 192.
+ on Basedow's system, 254.
+ on demands of Reformers, 204.
+ on Jesuit education, 186, 187.
+ on Milton, 218.
+ on Pestalozzi, 258, 268, 269, 270.
+ on Ratke, 209, 211.
+ on Rousseau's hatred of books, 241.
+ on the Philanthropin, 251, 252.
+
+ Quintilian, education and life of, 86.
+ founds school at Rome, 86.
+ _Institutes of Oratory_, 87.
+ pedagogy of, 87.
+ receives title of Professor of Oratory, 86.
+ works of, studied in monastic education, 119.
+
+ Quincy Movement, the, 317.
+
+
+ Rabbis, schools of, 44.
+
+ Rabelais, compared with Lucretius, 194, 195.
+ friend of Calvin, 193.
+ _Gargantua and Pantagruel_, 193.
+ influence of Locke on, 223.
+ introduces realism into education, 194.
+ life of, 192, 193.
+ pedagogy of, 194.
+
+ Ramadan, fast of, 144.
+
+ Ramsauer, on Pestalozzi's method of teaching, 266.
+
+ _Ratio Studiorum_, of Jesuits, 186.
+
+ Ratke, method of teaching language, 209, 210.
+ pedagogy of, 211.
+ reforms of, 204.
+
+ Raumer, on Comenius, 213.
+
+ Reading, in Athenian schools, 58.
+ in Chinese schools, 24.
+ in Jewish schools, 43.
+ in monastic schools, 119.
+ in Persian schools, 38.
+ in Roman schools, 78.
+ in schools of India, 32.
+ not taught in Sparta, 71.
+ taught during Charlemagne's reign, 128.
+ taught by Quintilian, 88.
+
+ _Real-school_ in Germany, course in, 293.
+ founded, 236.
+
+ _Realgymnasia_, 292 _n_.
+
+ Realism, in education, 194.
+
+ Reformation, as an educational influence, 164-174, 199.
+ conditions at beginning of sixteenth century, 164.
+ instills love for religious liberty, 200.
+ intellectual conditions, 166.
+ invention of printing, 165.
+ Luther, 167-169.
+ Melanchthon, 170-173.
+ spread of educational ideas of, 180.
+
+ Registration, book of, in French schools, 299.
+
+ Reichstag, school interests represented in, 290.
+
+ Rein, Professor Wilhelm, chief exponent of Ziller school, 281.
+ on Herbart's pedagogy, 278, 282.
+ practice school under, 281.
+
+ Religion, center of school course, 181.
+ Chinese, 21, 28.
+ Christian. See Christianity.
+ in Egypt, 48, 50.
+ in India, 31, 35.
+ in Milton's scheme of education, 219.
+ in Persia, 37, 39.
+ of Jews, 41, 42, 45.
+ of Romans, 75.
+ taught in Sturm's school course, 177.
+
+ Religious freedom attained, 201, 240.
+
+ Religious instruction, Cicero advocates, 84.
+ in Egypt, 50.
+ in German schools, 170.
+ Rousseau's views regarding, 247, 248.
+ See also Christian education.
+
+ Removal of teachers, causes for, 294, 301.
+
+ Renaissance, 148-173.
+ defined, 148, 173.
+ humanistic movement, 149-163.
+ influence on Teutonic race, 149.
+ inventions and discoveries during, 149, 150.
+ revival of classics, 150.
+ universal education advocated, 150, 151.
+
+ Reuchlin, humanistic leader, 153.
+ introduces Greek into Germany, 160.
+ professor at Tuebingen, 159.
+ services to Hebrew learning, 159.
+ teacher of Melanchthon, 171.
+
+ Revival of learning. See Renaissance.
+
+ Revolution, American, lessons of, 239.
+ French, 239, 264.
+ of 1688, 200.
+
+ Rheims, first normal school established at, 228.
+
+ Rhetoric, in Athenian schools, 59.
+ in catechetical schools, 108.
+ in monastic education, 119.
+ in Sturm's school course, 176.
+ the climax of education, 88.
+
+ Richard the Lion-Hearted, leads third crusade, 137.
+
+ Rod, discipline of, in China, 24.
+ Montaigne's opposition to, 196, 197.
+ used in Roman schools, 78.
+
+ Rollin, reforms of, 204.
+
+ Roman church, duty of, to education, 182.
+
+ Roman educators, 81-88.
+ Cicero, 81-84.
+ Quintilian, 86-88.
+ Seneca, 84-86.
+
+ Rome, 74-80.
+ Age of Augustus, 74, 75.
+ birth of Christ, 74.
+ criticism of education, 80.
+ education in, 77-79.
+ educators of, 81-88.
+ government in, 75.
+ home in, 76.
+ home training of children, 76, 77.
+ influence of Greek culture on, 74.
+ oratory highest art in education, 77, 80.
+ persecution of Christians, 94.
+ philosophers from, visit Museum of Alexandria, 50, 51.
+ practical training of children, 79.
+ religion of, 75.
+ supremacy of, 74.
+ utility the aim of education, 79.
+ woman's status in, 90.
+
+ Rosetta stone, furnishes key to interpretation of hieroglyphics, 47.
+
+ Rostock, University of, 141.
+
+ Rote learning, in Chinese schools, 24.
+
+ Rouen, cloister school at, 118.
+
+ Roundheads, struggles with cavaliers, 200.
+
+ Rousseau, Jean Jacques, _Emile_, 244-248.
+ influenced by Montaigne, 195, 196.
+ life of, 241, 242.
+ on Christ, 97.
+ on education of women, 248.
+ pedagogy of, 243.
+
+ Rousseau, Jean Jacques, Pestalozzi applies principles of, 269, 270.
+ scheme of education, as outlined in _Emile_, 244-248.
+ works of, 243.
+
+ Rugby, college, founded at, 174, 306.
+
+ Russia, serfs freed in, 238.
+
+
+ St. Augustine. See Augustine, St.
+
+ St. Gall, cloister school at, 118, 120.
+
+ Saint-Simon, on Fenelon, 224.
+
+ Saladin, captures Jerusalem, 137.
+
+ Salaries of teachers, in England, 308.
+ in France, 300, 302.
+ in Germany, 295.
+ in United States, 314.
+
+ Salerno, university at, 140.
+
+ Sallust, Roman writer, 74.
+
+ Salzburg, cloister school at, 118.
+
+ Salzmann, leader of Philanthropin, 254.
+
+ Sanskrit, language of India, 30, 34.
+
+ Saracens, conquer Holy Land, 136.
+ schools of, 140.
+
+ Saxony School Plan, principles of, 172, 173, 174, 177.
+
+ Schmidt, Karl, on Alfred the Great, 130.
+ on Aristotle, 67.
+ on corruption of the church, 151.
+ on culture, 43.
+ on emancipation of the individual, 52.
+ on history of humanity, 15, 16.
+ on Johann Sturm, 177.
+ on St. Augustine's _Confessions_, 114.
+ on scholasticism, 123.
+ on teachings of Jesus Christ, 97, 100.
+ on the _Emile_, 249.
+
+ Scholasticism, benefits of, 123, 124.
+ defined, 121.
+ downfall of, 123.
+
+ _Scholemaster_, Roger Ascham's, 190.
+
+ School attendance, in England, 306.
+ in France, 297, 298.
+ in Germany, 291, 292.
+ in United States, 311, 312.
+
+ School board, in England, 305.
+ in France, 296.
+ in Germany, 290, 291.
+ in United States, 310.
+
+ School fund in United States, 309.
+
+ School government, Trotzendorf's reforms in, 178, 179.
+
+ School hours, in Athens, 58, 60.
+ in Germany, 292.
+
+ Schoolhouses in India, 33.
+ public, none in China, 23.
+
+ School inspector, in German schools, 290.
+
+ Schoolmaster, German, position of, 295.
+
+ "School of the Palace," established, 127.
+
+ School pence, expense of English schools met by, 307.
+
+ School system, Comenius's organization of, 215.
+ of England, 304-308.
+ of France, 296-303.
+ of Germany, 289-295.
+ of United States, 309-314.
+
+ Schools, apprentice in France, 299.
+ catechetical, 107.
+ catechumen, 104.
+ cathedral, 139 _n_.
+ charity, in China, 23.
+ church, 102, 181.
+ cloister, 118.
+ common, 78, 88, 105, 107, 181, 286, 287, 292, 293, 298, 313.
+ elementary. See Elementary Schools.
+ established in Germany, 180.
+ graduate, in United States, 312.
+ _Gymnasium_, in Germany, 293.
+ high. See High Schools.
+ in Athens, under state inspection, 58, 60.
+ industrial, for poor, 262.
+ _infant_, in France, 298.
+ Jesuit, 183-188.
+ Jewish, 42.
+ manual training, 222.
+ Mohammedan, 145, 146.
+ _mother_, in France, 298.
+ national, in England, 305.
+ normal. See Normal Schools.
+ of mines, in France, 299.
+ of the prophets, 44.
+ of the rabbis, 44.
+ pagan, abolished, 115.
+ parochial, 139 _n_.
+ primary, in France, 298, 299.
+ public. See Public Schools.
+ _Real_, in Germany, 236, 293.
+ secondary, in United States, 312.
+ summer, in United States, 313.
+ support of, in England, 306, 307.
+ support of, in France, 299, 300.
+ support of, in Germany, 293.
+ support of, in United States, 313.
+ teachers' salaries in. See Teaching.
+ technical, in France, 299.
+ undergraduate, in United States, 312.
+ voluntary, in England, 306.
+
+ Schulthess, Anna, marries Pestalozzi, 261.
+
+ Schwegler, on number, 73.
+ on scholasticism, 122, 124.
+
+ Schwickerath, on the scholastics, 123.
+ on Luther, 183.
+
+ Science, among ancient Egyptians, 47.
+ instrumental in civilization, 239.
+ monastic opposition to, 116.
+
+ Science, natural, Neander favors study of, 179.
+ natural, taught in Egypt, 47, 50.
+ of Chinese, 26.
+ Rabelais gives first rank to, 195.
+
+ Scientific discoveries, results of, 239.
+
+ Scriptures, Holy, in schools, 217.
+
+ Secondary schools, in United States, 312.
+
+ Secular courses of study established, 118.
+
+ Self-government of students, Trotzendorf introduces, 178, 179.
+ the principle established, 239.
+
+ Seminar, in Germany, 281.
+
+ Seneca, compared with Fenelon, 225, 226.
+ education of, 84.
+ pedagogy of, 85.
+ religious sentiment of, 85.
+ suicide of, 85.
+ tutor of Nero, 84.
+
+ Sense-realism, Innovators advocate, 224, 229.
+
+ Serapis, temple of, library in, 107, 108.
+
+ Servants, fourth caste in India, 30.
+ marriage of, 32.
+
+ Seven liberal arts, 118.
+ basis of school instruction, 127.
+
+ Seventeenth century, education during, 200-236.
+
+ Seventh Annual Report of Horace Mann, 287.
+
+ Shaftesbury, Earl of, friendship with Locke, 221.
+
+ Shastas, commentary on Vedas, 31.
+
+ Shrewsbury, school at, 306.
+
+ Siculus Diodorus, Greek writer, 47.
+
+ Simultaneous method, inaugurated, 227.
+
+ Sixteenth century, education of, 164-199.
+
+ Slavery, abolition of, 238.
+
+ Slaves, in Athens, 56.
+ in Egypt, 49.
+ in Rome, 77.
+ in Sparta, 68.
+
+ Sleep of children, Locke's rules regarding, 221.
+
+ Sobieski, John, checks Mohammedan advance, 144.
+
+ Social Contract, Rousseau's, 243.
+
+ Socrates, Athenian philosopher, 56.
+ death of, 62, 63.
+ dialectical methods of, 62.
+ doctrines of, 62.
+ influence of, 18.
+ life and home of, 61.
+ methods of teaching, 62.
+ personal appearance of, 61.
+ religious belief of, 62.
+
+ Solomon, founder of Hebrew literature, 44.
+
+ Solon, Athenian lawgiver, 57.
+
+ _Some Thoughts Concerning Education_, Locke's, 221.
+
+ Songs, church, 107.
+
+ _Songs for Mother and Nursery_, Froebel's, 277.
+
+ Sophists, teachers of grammar, 59.
+
+ Soroee, Basedow professor at, 251.
+
+ Sparta, 68-73.
+ coeducation in, 71.
+ contrasted with Athens, 56.
+ criticism of education, 71.
+ history of, 68.
+ home in, 69.
+ Lycurgus, 72, 73.
+ martial training in, 69, 70, 71.
+ physical education in, 16.
+ State control of children, 69, 70, 73.
+ status of woman in, 69-71.
+ tyranny, the spirit of, 56.
+
+ Spartan education, criticism of, 71.
+
+ Spelling, phonic method introduced, 189.
+
+ Spencer, Herbert, on function of education, 217.
+
+ Spener, Philipp Jakob, originator of Pietism, 231.
+
+ Stagira, Aristotle founds school at, 65.
+
+ Stanz, Pestalozzi's school at, 264.
+
+ State, assumes responsibility of education in Germany, 174.
+ controls citizens in Plato's scheme of education, 64.
+ controls education in Persia, 37, 38.
+ controls education of Spartan children, 70.
+ controls schools in Athens, 60.
+ interest of, aim of oriental education, 91.
+ supervises English schools, 306.
+ supports schools in France, 298.
+
+ State Board of Education, duties of, 311.
+ established, 286.
+
+ State school system, in United States, 310.
+
+ State support of public instruction in American schools, 310.
+
+ Stettin, first Prussian normal school at, 228.
+
+ Stoy, Karl Volkmar, establishes practice school at Jena, 281.
+
+ Strasburg _Gymnasium_, organization of, 175, 176.
+ Sturm, rector of, 175.
+
+ _Studia inferiora_ and _superiora_ of Jesuit schools, 185.
+
+ Sturm, Johann, education of, 175.
+ influence of, 177.
+ rector at Strasburg Gymnasium, 175, 176.
+ school course of, 176, 177.
+
+ Sulphuric acid, Arabians discover, 145.
+
+ Summer school, in United States school system, 313.
+
+ Superintendent of schools, duties of, 310, 311.
+
+ Superstition of Romans, 76.
+
+ Support of schools, in England, 306.
+ in France, 299.
+ in Germany, 293.
+ in United States, 313.
+
+ Swinton, on antiquity of Egyptian history, 47.
+ on influence of Egyptian priests, 48.
+
+ Switzerland, Herbart in, 279.
+ kindergarten in, 276.
+
+
+ Talich, Hermann, school course of, 176 _n_.
+
+ Talmud, extracts from, 45, 46.
+ influence of, 45.
+ on discipline of children, 43.
+ origin of sayings in, 44.
+
+ Tax for schools, in United States, 313.
+
+ Taylor, Bayard, on Charles V., Emperor of Germany, 166.
+ on Thirty Years' War, 201.
+
+ Teachers, in Athens, 58, 59.
+ in China, 23, 24.
+ in Egypt, 49, 50.
+ in England, 235, 307.
+ in France, 300-302.
+ in Germany, 290, 291, 293, 294.
+ in India, 32, 33, 34.
+ in Jesuit schools, 185.
+ in Jewish schools, 43.
+ in Mohammedan schools, 146.
+ in Persia, 38.
+ in United States, 313.
+ professional training of, 163, 170, 188, 228, 235, 280, 294, 307, 313.
+ salaries of, 58, 59, 286, 295, 300-302, 308, 313.
+ tenure of office of, 294, 302, 307, 314.
+
+ Teacher's Institute, in United States school system, 313.
+
+ Technical schools, in France, 299.
+
+ _Telemachus_, Fenelon's, 225.
+
+ Tenure of office of teachers, in England, 307.
+ in France, 302.
+ in Germany, 294.
+ in United States, 314.
+
+ Tertullian, birth of, 112.
+ conversion of, 112.
+ founder of Christian Latin literature, 113.
+ joins Montanists, 113.
+
+ Testament, Greek, Erasmus's translation, 162.
+
+ Testament, Old, books of, stimulated by prophets, 44.
+
+ Teutonic nations, leaders in civilization, 103, 149.
+
+ Text-book, first illustrated, 215.
+
+ Thales, father of philosophy, 73.
+
+ Thebes, institution for higher learning at, 50.
+
+ Theocratic education, of Jews, 40.
+
+ Theology, in Gymnasium, 293.
+ in Jesuit schools, 185.
+ in schools of rabbis, 44.
+
+ Thirty Years' War, 201, 212.
+
+ _Toga virilis_, when assumed, 79.
+
+ Toulouse, university at, 141.
+
+ Tours, cloister school at, 118.
+
+ Township system of education, in United States, 311.
+
+ Toys, lack of, in China, 23.
+ of Athenian children, 57.
+ of Persians, 57.
+ of Spartans, 69.
+
+ _Tractate on Education_, Milton's, 217, 218.
+
+ Tradesmen's castes, in India, 30.
+
+ Tradespeople, third caste in Egypt, 48.
+
+ Training school, in United States, 313.
+
+ Translation, double, for language study, 192.
+
+ Transmigration of souls, Chinese belief in, 22.
+
+ Trier, university at, 141.
+
+ Trigonometry, in Milton's scheme of education, 219.
+ taught by Mohammedans, 145.
+
+ Trivium, first course in seven liberal arts, 118, 119.
+
+ Trotzendorf, Valentine, discipline and methods of, 178.
+ life of, 178.
+ pupil of Melanchthon, 178.
+ rector at Goldberg, 178.
+
+ Tuebingen, center of humanistic movement, 153, 159.
+ university at, 141.
+
+ Twelve Tables, of Roman Law, 76.
+
+
+ Undergraduate school, in United States, 312.
+
+ Understanding, development of, 189.
+
+ United States, administration of schools, 310.
+ attendance in schools, 311.
+ education in, 309-314.
+ land grants for education, 309, 310.
+ State system, 309, 310.
+ support of schools, 313.
+ teachers, 313, 314.
+
+ Universal education, advocated by Charlemagne, 128, 131.
+
+ Universal education, in German schools, 131, 170.
+
+ Universal German Educational Institute, at Griesheim, 275.
+
+ Universities, established through scholastic
+ influence, 124.
+ in England, 306.
+ in United States, 312, 313.
+ preparation for, in Germany, 293.
+ privileges granted to, 142.
+ rise of, 139-142.
+ services of, 142.
+ State, in France, 299.
+
+ Upsala, university at, 141.
+
+
+ Vasseur, Therese le, wife of Rousseau, 242.
+
+ Veda, Bible of India, 30.
+ reading lessons from, 33.
+
+ Vergil, Roman poet, 74.
+
+ Vespasian, honors Quintilian, 86.
+
+ Vienna, university established at, 124, 141.
+
+ Vogel, on errors of _Emile_, 244.
+
+ Volksschule (common school) in Germany, 292.
+
+ Voltaire, condemns Jesuit education, 187.
+ on Fenelon, 227.
+
+ Voluntary schools, in England, 305 _n._, 306.
+
+ Von Moltke, quoted, 295.
+
+
+ Waldenses, reformers in Italy, 165.
+
+ War, preparation for, chief end of education in Persia, 38.
+
+ Warens, Madame de, befriends Rousseau, 242.
+
+ Warriors, education of, 34.
+ marriage of, 32.
+ second caste in India, 30.
+
+ Weigel, Erhard, founds _Real-school_, 236.
+
+ Weimar, Duke of, law for compulsory education, 203.
+
+ Westminster, school at, 306.
+
+ Williams, Professor, on Comenius's services
+ to pedagogy, 214.
+ on Locke, 223.
+ on Ratke, 209.
+ on Sturm's school course, 176, 177.
+
+ Winchester, school at, 306.
+
+ Winship, Mr., on Mann's Seventh Annual Report, 287, 288.
+
+ Wittenberg, center of humanistic studies, 172.
+ Luther professor at, 168.
+
+ Women, education of, among Jews, 41.
+ education of, during Charlemagne's reign, 128.
+ education of, in Aristotle's scheme, 67.
+ education of, in Athens, 60.
+ education of, in China, 47.
+ education of, in Egypt, 50.
+ education of, in India, 35.
+ education of, in Persia, 38.
+ education of, in Rome, 80.
+ education of, in Sparta, 71.
+ education of, Rousseau's ideas of, 248.
+ improvement in culture of, 90.
+ Montaigne's contempt for, 198.
+ status of, among Jews, 41, 44.
+ status of, among oriental nations, 90.
+ status of, in Athens, 58.
+ status of, in China, 22, 27.
+ status of, in Egypt, 49, 51.
+ status of, in India, 31, 32, 35.
+ status of, in Persia, 37.
+ status of, in Rome, 76.
+ status of, in Sparta, 69, 71.
+
+ Working schools, Locke urges establishment of, 222.
+
+ Writing, during Charlemagne's reign, 128.
+ in Athens, 58.
+ in Chinese schools, 24.
+ in Egypt, 50.
+ in India, 32, 33.
+ in Jewish schools, 43.
+ in monastic education, 119.
+ in Persian schools, 38.
+ in Roman schools, 78.
+ neglected in Sparta, 71.
+
+ Wuertemberg, active in school work, 203.
+
+ Wuerzburg, University of, 141.
+
+ Wuttke, quoted, 34.
+
+ Wyclif, reformer, 165.
+
+
+ Xantippe, wife of Socrates, 61.
+
+ Xenophon, testimony to Socrates, 62.
+
+
+ Yellow Springs, Antioch College at, 288.
+
+ Yverdon, Froebel at, 274.
+ Pestalozzi's school at, 267, 268.
+
+
+ Zeus, Olympian festivals in honor of, 55.
+
+ Ziller School, 281.
+
+ Zoroaster, dualistic philosophy of, 39.
+ founder of Persian religion, 39.
+ religion of, in Persia, 37.
+
+ Zwingli, Swiss reformer, 165.
+
+
+
+
+A SYSTEM OF PEDAGOGY
+
+By EMERSON E. WHITE, A.M., LL.D.
+
+ Elements of Pedagogy $1.00
+ School Management and Moral Training 1.00
+ Art of Teaching 1.00
+
+By the safe path of experience and in the light of modern psychology the
+ELEMENTS OF PEDAGOGY points out the limitations of the ordinary systems
+of school education and shows how their methods may be harmonized and
+cooerdinated. The fundamental principles of teaching are expounded in a
+manner which is both logical and convincing, and such a variety and
+wealth of pedagogical principles are presented as are seldom to be found
+in a single text-book.
+
+¶ SCHOOL MANAGEMENT discusses school government and moral training from
+the standpoint of experience, observation, and study. Avoiding
+dogmatism, the author carefully states the grounds of his views and
+suggestions, and freely uses the fundamental facts of mental and moral
+science. So practical are the applications of principles, and so apt are
+the concrete illustrations that the book can not fail to be of interest
+and profit to all teachers, whether experienced or inexperienced.
+
+¶ In the ART OF TEACHING the fundamental principles are presented in a
+clear and helpful manner, and afterwards applied in methods of teaching
+that are generic and comprehensive. Great pains has been taken to show
+the true functions of special methods and to point out their
+limitations, with a view to prevent teachers from accepting them as
+general methods and making them hobbies. The book throws a clear light,
+not only on fundamental methods and processes, but also on oral
+illustrations, book study, class instruction and management, written
+examinations and promotions of pupils, and other problems of great
+importance.
+
+AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+
+STANDARDS IN EDUCATION
+
+Including Industrial Training
+
+By ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN, B.S., A.M., Dean and Professor of
+Education, Throop Polytechnic Institute. $1.00
+
+The present widespread agitation for a more purposeful curriculum is
+fully recognized by this work on practical pedagogy. It discusses modern
+elementary education in a helpful manner, setting forth its acknowledged
+defects of standard, and presenting suggestions for the introduction of
+more industrial training. The book is broad in the best sense, and every
+problem affecting the school and its relation to the outside world is
+dealt with so simply and convincingly as to be clear to everybody,
+whether teachers or parents. Only the great issues of education are
+considered.
+
+
+EDUCATION THROUGH MUSIC
+
+By CHARLES HUBERT FARNSWORTH, Adjunct Professor of Music, Teachers
+College, Columbia University. $1.00
+
+A book for grade teachers which enables them to teach music in their
+schools with the same ease and success as the ordinary branches of
+study. Yet it is no less valuable for the music supervisor, the
+principal, and the superintendent, and it is an excellent text for all
+schools in which special teachers of music are trained. It is at once a
+rule, a guide, and an inspiration, and points out the place of music in
+the general educational scheme. It lays out the work step by step for
+each year of the elementary school, and never leaves the teacher in
+doubt on any point. The methods of presentation are applicable to any
+music course.
+
+AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+
+
+ +-------------------------------------------------+
+ | Transcriber's Note: |
+ | |
+ | Typographical errors corrected in the text: |
+ | |
+ | Page 234 Pedagogism changed to Pedagogium |
+ | Page 319 Questionaire changed to Questionnaire |
+ | Page 340 Mechlenburg changed to Mecklenburg |
+ | Page 346 Schwickrath changed to Schwickerath |
+ | Page 349 Peslalozzi changed to Pestalozzi |
+ +-------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Education, by Levi Seeley
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EDUCATION ***
+
+***** This file should be named 27963.txt or 27963.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+ http://www.gutenberg.org/2/7/9/6/27963/
+
+Produced by Audrey Longhurst, Barbara Kosker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
+paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works. See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+ the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+ you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is
+ owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+ has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+ Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments
+ must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+ prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+ returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+ sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+ address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+ the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+ you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+ does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+ License. You must require such a user to return or
+ destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+ and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+ Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+ money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+ electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+ of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+ distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+ Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+ Chief Executive and Director
+ gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+ http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
generated by cgit v1.2.3 (git 2.25.1) at 2026-03-13 17:46:35 +0000