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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Home Medical Library, Volume V (of VI) + +Author: Various + +Editor: Kenelm Winslow + +Release Date: January 31, 2009 [EBook #27947] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HOME MEDICAL LIBRARY *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Chris Logan and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div id="title_page"> +<h1>The Home Medical<br /> +Library</h1> + +<p class="by">By</p> + +<p class="kenelm">Kenelm Winslow, B.A.S., M.D.</p> + +<p class="assistant"><em>Formerly Assistant Professor Comparative Therapeutics, Harvard<br /> +University; Late Surgeon to the Newton Hospital;<br /> +Fellow of the Massachusetts Medical Society, etc.</em></p> + +<p>With the Coöperation of Many Medical<br /> +Advising Editors and Special Contributors</p> + +<p class="volumes">IN SIX VOLUMES</p> + +<p><em>First Aid :: Family Medicines :: Nose, Throat, Lungs,<br /> +Eye, and Ear :: Stomach and Bowels :: Tumors and<br /> +Skin Diseases :: Rheumatism :: Germ Diseases<br /> +Nervous Diseases :: Insanity :: Sexual Hygiene<br /> +Woman and Child :: Heart, Blood, and Digestion<br /> +Personal Hygiene :: Indoor Exercise<br /> +Diet and Conduct for Long Life :: Practical<br /> +Kitchen Science :: Nervousness<br /> +and Outdoor Life :: Nurse and Patient<br /> +Camping Comfort :: Sanitation<br /> +of the Household :: Pure<br /> +Water Supply :: Pure Food<br /> +Stable and Kennel</em></p> + +<p class="published"><span class="ny">New York</span><br /> +The Review of Reviews Company<br /> +1907</p> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div class="contributors"> +<h2>Medical Advising Editors</h2> + +<div class="thought_break"></div> + +<p class="managing">Managing Editor</p> + +<p class="name">Albert Warren Ferris, A.M., M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Former Assistant in Neurology, Columbia University; Former Chairman, +Section on Neurology and Psychiatry, New York Academy of Medicine; +Assistant in Medicine, University and Bellevue Hospital Medical +College; Medical Editor, New International Encyclopedia.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Nervous Diseases</p> + +<p class="name">Charles E. Atwood, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Assistant in Neurology, Columbia University; Former Physician, Utica +State Hospital and Bloomingdale Hospital for Insane Patients; Former +Clinical Assistant to Sir William Gowers, National Hospital, London.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Pregnancy</p> + +<p class="name">Russell Bellamy, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Assistant in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cornell University Medical +College Dispensary; Captain and Assistant Surgeon (in charge), +Squadron A, New York Cavalry; Assistant in Surgery, New York +Polyclinic.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Germ Diseases</p> + +<p class="name">Hermann Michael Biggs, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>General Medical Officer and Director of Bacteriological Laboratories, +New York City Department of Health; Professor of Clinical Medicine in +University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College; Visiting Physician +to Bellevue, St. Vincent's, Willard Parker, and Riverside Hospitals.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">The Eye and Ear</p> + +<p class="name">J. Herbert Claiborne, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Clinical Instructor in Ophthalmology, Cornell University Medical +College; Former Adjunct Professor of Ophthalmology, New York +Polyclinic; Former Instructor in Ophthalmology in Columbia University; +Surgeon, New Amsterdam Eye and Ear Hospital.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Sanitation</p> + +<p class="name">Thomas Darlington, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Health Commissioner of New York City; Former President Medical Board, +New York Foundling Hospital; Consulting Physician, French Hospital; +Attending Physician, St. John's Riverside Hospital, Yonkers; Surgeon +to New Croton Aqueduct and other Public Works, to Copper Queen +Consolidated Mining Company of Arizona, and Arizona and Southeastern +Railroad Hospital; Author of Medical and Climatological Works.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Menstruation</p> + +<p class="name">Austin Flint, Jr., M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Professor of Obstetrics and Clinical Gynecology, New York University +and Bellevue Hospital Medical College; Visiting Physician, Bellevue +Hospital; Consulting Obstetrician, New York Maternity Hospital; +Attending Physician, Hospital for Ruptured and Crippled, Manhattan +Maternity and Emergency Hospitals.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Heart and Blood</p> + +<p class="name">John Bessner Huber, A.M., M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Assistant in Medicine, University and Bellevue Hospital Medical +College; Visiting Physician to St. Joseph's Home for Consumptives; +Author of "Consumption: Its Relation to Man and His Civilization; Its +Prevention and Cure."</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Skin Diseases</p> + +<p class="name">James C. Johnston, A.B., M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Instructor in Pathology and Chief of Clinic, Department of +Dermatology, Cornell University Medical College.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Diseases of Children</p> + +<p class="name">Charles Gilmore Kerley, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Professor of Pediatrics, New York Polyclinic Medical School and +Hospital; Attending Physician, New York Infant Asylum, Children's +Department of Sydenham Hospital, and Babies' Hospital, N. Y.; +Consulting Physician, Home for Crippled Children.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Bites and Stings</p> + +<p class="name">George Gibier Rambaud, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>President, New York Pasteur Institute.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Headache</p> + +<p class="name">Alonzo D. Rockwell, A.M., M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Former Professor Electro-Therapeutics and Neurology at New York +Post-Graduate Medical School; Neurologist and Electro-Therapeutist to +the Flushing Hospital; Former Electro-Therapeutist to the Woman's +Hospital in the State of New York; Author of Works on Medical and +Surgical Uses of Electricity, Nervous Exhaustion (Neurasthenia), etc.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Poisons</p> + +<p class="name">E. Ellsworth Smith, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Pathologist, St. John's Hospital, Yonkers; Somerset Hospital, +Somerville, N. J.; Trinity Hospital, St. Bartholomew's Clinic, and the +New York West Side German Dispensary.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Catarrh</p> + +<p class="name">Samuel Wood Thurber, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Chief of Clinic and Instructor in Laryngology, Columbia University; +Laryngologist to the Orphan's Home and Hospital.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Care of Infants</p> + +<p class="name">Herbert B. Wilcox, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Assistant in Diseases of Children, Columbia University.</em></p> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div class="contributors"> +<h2>Special Contributors</h2> + +<div class="thought_break"></div> + +<p class="subject">Food Adulteration</p> + +<p class="name">S. Josephine Baker, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Medical Inspector, New York City Department of Health.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Pure Water Supply</p> + +<p class="name">William Paul Gerhard, C.E.</p> + +<p><em>Consulting Engineer for Sanitary Works; Member of American Public +Health Association; Member, American Society Mechanical Engineers; +Corresponding Member of American Institute of Architects, etc.; Author +of "House Drainage," etc.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Care of Food</p> + +<p><span class="name">Janet McKenzie Hill</span></p> + +<p><em>Editor, Boston Cooking School Magazine.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Nerves and Outdoor Life</p> + +<p class="name">S. Weir Mitchell, M.D., LL.D.</p> + +<p><em>LL.D. (Harvard, Edinburgh, Princeton); Former President, Philadelphia +College of Physicians; Member, National Academy of Sciences, +Association of American Physicians, etc.; Author of essays: "Injuries +to Nerves," "Doctor and Patient," "Fat and Blood," etc.; of scientific +works: "Researches Upon the Venom of the Rattlesnake," etc.; of +novels: "Hugh Wynne," "Characteristics," "Constance Trescott," "The +Adventures of François," etc.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Sanitation</p> + +<p class="name">George M. Price, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Former Medical Sanitary Inspector, Department of Health, New York +City; Inspector, New York Sanitary Aid Society of the 10th Ward, 1885; +Manager, Model Tenement-houses of the New York Tenement-house Building +Co., 1888; Inspector, New York State Tenement-house Commission, 1895; +Author of "Tenement-house Inspection," "Handbook on Sanitation," etc.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Indoor Exercise</p> + +<p class="name">Dudley Allen Sargent, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Director of Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard University; Former President, +American Physical Culture Society; Director, Normal School of Physical +Training, Cambridge, Mass.; President, American Association for +Promotion of Physical Education; Author of "Universal Test for +Strength," "Health, Strength and Power," etc.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Long Life</p> + +<p><span class="name">Sir Henry Thompson, Bart., F.R.C.S., M.B.</span> (Lond.)</p> + +<p><em>Surgeon Extraordinary to His Majesty the King of the Belgians; +Consulting Surgeon to University College Hospital, London; Emeritus +Professor of Clinical Surgery to University College, London, etc.</em></p> + + +<p class="subject">Camp Comfort</p> + +<p class="name">Stewart Edward White</p> + +<p><em>Author of "The Forest," "The Mountains," "The Silent Places," "The +Blazed Trail," etc.</em></p> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 487px;"> +<img src="images/reed.jpg" width="487" height="500" alt="WALTER REED." title="WALTER REED." /> +<span class="caption">WALTER REED.</span> + +<p>In the year 1900, Major Walter Reed, a surgeon in the United States +Army, demonstrated, by experiments conducted in Cuba, that a mosquito +of a single species, Stegomyia fasciata, which has sucked the blood of +a yellow-fever patient may transmit the disease by biting another +person, but not until about twelve days have elapsed. He also proved, +as described in Volume I, Part II, that the malady is not contagious. +"With the exception of the discovery of anæsthesia," said Professor +Welch, of Johns Hopkins University, "Dr. Reed's researches are the +most valuable contributions to science ever made in this country." +General Leonard Wood declared the discovery to be the "greatest +medical work of modern times," which, in the words of President +Roosevelt, "renders mankind his debtor." Major Reed died November 23, +1902.</p> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div id="volume_title"> +<h2>The Home Medical<br /> +Library</h2> + +<div class="section_break"></div> + +<p class="volume">VOLUME V :: SANITATION</p> + +<p>Edited by</p> + +<p class="name smcap">Thomas Darlington, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Health Commissioner of New York City; Former President Medical<br /> +Board, New York Foundling Hospital, etc.; Author of<br /> +Medical and Climatological Works</em></p> + +<div class="section_break"></div> + +<p class="title">WATER SUPPLY AND PURIFICATION</p> + +<p class="name">By WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD, C.E.</p> + +<p><em>Consulting Engineer for Sanitary Works; Author of "House Drainage,"<br /> +"Sanitary Engineering," "Household Wastes," etc.</em></p> + +<div class="section_break"></div> + +<p class="title">PURE FOOD FOR THE<br /> +HOUSEKEEPER</p> + +<p class="name">By S. JOSEPHINE BAKER, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Medical Inspector, New York City Department of Health</em></p> + +<div class="section_break"></div> + +<p class="title">THE HOUSE AND GROUNDS</p> + +<p class="name">By GEORGE M. PRICE, M.D.</p> + +<p><em>Former Medical Sanitary Inspector, Department of Health, New<br /> +York City; Author of "Tenement-House Inspection,"<br /> +"Handbook on Sanitation," etc.</em></p> + +<div class="section_break"></div> + +<p class="published"><span class="ny">New York</span><br /> +The Review of Reviews Company<br /> +1907</p> +</div> + + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div id="copyright"> +<p>Copyright, 1907, by</p> + +<p class="company">The Review of Reviews Company</p> + + +<p class="press">THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK</p> +</div> + + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div id="toc"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> +<h2><em>Contents</em></h2> + + +<h3>PART I</h3> + +<table summary="Table of contents - Part 1"> +<thead> +<tr> + <th>CHAPTER</th> + <th> </th> + <th>PAGE</th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">I.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Country Sources of Water Supply</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Relation of Water to Health—Collection of +Rain Water—Cisterns—Springs—Various +Kinds of Wells—Laws Regulating Supply.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">II.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Appliances for Distributing Water</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Pumping Machines—The Hydraulic Ram—Use +of Windmills—Engines—Steam +and Electric Pumps—Reservoirs and +Tanks—Appliances for Country Houses.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">III.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Purifying Water by Copper Sulphate</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Clear Water Often Dangerous—Pollution +Due to Plants—Copper Sulphate Method—Directions +for the Copper Cure.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">IV.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Ridding Stagnant Water of Mosquitoes</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Malaria Due to Mosquitoes—Cause of Yellow +Fever—Effect of a Mosquito Bite—Destruction +of Larvæ—Best Preventive +Measures—Use of Kerosene.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + +<h3>PART II</h3> + +<table summary="Table of contents - Part 2"> +<thead> +<tr> + <th>CHAPTER</th> + <th> </th> + <th>PAGE</th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">I.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">How To Detect Food Adulteration</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Definition of Adulteration—Food Laws—Permissible<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +Adulterants—How to Select +Pure Food—Chemical Tests.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">II.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Mushroom Poisoning</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Symptoms and Treatment—Coffee and +Atropine the Best Antidotes—How to Tell +the Edible Kind—"Horse," "Fairy-ring," +and Other Varieties—Poisonous Species.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + +<h3>PART III</h3> + +<table summary="Table of contents - Part 3"> +<thead> +<tr> + <th>CHAPTER</th> + <th> </th> + <th>PAGE</th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">I.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Soil and Sites</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Constituents of the Soil—Influence on +Health—Improving Defective Soil—Street +Paving and Tree Planting—Proper Construction +of Houses—Subsoil Drainage.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">II.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Ventilation</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">What is Meant by Ventilation—Quantity +of Air Required—Natural Agents of Ventilation—Special +Appliances.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">III.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Warming</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Various Methods—Materials of Combustion—Chimneys—Fireplaces +and Grates—Stoves—Hot-air +Warming—Hot-water +Systems—Principles of Steam Heating.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">IV.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Disposal of Sewage</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Refuse and Garbage—Discharge into Waters—Cremation—Precipitation—Intermittent +Filtration—Immediate Disposal, etc.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>V.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Sewers</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Definition—Materials Used in Construction—Levels +of Trenches—Joints of Pipes—The +Fall and Flow of the Contents—Connections—Tide +Valves—Sewer Gas.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">VI.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Plumbing</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Purposes and Requisites—Materials Used—Joints +and Connections—Construction +of Traps—Siphonage and Back Pressure—The +Vent-pipe System.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">VII.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Plumbing Pipes</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Construction of House Drains—Fall, Position, +and Connection—Main Traps—Extension +of Vertical Pipes—Fresh-air Inlets—Soil +and Waste Pipes—Branch Pipes, etc.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">VIII.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Plumbing Fixtures</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Sinks—Washbasins—Washtubs—Bathtubs—Refrigerators, +etc.—Safes and +Wastes—Pan, Valve, and Hopper Closets—Flush +Tanks—Yard Closets—Drains.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">IX.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Defects in Plumbing</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Poor Work—Improper Conditions—How +to Test Traps, Joints, and Connections—Detect +Sewer Gas—Water-pressure, +Smoke, and Scent Tests—Special Appliances.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>X.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Infection and Disinfection</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Physical and Chemical Disinfectants—Use +of Sulphur Dioxide—Formaldehyde—Hydrocyanic +Acid—Chlorine—Carbolic +Acid—Bichloride of Mercury—Formalin—Potassium +Permanganate, etc.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter_number">XI.</td> + <td class="toc_chapter">Cost of Conveyed Heating Systems</td> + <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Cost of Hot-air Systems—Cast-iron Hot-water +Heater—Advantages and Disadvantages—Cost +for a Ten-room House—Steam +Heating—Cost of Equipment.</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> + + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> +<h2><em>The Editor's Preface</em></h2> + + +<p>The character and scope of this volume render it a most useful book +for the home maker. The question of sanitation is one that closely +affects the life of each individual, and many of its aspects are +treated here in a lucid and comprehensive manner. Designed for wide +distribution, these articles have been written to meet the needs of +the dweller in the more densely populated communities, as well as +those living in the less thickly settled portion of the country.</p> + +<p>In large cities the water supply is a problem that is cared for by +regularly constituted sanitary authorities. Pure water is a vital +necessity, but the inhabitant of a city has no need to personally +concern himself with the source of supply. In the country, however, +the home builder must often decide the matter for himself, and it is +the aim of this book to give him the needed directions for avoiding +many errors and pitfalls that abound in this direction.</p> + +<p>House construction, with its intricate problems, is also a more +serious matter for the country dweller than for his city brother.</p> + +<p>In the matter of food supply, the inhabitant of a country district is +more fortunate. Fresh vegetables<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> and dairy products are much more +easily obtained, and their freshness and purity more dependable.</p> + +<p>The article on water supply by Mr. Gerhard is authoritative, written, +as it is, by a most eminent sanitarian. The publishers are to be +congratulated upon the following valuable contribution to the same +subject as regards the use of copper sulphate and the concise +presentation of plans for mosquito extermination, while the extended +work of Dr. Price and Dr. Baker's "Food Adulteration" are much to be +commended. The two latter have been connected with the Department of +Health of New York City, and have the advantage of experience in an +organization which gives to the citizens of New York the protection to +health that the wise use of science, knowledge, and money afford.</p> + +<p>I trust that the notes I have added in the light of recent practice of +the New York City Department of Health may make this material of the +utmost practical value to the householder of to-day.</p> + +<p>Through this Department of Health, New York City spent, during 1905, +over $1,500,000, and for 1906 it has appropriated over $1,800,000. +This vast sum of money is used for the sole purpose of safeguarding +its citizens from disease. Sanitation in its varied branches is +pursued as an almost exact science, and the efforts of trained minds +are constantly employed in combating disease and promoting sanitation.</p> + +<p>The cities care for their own, but the greater num<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>ber of the +inhabitants of this country must rely upon their individual efforts. +Therefore, any dissemination of knowledge regarding sanitation is most +worthy. This book has a useful mission. It is pregnant with helpful +suggestions, and I most heartily commend its purpose and its contents.</p> + +<p class="signed"><span class="smcap">Thomas Darlington</span>,<br /> +<em>President of the Board of Health</em>.</p> + +<p class="signed_location">New York City.</p> + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p> +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div class="part_head"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p> + +<h2>Part I</h2> + +<p class="title">WATER SUPPLY AND<br /> +PURIFICATION</p> + +<p class="by">BY</p> + +<p>WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD</p> +</div> + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p> +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER I</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Country Sources of Water Supply</strong></p> + + +<p>The writer was recently engaged to plan and install a water-supply +system for a country house which had been erected and completed +without any provision whatever having been made for supplying the +buildings and grounds with water. The house had all the usual +appointments for comfort and ample modern conveniences, but these +could be used only with water borrowed from a neighbor. In all parts +of the country there are numerous farm buildings which are without a +proper water-supply installation. These facts are mentioned to +emphasize the importance of a good water supply for the country home, +and to point out that water is unquestionably the most indispensable +requirement for such structures.</p> + + +<h4><em>Adequate Water Supply Important</em></h4> + +<p>But the advantages of a water supply are not limited to the dwelling +house, for it is equally useful on the farm, for irrigation, and in +the garden, on the golf grounds and tennis courts, in the barns and +stables;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> it affords, besides, the best means for the much-desired +fire protection. And, most important of all, an unstinted and adequate +use of water promotes cleanliness and thereby furthers the cause of +sanitation, in the country not less than in the city home.</p> + +<p>The water supply for country houses has been so often discussed +recently that the writer cannot hope to bring up any new points. This +article should, therefore, be understood to offer simple suggestions +as to how and where water can be obtained, what water is pure and fit +for use, what water must be considered with suspicion, what water is +dangerous to health, and how a source of supply, meeting the +requirements of health, can be made available for convenient use.</p> + +<p>Right here I wish to utter a warning against the frequent tendency of +owners of country houses to play the rôle of amateur engineers. As a +rule this leads to failure and disappointment. Much money uselessly +spent can be saved if owners will, from the beginning, place the +matter in experienced hands, or at least seek the advice of competent +engineers, and adopt their suggestions and recommendations as a guide.</p> + + +<h4><em>Points to be Borne in Mind</em></h4> + +<p>Many are the points to be borne in mind in the search for water. +Science teaches us that all water comes from the clouds, the +atmospheric precipitation being in the form of either rain, or dew, or +snow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> After reaching the earth's surface, the water takes three +different courses, and these are mentioned here because they serve to +explain the different sources of supply and their varied character.</p> + +<p>A part of the water runs off on the surface, forming brooks, streams, +and lakes, and if it falls on roofs of houses or on prepared catchment +areas, it can be collected in cisterns or tanks as rain water. Another +part of the water soaks away into pervious strata of the subsoil, and +constitutes underground water, which becomes available for supply +either in springs or in wells. A third part is either absorbed by +plants or else evaporated.</p> + +<p>In our search for a source of supply, we should always bear in mind +the essential requirements of the problem. Briefly stated, these are: +the wholesomeness of the water, the adequateness and steadiness of the +supply, its availability under a sufficient pressure, insuring a good +flow, and the legal restrictions with which many water-supply problems +are surrounded.</p> + +<p>The first essential requirement is that of <em>wholesomeness</em>. The +quality of a water supply is dependent upon physical properties and +upon chemical and bacteriological characteristics. Water, to be +suitable for drinking, must be neither too hard nor too soft; it +should not contain too many suspended impurities, nor too much foreign +matter in solution. Pure water is colorless and without odor. But it +must be understood that the quality cannot be decided merely by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> the +color, appearance, taste, and odor. The chemical and bacteriological +examinations, if taken together, form a much safer guide, and with +these analyses should go hand in hand a detailed survey of the water +source and its surroundings.</p> + + +<h4><em>Relation of Water to Health</em></h4> + +<p>Any pronounced taste in the water renders it suspicious; an offensive +smell points to organic contamination; turbidity indicates presence of +suspended impurities, which may be either mineral or organic. But even +bright and sparkling waters having a very good taste are sometimes +found to be highly polluted. Hence, it should be remembered that +neither bright appearance nor lack of bad taste warrants the belief +that water is free from dangerous contamination.</p> + +<p>It is a well-established fact now that there is a relation between the +character of the water supply and the health of a community; and what +is true of cities, villages, and towns, is, of course, equally true of +the individual country house.</p> + + +<h4><em>How Water Becomes Contaminated</em></h4> + +<p>There are numerous ways in which water may become polluted, either at +the source or during storage or finally during distribution. Rain +water, falling pure from the clouds, encounters dust, soot, decaying +leaves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> and other vegetable matters, and ordure of birds on the roofs; +its quality is also affected by the roofing material, or else it is +contaminated in the cisterns by leakage from drains or cesspools. +Upland waters contain generally vegetable matter, while surface water +from cultivated lands becomes polluted by animal manure. River water +becomes befouled by the discharge into it of the sewers from +settlements and towns located on its banks. Subsoil water is liable to +infiltration of solid and liquid wastes emanating from the human +system, from leaky drains, sewers, or cesspools, stables, or +farmyards; and even deep well water may become contaminated by reason +of defects in the construction of the well.</p> + +<p>During storage, water becomes contaminated in open reservoirs by +atmospheric impurities; a growth of vegetable organisms or algæ often +causes trouble, bad taste, or odor; water in open house tanks and in +cisterns is also liable to pollution. During distribution, water may +become changed in quality, owing to the action of the water on the +material of the pipes.</p> + +<p>From what source shall good water be obtained? This is the problem +which confronts many of those who decide to build in the country.</p> + +<p>The usual sources, in their relative order of purity, are: deep +springs and land or surface springs, located either above or below the +house, but not too near to settlements; deep subterranean water, made +available by boring or drilling a well; upland or mountain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> brooks +from uninhabited regions; underground water in places not populated, +reached by a dug or driven well; lake water; rain water; surface water +from cultivated fields; pond and river water; and finally, least +desirable of all, shallow well water in villages or towns. These +various sources of supply will be considered farther on.</p> + + +<h4><em>An Ample Volume Necessary</em></h4> + +<p>The second essential requirement is <em>ample quantity</em>. The supply must +be one which furnishes an ample volume <em>at all seasons</em> and for all +purposes.</p> + +<p>What is a reasonable daily domestic consumption? The answer to this +question necessarily depends upon the character of the building and +the habits and occupation of its inmates. It is a universal experience +that as soon as water is introduced it is used more lavishly, but also +more recklessly and regardless of waste. For personal use, from twenty +to twenty-five gallons per person should prove to be ample per day: +this comprises water for drinking and cooking, for washing clothes, +house and kitchen utensils, personal ablutions, and bathing; but, +taking into account other requirements on the farm or of country +houses, we require at least sixty gallons per capita per diem. To +provide water for the horses, cows, sheep, for carriage washing, for +the garden, for irrigation of the lawn, for fountains, etc., and keep +a suitable reserve in case<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> of fire, the supply should be not less +than 150 gallons per person per day.</p> + + +<h4><em>A Good Pressure Required</em></h4> + +<p>The third essential requirement is a <em>good water pressure</em>. Where a +suitable source of water is found, it pays to make it conveniently +available, so as to avoid carrying water by hand, which is troublesome +and not conducive to cleanliness. A sufficient pressure is attained by +either storing water at, or lifting it to, a suitable elevation above +the point of consumption. In this respect many farm and country houses +are found to be but very imperfectly supplied. Often the tank is +placed only slightly higher than the second story of the house. As a +result, the water flows sluggishly at the bathroom faucets, and, in +case of fire, no effective fire stream can be thrown. Where a +reservoir is suitably located above the house, the pressure is +sometimes lost by laying pipes too small in diameter to furnish an +ample stream. Elevated tanks should always be placed so high as to +afford a good working pressure in the entire system of pipes. Where a +tower of the required height is objectionable, either on account of +the cost or on account of appearance, pressure tanks may be installed +which have many advantages.</p> + +<p>In selecting a source of water supply, the following points should be +borne in mind for guidance: first, the wholesomeness of the water; +next, the cost required<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> to collect, store, and distribute the water; +finally, where a gravity supply is unavailable, the probable operating +expenses of the water system, cost of pumping, etc.</p> + + +<h4><em>Collection of Rain Water</em></h4> + +<p>The collection of rain water near extensive manufacturing +establishments is not advisable, except where arrangements are +provided for either filtering or distilling the water. In the country, +rain water is pure and good, if the precaution is observed to allow +the first wash from roofs to run to waste. The rain may be either +caught on the roofs, which must always have a clean surface and clean +gutters, or else on artificially prepared catchment areas. As an +example, I quote: "All about the Bermuda Islands one sees great white +scars on the hill slopes. These are dished spaces, where the soil has +been scraped off and the coral rock exposed and glazed with hard +whitewash. Some of these are a quarter acre in size. They catch and +carry the rainfall to reservoirs, for the wells are few and poor, and +there are no natural springs and no brooks." (Mark Twain, "Some +Rambling Notes of an Idle Excursion.")</p> + +<p>After the close of the Boer War the English sent about 7,000 Boer +prisoners of war to Bermuda, where they were encamped on some of the +smaller islands of the group, and the entire water supply for the +encampment was obtained by building artificial catchment areas as +described in the above quotation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>Sometimes, instead of building underground cisterns, rain water is +caught and stored in barrels above ground; if so, these should always +be well covered, not only to avoid pollution, but to prevent the +barrels from becoming mosquito breeders. Cisterns should always be +built with care and made water-tight and impervious. The walls should +be lined with cemented brickwork. In soil consisting of hard pan, +cisterns in some parts of the country are built without brick walls, +the walls of the excavation being simply cemented. I do not approve of +such cheap construction, particularly where the cistern is located +near a privy or cesspool. Pollution of cistern water is often due to +the cracking of the cement lining. Overflows of cisterns should never +be connected with a drain, sewer, or cesspool. Run the overflow into +some surface ditch and provide the mouth with a fine wire screen, to +exclude small animals. It is not recommended to build cisterns in +cellars of houses.</p> + + +<h4><em>Quality of Water Obtained from Lakes</em></h4> + +<p>Lakes yield, as a rule, a supply of clear, bright, and soft water. +This is particularly the case with mountain lakes, because they are at +a distance from sources of contamination. The character of the water +depends upon whether the lake is fed by brooks, that is, by the rain +falling upon the watershed, or also by springs. In one case the water +is surface water exclusively; in the other, it is surface and +underground water<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> mixed. The purity also depends upon the depth of +the lake and upon the character of its bottom.</p> + +<p>Deep lakes furnish a better supply and clearer water than shallow +ones. The solid matter brought into the lake by the brooks or rivers +which feed it does not remain long in suspension, but soon settles at +the bottom, and in this way some lakes acquire the wonderfully clear +water and the beautiful bluish-green color for which they are far +famed.</p> + + +<h4><em>Strong Winds Dangerous on Lakes</em></h4> + +<p>Strong winds or currents at times stir up the mud from the bottom; +hence, in locating the intake, the direction of the prevailing winds +should be considered, if practicable. The suction pipe should always +be placed in deep water, at a depth of at least fifteen to twenty +feet, for here the water is purer and always cooler.</p> + +<p>Settlements on the shores of a lake imply danger of sewage +contamination, but the larger the lake, the less is the danger of a +marked or serious pollution, if the houses are scattered and few.</p> + +<p>Pools and stagnant ponds are not to be recommended as a source of +supply. In artificially made lakes there is sometimes danger of +vegetable pollution, and trouble with growth of algæ. The bottom of +such lakes should always be cleared from all dead vegetation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>Surface water may be obtained from brooks flowing through uninhabited +upland or from mountain streams. Such water is very pure and limpid, +particularly where the stream in its downward course tumbles over +rocks or forms waterfalls. But, even then, the watershed of the stream +should be guarded to prevent subsequent contamination. Larger creeks +or rivers are not desirable as a source of supply, for settlements of +human habitations, hamlets, villages, and even towns are apt to be +located on the banks of the river, which is quite generally +used—wrong as it is—as an outlet for the liquid wastes of the +community, thus becoming in time grossly polluted. Down-stream +neighbors are sure to suffer from a pollution of the stream, which the +law should prevent.</p> + + +<h4><em>The Water of Springs</em></h4> + +<p>The water of springs is subterranean, or ground water, which for +geological reasons has found a natural outlet on the surface. We +distinguish two kinds of springs, namely, land or surface springs, and +deep springs. The former furnish water which originally fell as rain +upon a permeable stratum of sand or gravel, underlaid by an impervious +one of either clay or rock. Such water soaks away underground until it +meets some obstacle causing it to crop out on the surface. Such spring +water is not under pressure and therefore cannot again rise. Water +from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> deep springs is rain water fallen on the surface of a porous +stratum on a high level, and which passes under an impermeable +stratum, and thus, being under pressure, rises again where an opening +is encountered in the impervious stratum; these latter springs are +really artesian in character.</p> + +<p>Deep-spring water is less apt to be polluted than water from surface +or land springs, for it has a chance in its flow through the veins of +the earth to become filtered. Land springs always require careful +watching, particularly in inhabited regions, to prevent surface +contamination.</p> + + +<h4><em>Not all Spring Water Pure</em></h4> + +<p>It is a popular fallacy that all spring water is absolutely pure and +healthful. The above explanation will be helpful in pointing out how, +in some cases, spring water may be nothing but contaminated ground +water. Land springs in uncultivated and uninhabited regions, +particularly in the mountains, yield a good and pure supply. But it is +always advisable, when tapping a spring for water supply, to study its +probable source, and carefully to inspect its immediate surroundings. +The spring should be protected by constructing a small basin, or +reservoir, and by building a house over this. The basin will also +serve to store the night flow of the spring. Before deciding upon a +supply from a spring, its yield should be ascer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>tained by one of the +well-known gauging methods. Springs are usually lowest in the months +of October and November, though there is some difference in this +respect between land springs and deep springs. The minimum yield of +the spring determines whether it forms a supply to be relied upon at +all times of the year.</p> + +<p>If the spring is located higher than the grounds and buildings to be +supplied, a simple gravity supply line may be carried from it, with +pipes of good size, thus avoiding undue friction in the line, and +stoppages. If lower than the house, the water from the spring must be +raised by some pumping method.</p> + +<p>All water found underground owes its origin to the rainfall. If +concealed water is returned to the surface by <em>natural processes</em> it +is called spring water, but if recovered by <em>artificial means</em> it is +called well water.</p> + + +<h4><em>Different Kinds of Wells</em></h4> + +<p>There are numerous kinds of wells, distinguished from one another by +their mode of construction, by their depth from the surface, by the +fact of their piercing an impervious stratum or merely tapping the +first underground sheet of water, and by the height to which the water +in them rises or flows. Thus we have shallow and deep wells, +horizontal wells or infiltration galleries, open or dug wells, tube +wells, non-flowing and flowing wells, bored, drilled, and driven +wells, tile-lined and brick-lined wells, and combination +dug-and-tubular wells.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>When it is desired to provide a water supply by means of wells some +knowledge of the geology of the region, of the character of the strata +and of their direction and dip, will be very useful. In the case of +deep wells, it is really essential. By making inquiries as to similar +well operations in the neighborhood, one may gain some useful +information, and thus, to some extent, avoid guesswork. When one must +drill or bore through rock for a very deep well, which necessarily is +expensive, much money, often uselessly spent, may be saved by +consulting the reports of the State geologist, or the publications of +the United States Geological Survey, or by engaging the services of an +expert hydrogeologist.</p> + + +<h4>"<em>Water Finders</em>"</h4> + +<p>It used to be a common practice to send for so-called "water finders," +who being usually shrewd observers would locate by the aid of a hazel +twig the exact spot where water could be found. In searching for water +one sometimes runs across these men even to-day. The superstitious +faith in the power of the forked twig or branch from the hazelnut bush +to indicate by its twisting or turning the presence of underground +water was at one time widespread, but only the very slightest +foundation of fact exists for the belief in such supernatural powers.</p> + +<p>In Europe, attention has again, during the past years, been called to +this "method" of finding water,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> and it has even received the +indorsement of a very high German authority in hydraulic engineering, +a man well up in years, with a very wide practical experience, and the +author of the most up-to-date hand-book on "Water Supply," but men of +science have not failed to contradict his statements.</p> + + +<h4><em>Definition of "Ground-water Level"</em></h4> + +<p>Water percolating through the soil passes downward by gravity until it +reaches an impervious stratum. The surface of this underground sheet +of water is technically called "water table" or ground-water level. +The water is not at rest, but has a slow and well-defined motion, the +rate of which depends upon the porosity of the soil and also upon the +inclination or gradient of the water table. A shallow well may be +either excavated or driven into this subsoil sheet of water. In +populous districts, in villages, towns, but also near habitations, the +soil from which water is obtained must, of necessity, be impregnated +with organic waste matter. If, in such a surface well, the level of +the water is lowered by pumping, the zone of pollution is extended +laterally in all directions. Ordinary shallow well water should always +be considered "suspicious water." There are two distinct ways in which +surface wells are contaminated: one is by leakage from cesspools, +sewers, privies, etc.; the other, just as important and no less +dangerous, by direct contamination<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> from the surface. The latter +danger is particularly great in wells which are open at the surface, +and from which water is drawn in buckets or pails. A pump well is +always the safer of the two. Frogs, mice, and other small animals are +apt to fall into the water; dust and dirt settle into it; the wooden +curb and the rotten cover also contribute to the pollution; even the +draw-buckets add to it by reason of being often handled with unclean +hands.</p> + +<p>Always avoid, in the country, drinking water from farmers' wells +located near cesspools or privies. Such shallow wells are particularly +dangerous after a long-protracted drought. It is impossible to define +by measurement the distance from a cesspool or manure pit at which a +well can be located with safety, for this depends entirely upon local +circumstances. Contamination of shallow wells may, in exceptional +cases, be avoided by a proper location of the well with reference to +the existing sources of impurity. A well should always be placed +<em>above</em> the source of pollution, using the word "above" with reference +to the direction in which the ground water flows.</p> + + +<h4><em>Precautions Regarding Wells</em></h4> + +<p>Other precautions to be observed with reference to surface wells are +the following:</p> + +<p>Never dig a well near places where soil contamination has taken or is +taking place. Line the sides of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> well with either brick, stone, or +tile pipe, cemented in a water-tight manner to a depth of at least +twenty feet from the surface, so that no water can enter except from +the bottom, or at the sides near the bottom.</p> + +<p>Raise the surface at the top of the well above the grade; arrange it +so as to slope away on all sides from the well; cover it with a +flagstone, and cement the same to prevent foreign matters from +dropping into the well; make sure that no surface water can pass +directly into the well; make some provision to carry away waste water +and drippings from the well.</p> + +<p>Shallow wells made by driving iron tubes with well points into the +subsoil water are preferable to dug wells. Use a draw-pump in +preference to draw buckets.</p> + +<p>When a well is sunk through an impervious stratum to tap the larger +supply of water in the deeper strata, we obtain a "deep well." Water +so secured is usually of great purity, for the impurities have been +filtered and strained out by the passage of the water through the +soil. Moreover, the nature of the construction of deep wells is such +that they are more efficiently protected against contamination, the +sides being made impervious by an iron-pipe casing. In some rare +cases, even deep wells show pollution due to careless jointing of the +lining, or water follows the outside of the well casing until it +reaches the deeper water sheet. Deep wells usually yield more water +than shallow driven wells, and the supply increases perceptibly when +the water level in the well is lowered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> by pumping. While surface +wells draw upon the rainfall percolating in their immediate vicinity, +deep wells are supplied by the rainfall from more remote districts. +Deep wells are either non-flowing or flowing wells. When the +hydrostatic pressure under which the water stands is sufficient to +make it flow freely out on the surface or at the mouth of the well, we +have a flowing, or true artesian well.</p> + + +<h4><em>Character of Water From Deep Wells</em></h4> + +<p>Water from deep wells is of a cool and even temperature. It is usually +very pure, but in some cases made hard by mineral salts in the water. +Sulphur is also at times present, and some wells on the southern +Atlantic coast yield water impregnated with sulphur gases, which, +however, readily pass off, leaving the water in good condition for all +uses. In many cases the water has a taste of iron. No general rule can +be quoted as to the exact amount of water which any given well will +yield, for this depends upon a number of factors. Increasing the +diameter of very deep wells does not seem to have any marked effect in +increasing the supply. Thus, a two-foot well gives only from fifteen +to thirty per cent more water than a three-inch-pipe well. This rule +does not seem to apply to shallow wells of large diameter, for here we +find that the yield is about in proportion to the diameter of the +well.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to note the fact that wells located<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> near the +seashore, within the influence of the tide, vary in the hourly flow. +According to Dr. Honda, of the University of Tokio, there is "a +remarkable concordance between the daily variations in the level of +the tides and the water level in wells." The water in wells one mile +from the seashore was found to stand highest at high tide. The daily +variation amounted to sixteen centimeters, or a little over six +inches. A similar variation was observed by the writer in some flowing +wells located on the north shore of Long Island. Dr. Honda found also +that the water level in wells varied with the state of the barometer, +the water level being lowered with a rise in the barometer.</p> + +<p>Where a large supply is wanted a series of wells may be driven, and, +as the expense involved is considerable, it is always advisable to +begin by sinking a smaller test well to find out whether water may be +had.</p> + +<p>Ground water may also be recovered from water-bearing strata by +arranging horizontal collecting galleries with loose-jointed sides +through which the water percolates. Such infiltration galleries have +been used in some instances for the supply of towns and of +manufacturing establishments, but they are not common for the supply +of country houses.</p> + + +<h4><em>Laws Regulating Appropriation of Water</em></h4> + +<p>Persons contemplating the establishment of a system of water supply in +the country should bear in mind that the taking of water for supply +purposes is,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> in nearly all States, hemmed in by legal restrictions. +The law makes a distinction between subterranean waters, surface +waters flowing in a well-defined channel and within definite banks, +and surface waters merely spread over the ground or accumulated in +natural depressions, pools, or in swamps. There are separate and +distinct laws governing each kind of water. It is advisable, where a +water-supply problem presents itself, to look up these laws, or to +consult a lawyer well versed in the law of water courses.</p> + +<p>If it is the intention to take water from a lake, the property owner +should make sure that he owns the right to take such water, and that +the deed of his property does not read "to high-water mark only." The +owner of a property not abutting on a lake has no legal right to +abstract some of the water from the lake by building an infiltration +gallery, or a vertical well of large diameter intended for the same +purpose. On the other hand, an owner may take subterranean water by +driving or digging a well on his own property, and it does not matter, +from the law's point of view, whether by so doing he intercepts partly +or wholly the flow of water in a neighboring well. But, if it can be +shown that the subterranean water flows in a well-defined channel, he +is not permitted to do this. The water from a stream cannot be +appropriated or diverted for supply or irrigation purposes by a single +property holder without the consent of the other riparian owners, and +without compensation to them.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER II</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Appliances for Distributing Water</strong></p> + + +<p>We have so far discussed only the various sources of potable water. We +must now turn our attention to the mechanical means for making it +available for use, which comprise appliances for lifting, storing, +conveying, distributing, and purifying the water.</p> + +<p>The location of the source of supply with reference to the buildings +and grounds decides generally the question whether a gravity supply is +feasible or whether water must be pumped. The former is desirable +because its operating expenses are almost nothing, but it is not +always cheapest in first cost. Rather than have a very long line of +conduit, it may be cheaper to pump water, particularly if wind or +water power, costing nothing, can be used.</p> + + +<h4><em>Machines for Pumping</em></h4> + +<p>When it becomes necessary to pump water, there are numerous machines +from which to choose; only the more important ones will be considered. +We may use pumps operated by manual labor, those run by ani<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>mal power, +pumping machinery using the power of the wind or that of falling or +running water; then there are hot-air, steam, and electric pumps, +besides several forms of internal-combustion engines, such as gas, +gasoline, and oil engines. Each has advantages in certain locations +and under certain conditions.</p> + +<p>Of appliances utilizing the forces of Nature, perhaps the simplest +efficient machine is the hydraulic ram. While other machines for +lifting water are composed of two parts, namely, a motor and a pump, +the ram combines both in one apparatus. It is a self-acting pump of +the impulse type, in which force is suddenly applied and discontinued, +these periodical applications resulting in the lifting of water. +Single-acting rams pump the water which operates them; double-acting +rams utilize an impure supply to lift a pure supply from a different +source.</p> + +<p>The advantages of the ram are: it works continuously, day and night, +summer and winter, with but very little attendance; no lubrication is +required, repairs are few, the first cost of installation is small. +Frost protection, however, is essential. The disadvantages are that a +ram can be used only where a large volume of water is available. The +correct setting up is important, also the proper proportioning in size +and length of drive and discharge pipes. The continual jarring tends +to strain the pipes, joints, and valves; hence, heavy piping and +fittings are necessary. A ram of the improved type raises water from +twenty-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>five to thirty feet for every foot of fall in the drive pipe, +and its efficiency is from seventy to eighty per cent.</p> + +<p>Running water is a most convenient and cheap power, which is often +utilized in water wheels and turbines. These supply power to run a +pump; the water to be raised may come from any source, and the pump +may be placed at some distance from the water wheel. Where sufficient +fall is available—at least three feet—the overshot wheel is used. In +California and some other Western States an impulse water wheel is +much used, which is especially adapted to high heads.</p> + + +<h4><em>Windmills Used for Driving Pumps</em></h4> + +<p>The power of the wind applied to a windmill is much used for driving +pumps. It is a long step forward from the ancient and picturesque +Dutch form of windmill, consisting of only four arms with cloth sails, +to the modern improved forms of wheels constructed in wood and in +iron, with a large number of impulse blades, and provided with devices +regulating the speed, turning the wheel out of the wind during a gale, +and stopping it automatically when the storage tank is filled. The +useful power developed by windmills when pumping water in a moderate +wind, say of sixteen miles an hour velocity, is not very high, ranging +from one twenty-fifth horse-power for an eight and one-half foot wheel +to one and one-half horse-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>power for a twenty-five foot wheel. The +claims of some makers of windmills as to the power developed should be +accepted with caution.</p> + +<p>The chief advantage is that, like a ram, the windmill may work night +and day, with but slight attention to lubrication, so long as the wind +blows. But there are also drawbacks; it requires very large storage +tanks to provide for periods of calm; the wheel must be placed +sufficiently exposed to receive the full wind force, either on a tower +or on a high hill, and usually this is not the best place to find +water. Besides, a windmill tower, at least the modern one, is not an +ornamental feature in the landscape. It is expensive when built +sufficiently strong to withstand severe winter gales. During the hot +months of the year, when the farmer, the gardener, and the coachman +require most water, the wind is apt to fail entirely for days in +succession.</p> + + +<h4><em>The Use of Engines</em></h4> + +<p>If water is not available, and wind is considered too unreliable, +pumping must be accomplished by using an engine which, no matter of +what form or type, derives its energy from the combustion of fuel, be +the same coal, wood, charcoal, petroleum or kerosene, gas, gasoline, +or naphtha. The use of such pumping engines implies a constant expense +for fuel, operation, maintenance, and repairs. In some modern forms of +engines this expense is small, notably so in the oil engine,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> and also +in the gasoline engine; hence these types have become favorites.</p> + + +<h4><em>Advantages of Pumping Engines</em></h4> + +<p>An advantage common to all pumping engines is that they can be run at +any time, not like the windmill, which does not operate in a light +breeze, nor like the ram, which fails when the brook runs low. +Domestic pumping engines are built as simple as possible, so that the +gardener, a farm hand, or the domestic help may run them. Skill is not +required to operate them, and they are constructed so as to be safe, +provided ordinary intelligence is applied.</p> + +<p>In using a fuel engine it is desirable, because of the attendance +required, to take a machine of such capacity and size that the water +supply required for two or three days may be pumped to the storage +tank in a few hours.</p> + + +<h4><em>Expansive Force of Heated Air Utilized</em></h4> + +<p>A favorite and extensively used type of domestic pump is the hot-air +engine, in which the expansive force of heated air is used to do +useful work. Among the types are simple and safe machines which do not +easily get out of order. They are started by hand by giving the fly +wheel one or more revolutions. If properly taken care of they are +durable and do not require expensive repairs.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> +<h4><em>Gas and Gasoline Engines</em></h4> + +<p>In gas engines power is derived from the explosion of a mixture of gas +and air. Where a gas supply is available, such engines are very +convenient, for, once started, they will run for hours without +attention. They are economical in the consumption of gas, and give +trouble only where the quality of gas varies.</p> + +<p>Owing to the unavailability of gas on the farm and in country houses, +two other forms of pumping engines have been devised which are +becoming exceedingly popular. One is the gasoline, the other is the +oil engine. Both resemble the gas engine, but differ from it in using +a liquid fuel which is volatilized by a sprayer. Gasoline engines are +now brought to a high state of perfection.</p> + + +<h4><em>Kerosene or Crude Oil as Fuel</em></h4> + +<p>In recent years, internal-combustion engines which use heavy kerosene +or crude oil as fuel have been introduced. These have two palpable +advantages: first, they are safer than gasoline engines; second, they +cost less to run, for crude oil and even refined kerosene are much +cheaper than gasoline. Oil engines resemble the gas and gasoline +engines, but they have larger cylinders, because the mean effective +pressure evolved from the explosion is much less than that of the +gasoline engines.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>Oil engines for pumping water are particularly suitable in regions +where coal and wood cannot be obtained except at exorbitant cost. +Usually, the engine is so built as to be adapted for other farm work. +It shares this advantage with the gasoline engine. Oil engines are +simple, reliable, almost automatic, compact, and reasonable in first +cost and in cost of repairs. There are many forms of such engines in +the market. To be successful from a commercial point of view, an oil +engine should be so designed and built that any unskilled attendant +can run, adjust, and clean it. The cost of operating them, at eight +cents per gallon for kerosene, is only one cent per hour per +horse-power; or one-half of this when ordinary crude oil is used. The +only attention required when running is periodical lubrication and +occasional replenishing of the oil reservoir. The noise of the +exhaust, common to all engines using an explosive force, can be +largely done away with by using a muffler or a silencer. The smell of +oil from the exhaust likewise forms an objection, but can be overcome +by the use of an exhaust washer.</p> + + +<h4><em>Steam and Electric Pumps</em></h4> + +<p>The well-known forms of steam-pumping engines need not be considered +in detail, because high-pressure steam is not often available in +country houses. Where electric current is brought to the building, or +generated for lighting purposes, water may be pumped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> by an electric +pump. Electric motors are easy and convenient to run, very clean, but +so far not very economical. Electric pumps may be arranged so as to +start and stop entirely automatically. Water may be pumped, where +electricity forms the power, either by triplex plunger pumps or by +rotary, screw, or centrifugal pumps.</p> + + +<h4><em>Pumps Worked by Hand</em></h4> + +<p>Space forbids giving a description of the many simpler devices used +for lifting water. In small farmhouses lift and force pumps worked by +hand are now introduced, and the old-fashioned, moss-covered +draw-bucket, which is neither convenient nor sanitary, is becoming a +relic of past times.</p> + + +<h4><em>Reservoirs and Storage Tanks</em></h4> + +<p>The water pumped is stored either in small masonry or earth +reservoirs, or else in storage tanks of either wood, iron, or steel, +placed on a wood or steel tower. Wooden tanks are cheap but unsightly, +require frequent renewal of the paint, and give trouble by leaking, +freezing, and corrosion of hoops. In recent years elevated tanks are +supplanted by pressure tanks. Several such systems, differing but +little from one another, are becoming quite well known. In these water +is stored under suitable pressure in air-tight tanks, filled partly +with water and partly with air.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> +<h4><em>A Simple Pressure System</em></h4> + +<p>One system consists of a circular, wrought-steel, closed tank, made +air- and water-tight, a force pump for pumping water into the tank, +and pipe connections. The tank is placed either horizontally or +vertically in the basement or cellar, or else placed outdoors in the +ground at a depth below freezing. Water is pumped into the bottom of +the tank, whereby its air acquires sufficient pressure to force water +to the upper floors.</p> + +<p>This simple system has some marked advantages over the outside or the +attic tank. In these, water gets warm in summer and freezes in winter. +Vermin and dust get into the tank, and the water stagnates. In the +pressure tank, water is kept aërated, cool, and clean.</p> + +<p>Another pressure tank has an automatic valve, controlled by a float +and connected with suction of pump. It prevents the tank from becoming +water-logged by maintaining the correct amount of air inside.</p> + + +<h4><em>An Ideal System for a Country House</em></h4> + +<p>Still another system using pressure tanks is more complete than either +of the others, comprising engine, pump, air compressor, a water tank, +and also an air tank. It is best described by a recent example +constructed from plans and under the direction of the writer. The +buildings supplied with water comprise the mansion, the stable, the +cottage, and a dairy, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 48]<br />[Pg 49]</a></span> the pumping station is placed near the +shore of the lake from which the supply is taken. See Figs. <a href="#Illo_FIG_1">1</a> and <a href="#Illo_FIG_2">2</a>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Illo_FIG_1" id="Illo_FIG_1"></a><a href="images/fig1_big.png"> +<img src="images/fig1.png" width="500" height="372" alt="Fig. 1." title="Fig. 1." /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 1.<br /> +<a href="images/fig1_big.png">VIEW FULL SIZE</a></span> + +<p class="title">DIAGRAM OF COMPRESSED AIR TANK SYSTEM.</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Illo_FIG_2" id="Illo_FIG_2"></a> +<img src="images/fig2.jpg" width="500" height="426" alt="Fig. 2." title="Fig. 2." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 2.</span> + +<p class="title">PRESSURE-TANK PUMPING STATION.</p> + +<p>Interior view of pumping station of compressed air-tank system (see +<a href="#Illo_FIG_1">plan</a> on opposite page) showing 3,000 gallon water tank, air tank of +150 pounds pressure and 10 horse-power gasoline engine.</p> +</div> + +<p>The pump house is about 20 feet by 27 feet, and contains a +water-storage tank 6 feet in diameter and 13<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> feet long, of a +capacity of 3,000 gallons; an air tank of same dimensions as the water +tank, holding air under 150 pounds pressure; a 10 horse-power gasoline +engine, direct-connected, by means of friction clutch,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> with an air +compressor and also with a triplex pump of 75 gallons capacity per +minute.</p> + +<p>The water in the tank is kept under 75 pounds pressure, and at the +hydrant near the house, located about 100 feet above the pumping +station, there is an available pressure of 33 pounds. The last drop of +water flows from the water tank under the full pressure of 75 pounds +at the pumping station. The suction pipe into the lake is 4 inches and +is provided with well strainers to prevent clogging.</p> + +<p>The cost of pumping water by this system is quite reasonable. The +gasoline engine requires per horse-power per hour about 1<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">4</span> gallons +of gasoline, and at sixteen cents per gallon this makes the cost for +1,000 gallons pumped about five cents. To this expense should, +however, be added the cost of lubricating oil, repairs, amount for +depreciation, and the small cost for labor in running the engine.</p> + +<p>Water pipes forming a distribution system should always be chosen +generous in diameter, in order to avoid undue loss of pressure by +friction. Where fire hydrants are provided, the size of the water main +should not be below four inches. All branches should be controlled by +shut-offs, for which the full-way gate valves are used in preference +to globe valves. Pipe-line material is usually galvanized, +screw-jointed wrought iron for sizes up to four inches.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, a word about water purification. Where the quality of +the water supply is not above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> suspicion it may be improved by +filtration. A filter should never be installed without the advice of a +qualified expert, for there are numerous worthless devices and few +really efficient ones. Where a filter is not available, the water used +for drinking should be boiled or sterilized if there is the slightest +doubt as to its wholesomeness.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER III</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Purifying Water by Copper Sulphate</strong></p> + + +<p>From the standpoint of the health of the community, the most vital +problem is to get pure water. Almost equally important, when comfort +and peace of mind is considered, is the procuring of sweet water. The +wise owner of a country home looks to the water supply upon which his +family is dependent. The careful farmer is particular about the water +his stock, as well as his family, must drink. But careless persons +constitute the large majority. Most people in the city and in the +country pay no attention to their drinking water so long as it "tastes +all right."</p> + + +<h4><em>Clear Water Often Dangerous</em></h4> + +<p>Some years ago the inhabitants of Ithaca, N. Y., furnished a pitiful +example of this foolhardy spirit. For a year previous to the breaking +out of the typhoid epidemic, the public was warned, through the local +and the metropolitan press, of the dangerous condition of Ithaca's +water supply. Professors of Cornell College joined in these warnings. +But the people gave no heed, probably because the water was <em>clear</em> +and its taste sweet and agreeable. As was the case in this instance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +bacteria are tolerated indefinitely, and it is only an alarming +increase in the death rate that makes people careful. Then they begin +to boil the water—when it is too late for some of them.</p> + + +<h4><em>Bad-Tasting Water not Always Poisonous</em></h4> + +<p>But let the taste become bad and the odor repulsive, and a scare is +easily started. "There must be dead things in the water, or it +wouldn't taste so horrible," is the common verdict. Some newspaper +seizes upon the trouble and makes of it a sensation. The ubiquitous +reporter writes of one of "the animals" that it "looks like a wagon +wheel and tastes like a fish." With such a remarkable organism +contaminating one's drink no wonder there is fear of some dread +disease. The water is believed to be full of "germs"; whereas the +pollution is entirely due to the presence of algæ—never poisonous to +mankind, in some cases acting as purifying agents, but at certain +seasons of the year imparting a taste and odor to the water that +cannot be tolerated.</p> + +<p>Algæ—what are they? They are aquatic plants. Algæ are not to be +confounded with the water vegetation common to the eye and passing by +the term weeds. Such plants include eelgrass, pickerel weed, water +plantain, and "duckmeat"—all of which have roots and produce flowers. +This vegetation does not lend a bad odor or taste to the water. In +itself it is harm<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>less, although it sometimes affords a refuge for +organisms of a virulent type.</p> + +<p>But when the aquatic vegetation of the flowering variety is eliminated +from consideration, there still remains a group of water plants called +algæ. They comprise one-fifth of the known flowerless plants. They are +the ancestors of the entire vegetable kingdom. Those whose habitat is +the sea number the largest plants known in nature. Certain forms found +in the Pacific are supposed to be 800 feet in length; others are +reported to be 1,500 feet long. The marine variety are familiar as the +brown kelps and the wracks, which are very common along our Northern +coast.</p> + + +<h4><em>Plants Which Pollute Drinking Water</em></h4> + +<p>The fresh-water algæ are usually grass green in color. This green +variety is often seen as a spongy coating to the surface of stagnant +pools, which goes by the name of "frog spawn" or "pond scum." One of +this description, <em>Spirogyra</em>, has done thousands of dollars' worth of +damage by smothering the life out of young water-cress plants in +artificial beds constructed for winter propagation. When the cress is +cut the plants are necessarily left in a weakened condition, and the +algæ form a thick mat over the surface of the water, thus preventing +the growth of the cress plants and oftentimes killing them. The +absolute necessity of exterminating these algæ led to the perfection +of the copper-purification process.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>It is, however, a variety of algæ not easily detected that +contaminates the water. So long as they are in a live, healthy +condition they benefit drinking water by purifying it. Indeed, some +scientists have attributed the so-called self-purification of a stream +entirely to the activities of these plants. Of such, one form, +<em>Chlamydomonas</em>, is bright grass green in appearance. But the largest +group—the plants which have the worst reputation as polluters of +drinking water—are popularly known as the "blue-green algæ" +(<em>Schizophyceæ</em>). The common name tells the color of these plants, +although there are exceptions in this respect, some of them showing +shades of yellow, brown, olive, chocolate, and purplish red. This +variety of algæ flourishes in the summer months, since a relatively +high temperature and shallow stagnant water favor its germination. If +the pond begins to dry up, the death of the organisms takes place, and +the result is a most disagreeable, persistent odor which renders the +water unfit for drinking purposes. This result is chemically due to +the breaking down of highly organized compounds of sulphur and +phosphorus in the presence of the large amount of nitrogen contained +in these plants. Decomposition is not necessary for some of the blue +greens to give off a bad odor, however. A number of them, on account +of their oil-content, produce an odor when in a healthy condition that +is sometimes likened to raw green corn or to nasturtiums, but usually +it cannot be so pleasantly described.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>The Department of Agriculture has been able to solve the problem of +exterminating algæ from water supplies.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The department has done +more; for it has succeeded in perfecting a method by which a reservoir +contaminated with typhoid or other pathogenic bacteria can be +purified. The work was begun with an inquiry into the extent of the +trouble from algal pollution. Letters were addressed to some five +hundred engineers and superintendents of water companies scattered all +over the United States. The replies, which came from almost every +State in the Union, were burdened with one complaint—"Algæ are our +worst pest"; and with one prayer—"Come over into Macedonia, and help +us."</p> + + +<h4><em>A Cheap and Available Remedy for Algæ</em></h4> + +<p>Convinced of the need of earnest work, extensive laboratory +experiments were inaugurated. The problem presented was this: the +remedy must not only be readily available, but it must be cheap, that +advantage may be taken of it by the poorest communities, as well as by +those owning large reservoirs. Above all, the remedy must be +absolutely harmless to man; the poison used to exterminate algæ must +not in any way affect the water drinkers. A large number of +sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>stances were used in the experiments before the final decision +rested with copper sulphate. This salt is very poisonous to algæ. On +the other hand, copper in solution just strong enough to destroy algal +growth could not possibly injure man; in fact, the temporary presence +of such a small amount of copper in drinking water could not be +detected.</p> + + +<h4><em>A Practical Demonstration</em></h4> + +<p>The results in the laboratory being successful, the next step was to +make a practical demonstration of the value of the method. This was +first done in the fall of 1901. At Ben, Va., water cress is grown in +large quantities during the winter, when it is a valuable market crop. +Dams are constructed across a stream in such a manner as to enable the +maintenance of a water level not too high for the growth of plants; +when a freeze is threatened the plants can be flooded. In the cress +beds selected for the experiments the water is obtained from a thermal +spring whose temperature throughout the year is about 70° F. This +temperature is particularly favorable to the growth of "frog spawn." +After the cress was cut for market, the algæ frequently developed so +rapidly as to smother the life out of the weakened plants. When this +occurred, the practice was to rake out both water cress and algæ and +reset the entire bed. This was not only expensive; half the time it +failed to exterminate the pest. It was,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> therefore, most desirable to +devise a method of ridding the bed of algal growth without injuring +the cress.</p> + + +<h4><em>The Copper-sulphate Method Tested</em></h4> + +<p>Here the copper-sulphate method was put to a practical test. At the +outset a strong solution was sprayed on the algæ which coated the +surface of the pond. This only killed the algal growth with which the +particles of copper came in contact and left the main body of algæ +unaffected. Then trial was made of dissolving the copper directly in +the water, and the result was most satisfactory. The solution used was +that of 1 part of copper to 50,000,000 parts of water.</p> + +<p>Growers need have no trouble in the future. They need have no fear of +employing the method, as the copper solution required for killing the +algæ could not possibly injure water cress, provided ordinary care is +used in the work. As to the frequency of treatment required, one or +two applications a year will generally be found sufficient, as this +letter, received from the manager of the Virginia company, goes to +show:</p> + +<p>"The 'moss' has given me no trouble at all this winter; in fact, I +have for six months had to resort to the copper sulphate only once.... +All the conditions were favorable last fall and early winter for a +riot of 'moss,' but it did not appear at all until just a few days +ago, and then yielded to treatment much more readily than it did when +I first began to use the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> copper." This letter was written over three +years after Dr. Moore made his experiment in these cress beds.</p> + +<p>Satisfied with the results attained in exterminating algal growth in +water-cress beds, attention was next given to reservoirs. Some fifty +water supplies were treated during the summer of 1904, and in every +case success attended the copper cure. In one respect the results were +surprising. It was found that in practice the copper-sulphate method +worked better than in theoretic experimentation; results in large +reservoirs were more pronounced than in the laboratory. In fact, it +developed that the solution necessary to kill algæ in the laboratory +must contain from five to twenty times as much copper as that +contained in a solution which will exterminate algal growth in its +natural habitat. This is not easily explained, if it can be explained +at all. The test reason advanced is that only the most resistant +organisms stand transplanting to an artificial environment. But, after +all, the important point is that the new method works better in +practice than was expected.</p> + + +<h4><em>A Prescription for the Copper Cure</em></h4> + +<p>Thus the department is able to announce that the process is no longer +in the experimental stage, and also to say what conditions must be +known in determining the proper quantity of copper sulphate for +destroying algæ, together with a prescription for the copper cure.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +Here it is, for the benefit of careful persons who will use the method +with proper intelligence: "The importance of knowing the temperature +of the contaminated water is second only to the necessity of knowing +the organism present. With increase of temperature the toxicity of a +given dilution increases, and <em>vice versa</em>. Assuming that 59° F. is +the average temperature of reservoirs during the seasons when +treatment is demanded, the quantity of copper should be increased or +decreased approximately 2.5 per cent for each degree below or above +59° F.</p> + +<p>"Similar scales should be arranged for the organic content and the +temporary hardness of the water. With the limited data at hand it is +impracticable to determine these figures, but an increase of 2 per +cent in the quantity of copper for each part per 100,000 of organic +matter and an increase of 0.5 to 5 per cent in the proportion of +copper for each part per 100,000 of temporary hardness will possibly +be found correct. The proper variation in the increase due to hardness +will depend upon the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide; if very +small, 5 per cent increase is desirable; if large, 0.5 per cent is +sufficient."</p> + +<p>The information in this prescription is to be used in connection with +a table<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> published by the Department of Agriculture. This table +gives the number of parts of water to one part of copper sulphate +necessary to kill the various forms of algæ which are listed. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +formulæ vary from 1 part of copper to 100,000 parts of water, +necessary to destroy the most resistant and very rare forms (three of +these are listed), to 1 part of copper in 25,000,000 parts of water, +which is a sufficiently strong solution to exterminate <em>Spirogyra</em>, +the cress-bed pest. By far the majority of forms do not require a +solution stronger than that of 1 part of copper to 1,000,000 parts of +water.</p> + + +<h4><em>What the Agricultural Department is Doing</em></h4> + +<p>It is true that the department is not now holding out, directly, a +helping hand to the owner of a country place, or to the farmer, in +this campaign of purifying drinking water. In the first place, the +greatest good of the greatest number demands that large reservoirs, +which supply a great number of people with drinking water, ought to be +considered first. Such supplies, moreover, are most frequently +contaminated. Where fifty reservoirs were treated last summer, ten +times that number will be "cured" this summer. It will be readily +seen, therefore, that in conducting such a large number of +experiments—considering preliminary reports, prescribing for +treatment, and keeping proper account of results—the department, with +a limited force and limited facilities, has its hands more than full.</p> + +<p>More important still, there is an absolute need of the services of +some expert on the ground. While an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> algologist is a functionary not +generally employed by water companies—in fact, a man trained in the +physiology of algæ is difficult to find—nevertheless, it is highly +important, as the department views it, to have the coöperation of an +expert versed to some extent in the biological examination of drinking +water. In other words, the copper cure is not a "patent medicine," +with printed directions which any person could follow. Intelligence +and care are absolutely essential in the use of this treatment. +Furthermore, each case must be treated as a distinct and separate +case, as a physician would treat a patient.</p> + + +<h4><em>Actual Purification Simple</em></h4> + +<p>Suppose, however, an owner of a country place, which is dependent upon +a fresh-water pond for its water supply, finds that his drinking water +is contaminated, that the taste and odor are such as to render the +water unfit for use. There is no reason why he should not treat the +supply, provided he is properly careful. When the nature of the +polluting organism is definitely determined and the average +temperature of the water observed, then the necessary formula can be +decided upon. First, of course, the pond must be plotted, the depth +found, and the capacity computed. The department will willingly +furnish data for this purpose, together with blanks upon which to +submit details as to contaminating organisms and water tem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>perature, +to any applicant. Once the proper solution is determined upon, the +actual work of purification is most simple. In the following +directions the department outlines the most practicable method of +introducing the copper sulphate into a water supply:</p> + + +<h4><em>Directions for the Copper Cure</em></h4> + +<p>"Place the required number of pounds of copper sulphate in a coarse +bag—gunny sack or some equally loose mesh—and, attaching this to the +stern of a row-boat near the surface of the water, row slowly back and +forth over the reservoir, on each trip keeping the boat within ten to +twenty feet of the previous path. In this manner about a hundred +pounds of copper sulphate can be distributed in one hour. By +increasing the number of boats, and, in the case of deep reservoirs, +hanging two or three bags to each boat, the treatment of even a large +reservoir may be accomplished in from four to six hours. It is +necessary, of course, to reduce as much as possible the time required +for applying the copper, so that for immense supplies, with a capacity +of several billion gallons, it would probably be desirable to use a +launch, carrying long projecting spars to which could be attached bags +containing several hundred pounds of copper sulphate.</p> + +<p>"The substitution of wire netting for the gunny-sack bag allows a more +rapid solution of the sulphate, and the time required for the +introduction of the salt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> may thus be considerably reduced. It is best +to select as warm a day for treatment as circumstances will permit."</p> + + +<h4><em>Cost of the Treatment</em></h4> + +<p>Not difficult, one would say. No—when the proper solution is +determined; to reach that determination is the difficulty. That the +method can be tried "at home" is proved by the results obtained by the +owner of a country home in the vicinity of New York. Tired of +consulting engineers, who looked at his water supply, informed him +that they could do nothing, and then charged him a big fee (to one he +paid $250), this owner resorted to the copper-sulphate treatment. The +cure cost the man just $2—but let his letter to the department tell +the story:</p> + +<p>"My place in the country is located at Water Mill, in the township of +Southampton, in Long Island. I purchased it in April, 1902, and was +largely influenced in selecting this piece of land by the beauty of a +pond which bounds it on the east. This little body of water covers +about two acres, is fed by numerous springs, and discharges into Mecox +Bay, the southern boundary of the land. When I bought the place the +pond was filled with clear water. About the middle of the following +June algæ began to show, and in August the surface was almost entirely +covered by the growth. The odor was offensive, and myriads of small +insects hovered over the masses of algæ much of the time.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> I consulted +two engineers interested in the storage of water, and they told me +that nothing could be done. The condition was so objectionable that I +planned to plant a thick hedge of willows along the bank to shut off +the view of the pond from the house.... I examined the pond on June +15th and found large masses of algæ covering an area several hundred +feet in length and from twenty to forty feet in width. No +microscopical examination was made of the growth, but I was informed +that it seemed to be largely composed of filaments of <em>Spirogyra</em> and +other <em>Confervæ</em>. On June 18th the treatment was begun.... In one week +the growth had sunk and the pond was clear water. I examined the pond +September 15th and found it still clear.</p> + +<p>"The use of the sulphate of copper converted an offensive +insect-breeding pond into a body of beautifully clear water. The pond +was full of fish, but the copper did not seem to harm them."</p> + + +<h4><em>Effect of Copper Sulphate on Fish</em></h4> + +<p>Native trout were not injured when the large reservoir at Cambridge, +N. Y., was purified by the copper treatment. A slightly different +result, in this respect, was reported from Elmira, N. Y., however. +Part of the report is as follows:</p> + +<p>"The effect of the copper-sulphate treatment on the different animal +life was as follows: numerous 'polly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>wogs' killed, but no frogs; +numerous small (less than two inches long) black bass and two large +ones (eight inches long) killed; about ten large 'bullheads' were +killed, but no small ones; numerous small (less than two inches long) +'sunfish' were killed, but no large ones.</p> + +<p>"The wind brought the dead fish to the corners of the reservoir, and +it was very little trouble to remove them. No dead fish were seen +twenty-four hours after completion of the treatment."</p> + +<p>The injury done by copper sulphate to fish is a more serious matter +than was at first supposed. Brook trout are, apparently, the least +resistant to the salt. A Massachusetts trout pond stocked with +eight-inch trout lost forty per cent as a result of the introduction +of a strong solution of copper sulphate. The Bureau of Fisheries is +working in conjunction with the Division of Plant Physiology in this +matter, and it is hoped to secure reliable information. In the +meantime, owners of ponds stocked with game fish would do well to take +great care before resorting to the copper cure for algæ—that is, if +they hesitate to lose a part of the fish.</p> + + +<h4><em>Water May be Drunk During Treatment</em></h4> + +<p>When a pond or reservoir is treated with the proper amount of copper +sulphate to remove algæ—except in the case of the few very resistant +forms requiring a stronger solution than 1 part of copper to +1,000,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> parts of water—there is no need of discontinuing the use +of the water supply during treatment; the water may be drunk with +impunity. But when water known to be polluted with pathogenic bacteria +is sterilized by means of copper sulphate in strong solution, it is +just as well to discontinue the use of the water for drinking purposes +for not more than twenty-four hours. Even then, this is an overcareful +precaution rather than a necessity.</p> + +<p>Experiments conducted with great care and thoroughness demonstrate +that at room temperature, which is near the temperature of a reservoir +in summer, a solution of 1 part of copper to 100,000 parts of water +will destroy typhoid bacteria in from three to five hours. Similar +experiments have proved that a copper solution of like strength is +fatal to cholera germs in three hours, provided the temperature is +above 20° F. As was the case with algæ, bacteria were found to be much +more sensitive to copper when polluting water than when grown in +artificial media.</p> + + +<h4><em>The Use of Copper Tanks</em></h4> + +<p>The toxic effect of metallic copper upon typhoid bacteria in water +gives some hints as to prevention of the disease by the use of copper +tanks. This should not altogether take the place of the boiling of the +water; it is useful in keeping it free from contamination, although +water allowed to stand in copper re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>ceptacles for a period of from +twenty-four to forty-eight hours at room temperature would be +effectively sterilized, no matter what its contamination and no matter +how much matter it held in suspension. But in order to insure such +results the copper must be kept thoroughly clean. This polishing is +not, as was popularly supposed, to protect the consumer from "copper +poisoning," but to prevent the metal from becoming so coated with +foreign substances that there is no contact of the copper with the +water, hence no antiseptic quality.</p> + +<p>Dr. Henry Kreamer, of Philadelphia, proved that within four hours +typhoid germs were completely destroyed by the introduction into the +polluted water of copper foil.</p> + +<p>"Granting the efficiency of the boiling of water for domestic +purposes, I believe that the copper-treated water is more natural and +more healthful.... The intestinal bacteria, like colon and typhoid, +are completely destroyed by placing clean copper foil in the water +containing them.</p> + +<p>"Pending the introduction of the copper treatment of water on a large +scale, the householder may avail himself of a method for the +purification of drinking water by the use of strips of copper foil +about three and one-half inches square to each quart of water, this +being allowed to stand overnight, or from six to eight hours at the +ordinary temperature, and then the water drawn off or the copper foil +removed."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>Although a splendid antiseptic, copper in weak solution is not +harmful, no more so than the old copper utensils used by our +forefathers were harmful. Undoubtedly they were of benefit, and the +use of them prevented the growth of typhoid and other bacteria. People +of to-day might well go back to copper receptacles for drinking +water.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For published reports of the work, see Bulletins 64 and +76, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture; reports +prepared by Dr. George T. Moore and his assistant, Mr. Karl F. +Kellerman.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See Bulletin No. 76, supra.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER IV</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Ridding Stagnant Water of Mosquitoes</strong></p> + + +<p>Because of the serious and often fatal injury it inflicts on man, the +most dangerous animal known is the mosquito. Compared with the evil +done by the insect pest, the cobra's death toll is small. This +venomous serpent is found only in hot countries, particularly in +India, while mosquitoes know no favorite land or clime—unless it be +Jersey. Arctic explorers complain of them. In Alaska, it is recorded +by a scientist that "mosquitoes existed in countless millions, driving +us to the verge of suicide or insanity." A traveler on the north shore +of Lake Superior, when the snow was several feet deep, and the ice on +the lake five feet in thickness, relates that "mosquitoes appeared in +swarms, literally blackening the banks of snow in sheltered places."</p> + + +<h4><em>Mosquitoes Responsible for Yellow Fever</em></h4> + +<p>In the temperate zone this evil-breeding insect was, until recent +years, considered more in the light of an exasperating pest. It is now +known, however, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> malaria is due entirely to the bites of +mosquitoes. But it is in the tropical countries that their deadliest +work is done. There, it has been proved beyond question, the +mosquitoes are responsible for the carriage of yellow fever. If, in a +yellow-fever ridden region, one were to live entirely in an inclosure, +carefully protected with proper screens—as certain entomologists +did—there practically would be no danger from the dread disease, even +if all other precautions were neglected.</p> + + +<h4><em>Effect of a Mosquito Bite</em></h4> + +<p>The crime committed by the mosquito against its innocent victim, man, +is more in the nature of manslaughter than of murder, according to the +authorities. There is no <em>premeditated malice</em>. "A mosquito bites +primarily to obtain food," says a leading entomologist; "there is +neither malice nor venom in the intent, whatever there may be in the +act." There isn't great comfort in the intelligence conveyed by the +scientist, nor in his further observation:</p> + +<p>"Theoretically, there would seem to be no reason why there should be +any pain from the introduction of the minute lancets of the insects, +and the small amount of bloodletting is usually a benefit rather than +otherwise. Unfortunately, however, in its normal condition the human +blood is too much inclined to clot to be taken unchanged into the +mosquito stomach;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> hence, when the insect bites, a minute droplet of +poison is introduced, whose function it is to thin out the fluid and +make it more suitable for mosquito digestion. It is this poison that +sets up the inflammation and produces the irritation or swelling.... +The pain is caused entirely by the action of the poison in breaking up +the blood, and, as the first act of a biting mosquito is to introduce +the poison into the wound, the pain and inflammation will be the same, +whether the insect gets its meal or not. In fact, it has been said +that if a mosquito be allowed to suck its fill and then fly, the bite +will not itch, and there is just a basis of justification for this."</p> + +<p>To make a scientific inquiry into the habits of the mosquito, and to +do it patiently, one should be far from the maddening swarms, or at +least effectively screened in. Then it would be possible to believe +the statement of the Government's entomologist that not "one mosquito +in a million" ever gets the opportunity to taste the blood of a +warm-blooded animal. As proof of this there are, in this country, +great tracts of marshy land never frequented by warm-blooded animals, +and in which mosquitoes are breeding in countless numbers. The point +is emphasized by the prevalence of mosquitoes in the arctic circle and +other uninhabited regions.</p> + +<p>If this gory insect does not live by blood alone, how is it nourished? +Female mosquitoes are by nature vegetarians; they are plant feeders. +Why they should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> draw blood at all is a question which remains +unsolved by entomologists—as well as by the suffering victims. The +females have been observed sucking the nectar from flowers; obtaining +nutriment from boiled potatoes, even from watermelon rinds, from which +they extract the juice. As regards the blood habit, the male mosquito +is a "teetotaler." Just how this male insect lives, scientists have +not determined. He may not take nourishment at all. At any rate, the +mouth parts of the male are so different from those of the female that +it is probable his food is obtained differently. The male is often +seen sipping at drops of water, and a taste for molasses is ascribed +to the male mosquito by one authority.</p> + + +<h4><em>Presence of Mosquitoes Depends Upon Winds</em></h4> + +<p>A common remark heard along the Jersey shore, also on Long Island, is +this: "When we have a sea breeze we are not troubled with mosquitoes, +but when there comes a land breeze they are a pest." While this +observation is true, the reasons therefore entertained by the +unscientific mind are erroneous. The matter of the absence or +abundance of mosquitoes in varying winds is closely related to the +inquiry which entomologists have made: how far will mosquitoes fly? +Says one investigator:</p> + +<p>"The migration of mosquitoes has been the source of much +misapprehension on the part of the public.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> The idea prevalent at our +seaside resorts that a land breeze brings swarms of mosquitoes from +far inland is based on the supposition that these insects are capable +of long-sustained flight, and a certain amount of battling against the +wind. This is an error. Mosquitoes are frail of wing; a light puff of +breath will illustrate this by hurling the helpless creature away, and +it will not venture on the wing again for some time after finding a +safe harbor. The prevalence of mosquitoes during a land breeze is +easily explained. It is usually only during the lulls in the wind that +Culex can fly. Generally on our coast a sea breeze means a stiff +breeze, and during these mosquitoes will be found hovering on the +leeward side of houses, sand dunes, and thick foliage.... While the +strong breezes last, they will stick closely to these friendly +shelters, though a cluster of houses may be but a few rods off, filled +with unsuspecting mortals who imagine their tormentors are far inland +over the salt meadows. But if the wind dies down, as it usually does +when veering, out come swarms upon swarms of females intent upon +satisfying their depraved taste for blood. This explains why they +appear on the field of action almost immediately after the cessation +of the strong breeze; on the supposition that they were blown inland, +this sudden reappearance would be unaccountable."</p> + +<p>A sultry, rainy period of midsummer is commonly referred to as "good +mosquito weather." The ac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>cepted idea is that mosquitoes are much more +abundant at such times. This is true, and the explanation is simple. +Mosquito larvæ, or wrigglers, as they are termed, require water for +their development. A heavy shower leaves standing water, which, when +the air is full of moisture, evaporates slowly. Then, too, the heat +favors the growth of the microörganisms on which the larvæ feed; +wrigglers found in the water forty-eight hours after their formation +will have plenty of food, and adult mosquitoes will appear six to +eight days after the eggs are laid. Clear weather, with quick +evaporation, interferes with the development of the wrigglers, so that +a season with plenty of rain, but with sunshiny, drying weather +intervening, is not "good mosquito weather."</p> + + +<h4><em>Destroy the Larvæ</em></h4> + +<p>Inasmuch as a generation of mosquitoes appear to torment man within +ten days, at the longest, after the eggs are laid; as a batch laid by +a female mosquito contains from two hundred to four hundred eggs; as +from each egg may issue a larva or wriggler which in six days will be +an adult mosquito on the wing—it is to the destruction of the larvæ +that attention should be directed. The larva is a slender organism, +white or gray in color, comprising eight segments. The last of these +parts is in the form of a tube, through which the wriggler breathes. +Although its habitat is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> water, it must come to the surface to +breathe, therefore its natural position is head down and tail, or +respiratory tube, up. Now, if oil is spread on the surface of a pool +inhabited by mosquito larvæ, the wrigglers are denied access to the +air which they must have. Therefore, they drown, just as any other +air-breathing animal would drown under similar circumstances.</p> + + +<h4><em>Best Preventive Measures</em></h4> + +<p>As to the best methods to employ in ridding a country place, or any +other region, of mosquitoes, the directions furnished by Dr. L. O. +Howard, the Government entomologist, who has been a careful student of +the problem since 1867, are of great value:</p> + +<p>"Altogether,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> the most satisfactory ways of fighting mosquitoes are +those which result in the destruction of the larvæ or the abolition of +their breeding places. In not every locality are these measures +feasible, but in many places there is absolutely no necessity for the +mosquito annoyance. The three main preventive measures are the +draining of breeding places, the introduction of small fish into +fishless breeding places, and the treatment of such pools with +kerosene. These are three alternatives, any one of which will be +efficacious and any one of which may be used where there are reasons +against the trial of the others."</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p> +<h4><em>Quantity of Kerosene to be Used</em></h4> + +<p>"The quantity of kerosene to be practically used, as shown by the +writer's experiments, is approximately one ounce to fifteen square +feet of water surface, and ordinarily the application need not be +renewed for one month.... The writer is now advising the use of the +grade known as lubricating oil, as the result of the extensive +experiments made on Staten Island. It is much more persistent than the +ordinary illuminating oils.... On ponds of any size the quickest and +most perfect method of forming a film of kerosene will be to spray the +oil over the surface of the water.... It is not, however, the great +sea marshes along the coast, where mosquitoes breed in countless +numbers, which we can expect to treat by this method, but the inland +places, where the mosquito supply is derived from comparatively small +swamps and circumscribed pools. In most localities people endure the +torment or direct their remedies against the adult insect only, +without the slightest attempt to investigate the source of the supply, +when the very first step should be the undertaking of such an +investigation.</p> + +<p>"The remedy which depends upon draining breeding places needs no +extended discussion. Naturally the draining off of the water of pools +will prevent mosquitoes from breeding there, and the possibility of +such draining and the means by which it may be done will vary with +each individual case. The writer is in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>formed that an elaborate bit of +work which has been done at Virginia Beach bears on this method. +Behind the hotels at this place, the hotels themselves fronting upon +the beach, was a large fresh-water lake, which, with its adjoining +swamps, was a source of mosquito supply, and it was further feared +that it made the neighborhood malarious. Two canals were cut from the +lake to the ocean, and by means of machinery the water of the lake was +changed from a body of fresh to a body of salt water. Water that is +somewhat brackish will support mosquitoes, but water that is purely +salt will destroy them."</p> + + +<h4><em>Employing Fish to Destroy Larvæ</em></h4> + +<p>"The introduction of fish into fishless breeding places is another +matter. It may be undesirable to treat certain breeding places with +kerosene, as, for instance, water which is intended for drinking, +although this has been done without harm in tanks where, as is +customary, the drinking supply is drawn from the bottom of the tank. +The value of most small fishes for the purpose of destroying mosquito +larvæ was well indicated by an experience described to us by Mr. C. H. +Russell, of Bridgeport, Conn. In this case a very high tide broke away +a dike and flooded the salt meadows of Stratford, a small town a few +miles from Bridgeport. The receding tide left two small lakes, nearly +side by side and of the same size.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> In one lake the tide left a dozen +or more small fishes, while the other was fishless. An examination by +Mr. Russell in the summer of 1891 showed that while the fishless lake +contained tens of thousands of mosquito larvæ, that containing the +fish had no larvæ. The use of carp for this purpose has been +demonstrated, but most small fish will answer as well. The writer +knows of none that will be better than either of the common little +sticklebacks (<em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em> or <em>Pygosteus pungitius</em>)."</p> + +<p>Is mosquito fighting a success? This question is an all-important one, +not only to the summer resident, but also to cities and towns +contiguous to salt-water marshes, or to swampy lands, well suited for +mosquito breeding. The answer is this: Mosquito control is possible; +actual extermination impossible with an insect that develops so +rapidly. The "Jersey mosquito," the unscientific name popularly given +to an insect of huge size and ravenous appetite, has become famous. As +a matter of fact, the species of mosquitoes found in New Jersey are no +more rare or varied than those found on Staten Island or on Long +Island. But until very recently the region lying between Jersey City +and Newark has been particularly favorable to the development of +mosquito larvæ. It has been announced in the press that mosquitoes +have been driven out of the Newark meadows. This is an exaggeration, +of course, but the work accomplished there is remarkable, and other +infected regions may take heart from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> marked success which has +attended the efforts of Dr. John B. Smith, Entomologist of the New +Jersey State Agricultural Experiment Station.</p> + + +<h4><em>Remarkable Work Accomplished</em></h4> + +<p>The salt marsh lying within the limits of the city of Newark covers an +area of about 3,500 acres. It extends from a point on the Passaic +River to the mouth of Bound Creek, where it empties into Newark Bay. +Its length is about eight miles and it has an extreme width of three +miles. The Newark marsh problem was a very complex one. The meadows +are cut into many sections by the several traversing railroads and by +creeks; this materially influences the drainage. The Peddie Street +sewer crosses the marsh in a straight line of about three miles from +the city to the bay. This sewer is twenty feet wide, and its banks are +from three to four feet above the marsh land.</p> + +<p>An experiment with machine ditching was made in 1903. The worst parts +of the marsh were selected, and about 40,000 feet of ditches were cut. +These ditches were six inches wide, two feet deep, and the drainage +was perfect from the outset. The section of meadow thus drained became +so dry in consequence that the grass growing there can now be cut by a +machine in summer, whereas formerly the hay could be mown only in +winter. The work was so successful that the Newark Common Council +appropriated $5,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> to complete the mosquito drainage of the marsh. +Of the results obtained up to this spring, Dr. Smith says:</p> + +<p>"This Newark marsh problem was an unusual one, and one that would not +be likely to recur in the same way at any other point along the coast. +Nevertheless, of the entire 3,500 acres of marsh, not 100 acres remain +on which there is any breeding whatever, and that is dangerous only in +a few places and under certain abnormal conditions. Including old +ditches cleaned out, about 360,000 running feet of ditches have been +dug on the Newark marshes, partly by machine and partly by hand, and +if the work is not entirely successful, that is due to the defects +which were not included in the drainage scheme. It is a safe +prediction, I think, that Newark will have no early brood of +mosquitoes in 1905, comparable with the invasions of 1903 and 1904."</p> + +<p>This prophecy has proved true.</p> + + +<h4><em>The Campaign on Long Island</em></h4> + +<p>The wealthy summer residents along the north shore of Long Island, +keenly alive to the necessity of driving mosquitoes from the region +where they spend so much of their time, have attacked the problem in a +scientific, as well as an energetic way. The North Shore Improvement +Association intrusted the work to Henry Clay Weeks, a sanitary +engineer, with whom was associated, as entomologist, Prof. Charles B.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +Davenport, Professor of Entomology at the University of Chicago and +head of the Cold Spring Biological Laboratory; also F. E. Lutz, an +instructor in biology at the University of Chicago. Prof. N. S. +Shaler, of Harvard University, the most eminent authority in the +country on marine marshes, was retained to make a special examination +of the salt marshes with a view to recommending the best means of +eliminating what were the most prolific breeding grounds of +mosquitoes. A detailed examination of the entire territory was made. +Practically every breeding place of mosquitoes, including the smaller +pools and streams, and even the various artificial receptacles of +water, were located and reported on. Mr. Weeks, with his assistant, +then examined each body of water in which mosquito larvæ had been +found, with a view to devising the best means of preventing the +further breeding of mosquitoes in these plague spots. Finally, a +report was prepared, together with a map on which was located every +natural breeding place.</p> + + +<h4><em>Investigations in Connecticut</em></h4> + +<p>Important investigations have been made in Connecticut by the +Agricultural Experiment Station, under the direction of W. E. Britton +and Henry L. Viereck, and the results have been most encouraging. Dr. +Howard, in his directions for fighting mosquitoes, acknowledges his +indebtedness to the very successful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> experiments carried on at Staten +Island. Maryland is aroused to the point of action. Dr. Howard A. +Kelley, of Johns Hopkins University, is to coöperate with Thomas B. +Symons, the State entomologist, in carrying the war to the shores of +Chesapeake Bay. "Home talent," moreover, can accomplish much. To fight +intelligently, let it not be forgotten that the battle should be +directed against the larvæ. These wrigglers are bred for aquatic life; +therefore, it is to all standing water that attention should be +directed. Mosquito larvæ will not breed in large ponds, or in open, +permanent pools, except at the edges, because the water is ruffled by +the wind. Any pool can be rendered free from wrigglers by cleaning up +the edges and stocking with fish. Every fountain or artificial water +basin ought to be so stocked, if it is only with goldfish. The house +owner should not overlook any pond, however small, or a puddle of +water, a ditch, or any depression which retains water. A half-filled +pail, a watering trough, even a tin receptacle will likely be +populated with mosquito larvæ. Water barrels are favorite haunts for +wrigglers.</p> + + +<h4><em>A Simple Household Remedy</em></h4> + +<p>There are those, however, who will obstinately conduct their campaign +against the adult mosquito. If energetic, such persons will search the +house with a kerosene cup attached to a stick; when this is held<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +under resting mosquitoes the insects fall into the cup and are +destroyed. Those possessed of less energy daub their faces and hands +with camphor, or with the oil of pennyroyal, and bid defiance to the +pests. With others it is, Slap! slap!—with irritation mental as well +as physical; for the latter, entomologists recommend household +ammonia.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> See Bulletin No. 25, U. S. Department of Agriculture, +Division of Entomology.</p></div> +</div> + + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div class="part_head"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p> + +<h2>Part II</h2> + +<p class="title">PURE FOOD FOR THE<br /> +HOUSEKEEPER</p> + +<p class="by">BY</p> + +<p>S. JOSEPHINE BAKER</p> +</div> + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p> +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER I</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>How to Detect Food Adulteration</strong></p> + + +<p>Adulteration when applied to foodstuffs is a broad, general term, and +covers all classes of misrepresentation, substitution, deterioration, +or addition of foreign substances; adulteration may be either +intentional or accidental, but the housekeeper should be prepared to +recognize it and so protect herself and her household.</p> + +<p>Food is considered adulterated when it can be classified under any of +the following headings:</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>DEFINITIONS OF ADULTERATION.</strong>—(1) If any substance has been mixed or +packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its +quality or strength.</p> + +<p>(2) If any inferior substance has been substituted for it, wholly or +in part.</p> + +<p>(3) If any valuable constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted +from it.</p> + +<p>(4) If it consists wholly or in part of diseased or decomposed or +putrid or rotten animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an +animal unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, or if it is the +product<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> of a diseased animal or one who has died otherwise than by +slaughter.</p> + +<p>(5) If it be colored or coated or polished or powdered, whereby damage +is concealed or it is made to appear better than it really is.</p> + +<p>(6) If it contains any added poisonous ingredient or any ingredient +which may render such article injurious to health; or if it contains +any antiseptic or preservative not evident or not known to the +purchaser or consumer.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>FOOD LAWS.</strong>—There is now in effect in the United States a rigid law +against the offering for sale of any article intended for human +consumption which is adulterated in any way, without the fact and +nature of such adulteration being plainly stated on a label attached +to the package containing the article. This law, however, applies only +to articles of this nature which originate, or are produced, in one +State and offered for sale in another. The purchaser is, therefore, in +a great degree protected, but many foodstuffs or manufactured articles +may have their origin within the State wherein they are sold, and in +this case the only safeguards are those afforded by the laws of the +State, city, or town immediately concerned. If these restraining laws +do not exist or if they are not enforced the housekeeper must rely +upon her own efforts to protect her family from adulterated food.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>PERMISSIBLE ADULTERANTS.</strong>—In this class are included articles having a +food value such as salt,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> sugar, vinegar, spices, or smoke used as +preservatives of meats; or starch when added to the salts composing +baking powder, where a certain amount is permissible for the purpose +of absorbing moisture.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>GENERAL DIRECTIONS.</strong>—The ability to select fresh, wholesome meats, +poultry, fish, fruits, and vegetables, to determine readily the purity +of dairy products, and to detect adulteration or misrepresentation in +all classes of foodstuffs must, in most instances, be acquired. Common +sense and good reasoning powers are needed here as in every problem of +life. While some adulterants can be detected only by trained chemists +and by means of tests too difficult and involved for general use, the +average housekeeper may amply protect herself from gross imposition by +simply cultivating her powers of observation and by making use of a +few simple tests well within her grasp and easily applied.</p> + +<p><strong>First—Sight, Taste, and Smell.</strong>—All are of prime importance in +determining the freshness and wholesomeness of foods, especially +meats, poultry, fish, vegetables, and fruits. Avoid all highly colored +bottled or canned fruits or vegetables; pure preserved fruits, jams, +jellies, or relishes may have a good bright color, but never have the +brilliant reds and greens so often shown in the artificially colored +products.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The same is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> true of canned peas, beans, or Brussels +sprouts; here the natural product is a dull, rather dingy green, and +all bright green samples must be suspected. Foreign articles of this +class are the worst offenders.</p> + +<p>All food products should have a clean wholesome odor, characteristic +of their particular class. The odor of decomposition can be readily +detected; stale and musty odors are soon recognized.</p> + +<p>It should be rarely necessary to use the sense of taste, but any food +with a taste foreign to the known taste of a similar product of known +purity should be discarded or at least suspected.</p> + +<p><strong>Second—Price.</strong>—Remember that the best and purest food, however high +priced, is cheapest in the end. Its value in purity, cleanliness, food +value, and strength gives a greater proportionate return than foods +priced lower than one might legitimately expect from their supposed +character. To cite a few instances: pure Java and Mocha coffee cannot +be retailed at twenty cents per pound; therefore, when the housekeeper +pays that price she must expect to get chicory mixed with the coffee; +if it contains no other adulterant, she may consider herself +fortunate. Cheap vanilla is not made from the vanilla bean. These +beans sell at wholesale for from ten to fifteen dollars a pound, and +the cheap<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> extracts are made from the Tonka bean or from a chemical +product known as vanillin. These substances are not harmful, but they +are not vanilla. Pure virgin olive oil is made from the flesh of +olives after the stones and skin have been removed; cheaper grades are +made from the stones themselves and have little food value, while the +virgin oil is one of the most nutritious and wholesome of foods.</p> + +<p>Such instances might be cited almost without end. Good, pure food +demands a good price, and economy defeats its own purpose when it is +practiced at the expense of one of the most vital necessities of +health and life.</p> + +<p><strong>Third—Reliable Dealers.</strong>—Select your tradesmen with the same care you +bestow in the choice of a physician. A grocer or butcher who has once +sold stale, adulterated, or impure wares has forfeited his right to be +trusted. A man who is honestly trying to build up a good trade must +have the confidence of his customers and it is to his interest to sell +only worthy goods; this confidence he can gain only by proving his +trustworthiness. When you are convinced of your dealer's honesty give +him your trade and do not be lured away by flashy advertisements and +the promise of "something for nothing."</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>PREPARATION FOR CHEMICAL TESTS.</strong>—Although the housekeeper will rarely +need the use of any chemical tests for the purpose of determining the +purity of food, the following directions must be kept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> in mind if such +an expedient is deemed necessary. It will be wise, however, in the +majority of cases when the presence of chemical preservatives and +adulterants is suspected, to send the article to a chemist for +analysis.</p> + +<p>1. All refuse matter, such as shells, bones, bran, and skin, must be +removed from the edible portion of the food to be tested.</p> + +<p>2. If the sample is solid or semi-solid, divide it as finely as +possible. All vegetables and meats may be minced in the common +household chopping machine. Tea, coffee, whole spices, and the like +may be ground or crushed in a mortar or in a spice mill.</p> + +<p>3. Milk must be thoroughly stirred or shaken so that the cream is well +mixed with the body of the milk.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>FLESH FOODS—Meat.</strong>—Fresh, wholesome meat is neither pink nor purple; +these colors indicate either that the animal was not slaughtered or +that it was diseased. Good meat is firm and elastic and when dented +with the finger does not retain the impression; it has the same +consistency and color throughout; the flesh is marbled, due to the +presence of fat distributed among the muscular fibers; it will hardly +moisten the finger when touched; it has no disagreeable odor and has a +slightly acid reaction so that red litmus paper applied to it should +not turn blue.</p> + +<p>Wet, sodden, or flabby meat with jellylike fat, a strong putrid odor, +and alkaline reaction should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> avoided. These signs indicate +advanced decomposition, and such meat is unfit for food.</p> + +<p><strong>Beef.</strong>—This meat should have a fine grain, be firm in texture, with +rosy-red flesh and yellowish-white fat.</p> + +<p><strong>Lamb and Mutton</strong> should have a clear, hard, white fat with the lean +part juicy, firm, and of rather light-red color. The flesh should be +firm and close of grain.</p> + +<p><strong>Veal.</strong>—The meat should not be eaten unless the animal was at least six +weeks old before slaughtering. The sale of this immature veal, or "bob +veal" as it is sometimes called, is prohibited by law in many States. +It is unwholesome and may be recognized by its soft, rather mushy +consistency and bluish tinge. Good veal has a firm white fat with the +lean of a pale-red color.</p> + +<p><strong>Pork.</strong>—This meat when fresh has a fat that is solid and pure white; if +yellow and soft it should be rejected; the lean is pink and the skin +like white translucent parchment.</p> + +<p><strong>Poultry.</strong>—Good poultry is firm to the touch, pink or yellowish in +color, is fairly plump, and has a strong skin showing an unbroken +surface. It has a fresh odor.</p> + +<p>Stale poultry is flabby and shows a bluish color; it becomes green +over the crop and abdomen, and the skin is already broken or easily +pulled apart in handling. The odor of such a bird is disagreeable and +may even be putrid.</p> + +<p><strong>Fish.</strong>—With the exception of the salted or preserved varieties fish +should always be perfectly fresh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> when eaten. Probably no other +article of food is more dangerous to health than fish when it shows +even the slightest traces of decomposition. The ability to recognize +the earliest signs of staleness is of the utmost importance. Fish +deteriorate rapidly and should always be carefully inspected before +purchasing.</p> + +<p>Fresh fish are firm to the touch, the scales moist and bright, the +gills red, and the eyes clear and slightly prominent. When held flat +in the hand the fish should remain rigid and the head and tail droop +slightly, if at all.</p> + +<p>Stale fish are soft and flabby, the skin is dull and the eyes sunken +and often covered with a film. The tendency of the head and tail to +droop is marked and the fish has a characteristic disagreeable odor. +This odor of decomposition is best detected in the gills.</p> + +<p><strong>Lobsters and Crabs.</strong>—These shellfish should always be alive when +purchased. This condition is easily demonstrated by their movements, +and the rule should never be disregarded.</p> + +<p><strong>Oysters and Clams.</strong>—Oysters should not be eaten during the months of +May, June, July, and August; these are their breeding months and they +are unwholesome during that period. That oysters sometimes contain the +germs of typhoid fever is an assured fact; these germs are acquired +not from the natural habitat of the oyster in salt water but from the +fresh-water, so-called "fattening beds," where the oysters are placed +for a season to remove the brackish and salty taste of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> the sea and to +render them more plump. These beds are frequently subject to +pollution, and the housekeeper should only purchase oysters from +reliable dealers where the purity of the source of the supply is +unquestioned.</p> + +<p>Clams are in season and may be eaten throughout the year.</p> + +<p>All shellfish when fresh have an agreeable fresh odor. The shells +should be firmly closed or should close when immersed in water and +touched with the finger. If they have been removed from their shells +when purchased, the flesh of the fish itself should be firm, clean in +appearance and not covered with slime or scum; the odor should be +fresh. The odor of dead or decomposed oysters and clams is pungent and +disagreeable.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>MEAT PRODUCTS—Canned or Potted Meats.</strong>—The label on cans containing +meat products should state clearly the exact nature of the contents. +Deception as to the character of the meat is easy to practice and +difficult to detect by any but a trained analyst. The presence of +preservatives can also only be detected by chemical analysis. As these +products are practically all put on the market by the large packing +houses and designed for interstate commerce, they are subject to +government inspection, and, therefore, if they bear the government +stamp may be considered pure. The point that the housekeeper may +consider is the length of time the meat has remained in the can. Put +up under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> proper precautions these canned goods retain their +wholesomeness for an almost indefinite period. The heads of the cans +should always present a concave surface; if they are convex, it is a +sign of decomposition of the contents. When the can is opened the meat +should have a clean appearance, free from mold or greenish hue, and +the odor should be fresh and not tainted.</p> + +<p><strong>Sausages.</strong>—If possible, sausages should be homemade, then one may be +assured of their purity and freedom from adulteration.</p> + +<p>Owing to the rapid color changes and early decomposition of fresh +meat, artificial colors are often used to conceal the former, and +preservatives like boric acid or saltpeter to retard the latter.</p> + +<p>The artificial colors, such as carmine and aniline red, may be +detected by observation or by warming the finely divided material on a +water bath with a five per cent solution of sodium salicylate. This +fluid will extract the color, if present.</p> + +<p><strong>Lard.</strong>—Good lard is white and granular and has a firm consistency. It +has an agreeable characteristic odor and taste. The choicest leaf lard +is made from the fat about the kidneys of the hog; the cheaper grades +are made from the fat of the whole animal.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>FRESH VEGETABLES AND FRUITS—Vegetables.</strong>—All green vegetables to be +eaten uncooked should be carefully washed and examined for insects, +dirt, and foreign matter generally. The ova or eggs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> of the tapeworm +may be ingested with improperly cleaned vegetables. Running water and +a clean brush (kept for this purpose) should be used.</p> + +<p>Green vegetables should have a fresh, unwilted appearance; any sign of +staleness or decay should cause their rejection. Overripe or underripe +vegetables are harmful.</p> + +<p>Lettuce, celery, and all leaved or stemmed vegetables should be +examined to see if the outer leaves have been removed; this may be +determined by the distance of the leaves from the stem head. The +general signs of disease in vegetables are softening, change of color, +and mold.</p> + +<p>The following characteristics indicate fresh and wholesome vegetables:</p> + +<p><strong>Asparagus.</strong>—Firm and white in the stalk with a green, compact tip.</p> + +<p><strong>Beans and Peas</strong> should have green, not yellow, pods, brittle, and +easily snapped open. The vegetable itself should be tender, full and +fleshy, not wrinkled or shrunken.</p> + +<p><strong>Cabbage</strong>, crisp and firm, with a well-rounded and compact head.</p> + +<p><strong>Carrots</strong>, light red or yellow, with a regular, conical shape, sweet and +crisp.</p> + +<p><strong>Cauliflower</strong>, white, compact head; any tinge of yellow or green +generally indicates an inferior quality.</p> + +<p><strong>Celery</strong>, nearly white in color; large, crisp, and solid stalks, nutty +in flavor.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span><strong>Cucumbers</strong>, firm, crisp, with a smooth skin and white flesh.</p> + +<p><strong>Lettuce</strong>, the head close and compact; the leaves clean, crisp, and +sweet. When it is too young or running to seed the taste is bitter. +Pale patches on the leaves are caused by mildew and are a sign of +decay.</p> + +<p><strong>Parsnips</strong>, buff in color, with unforked roots, sweet and crisp.</p> + +<p><strong>Potatoes</strong>, underripe, green potatoes are unfit for food; they contain a +poisonous substance which renders them actually harmful. Good potatoes +should have a smooth skin and few eyes; the flesh pale and of a +uniform color and of a firm consistency. A rough skin, with little +depressions, indicates a disease called "scab"; dark-brown patches on +the skin are due to a disease called "smut." Potatoes with such +diseases are of inferior quality. If green on one side, due to +exposure to the sun when growing, the potatoes are unwholesome.</p> + +<p><strong>Fruits.</strong>—Underripe or green fruit should never be eaten. This +condition may be easily detected by the color and consistency of the +fruit. Diseased or decayed fruit is known by its change of color, +softening, and external mold. Spots on fruit are often caused by a +fungus which lowers its quality and renders it less wholesome.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>CEREALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS—Cereals.</strong>—Particularly when bought in +original packages cereals are generally pure and unadulterated. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +bought in bulk there may be found dust, dirt, worms, insects, and +excessive moisture. These may all be determined by careful inspection. +The presence of an undue amount of moisture adds greatly to the weight +of cereals and is therefore a fraud. Cereals should be dry to the +touch and the individual kernels or particles separate and distinct.</p> + +<p><strong>Flour.</strong>—By this general term is meant the ordinary wheat flour. It +should not be too moist, should have a fine white appearance, remain +lumpy, or hold its form, on pressure, not show any particles which +cannot be crushed, and when a handful is thrown against the wall, part +of it should adhere. The odor and taste should be fresh and clean and +not musty or moldy.</p> + +<p>The common adulterants are corn and rice meal. If a sample of the +flour be thrown on the surface of a glassful of water, the corn and +rice, being heavier, will sink; grit and sand may be detected in the +same way. If the flour has been adulterated with mineral substances it +may be shown by burning a portion down to an ash; the ash of pure +flour should not exceed two per cent of the total amount; if mineral +substances are present the amount of ash will be greatly increased.</p> + +<p>Alum is sometimes added to flour in order to give it a whiter +appearance and to produce whiter and lighter bread; it is most +unwholesome. It can be detected by the so-called "logwood" test, which +is prepared and used as follows:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>Make two solutions. The first: a five per cent solution of logwood +chips in alcohol. The second: a fifteen per cent solution of ammonium +carbonate in water. Make a paste of one teaspoonful of the flour and +an equal amount of water; mix with it one-quarter of a teaspoonful of +the logwood solution; follow this immediately with one-quarter of a +teaspoonful of the ammonium carbonate solution. If alum is present, +the paste will show a lavender or blue color; if absent, the mass will +become pink, fading to a dirty brown. If the result is doubtful, set +the paste aside for several hours, when the colors will show more +plainly.</p> + +<p><strong>Bread.</strong>—Bread should be well baked and not too light or too heavy; the +crust should be light brown and adherent to the substance of the +bread. The center should be of even consistency, spongy, and firm; it +should not pit or be soggy or doughy. The pores or holes should be of +practically the same size throughout.</p> + +<p>Exceedingly white, light, or porous bread shows the presence of alum. +It may be detected by means of the solutions already mentioned in the +"logwood" test. Mix one teaspoonful of each solution and add three +ounces (six tablespoonfuls) of water; pour this over a lump of bread, +free from crust and about an inch square. After the bread has become +thoroughly soaked, pour off the excess of liquid and dry the bread in +the dish; if alum is present, the mass will show<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> a violet or blue +tint, more marked on drying; if absent, a brownish color will appear.</p> + +<p><strong>Baking Powders.</strong>—Baking powders are of three classes, all having +sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) as their alkaline salt. The first +style is the commonly used and wholesome mixture of cream of tartar +and baking soda; the second has calcium phosphate for the acid salt, +and the third contains alum. All have a certain proportion of starch +to absorb moisture. Of these the alum powders are the most harmful and +should be avoided. Practically all of the well-known brands of baking +powder are of the first-mentioned class and wholesome, and are rarely +adulterated.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>DAIRY PRODUCTS—Milk.</strong>—Pure milk should have a specific gravity of +from 1.027 to 1.033. Its normal reaction is neutral or slightly acid; +it should never be strongly acid. If it is strongly alkaline, i. e., +turning red litmus paper blue, it is pretty certain that something in +the way of a preservative has been added to it. When left standing for +a few hours the cream should show as a slightly yellowish top layer, +one-tenth or more of the whole amount; the milk below the cream should +be lighter in color and with the slightest bluish tinge. If the color +is of a yellowish tinge throughout, the addition of coloring matter +must be suspected. "Annatto," a vegetable pigment, is used to give a +"rich" tint to milk. To detect it, add one teaspoonful of baking soda +to one quart of milk and immerse in it a strip of unglazed paper; in a +few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> hours examine the paper; if annatto is present, it will have +become an orange color.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<p>If the whole milk has a blue and thin appearance, or if the cream is +scant in quantity, it has probably been diluted with water. The +popular idea that chalk is sometimes added to poor milk to make it +appear of better quality is erroneous; chalk would always show as a +precipitate, as it does not dissolve, and the presence of such a +sediment would be a too obvious adulteration to be practiced.</p> + +<p>Milk should always be kept at a temperature below 50° F.; above that +temperature the bacteria in it multiply with great rapidity and render +it unfit for use.</p> + +<p>Milk may be preserved for several days if "pasteurized" or +"sterilized." Pasteurization consists of heating milk to a temperature +of about 167° F., and maintaining it at that degree for twenty +minutes. Sterilization means keeping the milk at a temperature of 212° +F. for two hours and a half. Immediately after either process the milk +should be cooled, then placed in absolutely clean, covered bottles and +kept on ice. These methods are not only harmless but actually +beneficial in that they destroy any disease germs that might be +present.</p> + +<p>Chemical preservatives are occasionally found in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> milk. They may be +suspected if the milk is alkaline in reaction and has a disguised +taste. The ones most commonly used are boric and salicylic acids and +formaldehyde; the two former can only be detected by chemical tests +too delicate and intricate to be used by the housewife. Formaldehyde +may be tested for by using a solution of one drop of a ten per cent +solution of ferric chloride to one ounce of hydrochloric acid.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Fill +a small porcelain dish one-third full of this solution; add an equal +volume of milk and heat slowly over a flame nearly to the boiling +point, giving the dish a rotary motion to break up the curd. If +formaldehyde is present, the mass will show a violet color, varying in +depth with the amount present; if it is absent, the mass turns brown.</p> + +<p><strong>Butter.</strong>—Good butter has a fresh, sweet odor and an agreeable taste. +It should be of the same color and consistency throughout, easily cut +and adherent and not crumbly when molded into shapes. Pure butter is +very light in color; nearly all that is sold is colored, in order to +meet the popular demand for "yellow" butter; annatto and other +vegetable and mineral substances are sometimes employed for this +purpose. These coloring matters are generally harmless but may be +detected by dissolving a portion of the butter in alcohol; the natural +color will dissolve, while foreign coloring will not. Butter should +consist of eighty-five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> per cent fat, with the remainder water, +casein, and salt. The most common methods of adulteration consist in +an excess of water and the addition of oleomargarine. If an excess of +water has been added it may be shown by melting the butter; the water +and fat will separate in two distinct layers. Oleomargarine has a +distinctive meaty smell, like that of cooked meat, and lacks the +characteristic odor of pure butter. If pure butter is melted in a +spoon, it will not sputter; if oleomargarine is present, it will.</p> + +<p>The preservatives sometimes used, namely, boric and salicylic acids +and formaldehyde, can only be detected by chemical tests.</p> + +<p><strong>Eggs.</strong>—Two methods may be used to detect stale eggs. First: make a +solution of one part of table salt to ten parts of water and immerse +the suspected egg; if it sinks, it is perfectly fresh; if it remains +in the water below the surface, it is at least three days old, and if +it floats, it is five or more days old.</p> + +<p>Second: hold the egg between a bright light and the eye. If it is +fresh, it will show a rosy tint throughout, without dark spots, as the +air chamber is small; if not fresh, it will look cloudy, with many +dark spots present.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>TEA AND COFFEE.</strong>—These substances are extensively adulterated, but the +adulterants are almost without exception harmless.</p> + +<p><strong>Tea.</strong>—The commonest forms of adulteration of tea are as follows: (<em>a</em>) +Exhausted tea leaves which have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> already been used are dried and +added. Their presence may be detected by the weakness of the infusion, +made from a given quantity of the suspected tea, compared with a +similar infusion made from tea known to be pure. (<em>b</em>) Leaves from +other plants are sometimes dried and added; these are easily shown if +an infusion is made and when the leaves are thoroughly wet unrolling +and comparing them. (<em>c</em>) Green teas may be "faced" or colored with +Prussian blue, indigo, French chalk, or sulphate of lime; black teas +may be similarly treated with plumbago or "Dutch pink." If teas so +treated are shaken up in cold water the coloring matter will wash off. +(<em>d</em>) Sand and iron filings are occasionally added for weight; +observation, and the fact that they sink when tea is thrown in water, +will show their presence. Iron filings may be readily found by using a +magnet. (<em>e</em>) The presence of starch may be shown by washing the tea +in cold water, straining it, and testing the solution in the following +manner: dissolve one-half teaspoonful of potassium iodide in three +ounces of water and add as much iodine as the solution will dissolve; +a few drops of this solution added to the suspected sample will give a +blue color if starch is present.</p> + +<p><strong>Coffee.</strong>—Coffee should always be purchased in the bean, as ground +coffee is much more frequently adulterated and the foreign substances +are more difficult to detect.</p> + +<p>The adulterants commonly used are: chicory, peas,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> beans, peanuts, and +pellets of roasted wheat flour, rye, corn, or barley.</p> + +<p>Fat globules are always present in pure coffee; their presence may be +shown by the fact that imitation coffee sinks in water, while pure +coffee floats.</p> + +<p>Chicory is the most frequently used adulterant; it is added for flavor +and to produce a darker infusion, thus giving the impression of +greater strength. It is perfectly harmless and as a drink is actually +preferred by some people. Its detection is comparatively easy. Chicory +grains are dark, gummy, soft, and bitter; coffee grains are hard and +brittle; a small amount put in the mouth will demonstrate the +difference. Chicory will often adhere to the wheels of a coffee +grinder, clogging them on account of its gummy consistency.</p> + +<p>When a sample of adulterated coffee is thrown in water the pure coffee +floats and leaves the water unstained; chicory sinks almost instantly, +coloring the water, while peas and beans sink more slowly but also +color the water.</p> + +<p>Peas and beans are also detected by the polished appearance of the +broken or crushed grains in marked contrast to the dull surface of +crushed coffee.</p> + +<p>The presence of peas, beans, rye, wheat, bread crumbs, and allied +substances may be shown by the fact that they all contain starch.</p> + +<p>Make a ten per cent infusion of the suspected coffee; filter it, and +decolorize the solution by boiling it with a piece of animal charcoal. +Test the decolorized solu<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>tion by slowly adding a few drops of the +"potassium-iodide-iodine solution," directions for preparing which +were given under heading of "Tea." A resulting blue color will +indicate the presence of starch.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.</strong>—The adulterants of these substances are +generally harmless, as they usually consist of flavoring extracts, +sugar, starch, flour, and animal fats. No tests other than flavor, +consistency, and smoothness need be considered. Good cocoa and +chocolate should be slightly bitter, with a pleasant characteristic +odor and taste; they should have a smooth, even consistency and be +free from grit or harsh particles.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>CANNED AND BOTTLED VEGETABLES AND FRUITS.</strong>—In general, acid +substances, such as tomatoes and fruits, should not be canned in tin, +as the action of the acid tends to dissolve the tin. It is better, +therefore, to purchase these articles in glass.</p> + +<p>After opening the can the odor and appearance of the contents should +be noted. The odor should be clean and fresh, and the slightest trace +of any sour, musty, or disagreeable smell should cause the rejection +of the food. The appearance should be clean, with no mold; the +consistency and color of the fruit or vegetables should be uniform +throughout. If the color is brighter than that of a similar article +when canned at home, the presence of artificial coloring matter must +be suspected. The brilliant green of some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> brands of peas, beans, or +Brussels sprouts is produced by the addition of the salts of copper. +This may be proved by leaving the blade of a penknife in the contents +of the can for a short time; if copper is present it will be deposited +on, and discolor, the blade.</p> + +<p>Brightly colored fruits should excite suspicion; this same dictum +applies to all brightly colored jams and jellies, as the colors are +usually produced by the addition of carmine or aniline red.</p> + +<p>The presence of preservatives, salicylic and boric acids, the +benzoates, etc., can only be proved by delicate chemical tests.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>SUGAR.</strong>—Pure granulated or powdered sugar is white and clean. The +presence of glucose should be suspected in sugar sold below the market +price; it is perfectly harmless, but has a sweetening power of only +about two-thirds that of sugar and is added on account of its +cheapness and to increase the bulk.</p> + +<p>If sand, dirt, or flour are present they may be detected by +observation, or by washing the suspected sample in water; flour will +not dissolve, sand will sink, and dirt will discolor the water.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>SPICES.</strong>—Spices should be bought whole and ground in a spice mill as +needed; if this is done, there need be little fear of their impurity, +for whole spices are difficult to simulate or adulterate. Ground +spices may be adulterated with bark, flour, starches, or arrowroot; +these adulterants are harmless, but are fraudulent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> as they increase +the bulk and decrease the strength. Their actual presences can only be +demonstrated by a microscopical or chemical examination.</p> + +<p><strong>Peppers.</strong>—Black pepper is made from the whole berry; white pepper is +made from the same berry with the outer husk removed. The adulterants +are usually inert and harmless substances, such as flour, mustard, or +linseed oil; their presence is obviated by the use of the whole +peppercorns, ground as needed.</p> + +<p><strong>Red Pepper.</strong>—This may be adulterated with red lead; when pure it will +be entirely suspended in water; if a sediment falls it is probably red +lead.</p> + +<p><strong>Mustard.</strong>—Practically all of the adulterants of mustard can only be +detected by intricate chemical tests. The presence of turmeric may be +detected by the appearance of an orange-red color when ammonia is +added to a solution of the sample.</p> + +<p><strong>Tomato Catsup.</strong>—Artificial dyestuffs are common, giving a brilliant +crimson or magenta color. Such catsup does not resemble the natural +dull red or brown color of the homemade article.</p> + +<p>Preservatives, such as boric, salicylic, or benzoic acids and their +salts, are sometimes added. While their presence cannot be condoned, +yet they are usually present in small amounts and therefore +practically harmless.</p> + +<p><strong>Pickles.</strong>—These should be of a dull-green color. The bright emerald +green sometimes observed is due to the presence of the salts of +copper; this may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> proved by dipping the blade of a penknife in the +liquor, as described under the heading of "Canned Goods."</p> + +<p>Alum is sometimes used as a preservative and in order to make the +pickles crisp. Its presence may be demonstrated by means of the +"logwood" test mentioned under the heading of "Flour."</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>VINEGAR.</strong>—Cider vinegar is of a brownish-yellow color and possesses a +strong odor of apples.</p> + +<p>Wine vinegar is light yellow if made from white wine, and red if made +from red wine.</p> + +<p>Malt vinegar is brown and has an odor suggestive of sour beer.</p> + +<p>Glucose vinegar has the taste and odor of fermented sugar.</p> + +<p>Molasses vinegar has the distinctive odor and taste of molasses.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>OLIVE OIL.</strong>—Pure olive oil has a pleasant, bland taste and a +distinctive and agreeable odor, unmistakable in character for that of +any other oil. The finest virgin oil is pale green in color, the +cheaper grades are light yellow.</p> + +<p>The adulterants consist of cotton-seed, corn, mustard, and peanut +oils.</p> + +<p>When pure olive oil is shaken in a glass or porcelain dish with an +equal quantity of concentrated nitric or sulphuric acid<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> it turns +from a pale to a dark green color in a few minutes; if under this +treatment a red<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>dish to an orange or brown color is produced the +presence of a foreign vegetable oil is to be suspected.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>FLAVORING EXTRACTS—Vanilla.</strong>—This may be wholly or in part the +extract of the Tonka bean or may be made from a chemical substance +known as vanillin. The best practical working tests as to its purity +are the price, taste, and odor. The distinctive odor and taste of +vanilla are characteristic and cannot be mistaken.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p><strong>Lemon.</strong>—This extract is often made from tartaric or citric acid. They +may be tested for as follows: to a portion of the extract in a test +tube add an equal volume of water to precipitate the oil; filter, and +add one or two drops of the filtrate to a test tube full of cold, +clear limewater; if tartaric acid is present a precipitate will fall +to the bottom of the tube. Filter off this precipitate (if present) +and heat the contents of the tube; if citric acid is present it will +precipitate in the hot limewater.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Footnote.</span>—Dr. Baker wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness to the +following authorities and the volumes mentioned for many helpful +suggestions. Pearman and Moore, "Aids to the Analysis of Foods and +Drugs"; Albert E. Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis"; Francis +Vacher, "Food Inspector's Hand Book."</p></div> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The presence of aniline dyes may be detected by mixing a +portion of the suspected sample with enough water to make a thin +paste. Wet a piece of white wool cloth or yarn thoroughly with water +and place it with the paste in an agate saucepan. Boil for ten +minutes, stirring frequently. If a dye has been used the wool will be +brightly colored; a brownish or pinkish color indicates the natural +coloring matter of the fruit or vegetable.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> A little vinegar added to heated cream or milk produces +in the curd a distinct orange color if an aniline dye has been used to +make the cream look "rich." The curd will be brown if annatto or +caromel has been used. If pure, the curd will be white.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> This acid must be used with great care; no portion of it +should ever come in contact with the skin or clothing.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> These acids must be used with great care. They should +never be allowed to come in contact with the skin or clothing.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Add a little sugar-of-lead solution to the suspected +extract; true vanilla extract will give a yellowish-brown precipitate +and a pale, straw-colored liquid. If the extract is artificial, the +addition of the lead solution will have little or no effect.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER II</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Mushroom Poisoning</strong></p> + +<p class="chapter_head"><em>Symptoms—Treatment—How to Tell Mushrooms—The Common Kind—Other +Varieties—The Edible Puffball—Poisonous Mushrooms Frequently +Mistaken.</em></p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>MUSHROOM POISONING.</strong>—Vomiting, cramps, diarrhea, pains in legs; +possibly confusion, as if drunk, stupidity, followed by excitement, +and perhaps convulsions. Lips and face may be blue. Pulse may be weak.</p> + +<p><em>First Aid Rule 1.—Rid the stomach and bowels of remaining poison. +Give emetic of mustard, tablespoonful in three glasses of warm water, +unless vomiting is already excessive. When vomiting ceases, give +tablespoonful of castor oil, or compound cathartic pill.</em> <span class="smcap">Give no +salts.</span> <em>Also empty bowels with injection of tablespoonful of glycerin +in pint of warm soapsuds and water.</em></p> + +<p><em>Rule 2.—Antidote the poison. Give a cup of strong coffee and fifteen +drops of tincture of belladonna to adult. Repeat both once, after two +hours have passed.</em></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span><em>Rule 3.—Rest and stimulate. Put patient to bed. Give whisky, a +tablespoonful in twice as much water. Give tincture of digitalis, ten +drops every two hours, till two or three doses are taken by adult.</em></p> + +<p><strong>Symptoms.</strong>—Vomiting and diarrhea come on in a few hours to half a day, +with cramps in the stomach and legs. The face and lips may grow blue. +There is great prostration. In the case of poisoning by the <em>fly +amanita</em>, stupor may appear early, the patient acting as if drunk, and +difficult breathing may be a noticeable symptom. Afterwards the +patient becomes excited and convulsions develop. The pulse becomes +weak and slow. The patient may die in a few hours, or may linger for +three or four days. If treatment be thorough, recovery may result.</p> + +<p><strong>Treatment.</strong>—Unless vomiting has already been excessive, the patient +should receive a tablespoonful of mustard mixed with a glassful of +tepid water. After the vomiting ceases he should receive a +tablespoonful of castor oil, or any cathartic except salts. If the +cathartic is vomited, he should receive an injection into the rectum +of a tablespoonful of glycerin mixed with a pint of soapsuds and +water. Coffee and atropine (or belladonna) are the best antidotes.</p> + +<p>If a physician be secured, he will probably give a hypodermic +injection of atropine. If a physician is not procurable, the patient +should receive a cup of strong coffee, and a dose of ten or fifteen +drops of tinc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>ture of belladonna in a tablespoonful of water, if an +adult. This dose should be repeated once after the lapse of two hours. +The patient should be kept in bed, a bedpan being used when the bowels +move.</p> + +<p>When the pulse begins to grow weak, two tablespoonfuls of whisky and +ten drops of the tincture of digitalis should be given to an adult in +quarter of a glass of hot water. The digitalis should be repeated +every two hours till three or four doses have been taken. The patient +must be kept warm with hot-water bottles and blankets.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>HOW TO KNOW MUSHROOMS.</strong>—One-sixth of one of the poisonous mushrooms +has caused death. It is, therefore, impossible to exert too much care +in selecting them for food. A novice would much better learn all the +characteristics of edible and poisonous mushrooms in the field from an +expert before attempting to gather them himself, and should not trust +to book descriptions, except in the case of the few edible species +described hereafter. It is not safe for a novice to gather the +immature or button mushrooms, because it is much more difficult to +determine their characteristics than those of the full grown. As +reference books, the reader is advised to procure Bulletin No. 15 of +the United States Department of Agriculture, entitled "Some Edible and +Poisonous Fungi," by Dr. W. G. Farlow, which will be sent without +charge on request by the Agricultural Department at Washington; +"Studies of American Fungi," by Atkinson, and Miss Mar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>shall's +"Mushroom Book," all of which are fully illustrated, and will prove +helpful to those interested in edible fungi.</p> + +<p>There are no single tests by which one can distinguish edible from +poisonous fungi, such as taste, odor, the blackening of a silver +spoon, etc., although contrary statements have been made. Even when +the proper mushrooms have been eaten, ill effects, death itself, may +follow if the mushrooms have been kept too long, have been +insufficiently cooked, have been eaten in too large a quantity +(especially by children), or if the consumer is the possessor of an +unhappy idiosyncrasy toward mushrooms.</p> + +<p>No botanic distinction exists between toadstools and mushrooms; +mushrooms may be regarded as edible toadstools. They are all, +botanically speaking, edible or poisonous fungi. A description follows +of the five kinds of fungi most commonly eaten, and the poisonous +species which may be mistaken for them.</p> + + +<p class="section"><strong>EDIBLE MUSHROOMS.</strong>—<strong>1. The Common Mushroom</strong> (<em>Agaricus +Campestris</em>).—The fungi called agarici are those which have gills, +that is, little plates which look like knife blades on the under +surface of the top of the mushroom, radiating outward from the stem +like the spokes of a wheel. This is the species most frequently grown +artificially, and sold in the markets. The top or cap of this mushroom +is white, or of varying shades of brown, and measures from one and a +half to three or even four inches in diameter. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]<br />[Pg 117]</a></span> is found in the +latter part of August, in September, and in October, growing in +clusters on pastures, fields, and lawns.</p> + +<p>The gills are pink or salmon colored in the newly expanded specimen; +but as it grows older, or after it is picked, the gills turn dark +purple, chestnut brown, or black. This is the important point to +remember, since the poisonous species mistaken for it all have white +gills. The gills end with abrupt upward curves at the center of the +cap without being attached to the stem. In the young mushroom, when +the cap is folded down about the stem, the gills are not noticeable, +as they are covered by a veil or filmy membrane, a part of which +remains attached to the stem (when the top expands), as a ring or +collar about the stem a little more than halfway up from the ground. +The stem is solid and not hollow, and there is no bulbous enlargement +at the base of the stem, surrounded by scales or a collar, as occurs +in the <em>fly amanita</em> and other poisonous species. Neither the +<em>campestris</em> nor any other mushroom should be eaten when over a day +old, since decomposition quickly sets in.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;"> +<img src="images/fig35.jpg" width="375" height="500" alt="Fig. 35." title="Fig. 35." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 35.</span> + +<p class="title">THE FIELD MUSHROOM.</p> + +<p class="title">(<em>Agaricus Campestris.</em>)</p> + +<p class="centered">An edible variety; very common.</p> +</div> + +<p><strong>2. Horse Mushroom</strong> (<em>Agaricus Arvensis</em>).—This species may be +considered with the foregoing, but it differs in being considerably +larger (measuring four to ten inches across) and in having a more +shiny cap, of a white or brown hue. The ring about the stem is +noticeably wider and thicker, and is composed of two distinct layers. +The gills are white at first, turning dark<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 118]<br />[Pg 119]</a></span> brown comparatively late, +and the stem is a little hollow as it matures. In some localities it +is more common than the <em>campestris</em> in fields and pastures, while in +other places it is found only in rich gardens, about hot beds, or in +cold frames. It is not distinguished from the <em>campestris</em> by market +people, but is often sold with the latter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 256px;"> +<img src="images/fig36.jpg" width="256" height="500" alt="Fig. 36." title="Fig. 36." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 36.</span> + +<p class="title">THE HORSE MUSHROOM.</p> + +<p class="title">(<em>Agaricus Arvensis.</em>)</p> + +<p class="centered">This variety is edible.</p> +</div> + +<p><strong>3. Shaggy Mane, Ink Cap, or Horsetail Fungus</strong> (<em>Coprinus +Comatus</em>).—This mushroom possesses the most marked characteristics of +any of the edible species; it would seem impossible to mistake its +identity from written descriptions and illustrations. It is considered +by many superior in flavor to the <em>campestris</em>.</p> + +<p>The top or cap does not expand in this mushroom, until it begins to +turn black, but remains folded down about the stem like a closed +umbrella. Mature specimens are usually three to five, occasionally +from eight to ten, inches high. The stem is hollow. The inside of the +cap or gills and the stem are snow white. The outer surface of the +cap, which is white in young plants, becomes of a faint, yellow-brown +or tawny color in mature specimens, and also darker at the top. +Delicate scales often rolled up at their lower ends are seen on the +exterior of the cap, more readily in mature mushrooms, hence the name +"shaggy mane." There is a ring around the stem at the lower margin of +the cap, and it is so loosely attached to either the cap or stem that +it sometimes drops down to the base of the latter.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]<br />[Pg 121]</a></span>The most salient feature of shaggy mane is the change which occurs +when it is about a day old; it turns black and dissolves away into an +inky fluid, whence the other common name "ink cap." The mushroom +should not be eaten when in this condition. The ink cap is usually +found growing in autumn, rarely in summer, in richer earth than the +common mushroom. One finds it in heaps of street scrapings, by +roadsides, in rich lawns, in soils filled with decomposing wood and in +low, shaded, moist grounds.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;"> +<img src="images/fig37.jpg" width="263" height="500" alt="Fig. 37." title="Fig. 37." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 37.</span> + +<p class="title">THE HORSE-TAIL FUNGUS.</p> + +<p class="title">(<em>Coprinus Comatus.</em>)</p> + +<p class="centered">Edible; cut shows entire plant and section.</p> +</div> + +<p><strong>4. Fairy-ring Mushroom</strong> (<em>Marasmius Oreades</em>).—This species usually +grows on lawns, in clusters which form an imperfect circle or +crescent. The ring increases in size each year as new fungi grow on +the outside, while old ones toward the center of the circle perish. +This mushroom is small and slender, and rarely exceeds two inches in +breadth. The cap and the tough and tubular stem are buff, and the +gills, few in number and bulging out in the middle, are of a lighter +shade of the same color. There is no ring about the stem. Several +crops of the fairy-ring mushroom are produced all through the season, +but the most prolific growth appears after the late fall rains. There +are other fungi forming rings, some of which are poisonous, and they +may not be easily distinguished from the edible species; hence great +care is essential in gathering them. The under surface of the cap is +brown or blackish in the mature plants of poisonous species.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/fig38.jpg" width="500" height="392" alt="Fig. 38." title="Fig. 38." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 38.</span> + +<p class="title">THE FAIRY-RING MUSHROOM.</p> + +<p class="title">(<em>Marasmius Oreades.</em>)</p> + +<p class="centered">An edible variety.</p> +</div> + +<p><strong>5. Edible Puffball</strong> (<em>Lycoperdon Cyathiforme</em>).—Edible<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> puffballs grow +in open pastures, and on lawns and grassplots, often forming rings. +They are spherical in form, generally from one and a half to two +inches, occasionally six inches, in diameter, broad and somewhat +flattened at the top, and tapering at the base, white or brown +outside. They often present an irregularly checkered appearance, owing +to the fact that the white interior shows between the dark raised +parts. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 123]<br />[Pg 124]</a></span> interior is at first pure white and of solid consistency, +but later becomes softer and yellowish, and then contains an +amber-colored juice. After the puffball has matured, the contents +change into a brown, dustlike mass, and the top falls off; and it is +then inedible. All varieties of puffball with a pure white interior +are harmless, if eaten before becoming crumbly and powdery. There is +only one species thought to be poisonous, and that has a yellow-brown +exterior, while the interior is purple-black, marbled with white.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;"> +<img src="images/fig39.jpg" width="276" height="500" alt="Fig. 39." title="Fig. 39." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 39.</span> + +<p class="title">THE EDIBLE PUFFBALL.</p> + +<p class="title">(<em>Lycoperdon Cyathiforme.</em>)</p> + +<p class="centered">Upper illustration shows entire plant; lower, a section.</p> +</div> +<p> </p> + +<h4><strong>POISONOUS MUSHROOMS FREQUENTLY MISTAKEN.</strong></h4> + +<p><em>To escape eating poisonous mushrooms do not gather the buttons, and +be suspicious of those growing in woods and shady spots that show any +bright hue, or have a scaly or dotted cap, or white gills.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> By so +doing the following species will be avoided.</em></p> + +<p><strong>Fly Amanita</strong> (<em>Amanita Muscaria</em>).—Infusions of this mushroom made by +boiling in water are used to kill flies. This species grows in woods +and shady places, by roadsides, and along the borders of fields, and +is much commoner than the <em>campestris</em> in some localities. It prefers +a poor, gravelly soil, and is found in summer.</p> + +<p>The stem is hollow and its gills are white. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 125]<br />[Pg 126]<br />[Pg 127]</a></span> cap is variously +colored, white, orange, yellow, or even brilliant red, and dotted over +with corklike particles or warty scales which are easily rubbed off. +There is a large, drooping collar about the upper part of the hollow, +white stem, and the latter is scaly below with a bulbous enlargement +at its base.</p> + +<p>The young mushrooms, or buttons, do not exhibit the dotted cap, and +the bulbous scaly base may be left in the ground when the mushroom is +picked. The <em>fly amanita</em> is usually larger than the common mushroom.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;"> +<img src="images/fig40.jpg" width="333" height="500" alt="Fig. 40." title="Fig. 40." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 40.</span> + +<p class="title">A POISONOUS FUNGUS.</p> + +<p class="title">(<em>Amanita Muscaria.</em>)</p> + +<p class="centered">The Fly Agaric.</p> +</div> + +<p><strong>Death Cup or Deadly Agaric</strong> (<em>Amanita Phalloides</em>).—This species is +more fatal in its effects than the preceding. Its salient feature is a +bulbous base surmounted and surrounded by a collar or cup out of which +the stem grows. This is often buried beneath the ground, however, so +that it may escape notice. The gills and stem are white like the +preceding, but the cap is usually not dotted but glossy, white, +greenish, or yellow. There is also a broad, noticeable ring about the +stem, as in the <em>fly amanita</em>. This mushroom frequents moist, shady +spots, also along the borders of fields. It occurs singly, and rarely +in fields or pastures.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;"> +<img src="images/fig41.jpg" width="315" height="500" alt="Fig. 41." title="Fig. 41." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 41.</span> + +<p class="title">THE DEADLY AGARIC.</p> + +<p class="title">(<em>Amanita Phalloides.</em>)</p> + +<p class="centered">This variety is very poisonous.</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The shaggy mane has white gills, but its other features +are characteristic.</p></div> +</div> + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p> +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div class="part_head"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p> + +<h2>Part III</h2> + +<p class="title">THE HOUSE AND GROUNDS</p> + +<p class="by">BY</p> + +<p>GEORGE M. PRICE</p> +</div> + + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p> +<h3><em>Acknowledgment</em></h3> + + +<p>We beg to tender grateful acknowledgment to author and publisher for +the use of Dr. George M. Price's valuable articles on sanitation. The +following extracts are taken from Dr. Price's "Handbook on +Sanitation," published by John Wiley & Son, and are covered by +copyright.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER I</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Soil and Sites</strong></p> + + +<p><strong>Definition.</strong>—By the term "soil" we mean the superficial layer of the +earth, a result of the geological disintegration of the primitive rock +by the action of the elements upon it and of the decay of vegetable +and animal life.</p> + +<p><strong>Composition.</strong>—Soil consists of solids, water, and air.</p> + +<p><strong>Solids.</strong>—The solid constituents of the soil are inorganic and organic +in character.</p> + +<p>The inorganic constituents are the various minerals and elements found +alone, or in combination, in the earth, such as silica, aluminum, +calcium, iron, carbon, sodium, chlorine, potassium, etc.</p> + +<p>The characteristics of the soil depend upon its constituents, and upon +the predominance of one or the other of its composing elements. The +nature of the soil also depends upon its physical properties. When the +disintegrated rock consists of quite large particles, the soil is +called a <em>gravel soil</em>. A <em>sandy soil</em> is one in which the particles +are very small. <em>Sandstone</em> is consolidated sand. <em>Clay</em> is soil +consisting principally of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> aluminum silicate; in <em>chalk</em>, soft calcium +carbonate predominates.</p> + +<p>The organic constituents of the soil are the result of vegetable and +animal growth and decomposition in the soil.</p> + +<p><strong>Ground Water.</strong>—Ground water is that continuous body or sheet of water +formed by the complete filling and saturation of the soil to a certain +level by rain water; it is that stratum of subterranean lakes and +rivers, filled up with alluvium, which we reach at a higher or lower +level when we dig wells.</p> + +<p>The level of the ground water depends upon the underlying strata, and +also upon the movements of the subterranean water bed. The relative +position of the impermeable underlying strata varies in its distance +from the surface soil. In marshy land the ground water is at the +surface; in other places it can be reached only by deep borings. The +source of the ground water is the rainfall, part of which drains into +the porous soil until it reaches an impermeable stratum, where it +collects.</p> + +<p>The movements of the ground water are in two directions—horizontal +and vertical. The horizontal or lateral movement is toward the seas +and adjacent water courses, and is determined by hydrostatic laws and +topographical relations. The vertical motion of the ground water is to +and from the surface, and is due to the amount of rainfall, the +pressure of tides, and water courses into which the ground water +drains. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> vertical variations of the ground water determine the +distance of its surface level from the soil surface, and are divided +into a persistently low-water level, about fifteen feet from the +surface; a persistently high-water level, about five feet from the +surface, and a fluctuating level, sometimes high, sometimes low.</p> + +<p><strong>Ground Air.</strong>—Except in the hardest granite rocks and in soil +completely filled with water the interstices of the soil are filled +with a continuation of atmospheric air, the amount depending on the +degree of porosity of the soil. The nature of the ground air differs +from that of the atmosphere only as it is influenced by its location. +The principal constituents of the air—nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic +acid—are also found in the ground air, but in the latter the relative +quantities of O and CO<sub>2</sub> are different.</p> + +<p class="table_head">AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR IN 100 VOLUMES</p> + +<table summary="Average composition of atmospheric air in 100 volumes."> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td>Nitrogen</td> + <td class="table_right">79.00</td> + <td>per cent.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Oxygen</td> + <td class="table_right">20.96</td> + <td> "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Carbonic acid</td> + <td class="table_right">0.04</td> + <td> "</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p class="table_head">AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF GROUND AIR</p> + +<table summary="Average composition of ground air."> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td>Nitrogen</td> + <td class="table_right">79.00</td> + <td>per cent.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Oxygen</td> + <td class="table_right">10.35</td> + <td> "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Carbonic acid</td> + <td class="table_right">9.74</td> + <td> "</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p>Of course, these quantities are not constant, but vary in different +soils, and at different depths, times, etc. The greater quantity of +CO<sub>2</sub> in ground air is due to the process of oxidation and +decomposition taking place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> in the soil. Ground air also contains a +large quantity of bacterial and other organic matter found in the +soil.</p> + +<p>Ground air is in constant motion, its movements depending upon a great +many factors, some among these being the winds and movements of the +atmospheric air, the temperature of the soil, the surface temperature, +the pressure from the ground water from below, and surface and rain +water from above, etc.</p> + +<p><strong>Ground Moisture.</strong>—The interstices of the soil above the ground-water +level are filled with air <em>only</em>, when the soil is absolutely dry; but +as such a soil is very rare, all soils being more or less damp, soil +usually contains a mixture of air and water, or what is called <em>ground +moisture</em>.</p> + +<p>Ground moisture is derived partly from the evaporation of the ground +water and its capillary absorption by the surface soil, and partly by +the retention of water from rains upon the surface. The power of the +soil to absorb and retain moisture varies according to the physical +and chemical, as well as the thermal, properties of the soil.</p> + +<p>Loose sand may hold about 2 gallons of water per cubic foot; granite +takes up about 4 per cent of moisture; chalk about 15 per cent; clay +about 20 per cent; sandy loam 33 to 35 per cent; humus<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> about 40 +per cent.</p> + +<p><strong>Ground Temperature.</strong>—The temperature of the soil is due to the direct +rays of the sun, the physicochemi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>cal changes in its interior, and to +the internal heat of the earth.</p> + +<p>The ground temperature varies according to the annual and diurnal +changes of the external temperature; also according to the character +of the soil, its color, composition, depth, degree of organic +oxidation, ground-water level, and degree of dampness. In hot weather +the surface soil is cooler, and the subsurface soil still more so, +than the surrounding air; in cold weather the opposite is the case. +The contact of the cool soil with the warm surface air on summer +evenings is what produces the condensation of air moisture which we +call dew.</p> + +<p><strong>Bacteria.</strong>—Quite a large number of bacteria are found in the soil, +especially near the surface, where chemical and organic changes are +most active. From 200,000 to 1,000,000 bacteria have been found in 1 +c.c. of earth. The ground bacteria are divided into two +groups—saprophytic and pathogenic. The saprophytic bacteria are the +bacteria of decay, putrefaction, and fermentation. It is to their +benevolent action that vegetable and animal <em>débris</em> is decomposed, +oxidized, and reduced to its elements. To these bacteria the soil owes +its self-purifying capacity and the faculty of disintegrating animal +and vegetable <em>débris</em>.</p> + +<p>The pathogenic bacteria are either those formed during the process of +organic decay, and which, introduced into the human system, are +capable of producing various diseases, or those which become lodged in +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> soil through the contamination of the latter by ground water and +air, and which find in the soil a favorable lodging ground, until +forced out of the soil by the movements of the ground water and air.</p> + +<p><strong>Contamination of the Soil.</strong>—The natural capacity of the soil to +decompose and reduce organic matter is sometimes taxed to its utmost +by the introduction into the soil of extraneous matters in quantities +which the soil is unable to oxidize in a given period. This is called +contamination or pollution of soil, and is due: (1) to surface +pollution by refuse, garbage, animal and human excreta; (2) to +interment of dead bodies of beasts and men; (3) to the introduction of +foreign deleterious gases, etc.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> + +<p><em>Pollution by Surface Refuse and Sewage.</em>—This occurs where a large +number of people congregate, as in cities, towns, etc., and very +seriously contaminates the ground by the surcharge of the surface soil +with sewage matter, saturating the ground with it, polluting the +ground water from which the drinking water is derived, and increasing +the putrefactive changes taking place in the soil. Here the pathogenic +bacteria abound, and, by multiplying, exert a very marked influence +upon the health by the possible spread of infectious diseases. Sewage +pollution of the soils and of the source of water supply is a matter +of grave im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>portance, and is one of the chief factors of high +mortality in cities and towns.</p> + +<p><em>Interment of Bodies.</em>—The second cause of soil contamination is also +of great importance. Owing to the intense physicochemical and organic +changes taking place within the soil, all dead animal matter interred +therein is easily disposed of in a certain time, being reduced to the +primary constituents, viz., ammonia, nitrous acid, carbonic acid, +sulphureted and carbureted hydrogen, etc. But whenever the number of +interred bodies is too great, and the products of decomposition are +allowed to accumulate to a very great degree, until the capacity of +the soil to absorb and oxidize them is overtaxed, the soil, and the +air and water therein, are polluted by the noxious poisons produced by +the processes of decomposition.</p> + +<p><em>Introduction of Various Foreign Materials and Gases.</em>—In cities and +towns various pipes are laid in the ground for conducting certain +substances, as illuminating gas, fuel, coal gas, etc.; the pipes at +times are defective, allowing leakage therefrom, and permitting the +saturation of the soil with poisonous gases which are frequently drawn +up by the various currents of ground air into the open air and +adjacent dwellings.</p> + +<p><strong>Influence of the Soil on Health.</strong>—The intimate relations existing +between the soil upon which we live and our health, and the marked +influence of the soil on the life and well-being of man, have been +recognized from time immemorial.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>The influence of the soil upon health is due to: (1) the physical and +chemical character of the soil; (2) the ground-water level and degree +of dampness; (3) the organic impurities and contamination of the soil.</p> + +<p>The physical and chemical nature of the soil, irrespective of its +water, moisture, and air, has been regarded by some authorities as +having an effect on the health, growth, and constitution of man. The +peculiar disease called cretinism, as well as goitre, has been +attributed to a predominance of certain chemicals in the soil.</p> + +<p>The ground-water level is of great importance to the well-being of +man. Professor Pettenkofer claimed that a persistently low water level +(about fifteen feet from the surface) is healthy, the mortality being +the lowest in such places; a persistently high ground-water level +(about five feet from the surface) is unhealthy; and a fluctuating +level, varying from high to low, is the most unhealthy, and is +dangerous to life and health. Many authorities have sought to +demonstrate the intimate relations between a high water level in the +soil and various diseases.</p> + +<p>A damp soil, viz., a soil wherein the ground moisture is very great +and persistent, has been found inimical to the health of the +inhabitants, predisposing them to various diseases by the direct +effects of the dampness itself, and by the greater proneness of damp +ground to become contaminated with various patho<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>genic bacteria and +organisms which may be drawn into the dwellings by the movements of +the ground air. As a rule, there is very little to hinder the ground +air from penetrating the dwellings of man, air being drawn in through +cellars by changes in temperature, and by the artificial heating of +houses.</p> + +<p>The organic impurities and bacteria found in the soil are especially +abundant in large cities, and are a cause of the evil influence of +soil upon health. The impurities are allowed to drain into the ground, +to pollute the ground water and the source of water supply, and to +poison the ground air, loading it with bacteria and products of +putrefaction, thus contaminating the air and water so necessary to +life.</p> + +<p><strong>Diseases Due to Soil.</strong>—A great many diseases have been thought to be +due to the influence of the soil. An ætiological relation had been +sought between soil and the following diseases: malaria, paroxysmal +fevers, tuberculosis, neuralgias, cholera, yellow fever, bubonic +plague, typhoid, dysentery, goitre and cretinism, tetanus, anthrax, +malignant Œdema, septicæmia, etc.</p> + +<p><strong>Sites.</strong>—From what we have already learned about the soil, it is +evident that it is a matter of great importance as to where the site +for a human habitation is selected, for upon the proper selection of +the site depend the health, well-being, and longevity of the +inhabitants. The requisite characteristics of a healthy site for +dwellings are: a dry, porous, permeable soil; a low and nonfluctuating +ground-water level, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> soil retaining very little dampness, free +from organic impurities, and the ground water of which is well drained +into distant water courses, while its ground air is uncontaminated by +pathogenic bacteria. Exposure to sunlight, and free circulation of +air, are also requisite.</p> + +<p>According to Parkes, the soils in the order of their fitness for +building purposes are as follows: (1) primitive rock; (2) gravel, with +pervious soil; (3) sandstone; (4) limestone; (5) sandstone, with +impervious subsoil; (6) clays and marls; (7) marshy land, and (8) made +soils.</p> + +<p>It is very seldom, however, that a soil can be secured having all the +requisites of a healthy site. In smaller places, as well as in cities, +commercial and other reasons frequently compel the acquisition of and +building upon a site not fit for the purpose; it then becomes a +sanitary problem how to remedy the defects and make the soil suitable +for habitation.</p> + +<p><strong>Prevention of the Bad Effects of the Soil on Health.</strong>—The methods +taught by sanitary science to improve a defective soil and to prepare +a healthy site are the following:</p> + +<ul> +<li>(1) Street paving and tree planting.</li> +<li>(2) Proper construction of houses.</li> +<li>(3) Subsoil drainage.</li> +</ul> + +<p><em>Street Paving</em> serves a double sanitary purpose. It prevents street +refuse and sewage from penetrating the ground and contaminating the +surface soil, and it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> acts as a barrier to the free ascension of +deleterious ground air.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> + +<p><em>Tree Planting</em> serves as a factor in absorbing the ground moisture +and in oxidizing organic impurities.</p> + +<p><em>The Proper Construction of the House</em> has for its purpose the +prevention of the entrance of ground moisture and air inside the house +by building the foundations and cellar in such a manner as to entirely +cut off communication between the ground and the dwelling. This is +accomplished by putting under the foundation a solid bed of concrete, +and under the foundation walls damp-proof courses.</p> + +<p>The following are the methods recommended by the New York City +Tenement House Department for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> water-proofing and damp-proofing of +foundation walls and cellars:</p> + +<p><em>Water-proofing and Damp-proofing of Foundation Walls.</em>—"There shall +be built in with the foundation walls, at a level of six (6) inches +below the finished floor level, a course of damp-proofing consisting +of not less than two (2) ply of tarred felt (not less than fifteen +(15) pounds weight per one hundred (100) square feet), and one (1) ply +of burlap, laid in alternate layers, having the burlap placed between +the felt, and all laid in hot, heavy coal-tar pitch, or liquid +asphalt, and projecting six (6) inches inside and six (6) inches +outside of the walls.</p> + +<p>"There shall be constructed on the outside surface of the walls a +water-proofing lapping on to the damp-proof course in the foundation +walls and extending up to the soil level. This water-proofing shall +consist of not less than two (2) ply of tarred felt (of weight +specified above), laid in hot, heavy coal-tar pitch, or liquid +asphalt, finished with a flow of hot pitch of the same character. This +water-proofing to be well stuck to the damp course in the foundation +walls. The layers of felt must break joints."</p> + +<p><em>Water-proofing and Damp-proofing of Cellar Floors.</em>—"There shall be +laid, above a suitable bed of rough concrete, a course of +water-proofing consisting of not less than three (3) ply of tarred +felt (not less than fifteen (15) pounds weight per one hundred (100) +square feet), laid in hot, heavy coal-tar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 143]<br />[Pg 144]</a></span> pitch, or liquid asphalt, +finished with a flow of hot pitch of the same character. The felt is +to be laid so that each layer laps two-thirds of its width over the +layer immediately below, the contact surface being thoroughly coated +with the hot pitch over its entire area before placing the upper +layer. The water-proofing course must be properly lapped on and +secured to the damp course in the foundation walls."</p> + +<p>Other methods of damp-proofing foundations and cellars consist in the +use of slate or sheet lead instead of tar and tarred paper. An +additional means of preventing water and dampness from coming into +houses has been proposed in the so-called "dry areas," which are open +spaces four to eight feet wide between the house proper and the +surrounding ground, the open spaces running as deep as the foundation, +if possible. The dry areas are certainly a good preventive against +dampness coming from the sides of the house.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;"> +<img src="images/fig4.jpg" width="362" height="500" alt="Fig. 4." title="Fig. 4." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 4.</span> + +<p class="title">CONCRETE FOUNDATION AND DAMP-PROOF COURSE.</p> +</div> + +<p><em>Subsoil Drainage.</em>—By subsoil drainage is meant the reducing of the +level of the ground water by draining all subsoil water into certain +water courses, either artificial or natural. Subsoil drainage is not a +modern discovery, as it was used in many ancient lands, and was +extensively employed in ancient Rome, the valleys and suburbs of which +would have been uninhabitable but for the draining of the marshes by +the so-called "<em>cloacæ</em>" or drains, which lowered the ground-water +level of the low parts of the city and made them fit to build upon. +The drains for the conduction of sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>soil water are placed at a +certain depth, with a fall toward the exit. The materials for the +drain are either stone and gravel trenches, or, better, porous +earthenware pipes or ordinary drain tile. The drains must not be +impermeable or closed, and sewers are not to be used for drainage +purposes. Sometimes open, V-shaped pipes are laid under the regular +sewers, if these are at the proper depth.</p> + +<p>By subsoil drainage it is possible to lower the level of ground water +wherever it is near or at the surface, as in swamps, marsh, and other +lands, and prepare lands previously uninhabitable for healthy sites.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Humus is vegetable mold; swamp muck; peat; +etc.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> A leak in a gas main, allowing the gas to penetrate the +soil, will destroy trees, shrubbery, or any other vegetation with +which it comes in contact.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Town and village paving plans will benefit by knowledge +of the recent satisfactory experience of New York City authorities in +paving with wood blocks soaked in a preparation of creosote and resin. +As compared with the other two general classes of paving, granite +blocks, and asphalt, these wood blocks are now considered superior.</p> + +<p>The granite blocks are now nearly discarded in New York because of +their permeability, expense, and noise, being now used for heavy +traffic only.</p> + +<p>Asphalt is noiseless and impermeable (thereby serving the "double +sanitary purpose" mentioned by Dr. Price).</p> + +<p>But the wood possesses these qualities, and has in addition the +advantage of inexpensiveness, since it is more durable, not cracking +at winter cold and melting under summer heat like the asphalt; and +there is but slight cost for repairs, which are easily made by taking +out the separate blocks.</p> + +<p>These "creo-resinate" wood blocks, recently used on lower Broadway, +Park Place, and the congested side streets, are giving admirable +results.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER II</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Ventilation</strong></p> + + +<p><strong>Definition.</strong>—The air within an uninhabited room does not differ from +that without. If the room is occupied by one or more individuals, +however, then the air in the room soon deteriorates, until the +impurities therein reach a certain degree incompatible with health. +This is due to the fact that with each breath a certain quantity of +CO<sub>2</sub>, organic impurities, and aqueous vapor is exhaled; and these +products of respiration soon surcharge the air until it is rendered +impure and unfit for breathing. In order to render the air pure in +such a room, and make life possible, it is necessary to change the air +by withdrawing the impure, and substituting pure air from the outside. +This is <em>ventilation</em>.</p> + +<p><em>Ventilation</em>, therefore, is the maintenance of the air in a confined +space in a condition conducive to health; in other words, "ventilation +is the replacing of the impure air in a confined space by pure air +from the outside."</p> + +<p><strong>Quantity of Air Required.</strong>—What do we regard as impure air? What is +the index of impurity? How much air is required to render pure an air +in a given space, in a given time, for a given number of people?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> How +often can the change be safely made, and how? These are the problems +of ventilation.</p> + +<p>An increase in the quantity of CO<sub>2</sub> [carbon dioxide gas], and a +proportionate increase of organic impurities, are the results of +respiratory vitiation of the air; and it has been agreed to regard the +relative quantity of CO<sub>2</sub> as the standard of impurity, its increase +serving as an index of the condition of the air. The normal quantity +of CO<sub>2</sub> in the air is 0.04 per cent, or 4 volumes in 10,000; and it +has been determined that whenever the CO<sub>2</sub> reaches 0.06 per cent, or 6 +parts per 10,000, the maximum of air vitiation is reached—a point +beyond which the breathing of the air becomes dangerous to health.</p> + +<p>We therefore know that an increase of 2 volumes of CO<sub>2</sub> in 10,000 of +air constitutes the maximum of admissible impurity; the difference +between 0.04 per cent and 0.06 per cent. Now, a healthy average adult +at rest exhales in one hour 0.6 cubic foot of CO<sub>2</sub>. Having determined +these two factors—the amount of CO<sub>2</sub> exhaled in one hour and the +maximum of admissible impurity—we can find by dividing 0.6 by 0.0002 +(or 0.02 per cent) the number of cubic feet of air needed for one +hour,==3,000.</p> + +<p>Therefore, a room with a space of 3,000 cubic feet, occupied by one +average adult at rest, will not reach its maximum of impurity (that +is, the air in such a room will not be in need of a change) before one +hour has elapsed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>The relative quantity of fresh air needed will differ for adults at +work and at rest, for children, women, etc.; it will also differ +according to the illuminant employed, whether oil, candle, gas, +etc.—an ordinary 3-foot gas-burner requiring 1,800 cubic feet of air +in one hour.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary, however, to have 3,000 cubic feet of space for +each individual in a room, for the air in the latter can safely be +changed at least three times within one hour, thus reducing the air +space needed to about 1,000 cubic feet. This change of air or +ventilation of a room can be accomplished by mechanical means oftener +than three times in an hour, but a natural change of more than three +times in an hour will ordinarily create too strong a current of air, +and may cause draughts and chills dangerous to health.</p> + +<p>In determining the cubic space needed, the height of the room as well +as the floor space must be taken into consideration. As a rule the +height of a room ought to be in proportion to the floor space, and in +ordinary rooms should not exceed fourteen feet, as a height beyond +that is of very little advantage.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> + +<p><strong>Forces of Ventilation.</strong>—We now come to the question of the various +modes by which change in the air of a room is possible. Ventilation is +natural or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> artificial according to whether artificial or mechanical +devices are or are not used. Natural ventilation is only possible +because our buildings and houses, their material and construction, are +such that numerous apertures and crevices are left for air to come in; +for it is evident that if a room were hermetically air-tight, no +natural ventilation would be possible.</p> + +<p>The properties of air which render both natural and artificial +ventilation possible are diffusion, motion, and gravity. These three +forces are the natural agents of ventilation.</p> + +<p>There is a constant diffusion of gases taking place in the air; this +diffusion takes place even through stone and through brick walls. The +more porous the material of which the building is constructed, the +more readily does diffusion take place. Dampness, plastering, +painting, and papering of walls diminish diffusion, however.</p> + +<p>The second force in ventilation is the motion of air or winds. This is +the most powerful agent of ventilation, for even a slight, +imperceptible wind, traveling about two miles an hour, is capable, +when the windows and doors of a room are open, of changing the air of +a room 528 times in one hour. Air passes also through brick and stone +walls. The objections to winds as a sole mode of ventilation are their +inconstancy and irregularity. When the wind is very slight its +ventilating influence is very small; on the other hand, when the wind +is strong it cannot be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> utilized as a means of ventilation on account +of the air currents being too strong and capable of exerting +deleterious effects on health.</p> + +<p>The third, the most constant and reliable, and, in fact, principal +agent of ventilation is the specific gravity of the air, and the +variations in the gravity and consequent pressure which are results of +the variations in temperature, humidity, etc. Whenever air is warmer +in one place than in another, the warmer air being lighter and the +colder air outside being heavier, the latter exerts pressure upon the +air in the room, causing the lighter air in the room to escape and be +displaced by the heavier air from the outside, thus changing the air +in the room. This mode of ventilation is always constant and at work, +as the very presence of living beings in the room warms the air +therein, thus causing a difference from the outside air and effecting +change of air from the outside to the inside of the room.</p> + +<p><strong>Methods of Ventilation.</strong>—The application of these principles of +ventilation is said to be accomplished in a natural or an artificial +way, according as mechanical means to utilize the forces and +properties of air are used or not. But in reality natural ventilation +can hardly be said to exist, since dwellings are so constructed as to +guard against exposure and changes of temperature, and are usually +equipped with numerous appliances for promoting change of air. +Windows, doors, fireplaces, chimneys, shafts, courts, etc.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> are all +artificial methods of securing ventilation, although we usually regard +them as means of natural ventilation.</p> + +<p><strong>Natural Ventilation.</strong>—The means employed for applying the properties +of diffusion are the materials of construction. A porous material +being favorable for diffusion, some such material is placed in several +places within the wall, thus favoring change of air. Imperfect +carpenter work is also a help, as the cracks and openings left are +favorable for the escape and entrance of air.</p> + +<p>Wind, or the motion of air, is utilized either directly, through +windows, doors, and other openings; or indirectly, by producing a +partial vacuum in passing over chimneys and shafts, causing suction of +the air in them, and the consequent withdrawal of the air from the +rooms.</p> + +<p>The opening of windows and doors is possible only in warm weather; and +as ventilation becomes a problem only in temperate and cold weather, +the opening of windows and doors cannot very well be utilized without +causing colds, etc. Various methods have therefore been proposed for +using windows for the purposes of ventilation without producing +forcible currents of air.</p> + +<p>The part of the window best fitted for the introduction of air is the +space between the two sashes, where they meet. The ingress of air is +made possible whenever the lower sash is raised or the upper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> one is +lowered. In order to prevent cold air from without entering through +the openings thus made, it has been proposed by Hinkes Bird to fit a +block of wood in the lower opening; or else, as in Dr. Keen's +arrangement, a piece of paper or cloth is used to cover the space left +by the lifting or lowering of either or both sashes. Louvers or +inclined panes or parts of these may also be used. Parts or entire +window panes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> are sometimes wholly removed and replaced by tubes or +perforated pieces of zinc, so that air may come in through the +apertures. Again, apertures for inlets and outlets may be made +directly in the walls of the rooms. These openings are filled in with +porous bricks or with specially made bricks (like Ellison's conical +bricks), or boxes provided with several openings. A very useful +apparatus of this kind is the so-called Sheringham valve, which +consists of an iron box fitted into the wall, the front of the box +facing the room having an iron valve hinged along its lower edge, and +so constructed that it can be opened or be closed at will to let a +current of air pass upward. Another very good apparatus of this kind +is the Tobin ventilator, consisting of horizontal tubes let through +the walls, the outer ends open to the air, but the inner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> ends +projecting into the room, where they are joined by vertical tubes +carried up five feet or more from the floor, thus allowing the outside +air to enter upwardly into the room. This plan is also adapted for +filtering and cleaning the incoming air by placing cloth or other +material across the lumen of the hori<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>zontal tubes to intercept dust, +etc. McKinnell's ventilator is also a useful method of ventilation, +especially of underground rooms.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;"> +<img src="images/fig5.png" width="324" height="500" alt="Fig. 5." title="Fig. 5." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 5.</span> + +<p class="title">HINKES BIRD WINDOW. (<span class="image_source">Taylor.</span>)</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/fig6.png" width="500" height="498" alt="Fig. 6." title="Fig. 6." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 6.</span> + +<p class="title">ELLISON'S AIR INLETS. (<span class="image_source">Knight.</span>)</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/fig7.png" width="500" height="305" alt="Fig. 7." title="Fig. 7." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 7.</span> + +<p class="title">SHERINGHAM VALVE. (<span class="image_source">Taylor.</span>)</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/fig8.png" width="500" height="489" alt="Fig. 8." title="Fig. 8." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 8.</span> + +<p class="title">THE TOBIN VENTILATOR. (<span class="image_source">Knight.</span>)</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/fig9.png" width="500" height="341" alt="Fig. 9." title="Fig. 9." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 9.</span> + +<p class="title">McKINNELL'S VENTILATOR. (<span class="image_source">Taylor.</span>)</p> +</div> + +<p>To assist the action of winds over the tops of shafts and chimneys, +various cowls have been devised. These cowls are arranged so as to +help aspirate the air from the tubes and chimneys, and prevent a down +draught.</p> + +<p>The same inlets and outlets which are made to utilize winds may also +be used for the ventilation effected by the motion of air due to +difference in the specific gravity of outside and inside air. Any +artificial warming of the air in the room, whether by illuminants or +by the various methods of heating rooms, will aid in ventilating it, +the chimneys acting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> as powerful means of removal for the warmer air. +Various methods have also been proposed for utilizing the chimney, +even when no stoves, etc., are connected with it, by placing a +gaslight within the chimney to cause an up draught and consequent +aspiration of the air of the room through it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/fig10.png" width="500" height="464" alt="Fig. 10." title="Fig. 10." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 10.</span> + +<p class="title">VENTILATING THROUGH CHIMNEY. (<span class="image_source">Knight.</span>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The question of the number, relative size, and position of the inlets +and outlets is a very important one, but we can here give only an +epitome of the requirements. The inlet and outlet openings should be +about twenty-four inches square per head. Inlet openings should be +short, easily cleaned, sufficient in number to insure a proper +distribution of air; should be protected from heat, provided with +valves so as to regulate the inflow of air, and, if possible, should +be placed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> so as to allow the air passing through them to be warmed +before entering the room.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Outlet openings should be placed near +the ceiling, should be straight and smooth, and, if possible, should +be heated so as to make the air therein warmer, thus preventing a down +draught, as is frequently the case when the outlets become inlets.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;"> +<img src="images/fig11.png" width="369" height="500" alt="Fig. 11." title="Fig. 11." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 11.</span> + +<p class="title">COWL VENTILATOR. (<span class="image_source">Knight.</span>)</p> +</div> + +<p><strong>Artificial Ventilation.</strong>—Artificial ventilation is accomplished either +by aspirating the air from the building, known as the vacuum or +extraction method, or by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> forcing into the building air from without; +this is known as the plenum or propulsion method.</p> + +<p>The extraction of the air in a building is done by means of heat, by +warming the air in chimneys or special tubes, or by mechanical means +with screws or fans run by steam or electricity; these screws or fans +revolve and aspirate the air of the rooms, and thus cause pure air to +enter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 429px;"> +<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="429" height="500" alt="Fig. 12." title="Fig. 12." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 12.</span> + +<p class="title">AN AIR PROPELLER.</p> +</div> + +<p>The propelling method of ventilation is carried out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> by mechanical +means only, air being forced in from the outside by fans, screws, +bellows, etc.</p> + +<p>Artificial ventilation is applicable only where a large volume of air +is needed, and for large spaces, such as theaters, churches, lecture +rooms, etc. For the ordinary building the expense for mechanical +contrivances is too high.</p> + +<p>On the whole, ventilation without complex and cumbersome mechanisms is +to be preferred.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> In cerebro-spinal meningitis, tuberculosis, and +pneumonia, fresh air is curative. Any person, sick or well, cannot +have too much fresh air. The windows of sleeping rooms should always +be kept open at night.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> These outlets may be placed close to a chimney or +heating pipes. Warm air rises and thus will be forced out, allowing +cool fresh air to enter at the inlets.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The ordinary dwelling house needs no artificial methods +of ventilation. The opening and closing of windows will supply all +necessary regulation in this regard. The temperature of living rooms +should be kept, in general, at 70° F. Almost all rooms for the sick +are unfortunately overheated. Cool, fresh air is one of the most +potent means of curing disease. Overheated rooms are a menace to +health.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III_III" id="CHAPTER_III_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Warming</strong></p> + + +<p><strong>Ventilation and Heating.</strong>—The subject of the heating of our rooms and +houses is very closely allied to that of ventilation, not only because +both are a special necessity at the same time of the year, but also +because we cannot heat a room without at the same time having to +ventilate it by providing an egress for the products of combustion and +introducing fresh air to replace the vitiated.</p> + +<p><strong>Need of Heating.</strong>—In a large part of the country, and during the +greater period of the year, some mode of artificial heating of rooms +is absolutely necessary for our comfort and health. The temperature of +the body is 98° to 99° F., and there is a constant radiation of heat +due to the cooling of the body surface. If the external temperature is +very much below that of the body, and if the low temperature is +prolonged, the radiation of heat from the body is too rapid, and +colds, pneumonia, etc., result. The temperature essential for the +individual varies according to age, constitution, health, environment, +occupation, etc. A child, a sick person, or one at rest requires a +relatively higher tem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>perature than a healthy adult at work. The mean +temperature of a room most conducive to the health of the average +person is from 65° to 75° F.</p> + +<p><strong>The Three Methods of Heating.</strong>—The heating of a room can be +accomplished either <em>directly</em> by the rays of the sun or processes of +combustion. We thus receive <em>radiant</em> heat, exemplified by that of +open fires and grates.</p> + +<p>Or, the heating of places can be accomplished by the heat of +combustion being conducted through certain materials, like brick +walls, tile, stone, and also iron; this is <em>conductive</em> heat, as +afforded by stoves, etc.</p> + +<p>Or, the heat is <em>conveyed</em> by means of air, water, or steam from one +place to another, as in the hot-water, hot-air, and steam systems of +heating; this we call <em>convected</em> heat.</p> + +<p>There is no strict line of demarcation differentiating the three +methods of heating, as it is possible that a radiant heat may at the +same time be conductive as well as convective—as is the case in the +Galton fireplace, etc.</p> + +<p><strong>Materials of Combustion.</strong>—The materials of combustion are air, wood, +coal, oil, and gas. Air is indispensable, for, without oxygen, there +can be no combustion. Wood is used in many places, but is too bulky +and expensive. Oil is rarely used as a material of combustion, its +principal use being for illumination. Coal is the best and cheapest +material for combustion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> The chief objection against its use is the +production of smoke, soot, and of various gases, as CO, CO<sub>2</sub>, etc. Gas +is a very good, in fact, the best material for heating, especially if, +when used, it is connected with chimneys; otherwise, it is +objectionable, as it burns up too much air, vitiates the atmosphere, +and the products of combustion are deleterious; it is also quite +expensive. The ideal means of heating is electricity.</p> + +<p><strong>Chimneys.</strong>—All materials used for combustion yield products more or +less injurious to health. Every system of artificially heating houses +must therefore have not only means of introducing fresh air to aid in +the burning up of the materials, but also an outlet for the vitiated, +warmed air, partly charged with the products of combustion. These +outlets are provided by chimneys. Chimneys are hollow tubes or shafts +built of brick and lined with earthen pipes or other material inside. +These tubes begin at the lowest fireplace or connection, and are +carried up several feet above the roof. The thickness of a chimney is +from four to nine inches; the shape square, rectangular, or, +preferably, circular. The diameter of the chimney depends upon the +size of the house, the number of fire connections, etc. It should be +neither too small nor too large. Square chimneys should be twelve to +sixteen inches square; circular ones from six to eight inches in +diameter for each fire connection. The chimney consists of a <em>shaft</em>, +or vertical tube, and <em>cowls</em> placed over chimneys on the roof to +prevent down<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> draughts and the falling in of foreign bodies. That part +of the chimney opening into the fireplace is called the <em>throat</em>.</p> + +<p><strong>Smoky Chimneys.</strong>—A very frequent cause of complaint in a great many +houses is the so-called "smoky chimney"; this is the case when smoke +and coal gas escape from the chimney and enter the living rooms. The +principal causes of this nuisance are:</p> + +<p>(1) A too wide or too narrow diameter of the shafts. A shaft which is +too narrow does not let all the smoke escape; one which is too wide +lets the smoke go up only in a part of its diameter, and when the +smoke meets a countercurrent of cold air it is liable to be forced +back into the rooms.</p> + +<p>(2) The throat of the chimney may be too wide, and will hold cold air, +preventing the warming of the air in the chimneys and the consequent +up draught.</p> + +<p>(3) The cowls may be too low or too tight, preventing the escape of +the smoke.</p> + +<p>(4) The brickwork of the chimney may be loose, badly constructed, or +broken into by nails, etc., thus allowing smoke to escape therefrom.</p> + +<p>(5) The supply of air may be deficient, as when all doors and windows +are tightly closed.</p> + +<p>(6) The chimney may be obstructed by soot or some foreign material.</p> + +<p>(7) The wind above the house may be so strong that its pressure will +cause the smoke from the chimney to be forced back.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>(8) If two chimneys rise together from the same house, and one is +shorter than the other, the draught of the longer chimney may cause an +inversion of the current of air in the lower chimney.</p> + +<p>(9) Wet fuel when used will cause smoke by its incomplete combustion.</p> + +<p>(10) A chimney without a fire may suck down the smoke from a +neighboring chimney; or, if two fireplaces in different rooms are +connected with the same chimney, the smoke from one room may be drawn +into the other.</p> + +<p><strong>Methods of Heating.</strong> <strong>Open Fireplaces and Grates.</strong>—Open fireplaces and +fires in grates connected with chimneys, and using coal, wood, or gas, +are very comfortable; nevertheless there are weighty objections to +them. Firstly, but a very small part of the heat of the material +burning is utilized, only about twelve per cent being radiated into +the room, the rest going up the chimney. Secondly, the heat of grates +and fireplaces is only local, being near the fires and warming only +that part of the person exposed to it, leaving the other parts of the +room and person cold. Thirdly, the burning of open fires necessitates +a great supply of air, and causes powerful draughts.</p> + +<p>The open fireplace can, however, be greatly improved by surrounding +its back and sides by an air space, in which air can be warmed and +conveyed into the upper part of the room; and if a special air inlet +is provided for supplying the fire with fresh air to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> warmed, we +get a very valuable means of heating. These principles are embodied in +the Franklin and Galton grates. A great many other grates have been +suggested, and put on the market, but the principal objection to them +is their complexity and expense, making their use a luxury not +attainable by the masses.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;"> +<img src="images/fig13.png" width="278" height="500" alt="Fig. 13." title="Fig. 13." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 13.</span> + +<p class="title">A GALTON GRATE. (<span class="image_source">Tracy.</span>)</p> +</div> + +<p><strong>Stoves.</strong>—Stoves are closed receptacles in which fuel is burned, and +the heat produced is radiated toward the persons, etc., near them, and +also conducted,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> through the iron or other materials of which the +stoves are made, to surrounding objects. In stoves seventy-five per +cent of the fuel burned is utilized. They are made of brick, tile, and +cast or wrought iron.</p> + +<p>Brick stoves, and stoves made of tile, are extensively used in some +European countries, as Russia, Germany, Sweden, etc.; they are made of +slow-conducting material, and give a very equable, efficient, and +cheap heat, although their ventilating power is very small.</p> + +<p>Iron is used very extensively because it is a very good conductor of +heat, and can be made into very convenient forms. Iron stoves, +however, often become superheated, dry up, and sometimes burn the air +around them, and produce certain deleterious gases during combustion. +When the fire is confined in a clay fire box, and the stove is not +overheated, a good supply of fresh air being provided and a vessel of +water placed on the stove to reduce the dryness of the air, iron +stoves are quite efficient.</p> + +<p><strong>Hot-air Warming.</strong>—In small houses the warming of the various rooms and +halls can be accomplished by placing the stove or furnace in the +cellar, heating a large quantity of air and conveying it through +proper tubes to the rooms and places to be warmed. The points to be +observed in a proper and efficient hot-air heating system are the +following:</p> + +<p>(1) The furnace must be of a proper size in proportion to the area of +space to be warmed. (2) The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> joints and parts of the furnace must be +gas-tight. (3) The furnace should be placed on the cold side of the +house, and provision made to prevent cellar air from being drawn up +into the cold-air box of the furnace. (4) The air for the supply of +the furnace must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> gotten from outside, and the source must be pure, +above the ground level, and free from contamination of any kind.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> +(5) The cold-air box and ducts must be clean, protected against the +entrance of vermin, etc., and easily cleaned. (6) The air should not +be overheated. (7) The hot-air flues or tubes must be short, direct, +circular, and covered with asbestos or some other non-conducting +material.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;"> +<img src="images/fig14.png" width="360" height="500" alt="Fig. 14." title="Fig. 14." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 14.</span> + +<p class="title">A HOT-AIR FURNACE.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<p>The cold air from outside comes to the COLD-AIR INTAKE through the +cold-air duct, enters the furnace from beneath, and is heated by +passing around the FIRE POT and the annular combustion chamber above. +It then goes through pipes to the various registers throughout the +house. The coal is burnt in the fire pot, the gases are consumed in +the combustion chamber above, while the heat eventually passes into +the SMOKE FLUE. The WATER PAN supplies moisture to the air.</p> +</div> + +<p><strong>Hot-water System.</strong>—The principles of hot-water heating are very +simple. Given a circuit of pipes filled with water, on heating the +lower part of the circuit the water, becoming warmer, will rise, +circulate, and heat the pipes in which it is contained, thus warming +the air in contact with the pipes. The lower part of the circuit of +pipe begins in the furnace or heater, and the other parts of the +circuit are conducted through the various rooms and halls throughout +the house to the uppermost story. The pipes need not be straight all +through; hence, to secure a larger area for heating, they are +convoluted within the furnace, and also in the rooms, where the +convoluted pipes are called <em>radiators</em>. The water may be warmed by +the low- or high-pressure system; in the latter, pipes of small +diameter may be employed; while in the former, pipes of a large +diameter will be required. The character, etc., of the boilers, +furnace, pipes, etc., cannot be gone into here.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span><strong>Steam-heating System.</strong>—The principle of steam heating does not differ +from that of the hot-water system. Here the pressure is greater and +steam is employed instead of water. The steam gives a greater degree +of heat, but the pipes must be stronger and able to withstand the +pressure. There are also combinations of steam and hot-water heating. +For large houses either steam or hot-water heating is the best means +of warming, and, if properly constructed and cared for, quite +healthy.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Great care should be taken that the air box is not +placed in contaminated soil or where it may become filled with +stagnant or polluted water.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See <a href="#CHAPTER_III_XI">Chapter XI</a> for practical notes on cost of +installation of these three conveyed systems—hot-air, hot-water, and +steam.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER IV</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Disposal of Sewage</strong></p> + + +<p><strong>Waste Products.</strong>—There is a large amount of waste products in human +and social economy. The products of combustion, such as ashes, +cinders, etc.; the products of street sweepings and waste from houses, +as dust, rubbish, paper, etc.; the waste from various trades; the +waste from kitchens, e. g., scraps of food, etc.; the waste water from +the cleansing processes of individuals, domestic animals, clothing, +etc.; and, finally, the excreta—urine and fæces—of man and animals; +all these are waste products that cannot be left undisposed of, more +especially in cities, and wherever a large number of people +congregate. All waste products are classified into three distinct +groups: (1) refuse, (2) garbage, and (3) sewage.</p> + +<p>The amount of <em>refuse</em> and <em>garbage</em> in cities is quite considerable; +in Manhattan, alone, the dry refuse amounts to 1,000,000 tons a year, +and that of garbage to 175,000 tons per year. A large percentage of +the dry refuse and garbage is valuable from a commercial standpoint, +and could be utilized, with proper facilities for collection and +separation. The disposal of refuse and garbage has not as yet been +satisfac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>torily dealt with. The modes of waste disposal in the United +States are: (1) dumping into the sea; (2) filling in made land, or +plowing into lands; (3) cremation and (4) reduction by various +processes, and the products utilized.</p> + +<p><strong>Sewage.</strong>—By sewage we mean the waste and effete human matter and +excreta—the urine and fæces of human beings and the urine of domestic +animals (the fæces of horses, etc., has great commercial value, and is +usually collected separately and disposed of for fertilizing +purposes).</p> + +<p>The amount of excreta per person has been estimated (Frankland) as 3 +ounces of solid and 40 ounces of fluid per day, or about 30 tons of +solid and 100,000 gallons of fluid for each 1,000 persons per year.</p> + +<p>In sparsely populated districts the removal and ultimate disposal of +sewage presents no difficulties; it is returned to the soil, which, as +we know, is capable of purifying, disintegrating, and assimilating +quite a large amount of organic matter. But when the number of +inhabitants to the square mile increases, and the population becomes +as dense as it is in some towns and cities, the disposal of the human +waste products becomes a question of vast importance, and the proper, +as well as the immediate and final, disposal of sewage becomes a +serious sanitary problem.</p> + +<p>It is evident that sewage must be removed in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> thorough manner, +otherwise it would endanger the lives and health of the people.</p> + +<p>The dangers of sewage to health are:</p> + +<p>(1) From its offensive odors, which, while not always directly +dangerous to health, often produce headaches, nausea, etc.</p> + +<p>(2) The organic matter contained in sewage decomposes and eliminates +gases and other products of decomposition.</p> + +<p>(3) Sewage may contain a large number of pathogenic bacteria (typhoid, +dysentery, cholera, etc.).</p> + +<p>(4) Contamination of the soil, ground water, and air by percolation of +sewage.</p> + +<p>The problem of sewage disposal is twofold: (1) immediate, viz., the +need of not allowing sewage to remain too long on the premises, and +its immediate removal beyond the limits of the city; and (2) the final +disposition of the sewage, after its removal from the cities, etc.</p> + +<p><strong>Modes of Ultimate Disposal of Sewage.</strong>—The chief constituents of +sewage are organic matter, mineral salts, nitrogenous substances, +potash, and phosphoric acid. Fresh-mixed excrementitious matter has an +acid reaction, but within twelve to twenty hours it becomes alkaline, +because of the free ammonia formed in it. Sewage rapidly decomposes, +evolving organic and fetid matters, ammonium sulphide, sulphureted and +carbureted hydrogen, etc., besides teeming with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> animal and bacterial +life. A great many of the substances contained in sewage are valuable +as fertilizers of soil.</p> + +<p>The systems of final disposal of sewage are as follows:</p> + +<ul> +<li>(1) Discharge into seas, lakes, and rivers.</li> +<li>(2) Cremation.</li> +<li>(3) Physical and chemical precipitation.</li> +<li>(4) Intermittent filtration.</li> +<li>(5) Land irrigation.</li> +<li>(6) "Bacterial" methods.</li> +</ul> + +<p><em>Discharge into Waters.</em>—The easiest way to dispose of sewage is to +let it flow into the sea or other running water course. The objections +to sewage discharging into the rivers and lakes near cities, and +especially such lakes and rivers as supply water to the +municipalities, are obvious. But as water can purify a great amount of +sewage, this method is still in vogue in certain places, although it +is to be hoped that it will in the near future be superseded by more +proper methods. The objection against discharging into seas is the +operation of the tides, which cause a backflow and overflow of sewage +from the pipes. This backflow is remedied by the following methods: +(1) providing tidal flap valves, permitting the outflow of sewage, but +preventing the inflow of sea water; (2) discharging the sewage +intermittently, only during low tide; and (3) providing a constant +outflow by means of steam-power pressure.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span><em>Cremation.</em>—Another method of getting rid of the sewage without +attempting to utilize it is by cremation. The liquid portion of the +sewage is allowed to drain and discharge into water courses, and the +more or less solid residues are collected and cremated in suitable +crematories.</p> + +<p><em>Precipitation.</em>—This method consists in separating the solid matters +from the sewage by precipitation by physical or chemical processes, +the liquid being allowed to drain into rivers and other waters, and +the precipitated solids utilized for certain purposes. The +precipitation is done either by straining the sewage, collecting it +into tanks, and letting it subside, when the liquid is drawn off and +the solids remain at the bottom of the tanks, a rather unsatisfactory +method; or, by chemical processes, precipitating the sewage by +chemical means, and utilizing the products of such precipitation. The +chemical agents by which precipitation is accomplished are many and +various; among them are lime, alum, iron perchloride, phosphates, etc.</p> + +<p><em>Intermittent Filtration.</em>—Sewage may be purified mechanically and +chemically by method of intermittent filtration by passing it through +filter beds of gravel, sand, coke, cinders, or any such materials. +Intermittent filtration has passed beyond the experimental stage and +has been adopted already by a number of cities where such a method of +sewage disposal seems to answer all purposes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span><em>Land Irrigation.</em>—In this method the organic and other useful +portions of sewage are utilized for irrigating land, to improve garden +and other vegetable growths by feeding the plants with the organic +products of animal excretion. Flat land, with a gentle slope, is best +suited for irrigation. The quantity of sewage disposed of will depend +on the character of the soil, its porosity, the time of the year, +temperature, intermittency of irrigation, etc. As a rule, one acre of +land is sufficient to dispose of the sewage of 100 to 150 people.</p> + +<p><em>Bacterial Methods.</em>—The other biological methods, or the so-called +"bacterial" sewage treatment, are but modifications of the filtration +and irrigation methods of sewage disposal. Properly speaking the +bacterial purification of sewage is the scientific application of the +knowledge gained by the study of bacterial life and its action upon +sewage.</p> + +<p>In intermittent filtration the sewage is passed through filter beds of +sands, etc., upon which filter beds the whole burden of the +purification of the sewage rests. In the bacterial methods the work of +purification is divided between the septic tanks where the sewage is +first let into and where it undergoes the action of the anaërobic +bacteria, and from these septic tanks the sewage is run to the contact +beds of coke and cinders to further undergo the action of the aërobic +bacteria, after the action of which the nitrified sewage is in a +proper form to be utilized for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> fertilization of land, etc. The septic +tanks are but a modification of the common cesspool, and are +constructed of masonry, brick, and concrete.</p> + +<p>There are a number of special applications of the bacterial methods of +sewage treatment, into which we cannot go here.</p> + +<p><strong>Sewage Disposal in the United States.</strong>—According to its location, +position, etc., each city in the United States has its own method of +final disposition of sewage. Either one or the other, or a combination +of two of the above methods, is used.</p> + +<p>The following cities discharge their sewage into the sea: Portland, +Salem, Lynn, Gloucester, Boston, Providence, New York, Baltimore, +Charleston, and Savannah.</p> + +<p>The following cities discharge their sewage into rivers and lakes: +Philadelphia, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Albany, Minneapolis, St. Paul, +Washington, Buffalo, Detroit, Richmond, Chicago, Milwaukee, and +Cleveland.</p> + +<p>"Worcester uses chemical precipitation. In Atlanta a part of the soil +is cremated, but the rest is deposited in pits 8 × 10 feet, and 5 feet +deep. It is then thoroughly mixed with dry ashes from the crematory, +and afterwards covered with either grain or grass. In Salt Lake City +and in Woonsocket it is disposed of in the same way. In Indianapolis +it is composted with marl and sawdust, and after some months used as a +fertilizer. A portion of the sew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>age is cremated in Atlanta, Camden, +Dayton, Evansville, Findlay, Ohio; Jacksonville, McKeesport, Pa.; +Muncie, and New Brighton. In Atlanta, in 1898, there were cremated +2,362 loads of sewage. In Dayton, during 30 days, there were cremated +1,900 barrels of 300 pounds each." (<em>Chapin, Mun. San. in U. S.</em>)</p> + +<p><strong>The Immediate Disposal of Sewage.</strong>—The final disposition of sewage is +only one part of the problem of sewage disposal; the other part is how +to remove it from the house into the street, and from the street into +the places from which it is finally disposed.</p> + +<p>The immediate disposal of sewage is accomplished by two methods—the +so-called <em>dry</em>, and the <em>water-carriage</em> methods. By the <em>dry method</em> +we mean the removal of sewage without the aid of water, simply +collecting the dry and liquid portions of excreta, storing it for some +time, and then removing it for final disposal. By the <em>water-carriage +method</em> is understood the system by which sewage, solid and liquid, is +flushed out by means of water, through pipes or conduits called +sewers, from the houses through the streets to the final destination.</p> + +<p><strong>The Dry Methods.</strong>—The dry or conservacy method of sewage disposal is a +primitive method used by all ancient peoples, in China at the present +time, and in all villages and sparsely populated districts; it has for +its basic principle the return to mother earth of all excreta, to be +used and worked over in its natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> laboratory. The excreta are +simply left in the ground to undergo in the soil the various organic +changes, the difference in methods being only as regards the vessels +of collection and storage.</p> + +<p>The methods are:</p> + +<ul> +<li>(1) Cesspool and privy vault.</li> +<li>(2) Pail system.</li> +<li>(3) Pneumatic system.</li> +</ul> + +<p><em>The Privy Vault</em> is the general mode of sewage disposal in villages, +some towns, and even in some large cities, wherever sewers are not +provided. In its primitive and unfortunately common form, the privy +vault is nothing but a hole dug in the ground near or at some distance +from the house; the hole is but a few feet deep, with a plank or rough +seat over it, and an improvised shed over all. The privy is filled +with the excreta; the liquids drain into the adjacent ground, which +becomes saturated, and contaminates the nearest wells and water +courses. The solid portion is left to accumulate until the hole is +filled or the stench becomes unbearable, when the hole is either +covered up and forgotten, or the excreta are removed and the hole used +over again. This is the common privy as we so often find it near the +cottages and mansions of our rural populace, and even in towns. A +better and improved form of privy is that built in the ground, and +made water-tight by being constructed of bricks set in cement, the +privy being placed at a distance from the house, the shed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> over it +ventilated, and the contents of the privy removed regularly and at +stated intervals, before they become a nuisance. At its best, however, +the privy vault is an abomination, as it can scarcely be so well +constructed as not to contaminate the surrounding soil, or so often +cleaned as to prevent decomposition and the escape of poisonous gases.</p> + +<p><em>The Pail System</em> is an economic, simple, and, on the whole, very +efficient method of removing fresh excreta. The excreta are passed +directly into stone or metal water- and gas-tight pails, which, after +filling, are hermetically covered and removed to the places for final +disposal. This system is in use in Rochedale, Manchester, Glasgow, and +other places in England.</p> + +<p>The pails may also be filled with dried earth, ashes, etc., which are +mixed with the excreta and convert it into a substance fit for +fertilization.</p> + +<p><em>The Pneumatic System</em> is a rather complicated mechanical method +invented by Captain Lieurneur, and is used extensively in some places. +In this system the excreta are passed to certain pipes and +receptacles, and from there aspirated by means of air exhausts.</p> + +<p><strong>The Water-carriage System.</strong>—We now come to the modern mode of using +water to carry and flush all sewage material. This method is being +adopted throughout the civilized world. For it is claimed a reduction +of the mortality rate issues wherever it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> introduced. The +water-carriage system presupposes the construction and existence of +pipes from the house to and through the street to the place of final +disposition. The pipes running from the house to the streets are +called house sewers; and when in the streets, are called street +sewers.</p> + +<p><strong>The Separate and Combined Systems.</strong>—Whenever the water-carriage system +is used, it is either intended to carry only sewage proper, viz., +solid and liquid excreta flushed by water, or fain water and other +waste water from the household in addition. The water-carriage system +is accordingly divided into two systems: <em>the combined</em>, by which all +sewage and all waste and rain water are carried through the sewers, +and the <em>separate</em> system, in which two groups of pipes are used—the +sewers proper to carry sewage only, and the other pipes to dispose of +rain water and other uncontaminated waste water. Each system has its +advocates, its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages claimed +for the separate system are as follows:</p> + +<p>(1) Sewers may be of small diameter, not more than six inches.</p> + +<p>(2) Constant, efficient flow and flushing of sewage.</p> + +<p>(3) The sewage gained is richer in fertilizing matter.</p> + +<p>(4) The sewers never overflow, as is frequently the case in the +combined system.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>(5) The sewers being small, no decomposition takes place therein.</p> + +<p>(6) Sewers of small diameter need no special means of ventilation, or +main traps on house drains, and can be ventilated through the house +pipes.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the disadvantages of the separate system are:</p> + +<p>(1) The need of two systems of sewers, for sewage and for rain water, +and the expense attached thereto.</p> + +<p>(2) The sewers used for sewage proper require some system for +periodically flushing them, which, in the combined system, is done by +the occasional rains.</p> + +<p>(3) Small sewers cannot be as well cleaned or gotten at as larger +ones.</p> + +<p>The separate system has been used in Memphis and in Keene, N. H., for +a number of years with complete satisfaction. Most cities, however, +use the combined system.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER V</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Sewers</strong></p> + + +<p><strong>Definitions.</strong>—A sewer is a conduit or pipe intended for the passage of +sewage, waste, and rain water.</p> + +<p>A <em>House Sewer</em> is the branch sewer extending from a point two feet +outside of the outer wall of the building to its connection with the +street sewer, etc.</p> + +<p><strong>Materials.</strong>—The materials from which sewers are manufactured is +earthenware "vitrified pipes."</p> + +<p>Iron is used only for pipes of small diameter; and as most of the +sewers are of greater diameter than six inches, they are made of other +material than iron.</p> + +<p>Cement and brick sewers are frequently used, and, when properly +constructed, are efficient, although the inner surface of such pipes +is rough, which causes adherence of sewage matter.</p> + +<p>The most common material of which sewers are manufactured is +earthenware, "vitrified pipes."</p> + +<p>"Vitrified pipes are manufactured from some kind of clay, and are +salt-glazed inside. Good vitrified pipe must be circular and true in +section, of a uniform thickness, perfectly straight, and free from +cracks or other defects; they must be hard, tough,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> not porous, and +have a highly smooth surface. The thicknesses of vitrified pipes are +as follows:</p> + +<table summary="Thicknesses of vitrified pipes."> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td><a name="TABLE_Pipe_Thickness" id="TABLE_Pipe_Thickness"></a>4 inches diameter</td> + <td><span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> inch thick</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>6 " "</td> + <td><span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">16</span> " "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>8 " "</td> + <td><span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">4</span> " "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>12 " "</td> + <td>1 " "</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p>The pipes are made in two- and three-foot lengths, with spigot, and +socket ends." (Gerhardt.)</p> + +<p>Sewer pipes are laid in trenches at least three feet deep, to insure +against the action of frosts.</p> + +<p><strong>Construction.</strong>—The level of the trenches in which sewers are laid +should be accurate, and a hard bed must be secured, or prepared, for +the pipes to lie on. If the ground is sandy and soft, a solid bed of +concrete should be laid, and the places where the joints are should be +hollowed out, and the latter embedded in cement.</p> + +<p><strong>Joints.</strong>—The joints of the various lengths must be gas-tight, and are +made as follows: into the hub (the enlargement on one end of the pipe) +the spigot end of the next length is inserted, and in the space left +between the two a small piece, or gasket, of oakum is rammed in; the +remaining space is filled in with a mixture of the best Portland +cement and clean, sharp sand. The office of the oakum is to prevent +the cement from getting on the inside of the pipe. The joint is then +wiped around with additional cement.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span><strong>Fall.</strong>—In order that there should be a steady and certain flow of the +contents of the sewer, the size and fall of the latter must be +suitable; that is, the pipes must be laid with a steady, gradual +inclination or fall toward the exit. This fall must be even, without +sudden changes, and not too great or too small.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;"> +<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="393" height="500" alt="Fig. 15." title="Fig. 15." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 15.</span> + +<p class="title">A BRICK SEWER.</p> +</div> + +<p>The following has been determined to be about the right fall for the +sizes stated:</p> + +<table summary="Fall by pipe size."> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>4-inch pipe</td> + <td>1 foot in 40 feet</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>6 " "</td> + <td>1 " " 60 "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>9 " "</td> + <td>1 " " 90 "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>12 " "</td> + <td>1 " " 120 "</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p><strong>Flow.</strong>—The velocity of the flow in sewers depends on the volume of +their contents, the size of the pipes, and the fall. The velocity +should not be less than 120 feet in a minute, or the sewer will not be +self-cleansing.</p> + +<p><strong>Size.</strong>—In order for the sewer to be self-cleansing, its size must be +proportional to the work to be accomplished, so that it may be fully +and thoroughly flushed and not permit stagnation and consequent +decomposition of its contents. If the sewer be too small, it will not +be adequate for its purpose, and will overflow, back up, etc.; if too +large, the velocity of the flow will be too low, and stagnation will +result. In the separate system, where there is a separate provision +for rain water, the size of the sewer ought not to exceed six inches +in diameter. In the combined system, however, when arrangements must +be made for the disposal of large volumes of storm water, the size of +the sewer must be larger, thus making it less self-cleansing.</p> + +<p><strong>Connections.</strong>—The connections of the branch sewers and the house +sewers with the main sewer must be carefully made, so that there shall +be no impediment to the flow of the contents, either of the branches +or of the main pipe. The connections must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> be made gas-tight; not at +right angles or by T branches, but by bends, curves, and Y branches, +in the direction of the current of the main pipe, and not opposite +other branch pipes; and the junction of the branch pipes and the main +pipe must not be made at the crown or at the bottom of the sewer, but +just within the water line.</p> + +<p><strong>Tide Valves.</strong>—Where sewers discharge their contents into the sea, the +tide may exert pressure upon the contents of the sewer and cause +"backing up," blocking up the sewer, bursting open trap covers, and +overflowing into streets and houses. To prevent this, there are +constructed at the mouth of the street sewers, at the outlets to the +sea, proper valves or tide flaps, so constructed as to permit the +contents of the sewers to flow out, yet prevent sea water from backing +up by immediately closing upon the slightest pressure from outside.</p> + +<p><strong>House Sewers.</strong>—Where the ground is "made," or filled in, the house +sewer must be made of cast iron, with the joints properly calked with +lead. Where the soil consists of a natural bed of loam, sand, or rock, +the house sewer may be of hard, salt-glazed, and cylindrical +earthenware pipe, laid in a smooth bottom, free from projections of +rock, and with the soil well rammed to prevent any settling of the +pipe. Each section must be wetted before applying the cement, and the +space between each hub and the small end of the next section must be +completely and uniformly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> filled with the best hydraulic cement. Care +must be taken to prevent any cement being forced into the pipe to form +an obstruction. No tempered-up cement should be used. A straight edge +must be used inside the pipe, and the different sections must be laid +in perfect line on the bottom and sides.</p> + +<p>Connections of the house sewer (when of iron) with the house main pipe +must be made by lead-calked joints; the connection of the iron house +pipe with the earthenware house sewer must be made with cement, and +should be gas-tight.</p> + +<p><strong>Sewer Air and Gas.</strong>—Sewer gas is not a gas at all. What is commonly +understood by the term is the air of sewers, the ordinary atmospheric +air, but charged and contaminated with the various products of organic +decomposition taking place in sewers. Sewer air is a mixture of gases, +the principal gases being carbonic acid; marsh gas; compounds of +hydrogen and carbon; carbonate and sulphides of ammonium; ammonia; +sulphureted hydrogen; carbonic oxide, volatile fetid matter; organic +putrefactive matter, and may also contain some bacteria, saprophytic +or pathogenic.</p> + +<p>Any and all the above constituents may be contained in sewer air in +larger or smaller doses, in minute or toxic doses.</p> + +<p>It is evident that an habitual breathing of air in which even minute +doses of toxic substances and gases are floating will in time impair +the health of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> human beings, and that large doses of those substances +may be directly toxic and dangerous to health. It is certainly an +error to ascribe to sewer air death-dealing properties, but it would +be a more serious mistake to undervalue the evil influence of bad +sewer air upon health.</p> + +<p><strong>Ventilation.</strong>—To guard against the bad effects of sewer air, it is +necessary to dilute, change, and ventilate the air in sewers. This is +accomplished by the various openings left in the sewers, the so-called +lamp and manholes which ventilate by diluting the sewer air with the +street air. In some places, chemical methods of disinfecting the +contents of sewers have been undertaken with a view to killing the +disease germs and deodorizing the sewage. In the separate system of +sewage disposal, where sewer pipes are small and usually +self-cleansing, the late Colonel Waring proposed to ventilate the +sewers through the house pipes, omitting the usual disconnection of +the house sewer from the house pipes. But in the combined system such +a procedure would be dangerous, as the sewer air would be apt to enter +the house.</p> + +<p>Rain storms are the usual means by which a thorough flushing of the +street sewers is effected. There are, however, many devices proposed +for flushing sewers; e. g., by special flushing tanks, which either +automatically or otherwise discharge a large volume of water, thereby +flushing the contents of the street sewers.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER VI</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Plumbing</strong></p> + + +<p><strong>Purpose and Requisites for House Plumbing.</strong>—A system of house plumbing +presupposes the existence of a street sewer, and a water-supply +distribution within the house. While the former is not absolutely +essential, as a house may have a system of plumbing without there +being a sewer in the street, still in the water-carriage system of +disposal of sewage the street sewer is the outlet for the various +waste and excrementitious matter of the house. The house-water +distribution serves for the purpose of flushing and cleaning the +various pipes in the house plumbing.</p> + +<p>The purposes of house plumbing are: (1) to get rid of all excreta and +waste water; (2) to prevent any foreign matter and gases in the sewer +from entering the house through the pipes; and (3) to dilute the air +in the pipes so as to make all deleterious gases therein innocuous.</p> + +<p>To accomplish these results, house plumbing demands the following +requisites:</p> + +<p>(1) <em>Receptacles</em> for collecting the waste and excreta. These +receptacles, or plumbing fixtures, must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> be adequate for the purpose, +small, noncorrosive, self-cleansing, well flushed, accessible, and so +constructed as to easily dispose of their contents.</p> + +<p>(2) <em>Separate Vertical Pipes</em> for sewage proper, for waste water, and +for rain water; upright, direct, straight, noncorrosive, water- and +gas-tight, well flushed, and ventilated.</p> + +<p>(3) Short, direct, clean, well-flushed, gas-tight branch pipes to +connect receptacles with vertical pipes.</p> + +<p>(4) <em>Disconnection</em> of the house sewer from the house pipes by the +main trap on house drain, and disconnection of house from the house +pipes by traps on all fixtures.</p> + +<p>(5) <em>Ventilation</em> of the whole system by the fresh-air inlet, vent +pipes, and the extension of all vertical pipes.</p> + +<p><strong>Definitions.</strong>—The <em>House Drain</em> is the horizontal main pipe receiving +all waste water and sewage from the vertical pipes, and conducting +them outside of the foundation walls, where it joins the house sewer.</p> + +<p>The <em>Soil Pipe</em> is the vertical pipe or pipes receiving sewage matter +from the water-closets in the house.</p> + +<p>The <em>Main Waste Pipe</em> is the pipe receiving waste water from any +fixtures except the water-closets.</p> + +<p><em>Branch Soil and Waste Pipes</em> are the short pipes between the fixtures +in the house and the main soil and waste pipes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span><em>Traps</em> are bends in pipes, so constructed as to hold a certain volume +of water, called the water seal; this water seal serves as a barrier +to prevent air and gases from the sewer from entering the house.</p> + +<p><em>Vent Pipes</em> are the special pipes to which the traps or fixtures are +connected by short-branch vent pipes, and serve to ventilate the air +in the pipes, and prevent siphonage.</p> + +<p>The <em>Rain Leader</em> is the pipe receiving rain and storm water from the +roof of the house.</p> + +<p><strong>Materials Used for Plumbing Pipes.</strong>—The materials from which the +different pipes used in house plumbing are made differ according to +the use of each pipe, its position, size, etc. The following materials +are used: cement, vitrified pipe, lead; cast, wrought, and galvanized +iron; brass, steel, nickel, sheet metal, etc.</p> + +<p><em>Cement and Vitrified Pipes</em> are used for the manufacture of street +and house sewers. In some places vitrified pipe is used for house +drains, but in most cities this is strongly objected to; and in New +York City no earthenware pipes are permitted within the house. The +objection to earthenware pipes is that they are not strong enough for +the purpose, break easily, and cannot be made gas-tight.</p> + +<p><em>Lead Pipe</em> is used for all branch waste pipes and short lengths of +water pipes. The advantage of lead pipes is that they can be easily +bent and shaped, hence their use for traps and connections. The +dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>advantage of lead for pipes is the softness of the material, which +is easily broken into by nails, gnawed through by rats, etc.</p> + +<p><em>Brass, Nickel, Steel</em>, and other such materials are used in the +manufacture of expensive plumbing, but are not commonly employed.</p> + +<p><em>Sheet Metal</em> and <em>Galvanized Iron</em> are used for rain leaders, +refrigerator pipes, etc.</p> + +<p><em>Wrought Iron</em> is used in the so-called Durham system of plumbing. +Wrought iron is very strong; the sections of pipe are twenty feet +long, the connections are made by screw joints, and a system of house +plumbing made of this material is very durable, unyielding, strong, +and perfectly gas-tight. The objections to wrought iron for plumbing +pipes are that the pipes cannot be readily repaired and that it is too +expensive.</p> + +<p><em>Cast Iron</em> is the material universally used for all vertical and +horizontal pipes in the house. There are two kinds of cast-iron pipes +manufactured for plumbing uses, the "standard and the extra heavy."</p> + +<p>The following are the relative weights of each:</p> + +<table summary="Cast-iron pipe weights."> +<thead> +<tr> + <th> </th> + <th>Standard.</th> + <th>Extra Heavy.</th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td>2-inch pipe,</td> + <td>4 lbs. per foot</td> + <td>5<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> lbs.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>3 " "</td> + <td>6 " " "</td> + <td>9<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>4 " "</td> + <td>9 " " "</td> + <td>13 "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>5 " "</td> + <td>12 " " "</td> + <td>17 "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>6 " "</td> + <td>15 " " "</td> + <td>20 "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>7 " "</td> + <td>20 " " "</td> + <td>27 "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>8 " "</td> + <td>25 " " "</td> + <td>33<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> "</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 193]<br />[Pg 194]</a></span>The light-weight pipe, though extensively used by plumbers, is +generally prohibited by most municipalities, as it is not strong +enough for the purpose, and it is difficult to make a gas-tight joint +with these pipes without breaking them.</p> + +<p>Cast-iron pipes are made in lengths of five feet each, with an +enlargement on one end of the pipe, called the "hub" or "socket," into +which the other, or "spigot," end is fitted. All cast-iron pipe must +be straight, sound, cylindrical and smooth, free from sand holes, +cracks, and other defects, and of a uniform thickness.</p> + +<p>The thickness of cast-iron pipes should be as follows:</p> + +<table summary="Cast-iron pipe thicknesses."> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td>2-inch pipe,</td> + <td><span class="frac_top">5</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">16</span> inches thick</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>3 " "</td> + <td> " " "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>4 " "</td> + <td><span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">8</span> " "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>5 " "</td> + <td><span class="frac_top">7</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">16</span> " "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>6 " "</td> + <td><span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> " "</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p>Cast-iron pipes are sometimes coated by dipping into hot tar, or by +some other process. Tar coating is, however, not allowed in New York, +because it conceals the sand holes and other flaws in the pipes.</p> + +<p><strong>Joints and Connections.</strong>—To facilitate connections of cast-iron pipes, +short and convenient forms and fittings are cast. Some of these +connections are named according to their shape, such as L, T, Y, etc.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;"> +<img src="images/fig16.png" width="318" height="500" alt="Fig. 16." title="Fig. 16." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 16.</span> + +<p class="title">DIFFERENT FORMS AND FITTINGS.</p> +</div> + +<p><em>Iron Pipe</em> is joined to <em>Iron Pipe</em> by lead-calked joints. These +joints are made as follows: the spigot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 195]<br />[Pg 196]</a></span> end of one pipe is inserted +into the enlarged end, or the "hub," of the next pipe. The space +between the spigot and hub is half filled with oakum or dry hemp. The +remaining space is filled with hot molten lead, which, on cooling, is +well rammed and calked in by special tools made for the purpose. To +make a good, gas-tight, lead-calked joint, experience and skill are +necessary. The ring of lead joining the two lengths of pipe must be +from 1 to 2 inches deep, and from <span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> to <span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">4</span> of an inch thick; 12 +ounces of lead must be used at each joint for each inch in the +diameter of the pipe. Iron pipes are sometimes connected by means of +so-called rust joints. Instead of lead, the space between the socket +and spigot is filled in with an iron cement consisting of 98 parts of +cast-iron borings, 1 part of flowers of sulphur, and 1 part of sal +ammoniac.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 343px;"> +<img src="images/fig17.png" width="343" height="500" alt="Fig. 17." title="Fig. 17." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 17.</span> +</div> + +<p>All connections between <em>Lead Pipes</em> and between <em>Lead</em> and <em>Brass</em> or +<em>Copper</em> pipes must be made by means of "wiped" solder joints. A wiped +joint is made by solder being poured on two ends of the two pipes, the +solder being worked about the joint, shaped into an oval lump, and +wiped around with a cloth, giving the joint a bulbous form.</p> + +<p>All connections between <em>Lead Pipes</em> and <em>Iron Pipes</em> are made by +means of brass ferrules. Lead cannot be soldered to iron, so a brass +fitting or ferrule is used; it is jointed to the lead pipe by a wiped +joint, and to the iron pipe by an ordinary lead-calked joint.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]<br />[Pg 198]</a></span><em>Putty</em>, <em>Cement</em>, and <em>Slip</em> joints should not be tolerated on any +pipes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 347px;"> +<img src="images/fig18.png" width="347" height="500" alt="Fig. 18." title="Fig. 18." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 18.</span> +</div> + +<p><strong>Traps.</strong>—We have seen that a trap is a bend in a pipe so constructed as +to hold a quantity of water sufficient to interpose a barrier between +the sewer and the fixture. There are many and various kinds of traps, +some depending on water alone as their "seal," others employing +mechanical means, such as balls, valves, lips, also mercury, etc., to +assist in the disconnection between the house and sewer ends of the +pipe system.</p> + +<p>The value of a trap depends: (1) on the depth of its water seal; (2) +on the strengths and permanency of the seal; (3) on the diameter and +uniformity of the trap; (4) on its simplicity; (5) on its +accessibility; and (6) on its self-cleansing character.</p> + +<p>The depth of a trap should be about three inches for water-closet +traps, and about two inches for sink and other traps.</p> + +<p>Traps must not be larger in diameter than the pipe to which they are +attached.</p> + +<p>The simpler the trap, the better it is.</p> + +<p>Traps should be provided with cleanout screw openings, caps, etc., to +facilitate cleaning.</p> + +<p>The shapes of traps vary, and the number of the various kinds of traps +manufactured is very great.</p> + +<p>Traps are named according to their use: gully, grease, sediment, +intercepting, etc.; according to their shape: D, P, S, V, bell, +bottle, pot, globe, etc.;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 199]<br />[Pg 200]</a></span> and according to the name of their +inventor: Buchan, Cottam, Dodd, Antill, Renk, Hellyer, Croydon, and +others too numerous to mention.</p> + +<p>The S trap is the best for sink waste pipes; the running trap is the +best on house drains.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 336px;"> +<img src="images/fig19.png" width="336" height="500" alt="Fig. 19." title="Fig. 19." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 19.</span> + +<p class="title">FORMS OF TRAPS.</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 204px;"> +<img src="images/fig20.png" width="204" height="500" alt="Fig. 20." title="Fig. 20." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 20.</span> + +<p class="title">FORMS OF TRAPS.</p> +</div> + +<p><strong>Loss of Seal by Traps.</strong>—The seals of traps are not always secure, and +the causes of unsealing of traps are as follows:</p> + +<p>(1) <em>Evaporation.</em>—If a fixture in a house is not used for a long +time, the water constituting the seal in the trap of the fixture will +evaporate; the seal will thus be lost, and ingress of sewer air will +result. To guard against evaporation, fixtures must be frequently +flushed; and during summer, or at such times as the house is +unoccupied and the fixtures not used, the traps are to be filled with +oil or glycerin, either of which will serve as an efficient seal.</p> + +<p>(2) <em>Momentum.</em>—A sudden flow of water from the fixture may, by the +force of its momentum, empty all water in the trap and thus leave it +unsealed. To prevent the unsealing of traps by momentum, they must be +of a proper size, not less than the waste pipe of the fixture, the +seal must be deep, and the trap in a perfectly straight position, as a +slight inclination will favor its emptying. Care should also be taken +while emptying the fixture to do it slowly so as to preserve the seal.</p> + +<p>(3) <em>Capillary Attraction.</em>—If a piece of paper, cotton, thread, +hair, etc., remain in the trap, and a part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 201]<br />[Pg 202]</a></span> of the paper, etc., +projects into the lumen of the pipe, a part of the water will be +withdrawn by capillary attraction from the trap and may unseal it. To +guard against unsealing of traps by capillary attraction, traps should +be of a uniform diameter, without nooks and corners, and of not too +large a size, and should also be well flushed, so that nothing but +water remains in the trap.</p> + +<p><em>Siphonage and Back Pressure.</em>—The water in the trap, or the "seal," +is suspended between two columns of air, that from the fixture to the +seal, and from the seal of the trap to the seal of the main trap on +house drain. The seal in the trap is therefore not very secure, as it +is influenced by any and all currents and agitations of air from both +sides, and especially from its distal side. Any heating of the air in +the pipes with which the trap is connected, any increase of +temperature in the air contents of the vertical pipes with which the +trap is connected, and any evolution of gases within those pipes will +naturally increase the weight and pressure of the air within them, +with the result that the increased pressure will influence the +contents of the trap, or the "seal," and may dislodge the seal +backward, if the pressure is very great, or, at any rate, may force +the foul air from the pipes through the seal of the traps and foul the +water therein, thus allowing foul odors to enter the rooms from the +traps of the fixtures. This condition, which in practice exists +oftener than it is ordinarily thought,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> is called "back pressure." By +"back pressure" is therefore understood the <em>forcing back</em>, or, at +least, the <em>fouling</em>, of the water in traps, due to the increased +pressure of the air within the pipes back of the traps; the increase +in air pressure being due to heating of pipes by the hot water +occasionally circulating within them, or by the evolution of gases due +to the decomposition of organic matter within the pipes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;"> +<img src="images/fig21.png" width="318" height="500" alt="Fig. 21." title="Fig. 21." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 21.</span> + +<p class="title">NON-SYPHONING TRAP.</p> + +<p class="centered">Copyright by the J. L. Mott Iron Works.</p> +</div> + +<p>A condition somewhat similar, but acting in a reverse way, is +presented in what is commonly termed "siphonage." Just as well as the +seal in traps may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> be forced back by the increased pressure of the air +within the pipes, the same seal may be <em>forced out</em>, pulled out, +aspirated, or siphoned out by a sudden withdrawal of a large quantity +of air from the pipes with which the trap is connected. Such a sudden +withdrawal of large quantities of air is occasioned every time there +is a rush of large column of water through the pipes, e. g., when a +water-closet or similar fixture is suddenly discharged; the water +rushes through the pipes with a great velocity and creates a strong +down current of air, with the result that where the down-rushing +column passes by a trap, the air in the trap and, later, its seal are +aspirated or siphoned out, thus leaving the trap without a seal. By +"siphonage" is therefore meant the emptying of the seal in a trap by +the aspiration of the water in the trap due to the downward rush of +water and air in the pipes with which the trap is connected.</p> + +<p>To guard against the loss of seal through siphonage "nonsiphoning" +traps have been invented, that is, the traps are so constructed that +the seal therein is very large, and the shape of the traps made so +that siphonage is difficult. These traps are, however, open to the +objection that in the first place they do not prevent the fouling of +the seals by back pressure, and in the second place they are not +easily cleansable and may retain dirt in their large pockets. The +universal method of preventing both siphonage and back pressure is by +the system of vent pipes, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> what plumbers call "back-air" pipes. +Every trap is connected by branches leading from the crown or near the +crown of the trap to a main vertical pipe which runs through the house +the same as the waste and soil pipes, and which contains nothing but +air, which air serves as a medium to be pressed upon by the +"back-pressure" air, or to be drawn upon by the siphoning, and thus +preventing any agitation and influence upon the seal in the traps; for +it is self evident that as long as there is plenty of air at the +distal part of the seal, the seal itself will remain uninfluenced by +any agitation or condition of the air within the pipes with which the +trap is connected.</p> + +<p>The vent-pipe system is also an additional means of ventilating the +plumbing system of the house, already partly ventilated by the +extension of the vertical pipes above the roof and by the fresh-air +inlet. The principal objection urged against the installation of the +vent-pipe system is the added expense, which is considerable; and +plumbers have sought therefore to substitute for the vent pipes +various mechanical traps, also nonsiphoning traps. The vent pipes are, +however, worth the additional expense, as they are certainly the best +means to prevent siphonage and back pressure, and are free from the +objections against the cumbersome mechanical traps and the filthy +nonsiphoning traps.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER VII</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Plumbing Pipes</strong></p> + + +<p><strong>The House Drain.</strong>—All waste and soil matter in the house is carried +from the receptacles into the waste and soil pipes, and from these +into the house drain, the main pipe of the house, which carries all +waste and soil into the street sewer. The house drain extends from the +junction of the soil and waste pipes of the house through the house to +outside of the foundations two to five feet, whence it is called +"house sewer." The house drain is a very important part of the +house-plumbing system, and great care must be taken to make its +construction perfect.</p> + +<p><em>Material.</em>—The material of which house drains are manufactured is +extra heavy cast iron. Lighter pipes should never be used, and the use +of vitrified pipes for this purpose should not be allowed.</p> + +<p><em>Size.</em>—The size of the house drain must be proportional to the work +to be performed. Too large a pipe will not be self-cleansing, and the +bottom of it will fill with sediment and slime. Were it not for the +need of carrying off large volumes of storm water, the house drain +could be a great deal smaller than it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 207]<br />[Pg 208]</a></span> usually is. A three-inch pipe +is sufficient for a small house, though a four-inch pipe is made +obligatory in most cities. In New York City no house drains are +allowed of smaller diameter than six inches.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/fig22.png" width="500" height="306" alt="Fig. 22." title="Fig. 22." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 22.</span> + +<p class="title">SYSTEM OF HOUSE DRAINAGE, SHOWING THE PLUMBING OF A HOUSE. (<span class="image_source">H. +Bramley.</span>)</p> +</div> + +<p><em>Fall.</em>—The fall or inclination of the house drain depends on its +size. Every house drain must be laid so that it should have a certain +inclination toward the house sewer, so as to increase the velocity of +flow in it and make it self-flushing and self-cleansing. The rate of +fall should be as follows:</p> + +<table summary="Fall of house drain by pip size."> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td>For 4-inch pipe</td> + <td>1 in 40 feet</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> " 5 " "</td> + <td>1 " 50 "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> " 6 " "</td> + <td>1 " 60 "</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p><em>Position.</em>—The house drain lies in a horizontal position in the +cellar, and should, if possible, be exposed to view. It should be hung +on the cellar wall or ceiling, unless this is impracticable, as when +fixtures in the cellar discharge into it; in this case, it must be +laid in a trench cut in a uniform grade, walled upon the sides with +bricks laid in cement, and provided with movable covers and with a +hydraulic-cement base four inches thick, on which the pipe is to rest. +The house drain must be laid in straight lines, if possible; all +changes in direction must be made with curved pipes, the curves to be +of a large radius.</p> + +<p><em>Connections.</em>—The house drain must properly connect with the house +sewer at a point about two feet outside of the outer front vault or +area wall of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> building. An arched or other proper opening in the +wall must be provided for the drain to prevent damage by settling.</p> + +<p>All joints of the pipe must be gas-tight, lead-calked joints, as +stated before. The junction of the vertical soil, waste, and +rain-leader pipes must not be made by right-angle joints, but by a +curved elbow fitting of a large radius, or by "Y" branches and 45° +bends.</p> + +<p>When the house drain does not rest on the floor, but is hung on the +wall or ceiling of the cellar, the connection of the vertical soil and +waste pipes must have suitable supports, the best support being a +brick pier laid nine inches in cement and securely fastened to the +wall.</p> + +<p>Near all bends, traps, and connections of other pipes with the house +drain suitable hand-holes should be provided, these hand-holes to be +tightly covered by brass screw ferrules, screwed in, and fitted with +red lead.</p> + +<p>"No steam exhaust, boiler blow-off, or drip pipe shall be connected +with the house drain or sewer. Such pipes must first discharge into a +proper condensing tank, and from this a proper outlet to the house +sewer outside of the building must be provided."</p> + +<p><em>Main Traps.</em>—The disconnection of the house pipes from the street +sewer is accomplished by a trap on the house drain near the front +wall, inside the house, or just outside the foundation wall but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +usually inside of the house. The best trap for this purpose is the +siphon or running trap. This trap must be constructed with a cleaning +hand-hole on the inside or house side of the trap, or on both sides, +and the hand-holes are to be covered gas-tight by brass screw +ferrules.</p> + +<p><em>Extension of Vertical Pipes.</em>—By the main trap the house-plumbing +system is disconnected from the sewer, and by the traps on each +fixture from the air in the rooms; still, as the soil, waste, and +drain pipes usually contain offensive solids and liquids which +contaminate the air in the pipes, it is a good method to ventilate +these pipes. This ventilation of the soil, waste, and house drain +pipes prevents the bad effects on health from the odors, etc., given +off by the slime and excreta adhering in the pipes, and it is +accomplished by two means: (1) by extension of the vertical pipes to +the fresh air above the roof, and (2) by the fresh-air inlet on the +house drain.</p> + +<p>By these means a current of air is established through the vertical +and horizontal pipes.</p> + +<p>Every vertical pipe must be extended above the roof at least two feet +above the highest coping of the roof or chimney. The extension must be +far from the air shafts, windows, ventilators, and mouths of chimneys, +so as to prevent air from the pipes being drawn into them. The +extension must be not less than the full size of each pipe, so as to +avoid friction from the circulation of air. The use of covers, cowls,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> +return bends, etc., is reprehensible, as they interfere with the free +circulation of air. A wire basket may be inserted to prevent foreign +substances from falling into pipes.</p> + +<p><em>Fresh-air Inlet.</em>—The fresh-air inlet is a pipe of about four inches +in diameter; it enters the house drain on the house side of the main +trap, and extends to the external air at or near the curb, or at any +convenient place, at least fifteen feet from the nearest window. The +fresh-air inlet pipe usually terminates in a receptacle covered by an +iron grating, and should be far from the cold-air box of any hot-air +furnace. When clean, properly cared for, and extended above the +ground, the fresh-air inlet, in conjunction with the open extended +vertical pipe, is an efficient means of ventilating the air in the +house pipes; unfortunately most fresh-air inlets are constantly +obstructed, and do not serve the purpose for which they are made.</p> + +<p><strong>The Soil and Waste Pipes.</strong>—The soil pipe receives liquid and solid +sewage from the water-closets and urinals; the waste pipe receives all +waste water from sinks, washbasins, bath tubs, etc.</p> + +<p>The material of which the vertical soil and waste pipes are made is +cast iron.</p> + +<p>The size of main waste pipes is from three to four inches; of main +soil pipes, from four to five inches. In tenement houses with five +water-closets or more, not less than five inches.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>The joints of the waste and soil pipe should be lead calked. The +connections of the lead branch pipes or traps with the vertical lines +must be by Y joints, and by means of brass ferrules, as explained +above.</p> + +<p>The location of the vertical pipes must never be within the wall, +built in, nor outside the house, but preferably in a special +three-foot square shaft adjacent to the fixtures, extending from the +cellar to the roof, where the air shaft should be covered by a +louvered skylight; that is, with a skylight with slats outwardly +inclined, so as to favor ventilation.</p> + +<p>The vertical pipes must be accessible, exposed to view in all their +lengths, and, when covered with boards, so fitted that the boards may +be readily removed.</p> + +<p>Vertical pipes must be extended above the roof in full diameter, as +previously stated. When less than four inches in diameter, they must +be enlarged to four inches at a point not less than one foot below the +roof surface by an "increaser," of not less than nine inches long.</p> + +<p>All soil and waste pipes must, whenever necessary, be securely +fastened with wrought-iron hooks or straps.</p> + +<p>Vertical soil and waste pipes must not be trapped at their base, as +the trap would not serve any purpose, and would prevent a perfect flow +of the contents.</p> + +<p><strong>Branch Soil and Waste Pipes.</strong>—The fixtures must be near the vertical +soil and waste pipes in order that the branch waste and soil pipes +should be as short as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> possible. The trap of the branch soil and waste +pipes must not be far from the fixture, not more than two feet from +it, otherwise the accumulated foul air and slime in the waste and soil +branch will emit bad odors.</p> + +<p>The minimum sizes for branch pipes should be as follows:</p> + +<table summary="Minimum sizes for branch pipes."> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td>Kitchen sinks</td> + <td class="table_right">2 inches</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Bath tubs</td> + <td class="table_right">1<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> to 2 " </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Laundry tubs</td> + <td class="table_right">1<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> to 2 " </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Water-closets</td> + <td class="table_right">not less than 4 " </td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p>Branch soil and waste pipes must have a fall of at least one-quarter +inch to one foot.</p> + +<p>The branch waste and soil pipes and traps must be exposed, accessible, +and provided with screw caps, etc., for inspection and cleaning +purposes.</p> + +<p>Each fixture should be separately trapped as close to the fixture as +possible, as two traps on the same line of branch waste or soil pipes +will cause the air between the traps to be closed in, forming a +so-called "cushion," that will prevent the ready flow of contents.</p> + +<p>"All traps must be well supported and rest true with respect to their +water level."</p> + +<p><strong>Vent Pipes and Their Branches.</strong>—The purpose of vent pipes, we have +seen, is to prevent siphoning of traps and to ventilate the air in the +traps and pipes. The material of which vent pipes are made is cast +iron.</p> + +<p>The size of vent pipes depends on the number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> traps with which they +are connected; it is usually two or three inches. The connection of +the branch vent to the trap must be at the crown of the trap, and the +connection of the branch vent to the main vent pipe must be above the +trap, so as to prevent friction of air. The vent pipes are not +perfectly vertical, but with a continuous slope, so as to prevent +condensation of air or vapor therein.</p> + +<p>The vent pipes should be extended above the roof, several feet above +the coping, etc.; and the extension above the roof should not be of +less than four inches diameter, so as to avoid obstruction by frost. +No return bends or cowls should be tolerated on top of the vent pipes. +Sometimes the vent, instead of running above the roof, is connected +with the soil pipe several feet above all fixtures.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/fig23.png" width="500" height="71" alt="Fig. 23." title="Fig. 23." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 23.</span> + +<p class="title">LEADER PIPE.</p> +</div> + +<p><strong>Rain Leaders.</strong>—The rain leader serves to collect the rain water from +the roof and eaves gutter. It usually discharges its contents into the +house drain, although some leaders are led to the street gutter, while +others are connected with school sinks in the yard. The latter +practice is objectionable, as it may lead the foul air from the school +sink into the rooms, the windows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> of which are near the rain leader; +besides, the stirring up of the contents of the school sink produces +bad odors. When the rain leader is placed within the house, it must be +made of cast iron with lead-calked joints; when outside, as is the +rule, it may be of sheet metal or galvanized-iron pipe with soldered +joints. When the rain leader is run near windows, the rules and +practice are that it should be trapped at its base, the trap to be a +deep one to prevent evaporation, and it should be placed several feet +below the ground, so as to prevent freezing.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER VIII</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Plumbing Fixtures</strong></p> + + +<p>The receptacles or fixtures within the house for receiving the waste +and excrementitious matter and carrying it off through the pipes to +the sewer are very important parts of house plumbing. Great care must +be bestowed upon the construction, material, fitting, etc., of the +plumbing fixtures, that they be a source of comfort in the house +instead of becoming a curse to the occupants.</p> + +<p><strong>Sinks.</strong>—The waste water from the kitchen is disposed of by means of +sinks. Sinks are usually made of cast iron, painted, enameled, or +galvanized. They are also made of wrought iron, as well as of +earthenware and porcelain. Sinks must be set level, and provided with +a strainer at the outlet to prevent large particles of kitchen refuse +from being swept into the pipe and obstructing it. If possible the +back and sides of a sink should be cast from one piece; the back and +sides, when of wood, should be covered by nonabsorbent material, to +prevent the wood from becoming saturated with waste water.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> No +woodwork should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> inclose sinks; they should be supported on iron legs +and be open beneath and around. The trap of a sink is usually two +inches in diameter, and should be near the sink; it should have a +screw cap for cleaning and inspection, and the branch vent pipe should +be at the crown of the trap.</p> + +<p><strong>Washbasins.</strong>—Washbasins are placed in bathrooms, and, when properly +constructed and fitted, are a source of comfort. They should not be +located in bedrooms, and should be open, without any woodwork around +them. The washbowls are made of porcelain or marble, with a socket at +the outlet, into which a plug is fitted.</p> + +<p><strong>Wash Tubs.</strong>—For laundry purposes wooden, iron-enameled, stone, and +porcelain tubs are fitted in the kitchen or laundry room. Porcelain is +the best material, although very expensive. The soapstone tub is the +next best; it is clean, nonabsorbent, and not too expensive. Wood +should never be used, as it soon becomes saturated, is foul, leaks, +and is offensive. In old houses, wherever there are wooden tubs, they +should be covered with zinc or some nonabsorbent material. The wash +tubs are placed in pairs, sometimes three in a row, and they are +generally connected with one lead waste pipe one and a half to two +inches in diameter, with one trap for all the tubs.</p> + +<p><strong>Bath Tubs.</strong>—Bath tubs are made of enameled iron or porcelain, and +should not be covered or inclosed by any woodwork. The branch waste +pipe should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> trapped and connected with the main waste or soil +pipe. The floor about the tub in the bathroom should be of +nonabsorbent material.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> + +<p><strong>Refrigerators.</strong>—The waste pipes of refrigerators should not connect +with any of the house pipes, but should be emptied into a basin or +pail; or, if the refrigerator is large, its waste pipe should be +conducted to the cellar, where it should discharge into a properly +trapped, sewer-connected and water-supplied open sink.</p> + +<p><strong>Boilers.</strong>—The so-called sediment pipe from the hot-water boiler in the +kitchen should be connected with the sink trap at the inlet side of +the trap.</p> + +<p><strong>Urinals.</strong>—As a rule, no urinals should be tolerated within a house; +they are permissible only in factories and office buildings. The +material is enameled iron or porcelain. They must be provided with a +proper water supply to flush them.</p> + +<p><strong>Overflows.</strong>—To guard against overflow of washbasins, bath tubs, etc., +overflow pipes from the upper portion of the fixtures are commonly +provided. These pipes are connected with the inlet side of the trap of +the same fixture. They are, however, liable to become a nuisance by +being obstructed with dirt and not being constantly flushed; whenever +possible they should be dispensed with.</p> + +<p><strong>Safes and Wastes.</strong>—A common usage with plumb<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>ers in the past has been +to provide sinks, washbasins, bath tubs, and water-closets, not only +with overflow pipes, but also with so-called safes, which consist of +sheets of lead turned up several inches at the edge so as to catch all +drippings and overflow from fixtures; from these safes a drip pipe or +waste is conducted to the cellar, where it empties into a sink. Of +course, when such safe wastes are connected with the soil or waste +pipes, they become a source of danger, even if they are trapped, as +they are not properly cared for or flushed; and their traps are +usually not sealed. Even when discharging into a sink in the cellar, +safes and safe waste are very unsightly, dirty, liable to accumulate +filth, and are offensive. With open plumbing, and with the floors +under the fixtures of nonabsorbent material, they are useless.</p> + +<p><strong>Water-closets.</strong>—The most important plumbing fixtures within the house +are the water-closets. Upon the proper construction and location of +the water-closets greatly depends the health of the inhabitants of the +house. Water-closets should be placed in separate, well-lighted, +perfectly ventilated, damp-proof, and clean compartments, and no +water-closet should be used by more than one family in a tenement +house. The type and construction of the water-closets should be +carefully attended to, as the many existing, old, and obsolete types +of water-closets are still being installed in houses, or are left +there to foul the air of rooms and apartments. There are many +water-closets<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> on the market, some of which will be described; the +best are those made of one piece, of porcelain or enameled +earthenware, and so constructed as always to be and remain clean.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 498px;"> +<img src="images/fig24.png" width="498" height="500" alt="Fig. 24." title="Fig. 24." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 24.</span> + +<p class="title">PAN WATER-CLOSET. (<span class="image_source">Gerhard.</span>)</p> +</div> + +<p><em>The Pan Closet.</em>—The water-closet most commonly used in former times +was a representative of the group of water-closets with mechanical +contrivances. This is the <em>pan closet</em>, now universally condemned and +prohibited from further use. The pan closet consists of four principal +parts: (1) basin of china, small and round; (2) a copper six-inch pan +under the basin; (3) a large iron container, into which the basin with +the pan under it is placed; and (4) a D trap, to which the container +is joined. The pan is attached with a lever to a handle, which, when +pulled, moves the pan; this describes a half circle and drops the +contents into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> container and trap. The objections to pan closets +are the following:</p> + +<p>(1) There being a number of parts and mechanical contrivances, they +are liable to get out of order.</p> + +<p>(2) The bowl is set into the container and cannot be inspected, and is +usually very dirty beneath.</p> + +<p>(3) The pan is often missing, gets out of order, and is liable to be +soiled by adhering excreta.</p> + +<p>(4) The container is large, excreta adhere to its upper parts, and the +iron becomes corroded and coated with filth.</p> + +<p>(5) With every pull of the handle and pan, foul air enters rooms.</p> + +<p>(6) The junctions between the bowl and container, and the container +and trap, are usually not gas-tight.</p> + +<p>(7) The pan breaks the force of the water flush, and the trap is +usually not completely emptied.</p> + +<p><em>Valve and Plunger Closets</em> are an improvement upon the pan closets, +but are not free from several objections enumerated above. As a rule, +all water-closets with mechanical parts are objectionable.</p> + +<p><em>Hopper Closets</em> are made of iron or earthenware. Iron hopper closets +easily corrode; they are usually enameled on the inside. Earthenware +hoppers are preferable to iron ones. Hopper closets are either long or +short; when long, they expose a very large surface to be fouled, +require a trap below the floor, and are, as a rule, very difficult to +clean or to keep clean. Short hopper closets are preferable, as they +are easily kept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> clean and are well flushed. When provided with +flushing rim, and with a good water-supply cistern and large supply +pipe, the short hopper closet is a good form of water-closet.</p> + +<p>The washout and washdown water-closets are an improvement upon the +hopper closets. They are manufactured from earthenware or porcelain, +and are so shaped that they contain a water seal, obviating the +necessity of a separate trap under the closet.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 434px;"> +<img src="images/fig25.png" width="434" height="500" alt="Fig. 25." title="Fig. 25." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 25.</span> + +<p class="title">LONG HOPPER WATER-CLOSET. (<span class="image_source">Gerhard.</span>)</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;"> +<img src="images/fig26.png" width="451" height="473" alt="Fig. 26." title="Fig. 26." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 26.</span> + +<p class="title">SHORT HOPPER WATER-CLOSET. (<span class="image_source">Gerhard.</span>)</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;"> +<img src="images/fig27.jpg" width="357" height="500" alt="Fig. 27." title="Fig. 27." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 27.</span> + +<p class="title">STYLES OF WATER-CLOSETS.</p> +</div> + +<p><em>Flush Tanks.</em>—Water-closets must not be flushed directly from the +water-supply pipes, as there is a possibility of contaminating the +water supply. Water-closets should be flushed from flush tanks, either +of iron or of wood, metal lined; these cisterns should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> placed not +less than four feet above the water-closet, and provided with a +straight flush pipe of at least one and one-quarter inch diameter.</p> + +<p>The cistern is fitted with plug and handle, so that by pulling at the +handle the plug is lifted out of the socket of the cistern and the +contents permitted to rush through the pipe and flush the +water-closet. A separate ball arrangement is made for closing the +water supply when the cistern is full. The cistern must have a +capacity of at least three to five gallons of water; the flush pipe +must have a diameter of not less than one and one-quarter inch, and +the pipe must be straight, without bends, and the arrangement within +the closets such as to flush all parts of the bowl at the same time.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/fig28.jpg" width="500" height="332" alt="Fig. 28." title="Fig. 28." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 28.</span> + +<p class="title">FLUSHING CISTERN.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]<br />[Pg 225]</a></span><strong>Yard Closets.</strong>—In many old houses the water-closet accommodations are +placed in the yard. There are two forms of these yard closets commonly +used—the school sink and the yard hopper.</p> + +<p>The <em>school sink</em> is an iron trough from five to twelve or more feet +long, and one to two feet wide and one foot deep, set in a trench +several feet below the surface with an inclination toward the exit; on +one end of the trough there is a socket fitted with a plug, and on the +other a flushing apparatus consisting simply of a water service-pipe. +Above the iron trough brick walls are built up, inclosing it; over it +are placed wooden seats, and surrounding the whole is a wooden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> shed +with compartments for every seat. The excreta are allowed to fall into +the trough, which is partly filled with water, and once a day, or as +often as the caretaker chooses, the plug is pulled up and the excreta +allowed to flow into the sewer with which the school sink is +connected. These school sinks are, as a rule, a nuisance, and are +dangerous to health. The objections to them are the following:</p> + +<p>(1) The excreta lies exposed in the iron trough, and may decompose +even in one day; and it is always offensive.</p> + +<p>(2) The iron trough is easily corroded.</p> + +<p>(3) The iron trough, being large, presents a large surface for +adherence of excreta.</p> + +<p>(4) The brickwork above the trough is not flushed when the school sink +is emptied, and excreta, which usually adheres to it, decomposes, +creating offensive odors.</p> + +<p>(5) The junction of the iron trough with the brickwork, and the +brickwork itself, is usually defective, or becomes defective, and +allows foul water and sewage to pass into the yard, or into the wall +adjacent to the school sink. By the Tenement House Law of New York, +the use of school sinks is prohibited even in old buildings.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;"> +<img src="images/fig29.png" width="372" height="500" alt="Fig. 29." title="Fig. 29." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 29.</span> + +<p class="title">SCHOOL SINK AFTER SEVERAL MONTHS' USE.</p> + +<p class="title">(<span class="image_source">J. Sullivan.</span>)</p> +</div> + +<p><em>Yard Hopper Closets.</em>—Where the water-closet accommodations cannot, +for some reason, be put within the house, yard hopper closets are +commonly employed. These closets are simply long, iron-enameled +hoppers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> trapped, and connected with a drain pipe discharging into +the house drain. These closets are flushed from cisterns, but, in such +case, the cisterns must be protected from freezing; this is +accomplished in some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> houses by putting the yard hopper near the house +and placing the cistern within the house; however, this can hardly be +done where several hoppers must be employed. In most cases, yard +hoppers are flushed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 229]<br />[Pg 230]</a></span> automatic rod valves, so constructed as to +flush the bowl of the hopper whenever the seat is pressed upon. These +valves, as a rule, frequently get out of order and leak, and care must +be taken to construct the vault under the hopper so that it be +perfectly water-tight. An improved form of yard hopper has been +suggested by Inspector J. Sullivan, of the New York Health Department, +and used in a number of places with complete satisfaction. The +improvement consists in the doors and walls of the privy apartment +being of double thickness, lined with builders' lining on the inside, +and the water service-pipes and cistern being protected by felt or +mineral wool packing.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;"> +<img src="images/fig30.png" width="318" height="500" alt="Fig. 30." title="Fig. 30." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 30.</span> + +<p class="title">J. SULLIVAN'S IMPROVED YARD HOPPER CLOSET.</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 220px;"> +<img src="images/fig31.jpg" width="220" height="500" alt="Fig. 31." title="Fig. 31." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 31.</span> + +<p class="title">A MODERN WATER-CLOSET.</p> + +<p class="title">(J. L. Mott Iron Works.)</p> +</div> + +<p><strong>Yard and Area Drains.</strong>—The draining of the surface of the yard or +other areas is done by tile or iron pipes connecting with the sewer or +house drain in the cellar. The "bell" or the "lip" traps are to be +condemned and should not be used for yard drains. The gully and trap +should be made of one piece; the trap should be of the siphon type and +should be deep enough in the ground to prevent the freezing of seal in +winter.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Waterproof paint or tiling should be used for this +purpose.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Tiling, linoleum, concrete, etc., as opposed to wood or +carpets.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER IX</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Defects in Plumbing</strong></p> + + +<p>The materials used in house plumbing are many and various, the parts +are very numerous, the joints and connections are frequent, the +position and location of pipes, etc., are often inaccessible and +hidden, and the whole system quite complicated. Moreover, no part of +the house construction is subjected to so many strains and uses, as +well as abuses, as the plumbing of the house. Hence, in no part of +house construction can there be as much bad work and "scamping" done +as in the plumbing; and no part of the house is liable to have so many +defects in construction, maintenance, and condition as the plumbing. +At the same time, the plumbing of a house is of very great importance +and influence on the health of the tenants, for defective materials, +bad workmanship, and improper condition of the plumbing of a house may +endanger the lives of its inhabitants by causing various diseases.</p> + +<p><strong>Defects in Plumbing.</strong>—The defects usually found in plumbing are so +many that they cannot all be enumerated here. Among the principal and +most common defects, however, are the following:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span><em>Materials.</em>—Light-weight iron pipes; these crack easily and cannot +stand the strain of calking. Sand-holes made during casting; these +cannot always be detected, especially when the pipes are tar-coated. +Thin lead pipe; not heavy enough to withstand the bending and drawing +it is subjected to.</p> + +<p><em>Location and Position.</em>—Pipes may be located within the walls and +built in, in which case they are inaccessible, and may be defective +without anyone being able to discover the defects. Pipes may be laid +with a wrong or an insufficient fall, thus leaving them unflushed, or +retarding the proper velocity of the flow in the pipes. Pipes may be +put underground and have no support underneath, when some parts or +lengths may sink, get out of joint, and the sewage run into the ground +instead of through the pipes. The pipes may be so located as to +require sharp bends and curves, which will retard the flow in them.</p> + +<p><em>Joints.</em>—Joints in pipes may be defective, leaking, and not +gas-tight because of imperfect calking, insufficient lead having been +used; or, no oakum having been used and the lead running into the +lumen of the pipe; or, not sufficient care and time being taken for +the work. Joints may be defective because of iron ferrules being used +instead of brass ferrules; through improperly wiped joints; through +bad workmanship, bad material, or ignorance of the plumber. Plumbers +often use T branches instead of Y branches; sharp bends instead of +bends of forty-five degrees or more;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> slip joints instead of +lead-calked ones; also, they often connect a pipe of larger diameter +with a pipe of small diameter, etc.</p> + +<p><em>Traps.</em>—The traps may be bad in principle and in construction; they +may be badly situated or connected, or they may be easily unsealed, +frequently obstructed, inaccessible, foul, etc.</p> + +<p><em>Ventilation.</em>—The house drain may have no fresh-air inlet, or the +fresh-air inlet may be obstructed; the vent pipes may be absent, or +obstructed; the vertical pipes may not be extended.</p> + +<p><em>Condition.</em>—Pipes may have holes, may be badly repaired, bent, out +of shape, or have holes patched up with cement or putty; pipes may be +corroded, gnawed by rats, or they may be obstructed, etc.</p> + +<p>The above are only a few of the many defects that may be found in the +plumbing of a house. It is, therefore, of paramount importance to have +the house plumbing regularly, frequently, and thoroughly examined and +inspected, as well as put to the various tests, so as to discover the +defects and remedy them.</p> + +<p><strong>Plumbing Tests.</strong>—The following are a few minor points for testing +plumbing:</p> + +<p>(1) To test a trap with a view to finding out whether its seal is lost +or not, knock on the trap with a piece of metal; if the trap is empty, +a hollow sound will be given out; if full, the sound will be dull. +This is not reliable in case the trap is full or half-full with slime, +etc. Another test for the same purpose is as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> follows: hold a light +near the outlet of the fixture; if the light is drawn in, it is a sign +that the trap is empty.</p> + +<p>(2) Defects in leaded joints can be detected if white lead has been +used, as it will be discolored in case sewer gas escape from the +joints.</p> + +<p>(3) The connection of a waste pipe of a bath tub with the trap of the +water-closet can sometimes be discovered by suddenly emptying the bath +tub and watching the contents of the water-closet trap; the latter +will be agitated if the waste pipe is discharged into the trap or on +the inlet side of trap of the water-closet.</p> + +<p>(4) The presence of sewer gas in a room can be detected by the +following chemical method: saturate a piece of unglazed paper with a +solution of acetate of lead in rain or boiled water, in the proportion +of one to eight; allow the paper to dry, and hang up in the room where +the escape of sewer gas is suspected; if sewer gas is present, the +paper will be completely blackened.</p> + +<p>The main tests for plumbing are: (1) the <em>Hydraulic</em> or water-pressure +test; (2) the <em>Smoke</em>, or sight test, and (3) the <em>Scent</em>, or +peppermint, etc., test.</p> + +<p>The <em>Water-pressure Test</em> is used to test the vertical and horizontal +pipes in new plumbing before the fixtures have been connected. It is +applied as follows: the end of the house drain is plugged up with a +proper air-tight plug, of which there are a number on the market. The +pipes are then filled with water to a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> certain level, which is +carefully noted. The water is allowed to stand in the pipes for half +an hour, at the expiration of which time, if the joints show no sign +of leakage, and are not sweating, and if the level of the water in the +pipes has not fallen, the pipes are water-tight. This is a very +reliable test, and is made obligatory for testing all new plumbing +work.</p> + +<p><em>The Smoke Test</em> is also a very good test. It is applied as follows: +by means of bellows, or some exploding, smoke-producing rocket, smoke +is forced into the system of pipes, the ends plugged up, and the +escape of the smoke watched for, as wherever there are defects in the +pipes the smoke will appear. A number of special appliances for this +test are manufactured, all of them more or less ingenious.</p> + +<p><em>The Scent Test</em> is made by putting into the pipes a certain quantity +of some pungent chemical, like peppermint oil, etc., the odor of which +will escape from the defects in the pipes, if there are any. Oil of +peppermint is commonly used in this country for the test. The +following is the way this test is applied: all the openings of the +pipes on the roof, except one, are closed up tightly with paper, rags, +etc. Into the one open pipe is poured from two to four ounces of +peppermint oil, followed by a pail of hot water, and then the pipe +into which the oil has been put is also plugged up. This is done, +preferably, by an assistant. The inspector then proceeds to slowly +follow the course of the various pipes, and will detect the smell of +the oil wherever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> it may escape from any defects in the pipes. If the +test is thoroughly and carefully done, if care is taken that no +fixture in the house is used and the traps of same not disturbed +during the test, if the openings of the pipes on the roofs are plugged +up tightly, if the main house trap is not unsealed (otherwise the oil +will escape into the sewer), and if the handling of the oil has been +done by an assistant, so that none adheres to the inspector—if all +these conditions are carried out, the peppermint test is a most +valuable test for the detection of any and all defects in plumbing. +Another precaution to be taken is with regard to the rain leader. If +the rain leader is not trapped, or if its trap is empty, the +peppermint oil may escape from the pipes into the rain leader. Care +must be taken, therefore, that the trap at the base of the rain leader +be sealed; or, if no trap is existing, to close up the connection of +the rain leader with the house drain; or, if this be impossible, to +plug up the opening of the leader near the roof.</p> + +<p>Instead of putting the oil into the opening of a pipe on the roof, it +may be put through a fixture on the top floor of the house, although +this is not so satisfactory.</p> + +<p>Various appliances have been manufactured to make this test more easy +and accurate. Of the English appliances, the Banner patent drain +grenade, and Kemp's drain tester are worthy of mention. The former +consists "of a thin glass vial charged with pun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>gent and volatile +chemicals. One of the grenades, when dropped down any suitable pipe, +such as the soil pipe, breaks, or the grenade may be inserted through +a trap into the drain, where it is exploded." (Taylor.) Kemp's drain +tester consists of a glass tube containing a chemical with a strong +odor; the tube is fitted with a glass cover, held in place by a string +and a paper band. When the tester is thrown into the pipes and hot +water poured after it, the paper band breaks, the spring opens the +cover, and the contents of the tube fall into the drain.</p> + +<p>Recently Dr. W. G. Hudson, an inspector in the Department of Health of +New York, has invented a very ingenious "peppermint cartridge" for +testing plumbing. The invention is, however, not yet manufactured, and +is not on the market.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER X</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Infection and Disinfection</strong></p> + + +<p>Disinfection is the destruction of the infective power of infectious +material; or, in other words, disinfection is the destruction of the +agents of infection.</p> + +<p>An infectious material is one contaminated with germs of infection.</p> + +<p>The germs of infection are organic microörganisms, vegetable and +animal—protozoa and bacteria.</p> + +<p>The germs of infection once being lodged within the body cause certain +reactions producing specific pathological changes and a variety of +groups of symptoms which we know by the specific names of infectious +diseases, e. g., typhoid, typhus, etc.</p> + +<p>Among the infectious diseases known to be due to specific germs are +the following: typhoid, typhus, relapsing fevers, cholera, diphtheria, +croup, tuberculosis, pneumonia, malaria, yellow fever, erysipelas, +<em>septicæmia</em>, anthrax, <em>tetanus</em>, gonorrhea, etc.; and among the +infectious diseases the germs of which have not as yet been discovered +are the following: scarlet fever, measles, smallpox, syphilis, +varicella, etc.</p> + +<p>The part of the body and the organs in which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> germs first find +their entrance, or which they specifically attack, vary with each +disease; thus, the mucous membranes, skin, internal organs, +secretions, and excretions are, severally, either portals of infection +or the places where the infection shows itself the most.</p> + +<p>The agents carrying the germs of infection from one person to the +other may be the infected persons themselves, or anything which has +come in contact with their bodies and its secretions and excretions; +thus, the air, room, furniture, vessels, clothing, food and drink, +also insects and vermin, may all be carriers of infection.</p> + +<p><strong>Sterilization</strong> is the absolute destruction of <em>all</em> organic life, +whether infectious or not; it is therefore <em>more</em> than disinfection, +which destroys the germs of infection alone.</p> + +<p>A <strong>Disinfectant</strong> is an agent which destroys germs of infection.</p> + +<p>A <strong>Germicide</strong> is the same; an agent destroying germs.</p> + +<p>An <strong>Insecticide</strong> is an agent capable of destroying insects; it is not +necessarily a disinfectant, nor is a disinfectant necessarily an +insecticide.</p> + +<p>An <strong>Antiseptic</strong> is a substance which inhibits and stops the growth of +the bacteria of putrefaction and decomposition. A disinfectant is +therefore an antiseptic, but an antiseptic may not be a disinfectant.</p> + +<p>A <strong>Deodorant</strong> is a substance which neutralizes or destroys the +unpleasant odors arising from matter un<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>dergoing putrefaction. A +deodorant is not necessarily a disinfectant, nor is every disinfectant +a deodorant.</p> + +<p>The ideal disinfectant is one which, while capable of destroying the +germs of disease, does not injure the bodies and material upon which +the germs may be found; it must also be penetrating, harmless in +handling, inexpensive, and reliable. The ideal disinfectant has not as +yet been discovered.</p> + +<p>For successful scientific disinfection it is necessary to know: (1) +the nature of the specific germs of the disease; (2) the methods and +agents of its spread and infection; (3) the places where the germs are +most likely to be found; (4) the action of each disinfectant upon the +germs; and (5) the best methods of applying the disinfectant to the +materials infected with germs of disease.</p> + +<p>Disinfection is not a routine, uniform, unscientific process; a +disinfector must be conversant with the basic principles of +disinfection, must make a thorough study of the scientific part of the +subject, and moreover must be thoroughly imbued with the importance of +his work, upon which the checking of the further spread of disease +depends.</p> + + +<h4><em>Physical Disinfectants</em></h4> + +<p>The physical disinfectants are sunlight, desiccation, and heat.</p> + +<p><strong>Sunlight</strong> is a good disinfectant provided the in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>fected material or +germs are directly exposed to the rays of the sun. Bacteria are killed +within a short time, but spores need a long time, and some of them +resist the action of the sun for an indefinite period. The +disadvantages of sunlight as a disinfectant are its superficial +action, its variability and uncertainty, and its slow action upon most +germs of infection. Sunlight is a good adjunct to other methods of +disinfection; it is most valuable in tuberculosis, and should be used +wherever possible in conjunction with other physical or chemical +methods of disinfection.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<p><strong>Desiccation</strong> is a good means of disinfection, but can be applied only +to very few objects; all bacteria need moisture for their existence +and multiplication, hence absolute dryness acts as a good germicide. +Meat and fish, certain cereals, and also fruit, when dried, become at +the same time disinfected.</p> + +<p><em>Heat</em> is the best, most valuable, all-pervading, most available, and +cheapest disinfectant. The various ways in which heat may be used for +disinfection are burning, dry heat, boiling, and steam.</p> + +<p><strong>Burning</strong> is of course the best disinfectant, but it not only destroys +the germs in the infected materials, but the materials themselves; its +application is therefore limited to articles of little or no value, +and to rags, rubbish, and refuse.</p> + +<p><strong>Dry Heat.</strong>—All life is destroyed when exposed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> a dry heat of 150° +C. for one hour, although most of the bacteria of infection are killed +at a lower temperature and in shorter time. Dry heat is a good +disinfectant for objects that can stand the heat without injury, but +most objects, and especially textile fabrics, are injured by it.</p> + +<p><strong>Boiling.</strong>—Perhaps the best and most valuable disinfectant in existence +is boiling, because it is always at command, is applicable to most +materials and objects, is an absolutely safe sterilizer and +disinfectant, and needs very little if any preparation and apparatus +for its use. One half hour of boiling will destroy all life; and most +bacteria can be killed at even a lower temperature. Subjection to a +temperature of only 70° C. for half an hour suffices to kill the germs +of cholera, tuberculosis, diphtheria, plague, etc. Boiling is +especially applicable to textile fabrics and small objects, and can +readily be done in the house where the infection exists, thus +obviating the necessity of conveying the infected objects elsewhere, +and perhaps for some distance, to be disinfected.</p> + +<p><strong>Steam.</strong>—Of all the physical disinfectants steam is the most valuable +because it is very penetrating, reliable, and rapid; it kills all +bacteria at once and all spores in a few minutes, and besides is +applicable to a great number and many kinds of materials and objects. +Steam is especially valuable for the disinfection of clothing, +bedding, carpets, textile fabrics, mattresses, etc. Steam can be used +in a small way, as well as in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> very large plants. The well-known +Arnold sterilizers, used for the sterilization of milk, etc., afford +an example of the use of steam in a small apparatus; while municipal +authorities usually construct very large steam disinfecting plants. A +steam disinfector is made of steel or of wrought iron, is usually +cylindrical in shape, and is covered with felt, asbestos, etc. The +disinfector has doors on one or both ends, and is fitted inside with +rails upon which a specially constructed car can be slid in through +one door and out through the other. The car is divided into several +compartments, in which the infected articles are placed; when thus +loaded it is run into the disinfector. The steam disinfectors may be +fitted with thermometers, vacuum formers, steam jackets, etc.</p> + + +<h4><em>Gaseous Chemical Disinfectants</em></h4> + +<p>Physical disinfectants, however valuable and efficient, cannot be +employed in many places and for many materials infected with disease +germs, and therefore chemicals have been sought to be used wherever +physical disinfectants could not for one or more reasons be employed. +Chemicals are used as disinfectants either in gaseous form or in +solutions; the gaseous kinds are of especial value on account of their +penetrating qualities, and are employed for the disinfection of rooms, +holds of ships, etc. There are practically but two chemicals which are +used in gaseous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> disinfection, and these are sulphur dioxide and +formaldehyde.</p> + +<p><strong>Sulphur Dioxide.</strong>—Sulphur dioxide (SO<sub>2</sub>) is a good surface +disinfectant, and is very destructive to all animal life; it is one of +the best insecticides we have, but its germicidal qualities are rather +weak; it does not kill spores, and it penetrates only superficially. +The main disadvantages of sulphur dioxide as a disinfectant are: (1) +that it weakens textile fabrics; (2) blackens and bleaches all +vegetable coloring matter; (3) tarnishes metal; and (4) is very +injurious and dangerous to those handling it.</p> + +<p>There are several methods of employing sulphur in the disinfection of +rooms and objects, e. g., the pot, candle, liquid, and furnace +methods.</p> + +<p>In the pot methods crude sulphur, preferably ground, is used; it is +placed in an iron pot and ignited by the aid of alcohol, and in the +burning evolves the sulphur dioxide gas. About five pounds of sulphur +are to be used for every 1,000 cubic feet of space. As moisture plays +a very important part in developing the disinfecting properties of +sulphur dioxide, the anhydrous gas being inactive as a disinfectant, +it is advisable to place the pot in a large pan filled with water, so +that the evaporated water may render the gas active. For the purpose +of destroying all insects in a room an exposure of about two hours to +the gas are necessary, while for the destruction of bacteria an +exposure of at least fifteen to sixteen hours is required.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>In the application of disinfection with sulphur dioxide, as with any +other gas, it must not be forgotten that gases very readily escape +through the many apertures, cracks, and openings in the room and +through the slits near doors and windows; and in order to confine the +gas in the room it is absolutely necessary to hermetically close all +such apertures, cracks, etc., before generating the gaseous +disinfectant. The closing of the openings, etc., is done by the +pasting over these strips of gummed paper, an important procedure +which must not be overlooked, and which must be carried out in a +conscientious manner.</p> + +<p>When sulphur is used in candle form the expense is considerably +increased without any additional efficiency. When a solution of +sulphurous acid is employed, exposure of the liquid to the air +suffices to disengage the sulphur dioxide necessary for disinfection. +The quantity of the solution needed is double that of the crude drug, +i. e., ten pounds for every 1,000 cubic feet of room space.</p> + +<p><strong>Formaldehyde.</strong>—At present the tendency is to employ formaldehyde gas +instead of the sulphur so popular some time ago. The advantages of +formaldehyde over sulphur are: (1) its nonpoisonous nature; (2) it is +a very good germicide; (3) it has no injurious effect upon fabrics and +objects; (4) it does not change colors; and (5) it can be used for the +disinfection of rooms with the richest hangings, bric-a-brac, etc., +without danger to these. Formaldehyde is evolved either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> from paraform +or from the liquid formalin; formerly it was also obtained by the +action of wood-alcohol vapor upon red-hot platinum.</p> + +<p>Formaldehyde gas has not very great penetrating power; it is not an +insecticide, but kills bacteria in a very short time, and spores in an +hour or two.</p> + +<p>Paraform (polymerized formaldehyde; trioxymethylene) is sold in +pastilles or in powder form, and when heated reverts again to +formaldehyde; it must not burn, for no gas is evolved when the heating +reaches the stage of burning. The lamps used for disinfection with +paraform are very simple in construction, but as the evolution of the +gas is very uncertain, this method is used only for small places, and +it demands two ounces of paraform for every 1,000 cubic feet of space, +with an exposure of twelve hours. Formaldehyde is also used in the +form of the liquid formalin either by spraying and sprinkling the +objects to be disinfected with the liquid, and then placing them in a +tightly covered box, so that they are disinfected by the evolution of +the gas, or by wetting sheets with a formalin solution and letting +them hang in the room to be disinfected.</p> + +<p>The method most frequently employed is to generate the formaldehyde in +generators, retorts, and in the so-called autoclaves, and then to +force it through apertures into the room.</p> + +<p>Of the other gaseous disinfectants used, hydrocyanic acid and chlorine +may be mentioned, although they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> are very rarely used because of their +irritating and poisonous character.</p> + +<p><strong>Hydrocyanic Acid</strong> is frequently used as an insecticide in ships, mills, +and greenhouses, but its germicidal power is weak.</p> + +<p><strong>Chlorine</strong> is a good germicide, but is very irritating, poisonous, and +dangerous to handle; it is evolved by the decomposition of chlorinated +lime with sulphuric acid. Chlorine gas is very injurious to objects, +materials, and colors, and its use is therefore very limited.</p> + + +<h4><em>Chemicals Used as Disinfectants</em></h4> + +<p>Solution of chemicals, in order to be effective, must be used +generously, in concentrated form, for a prolonged time, and, if +possible, warm or hot. The strength of the solution must depend upon +the work to be performed and the materials used. The method of +applying the solution differs. It may consist in immersing and soaking +the infected object in the solution; or the solution may be applied as +a wash to surfaces, or used in the form of sprays, atomizers, etc. The +most important solutions of chemicals and the ones most frequently +employed are those of carbolic acid and bichloride of mercury.</p> + +<p><strong>Carbolic Acid.</strong>—In the strength of 1:15,000 carbolic acid prevents +decomposition; a strength of 1:1,000 is needed for the destruction of +bacteria, and a three per cent to five per cent solution for the +destruc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>tion of spores. Carbolic acid is used, as a rule, in two per +cent to five per cent solutions, and is a very good disinfectant for +washing floors, walls, ceilings, woodwork, small objects, etc. The +cresols, creolin, lysol, and other solutions of the cresols are more +germicidal than carbolic acid, and are sometimes used for the same +purposes.</p> + +<p><strong>Bichloride of Mercury</strong> (corrosive sublimate) is a potent poison and a +powerful germicide; in solutions of 1:15,000 it stops decomposition; +in solutions of 1:2,000 it kills bacteria in two hours; and in a +strength of 1:500 it acts very quickly as a germicide for all +bacteria, and even for spores. Corrosive sublimate dissolves in +sixteen parts of cold and three parts of boiling water, but for +disinfecting purposes it should be colored so that it may not be +inadvertently used for other purposes, as the normal solutions are +colorless and may accidentally be used internally. The action of the +bichloride is increased by heat.</p> + +<p><strong>Formalin</strong> is a forty per cent solution of formaldehyde gas, and its +uses and methods of employment have already been considered.</p> + +<p><strong>Potassium Permanganate</strong> is a good germicide, and weak solutions of it +are sufficient to kill some bacteria, but the objections against its +use are that solutions of potassium permanganate become inert and +decompose on coming in contact with any organic matter. Furthermore, +the chemical would be too expensive for disinfecting purposes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span><strong>Ferrous Sulphate</strong> (copperas) was formerly very extensively used for +disinfecting purposes, but is not so used at present, owing to the +fact that it has been learned that the germicidal power of this +material is very slight, and that its value depends mostly upon its +deodorizing power, for which reason it is used on excreta in privy +vaults, etc.</p> + +<p><strong>Lime.</strong>—When carbonate of lime is calcined the product is common lime, +which, upon being mixed with water, produces slaked lime; when to the +latter considerable water is added, the product is milk of lime, and +also whitewash. Whitewash is often used to disinfect walls and +ceilings of cellars as well as of rooms; milk of lime is used to +disinfect excreta in privy vaults, school sinks, etc. Whenever lime is +used for disinfecting excreta it should be used generously, and be +thoroughly mixed with the material to be disinfected.</p> + + +<h4><em>Disinfection of Rooms</em></h4> + +<p>Practical disinfection is not a routine, uniform, and thoughtless +process, but demands the detailed, conscientious application of +scientific data gained by research and laboratory experiments. +Disinfection to be thorough and successful cannot be applied to all +objects, material, and diseases in like manner, but must be adjusted +to the needs of every case, and must be performed conscientiously. +Placing a sulphur candle in a room, spilling a quart of carbolic acid +or a couple<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> of pounds of chlorinated lime upon the floors or objects, +may be regarded as disinfection by laymen, but in municipal +disinfection the disinfector must be thoroughly versed in the science +of disinfection and be prepared to apply its dictates to practice.</p> + +<p><strong>Rooms.</strong>—In the disinfection of rooms the disinfectant used varies with +the part of the room as well as with the character of the room. When a +gaseous disinfectant is to be used sulphur dioxide or formaldehyde is +employed, with the tendency lately to replace the former by the +latter. Wherever there are delicate furnishings, tapestries, etc., +sulphur cannot be used on account of its destructive character; when +sulphur is employed it is, as a rule, in the poorer class of tenement +houses where there is very little of value to be injured by the gas, +and where the sulphur is of additional value as an insecticide. +Whenever gaseous disinfectants are used the principal work of the +disinfector is in the closing up of the cracks, apertures, holes, and +all openings from the room to the outer air, as otherwise the gaseous +disinfectant will escape. The closing up of the open spaces is +accomplished usually by means of gummed-paper strips, which are +obtainable in rolls and need only to be moistened and applied to the +cracks, etc. Openings into chimneys, ventilators, transoms, and the +like must not be overlooked by the disinfector. After the openings +have already been closed up the disinfectant is applied and the +disinfector quickly leaves the room, being careful to close the door<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> +behind him and to paste gummed paper over the door cracks. The room +must be left closed for at least twelve, or better, for twenty-four +hours, when it should be opened and well aired.</p> + +<p><strong>Walls and Ceilings</strong> of rooms should be disinfected by scrubbing with a +solution of corrosive sublimate or carbolic acid; and in cases of +tuberculosis and wherever there is fear of infection adhering to the +walls and ceilings, all paper, kalsomine, or paint should be scraped +off and new paper, kalsomine, or paint applied.</p> + +<p><strong>Metal Furniture</strong> should first be scrubbed and washed with hot soapsuds, +and then a solution of formalin, carbolic acid, or bichloride applied +to the surfaces and cracks.</p> + +<p><strong>Wooden Bedsteads</strong> should be washed with a disinfecting solution and +subjected to a gaseous disinfectant in order that all cracks and +openings be penetrated and all insects be destroyed.</p> + +<p><strong>Bedding, Mattresses, Pillows, Quilts, etc.</strong>, should be packed in clean +sheets moistened with a five per cent solution of formalin, and then +carted away to be thoroughly disinfected by steam in a special +apparatus.</p> + +<p><strong>Sheets, Small Linen and Cotton Objects, Tablecloths, etc.</strong>, should be +soaked in a carbolic-acid solution and then boiled.</p> + +<p><strong>Rubbish, Rags, and Objects of Little Value</strong> found in an infected room +are best burned.</p> + +<p><strong>Glassware and Chinaware</strong> should either be boiled or subjected to dry +heat.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span><strong>Carpets</strong> should first be subjected to a gaseous disinfectant, and then +be wrapped in sheets wetted with formalin solution and sent to be +steamed. Spots and stains in carpets should be thoroughly washed +before being steamed, as the latter fixes the stains.</p> + +<p><strong>Woolen Goods and Wool</strong> are injured by being steamed, and hence may be +best disinfected by formalin solutions or by formaldehyde gas.</p> + +<p><strong>Books</strong> are very difficult to disinfect, especially such books as were +handled by the patient, on account of the difficulty of getting the +disinfectant to act on every page of the book. The only way to +disinfect books is to hang them up so that the leaves are all open, +and then to subject them to the action of formaldehyde gas for twelve +hours. Another method sometimes employed is to sprinkle a five per +cent solution of formalin on every other page of the book; but this is +rather a slow process.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> + +<p><strong>Stables</strong> need careful and thorough disinfection. All manure, hay, feed, +etc., should be collected, soaked in oil, and burned. The walls, +ceilings, and floors should then be washed with a strong disinfecting +solution applied with a hose; all cracks are to be carefully cleaned +and washed. The solution to be used is preferably lysol, creolin, or +carbolic acid. After this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> the whole premises should be fumigated with +sulphur or formaldehyde, and then the stable left open for a week to +be aired and dried, after which all surfaces should be freshly and +thickly kalsomined.</p> + +<p><strong>Food</strong> cannot be very well disinfected unless it can be subjected to +boiling. When this is impossible it should be burned.</p> + +<p><strong>Cadavers</strong> of infected persons ought to be cremated, but as this is not +always practicable, the next best way is to properly wash the surface +of the body with a formalin or other disinfecting solution, and then +to have the body embalmed, thus disinfecting it internally and +externally.</p> + +<p>Disinfectors, coming often as they do in contact with infected +materials and persons, should know how to disinfect their own <em>persons +and clothing</em>. So far as clothing is concerned the rule should be that +those handling infected materials have a special uniform<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> which is +cleaned and disinfected after the day's work is done. The hands should +receive careful attention, as otherwise the disinfector may carry +infection to his home. The best method of disinfecting the hands is to +thoroughly wash and scrub them for five minutes with green soap, +brush, and water, then immerse first for one minute in alcohol, and +then in a hot 1:1,000 bichloride solution. The nails should be +carefully scrubbed and cleaned.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Blankets, carpets, and rugs should be frequently hung +out on the line in the bright sunlight.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Unless books are valuable it is best to burn them. Paper +will hold germs for several weeks. Recent experiments show that +certain pathogenic bacteria, including the bacilli of diphtheria, will +live for twenty-eight days on paper money.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Duck, linen, or any washable material will do.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III_XI" id="CHAPTER_III_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Cost of Conveyed Heating Systems</strong><a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> + + +<p>In our variable climate, with its sudden and extreme changes in +temperature, the matter of heating and ventilation demands the serious +attention of all houseowners and housebuilders.</p> + +<p>The most common method of heating the modern dwelling is by a hot-air +furnace in the cellar, with sheet-metal ducts for conveying the heated +air to the various rooms. The advantages of a furnace are cheapness of +installation and, in moderate weather, a plentiful supply of warm but +very dry air. The disadvantages are the cost of fuel consumed, the +liability of the furnace to give off gas under certain conditions, and +the inability to heat certain rooms with some combinations of +temperature and wind. The cost of installing a furnace and its proper +ducts in a ten-room house is from $250 to $350; such a furnace will +consume fifteen to twenty tons of anthracite coal in a season in the +latitude of New York City. The hot-air system works better with +compact square houses than with long, "rangy" structures. For a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> house +fully exposed to the northwest blasts, one of the other systems should +be considered.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the next most popular arrangement is a sectional cast-iron +hot-water heater, with a system of piping to and from radiators in the +rooms to be heated. Hot-water heating has many advantages, some of +which are the warmth of the radiators almost as soon as the fire is +started and after the fire is out; the moderation of the heat; the +freedom from sudden changes in amount of heat radiated; the absence of +noise in operation, and the low cost in fuel consumed. Some of the +disadvantages are the high cost of installation and the lack of easy +or ready control (as the hot water cools slowly, and shutting the +radiator valves often puts the whole system out of adjustment). A +hot-water heating plant for a ten-room house will cost $400 to $600, +according to the type of boiler; the corresponding fuel consumption +will be twelve to sixteen tons of coal per season.</p> + +<p>The third system in common use is by steam through radiators or coils +of pipe connected to a cast-iron sectional boiler, or a steel tubular +boiler set in brickwork. This system is in use in practically all +large buildings; and its advantages are the moderate cost of +installation (as the single-pipe system is very efficient and the +pressure to be provided against in connections and fittings is +slight); the ease of control (since any good equipment will furnish +steam in twenty minutes from the time the fire is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> started, and fresh +coal thrown upon the fire with a closing of dampers will stop the +steam supply in five minutes—or any radiator may be turned on or off +in an instant); the ability to heat the entire house in any weather, +or any single room or suite of rooms only; and, lastly, the moderate +fuel consumption.</p> + +<p>The disadvantages of steam heat are no heat, or next to none, without +the production of steam, involving some noise in operation, and danger +of explosion. Steam equipment in a ten-room house will cost $300 to +$550, the lower price being for a sectional boiler and the higher for +a steel boiler set in brickwork. The fuel consumed will be from ten to +fifteen tons per season.</p> + +<p>Both hot-water and steam systems require supplementary means of +ventilation. Placing the radiators in exposed places, as beneath +windows, in the main hall near the front door, in northwest corners +and near outside walls, will insure some circulation of air; and, if +one or two open fire places be provided on each floor, there will be, +in most cases, sufficient ventilation without the use of special +ducts.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> See <a href="#CHAPTER_III_III">Chapter III</a> for full discussion.—<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div id="trannote"> +<h2>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE.</h2> + +<p>1) Figure numbers (which aren't contiguous) have been preserved.</p> + +<p>2) Part III, Chapter V. The <a href="#TABLE_Pipe_Thickness">table</a> showing thickness of vitrified pipes +reads:</p> + +<table summary="Thicknesses of vitrified pipes."> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td>4 inches diameter</td> + <td><span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> inch thick</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>6 " "</td> + <td><span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">16</span> " "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>8 " "</td> + <td><span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">4</span> " "</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>12 " "</td> + <td>1 " "</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p>The thickness figure for the 6 inch pipe has been left as originally +printed, but probably is incorrect (logically it should be somewhere +between 1/2 inch and 3/4 inch thick).</p> + +<p>3) A larger version of <a href="#Illo_FIG_1">figure 1</a> can be viewed by clicking on the figure image.</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Home Medical Library, Volume V (of +VI), by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HOME MEDICAL LIBRARY *** + +***** This file should be named 27947-h.htm or 27947-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/7/9/4/27947/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Chris Logan and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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