1 files changed, 2124 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/27932-8.txt b/27932-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c63a70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/27932-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2124 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook of History of the Division of Medical
+Sciences, by Sami Khalaf Hamarneh
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: History of the Division of Medical Sciences
+       United States National Museum Bulletin 240, Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, paper 43, 1964
+
+
+Author: Sami Khalaf Hamarneh
+
+
+
+Release Date: January 29, 2009  [eBook #27932]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE DIVISION OF MEDICAL
+SCIENCES***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Colin Bell, Louise Pattison, Joseph Cooper, and the
+Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+(https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 27932-h.htm or 27932-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/7/9/3/27932/27932-h/27932-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/7/9/3/27932/27932-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+      This is Paper 43 from the Smithsonian Institution United States
+      National Museum Bulletin 240, comprising Papers 34-44, which will
+      also be available as a complete e-book.
+
+      The front material, introduction and relevant index entries from
+      the Bulletin are included in each single-paper e-book.
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
+
+UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
+BULLETIN 240
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Smithsonian Press
+
+Museum of History and Technology
+
+Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology
+
+Papers 34-44
+On Science and Technology
+
+Smithsonian Institution · Washington, D.C. 1966
+
+Publications of the United States National Museum
+
+The scholarly and scientific publications of the United States National
+Museum include two series, _Proceedings of the United States National
+Museum_ and _United States National Museum Bulletin_.
+
+In these series, the Museum publishes original articles and monographs
+dealing with the collections and work of its constituent
+museums--The Museum of Natural History and the Museum of History
+and Technology--setting forth newly acquired facts in the fields of
+anthropology, biology, history, geology, and technology. Copies of each
+publication are distributed to libraries, to cultural and scientific
+organizations, and to specialists and others interested in the different
+subjects.
+
+The _Proceedings_, begun in 1878, are intended for the publication, in
+separate form, of shorter papers from the Museum of Natural History.
+These are gathered in volumes, octavo in size, with the publication date
+of each paper recorded in the table of contents of the volume.
+
+In the _Bulletin_ series, the first of which was issued in 1875, appear
+longer, separate publications consisting of monographs (occasionally in
+several parts) and volumes in which are collected works on related
+subjects. _Bulletins_ are either octavo or quarto in size, depending on
+the needs of the presentation. Since 1902 papers relating to the
+botanical collections of the Museum of Natural History have been
+published in the _Bulletin_ series under the heading _Contributions from
+the United States National Herbarium_, and since 1959, in _Bulletins_
+titled "Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology," have
+been gathered shorter papers relating to the collections and research of
+that Museum.
+
+The present collection of Contributions, Papers 34-44, comprises
+Bulletin 240. Each of these papers has been previously published in
+separate form. The year of publication is shown on the last page of each
+paper.
+
+FRANK A. TAYLOR
+_Director, United States National Museum_
+
+
+
+
+Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology:
+Paper 43
+
+HISTORY OF THE DIVISION OF MEDICAL SCIENCES
+
+by
+
+SAMI HAMARNEH
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SECTION OF MATERIA MEDICA (1881-1898) 272
+
+DIVISION OF MEDICINE (1898-1939) 276
+
+DIVISION OF MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH (1939-1957) 281
+
+DIVISION OF MEDICAL SCIENCES (1957 TO PRESENT) 290
+
+A NEW DIMENSION FOR THE HEALING ARTS 292
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY 297
+
+INDEX
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1.--EARLY VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL
+MUSEUM, known for the last quarter of a century as the Arts and
+Industries building. Completed in 1881, it housed the Division of
+Medical Sciences from its establishment in 1881 as a Section of Materia
+Medica to the time of the writing of this paper. While the medical
+collection remained in the Department of Arts and Industries, by the end
+of June 1912 practically all other collections belonging to the fields
+of natural history and anthropology were transferred to the then new
+Natural History building.]
+
+
+_Sami Hamarneh_
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY of the DIVISION of MEDICAL SCIENCES
+
+_In The Museum of History and Technology_
+
+    _This paper traces, for the first time, the history of the
+    Division of Medical Sciences in the Museum of History and
+    Technology from its small beginnings as a section of materia
+    medica in 1881 to its present broad scope. The original
+    collection of a few hundred specimens of crude drugs which had
+    been exhibited at the centennial exhibition of 1876 at
+    Philadelphia, has now developed into the largest collection in
+    the Western Hemisphere of historical objects related to the
+    healing arts._
+
+    THE AUTHOR: _Sami Hamarneh is the curator of the Division of
+    Medical Sciences in the Smithsonian Institution's Museum of
+    History and Technology._
+
+
+By the early 1870's, leading figures from both the health professions
+and the general public had begun to realize the necessity for having the
+medical sciences represented in the Smithsonian Institution. The impetus
+behind this new feeling resulted from the action of a distinguished
+American physician, philanthropist, and author, Joseph Meredith Toner
+(1825-1896), and came almost a decade before the integration of a new
+section concerned with research and the historical and educational
+aspects of the healing arts in the Smithsonian Institution.
+
+In 1872, Dr. Toner established the "Toner Lectures" to encourage efforts
+towards discovering new truths "for the advancement of medical science
+... for the benefit of mankind." To finance these lectures, he provided
+a fund worth approximately $3,000 to be administered by a board of
+trustees consisting of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, the
+Surgeon General of the U.S. Navy, the Surgeon General of the U.S. Army
+(only in some years), and the president of the Medical Society of the
+District of Columbia. The interest from this fund was to compensate
+physicians and scholars who were to deliver "at least two annual memoirs
+or essays" based on original research on some branch of the medical
+sciences and containing information which had been verified "by
+experiments or observations."[1]
+
+The Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution agreed to have these
+lectures published by the Institution in its Miscellaneous Collections.
+The first lecture given by the Assistant Surgeon of the U.S. Army, "On
+the Structure of Cancerous Tumors and the Mode in which Adjacent parts
+are Invaded," deserves credit even by current standards of scientific
+research.[2] Only 10 lectures were given between 1873 and 1890 (see
+bibliography), despite the recommendation for at least two every
+year.[3]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2.--DR. JOSEPH M. TONER, a leading physician in
+Washington, D.C., and founder of the "Toner Lectures" for the promotion
+and advancement of medical education and research. In 1873, Dr. Toner
+became president of the American Medical Association and, in 1874, he
+became president of the American Public Health Association. He was a
+physician to St. Joseph's Male Orphan Asylum and St. Ann's Infants'
+Asylum in Washington, D.C. In addition, he was instrumental in
+establishing Providence Hospital in the District of Columbia. He also
+provided a workable plan for the American Medical Association's library
+in Washington, D.C. (1868-1871). Among his several publications are:
+_Contributions to the Annals of Medical Progress and Medical Education
+in the United States before and during the War of Independence_
+(Washington: Government Printing Office, 1874) and _Medical Men of the
+Revolution_ (1876). In 1882, he donated his large library, consisting of
+44,000 books and pamphlets on topics related mainly to medicine and
+history, to the Library of Congress. (_Photo courtesy of National
+Library of Medicine._)]
+
+A more direct factor, which not only contributed to the establishment of
+a section on the healing arts, but also had a greater effect upon the
+Smithsonian Institution than any other event since its founding, was the
+1876 centennial exhibition in Philadelphia.
+
+This magnificent international fair commemorated the hundredth
+anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The
+finest exhibits of 30 foreign countries and various States of the Union
+participating in the fair were finally donated to the Smithsonian
+Institution as the official depository of historical and archeological
+objects for this country. As a result, the Institution's collections
+increased to an extent far beyond the capacity of the first Smithsonian
+building. This led to the erection of the National Museum, known for the
+last two decades and until date of publication as the Arts and
+Industries building, which was completed on March 4, 1881, and was used
+that evening for the inaugural reception of incoming President James A.
+Garfield.
+
+
+
+
+Section of Materia Medica (1881-1898)
+
+Throughout the 19th century, the study of _materia medica_ (dealing with
+the nature and properties of drugs of various kinds and origins, their
+collection and mode of administration for the treatment of diseases, and
+the medicinal utilization of animal products) held an increasingly
+important place among the medical sciences. In the United States, as in
+other civilized countries, this topic was greatly emphasized in the
+curriculum of almost every school teaching the health professions.
+Today, the subject matter contained in this branch of science is taught
+under the heading of several specialized fields, such as pharmacology,
+pharmacognosy, and drug analysis of various types. However, when the
+decision was made in 1881 to promote greater knowledge and interest in
+the healing arts by creating a section devoted to such pursuits in the
+U.S. National Museum, the title of Section of Materia Medica was
+adopted. Added to this, was the fact that the bulk of the first
+collections received in the Section was a great variety of crude drugs,
+which constituted much of the material then taught in the academic
+courses of _materia medica_.
+
+The new Section was included in the Department of Arts and Industries,
+then under the curatorship of Assistant Director G. Brown Goode. From
+its beginning and for two decades, however, the Section of Materia
+Medica was sponsored and supervised by the U.S. Navy in cooperation with
+the Smithsonian Institution. For this reason, the Navy decided not to
+establish a similar bureau for a health museum as did the Army in
+starting the Medical Museum (of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology)
+in 1862 through the efforts of Dr. William Alexander Hammond. The
+Smithsonian did, however, provide a clerk to relieve the curator of much
+of the routine work. The Section's early vigorous activities were the
+result of the ingenuity of the first honorary curator, Dr. James Milton
+Flint (1838-1919), an Assistant Surgeon of the U.S. Navy. From the
+establishment of the Section, in 1881, to 1912, Dr. Flint was curator
+during separate periods for a total of nearly 25 years. For three of his
+tenures (1881-1884; 1887-1891; 1895-1900), he was detailed to the
+Smithsonian Institution by the Surgeon General of the U.S. Navy. During
+the interim periods, other naval doctors were detailed as curators.
+Finally, in 1900, Dr. Flint retired from the Navy with the rank of Rear
+Admiral and volunteered to continue his services to the National Museum.
+The proposal was gladly accepted and he continued as a curator until his
+retirement from the Smithsonian Institution in 1912.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3.--REAR ADMIRAL JAMES M. FLINT, U.S. Navy surgeon
+and first honorary curator of the Section of Materia Medica. (_Photo
+courtesy of the Library of Congress._)]
+
+The Section commenced with a wealth of material. After the close of the
+1876 centennial exhibition, its _materia medica_ collection had been
+stored with the other collections in a warehouse, awaiting an
+appropriation by Congress for transfer and installation. This collection
+was gradually brought into the new National Museum after that building's
+completion in 1881. Many other _materia medica_ specimens were
+transferred from the Department of Agriculture. In addition to these
+large collections of crude drugs, generous contributions came from
+several prominent pharmaceutical firms such as Parke, Davis & Company of
+Detroit, Michigan; Wallace Brothers of Statesville, North Carolina; and
+Schieffelin and Company of New York City. These manufacturing houses are
+mentioned here because they and their agents abroad were the first to
+take interest and donate to the Section, complete assortments of
+contemporary remedial agents then in common use throughout the United
+States and Europe, besides many hundreds of "rare and curious drugs."
+Thus, in spite of difficulties encountered from bringing several
+collections into the building at one time, the _materia medica_
+exhibition got off to a good start.
+
+It was Dr. Flint, the first curator, who stated in 1883 that remedial
+agents used by a nation or a community are as indicative of the degree
+of their cultural development and standard of living as is the nature of
+their food, the character of their dwellings, and their social and
+religious traditions. Therefore, he felt that collections of drugs and
+medical, surgical and pharmaceutical instruments and appliances should
+not be thought of or designed as instructive to the specialist only, but
+should also possess a general interest for the public. Because of these
+objectives, Dr. Flint added, this section was conceived as a
+departmental division for the collecting and exhibiting of objects
+related to medicine, surgery, pharmacology, hygiene, and all material
+related to the health field at large.[4]
+
+During his first term of curatorship (1881-1884), Dr. Flint devoted much
+of his time to sorting, examining, identifying, and classifying the
+_materia medica_ specimens.[5] In 1881, he issued a memorandum of
+instructions to be followed by collectors of drugs and urged them to
+give detailed and accurate information regarding acquired specimens so
+that they might be "more than mere museum curiosities." In addition, in
+1883, he prepared a brief manual of classification of the _materia
+medica_ collection in the Museum as well as a useful, detailed catalog
+of informational labels of the individual objects on exhibition. The
+unpublished catalog is still the property of the Smithsonian Institution
+Archives, Division of Medical Sciences' Library.
+
+It was Dr. Flint's ambition to obtain a comprehensive, worldwide
+collection of all substances used as remedies. Then, in order to
+identify drugs from foreign countries, he tried to collect illustrated
+works on medical botany and printed pharmacopoeias of all nations having
+them. He rightly defined an official pharmacopoeia as "a book containing
+directions for the identification and preparation of medicines prepared
+and issued with the sanction of a government or organized and
+authorized medical and pharmaceutical societies. Its purpose is to
+establish uniformity in the nomenclature of remedies and in the
+character and potency of the pharmaceutical preparations. It is enacted
+by legislation, and thus becomes binding on all who prepare drugs or
+sell them for medication." By soliciting the help of various American
+consuls and Navy officers abroad, about 16 such official pharmacopoeias
+were collected, making an almost complete international representation
+of all available, official, drug standards. With these sources of
+information, Dr. Flint compiled and arranged an international list of
+_materia medica_ specimens, indicating the authorized preparations of
+each. By so doing, the first curator of this Section took the initiative
+at least in proposing and, to some extent acting, on the preparation of
+an international pharmacopoeia of drugs used in existing authorized
+formularies giving "official synonyms, and tables showing the
+constituents and comparative strength of all preparations."[6] This
+undertaking is of special importance in the history of American
+pharmacy, since it was probably the first attempt of its kind in the
+United States.[7] In addition, colored plates and photographs of
+medicinal plants were collected, forming the nucleus of the Division's
+current collection of pictorial and photographic material related to the
+history of the health field.
+
+Dr. Flint also put on exhibition 630 Chinese _materia medica_ specimens
+from the 1876 Philadelphia centennial. These had been collected
+originally by the Chinese Imperial Customs Commission for the centennial
+and were subsequently given to this country.
+
+In 1881, the numbered objects in the Section's register amounted to
+1,574 entries. In the following year, 1,590 more specimens were added,
+most of them drugs in their crude state. By the end of 1883, the total
+collection had reached 4,037, out of which 3,240 individual drugs in
+good condition were classified and put on display. Of these, about 500
+specimens with beautiful illustrations of parts of their original plants
+had been mounted for exhibition. The drug exhibitions also included
+materials transferred from the Department of Agriculture in 1881, which
+originally had been brought from Central America and South America for
+the 1876 centennial exhibition, a variety of opium specimens from
+Turkey, and a number of rare drugs listed in the official formulary
+which were acquired from the Museum of Karachi in what was then India.
+
+Dr. Flint commented in the _Smithsonian Annual Report_ for 1883 that the
+collection of cinchona barks was especially complete. It was comprised
+of specimens of nearly all the natural cinchona barks of South America
+and every known variety of the cultivated product from the British
+government plantations in India. In addition, there were specimens from
+Java, Ceylon, Mexico, and Jamaica. The Indian and Jamaican barks were
+accompanied by herbarium specimens of the leaf and flower (and, in some
+cases, the fruit) of each variety of tree from which the bark was
+obtained.[8]
+
+In an attempt to protect specimens liable to attack by insects, a small
+piece of blotting paper moistened with chloroform was inserted
+underneath the stopper in each bottle. Later on, bichloride of mercury
+was found to be a better insecticide.
+
+These early collections of the Section were brought into admirable
+condition and received compliments for their organization and
+completeness. In the _Smithsonian Annual Report_ for 1883, the
+collections were praised as "superior to any other in the United States
+and scarcely excelled by any in Europe."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4.--DR. HENRY GUSTAV BEYER, the second honorary
+curator of the Section of Materia Medica (1884-1887). (_Photo courtesy
+of American Physiological Society._)]
+
+In spite of the apparent emphasis on the displaying of drugs, the first
+curator of the Section had envisioned that the exhibits eventually would
+embrace the entire field of the healing arts. In the _Smithsonian Annual
+Report_ for 1883, Dr. Flint noted that "in the establishment of a museum
+designed to illustrate man and his environment, it is proper that the
+materials and methods used for the prevention and cure of disease should
+have a place." However, his plans were temporarily interrupted when his
+first term as honorary curator ended in 1884.
+
+On June 4, 1884, Dr. Henry Gustav Beyer was detailed by the Department
+of the Navy to become the second honorary curator of the Section of
+Materia Medica. As a young man, Dr. Beyer (1850-1918) had come from
+Saxony, Germany, to the United States and, in due course, became a
+naturalized citizen. He was graduated from the Bellevue Hospital
+Medical College of New York City in 1876.
+
+Because of his interest in physiological experimental research, Dr.
+Beyer enrolled at the Johns Hopkins University, where he was awarded a
+Ph. D. degree in 1887. Unlike his predecessor, Dr. Beyer was primarily
+interested in carrying on research on the physiological action of
+certain drugs and in pharmacology. This was evident from the original
+scientific papers mentioned in the _Smithsonian Annual Reports_ and
+published by him during the period of his curatorship from 1884 to 1887.
+
+Despite the pressure of his postgraduate studies at Johns Hopkins
+University, Dr. Beyer helped in arranging and classifying the _materia
+medica_ collection without trying to extend materially the scope of the
+Section.
+
+After the term of Dr. Beyer expired in 1887, Dr. Flint returned to take
+charge of the Section. Surprisingly, at this time, it seems that he
+showed less enthusiasm and devotion to the work of the Museum which he
+had previously served so well. It could have been a disappointment
+resulting from a lack of evidence of any real progress in the Section
+since he had left it three years before. Whatever the reasons may have
+been, the _Smithsonian Annual Reports_ show that only a few hundred
+specimens were added to the _materia medica_ collections between 1887
+and 1890, bringing the total to 5,915 preserved in good condition.
+Further curtailment of the Section's activities began in November 1891
+when Dr. Flint was again transferred to other duties for the U.S. Navy.
+From November 1891 to May 24, 1895, curatorship of the Section was
+charged to five physicians of the U.S. Navy: Drs. John C. Boyd (from
+November 1891 to April 6, 1892); William S. Dixon (April 1892 to January
+5, 1893); C. H. White (January 1893 to July 15, 1893); C. U. Gravatt
+(July 1893 to January 22, 1894); R. A. Marmion (January 22, 1894 to June
+15, 1894); and to Medical Inspector Daniel McMurtrie (June 1894 to May
+24, 1895). During this interim of nearly three and a half years, there
+were neither literary contributions nor additions made to the
+collections of the Section that were of any significance. The reason is
+obvious, for all of these curators averaged less than seven months of
+service which is not enough time, even for a well-trained individual, to
+accomplish very much in a museum. Therefore, it is easy to imagine that
+when the Secretary of the Navy detailed Dr. Flint for a third time to
+take charge of the Section, he was rather discouraged. Nevertheless, at
+the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia, from
+September 18 to December 31, 1895, the _materia medica_ was represented
+by two displays: one on mineral waters and amounts of solid constituents
+in pure state; and another showing the quantities of minerals after
+analysis of the composition of the human body.
+
+A similar project was undertaken in 1897 at the Tennessee Centennial
+Exposition (May 1 to October 31) in Nashville, where there were two
+displays of _materia medica_. One showed several kinds of the cinchona
+barks and the medicinal preparations made from them, and another
+containing the commercial varieties of the alkaloids of opium.
+
+At this time, Dr. Flint's attention turned to a new phase of medical
+exhibition. He felt the need for a program of exhibits on the practice
+and the historical development of the healing arts. A change of the
+Section's name was deemed necessary and, thus, in 1898 the more
+comprehensive title of Division of Medicine was adopted.
+
+
+
+
+Division of Medicine (1898-1939)
+
+The statement by L. Emmett Holt of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical
+Research, that before 1906, the Smithsonian Institution was never a
+beneficiary to medicine in any form,[9] is not entirely applicable. The
+previous discussion has clearly shown that the U.S. National Museum's
+cooperation with the Navy contributed materially towards encouraging and
+promoting medical knowledge. Furthermore, Dr. Flint tried to bring many
+of his plans for this medical division of the Museum to a practical
+fulfillment. He devised a program for presenting medical history in a
+way which would be of interest both to the public and to the profession.
+In order to best illustrate the history of the healing art, he divided
+his subject matter into five provisional classifications according to
+the _Report upon the Condition and Progress of the U.S. National Museum_
+during 1898:
+
+    1. Magical medicine including exorcism, amulets, talismans,
+    fetishes and incantation;
+
+    2. Psychical medicine including faith cures, and hypnotism;
+
+    3. Physical and external medicine including baths, exercise,
+    electricity, massage, surgery, cautery, and blood-letting;
+
+    4. Internal medicine including medications and treatment used by
+    the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Hindus, Arabians, and Chinese;
+    and
+
+    5. Preventive medicine including beverages, food, soil, clothing
+    and habitation.
+
+It is certainly to Dr. Flint's credit that from its early conception,
+first as Section of Materia Medica and thereafter as Division of
+Medicine, he planned for an all-embracing exhibition and reference
+collection of the medical sciences. Until the end of the 19th century
+and the early years of the 20th century, crude drugs as well as
+primitive and magic medicine held a more prominent place than medical
+instruments in the exhibits and collections. In 1905, Flint issued his
+last, known, literary contribution, "Directions for Collecting
+Information and Objects Illustrating the History of Medicine," in Part S
+of _Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum_, no. 39. The emphasis he put
+upon this shows Dr. Flint's interest in collecting medical and
+pharmaceutical objects and equipment of historical value. Consequently,
+he arranged new exhibits including one on American Indian medicine. A
+medical historian, Fielding H. Garrison, inspected these about 1910 and,
+in his "An Introduction to the History of Medicine," wrote of their
+novelty and appeal. "In the interesting exhibit of folk medicine in the
+National Museum at Washington," he commented, "a buckeye or horse
+chestnut (_Aesculus flavus_), an Irish potato, a rabbit's foot, a
+leather strap previously worn by a horse, and a carbon from an arc light
+are shown as sovereign charms against rheumatism. Other amulets in the
+Washington exhibit," he added, "are the patella of a sheep and a ring
+made out of a coffin nail (dug out of a graveyard) for cramps and
+epilepsy, a peony root to be carried in the pocket against insanity, and
+rare and precious stones for all and sundry diseases." It had been Dr.
+Flint's intention, besides presenting an educational display on the
+history of the medical arts, to warn the public against the perils of
+quackery and the faults of folk medicine, as well as to expose evils in
+drug adulteration. Today, we can see actual fulfillment of these
+intentions in the present exhibit at the medical gallery which has been
+executed recently on the basis of scientific, historical research.
+
+After Dr. Flint's retirement from the Smithsonian Institution in 1912,
+there was no replacement for over five years. Therefore, the Division
+of Medicine was placed, for administrative purposes, under the
+supervision of the curator of the newly reestablished (1912) Division of
+Textiles, Frederick L. Lewton. During these years, he fought against the
+dispersal of the medical and _materia medica_ collections. Thus, for
+lack of a curator of its own, almost all new activities in the Division
+of Medicine were curtailed until 1917.
+
+On January 31, 1917, Lewton addressed members of the American
+Pharmaceutical Association inviting them to cooperate in gathering up
+and preserving at the National Museum the "many unique and irreplaceable
+objects" connected with the early history of pharmacy in this country
+which could still be saved.[10] Then, on March 14, 1917, an examination
+was announced by the Civil Service (held May 2) for an assistant curator
+for the Division of Medicine, and the position was filled by Joseph
+Donner on August 16, 1917. Donner was the first full-time employee paid
+by the Smithsonian Institution for the curatorship of this Division. He
+held the post until January 31, 1918, when he was inducted into the
+Sanitary Corps of the United States Army. No significant activities in
+the Division of Medicine were reported during these few months.
+
+Mr. Donner was followed by a second, full-time, museum officer who
+promoted a great amount of good will towards the Division during his
+curatorship of a little over 30 years. Dr. Charles Whitebread
+(1877-1963), the first pharmacist to head the Division, joined the
+Smithsonian in 1918 and remained until his retirement in 1948, the
+longest service, thus far, of any individual in the Division.
+
+Dr. Whitebread received his degree of Doctor of Pharmacy from the School
+of Pharmacy at George Washington University in Washington, D.C., in
+1911. He entered government service late in 1915, but it was not until
+April 2, 1918, that he agreed to become assistant curator of the
+Division of Medicine.
+
+Curator Whitebread's first year was an active and challenging one, for
+in this new position he began to develop a deep interest in the history
+of the healing arts. He made a number of important acquisitions, most of
+them pertaining to pharmaceutical products, synthetic chemicals and
+crude drugs. He found that many specimens from the older drug
+collections had deteriorated to such an extent as to be worthless, and
+he began replacing them with freshly marketed drugs.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5.--CURATOR CHARLES WHITEBREAD inspecting, with
+admiration, five drug containers from the Squibb collection (1945).
+(_Photo courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association._)]
+
+Plans were completed for the opening of new medical exhibits and
+adopting, with some modifications and additions, earlier classifications
+set by Dr. Flint. Dr. Whitebread grouped these into the following
+classes: the evaluation of the healing arts; a picture display of
+medical men prominent in American history;[11] a _materia medica_
+display including the history of pharmacy; and an exhibition on
+Sanitation and Public Hygiene[12] which was later to evolve into the
+Hall of Health.
+
+In 1920, Dr. Whitebread added a number of specimens of medical-dosage
+forms and pharmaceutical preparations to the Division's collections. He
+also acquired other gifts to complete existing exhibits illustrating the
+basic principles of the various schools of medicine, such as homeopathy
+and osteopathy--their methods, tools, and ways of thought.
+
+In 1921, a tablet machine by the Arthur Colton Company of Detroit,
+Michigan, was acquired, and an exhibit illustrating vaccine and serum
+therapy was installed in the medical gallery. This was followed, in
+1922, by a collection arranged to tell the story of the prevention and
+cure of specific diseases by means of biological remedies.
+
+During the following two years, two more exhibits related to hospital
+supplies and sanitation were added to the rapidly developing Hall of
+Health exhibition which was opened in 1924. A third exhibit in 1925
+consisted of 96 mounted color transparencies illustrating services
+provided by hospitals to promote public health. Plans for the further
+development of the Hall of Health continued during 1926, and contacts
+were made with organizations interested in the educational aspects of
+the healing arts. As a result, several new exhibits were added. In 1926,
+the American Optometric Association helped in the installation of an
+exhibit on conservation of vision or the care of the eyes under the
+slogan "Save your vision," as a phase of health work. Other exhibits in
+the Hall at this time were: what parasites are; water pollution and how
+to obtain pure water; waste disposal; ventilation and healthy housing,
+and the importance of recreation; purification of milk and how to obtain
+pure milk; transmission of diseases by insects and animals; how life
+begins; prenatal and postnatal care and preschool care; duties of the
+public health nurse; and social, oral and mental hygiene.
+
+With the acquiring of more medical appliances and the widening of the
+scope of the exhibits, more and more space was needed, and attention was
+turned to the area of the medical gallery which had been occupied by the
+_materia medica_ collection for almost four decades. To gain more
+exhibit space, it was decided that the greater part of the crude drugs
+should be removed from the exhibits and be kept as a reference
+collection and for research.[13]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 6.--EXHIBIT ON EGYPTIAN AND HEBREW MEDICINE,
+installed about 1924, which was illustrated by graphs and drugs
+mentioned in extant records of this ancient period. (Smithsonian photo
+30796-C.)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 7.--EXHIBIT ON MEDICAL HISTORY during the
+Greco-Roman period. (Smithsonian photo 30796-D.)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8.--EXHIBIT ON REMEDIES DERIVED FROM DRUGS of
+vegetable origin, displayed about mid-1930's. (Smithsonian photo
+30439.)]
+
+In 1926, original patent models including those related to pharmacy,
+medicine, and dentistry, were transferred from the U.S. Patent Office to
+the National Museum. These patent models, together with other apothecary
+tools and the machines used in drug production took up most of the
+available space. This unfortunate situation led Dr. Whitebread to turn
+down significant medical and pharmaceutical collections offered the
+Museum between 1927 and 1930. Since the patent models were devised for
+inventions designed to simplify the practice of the health professions,
+three cases of these models were displayed in the medical gallery in the
+early 1930's. Other exhibits shown during this decade included the
+deception of folk medicine with warnings against superstitions, and an
+exhibition on osteopathy,[14] as well as dioramas on the manufacture of
+medicines and their use in scientific medical treatment.
+
+In the meantime, Dr. Whitebread was an active contributor to the
+literature of the health field in various periodicals, as well as in
+pamphlets issued by the Museum and other governmental agencies (see
+bibliography). His literary contributions, guided by the exhibits he
+designed and the collections he acquired, were focused on the Division's
+collections, such as primitive and psychic medicine and warnings against
+reliance on magic and superstitions in treatment, medical oddities, and
+the utilization of drugs of animal origin, both past and present.
+
+
+
+
+Division of Medicine and Public Health (1939-1957)
+
+After taking charge of the Division of Medicine in 1918, Dr. Whitebread
+gave special attention to public health displays. His activities in this
+area were accelerated after 1924 when the health exhibit at the
+Smithsonian Institution was inaugurated. As the exhibits in this field
+increased, the Division, in 1939, took the more comprehensive title of
+Division of Medicine and Public Health. Also, in 1939, Dr. Whitebread
+was promoted to the rank of associate curator.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 9.--EXHIBIT ON METHODS OF TREATMENT of diseases
+through mental impressions and psychic conditions as displayed about
+1925. (Smithsonian photo 30796-B.)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 10.--AN EXHIBIT ON SUPERSTITIONS, EMPIRICISM,
+magic, and faith healing in the light of scientific medicine, completed
+in 1962, is in sharp contrast with that shown in figure 9.]
+
+He continued his efforts to collect more specimens of interest to
+medical history and to contribute to the literature. Among exhibited
+specimens in 1941 were a powder paper-crimping machine, a portable drug
+crusher, an odd device for spreading plaster on cloth, a pill-coating
+apparatus, various suppository molds, a lozenge cutter, and an ingenious
+Seidlitz powder machine. The derivation of medicinal drugs from animal,
+vegetable, and mineral sources was also depicted, as were synthetic
+materials and their intermediates. Basic prescription materials were
+displayed, and rows of glass-enclosed cases held samples of crude
+botanical drugs from almost every part of the globe with explanatory
+cards giving brief, concise descriptions. The exhibition provided
+medical and pharmaceutical students about to take state-board
+examinations, the opportunity to study the subject in detail, especially
+the enormous collection of _materia medica_ samples.[15] Also in 1941,
+Eli Lilly and Company donated an exhibit on the medical treatment of
+various types of anemia. In the same year, a diorama including a
+hypochlorinator for purification of water on a farm was installed in the
+gallery. In 1942, the first Emerson iron lung (developed in 1931 by John
+Haven Emerson) for artificial respiration was acquired by the Division.
+The Division acquired, in 1944, the first portable x-ray machine known
+to have been operated successfully on the battlefield, as well as other
+x-ray equipment and early medicine chests.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 11.--OLD PUBLIC HEALTH EXHIBITION installed in the
+gallery about 1924. (Smithsonian photo 19952.)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 12.--THE HALL OF HEALTH, reestablished and opened
+in November 1957. (Smithsonian photo 44931.)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 13.--EARLY EXHIBIT ON HOMEOPATHY showing its
+history, methods and remedies which was installed about 1929.
+(Smithsonian photo 27049.)]
+
+Without a doubt, the most outstanding accession in the field of
+pharmaceutical history during Dr. Whitebread's years of service was the
+acquisition of the E. R. Squibb and Sons old apothecary shop. Most of
+the baroque fixtures, including the stained-glass windows with
+Hessian-Nassau coats of arms and wrought-iron frames, were part of the
+mid-18th-century cathedral pharmacy "Münster Apotheke" in Freiburg im
+Breisgau, Germany. It was offered for sale in September 1930 by Dr. Jo
+Mayer of Wiesbaden, Germany, who was an enthusiastic collector of
+antiques, especially those related to the health professions. Earlier
+that year, a historian of pharmacy and chemistry, Fritz Ferchl of
+Mittenwald, Germany, had published a series of scholarly and informative
+articles on the Meyer collection in which the outstanding specimens were
+beautifully portrayed and thoroughly described (see bibliography).
+
+As a result of Dr. Mayer's efforts to sell his collection, the impact of
+Ferchl's illustrated articles, and the uniqueness of the collection, E.
+R. Squibb and Sons purchased it in 1932 and brought it to the United
+States "with the thought that it would provide for American pharmacy,
+its teachers and students, a museum illuminating the history, growth,
+and development of pharmacy, its interesting background and struggle
+through the ages." It was displayed at the Century of Progress
+exposition held in Chicago during 1933 and 1934; subsequently, it was
+assembled in the Squibb Building in New York City as a private museum
+where, for about 10 years, it was visited by many interested in
+pharmacy, ceramics, and art. Charles H. LaWall, who was originally
+engaged to prepare a descriptive catalog on the exhibit, gave it the
+title "The Squibb Ancient Pharmacy."
+
+Late in 1943, E. R. Squibb and Sons offered the collection as a gift to
+the American Pharmaceutical Association if the latter would provide
+museum space for it. The offer was accepted, but the Association
+finally found it difficult to spare the needed space for the collection
+and decided to take up the matter with the U.S. National Museum.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 14.--THIS EARLY EXHIBIT ON OSTEOPATHY was
+renovated several times prior to the early 1940's. (Smithsonian photo
+19250.)]
+
+At this point, it should be stated that since 1883 the members of the
+American Pharmaceutical Association have been keenly interested in
+having the National Museum serve as the custodian for all collected
+objects and records of historical interest to pharmacy. In 1944, the
+Association officially offered to deposit on permanent loan, the
+Squibb's pharmacy collection in the Smithsonian Institution with the
+understanding that a suitable place would be provided for prompt and
+permanent display. The offer was accepted, and during April and May of
+1945, the entire collection was transferred to the Smithsonian
+Institution, and construction to recreate the original two rooms for the
+old, 18th-century, European "Apotheke" was underway.
+
+By August 1946, the exhibit was completed. In the large room where the
+pharmacist met his customers, the shelves were filled with 15th-to
+19th-century, European pharmaceutical antiques. These included
+Renaissance mortars; 16th-and 17th-century nested weights; beautiful
+Italian, French, Swiss, and German majolica and faience drug jars; Dutch
+and English delft; drug containers made of flint or opal glass with
+fused-enamel labels with alchemical symbols; rare, 16th-century, wooden
+drug containers, each with the coat of arms of the city in which each
+was made; and two glass-topped, display tables contained franchises
+issued and signed by Popes or state rulers, medical edicts,
+dispensatories, herbals, pharmacopoeias, and pharmaceutical utensils.
+
+On the walls in the small laboratory room, which also had been used as a
+workshop and a study, were a stuffed crocodile, shark's head, tortoise,
+fish, and salamander, parts of which were utilized as remedial agents.
+Their presence provided tangible evidence that the pharmacy dispensed
+genuine drugs and not substitutes.
+
+The pharmaceutical profession in this country hailed the outstanding
+exhibition, and the November 1946 issue of the _Journal of the American
+Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_, devoted its
+front cover to depicting one corner of the study and laboratory room of
+the shop.[16] Also, in a letter dated January 2, 1947, addressed to Dr.
+Alexander Wetmore, then Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Dr.
+Robert P. Fischelis, the secretary of the American Pharmaceutical
+Association, considered the completion of the deposited exhibition a
+triumph and "as one of the highlights of the accomplishments of the
+Association in 1946."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 15.--LATE 16TH-CENTURY, wooden drug container with
+coat-of-arms, in the Squibb collection. The inscription _Ungula Alcis_
+(the hoof of the elk) suggests a superstitious attitude in medical
+practice and the wide use of animal organs in medical treatment.
+(_Courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association._)]
+
+From 1946 to 1948, the Division's collection was further enriched with
+a number of historical specimens, among which was a "grosse Flamme"
+x-ray machine with induction-coil tube and stand developed by Albert B.
+Koett. It is one of the earliest American-made machines of its kind,
+producing a 12-inch spark, the largest usable at that time with
+180,000-volt capacity, and a forerunner of later autotransformers. Other
+accessions included two 19th-century drug mills, an electric belt used
+in quackery, two medicine chests, three sets of Hessian crucibles used
+in a pioneer drugstore in Colorado, a drunkometer, mineral ores, and
+purely produced chemical elements.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 16.--A RARE, ANTWERP, 16th-century drug jar in the
+Squibb collection deposited by the American Pharmaceutical Association.]
+
+In the spring of 1948, Associate Curator Whitebread retired after 30
+years of service with the U.S. National Museum. He was a pioneer in the
+field of health museums and during his curatorship had developed a
+moribund section into a Division of field-wide importance. Dr.
+Whitebread was succeeded by George S. Thomas, also a pharmacist, who
+served as associate curator from August 1948 until early 1952.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 17.--THE APOTHECARY SHOP as seen in the Arts and
+Industries building (1946-1964). (_Courtesy of the American
+Pharmaceutical Association._)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 18.--VIEW OF THE LABORATORY AND STUDY ROOM of the
+apothecary shop. On the left, the German-Swiss bronze mortar and pestle
+(1686) sign and above it an 18th-century German painting on canvas of
+Christ, "the apothecary of the soul." The drug containers represent "the
+fruits of the spirit," faith, patience, charity, etc., and the scales
+represent justice. Underneath is the verse from Matthew, 11:28, "Come
+unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you
+rest." (_Courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association._)]
+
+During his almost-three and a half years of service, Thomas acquired
+hearing-aid appliances from which he designed an exhibit on the
+development of these aids, surgical sutures, early samples of
+Aureomycin, and a static-electricity machine made by Henkel about 1840.
+He also published three short articles under the title, "Now and Then,"
+in the _National Capital Pharmacist_ (1950), no. 1, pp. 8-9; no. 2, pp.
+18-19, 29; and no. 3, pp. 15-16. In early 1952, Dr. Arthur O. Morton
+presented to the Division, a Swiss-made keratometer which he had
+purchased in 1907, and it is believed to be one of the first used in the
+United States to measure the curves of the cornea.
+
+The achievements of the Division reached their highest point, thus far,
+in significantly increasing the national collection, as well as in
+contributing to the scientific, historical, and professional literature,
+under the curatorships of George B. Griffenhagen (December 8, 1952, to
+June 27, 1959) and John B. Blake (July 1, 1957, to September 2, 1961).
+Their reorganization of exhibits and collections, their competence and
+industry, fulfilled the hopes, plans, and purposes laid down by earlier
+curators for the Division.
+
+Immediately after assuming the responsibilities of the Division and
+throughout 1953, Mr. Griffenhagen (M.S. in pharmaceutical chemistry from
+the University of Southern California) undertook to develop the
+collections still further. He increased the emphasis not only on
+historical pharmacy, but also on medicine, surgery, and dentistry. He
+also renovated the exhibits in the medical gallery.
+
+In 1954, several antibiotics were donated to the Division including a
+mold of _Penicillium notatum_ prepared and presented to the Smithsonian
+Institution by Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955), the discoverer of
+penicillium (1929), and a few Petri dishes used by botanist Benjamin M.
+Daggar who, while working for Lederle Laboratories, developed Aureomycin
+(chlortetracycline) in 1948. The Forest D. Dodrill--G.M.R. mechanical
+heart (1952), the first machine reported to be used successfully for the
+complete bypass of one side of the human heart during a surgical
+operation,[17] was presented to the Smithsonian Institution.
+
+The following year, 1955, the Division acquired one of the earliest
+Einthoven string galvanometers (named after the Dutch physiologist Willem
+Einthoven, 1860-1927) made in the United States in 1914 by Charles F.
+Hindle for an electrocardiograph. Also added to the Division's
+collections was the electrocardiograph used by Dr. Frank E. Wilson of
+the United States, a pioneer educator in this field. Two temporary
+exhibits on allergy and surgical dressings were installed in the
+gallery. In the same year, Curator Griffenhagen published _Early
+American Pharmacies_, a catalog on 28 pharmacy restorations in this
+country.
+
+In 1956, among many publications of interest in the fields of medical
+and pharmaceutical history, was Curator Griffenhagen's _Pharmacy
+Museum_, with a foreword by Laurence V. Coleman, who termed it a useful
+catalog and "a good reflection of the history of the museum movement at
+large." A third x-ray tube of Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen (1845-1922) was
+added to the collection in 1957 as well as a complete set of
+hospital-ward fixtures of about 1900 from the Massachusetts General
+Hospital, rare patent medicines, 18th-century microscopes, and a
+13th-century mortar and pestle made in Persia.
+
+In 1957, Mr. Griffenhagen published a series of illustrated articles in
+the _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical
+Pharmacy Edition_, which were later reprinted by the Association in a
+booklet entitled, _Tools of the Apothecary_. In it, he described several
+pharmaceutical specimens in the collection and their place in history.
+
+
+
+
+Division of Medical Sciences (1957 to Present)
+
+The U.S. National Museum was reorganized on July 1, 1957, into two
+units, the Natural History Museum and the Museum of History and
+Technology. At the same time, and in view of the widening scope of the
+Division, its more scientifically based planning, and the constantly
+increasing collection with equal emphasis on all branches of the healing
+arts, the Division's title was changed to the Division of Medical
+Sciences--the title it still bears in 1964. With the reorganization, the
+Department of Engineering and Industries, under which the Division fell
+administratively, was renamed the Department of Science and Technology
+of the Museum of History and Technology. It was also the first time
+since its establishment in 1881 that the Division had two curators, for
+on July 1, 1957, Dr. John B. Blake joined the staff.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 19.--CURATORS JOHN B. BLAKE AND GEORGE
+GRIFFENHAGEN examine the newly acquired (1957) electromagnetic,
+Morton-Wimshurst-Holz Influence Machine. It was manufactured by the
+Bowen Company of Providence, Rhode Island (1889). With the discovery of
+x-ray, it was used for making x-ray photographs until early in the 20th
+century.]
+
+As a result of these changes, the Division was subdivided into a Section
+of Pharmaceutical History and Health and a Section of Medical and Dental
+History. The former was planned to encompass the collections of _materia
+medica_, pharmaceutical equipment, and all material related to the
+history of pharmacy, toxicology, pharmacology, and biochemistry, as well
+as the Hall of Health which was opened November 2, 1957, and which
+emphasizes man's progressing knowledge of his body and the functions of
+its major organs.[18] The latter Section was planned to include all that
+belongs to the development of surgery, medicine, dentistry, and nursing,
+especially in relation to hospitals.
+
+In October 1957, the Division acquired a collection of rare, ceramic,
+drug jars which included two, 13th-century, North Syrian and Persian,
+albarello-shaped, majolica jars; a 15th-century, Hispano-Moresque drug
+container; and a 16th-century, Italian faience, dragon-spout ewer.
+During the following two years, Curator Griffenhagen periodically toured
+museums and medical and pharmaceutical institutions in this country,
+South America, and Europe gathering specimens and information for the
+Division and for publication, respectively. However, on June 27, 1959,
+he resigned his curatorship to join the staff of the American
+Pharmaceutical Association in Washington, D.C. Dr. Blake became the
+curator in charge of the Division and Mr. Griffenhagen was succeeded on
+September 24, 1959, by the author of this paper as associate curator in
+charge of the Section of Pharmaceutical History and Health.
+
+Dr. Blake, as curator of the Section of Medical and Dental History,
+acquired a large number of valuable and varied specimens for the
+Division's collections. They included optometric refracting instruments,
+an early 1920's General Electric, portable, x-ray machine, the Charles
+A. Lindbergh and Alexis Carrel pump (designed in 1935 to perfuse
+life-sustaining fluids to the organs of the body), the Sewell heart pump
+(1950) to control delivery of air pressure and suction to the pumping
+mechanism, and a large and valuable collection of dental equipment
+formerly at the universities of Pennsylvania and Illinois. Dr. Blake
+wrote the explanatory material and supervised the design and production
+of the majority of exhibits in the renovated hall of medical and dental
+history. He also contributed several scholarly articles and a book (see
+bibliography) on the history of the healing arts and public health in
+particular. He resigned on September 2, 1961, to join the staff of the
+National Library of Medicine as chief of the History of Medicine
+Division, and was succeeded by the author as curator of the Division.
+From the summer of 1962 to April 1964, the Division benefited from the
+expert advice of Dr. Alfred R. Henderson as consultant in the
+preparation and designing of the surgical and medical exhibits of the
+Museum of History and Technology.
+
+During the period from 1961 to May 1964, the Division's collections
+expanded greatly through its medical, dental, and pharmaceutical
+acquisitions. Specimens of antiques acquired from 1961 through 1963
+numbered up to 1,539 and included gifts from leading institutions and
+individual philanthropists. The scope of these gifts and acquisitions
+ranges from electronic resuscitators, microscopes, x-ray equipment, and
+spectacles, to patent medicines, amulets, apothecary tools, dental
+instruments, and office material of practitioners.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 20.--EXHIBIT ON SPECTACLES, LORGNETTES,
+OPTOMETERS, and refraction, completed in 1960. It features a cross
+section of the Division's large collection of eyeglasses. (Smithsonian
+photo 47943-D.)]
+
+In the last decade, the interest in the national endeavor for promoting
+research and scholarship in the history of medicine has increased
+greatly. It was most appropriate, therefore, for the Smithsonian
+Institution to play host on May 2 for two sessions of the 37th annual
+meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine held in
+the Washington, D.C., area from April 30 through May 2, 1964. In
+welcoming the members to the morning session in the auditorium of the
+new Museum of History and Technology, Frank A. Taylor, director of the
+United States National Museum, expressed the feeling that the meeting of
+the Association was, in a sense, a dedication of the new auditorium and
+an opportunity for the Smithsonian to reaffirm its deep interest and
+commitment in fostering research and furthering the appreciation of
+scholarly endeavor in the history of the healing arts.
+
+
+
+
+A New Dimension For the Healing Arts
+
+"One day the United States will have a National Museum of science,
+engineering, and industry, as most large nations have." This was the
+prediction made in 1946 by the director of the U.S. National Museum, Mr.
+Frank A. Taylor, then curator of the Division of Engineering.[19] It was
+in 1963, that the new $36,000,000 building of the Museum of History
+and Technology was completed, and opened to the public in 1964. The
+offices of the Division of Medical Sciences as well as the reference and
+study collections were moved to the fifth floor of the new building. The
+exhibits, however, will be displayed in the gallery at the southwest
+corner of the first floor. These exhibits, it is hoped, will show a new
+dimension and an unprecedented approach in displaying the development of
+the healing arts throughout the ages and the instruments and equipment
+associated with health professions. They also present the expanding
+objectives and plans of the Division's growth as an integral part of the
+Smithsonian Institution. Conveniently, the exhibits form four, closely
+connected halls in one large gallery which will be open to the public in
+the summers of 1965 to 1966.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 21.--EXHIBIT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF BLOOD-PRESSURE
+INSTRUMENTS and the early 20th-century sphygmomanometers which was
+completed in 1960. (Smithsonian photo 47943-M.)]
+
+1. THE HALL OF HEALTH displays models and graphic and historical exhibit
+materials to demonstrate the function of the various healthy organs of
+the human body. The main topics emphasized are: embryology and
+childbirth; tooth structure; the heart and blood circulation;
+respiration; the endocrine glands; kidneys and the urinary-excretory
+system; the brain and the nervous system; the ear; and vision and the
+use of eyeglasses.
+
+The most appreciated exhibit of all in this Hall is the "transparent
+woman" figure which rotates, automatically, every 15 minutes with a
+recorded message describing the function of each major organ of the body
+at the same time that the organ is electronically lighted, so that the
+viewer can see its place in the body.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 22.--HEARING-AID EXHIBIT designed in 1962. It
+includes otologist Julius Lempert's personal memorabilia and original
+surgical instruments used in the fenestration operation for restoring
+hearing. (Smithsonian photo 49345-C.)]
+
+2. THE HALL OF MEDICINE AND DENTISTRY will depict the history of these
+two sciences with exhibits of the equipment used through the centuries.
+In the medical field, early trephining and other surgical instruments
+will be displayed along with a diorama of an 1805 surgical operation
+performed by Dr. Philip Syng Physick in the amphitheater of the
+Pennsylvania Hospital. Diagnostic instruments such as stethoscopes,
+endoscopes, speculums, and blood-pressure measuring devices will be
+exhibited with a series of microscopes illustrating the development of
+these instruments. Exhibits of original galvanometers and other
+apparatus will trace the development of cardiography. The early use of
+anesthesia will be shown by apparatus of William Morton and Crawford W.
+Long, American pioneers in this field. The development of the devices of
+modern medicine and surgery will be shown by exhibits of the iron lung
+and x-ray tubes, including a tube used by W. K. Roentgen. Medicine
+chests and surgical kits of different periods will graphically summarize
+the state of medical science in the period each represents.
+
+Exhibits on the development of dentistry and dental surgery will display
+examples of tooth-filling and extracting tools, drilling apparatus from
+the early hand and foot engines to the first ultrasonic cutting
+instrument (1954), and the original contra-angle, hydraulic and
+air-turbine handpiece model[20] which revolutionized the field of
+instrumentation for dental surgery (with speeds of 200,000 to 400,000
+rpm). This hydraulic turbine of Dr. Robert J. Nelson and associates of
+the National Bureau of Standards set the design pattern for the
+remarkable and successful high-speed, air-turbine handpiece developed by
+Paul H. Tanner and Oscar P. Nagel of the U.S. Naval Dental School in
+1956. Also underway is the reconstruction of the offices of famous
+dentists such as G. V. Black and the father of American orthodontia,
+Edward H. Angle, using their original equipment and instruments. In
+addition, an exhibit is planned to include x-ray tubes and the electric
+dental engine, the first to be operated in a human mouth by the pioneer
+dentist on dental skiagraphy, Charles E. Kells (1856-1928).[21]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 23.--EXHIBIT ON NURSING BOTTLES and measures to
+promote child health to counteract the once-common diseases of
+childhood. This display was completed in 1962. (Smithsonian photo
+49345-G.)]
+
+3. THE HALL OF PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORY will feature exhibits on the
+reconstruction of two pharmacy shops: an 18th-century apothecary shop,
+originally from Germany, with a very elegant collection of drug jars,
+decorated medicinal bottles, balances, mortars and pestles, and other
+tools and documents pertaining to the apothecary art, and a late
+19th-century American drugstore with shelves filled with patent
+medicines and drug containers of various sizes and shapes. The window
+will also feature symbols of pharmacy and beautiful show globes.
+Displays will show the development of antibiotics and the early tools
+used in the manufacture of the so-called "miracle drugs," including a
+mold from Sir Alexander Fleming, the discoverer of penicillin. In
+addition, a platform will be reconstructed to display a variety of
+pharmaceutical apparatus used in the preparation and manufacture of
+drugs, such as tablet and capsule machines and drug mills and
+percolators. Recently, with the assistance of Professor Glenn
+Sonnedecker, the Division acquired a fine collection of pharmaceutical
+equipment and devices from the School of Pharmacy of the University of
+Wisconsin.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 24.--THE ORIGINS OF DRUGS from the three natural
+kingdoms, drug synthesis, and the increase in the manufacture of
+vitamins. This display was completed in 1962 and is now on display at
+the Museum of History and Technology. (Smithsonian photo P6316.)]
+
+Since the Division houses the largest collection of _materia medica_ in
+the country, a representative cross section of crude drugs will be
+displayed in alphabetical order as well as a display illustrating the
+role of cinchona and antimalarial drugs in the fight against disease. An
+exhibit will portray the "origin of drugs" from the three natural
+kingdoms, animal, vegetable, and mineral, together with synthetic drugs
+including the manufacture of vitamins.
+
+Plans are being made for an elaborate exhibit of weights and balances
+used in many countries throughout the centuries, their impact on
+accuracy of dosage and weighing of drugs, and their use in the
+apothecary art.
+
+The Division will also display pictorial and printed materials, as well
+as artifacts from all periods and all countries. These collections are
+intended to help in presenting a more complete picture of the story of
+the medical sciences for educational purposes and research, and to
+increase man's knowledge in fighting disease and promoting health.
+
+Thus, from a few hundred specimens of crude drugs in the Section of
+Materia Medica of 83 years ago, there has developed a Museum Division
+today which embraces the evolution of the health professions through the
+ages. This Division now has the largest collection in the Western
+Hemisphere of historical objects which are related to the healing arts.
+The reference collections are available to the researcher and scholar,
+and the exhibits are intended for pleasure and educational purposes in
+these fields. The plans for expansion have no limitation as we keep pace
+with man's progress in the medical sciences and continue to collect
+materials that contributed to the historical development in the fight
+against diseases and the attempts to secure better health for everyone.
+
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] _Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
+Institution for the Year 1882_ [hereinafter referred to as the
+_Smithsonian Annual Report_], pp. 101-103; and introductory
+"advertisement" to the lectures published by the Smithsonian Institution
+in its Miscellaneous Collections (see bibliography).
+
+[2] Dr. J. J. Woodward's lecture explained the progress of medical
+knowledge of morbid growth and cancerous tumors from 1865 to 1872. It
+cautioned that uncertain methods of diagnosis at that time allowed
+charlatans and uneducated practitioners to report cures of cancer in
+instances where nonmalignant growths were "removed by their caustic
+pastes and plasters."
+
+[3] The two longest intervals were in preparing the last two lectures:
+the ninth in 1884, and the tenth, 1889. Both came after the
+establishment in 1881 of the Section of Materia Medica in the U.S.
+National Museum, to display the development and progress of the health
+professions.
+
+[4] _Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the year 1883_, pp.
+190, 614-615.
+
+[5] For classifying chemical compounds, Dr. Flint relied on the work of
+H. E. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmez, _A Treatise on Chemistry_, 2 vols. (New
+York: D. Appleton, 1878-1800.)
+
+[6] _Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the year 1882_, vol.
+2, part 2, pp. 100, 228, 656-657. Dr. Flint in his article "Report on
+Pharmacopoeias of All Nations," ibid., pp. 655-680, remarks that there
+were then 19 official pharmacopoeias in the world, besides three
+semiofficial formularies in certain localities in Italy. The
+pharmacopoeias collected represent Austria, Belgium, France, Germany,
+Great Britain, Greece, Holland, India, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Spain,
+Sweden, Switzerland (two), and the United States.
+
+[7] The _Universal Formulary_, by R. Eglesfeld Griffith, first edited in
+March 1850 (3rd ed. rev. and enlarged by John M. Maisch, Philadelphia:
+Lea, 1874) should not be considered an international drug standard. It
+was mainly concerned with compiling a great number of formulas and
+recipes, methods of preparing and administering official and other
+medicines, and tables on weights and measures for utilization by the
+U.S. practitioners of the time.
+
+[8] Other elaborate arrangements were also made to improve and expand
+the Section's activities and services, though some have never
+materialized. For example, a herbarium was suggested from which
+specimens could be obtained for display of the actual drug with painted
+pictures of its plant next to it. Consideration was given to displaying
+enlarged drawings to show the minute structure of the specimen for
+better identification. In addition, an exhibition of several 10-liter
+vessels of the most popular mineral waters was planned. The amount of
+saline substances which analysis had shown to be present in each vessel
+was to be listed in a table to be attached to that vessel, or the same
+amount of minerals was to be put in a small bottle beside it. This plan
+was carried out to the best advantage at the Cotton States and
+International Exposition held in 1895 in Atlanta, Georgia.
+
+[9] HOLT, "A Sketch of the Development of the Rockefeller Institute for
+Medical Research," p. 1. A similar comment was voiced by GALDSTON,
+"Research in the United States," p. 366.
+
+[10] _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association_ (1918), vol.
+7, pp. 376-377, 466.
+
+[11] Two decades later, Dr. Whitebread designed a panel showing
+photographs of famous medical pioneers of all nationalities. See his
+article, "The Odd Origin of Medical Discoveries," p. 321.
+
+[12] GEBHARD, "From Medicine Show to Health Museum," p. 579. The
+original plan for this Hall of Health was to feature exhibits on public
+health for popular educational purposes, including an illustrated
+exhibit on hospital care. See FOLEY, "Smithsonian Institution Devotes
+Much Space to Hospital Exhibit," pp. 43-44.
+
+[13] Lack of space notwithstanding, valuable accessions were added about
+1930, including a collection of early x-ray tubes and personal
+memorabilia of Drs. William T. G. Morton (1819-1868), Crawford W. Long
+(1815-1878), and William Gorgas (1854-1920).
+
+[14] D. RILEY MOORE published a series of short reports under the title
+"Committee on Osteopathic Exhibits in the U.S. National Museum," in the
+_Journal of the American Osteopathic Association_ (1933-1946), vols.
+33-46, regarding the exhibit on osteopathy.
+
+[15] [KLEIN], "He Directs Pharmacy Exhibits at the Smithsonian
+Institution," pp. 20-21.
+
+[16] Several other journals reported the exhibition with illustrations:
+_Drug Topics_ (July 8, 1946), vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 2, 79; _National
+Capital Pharmacist_ (September 1945), vol. 7, p. 11, and (September
+1946), vol. 8, pp. 11-13; and _The Scientific Monthly_ (November 1952),
+vol. 75, p. 268.
+
+[17] DODRILL, and others, "Temporary Mechanical Substitution for the
+Left Ventricle in Man," pp. 642-644, and "Pulmonary Volvuloplasty under
+Direct Vision using the Mechanical Heart for a Complete Bypass of the
+Right Heart in a Patient with Congenital Pulmonary Stenosis," pp.
+584-595.
+
+[18] For the design, expert arrangement of the exhibits, and the legends
+that accompany each exhibit in the Hall of Health, we are indebted to
+Drs. Bruno Gebhard, Richards H. Shryock, Thomas G. Hull, James Laster,
+Walle J. H. Nauta, Leslie W. Knott, Theodore Wiprud, and other
+physicians, dentists, and scholars who have offered their advice,
+assistance, and expert skills.
+
+[19] TAYLOR, "A National Museum of Science, Engineering and Industry,"
+p. 359.
+
+[20] NELSON, PELANDER, and KUMPULA, "Hydraulic Turbine, Contra-angle
+Handpiece," pp. 324-329.
+
+[21] MONELL, "Dental Skiagraphy," pp. 313-336.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+    The _Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
+    Institution_ from 1872 to date and the _Proceedings of the
+    United States National Museum_ from 1881 to date were used
+    extensively as sources in this survey. In the latter, see in
+    particular, the year 1881, pp. 545-546; 1882, pp. 1-2; and 1884,
+    pp. 431-475.
+
+ATKINSON, WILLIAM B. _The physicians and surgeons of the United States._
+Philadelphia, 1878. [On Dr. Toner.]
+
+BLAKE, JOHN B. Dental history and the Smithsonian Institution. _Journal
+of the American College of Dentists_ (1961), vol. 28, pp. 125-127.
+
+---- _Public health in the town of Boston, 1630-1822._ Cambridge, Mass.:
+Harvard University Press, 1959.
+
+[BRAISTED, WILLIAM C.] The biography of Dr. Beyer. Page 94 in
+_Dictionary of American medical biography_, by HOWARD A. KELLY and
+WALTER L. BURRAGE; NEW YORK: D. Appleton and Co., 1928.
+
+CLARK, LEILA F. The library of the Smithsonian Institution. _Science_
+(1946), vol. 104, p. 143.
+
+COLEMAN, LAURENCE VAIL. _The museum in America: A critical study._ 3
+vols. Baltimore: Waverly Press, 1939. [Printed for the American
+Association of Museums, Washington, D.C.] See vol. 1, pp. 3, 11-12,
+32-33, 143-146, 222, 318; vol. 3, p. 471.
+
+DAUKES, S. H. _The medical museum: modern developments, organization and
+technical methods based on a new system of visual teaching._ London:
+Wellcome Foundation Ltd., 1929.
+
+DODRILL, FOREST D., and others. Pulmonary volvuloplasty under direct
+vision using the mechanical heart for a complete bypass of the right
+heart in a patient with congenital pulmonary stenosis. _Journal of
+Thoracic Surgery_ (1953), vol. 26, pp. 584-595.
+
+---- Temporary mechanical substitution for the left ventricle in man.
+_Journal of the American Medical Association_ (1952), vol. 150, pp.
+642-644.
+
+DUNGLISON, ROBLEY. _A dictionary of medical science._ Rev. ed. Pp.
+629-630. Philadelphia: Lea, 1874.
+
+EDWARDS, J. J., and EDWARDS, M. J. _Medical museum technology._ London:
+Oxford University Press, 1959. [See in particular, pp. 33-62, 142-159.]
+
+FERCHL, FRITZ. Die Mörser der Sammlung Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; Libri rari
+et curiosi der Sammlung Dr. Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; Bildnisse und Bilder
+der Sammlung Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; Kuriositäten und Antiquitäten der
+Sammlung Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; and Gläser, Majoliken und Faensen der
+Sammlung Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden. _Pharmazeutische Zeitung_ (Berlin, 1930),
+vol. 75: January 4, no. 2, pp. 19-24; February 15, no. 14, pp. 219-223;
+March 8, no. 20, pp. 309-314; April 19, no. 32, pp. 487-489; and June
+21, no. 50, pp. 735-740.
+
+FLINT, JAMES M. Classification and arrangement of the materia medica
+collection. _Proceedings of the United States National Museum_ (1881),
+vol. 4, app. no. 6.
+
+---- Classification of the materia medica collection of the United
+States National Museum, and catalogue of specimens. _Proceedings of the
+United States National Museum_ (1883), vol. 6, app. 19, pp. 431-475.
+
+---- Directions for collecting information and objects illustrating the
+history of medicine. Part S of _Bulletin of the United States National
+Museum_ (1905). No. 39.
+
+---- Memoranda for collectors of drugs for the materia medica section of
+the National Museum. _Proceedings of the United States National Museum_
+(1881), vol. 4, app. 8.
+
+FOLEY, MATTHEW O. Smithsonian Institution devotes much space to hospital
+exhibit. _Hospital Management_ (April 1929), pp. 271-287.
+
+GALDSTON, IAGO. Research in the United States. _Ciba Symposia_
+(June-July 1946), vol. 8, nos. 3 and 4, p. 366.
+
+GARRISON, FIELDING H. _An introduction to the history of medicine._ 2d
+ed. p. 38. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1917.
+
+GEBHARD, BRUNO. From medicine show to health museum. _Ciba Symposia_
+(March 1947), vol. 8, no. 12, p. 579.
+
+GOODE, GEORGE BROWN. _The Smithsonian Institution (1846-1896): The
+history of its first half century._ Pp. 325-329, 362-363. Washington,
+1897.
+
+GRIFFENHAGEN, GEORGE. _Pharmacy museums._ Madison, Wis.: American
+Institute of the History of Pharmacy, 1956.
+
+---- and HUGHES, CALVIN H. The history of the mechanical heart. _Annual
+report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the
+year ended June 30, 1955_ (Washington, 1956), pp. 339-356.
+
+HAMARNEH, SAMI. At the Smithsonian ... exhibits on pharmaceutical dosage
+forms. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association_ (1962), new
+ser., vol. 2, pp. 478-479.
+
+----For the collector, facts and artifacts. _Pharmacy in History_
+(1961), vol. 6, p. 48.
+
+---- Historical and educational exhibits on dentistry at the Smithsonian
+Institution. _Journal of the American-Dental Association_ (July 1962),
+vol. 65, pp. 111-114.
+
+---- New dental exhibits at the Smithsonian Institution. _Journal of the
+American Dental Association_ (May 1963), vol. 66, pp. 676-678.
+
+HAYNES, WILLIAM. Out of alchemy into chemistry. _The Scientific Monthly_
+(November 1952), vol. 75, p. 268.
+
+HOLT, L. EMMETT. A sketch of the development of the Rockefeller
+Institute for Medical Research. _Science_ (July 6, 1906), new ser., vol.
+24, no. 601, p. 1.
+
+HOWELL, WILLIAM H. The American Physiological Society during its first
+twenty-five years. Pp. 21-22 [biography of Dr. Beyer] in _History of the
+American Physiological Society semicentennial, 1881-1937_; Baltimore,
+1938.
+
+[KLEIN, ALLEN.] He directs pharmacy exhibits at the Smithsonian
+Institution. _Modern Pharmacy_ (July 1941), vol. 25, pp. 20-21.
+
+LAWALL, CHARLES H. Ancient pharmacy on display. _Pacific Drug Review_
+(1933), vol. 45, p. 18.
+
+---- _The curious lore of drugs and medicines._ Garden City, N.Y.:
+Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., 1927. [See p. 453 on Division of
+Medical Sciences' collection.]
+
+LEWTON, FREDERICK L. A national pharmaceutical collection. _Journal of
+the American Pharmaceutical Association_ (1919), vol. 8, pp. 45-46.
+
+---- The opportunity for developing historical pharmacy collections at
+the National Museum. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical
+Association_ (1917), vol. 6, pp. 259-262.
+
+LONG, ESMOND R. The Army Medical Museum. _Military Medicine_ (May 1963),
+vol. 128, pp. 367-369.
+
+MONELL, S. H. "Dental Skiagraphy" (pp. 313-336 in _A system in x-ray
+methods and medical uses of light hot-air, vibration and high-frequency
+currents_ by Monell; New York: Pelton, 1902).
+
+MURRAY, DAVID. _Museums, their history and their use._ Glasgow:
+MacLehose, 1904. [See vol. 1, pp. 13-77.]
+
+NELSON, ROBERT J.; PELANDER, CARL E.; and KUMPULA, JOHN W. Hydraulic
+turbine, contra-angle handpiece. _Journal of the American Dental
+Association_ (September 1953), vol. 47, pp. 324-329.
+
+_Official Catalogue of the Cotton States and International Exposition_:
+Atlanta, Georgia, September 18 to December 31, 1895. Atlanta: Claflin
+and Mellichamp, 1895. [See p. 204.]
+
+PACKARD, FRANCES R. _History of medicine in the United States._ New
+York, 1931. [See vol. 1, pp. 5-6, 37-51, 168-176, 602-607 on Dr. Toner.]
+
+PICKARD, MADGE E. Government and science in the United States:
+Historical background. _Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied
+Sciences_ (1946), vol. 1, nos. 2 and 3, pp. 265-266, 289, 446-447, 478.
+
+PURTLE, HELEN R. Notes on the Medical Museum of the Armed Forces
+Institute of Pathology. _Bulletin of the Medical Library Association_
+(1956), vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 300-305.
+
+RATHBUN, RICHARD. _A descriptive account of the building recently
+erected for the Departments of Natural History of the United States
+National Museum._ (U.S. National Museum Bulletin 80.) Washington, 1913.
+[See pp. 7-15.]
+
+RHEES, WILLIAM J. _The Smithsonian Institution; documents relative to
+its origin and history, 1835-1899._ 2 vols. (Smithsonian Miscellaneous
+Collections: vol. 42, _1835-1881_; vol. 43, _1881-1899_.) Washington,
+1901.
+
+SHUFELDT, R. W. Suggestions for a national museum of medicine. _Medical
+Record_ (March 22, 1919), pp. 4-5. [Also reprinted, 1919, by William
+Wood and Co., New York.]
+
+SIGERIST, HENRY E. _Primitive and archaic medicine._ (Vol. 1 of _A
+history of medicine_, by Sigerist.) New York: Oxford University Press,
+1951. [See pp. 525-531.]
+
+SILVER, EDWIN H. Description of the exhibit on conservation of vision
+placed in the United States Museum at Washington, D.C. _The Optical
+Journal and Review of Optometry_ (February 3, 1927), vol. 59, no. 5, pp.
+39-40.
+
+[SONNEDECKER, GLENN.] Apothecary shop nears completion. _Journal of the
+American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1946),
+vol. 7, pp. 157.
+
+---- Dr. Charles Whitebread, pharmacist and museum curator. _Journal of
+the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_
+(1946), vol. 7, p. 203.
+
+---- Old apothecary shop. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical
+Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1945), vol. 6, pp. 184-187.
+
+---- Old apothecary shop opened. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical
+Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1946), vol. 7, p. 427.
+
+TAYLOR, FRANK A. A national museum of science, engineering and industry.
+_The Scientific Monthly_ (1946), vol. 63, pp. 359.
+
+---- The background of the Smithsonian's Museum of Engineering and
+Industries. _Science_ (1946), vol. 104, no. 2693, pp. 130-132.
+
+Toner Lectures:
+
+   1. J. J. WOODWARD. On the structure of cancerous tumors and the
+   mode in which adjacent parts are invaded. No. 266 in _Smithsonian
+   Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture
+   given on March 28, 1873.]
+
+   2. C. E. BROWN-SÉQUARD. Dual character of the brain. No. 291 in
+   _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15; Washington,
+   1878. [Lecture given on April 22, 1874.]
+
+   3. J. M. DA COSTA. On strain and over-action of the heart. No.
+   279 in _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15;
+   Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on May 14, 1874.]
+
+   4. H. C. WOOD. A study of the nature and mechanism of fever. No.
+   282 in _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15;
+   Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on January 20, 1875.]
+
+   5. WILLIAM W. KEEN. On the surgical complications and sequels of
+   the continued fevers. No. 300 in _Smithsonian Miscellaneous
+   Collections_, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on
+   February 17, 1876.]
+
+   6. WILLIAM ADAMS. Subcutaneous surgery: Its principles, and its
+   recent extension in practice. No. 302 in _Smithsonian
+   Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture
+   given on September 13, 1876.]
+
+   7. EDWARD O. SHAKESPEARE. The nature of reparatory inflammation
+   in arteries after ligatures, acupressure, and torsion. No. 321 in
+   _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 16; Washington,
+   1880. [Lecture given on June 27, 1878.]
+
+   8. GEORGE E. WARING. Suggestions for the sanitary drainage of
+   Washington City. No. 349 in _Smithsonian Miscellaneous
+   Collections_, vol. 26; Washington, 1883. [Lecture given on May
+   26, 1880.]
+
+   9. CHARLES K. MILLS. Mental over-work and premature disease among
+   public and professional men. No. 594 in _Smithsonian
+   Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 34; Washington, 1893. [Lecture
+   given on March 19, 1884.]
+
+   10. HARRISON ALLEN. A clinical study of the skull. No. 708 in
+   _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 34; Washington,
+   1893. [Lecture given on May 29, 1889.]
+
+TRUE, WEBSTER P. _The Smithsonian Institution._ (Vol. 1 of the
+Smithsonian Scientific Series.) Washington, 1929.
+
+URDANG, GEORGE, and NITARDY, F. W. _The Squibb ancient pharmacy._ New
+York, 1940. [Out of print, but remaining catalogs were given to the
+Division of Medicine to "be reserved for pharmaceutical educators,
+foreign dignitaries, pharmacists of national and international
+reputation, and pharmaceutical historians," according to a letter from
+Mr. Nitardy in 1945.]
+
+WHITEBREAD, CHARLES. Animal pharmaceuticals of the past and present.
+_Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association_ (1933), vol. 22,
+pp. 431-437.
+
+---- An old apothecary shop of 1750. _National Capital Pharmacist_
+(September 1946), vol. 8, pp. 11-13, 35.
+
+---- Early American pharmaceutical inventions. _Journal of the American
+Pharmaceutical Association_ (1937), vol. 26, pp. 918-928.
+
+---- _Handbook of the health exhibits of the United
+States National Museum._ Baltimore: Lord Baltimore Press [1924].
+
+---- Health superstitions. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical
+Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1942), vol. 3, pp. 268-274.
+
+---- Medicine making as depicted by museum dioramas. _Journal of the
+American Pharmaceutical Association_ (January 1936), vol. 25, pp. 40-46.
+
+---- Superstition, credulity and skepticism. _Journal of the American
+Pharmaceutical Association_ (1933), vol. 22, pp. 1140-1145.
+
+---- The Indian medical exhibit of the Division of Medicine in the
+United States National Museum. Article 10 in vol. 67 of _Proceedings of
+the U.S. National Museum_; Washington, 1926.
+
+---- The magic, psychic, ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman medical
+collections of the Division of Medicine in the United States National
+Museum. Article 15 in vol. 65 of _Proceedings of the U.S. National
+Museum_; Washington, 1925.
+
+---- The odd origin of medical discoveries. _Journal of the American
+Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1943), vol. 4,
+p. 321.
+
+---- The United States National Museum pharmaceutical collection, its
+aims, problems, and accomplishments. _Journal of the American
+Pharmaceutical Association_ (1930), vol. 19, pp. 1125-1126.
+
+WINTERS, S. R. Magic medicine. _Hygeia_ (July 1937), vol. 15, pp.
+630-633.
+
+
+U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1964
+
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
+Office Washington, D.C., 20402. Price 30 cents.
+
+
+
+
+_Index_
+
+
+Angle, Edward H., 295
+
+
+Beyer, Dr. Henry Gustav, 275, 276
+
+Black, G. V., 295
+
+Blake, John B., 290, 291
+
+Boyd, John C., 276
+
+
+Carrel, Alexis, 291
+
+Coleman, Laurence V., 290
+
+Colton, Arthur, and Company, 278
+
+
+Dagger, Benjamin M., 290
+
+Dixon, William S., 276
+
+Dodrill, Forest D., 290
+
+Donner, Joseph, 277
+
+
+Einthoven, Willem, 290
+
+Emerson, John Haven, 285
+
+
+Ferchl, Fritz, 285
+
+Fischelis, Robert P., 287
+
+Fleming, Sir Alexander, 290, 295
+
+Flint, James Milton, 273
+
+
+Garfield, James A., 272
+
+Garrison, Fielding H., 277
+
+Goode, G. Brown, 273
+
+Gravatt, C. U., 276
+
+Griffenhagen, George B., 290, 291
+
+
+Hammond, William Alexander, 273
+
+Henderson, Alfred R., 291
+
+Henkel, Silon, 290
+
+Hindle, Charles F., 290
+
+Holt, L. Emmett, 276
+
+
+Kells, Charles E., 295
+
+Koett, Albert B., 287
+
+
+LaWall, Charles H., 285
+
+Lederle Laboratories, 290
+
+Lewton, Frederick L., 277
+
+Lilly, Eli, and Company, 283
+
+Lindbergh, Charles A., 291
+
+Long, Crawford W., 294
+
+
+Marmion, R. A., 276
+
+Mayer, Jo, 285
+
+McMurtrie, Daniel, 276
+
+Morton, Arthur O., 290
+
+Morton, William, 294
+
+
+Nagel, Oscar P., 295
+
+Nelson, Robert J., 295
+
+
+Parke, Davis & Company, 273
+
+Physick, Philip Syng, 294
+
+
+Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad, 290, 294
+
+
+Schieffelin and Company, 273
+
+Sonnedecker, Glenn, 296
+
+Squibb, E. R., and Sons, 285, 286
+
+
+Tanner, Paul H., 295
+
+Taylor, Frank A., 292
+
+Thomas, George S., 287
+
+Toner, Joseph Meredith, 271
+
+
+Wallace Brothers, 273
+
+Wetmore, Dr. Alexander, 287
+
+White, C. H., 276
+
+Whitebread, Charles, 277, 278, 281, 283, 285, 287
+
+Wilson, Frank E., 290
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+   The following typographical erros have been corrected:
+
+   P. 277 'the basis of scientific, historical'--was 'the bases of
+           scientific, historical'
+
+   P. 287 'purely produced chemical elements'--was 'purely produced,
+           chemical elements'
+
+   P. 290 'string galvanometers (named'--was 'string galvanometer-
+          (named.'
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE DIVISION OF MEDICAL
+SCIENCES***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 27932-8.txt or 27932-8.zip *******
+
+
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/7/9/3/27932
+
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://www.gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+