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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/27932-8.txt b/27932-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9c63a70 --- /dev/null +++ b/27932-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2124 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of History of the Division of Medical +Sciences, by Sami Khalaf Hamarneh + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: History of the Division of Medical Sciences + United States National Museum Bulletin 240, Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, paper 43, 1964 + + +Author: Sami Khalaf Hamarneh + + + +Release Date: January 29, 2009 [eBook #27932] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE DIVISION OF MEDICAL +SCIENCES*** + + +E-text prepared by Colin Bell, Louise Pattison, Joseph Cooper, and the +Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team +(https://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 27932-h.htm or 27932-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/7/9/3/27932/27932-h/27932-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/7/9/3/27932/27932-h.zip) + + +Transcriber's Note: + + This is Paper 43 from the Smithsonian Institution United States + National Museum Bulletin 240, comprising Papers 34-44, which will + also be available as a complete e-book. + + The front material, introduction and relevant index entries from + the Bulletin are included in each single-paper e-book. + + + + + +SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION + +UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM +BULLETIN 240 + +[Illustration] + +Smithsonian Press + +Museum of History and Technology + +Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology + +Papers 34-44 +On Science and Technology + +Smithsonian Institution · Washington, D.C. 1966 + +Publications of the United States National Museum + +The scholarly and scientific publications of the United States National +Museum include two series, _Proceedings of the United States National +Museum_ and _United States National Museum Bulletin_. + +In these series, the Museum publishes original articles and monographs +dealing with the collections and work of its constituent +museums--The Museum of Natural History and the Museum of History +and Technology--setting forth newly acquired facts in the fields of +anthropology, biology, history, geology, and technology. Copies of each +publication are distributed to libraries, to cultural and scientific +organizations, and to specialists and others interested in the different +subjects. + +The _Proceedings_, begun in 1878, are intended for the publication, in +separate form, of shorter papers from the Museum of Natural History. +These are gathered in volumes, octavo in size, with the publication date +of each paper recorded in the table of contents of the volume. + +In the _Bulletin_ series, the first of which was issued in 1875, appear +longer, separate publications consisting of monographs (occasionally in +several parts) and volumes in which are collected works on related +subjects. _Bulletins_ are either octavo or quarto in size, depending on +the needs of the presentation. Since 1902 papers relating to the +botanical collections of the Museum of Natural History have been +published in the _Bulletin_ series under the heading _Contributions from +the United States National Herbarium_, and since 1959, in _Bulletins_ +titled "Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology," have +been gathered shorter papers relating to the collections and research of +that Museum. + +The present collection of Contributions, Papers 34-44, comprises +Bulletin 240. Each of these papers has been previously published in +separate form. The year of publication is shown on the last page of each +paper. + +FRANK A. TAYLOR +_Director, United States National Museum_ + + + + +Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology: +Paper 43 + +HISTORY OF THE DIVISION OF MEDICAL SCIENCES + +by + +SAMI HAMARNEH + + + + + + + + +SECTION OF MATERIA MEDICA (1881-1898) 272 + +DIVISION OF MEDICINE (1898-1939) 276 + +DIVISION OF MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH (1939-1957) 281 + +DIVISION OF MEDICAL SCIENCES (1957 TO PRESENT) 290 + +A NEW DIMENSION FOR THE HEALING ARTS 292 + +FOOTNOTES + +BIBLIOGRAPHY 297 + +INDEX + +[Illustration: Figure 1.--EARLY VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL +MUSEUM, known for the last quarter of a century as the Arts and +Industries building. Completed in 1881, it housed the Division of +Medical Sciences from its establishment in 1881 as a Section of Materia +Medica to the time of the writing of this paper. While the medical +collection remained in the Department of Arts and Industries, by the end +of June 1912 practically all other collections belonging to the fields +of natural history and anthropology were transferred to the then new +Natural History building.] + + +_Sami Hamarneh_ + + + + +HISTORY of the DIVISION of MEDICAL SCIENCES + +_In The Museum of History and Technology_ + + _This paper traces, for the first time, the history of the + Division of Medical Sciences in the Museum of History and + Technology from its small beginnings as a section of materia + medica in 1881 to its present broad scope. The original + collection of a few hundred specimens of crude drugs which had + been exhibited at the centennial exhibition of 1876 at + Philadelphia, has now developed into the largest collection in + the Western Hemisphere of historical objects related to the + healing arts._ + + THE AUTHOR: _Sami Hamarneh is the curator of the Division of + Medical Sciences in the Smithsonian Institution's Museum of + History and Technology._ + + +By the early 1870's, leading figures from both the health professions +and the general public had begun to realize the necessity for having the +medical sciences represented in the Smithsonian Institution. The impetus +behind this new feeling resulted from the action of a distinguished +American physician, philanthropist, and author, Joseph Meredith Toner +(1825-1896), and came almost a decade before the integration of a new +section concerned with research and the historical and educational +aspects of the healing arts in the Smithsonian Institution. + +In 1872, Dr. Toner established the "Toner Lectures" to encourage efforts +towards discovering new truths "for the advancement of medical science +... for the benefit of mankind." To finance these lectures, he provided +a fund worth approximately $3,000 to be administered by a board of +trustees consisting of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, the +Surgeon General of the U.S. Navy, the Surgeon General of the U.S. Army +(only in some years), and the president of the Medical Society of the +District of Columbia. The interest from this fund was to compensate +physicians and scholars who were to deliver "at least two annual memoirs +or essays" based on original research on some branch of the medical +sciences and containing information which had been verified "by +experiments or observations."[1] + +The Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution agreed to have these +lectures published by the Institution in its Miscellaneous Collections. +The first lecture given by the Assistant Surgeon of the U.S. Army, "On +the Structure of Cancerous Tumors and the Mode in which Adjacent parts +are Invaded," deserves credit even by current standards of scientific +research.[2] Only 10 lectures were given between 1873 and 1890 (see +bibliography), despite the recommendation for at least two every +year.[3] + +[Illustration: Figure 2.--DR. JOSEPH M. TONER, a leading physician in +Washington, D.C., and founder of the "Toner Lectures" for the promotion +and advancement of medical education and research. In 1873, Dr. Toner +became president of the American Medical Association and, in 1874, he +became president of the American Public Health Association. He was a +physician to St. Joseph's Male Orphan Asylum and St. Ann's Infants' +Asylum in Washington, D.C. In addition, he was instrumental in +establishing Providence Hospital in the District of Columbia. He also +provided a workable plan for the American Medical Association's library +in Washington, D.C. (1868-1871). Among his several publications are: +_Contributions to the Annals of Medical Progress and Medical Education +in the United States before and during the War of Independence_ +(Washington: Government Printing Office, 1874) and _Medical Men of the +Revolution_ (1876). In 1882, he donated his large library, consisting of +44,000 books and pamphlets on topics related mainly to medicine and +history, to the Library of Congress. (_Photo courtesy of National +Library of Medicine._)] + +A more direct factor, which not only contributed to the establishment of +a section on the healing arts, but also had a greater effect upon the +Smithsonian Institution than any other event since its founding, was the +1876 centennial exhibition in Philadelphia. + +This magnificent international fair commemorated the hundredth +anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The +finest exhibits of 30 foreign countries and various States of the Union +participating in the fair were finally donated to the Smithsonian +Institution as the official depository of historical and archeological +objects for this country. As a result, the Institution's collections +increased to an extent far beyond the capacity of the first Smithsonian +building. This led to the erection of the National Museum, known for the +last two decades and until date of publication as the Arts and +Industries building, which was completed on March 4, 1881, and was used +that evening for the inaugural reception of incoming President James A. +Garfield. + + + + +Section of Materia Medica (1881-1898) + +Throughout the 19th century, the study of _materia medica_ (dealing with +the nature and properties of drugs of various kinds and origins, their +collection and mode of administration for the treatment of diseases, and +the medicinal utilization of animal products) held an increasingly +important place among the medical sciences. In the United States, as in +other civilized countries, this topic was greatly emphasized in the +curriculum of almost every school teaching the health professions. +Today, the subject matter contained in this branch of science is taught +under the heading of several specialized fields, such as pharmacology, +pharmacognosy, and drug analysis of various types. However, when the +decision was made in 1881 to promote greater knowledge and interest in +the healing arts by creating a section devoted to such pursuits in the +U.S. National Museum, the title of Section of Materia Medica was +adopted. Added to this, was the fact that the bulk of the first +collections received in the Section was a great variety of crude drugs, +which constituted much of the material then taught in the academic +courses of _materia medica_. + +The new Section was included in the Department of Arts and Industries, +then under the curatorship of Assistant Director G. Brown Goode. From +its beginning and for two decades, however, the Section of Materia +Medica was sponsored and supervised by the U.S. Navy in cooperation with +the Smithsonian Institution. For this reason, the Navy decided not to +establish a similar bureau for a health museum as did the Army in +starting the Medical Museum (of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology) +in 1862 through the efforts of Dr. William Alexander Hammond. The +Smithsonian did, however, provide a clerk to relieve the curator of much +of the routine work. The Section's early vigorous activities were the +result of the ingenuity of the first honorary curator, Dr. James Milton +Flint (1838-1919), an Assistant Surgeon of the U.S. Navy. From the +establishment of the Section, in 1881, to 1912, Dr. Flint was curator +during separate periods for a total of nearly 25 years. For three of his +tenures (1881-1884; 1887-1891; 1895-1900), he was detailed to the +Smithsonian Institution by the Surgeon General of the U.S. Navy. During +the interim periods, other naval doctors were detailed as curators. +Finally, in 1900, Dr. Flint retired from the Navy with the rank of Rear +Admiral and volunteered to continue his services to the National Museum. +The proposal was gladly accepted and he continued as a curator until his +retirement from the Smithsonian Institution in 1912. + +[Illustration: Figure 3.--REAR ADMIRAL JAMES M. FLINT, U.S. Navy surgeon +and first honorary curator of the Section of Materia Medica. (_Photo +courtesy of the Library of Congress._)] + +The Section commenced with a wealth of material. After the close of the +1876 centennial exhibition, its _materia medica_ collection had been +stored with the other collections in a warehouse, awaiting an +appropriation by Congress for transfer and installation. This collection +was gradually brought into the new National Museum after that building's +completion in 1881. Many other _materia medica_ specimens were +transferred from the Department of Agriculture. In addition to these +large collections of crude drugs, generous contributions came from +several prominent pharmaceutical firms such as Parke, Davis & Company of +Detroit, Michigan; Wallace Brothers of Statesville, North Carolina; and +Schieffelin and Company of New York City. These manufacturing houses are +mentioned here because they and their agents abroad were the first to +take interest and donate to the Section, complete assortments of +contemporary remedial agents then in common use throughout the United +States and Europe, besides many hundreds of "rare and curious drugs." +Thus, in spite of difficulties encountered from bringing several +collections into the building at one time, the _materia medica_ +exhibition got off to a good start. + +It was Dr. Flint, the first curator, who stated in 1883 that remedial +agents used by a nation or a community are as indicative of the degree +of their cultural development and standard of living as is the nature of +their food, the character of their dwellings, and their social and +religious traditions. Therefore, he felt that collections of drugs and +medical, surgical and pharmaceutical instruments and appliances should +not be thought of or designed as instructive to the specialist only, but +should also possess a general interest for the public. Because of these +objectives, Dr. Flint added, this section was conceived as a +departmental division for the collecting and exhibiting of objects +related to medicine, surgery, pharmacology, hygiene, and all material +related to the health field at large.[4] + +During his first term of curatorship (1881-1884), Dr. Flint devoted much +of his time to sorting, examining, identifying, and classifying the +_materia medica_ specimens.[5] In 1881, he issued a memorandum of +instructions to be followed by collectors of drugs and urged them to +give detailed and accurate information regarding acquired specimens so +that they might be "more than mere museum curiosities." In addition, in +1883, he prepared a brief manual of classification of the _materia +medica_ collection in the Museum as well as a useful, detailed catalog +of informational labels of the individual objects on exhibition. The +unpublished catalog is still the property of the Smithsonian Institution +Archives, Division of Medical Sciences' Library. + +It was Dr. Flint's ambition to obtain a comprehensive, worldwide +collection of all substances used as remedies. Then, in order to +identify drugs from foreign countries, he tried to collect illustrated +works on medical botany and printed pharmacopoeias of all nations having +them. He rightly defined an official pharmacopoeia as "a book containing +directions for the identification and preparation of medicines prepared +and issued with the sanction of a government or organized and +authorized medical and pharmaceutical societies. Its purpose is to +establish uniformity in the nomenclature of remedies and in the +character and potency of the pharmaceutical preparations. It is enacted +by legislation, and thus becomes binding on all who prepare drugs or +sell them for medication." By soliciting the help of various American +consuls and Navy officers abroad, about 16 such official pharmacopoeias +were collected, making an almost complete international representation +of all available, official, drug standards. With these sources of +information, Dr. Flint compiled and arranged an international list of +_materia medica_ specimens, indicating the authorized preparations of +each. By so doing, the first curator of this Section took the initiative +at least in proposing and, to some extent acting, on the preparation of +an international pharmacopoeia of drugs used in existing authorized +formularies giving "official synonyms, and tables showing the +constituents and comparative strength of all preparations."[6] This +undertaking is of special importance in the history of American +pharmacy, since it was probably the first attempt of its kind in the +United States.[7] In addition, colored plates and photographs of +medicinal plants were collected, forming the nucleus of the Division's +current collection of pictorial and photographic material related to the +history of the health field. + +Dr. Flint also put on exhibition 630 Chinese _materia medica_ specimens +from the 1876 Philadelphia centennial. These had been collected +originally by the Chinese Imperial Customs Commission for the centennial +and were subsequently given to this country. + +In 1881, the numbered objects in the Section's register amounted to +1,574 entries. In the following year, 1,590 more specimens were added, +most of them drugs in their crude state. By the end of 1883, the total +collection had reached 4,037, out of which 3,240 individual drugs in +good condition were classified and put on display. Of these, about 500 +specimens with beautiful illustrations of parts of their original plants +had been mounted for exhibition. The drug exhibitions also included +materials transferred from the Department of Agriculture in 1881, which +originally had been brought from Central America and South America for +the 1876 centennial exhibition, a variety of opium specimens from +Turkey, and a number of rare drugs listed in the official formulary +which were acquired from the Museum of Karachi in what was then India. + +Dr. Flint commented in the _Smithsonian Annual Report_ for 1883 that the +collection of cinchona barks was especially complete. It was comprised +of specimens of nearly all the natural cinchona barks of South America +and every known variety of the cultivated product from the British +government plantations in India. In addition, there were specimens from +Java, Ceylon, Mexico, and Jamaica. The Indian and Jamaican barks were +accompanied by herbarium specimens of the leaf and flower (and, in some +cases, the fruit) of each variety of tree from which the bark was +obtained.[8] + +In an attempt to protect specimens liable to attack by insects, a small +piece of blotting paper moistened with chloroform was inserted +underneath the stopper in each bottle. Later on, bichloride of mercury +was found to be a better insecticide. + +These early collections of the Section were brought into admirable +condition and received compliments for their organization and +completeness. In the _Smithsonian Annual Report_ for 1883, the +collections were praised as "superior to any other in the United States +and scarcely excelled by any in Europe." + +[Illustration: Figure 4.--DR. HENRY GUSTAV BEYER, the second honorary +curator of the Section of Materia Medica (1884-1887). (_Photo courtesy +of American Physiological Society._)] + +In spite of the apparent emphasis on the displaying of drugs, the first +curator of the Section had envisioned that the exhibits eventually would +embrace the entire field of the healing arts. In the _Smithsonian Annual +Report_ for 1883, Dr. Flint noted that "in the establishment of a museum +designed to illustrate man and his environment, it is proper that the +materials and methods used for the prevention and cure of disease should +have a place." However, his plans were temporarily interrupted when his +first term as honorary curator ended in 1884. + +On June 4, 1884, Dr. Henry Gustav Beyer was detailed by the Department +of the Navy to become the second honorary curator of the Section of +Materia Medica. As a young man, Dr. Beyer (1850-1918) had come from +Saxony, Germany, to the United States and, in due course, became a +naturalized citizen. He was graduated from the Bellevue Hospital +Medical College of New York City in 1876. + +Because of his interest in physiological experimental research, Dr. +Beyer enrolled at the Johns Hopkins University, where he was awarded a +Ph. D. degree in 1887. Unlike his predecessor, Dr. Beyer was primarily +interested in carrying on research on the physiological action of +certain drugs and in pharmacology. This was evident from the original +scientific papers mentioned in the _Smithsonian Annual Reports_ and +published by him during the period of his curatorship from 1884 to 1887. + +Despite the pressure of his postgraduate studies at Johns Hopkins +University, Dr. Beyer helped in arranging and classifying the _materia +medica_ collection without trying to extend materially the scope of the +Section. + +After the term of Dr. Beyer expired in 1887, Dr. Flint returned to take +charge of the Section. Surprisingly, at this time, it seems that he +showed less enthusiasm and devotion to the work of the Museum which he +had previously served so well. It could have been a disappointment +resulting from a lack of evidence of any real progress in the Section +since he had left it three years before. Whatever the reasons may have +been, the _Smithsonian Annual Reports_ show that only a few hundred +specimens were added to the _materia medica_ collections between 1887 +and 1890, bringing the total to 5,915 preserved in good condition. +Further curtailment of the Section's activities began in November 1891 +when Dr. Flint was again transferred to other duties for the U.S. Navy. +From November 1891 to May 24, 1895, curatorship of the Section was +charged to five physicians of the U.S. Navy: Drs. John C. Boyd (from +November 1891 to April 6, 1892); William S. Dixon (April 1892 to January +5, 1893); C. H. White (January 1893 to July 15, 1893); C. U. Gravatt +(July 1893 to January 22, 1894); R. A. Marmion (January 22, 1894 to June +15, 1894); and to Medical Inspector Daniel McMurtrie (June 1894 to May +24, 1895). During this interim of nearly three and a half years, there +were neither literary contributions nor additions made to the +collections of the Section that were of any significance. The reason is +obvious, for all of these curators averaged less than seven months of +service which is not enough time, even for a well-trained individual, to +accomplish very much in a museum. Therefore, it is easy to imagine that +when the Secretary of the Navy detailed Dr. Flint for a third time to +take charge of the Section, he was rather discouraged. Nevertheless, at +the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia, from +September 18 to December 31, 1895, the _materia medica_ was represented +by two displays: one on mineral waters and amounts of solid constituents +in pure state; and another showing the quantities of minerals after +analysis of the composition of the human body. + +A similar project was undertaken in 1897 at the Tennessee Centennial +Exposition (May 1 to October 31) in Nashville, where there were two +displays of _materia medica_. One showed several kinds of the cinchona +barks and the medicinal preparations made from them, and another +containing the commercial varieties of the alkaloids of opium. + +At this time, Dr. Flint's attention turned to a new phase of medical +exhibition. He felt the need for a program of exhibits on the practice +and the historical development of the healing arts. A change of the +Section's name was deemed necessary and, thus, in 1898 the more +comprehensive title of Division of Medicine was adopted. + + + + +Division of Medicine (1898-1939) + +The statement by L. Emmett Holt of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical +Research, that before 1906, the Smithsonian Institution was never a +beneficiary to medicine in any form,[9] is not entirely applicable. The +previous discussion has clearly shown that the U.S. National Museum's +cooperation with the Navy contributed materially towards encouraging and +promoting medical knowledge. Furthermore, Dr. Flint tried to bring many +of his plans for this medical division of the Museum to a practical +fulfillment. He devised a program for presenting medical history in a +way which would be of interest both to the public and to the profession. +In order to best illustrate the history of the healing art, he divided +his subject matter into five provisional classifications according to +the _Report upon the Condition and Progress of the U.S. National Museum_ +during 1898: + + 1. Magical medicine including exorcism, amulets, talismans, + fetishes and incantation; + + 2. Psychical medicine including faith cures, and hypnotism; + + 3. Physical and external medicine including baths, exercise, + electricity, massage, surgery, cautery, and blood-letting; + + 4. Internal medicine including medications and treatment used by + the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Hindus, Arabians, and Chinese; + and + + 5. Preventive medicine including beverages, food, soil, clothing + and habitation. + +It is certainly to Dr. Flint's credit that from its early conception, +first as Section of Materia Medica and thereafter as Division of +Medicine, he planned for an all-embracing exhibition and reference +collection of the medical sciences. Until the end of the 19th century +and the early years of the 20th century, crude drugs as well as +primitive and magic medicine held a more prominent place than medical +instruments in the exhibits and collections. In 1905, Flint issued his +last, known, literary contribution, "Directions for Collecting +Information and Objects Illustrating the History of Medicine," in Part S +of _Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum_, no. 39. The emphasis he put +upon this shows Dr. Flint's interest in collecting medical and +pharmaceutical objects and equipment of historical value. Consequently, +he arranged new exhibits including one on American Indian medicine. A +medical historian, Fielding H. Garrison, inspected these about 1910 and, +in his "An Introduction to the History of Medicine," wrote of their +novelty and appeal. "In the interesting exhibit of folk medicine in the +National Museum at Washington," he commented, "a buckeye or horse +chestnut (_Aesculus flavus_), an Irish potato, a rabbit's foot, a +leather strap previously worn by a horse, and a carbon from an arc light +are shown as sovereign charms against rheumatism. Other amulets in the +Washington exhibit," he added, "are the patella of a sheep and a ring +made out of a coffin nail (dug out of a graveyard) for cramps and +epilepsy, a peony root to be carried in the pocket against insanity, and +rare and precious stones for all and sundry diseases." It had been Dr. +Flint's intention, besides presenting an educational display on the +history of the medical arts, to warn the public against the perils of +quackery and the faults of folk medicine, as well as to expose evils in +drug adulteration. Today, we can see actual fulfillment of these +intentions in the present exhibit at the medical gallery which has been +executed recently on the basis of scientific, historical research. + +After Dr. Flint's retirement from the Smithsonian Institution in 1912, +there was no replacement for over five years. Therefore, the Division +of Medicine was placed, for administrative purposes, under the +supervision of the curator of the newly reestablished (1912) Division of +Textiles, Frederick L. Lewton. During these years, he fought against the +dispersal of the medical and _materia medica_ collections. Thus, for +lack of a curator of its own, almost all new activities in the Division +of Medicine were curtailed until 1917. + +On January 31, 1917, Lewton addressed members of the American +Pharmaceutical Association inviting them to cooperate in gathering up +and preserving at the National Museum the "many unique and irreplaceable +objects" connected with the early history of pharmacy in this country +which could still be saved.[10] Then, on March 14, 1917, an examination +was announced by the Civil Service (held May 2) for an assistant curator +for the Division of Medicine, and the position was filled by Joseph +Donner on August 16, 1917. Donner was the first full-time employee paid +by the Smithsonian Institution for the curatorship of this Division. He +held the post until January 31, 1918, when he was inducted into the +Sanitary Corps of the United States Army. No significant activities in +the Division of Medicine were reported during these few months. + +Mr. Donner was followed by a second, full-time, museum officer who +promoted a great amount of good will towards the Division during his +curatorship of a little over 30 years. Dr. Charles Whitebread +(1877-1963), the first pharmacist to head the Division, joined the +Smithsonian in 1918 and remained until his retirement in 1948, the +longest service, thus far, of any individual in the Division. + +Dr. Whitebread received his degree of Doctor of Pharmacy from the School +of Pharmacy at George Washington University in Washington, D.C., in +1911. He entered government service late in 1915, but it was not until +April 2, 1918, that he agreed to become assistant curator of the +Division of Medicine. + +Curator Whitebread's first year was an active and challenging one, for +in this new position he began to develop a deep interest in the history +of the healing arts. He made a number of important acquisitions, most of +them pertaining to pharmaceutical products, synthetic chemicals and +crude drugs. He found that many specimens from the older drug +collections had deteriorated to such an extent as to be worthless, and +he began replacing them with freshly marketed drugs. + +[Illustration: Figure 5.--CURATOR CHARLES WHITEBREAD inspecting, with +admiration, five drug containers from the Squibb collection (1945). +(_Photo courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association._)] + +Plans were completed for the opening of new medical exhibits and +adopting, with some modifications and additions, earlier classifications +set by Dr. Flint. Dr. Whitebread grouped these into the following +classes: the evaluation of the healing arts; a picture display of +medical men prominent in American history;[11] a _materia medica_ +display including the history of pharmacy; and an exhibition on +Sanitation and Public Hygiene[12] which was later to evolve into the +Hall of Health. + +In 1920, Dr. Whitebread added a number of specimens of medical-dosage +forms and pharmaceutical preparations to the Division's collections. He +also acquired other gifts to complete existing exhibits illustrating the +basic principles of the various schools of medicine, such as homeopathy +and osteopathy--their methods, tools, and ways of thought. + +In 1921, a tablet machine by the Arthur Colton Company of Detroit, +Michigan, was acquired, and an exhibit illustrating vaccine and serum +therapy was installed in the medical gallery. This was followed, in +1922, by a collection arranged to tell the story of the prevention and +cure of specific diseases by means of biological remedies. + +During the following two years, two more exhibits related to hospital +supplies and sanitation were added to the rapidly developing Hall of +Health exhibition which was opened in 1924. A third exhibit in 1925 +consisted of 96 mounted color transparencies illustrating services +provided by hospitals to promote public health. Plans for the further +development of the Hall of Health continued during 1926, and contacts +were made with organizations interested in the educational aspects of +the healing arts. As a result, several new exhibits were added. In 1926, +the American Optometric Association helped in the installation of an +exhibit on conservation of vision or the care of the eyes under the +slogan "Save your vision," as a phase of health work. Other exhibits in +the Hall at this time were: what parasites are; water pollution and how +to obtain pure water; waste disposal; ventilation and healthy housing, +and the importance of recreation; purification of milk and how to obtain +pure milk; transmission of diseases by insects and animals; how life +begins; prenatal and postnatal care and preschool care; duties of the +public health nurse; and social, oral and mental hygiene. + +With the acquiring of more medical appliances and the widening of the +scope of the exhibits, more and more space was needed, and attention was +turned to the area of the medical gallery which had been occupied by the +_materia medica_ collection for almost four decades. To gain more +exhibit space, it was decided that the greater part of the crude drugs +should be removed from the exhibits and be kept as a reference +collection and for research.[13] + +[Illustration: Figure 6.--EXHIBIT ON EGYPTIAN AND HEBREW MEDICINE, +installed about 1924, which was illustrated by graphs and drugs +mentioned in extant records of this ancient period. (Smithsonian photo +30796-C.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 7.--EXHIBIT ON MEDICAL HISTORY during the +Greco-Roman period. (Smithsonian photo 30796-D.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 8.--EXHIBIT ON REMEDIES DERIVED FROM DRUGS of +vegetable origin, displayed about mid-1930's. (Smithsonian photo +30439.)] + +In 1926, original patent models including those related to pharmacy, +medicine, and dentistry, were transferred from the U.S. Patent Office to +the National Museum. These patent models, together with other apothecary +tools and the machines used in drug production took up most of the +available space. This unfortunate situation led Dr. Whitebread to turn +down significant medical and pharmaceutical collections offered the +Museum between 1927 and 1930. Since the patent models were devised for +inventions designed to simplify the practice of the health professions, +three cases of these models were displayed in the medical gallery in the +early 1930's. Other exhibits shown during this decade included the +deception of folk medicine with warnings against superstitions, and an +exhibition on osteopathy,[14] as well as dioramas on the manufacture of +medicines and their use in scientific medical treatment. + +In the meantime, Dr. Whitebread was an active contributor to the +literature of the health field in various periodicals, as well as in +pamphlets issued by the Museum and other governmental agencies (see +bibliography). His literary contributions, guided by the exhibits he +designed and the collections he acquired, were focused on the Division's +collections, such as primitive and psychic medicine and warnings against +reliance on magic and superstitions in treatment, medical oddities, and +the utilization of drugs of animal origin, both past and present. + + + + +Division of Medicine and Public Health (1939-1957) + +After taking charge of the Division of Medicine in 1918, Dr. Whitebread +gave special attention to public health displays. His activities in this +area were accelerated after 1924 when the health exhibit at the +Smithsonian Institution was inaugurated. As the exhibits in this field +increased, the Division, in 1939, took the more comprehensive title of +Division of Medicine and Public Health. Also, in 1939, Dr. Whitebread +was promoted to the rank of associate curator. + +[Illustration: Figure 9.--EXHIBIT ON METHODS OF TREATMENT of diseases +through mental impressions and psychic conditions as displayed about +1925. (Smithsonian photo 30796-B.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 10.--AN EXHIBIT ON SUPERSTITIONS, EMPIRICISM, +magic, and faith healing in the light of scientific medicine, completed +in 1962, is in sharp contrast with that shown in figure 9.] + +He continued his efforts to collect more specimens of interest to +medical history and to contribute to the literature. Among exhibited +specimens in 1941 were a powder paper-crimping machine, a portable drug +crusher, an odd device for spreading plaster on cloth, a pill-coating +apparatus, various suppository molds, a lozenge cutter, and an ingenious +Seidlitz powder machine. The derivation of medicinal drugs from animal, +vegetable, and mineral sources was also depicted, as were synthetic +materials and their intermediates. Basic prescription materials were +displayed, and rows of glass-enclosed cases held samples of crude +botanical drugs from almost every part of the globe with explanatory +cards giving brief, concise descriptions. The exhibition provided +medical and pharmaceutical students about to take state-board +examinations, the opportunity to study the subject in detail, especially +the enormous collection of _materia medica_ samples.[15] Also in 1941, +Eli Lilly and Company donated an exhibit on the medical treatment of +various types of anemia. In the same year, a diorama including a +hypochlorinator for purification of water on a farm was installed in the +gallery. In 1942, the first Emerson iron lung (developed in 1931 by John +Haven Emerson) for artificial respiration was acquired by the Division. +The Division acquired, in 1944, the first portable x-ray machine known +to have been operated successfully on the battlefield, as well as other +x-ray equipment and early medicine chests. + +[Illustration: Figure 11.--OLD PUBLIC HEALTH EXHIBITION installed in the +gallery about 1924. (Smithsonian photo 19952.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 12.--THE HALL OF HEALTH, reestablished and opened +in November 1957. (Smithsonian photo 44931.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 13.--EARLY EXHIBIT ON HOMEOPATHY showing its +history, methods and remedies which was installed about 1929. +(Smithsonian photo 27049.)] + +Without a doubt, the most outstanding accession in the field of +pharmaceutical history during Dr. Whitebread's years of service was the +acquisition of the E. R. Squibb and Sons old apothecary shop. Most of +the baroque fixtures, including the stained-glass windows with +Hessian-Nassau coats of arms and wrought-iron frames, were part of the +mid-18th-century cathedral pharmacy "Münster Apotheke" in Freiburg im +Breisgau, Germany. It was offered for sale in September 1930 by Dr. Jo +Mayer of Wiesbaden, Germany, who was an enthusiastic collector of +antiques, especially those related to the health professions. Earlier +that year, a historian of pharmacy and chemistry, Fritz Ferchl of +Mittenwald, Germany, had published a series of scholarly and informative +articles on the Meyer collection in which the outstanding specimens were +beautifully portrayed and thoroughly described (see bibliography). + +As a result of Dr. Mayer's efforts to sell his collection, the impact of +Ferchl's illustrated articles, and the uniqueness of the collection, E. +R. Squibb and Sons purchased it in 1932 and brought it to the United +States "with the thought that it would provide for American pharmacy, +its teachers and students, a museum illuminating the history, growth, +and development of pharmacy, its interesting background and struggle +through the ages." It was displayed at the Century of Progress +exposition held in Chicago during 1933 and 1934; subsequently, it was +assembled in the Squibb Building in New York City as a private museum +where, for about 10 years, it was visited by many interested in +pharmacy, ceramics, and art. Charles H. LaWall, who was originally +engaged to prepare a descriptive catalog on the exhibit, gave it the +title "The Squibb Ancient Pharmacy." + +Late in 1943, E. R. Squibb and Sons offered the collection as a gift to +the American Pharmaceutical Association if the latter would provide +museum space for it. The offer was accepted, but the Association +finally found it difficult to spare the needed space for the collection +and decided to take up the matter with the U.S. National Museum. + +[Illustration: Figure 14.--THIS EARLY EXHIBIT ON OSTEOPATHY was +renovated several times prior to the early 1940's. (Smithsonian photo +19250.)] + +At this point, it should be stated that since 1883 the members of the +American Pharmaceutical Association have been keenly interested in +having the National Museum serve as the custodian for all collected +objects and records of historical interest to pharmacy. In 1944, the +Association officially offered to deposit on permanent loan, the +Squibb's pharmacy collection in the Smithsonian Institution with the +understanding that a suitable place would be provided for prompt and +permanent display. The offer was accepted, and during April and May of +1945, the entire collection was transferred to the Smithsonian +Institution, and construction to recreate the original two rooms for the +old, 18th-century, European "Apotheke" was underway. + +By August 1946, the exhibit was completed. In the large room where the +pharmacist met his customers, the shelves were filled with 15th-to +19th-century, European pharmaceutical antiques. These included +Renaissance mortars; 16th-and 17th-century nested weights; beautiful +Italian, French, Swiss, and German majolica and faience drug jars; Dutch +and English delft; drug containers made of flint or opal glass with +fused-enamel labels with alchemical symbols; rare, 16th-century, wooden +drug containers, each with the coat of arms of the city in which each +was made; and two glass-topped, display tables contained franchises +issued and signed by Popes or state rulers, medical edicts, +dispensatories, herbals, pharmacopoeias, and pharmaceutical utensils. + +On the walls in the small laboratory room, which also had been used as a +workshop and a study, were a stuffed crocodile, shark's head, tortoise, +fish, and salamander, parts of which were utilized as remedial agents. +Their presence provided tangible evidence that the pharmacy dispensed +genuine drugs and not substitutes. + +The pharmaceutical profession in this country hailed the outstanding +exhibition, and the November 1946 issue of the _Journal of the American +Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_, devoted its +front cover to depicting one corner of the study and laboratory room of +the shop.[16] Also, in a letter dated January 2, 1947, addressed to Dr. +Alexander Wetmore, then Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. +Robert P. Fischelis, the secretary of the American Pharmaceutical +Association, considered the completion of the deposited exhibition a +triumph and "as one of the highlights of the accomplishments of the +Association in 1946." + +[Illustration: Figure 15.--LATE 16TH-CENTURY, wooden drug container with +coat-of-arms, in the Squibb collection. The inscription _Ungula Alcis_ +(the hoof of the elk) suggests a superstitious attitude in medical +practice and the wide use of animal organs in medical treatment. +(_Courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association._)] + +From 1946 to 1948, the Division's collection was further enriched with +a number of historical specimens, among which was a "grosse Flamme" +x-ray machine with induction-coil tube and stand developed by Albert B. +Koett. It is one of the earliest American-made machines of its kind, +producing a 12-inch spark, the largest usable at that time with +180,000-volt capacity, and a forerunner of later autotransformers. Other +accessions included two 19th-century drug mills, an electric belt used +in quackery, two medicine chests, three sets of Hessian crucibles used +in a pioneer drugstore in Colorado, a drunkometer, mineral ores, and +purely produced chemical elements. + +[Illustration: Figure 16.--A RARE, ANTWERP, 16th-century drug jar in the +Squibb collection deposited by the American Pharmaceutical Association.] + +In the spring of 1948, Associate Curator Whitebread retired after 30 +years of service with the U.S. National Museum. He was a pioneer in the +field of health museums and during his curatorship had developed a +moribund section into a Division of field-wide importance. Dr. +Whitebread was succeeded by George S. Thomas, also a pharmacist, who +served as associate curator from August 1948 until early 1952. + +[Illustration: Figure 17.--THE APOTHECARY SHOP as seen in the Arts and +Industries building (1946-1964). (_Courtesy of the American +Pharmaceutical Association._)] + +[Illustration: Figure 18.--VIEW OF THE LABORATORY AND STUDY ROOM of the +apothecary shop. On the left, the German-Swiss bronze mortar and pestle +(1686) sign and above it an 18th-century German painting on canvas of +Christ, "the apothecary of the soul." The drug containers represent "the +fruits of the spirit," faith, patience, charity, etc., and the scales +represent justice. Underneath is the verse from Matthew, 11:28, "Come +unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you +rest." (_Courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association._)] + +During his almost-three and a half years of service, Thomas acquired +hearing-aid appliances from which he designed an exhibit on the +development of these aids, surgical sutures, early samples of +Aureomycin, and a static-electricity machine made by Henkel about 1840. +He also published three short articles under the title, "Now and Then," +in the _National Capital Pharmacist_ (1950), no. 1, pp. 8-9; no. 2, pp. +18-19, 29; and no. 3, pp. 15-16. In early 1952, Dr. Arthur O. Morton +presented to the Division, a Swiss-made keratometer which he had +purchased in 1907, and it is believed to be one of the first used in the +United States to measure the curves of the cornea. + +The achievements of the Division reached their highest point, thus far, +in significantly increasing the national collection, as well as in +contributing to the scientific, historical, and professional literature, +under the curatorships of George B. Griffenhagen (December 8, 1952, to +June 27, 1959) and John B. Blake (July 1, 1957, to September 2, 1961). +Their reorganization of exhibits and collections, their competence and +industry, fulfilled the hopes, plans, and purposes laid down by earlier +curators for the Division. + +Immediately after assuming the responsibilities of the Division and +throughout 1953, Mr. Griffenhagen (M.S. in pharmaceutical chemistry from +the University of Southern California) undertook to develop the +collections still further. He increased the emphasis not only on +historical pharmacy, but also on medicine, surgery, and dentistry. He +also renovated the exhibits in the medical gallery. + +In 1954, several antibiotics were donated to the Division including a +mold of _Penicillium notatum_ prepared and presented to the Smithsonian +Institution by Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955), the discoverer of +penicillium (1929), and a few Petri dishes used by botanist Benjamin M. +Daggar who, while working for Lederle Laboratories, developed Aureomycin +(chlortetracycline) in 1948. The Forest D. Dodrill--G.M.R. mechanical +heart (1952), the first machine reported to be used successfully for the +complete bypass of one side of the human heart during a surgical +operation,[17] was presented to the Smithsonian Institution. + +The following year, 1955, the Division acquired one of the earliest +Einthoven string galvanometers (named after the Dutch physiologist Willem +Einthoven, 1860-1927) made in the United States in 1914 by Charles F. +Hindle for an electrocardiograph. Also added to the Division's +collections was the electrocardiograph used by Dr. Frank E. Wilson of +the United States, a pioneer educator in this field. Two temporary +exhibits on allergy and surgical dressings were installed in the +gallery. In the same year, Curator Griffenhagen published _Early +American Pharmacies_, a catalog on 28 pharmacy restorations in this +country. + +In 1956, among many publications of interest in the fields of medical +and pharmaceutical history, was Curator Griffenhagen's _Pharmacy +Museum_, with a foreword by Laurence V. Coleman, who termed it a useful +catalog and "a good reflection of the history of the museum movement at +large." A third x-ray tube of Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen (1845-1922) was +added to the collection in 1957 as well as a complete set of +hospital-ward fixtures of about 1900 from the Massachusetts General +Hospital, rare patent medicines, 18th-century microscopes, and a +13th-century mortar and pestle made in Persia. + +In 1957, Mr. Griffenhagen published a series of illustrated articles in +the _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical +Pharmacy Edition_, which were later reprinted by the Association in a +booklet entitled, _Tools of the Apothecary_. In it, he described several +pharmaceutical specimens in the collection and their place in history. + + + + +Division of Medical Sciences (1957 to Present) + +The U.S. National Museum was reorganized on July 1, 1957, into two +units, the Natural History Museum and the Museum of History and +Technology. At the same time, and in view of the widening scope of the +Division, its more scientifically based planning, and the constantly +increasing collection with equal emphasis on all branches of the healing +arts, the Division's title was changed to the Division of Medical +Sciences--the title it still bears in 1964. With the reorganization, the +Department of Engineering and Industries, under which the Division fell +administratively, was renamed the Department of Science and Technology +of the Museum of History and Technology. It was also the first time +since its establishment in 1881 that the Division had two curators, for +on July 1, 1957, Dr. John B. Blake joined the staff. + +[Illustration: Figure 19.--CURATORS JOHN B. BLAKE AND GEORGE +GRIFFENHAGEN examine the newly acquired (1957) electromagnetic, +Morton-Wimshurst-Holz Influence Machine. It was manufactured by the +Bowen Company of Providence, Rhode Island (1889). With the discovery of +x-ray, it was used for making x-ray photographs until early in the 20th +century.] + +As a result of these changes, the Division was subdivided into a Section +of Pharmaceutical History and Health and a Section of Medical and Dental +History. The former was planned to encompass the collections of _materia +medica_, pharmaceutical equipment, and all material related to the +history of pharmacy, toxicology, pharmacology, and biochemistry, as well +as the Hall of Health which was opened November 2, 1957, and which +emphasizes man's progressing knowledge of his body and the functions of +its major organs.[18] The latter Section was planned to include all that +belongs to the development of surgery, medicine, dentistry, and nursing, +especially in relation to hospitals. + +In October 1957, the Division acquired a collection of rare, ceramic, +drug jars which included two, 13th-century, North Syrian and Persian, +albarello-shaped, majolica jars; a 15th-century, Hispano-Moresque drug +container; and a 16th-century, Italian faience, dragon-spout ewer. +During the following two years, Curator Griffenhagen periodically toured +museums and medical and pharmaceutical institutions in this country, +South America, and Europe gathering specimens and information for the +Division and for publication, respectively. However, on June 27, 1959, +he resigned his curatorship to join the staff of the American +Pharmaceutical Association in Washington, D.C. Dr. Blake became the +curator in charge of the Division and Mr. Griffenhagen was succeeded on +September 24, 1959, by the author of this paper as associate curator in +charge of the Section of Pharmaceutical History and Health. + +Dr. Blake, as curator of the Section of Medical and Dental History, +acquired a large number of valuable and varied specimens for the +Division's collections. They included optometric refracting instruments, +an early 1920's General Electric, portable, x-ray machine, the Charles +A. Lindbergh and Alexis Carrel pump (designed in 1935 to perfuse +life-sustaining fluids to the organs of the body), the Sewell heart pump +(1950) to control delivery of air pressure and suction to the pumping +mechanism, and a large and valuable collection of dental equipment +formerly at the universities of Pennsylvania and Illinois. Dr. Blake +wrote the explanatory material and supervised the design and production +of the majority of exhibits in the renovated hall of medical and dental +history. He also contributed several scholarly articles and a book (see +bibliography) on the history of the healing arts and public health in +particular. He resigned on September 2, 1961, to join the staff of the +National Library of Medicine as chief of the History of Medicine +Division, and was succeeded by the author as curator of the Division. +From the summer of 1962 to April 1964, the Division benefited from the +expert advice of Dr. Alfred R. Henderson as consultant in the +preparation and designing of the surgical and medical exhibits of the +Museum of History and Technology. + +During the period from 1961 to May 1964, the Division's collections +expanded greatly through its medical, dental, and pharmaceutical +acquisitions. Specimens of antiques acquired from 1961 through 1963 +numbered up to 1,539 and included gifts from leading institutions and +individual philanthropists. The scope of these gifts and acquisitions +ranges from electronic resuscitators, microscopes, x-ray equipment, and +spectacles, to patent medicines, amulets, apothecary tools, dental +instruments, and office material of practitioners. + +[Illustration: Figure 20.--EXHIBIT ON SPECTACLES, LORGNETTES, +OPTOMETERS, and refraction, completed in 1960. It features a cross +section of the Division's large collection of eyeglasses. (Smithsonian +photo 47943-D.)] + +In the last decade, the interest in the national endeavor for promoting +research and scholarship in the history of medicine has increased +greatly. It was most appropriate, therefore, for the Smithsonian +Institution to play host on May 2 for two sessions of the 37th annual +meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine held in +the Washington, D.C., area from April 30 through May 2, 1964. In +welcoming the members to the morning session in the auditorium of the +new Museum of History and Technology, Frank A. Taylor, director of the +United States National Museum, expressed the feeling that the meeting of +the Association was, in a sense, a dedication of the new auditorium and +an opportunity for the Smithsonian to reaffirm its deep interest and +commitment in fostering research and furthering the appreciation of +scholarly endeavor in the history of the healing arts. + + + + +A New Dimension For the Healing Arts + +"One day the United States will have a National Museum of science, +engineering, and industry, as most large nations have." This was the +prediction made in 1946 by the director of the U.S. National Museum, Mr. +Frank A. Taylor, then curator of the Division of Engineering.[19] It was +in 1963, that the new $36,000,000 building of the Museum of History +and Technology was completed, and opened to the public in 1964. The +offices of the Division of Medical Sciences as well as the reference and +study collections were moved to the fifth floor of the new building. The +exhibits, however, will be displayed in the gallery at the southwest +corner of the first floor. These exhibits, it is hoped, will show a new +dimension and an unprecedented approach in displaying the development of +the healing arts throughout the ages and the instruments and equipment +associated with health professions. They also present the expanding +objectives and plans of the Division's growth as an integral part of the +Smithsonian Institution. Conveniently, the exhibits form four, closely +connected halls in one large gallery which will be open to the public in +the summers of 1965 to 1966. + +[Illustration: Figure 21.--EXHIBIT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF BLOOD-PRESSURE +INSTRUMENTS and the early 20th-century sphygmomanometers which was +completed in 1960. (Smithsonian photo 47943-M.)] + +1. THE HALL OF HEALTH displays models and graphic and historical exhibit +materials to demonstrate the function of the various healthy organs of +the human body. The main topics emphasized are: embryology and +childbirth; tooth structure; the heart and blood circulation; +respiration; the endocrine glands; kidneys and the urinary-excretory +system; the brain and the nervous system; the ear; and vision and the +use of eyeglasses. + +The most appreciated exhibit of all in this Hall is the "transparent +woman" figure which rotates, automatically, every 15 minutes with a +recorded message describing the function of each major organ of the body +at the same time that the organ is electronically lighted, so that the +viewer can see its place in the body. + +[Illustration: Figure 22.--HEARING-AID EXHIBIT designed in 1962. It +includes otologist Julius Lempert's personal memorabilia and original +surgical instruments used in the fenestration operation for restoring +hearing. (Smithsonian photo 49345-C.)] + +2. THE HALL OF MEDICINE AND DENTISTRY will depict the history of these +two sciences with exhibits of the equipment used through the centuries. +In the medical field, early trephining and other surgical instruments +will be displayed along with a diorama of an 1805 surgical operation +performed by Dr. Philip Syng Physick in the amphitheater of the +Pennsylvania Hospital. Diagnostic instruments such as stethoscopes, +endoscopes, speculums, and blood-pressure measuring devices will be +exhibited with a series of microscopes illustrating the development of +these instruments. Exhibits of original galvanometers and other +apparatus will trace the development of cardiography. The early use of +anesthesia will be shown by apparatus of William Morton and Crawford W. +Long, American pioneers in this field. The development of the devices of +modern medicine and surgery will be shown by exhibits of the iron lung +and x-ray tubes, including a tube used by W. K. Roentgen. Medicine +chests and surgical kits of different periods will graphically summarize +the state of medical science in the period each represents. + +Exhibits on the development of dentistry and dental surgery will display +examples of tooth-filling and extracting tools, drilling apparatus from +the early hand and foot engines to the first ultrasonic cutting +instrument (1954), and the original contra-angle, hydraulic and +air-turbine handpiece model[20] which revolutionized the field of +instrumentation for dental surgery (with speeds of 200,000 to 400,000 +rpm). This hydraulic turbine of Dr. Robert J. Nelson and associates of +the National Bureau of Standards set the design pattern for the +remarkable and successful high-speed, air-turbine handpiece developed by +Paul H. Tanner and Oscar P. Nagel of the U.S. Naval Dental School in +1956. Also underway is the reconstruction of the offices of famous +dentists such as G. V. Black and the father of American orthodontia, +Edward H. Angle, using their original equipment and instruments. In +addition, an exhibit is planned to include x-ray tubes and the electric +dental engine, the first to be operated in a human mouth by the pioneer +dentist on dental skiagraphy, Charles E. Kells (1856-1928).[21] + +[Illustration: Figure 23.--EXHIBIT ON NURSING BOTTLES and measures to +promote child health to counteract the once-common diseases of +childhood. This display was completed in 1962. (Smithsonian photo +49345-G.)] + +3. THE HALL OF PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORY will feature exhibits on the +reconstruction of two pharmacy shops: an 18th-century apothecary shop, +originally from Germany, with a very elegant collection of drug jars, +decorated medicinal bottles, balances, mortars and pestles, and other +tools and documents pertaining to the apothecary art, and a late +19th-century American drugstore with shelves filled with patent +medicines and drug containers of various sizes and shapes. The window +will also feature symbols of pharmacy and beautiful show globes. +Displays will show the development of antibiotics and the early tools +used in the manufacture of the so-called "miracle drugs," including a +mold from Sir Alexander Fleming, the discoverer of penicillin. In +addition, a platform will be reconstructed to display a variety of +pharmaceutical apparatus used in the preparation and manufacture of +drugs, such as tablet and capsule machines and drug mills and +percolators. Recently, with the assistance of Professor Glenn +Sonnedecker, the Division acquired a fine collection of pharmaceutical +equipment and devices from the School of Pharmacy of the University of +Wisconsin. + +[Illustration: Figure 24.--THE ORIGINS OF DRUGS from the three natural +kingdoms, drug synthesis, and the increase in the manufacture of +vitamins. This display was completed in 1962 and is now on display at +the Museum of History and Technology. (Smithsonian photo P6316.)] + +Since the Division houses the largest collection of _materia medica_ in +the country, a representative cross section of crude drugs will be +displayed in alphabetical order as well as a display illustrating the +role of cinchona and antimalarial drugs in the fight against disease. An +exhibit will portray the "origin of drugs" from the three natural +kingdoms, animal, vegetable, and mineral, together with synthetic drugs +including the manufacture of vitamins. + +Plans are being made for an elaborate exhibit of weights and balances +used in many countries throughout the centuries, their impact on +accuracy of dosage and weighing of drugs, and their use in the +apothecary art. + +The Division will also display pictorial and printed materials, as well +as artifacts from all periods and all countries. These collections are +intended to help in presenting a more complete picture of the story of +the medical sciences for educational purposes and research, and to +increase man's knowledge in fighting disease and promoting health. + +Thus, from a few hundred specimens of crude drugs in the Section of +Materia Medica of 83 years ago, there has developed a Museum Division +today which embraces the evolution of the health professions through the +ages. This Division now has the largest collection in the Western +Hemisphere of historical objects which are related to the healing arts. +The reference collections are available to the researcher and scholar, +and the exhibits are intended for pleasure and educational purposes in +these fields. The plans for expansion have no limitation as we keep pace +with man's progress in the medical sciences and continue to collect +materials that contributed to the historical development in the fight +against diseases and the attempts to secure better health for everyone. + + + + +Footnotes: + +[1] _Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian +Institution for the Year 1882_ [hereinafter referred to as the +_Smithsonian Annual Report_], pp. 101-103; and introductory +"advertisement" to the lectures published by the Smithsonian Institution +in its Miscellaneous Collections (see bibliography). + +[2] Dr. J. J. Woodward's lecture explained the progress of medical +knowledge of morbid growth and cancerous tumors from 1865 to 1872. It +cautioned that uncertain methods of diagnosis at that time allowed +charlatans and uneducated practitioners to report cures of cancer in +instances where nonmalignant growths were "removed by their caustic +pastes and plasters." + +[3] The two longest intervals were in preparing the last two lectures: +the ninth in 1884, and the tenth, 1889. Both came after the +establishment in 1881 of the Section of Materia Medica in the U.S. +National Museum, to display the development and progress of the health +professions. + +[4] _Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the year 1883_, pp. +190, 614-615. + +[5] For classifying chemical compounds, Dr. Flint relied on the work of +H. E. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmez, _A Treatise on Chemistry_, 2 vols. (New +York: D. Appleton, 1878-1800.) + +[6] _Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the year 1882_, vol. +2, part 2, pp. 100, 228, 656-657. Dr. Flint in his article "Report on +Pharmacopoeias of All Nations," ibid., pp. 655-680, remarks that there +were then 19 official pharmacopoeias in the world, besides three +semiofficial formularies in certain localities in Italy. The +pharmacopoeias collected represent Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, +Great Britain, Greece, Holland, India, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Spain, +Sweden, Switzerland (two), and the United States. + +[7] The _Universal Formulary_, by R. Eglesfeld Griffith, first edited in +March 1850 (3rd ed. rev. and enlarged by John M. Maisch, Philadelphia: +Lea, 1874) should not be considered an international drug standard. It +was mainly concerned with compiling a great number of formulas and +recipes, methods of preparing and administering official and other +medicines, and tables on weights and measures for utilization by the +U.S. practitioners of the time. + +[8] Other elaborate arrangements were also made to improve and expand +the Section's activities and services, though some have never +materialized. For example, a herbarium was suggested from which +specimens could be obtained for display of the actual drug with painted +pictures of its plant next to it. Consideration was given to displaying +enlarged drawings to show the minute structure of the specimen for +better identification. In addition, an exhibition of several 10-liter +vessels of the most popular mineral waters was planned. The amount of +saline substances which analysis had shown to be present in each vessel +was to be listed in a table to be attached to that vessel, or the same +amount of minerals was to be put in a small bottle beside it. This plan +was carried out to the best advantage at the Cotton States and +International Exposition held in 1895 in Atlanta, Georgia. + +[9] HOLT, "A Sketch of the Development of the Rockefeller Institute for +Medical Research," p. 1. A similar comment was voiced by GALDSTON, +"Research in the United States," p. 366. + +[10] _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association_ (1918), vol. +7, pp. 376-377, 466. + +[11] Two decades later, Dr. Whitebread designed a panel showing +photographs of famous medical pioneers of all nationalities. See his +article, "The Odd Origin of Medical Discoveries," p. 321. + +[12] GEBHARD, "From Medicine Show to Health Museum," p. 579. The +original plan for this Hall of Health was to feature exhibits on public +health for popular educational purposes, including an illustrated +exhibit on hospital care. See FOLEY, "Smithsonian Institution Devotes +Much Space to Hospital Exhibit," pp. 43-44. + +[13] Lack of space notwithstanding, valuable accessions were added about +1930, including a collection of early x-ray tubes and personal +memorabilia of Drs. William T. G. Morton (1819-1868), Crawford W. Long +(1815-1878), and William Gorgas (1854-1920). + +[14] D. RILEY MOORE published a series of short reports under the title +"Committee on Osteopathic Exhibits in the U.S. National Museum," in the +_Journal of the American Osteopathic Association_ (1933-1946), vols. +33-46, regarding the exhibit on osteopathy. + +[15] [KLEIN], "He Directs Pharmacy Exhibits at the Smithsonian +Institution," pp. 20-21. + +[16] Several other journals reported the exhibition with illustrations: +_Drug Topics_ (July 8, 1946), vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 2, 79; _National +Capital Pharmacist_ (September 1945), vol. 7, p. 11, and (September +1946), vol. 8, pp. 11-13; and _The Scientific Monthly_ (November 1952), +vol. 75, p. 268. + +[17] DODRILL, and others, "Temporary Mechanical Substitution for the +Left Ventricle in Man," pp. 642-644, and "Pulmonary Volvuloplasty under +Direct Vision using the Mechanical Heart for a Complete Bypass of the +Right Heart in a Patient with Congenital Pulmonary Stenosis," pp. +584-595. + +[18] For the design, expert arrangement of the exhibits, and the legends +that accompany each exhibit in the Hall of Health, we are indebted to +Drs. Bruno Gebhard, Richards H. Shryock, Thomas G. Hull, James Laster, +Walle J. H. Nauta, Leslie W. Knott, Theodore Wiprud, and other +physicians, dentists, and scholars who have offered their advice, +assistance, and expert skills. + +[19] TAYLOR, "A National Museum of Science, Engineering and Industry," +p. 359. + +[20] NELSON, PELANDER, and KUMPULA, "Hydraulic Turbine, Contra-angle +Handpiece," pp. 324-329. + +[21] MONELL, "Dental Skiagraphy," pp. 313-336. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + + The _Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian + Institution_ from 1872 to date and the _Proceedings of the + United States National Museum_ from 1881 to date were used + extensively as sources in this survey. In the latter, see in + particular, the year 1881, pp. 545-546; 1882, pp. 1-2; and 1884, + pp. 431-475. + +ATKINSON, WILLIAM B. _The physicians and surgeons of the United States._ +Philadelphia, 1878. [On Dr. Toner.] + +BLAKE, JOHN B. Dental history and the Smithsonian Institution. _Journal +of the American College of Dentists_ (1961), vol. 28, pp. 125-127. + +---- _Public health in the town of Boston, 1630-1822._ Cambridge, Mass.: +Harvard University Press, 1959. + +[BRAISTED, WILLIAM C.] The biography of Dr. Beyer. Page 94 in +_Dictionary of American medical biography_, by HOWARD A. KELLY and +WALTER L. BURRAGE; NEW YORK: D. Appleton and Co., 1928. + +CLARK, LEILA F. The library of the Smithsonian Institution. _Science_ +(1946), vol. 104, p. 143. + +COLEMAN, LAURENCE VAIL. _The museum in America: A critical study._ 3 +vols. Baltimore: Waverly Press, 1939. [Printed for the American +Association of Museums, Washington, D.C.] See vol. 1, pp. 3, 11-12, +32-33, 143-146, 222, 318; vol. 3, p. 471. + +DAUKES, S. H. _The medical museum: modern developments, organization and +technical methods based on a new system of visual teaching._ London: +Wellcome Foundation Ltd., 1929. + +DODRILL, FOREST D., and others. Pulmonary volvuloplasty under direct +vision using the mechanical heart for a complete bypass of the right +heart in a patient with congenital pulmonary stenosis. _Journal of +Thoracic Surgery_ (1953), vol. 26, pp. 584-595. + +---- Temporary mechanical substitution for the left ventricle in man. +_Journal of the American Medical Association_ (1952), vol. 150, pp. +642-644. + +DUNGLISON, ROBLEY. _A dictionary of medical science._ Rev. ed. Pp. +629-630. Philadelphia: Lea, 1874. + +EDWARDS, J. J., and EDWARDS, M. J. _Medical museum technology._ London: +Oxford University Press, 1959. [See in particular, pp. 33-62, 142-159.] + +FERCHL, FRITZ. Die Mörser der Sammlung Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; Libri rari +et curiosi der Sammlung Dr. Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; Bildnisse und Bilder +der Sammlung Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; Kuriositäten und Antiquitäten der +Sammlung Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; and Gläser, Majoliken und Faensen der +Sammlung Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden. _Pharmazeutische Zeitung_ (Berlin, 1930), +vol. 75: January 4, no. 2, pp. 19-24; February 15, no. 14, pp. 219-223; +March 8, no. 20, pp. 309-314; April 19, no. 32, pp. 487-489; and June +21, no. 50, pp. 735-740. + +FLINT, JAMES M. Classification and arrangement of the materia medica +collection. _Proceedings of the United States National Museum_ (1881), +vol. 4, app. no. 6. + +---- Classification of the materia medica collection of the United +States National Museum, and catalogue of specimens. _Proceedings of the +United States National Museum_ (1883), vol. 6, app. 19, pp. 431-475. + +---- Directions for collecting information and objects illustrating the +history of medicine. Part S of _Bulletin of the United States National +Museum_ (1905). No. 39. + +---- Memoranda for collectors of drugs for the materia medica section of +the National Museum. _Proceedings of the United States National Museum_ +(1881), vol. 4, app. 8. + +FOLEY, MATTHEW O. Smithsonian Institution devotes much space to hospital +exhibit. _Hospital Management_ (April 1929), pp. 271-287. + +GALDSTON, IAGO. Research in the United States. _Ciba Symposia_ +(June-July 1946), vol. 8, nos. 3 and 4, p. 366. + +GARRISON, FIELDING H. _An introduction to the history of medicine._ 2d +ed. p. 38. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1917. + +GEBHARD, BRUNO. From medicine show to health museum. _Ciba Symposia_ +(March 1947), vol. 8, no. 12, p. 579. + +GOODE, GEORGE BROWN. _The Smithsonian Institution (1846-1896): The +history of its first half century._ Pp. 325-329, 362-363. Washington, +1897. + +GRIFFENHAGEN, GEORGE. _Pharmacy museums._ Madison, Wis.: American +Institute of the History of Pharmacy, 1956. + +---- and HUGHES, CALVIN H. The history of the mechanical heart. _Annual +report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the +year ended June 30, 1955_ (Washington, 1956), pp. 339-356. + +HAMARNEH, SAMI. At the Smithsonian ... exhibits on pharmaceutical dosage +forms. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association_ (1962), new +ser., vol. 2, pp. 478-479. + +----For the collector, facts and artifacts. _Pharmacy in History_ +(1961), vol. 6, p. 48. + +---- Historical and educational exhibits on dentistry at the Smithsonian +Institution. _Journal of the American-Dental Association_ (July 1962), +vol. 65, pp. 111-114. + +---- New dental exhibits at the Smithsonian Institution. _Journal of the +American Dental Association_ (May 1963), vol. 66, pp. 676-678. + +HAYNES, WILLIAM. Out of alchemy into chemistry. _The Scientific Monthly_ +(November 1952), vol. 75, p. 268. + +HOLT, L. EMMETT. A sketch of the development of the Rockefeller +Institute for Medical Research. _Science_ (July 6, 1906), new ser., vol. +24, no. 601, p. 1. + +HOWELL, WILLIAM H. The American Physiological Society during its first +twenty-five years. Pp. 21-22 [biography of Dr. Beyer] in _History of the +American Physiological Society semicentennial, 1881-1937_; Baltimore, +1938. + +[KLEIN, ALLEN.] He directs pharmacy exhibits at the Smithsonian +Institution. _Modern Pharmacy_ (July 1941), vol. 25, pp. 20-21. + +LAWALL, CHARLES H. Ancient pharmacy on display. _Pacific Drug Review_ +(1933), vol. 45, p. 18. + +---- _The curious lore of drugs and medicines._ Garden City, N.Y.: +Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., 1927. [See p. 453 on Division of +Medical Sciences' collection.] + +LEWTON, FREDERICK L. A national pharmaceutical collection. _Journal of +the American Pharmaceutical Association_ (1919), vol. 8, pp. 45-46. + +---- The opportunity for developing historical pharmacy collections at +the National Museum. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical +Association_ (1917), vol. 6, pp. 259-262. + +LONG, ESMOND R. The Army Medical Museum. _Military Medicine_ (May 1963), +vol. 128, pp. 367-369. + +MONELL, S. H. "Dental Skiagraphy" (pp. 313-336 in _A system in x-ray +methods and medical uses of light hot-air, vibration and high-frequency +currents_ by Monell; New York: Pelton, 1902). + +MURRAY, DAVID. _Museums, their history and their use._ Glasgow: +MacLehose, 1904. [See vol. 1, pp. 13-77.] + +NELSON, ROBERT J.; PELANDER, CARL E.; and KUMPULA, JOHN W. Hydraulic +turbine, contra-angle handpiece. _Journal of the American Dental +Association_ (September 1953), vol. 47, pp. 324-329. + +_Official Catalogue of the Cotton States and International Exposition_: +Atlanta, Georgia, September 18 to December 31, 1895. Atlanta: Claflin +and Mellichamp, 1895. [See p. 204.] + +PACKARD, FRANCES R. _History of medicine in the United States._ New +York, 1931. [See vol. 1, pp. 5-6, 37-51, 168-176, 602-607 on Dr. Toner.] + +PICKARD, MADGE E. Government and science in the United States: +Historical background. _Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied +Sciences_ (1946), vol. 1, nos. 2 and 3, pp. 265-266, 289, 446-447, 478. + +PURTLE, HELEN R. Notes on the Medical Museum of the Armed Forces +Institute of Pathology. _Bulletin of the Medical Library Association_ +(1956), vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 300-305. + +RATHBUN, RICHARD. _A descriptive account of the building recently +erected for the Departments of Natural History of the United States +National Museum._ (U.S. National Museum Bulletin 80.) Washington, 1913. +[See pp. 7-15.] + +RHEES, WILLIAM J. _The Smithsonian Institution; documents relative to +its origin and history, 1835-1899._ 2 vols. (Smithsonian Miscellaneous +Collections: vol. 42, _1835-1881_; vol. 43, _1881-1899_.) Washington, +1901. + +SHUFELDT, R. W. Suggestions for a national museum of medicine. _Medical +Record_ (March 22, 1919), pp. 4-5. [Also reprinted, 1919, by William +Wood and Co., New York.] + +SIGERIST, HENRY E. _Primitive and archaic medicine._ (Vol. 1 of _A +history of medicine_, by Sigerist.) New York: Oxford University Press, +1951. [See pp. 525-531.] + +SILVER, EDWIN H. Description of the exhibit on conservation of vision +placed in the United States Museum at Washington, D.C. _The Optical +Journal and Review of Optometry_ (February 3, 1927), vol. 59, no. 5, pp. +39-40. + +[SONNEDECKER, GLENN.] Apothecary shop nears completion. _Journal of the +American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1946), +vol. 7, pp. 157. + +---- Dr. Charles Whitebread, pharmacist and museum curator. _Journal of +the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ +(1946), vol. 7, p. 203. + +---- Old apothecary shop. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical +Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1945), vol. 6, pp. 184-187. + +---- Old apothecary shop opened. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical +Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1946), vol. 7, p. 427. + +TAYLOR, FRANK A. A national museum of science, engineering and industry. +_The Scientific Monthly_ (1946), vol. 63, pp. 359. + +---- The background of the Smithsonian's Museum of Engineering and +Industries. _Science_ (1946), vol. 104, no. 2693, pp. 130-132. + +Toner Lectures: + + 1. J. J. WOODWARD. On the structure of cancerous tumors and the + mode in which adjacent parts are invaded. No. 266 in _Smithsonian + Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture + given on March 28, 1873.] + + 2. C. E. BROWN-SÉQUARD. Dual character of the brain. No. 291 in + _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15; Washington, + 1878. [Lecture given on April 22, 1874.] + + 3. J. M. DA COSTA. On strain and over-action of the heart. No. + 279 in _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15; + Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on May 14, 1874.] + + 4. H. C. WOOD. A study of the nature and mechanism of fever. No. + 282 in _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15; + Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on January 20, 1875.] + + 5. WILLIAM W. KEEN. On the surgical complications and sequels of + the continued fevers. No. 300 in _Smithsonian Miscellaneous + Collections_, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on + February 17, 1876.] + + 6. WILLIAM ADAMS. Subcutaneous surgery: Its principles, and its + recent extension in practice. No. 302 in _Smithsonian + Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture + given on September 13, 1876.] + + 7. EDWARD O. SHAKESPEARE. The nature of reparatory inflammation + in arteries after ligatures, acupressure, and torsion. No. 321 in + _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 16; Washington, + 1880. [Lecture given on June 27, 1878.] + + 8. GEORGE E. WARING. Suggestions for the sanitary drainage of + Washington City. No. 349 in _Smithsonian Miscellaneous + Collections_, vol. 26; Washington, 1883. [Lecture given on May + 26, 1880.] + + 9. CHARLES K. MILLS. Mental over-work and premature disease among + public and professional men. No. 594 in _Smithsonian + Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 34; Washington, 1893. [Lecture + given on March 19, 1884.] + + 10. HARRISON ALLEN. A clinical study of the skull. No. 708 in + _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 34; Washington, + 1893. [Lecture given on May 29, 1889.] + +TRUE, WEBSTER P. _The Smithsonian Institution._ (Vol. 1 of the +Smithsonian Scientific Series.) Washington, 1929. + +URDANG, GEORGE, and NITARDY, F. W. _The Squibb ancient pharmacy._ New +York, 1940. [Out of print, but remaining catalogs were given to the +Division of Medicine to "be reserved for pharmaceutical educators, +foreign dignitaries, pharmacists of national and international +reputation, and pharmaceutical historians," according to a letter from +Mr. Nitardy in 1945.] + +WHITEBREAD, CHARLES. Animal pharmaceuticals of the past and present. +_Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association_ (1933), vol. 22, +pp. 431-437. + +---- An old apothecary shop of 1750. _National Capital Pharmacist_ +(September 1946), vol. 8, pp. 11-13, 35. + +---- Early American pharmaceutical inventions. _Journal of the American +Pharmaceutical Association_ (1937), vol. 26, pp. 918-928. + +---- _Handbook of the health exhibits of the United +States National Museum._ Baltimore: Lord Baltimore Press [1924]. + +---- Health superstitions. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical +Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1942), vol. 3, pp. 268-274. + +---- Medicine making as depicted by museum dioramas. _Journal of the +American Pharmaceutical Association_ (January 1936), vol. 25, pp. 40-46. + +---- Superstition, credulity and skepticism. _Journal of the American +Pharmaceutical Association_ (1933), vol. 22, pp. 1140-1145. + +---- The Indian medical exhibit of the Division of Medicine in the +United States National Museum. Article 10 in vol. 67 of _Proceedings of +the U.S. National Museum_; Washington, 1926. + +---- The magic, psychic, ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman medical +collections of the Division of Medicine in the United States National +Museum. Article 15 in vol. 65 of _Proceedings of the U.S. National +Museum_; Washington, 1925. + +---- The odd origin of medical discoveries. _Journal of the American +Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1943), vol. 4, +p. 321. + +---- The United States National Museum pharmaceutical collection, its +aims, problems, and accomplishments. _Journal of the American +Pharmaceutical Association_ (1930), vol. 19, pp. 1125-1126. + +WINTERS, S. R. Magic medicine. _Hygeia_ (July 1937), vol. 15, pp. +630-633. + + +U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1964 + +For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing +Office Washington, D.C., 20402. Price 30 cents. + + + + +_Index_ + + +Angle, Edward H., 295 + + +Beyer, Dr. Henry Gustav, 275, 276 + +Black, G. V., 295 + +Blake, John B., 290, 291 + +Boyd, John C., 276 + + +Carrel, Alexis, 291 + +Coleman, Laurence V., 290 + +Colton, Arthur, and Company, 278 + + +Dagger, Benjamin M., 290 + +Dixon, William S., 276 + +Dodrill, Forest D., 290 + +Donner, Joseph, 277 + + +Einthoven, Willem, 290 + +Emerson, John Haven, 285 + + +Ferchl, Fritz, 285 + +Fischelis, Robert P., 287 + +Fleming, Sir Alexander, 290, 295 + +Flint, James Milton, 273 + + +Garfield, James A., 272 + +Garrison, Fielding H., 277 + +Goode, G. Brown, 273 + +Gravatt, C. U., 276 + +Griffenhagen, George B., 290, 291 + + +Hammond, William Alexander, 273 + +Henderson, Alfred R., 291 + +Henkel, Silon, 290 + +Hindle, Charles F., 290 + +Holt, L. Emmett, 276 + + +Kells, Charles E., 295 + +Koett, Albert B., 287 + + +LaWall, Charles H., 285 + +Lederle Laboratories, 290 + +Lewton, Frederick L., 277 + +Lilly, Eli, and Company, 283 + +Lindbergh, Charles A., 291 + +Long, Crawford W., 294 + + +Marmion, R. A., 276 + +Mayer, Jo, 285 + +McMurtrie, Daniel, 276 + +Morton, Arthur O., 290 + +Morton, William, 294 + + +Nagel, Oscar P., 295 + +Nelson, Robert J., 295 + + +Parke, Davis & Company, 273 + +Physick, Philip Syng, 294 + + +Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad, 290, 294 + + +Schieffelin and Company, 273 + +Sonnedecker, Glenn, 296 + +Squibb, E. R., and Sons, 285, 286 + + +Tanner, Paul H., 295 + +Taylor, Frank A., 292 + +Thomas, George S., 287 + +Toner, Joseph Meredith, 271 + + +Wallace Brothers, 273 + +Wetmore, Dr. Alexander, 287 + +White, C. H., 276 + +Whitebread, Charles, 277, 278, 281, 283, 285, 287 + +Wilson, Frank E., 290 + + + + + * * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + The following typographical erros have been corrected: + + P. 277 'the basis of scientific, historical'--was 'the bases of + scientific, historical' + + P. 287 'purely produced chemical elements'--was 'purely produced, + chemical elements' + + P. 290 'string galvanometers (named'--was 'string galvanometer- + (named.' + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE DIVISION OF MEDICAL +SCIENCES*** + + +******* This file should be named 27932-8.txt or 27932-8.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/7/9/3/27932 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: History of the Division of Medical Sciences</p> +<p> United States National Museum Bulletin 240, Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, paper 43, 1964</p> +<p>Author: Sami Khalaf Hamarneh</p> +<p>Release Date: January 29, 2009 [eBook #27932]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE DIVISION OF MEDICAL SCIENCES***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3>E-text prepared by Colin Bell, Louise Pattison, Joseph Cooper,<br /> + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3> +<p> </p> +<div class="tnote"> + <p>This is Paper 43 from the Smithsonian Institution United + States National Museum Bulletin 240, comprising Papers 34-44, which will also be + available as a complete e-book.</p> + + <p>The front material, introduction and relevant index + entries from the Bulletin are included in each single-paper e-book.</p> + + <p><a href="#corrections_43">Corrections</a> to typographical errors are underlined + <ins class="mycorr" title="Original: like thsi">like this</ins>. Mouse over to view the original text.</p> +</div> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<h1>SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION<br /> +UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM<br /> +BULLETIN 240</h1> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/i_002.png" alt="Smithsonian Press Logo" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="right" style="clear:both;">SMITHSONIAN PRESS<br /></p> + +<p>MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY</p> + +<p style="font-size: 2em; font-weight: bold;" class="smcap">Contributions<br /> +From the<br /> +Museum<br /> +of History and<br /> +Technology</p> + +<p style="font-size: 1.25em;"><em>Papers 34-44<br /> +On Science and Technology</em></p> + +<p>SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION · WASHINGTON, D.C. 1966</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: 1.25em;"><em>Publications of the United States National Museum</em></p> + +<p>The scholarly and scientific publications of the United States National Museum +include two series, <cite>Proceedings of the United States National Museum</cite> and <cite>United States +National Museum Bulletin</cite>.</p> + +<p>In these series, the Museum publishes original articles and monographs dealing +with the collections and work of its constituent museums—The Museum of Natural +History and the Museum of History and Technology—setting forth newly acquired +facts in the fields of anthropology, biology, history, geology, and technology. Copies +of each publication are distributed to libraries, to cultural and scientific organizations, +and to specialists and others interested in the different subjects.</p> + +<p>The <cite>Proceedings</cite>, begun in 1878, are intended for the publication, in separate +form, of shorter papers from the Museum of Natural History. These are gathered +in volumes, octavo in size, with the publication date of each paper recorded in the +table of contents of the volume.</p> + +<p>In the <cite>Bulletin</cite> series, the first of which was issued in 1875, appear longer, separate +publications consisting of monographs (occasionally in several parts) and volumes +in which are collected works on related subjects. <cite>Bulletins</cite> are either octavo or +quarto in size, depending on the needs of the presentation. Since 1902 papers relating +to the botanical collections of the Museum of Natural History have been +published in the <cite>Bulletin</cite> series under the heading <cite>Contributions from the United States +National Herbarium</cite>, and since 1959, in <cite>Bulletins</cite> titled “Contributions from the Museum +of History and Technology,” have been gathered shorter papers relating to the collections +and research of that Museum.</p> + +<p>The present collection of Contributions, Papers 34-44, comprises Bulletin 240. +Each of these papers has been previously published in separate form. The year of +publication is shown on the last page of each paper.</p> + +<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Frank A. Taylor</span><br /> +<em>Director, United States National Museum</em></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span><br /> +<a name="Paper_43" id="Paper_43"></a></p> +<h1><span class="smcap">Contributions from<br />The Museum of History and Technology</span>:<br /> +<span class="smcap">Paper</span> 43<br /><br /><br /><br /> +<span class="smcap">History of the Division of Medical Sciences</span></h1> + +<p><em><span class="rnum" style="font-size: larger;">Sami Hamarneh</span></em><br /><br /><br /><br /></p> + +<p>SECTION OF MATERIA MEDICA (1881-1898) <span class="rnum"><a href="#Section_of_Materia_Medica_1881-1898">272</a></span></p> + +<p>DIVISION OF MEDICINE (1898-1939) <span class="rnum"><a href="#Division_of_Medicine_1898-1939">276</a></span></p> + +<p>DIVISION OF MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH (1939-1957) <span class="rnum"><a href="#Division_of_Medicine_and_Public_Health_1939-1957">281</a></span></p> + +<p>DIVISION OF MEDICAL SCIENCES (1957 TO PRESENT) <span class="rnum"><a href="#Division_of_Medical_Sciences_1957_to_Present">290</a></span></p> + +<p>A NEW DIMENSION FOR THE HEALING ARTS <span class="rnum"><a href="#A_New_Dimension_For_the_Healing_Arts">292</a></span></p> + +<p><a href="#FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</a></p> + +<p>BIBLIOGRAPHY <span class="rnum"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">297</a></span></p> + +<p><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <img src="images/i_270.jpg" width="600" height="428" alt="Figure 1.—Early View of the United States National Museum" title="Figure 1.—Early View of the United States National Museum." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 1.—<span class="smcap">Early View of the United States National + Museum</span>, known for the last quarter of a century as the Arts and + Industries building. Completed in 1881, it housed the Division of + Medical Sciences from its establishment in 1881 as a Section of Materia + Medica to the time of the writing of this paper. While the medical + collection remained in the Department of Arts and Industries, by the end + of June 1912 practically all other collections belonging to the fields + of natural history and anthropology were transferred to the then new + Natural History building.</p> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span><em><span class="rnum">Sami Hamarneh</span></em><br /></p> + +<h2>HISTORY of the DIVISION of MEDICAL SCIENCES<br /> + +<small><em>In The Museum of History and Technology</em></small></h2> + +<div class="blockquotn"> + <p><em>This paper traces, for the first time, the history of the + Division of Medical Sciences in the Museum of History and + Technology from its small beginnings as a section of materia + medica in 1881 to its present broad scope. The original + collection of a few hundred specimens of crude drugs which had + been exhibited at the centennial exhibition of 1876 at + Philadelphia, has now developed into the largest collection in + the Western Hemisphere of historical objects related to the + healing arts.</em></p> + + <p><span class="smcap">The Author</span>: <em>Sami Hamarneh is the curator of the Division of + Medical Sciences in the Smithsonian Institution’s Museum of + History and Technology.</em></p> +</div> + +<p>By the early 1870’s, leading figures from both the health professions +and the general public had begun to realize the necessity for having the +medical sciences represented in the Smithsonian Institution. The impetus +behind this new feeling resulted from the action of a distinguished +American physician, philanthropist, and author, Joseph Meredith Toner +(1825-1896), and came almost a decade before the integration of a new +section concerned with research and the historical and educational +aspects of the healing arts in the Smithsonian Institution.</p> + +<p>In 1872, Dr. Toner established the “Toner Lectures” to encourage efforts +towards discovering new truths “for the advancement of medical science +... for the benefit of mankind.” To finance these lectures, he provided +a fund worth approximately $3,000 to be administered by a board of +trustees consisting of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, the +Surgeon General of the U.S. Navy, the Surgeon General of the U.S. Army +(only in some years), and the president of the Medical Society of the +District of Columbia. The interest from this fund was to compensate +physicians and scholars who were to deliver “at least two annual memoirs +or essays” based on original research on some branch of the medical +sciences and containing information which had been verified “by +experiments or observations.”<a name="FNanchor_43_1" id="FNanchor_43_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<p>The Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution agreed to have these +lectures published by the Institution in its Miscellaneous Collections. +The first lecture given by the Assistant Surgeon of the U.S. Army, “On +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> Structure of Cancerous Tumors and the Mode in which Adjacent parts +are Invaded,” deserves credit even by current standards of scientific +research.<a name="FNanchor_43_2" id="FNanchor_43_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Only 10 lectures were given between 1873 and 1890 (see +bibliography), despite the recommendation for at least two every +year.<a name="FNanchor_43_3" id="FNanchor_43_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<div> + <span class="figright"><img src="images/i_272.jpg" alt="Figure 2.—Dr. Joseph M. Toner" + title="Figure 2.—Dr. Joseph M. Toner." /></span> + + <p class="caption2"><br />Figure 2.—<span class="smcap">Dr. Joseph M. Toner</span>, a leading physician in Washington, + D.C., and founder of the “Toner Lectures” for the promotion and + advancement of medical education and research. In 1873, Dr. Toner became + president of the American Medical Association and, in 1874, he became + president of the American Public Health Association. He was a physician + to St. Joseph’s Male Orphan Asylum and St. Ann’s Infants’ Asylum in + Washington, D.C. In addition, he was instrumental in establishing + Providence Hospital in the District of Columbia. He also provided a + workable plan for the American Medical Association’s library in + Washington, D.C. (1868-1871). Among his several publications are: + <cite>Contributions to the Annals of Medical Progress and Medical Education + in the United States before and during the War of Independence</cite> + (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1874) and <cite>Medical Men of the + Revolution</cite> (1876). In 1882, he donated his large library, consisting of + 44,000 books and pamphlets on topics related mainly to medicine and + history, to the Library of Congress. (<em>Photo courtesy of National + Library of Medicine.</em>)</p> +</div> + +<p style="clear:both;">A more direct factor, which not only contributed to the establishment of +a section on the healing arts, but also had a greater effect upon the +Smithsonian Institution than any other event since its founding, was the +1876 centennial exhibition in Philadelphia.</p> + +<p>This magnificent international fair commemorated the hundredth +anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The +finest exhibits of 30 foreign countries and various States of the Union +participating in the fair were finally donated to the Smithsonian +Institution as the official depository of historical and archeological +objects for this country. As a result, the Institution’s collections +increased to an extent far beyond the capacity of the first Smithsonian +building. This led to the erection of the National Museum, known for the +last two decades and until date of publication as the Arts and +Industries building, which was completed on March 4, 1881, and was used +that evening for the inaugural reception of incoming President James A. +Garfield.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h3><a name="Section_of_Materia_Medica_1881-1898" id="Section_of_Materia_Medica_1881-1898"></a>Section of Materia Medica (1881-1898)</h3> + +<p>Throughout the 19th century, the study of <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> (dealing with +the nature and properties of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> drugs of various kinds and origins, their +collection and mode of administration for the treatment of diseases, and +the medicinal utilization of animal products) held an increasingly +important place among the medical sciences. In the United States, as in +other civilized countries, this topic was greatly emphasized in the +curriculum of almost every school teaching the health professions. +Today, the subject matter contained in this branch of science is taught +under the heading of several specialized fields, such as pharmacology, +pharmacognosy, and drug analysis of various types. However, when the +decision was made in 1881 to promote greater knowledge and interest in +the healing arts by creating a section devoted to such pursuits in the +U.S. National Museum, the title of Section of Materia Medica was +adopted. Added to this, was the fact that the bulk of the first +collections received in the Section was a great variety of crude drugs, +which constituted much of the material then taught in the academic +courses of <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em>.</p> + +<p>The new Section was included in the Department of Arts and Industries, +then under the curatorship of Assistant Director G. Brown Goode. From +its beginning and for two decades, however, the Section of Materia +Medica was sponsored and supervised by the U.S. Navy in cooperation with +the Smithsonian Institution. For this reason, the Navy decided not to +establish a similar bureau for a health museum as did the Army in +starting the Medical Museum (of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology) +in 1862 through the efforts of Dr. William Alexander Hammond. The +Smithsonian did, however, provide a clerk to relieve the curator of much +of the routine work. The Section’s early vigorous activities were the +result of the ingenuity of the first honorary curator, Dr. James Milton +Flint (1838-1919), an Assistant Surgeon of the U.S. Navy. From the +establishment of the Section, in 1881, to 1912, Dr. Flint was curator +during separate periods for a total of nearly 25 years. For three of his +tenures (1881-1884; 1887-1891; 1895-1900), he was detailed to the +Smithsonian Institution by the Surgeon General of the U.S. Navy. During +the interim periods, other naval doctors were detailed as curators. +Finally, in 1900, Dr. Flint retired from the Navy with the rank of Rear +Admiral and volunteered to continue his services to the National Museum. +The proposal was gladly accepted and he continued as a curator until his +retirement from the Smithsonian Institution in 1912.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> + <img src="images/i_273.jpg" width="400" height="550" alt="Figure 3.—Rear Admiral James M. Flint" + title="Figure 3.—Rear Admiral James M. Flint." /> + <p class="caption">Figure 3.—<span class="smcap">Rear Admiral James M. Flint</span>, U.S. Navy surgeon + and first honorary curator of the Section of Materia Medica. (<em>Photo + courtesy of the Library of Congress.</em>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The Section commenced with a wealth of material. After the close of the +1876 centennial exhibition, its <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> collection had been +stored with the other collections in a warehouse, awaiting an +appropriation by Congress for transfer and installation. This collection +was gradually brought into the new National Museum after that building’s +completion in 1881. Many other <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> specimens were +transferred from the Department of Agriculture. In addition to these +large collections of crude drugs, generous contributions came from +several prominent pharmaceutical firms such as Parke, Davis & Company of +Detroit, Michigan; Wallace Brothers of Statesville, North Carolina; and +Schieffelin and Company of New York City. These manufacturing houses are +mentioned here because they and their agents abroad were the first to +take interest and donate to the Section, complete assortments of +contemporary remedial agents then in common use throughout the United +States and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> Europe, besides many hundreds of “rare and curious drugs.” Thus, in spite of difficulties encountered from bringing several +collections into the building at one time, the <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> +exhibition got off to a good start.</p> + +<p>It was Dr. Flint, the first curator, who stated in 1883 that remedial +agents used by a nation or a community are as indicative of the degree +of their cultural development and standard of living as is the nature of +their food, the character of their dwellings, and their social and +religious traditions. Therefore, he felt that collections of drugs and +medical, surgical and pharmaceutical instruments and appliances should +not be thought of or designed as instructive to the specialist only, but +should also possess a general interest for the public. Because of these +objectives, Dr. Flint added, this section was conceived as a +departmental division for the collecting and exhibiting of objects +related to medicine, surgery, pharmacology, hygiene, and all material +related to the health field at large.<a name="FNanchor_43_4" id="FNanchor_43_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<p>During his first term of curatorship (1881-1884), Dr. Flint devoted much +of his time to sorting, examining, identifying, and classifying the +<em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> specimens.<a name="FNanchor_43_5" id="FNanchor_43_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> In 1881, he issued a memorandum of +instructions to be followed by collectors of drugs and urged them to +give detailed and accurate information regarding acquired specimens so +that they might be “more than mere museum curiosities.” In addition, in +1883, he prepared a brief manual of classification of the <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia +medica</em> collection in the Museum as well as a useful, detailed catalog +of informational labels of the individual objects on exhibition. The +unpublished catalog is still the property of the Smithsonian Institution +Archives, Division of Medical Sciences’ Library.</p> + +<p>It was Dr. Flint’s ambition to obtain a comprehensive, worldwide +collection of all substances used as remedies. Then, in order to +identify drugs from foreign countries, he tried to collect illustrated +works on medical botany and printed pharmacopoeias of all nations having +them. He rightly defined an official pharmacopoeia as “a book containing +directions for the identification and preparation of medicines prepared +and issued with the sanction of a government or organized and +authorized medical and pharmaceutical societies. Its purpose is to +establish uniformity in the nomenclature of remedies and in the +character and potency of the pharmaceutical preparations. It is enacted +by legislation, and thus becomes binding on all who prepare drugs or +sell them for medication.” By soliciting the help of various American +consuls and Navy officers abroad, about 16 such official pharmacopoeias +were collected, making an almost complete international representation +of all available, official, drug standards. With these sources of +information, Dr. Flint compiled and arranged an international list of +<em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> specimens, indicating the authorized preparations of +each. By so doing, the first curator of this Section took the initiative +at least in proposing and, to some extent acting, on the preparation of +an international pharmacopoeia of drugs used in existing authorized +formularies giving “official synonyms, and tables showing the +constituents and comparative strength of all preparations.”<a name="FNanchor_43_6" id="FNanchor_43_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> This +undertaking is of special importance in the history of American +pharmacy, since it was probably the first attempt of its kind in the +United States.<a name="FNanchor_43_7" id="FNanchor_43_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> In addition, colored plates and photographs of +medicinal plants were collected, forming the nucleus of the Division’s +current collection of pictorial and photographic material related to the +history of the health field.</p> + +<p>Dr. Flint also put on exhibition 630 Chinese <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> specimens +from the 1876 Philadelphia centennial. These had been collected +originally by the Chinese Imperial Customs Commission for the centennial +and were subsequently given to this country.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p><p>In 1881, the numbered objects in the Section’s register amounted to +1,574 entries. In the following year, 1,590 more specimens were added, +most of them drugs in their crude state. By the end of 1883, the total +collection had reached 4,037, out of which 3,240 individual drugs in +good condition were classified and put on display. Of these, about 500 +specimens with beautiful illustrations of parts of their original plants +had been mounted for exhibition. The drug exhibitions also included +materials transferred from the Department of Agriculture in 1881, which +originally had been brought from Central America and South America for +the 1876 centennial exhibition, a variety of opium specimens from +Turkey, and a number of rare drugs listed in the official formulary +which were acquired from the Museum of Karachi in what was then India.</p> + +<p>Dr. Flint commented in the <cite>Smithsonian Annual Report</cite> for 1883 that the +collection of cinchona barks was especially complete. It was comprised +of specimens of nearly all the natural cinchona barks of South America +and every known variety of the cultivated product from the British +government plantations in India. In addition, there were specimens from +Java, Ceylon, Mexico, and Jamaica. The Indian and Jamaican barks were +accompanied by herbarium specimens of the leaf and flower (and, in some +cases, the fruit) of each variety of tree from which the bark was +obtained.<a name="FNanchor_43_8" id="FNanchor_43_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p>In an attempt to protect specimens liable to attack by insects, a small +piece of blotting paper moistened with chloroform was inserted +underneath the stopper in each bottle. Later on, bichloride of mercury +was found to be a better insecticide.</p> + +<p>These early collections of the Section were brought into admirable +condition and received compliments for their organization and +completeness. In the <cite>Smithsonian Annual Report</cite> for 1883, the +collections were praised as “superior to any other in the United States +and scarcely excelled by any in Europe.”</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> + <img src="images/i_275.jpg" width="400" height="509" alt="Figure 4.—Dr. Henry Gustav Beyer" + title="Figure 4.—Dr. Henry Gustav Beyer." /> + <p class="caption">Figure 4.—<span class="smcap">Dr. Henry Gustav Beyer</span>, the second honorary + curator of the Section of Materia Medica (1884-1887). (<em>Photo courtesy + of American Physiological Society.</em>)</p> +</div> + +<p>In spite of the apparent emphasis on the displaying of drugs, the first +curator of the Section had envisioned that the exhibits eventually would +embrace the entire field of the healing arts. In the <cite>Smithsonian Annual +Report</cite> for 1883, Dr. Flint noted that “in the establishment of a museum +designed to illustrate man and his environment, it is proper that the +materials and methods used for the prevention and cure of disease should +have a place.” However, his plans were temporarily interrupted when his +first term as honorary curator ended in 1884.</p> + +<p>On June 4, 1884, Dr. Henry Gustav Beyer was detailed by the Department +of the Navy to become the second honorary curator of the Section of +Materia Medica. As a young man, Dr. Beyer (1850-1918) had come from +Saxony, Germany, to the United States and, in due course, became a +naturalized citizen. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> was graduated from the Bellevue Hospital +Medical College of New York City in 1876.</p> + +<p>Because of his interest in physiological experimental research, Dr. +Beyer enrolled at the Johns Hopkins University, where he was awarded a +Ph. D. degree in 1887. Unlike his predecessor, Dr. Beyer was primarily +interested in carrying on research on the physiological action of +certain drugs and in pharmacology. This was evident from the original +scientific papers mentioned in the <cite>Smithsonian Annual Reports</cite> and +published by him during the period of his curatorship from 1884 to 1887.</p> + +<p>Despite the pressure of his postgraduate studies at Johns Hopkins +University, Dr. Beyer helped in arranging and classifying the <em lang="lat" +xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> collection without trying to extend materially the scope of the +Section.</p> + +<p>After the term of Dr. Beyer expired in 1887, Dr. Flint returned to take +charge of the Section. Surprisingly, at this time, it seems that he +showed less enthusiasm and devotion to the work of the Museum which he +had previously served so well. It could have been a disappointment +resulting from a lack of evidence of any real progress in the Section +since he had left it three years before. Whatever the reasons may have +been, the <cite>Smithsonian Annual Reports</cite> show that only a few hundred +specimens were added to the <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> collections between 1887 +and 1890, bringing the total to 5,915 preserved in good condition. +Further curtailment of the Section’s activities began in November 1891 +when Dr. Flint was again transferred to other duties for the U.S. Navy. +From November 1891 to May 24, 1895, curatorship of the Section was +charged to five physicians of the U.S. Navy: Drs. John C. Boyd (from +November 1891 to April 6, 1892); William S. Dixon (April 1892 to January +5, 1893); C. H. White (January 1893 to July 15, 1893); C. U. Gravatt +(July 1893 to January 22, 1894); R. A. Marmion (January 22, 1894 to June +15, 1894); and to Medical Inspector Daniel McMurtrie (June 1894 to May +24, 1895). During this interim of nearly three and a half years, there +were neither literary contributions nor additions made to the +collections of the Section that were of any significance. The reason is +obvious, for all of these curators averaged less than seven months of +service which is not enough time, even for a well-trained individual, to +accomplish very much in a museum. Therefore, it is easy to imagine that +when the Secretary of the Navy detailed Dr. Flint for a third time to +take charge of the Section, he was rather discouraged. Nevertheless, at +the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia, from +September 18 to December 31, 1895, the <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> was represented +by two displays: one on mineral waters and amounts of solid constituents +in pure state; and another showing the quantities of minerals after +analysis of the composition of the human body.</p> + +<p>A similar project was undertaken in 1897 at the Tennessee Centennial +Exposition (May 1 to October 31) in Nashville, where there were two +displays of <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em>. One showed several kinds of the cinchona +barks and the medicinal preparations made from them, and another +containing the commercial varieties of the alkaloids of opium.</p> + +<p>At this time, Dr. Flint’s attention turned to a new phase of medical +exhibition. He felt the need for a program of exhibits on the practice +and the historical development of the healing arts. A change of the +Section’s name was deemed necessary and, thus, in 1898 the more +comprehensive title of Division of Medicine was adopted.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h3><a name="Division_of_Medicine_1898-1939" id="Division_of_Medicine_1898-1939"></a>Division of Medicine (1898-1939)</h3> + +<p>The statement by L. Emmett Holt of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical +Research, that before 1906, the Smithsonian Institution was never a +beneficiary to medicine in any form,<a name="FNanchor_43_9" id="FNanchor_43_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> is not entirely applicable. The +previous discussion has clearly shown that the U.S. National Museum’s +cooperation with the Navy contributed materially towards encouraging and +promoting medical knowledge. Furthermore, Dr. Flint tried to bring many +of his plans for this medical division of the Museum to a practical +fulfillment. He devised a program for presenting medical history in a +way which would be of interest both to the public and to the profession. +In order to best illustrate the history of the healing art, he divided +his subject matter into five provisional classifications according to +the <cite>Report upon the Condition and Progress of the U.S. National Museum</cite> +during 1898:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + <p>1. Magical medicine including exorcism, amulets, talismans, + fetishes and incantation;</p> + + <p>2. Psychical medicine including faith cures, and hypnotism;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p> + + <p>3. Physical and external medicine including baths, exercise, + electricity, massage, surgery, cautery, and blood-letting;</p> + + <p>4. Internal medicine including medications and treatment used by + the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Hindus, Arabians, and Chinese; + and</p> + + <p>5. Preventive medicine including beverages, food, soil, clothing + and habitation.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is certainly to Dr. Flint’s credit that from its early conception, +first as Section of Materia Medica and thereafter as Division of +Medicine, he planned for an all-embracing exhibition and reference +collection of the medical sciences. Until the end of the 19th century +and the early years of the 20th century, crude drugs as well as +primitive and magic medicine held a more prominent place than medical +instruments in the exhibits and collections. In 1905, Flint issued his +last, known, literary contribution, “Directions for Collecting +Information and Objects Illustrating the History of Medicine,” in Part S +of <cite>Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum</cite>, no. 39. The emphasis he put +upon this shows Dr. Flint’s interest in collecting medical and +pharmaceutical objects and equipment of historical value. Consequently, +he arranged new exhibits including one on American Indian medicine. A +medical historian, Fielding H. Garrison, inspected these about 1910 and, +in his “An Introduction to the History of Medicine,” wrote of their +novelty and appeal. “In the interesting exhibit of folk medicine in the +National Museum at Washington,” he commented, “a buckeye or horse +chestnut (<em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">Aesculus flavus</em>), an Irish potato, a rabbit’s foot, a +leather strap previously worn by a horse, and a carbon from an arc light +are shown as sovereign charms against rheumatism. Other amulets in the +Washington exhibit,” he added, “are the patella of a sheep and a ring +made out of a coffin nail (dug out of a graveyard) for cramps and +epilepsy, a peony root to be carried in the pocket against insanity, and +rare and precious stones for all and sundry diseases.” It had been Dr. +Flint’s intention, besides presenting an educational display on the +history of the medical arts, to warn the public against the perils of +quackery and the faults of folk medicine, as well as to expose evils in +drug adulteration. Today, we can see actual fulfillment of these +intentions in the present exhibit at the medical gallery which has been +executed recently on the <a name="corr_43_3a" id="corr_43_3a"></a><ins class="mycorr" id="corr43_3" title="Original: bases">basis</ins> of scientific, historical research.</p> + +<p>After Dr. Flint’s retirement from the Smithsonian Institution in 1912, +there was no replacement for over five years. Therefore, the Division +of Medicine was placed, for administrative purposes, under the +supervision of the curator of the newly reestablished (1912) Division of +Textiles, Frederick L. Lewton. During these years, he fought against the +dispersal of the medical and <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> collections. Thus, for +lack of a curator of its own, almost all new activities in the Division +of Medicine were curtailed until 1917.</p> + +<p>On January 31, 1917, Lewton addressed members of the American +Pharmaceutical Association inviting them to cooperate in gathering up +and preserving at the National Museum the “many unique and irreplaceable +objects” connected with the early history of pharmacy in this country +which could still be saved.<a name="FNanchor_43_10" id="FNanchor_43_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Then, on March 14, 1917, an examination +was announced by the Civil Service (held May 2) for an assistant curator +for the Division of Medicine, and the position was filled by Joseph +Donner on August 16, 1917. Donner was the first full-time employee paid +by the Smithsonian Institution for the curatorship of this Division. He +held the post until January 31, 1918, when he was inducted into the +Sanitary Corps of the United States Army. No significant activities in +the Division of Medicine were reported during these few months.</p> + +<p>Mr. Donner was followed by a second, full-time, museum officer who +promoted a great amount of good will towards the Division during his +curatorship of a little over 30 years. Dr. Charles Whitebread +(1877-1963), the first pharmacist to head the Division, joined the +Smithsonian in 1918 and remained until his retirement in 1948, the +longest service, thus far, of any individual in the Division.</p> + +<p>Dr. Whitebread received his degree of Doctor of Pharmacy from the School +of Pharmacy at George Washington University in Washington, D.C., in +1911. He entered government service late in 1915, but it was not until +April 2, 1918, that he agreed to become assistant curator of the +Division of Medicine.</p> + +<p>Curator Whitebread’s first year was an active and challenging one, for +in this new position he began to develop a deep interest in the history +of the healing arts. He made a number of important acquisitions, most of +them pertaining to pharmaceutical products, synthetic chemicals and +crude drugs. He found that many specimens from the older drug +collections had deteriorated to such an extent as to be worthless, and +he began replacing them with freshly marketed drugs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> + <img src="images/i_278.jpg" width="400" height="493" alt="Figure 5.—Curator Charles Whitebread" + title="Figure 5.—Curator Charles Whitebread." /> + <p class="caption">Figure 5.—<span class="smcap">Curator Charles Whitebread</span> inspecting, with + admiration, five drug containers from the Squibb collection (1945). + (<em>Photo courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association.</em>)</p> +</div> + +<p>Plans were completed for the opening of new medical exhibits and +adopting, with some modifications and additions, earlier classifications +set by Dr. Flint. Dr. Whitebread grouped these into the following +classes: the evaluation of the healing arts; a picture display of +medical men prominent in American history;<a name="FNanchor_43_11" id="FNanchor_43_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> a <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> +display including the history of pharmacy; and an exhibition on +Sanitation and Public Hygiene<a name="FNanchor_43_12" id="FNanchor_43_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> which was later to evolve into the +Hall of Health.</p> + +<p>In 1920, Dr. Whitebread added a number of specimens of medical-dosage +forms and pharmaceutical preparations to the Division’s collections. He +also acquired other gifts to complete existing exhibits illustrating the +basic principles of the various schools of medicine, such as homeopathy +and osteopathy—their methods, tools, and ways of thought.</p> + +<p>In 1921, a tablet machine by the Arthur Colton Company of Detroit, +Michigan, was acquired, and an exhibit illustrating vaccine and serum +therapy was installed in the medical gallery. This was followed, in +1922, by a collection arranged to tell the story of the prevention and +cure of specific diseases by means of biological remedies.</p> + +<p>During the following two years, two more exhibits related to hospital +supplies and sanitation were added to the rapidly developing Hall of +Health exhibition which was opened in 1924. A third exhibit in 1925 +consisted of 96 mounted color transparencies illustrating services +provided by hospitals to promote public health. Plans for the further +development of the Hall of Health continued during 1926, and contacts +were made with organizations interested in the educational aspects of +the healing arts. As a result, several new exhibits were added. In 1926, +the American Optometric Association helped in the installation of an +exhibit on conservation of vision or the care of the eyes under the +slogan “Save your vision,” as a phase of health work. Other exhibits in +the Hall at this time were: what parasites are; water pollution and how +to obtain pure water; waste disposal; ventilation and healthy housing, +and the importance of recreation; purification of milk and how to obtain +pure milk; transmission of diseases by insects and animals; how life +begins; prenatal and postnatal care and preschool care; duties of the +public health nurse; and social, oral and mental hygiene.</p> + +<p>With the acquiring of more medical appliances and the widening of the +scope of the exhibits, more and more space was needed, and attention was +turned to the area of the medical gallery which had been occupied by the +<em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> collection for almost four decades. To gain more +exhibit space, it was decided that the greater part of the crude drugs +should be removed from the exhibits and be kept as a reference +collection and for research.<a name="FNanchor_43_13" id="FNanchor_43_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> + <img src="images/i_279.jpg" width="600" height="792" alt="Figure 6.—Exhibit on Egyptian and Hebrew medicine" + title="Figure 6.—Exhibit on Egyptian and Hebrew medicine." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 6.—<span class="smcap">Exhibit on Egyptian and Hebrew medicine</span>, + installed about 1924, which was illustrated by graphs and drugs + mentioned in extant records of this ancient period. (Smithsonian photo + 30796-C.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> + <img src="images/i_280.jpg" width="600" alt="Figure 7.—Exhibit on medical history during the Greco-Roman period" + title="Figure 7.—Exhibit on medical history during the Greco-Roman period." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 7.—<span class="smcap">Exhibit on medical history</span> during the + Greco-Roman period. (Smithsonian photo 30796-D.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> + <img src="images/i_281.jpg" width="600" alt="Figure 8.—Exhibit on remedies derived from drugs of vegetable origin" + title="Figure 8.—Exhibit on remedies derived from drugs of vegetable origin." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 8.—<span class="smcap">Exhibit on remedies derived from drugs</span> of + vegetable origin, displayed about mid-1930’s. (Smithsonian photo 30439.)</p> +</div> + +<p>In 1926, original patent models including those related to pharmacy, +medicine, and dentistry, were transferred from the U.S. Patent Office to +the National Museum. These patent models, together with other apothecary +tools and the machines used in drug production took up most of the +available space. This unfortunate situation led Dr. Whitebread to turn +down significant medical and pharmaceutical collections offered the +Museum between 1927 and 1930. Since the patent models were devised for +inventions designed to simplify the practice of the health professions, +three cases of these models were displayed in the medical gallery in the +early 1930’s. Other exhibits shown during this decade included the +deception of folk medicine with warnings against superstitions, and an +exhibition on osteopathy,<a name="FNanchor_43_14" id="FNanchor_43_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> as well as dioramas on the manufacture of +medicines and their use in scientific medical treatment.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, Dr. Whitebread was an active contributor to the +literature of the health field in various periodicals, as well as in +pamphlets issued by the Museum and other governmental agencies (see +bibliography). His literary contributions, guided by the exhibits he +designed and the collections he acquired, were focused on the Division’s +collections, such as primitive and psychic medicine and warnings against +reliance on magic and superstitions in treatment, medical oddities, and +the utilization of drugs of animal origin, both past and present.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h3><a name="Division_of_Medicine_and_Public_Health_1939-1957" id="Division_of_Medicine_and_Public_Health_1939-1957"></a>Division of Medicine and Public Health (1939-1957)</h3> + +<p>After taking charge of the Division of Medicine in 1918, Dr. Whitebread +gave special attention to public health displays. His activities in this +area were accelerated after 1924 when the health exhibit at the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>Smithsonian Institution was inaugurated. As the exhibits in this field +increased, the Division, in 1939, took the more comprehensive title of +Division of Medicine and Public Health. Also, in 1939, Dr. Whitebread +was promoted to the rank of associate curator.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/i_282.jpg" width="600" height="838" alt="Figure 9.—Exhibit on methods of treatment of diseases +through mental impressions and psychic conditions" + title="Figure 9.—Exhibit on methods of treatment of diseases through mental impressions and psychic conditions." /> +<p class="caption2">Figure 9.—<span class="smcap">Exhibit on methods of treatment</span> of diseases +through mental impressions and psychic conditions as displayed about +1925. (Smithsonian photo 30796-B.)</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <img src="images/i_283.jpg" width="600" height="468" alt="Figure 10.—An exhibit on superstitions, empiricism, + magic, and faith healing" title="Figure 10.—An exhibit on superstitions, empiricism, magic, and faith healing." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 10.—<span class="smcap">An exhibit on superstitions, empiricism</span>, + magic, and faith healing in the light of scientific medicine, completed + in 1962, is in sharp contrast with that shown in figure 9.</p> +</div> + +<p>He continued his efforts to collect more specimens of interest to +medical history and to contribute to the literature. Among exhibited +specimens in 1941 were a powder paper-crimping machine, a portable drug +crusher, an odd device for spreading plaster on cloth, a pill-coating +apparatus, various suppository molds, a lozenge cutter, and an ingenious +Seidlitz powder machine. The derivation of medicinal drugs from animal, +vegetable, and mineral sources was also depicted, as were synthetic +materials and their intermediates. Basic prescription materials were +displayed, and rows of glass-enclosed cases held samples of crude +botanical drugs from almost every part of the globe with explanatory +cards giving brief, concise descriptions. The exhibition provided +medical and pharmaceutical students about to take state-board +examinations, the opportunity to study the subject in detail, especially +the enormous collection of <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> samples.<a name="FNanchor_43_15" id="FNanchor_43_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> Also in 1941, +Eli Lilly and Company donated an exhibit on the medical treatment of +various types of anemia. In the same year, a diorama including a +hypochlorinator for purification of water on a farm was installed in the +gallery. In 1942, the first Emerson iron lung (developed in 1931 by John +Haven Emerson) for artificial respiration was acquired by the Division. +The Division acquired, in 1944, the first portable x-ray machine known +to have been operated successfully on the battlefield, as well as other +x-ray equipment and early medicine chests.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> + <img src="images/i_284a.jpg" width="600" height="341" alt="Figure 11.—Old public health exhibition." + title="Figure 11.—Old public health exhibition." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 11.—<span class="smcap">Old public health exhibition</span> installed in the + gallery about 1924. (Smithsonian photo 19952.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <img src="images/i_284.jpg" width="600" height="296" alt="Figure 12.—The Hall of Health." + title="Figure 12.—The Hall of Health." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 12.—<span class="smcap">The Hall of Health</span>, reestablished and opened + in November 1957. (Smithsonian photo 44931.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> + <img src="images/i_285.jpg" width="600" height="368" alt="Figure 13.—Early exhibit on homeopathy." + title="Figure 13.—Early exhibit on homeopathy." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 13.—<span class="smcap">Early exhibit on homeopathy</span> + showing its history, methods and remedies which was installed about 1929. (Smithsonian photo 27049.)</p> +</div> + +<p>Without a doubt, the most outstanding accession in the field of +pharmaceutical history during Dr. Whitebread’s years of service was the +acquisition of the E. R. Squibb and Sons old apothecary shop. Most of +the baroque fixtures, including the stained-glass windows with +Hessian-Nassau coats of arms and wrought-iron frames, were part of the +mid-18th-century cathedral pharmacy “Münster Apotheke” in Freiburg im +Breisgau, Germany. It was offered for sale in September 1930 by Dr. Jo +Mayer of Wiesbaden, Germany, who was an enthusiastic collector of +antiques, especially those related to the health professions. Earlier +that year, a historian of pharmacy and chemistry, Fritz Ferchl of +Mittenwald, Germany, had published a series of scholarly and informative +articles on the Meyer collection in which the outstanding specimens were +beautifully portrayed and thoroughly described (see bibliography).</p> + +<p>As a result of Dr. Mayer’s efforts to sell his collection, the impact of +Ferchl’s illustrated articles, and the uniqueness of the collection, E. +R. Squibb and Sons purchased it in 1932 and brought it to the United +States “with the thought that it would provide for American pharmacy, +its teachers and students, a museum illuminating the history, growth, +and development of pharmacy, its interesting background and struggle +through the ages.” It was displayed at the Century of Progress +exposition held in Chicago during 1933 and 1934; subsequently, it was +assembled in the Squibb Building in New York City as a private museum +where, for about 10 years, it was visited by many interested in +pharmacy, ceramics, and art. Charles H. LaWall, who was originally +engaged to prepare a descriptive catalog on the exhibit, gave it the +title “The Squibb Ancient Pharmacy.”</p> + +<p>Late in 1943, E. R. Squibb and Sons offered the collection as a gift to +the American Pharmaceutical Association if the latter would provide +museum space<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> for it. The offer was accepted, but the Association +finally found it difficult to spare the needed space for the collection +and decided to take up the matter with the U.S. National Museum.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <img src="images/i_286.jpg" width="600" height="374" alt="Figure 14.—Early exhibit on osteopathy." + title="Figure 14.—Early exhibit on osteopathy." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 14.—<span class="smcap">This early exhibit on osteopathy</span> was + renovated several times prior to the early 1940’s. (Smithsonian photo 19250.)</p> +</div> + +<p>At this point, it should be stated that since 1883 the members of the +American Pharmaceutical Association have been keenly interested in +having the National Museum serve as the custodian for all collected +objects and records of historical interest to pharmacy. In 1944, the +Association officially offered to deposit on permanent loan, the +Squibb’s pharmacy collection in the Smithsonian Institution with the +understanding that a suitable place would be provided for prompt and +permanent display. The offer was accepted, and during April and May of +1945, the entire collection was transferred to the Smithsonian +Institution, and construction to recreate the original two rooms for the +old, 18th-century, European “Apotheke” was underway.</p> + +<p>By August 1946, the exhibit was completed. In the large room where the +pharmacist met his customers, the shelves were filled with 15th- to +19th-century, European pharmaceutical antiques. These included +Renaissance mortars; 16th- and 17th-century nested weights; beautiful +Italian, French, Swiss, and German majolica and faience drug jars; Dutch +and English delft; drug containers made of flint or opal glass with +fused-enamel labels with alchemical symbols; rare, 16th-century, wooden +drug containers, each with the coat of arms of the city in which each +was made; and two glass-topped, display tables contained franchises +issued and signed by Popes or state rulers, medical edicts, +dispensatories, herbals, pharmacopoeias, and pharmaceutical utensils.</p> + +<p>On the walls in the small laboratory room, which also had been used as a +workshop and a study, were a stuffed crocodile, shark’s head, tortoise, +fish, and salamander, parts of which were utilized as remedial agents. +Their presence provided tangible evidence that the pharmacy dispensed +genuine drugs and not substitutes.</p> + +<p>The pharmaceutical profession in this country hailed the outstanding +exhibition, and the November 1946 issue of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span><cite>Journal of the American Pharmaceutical +Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition</cite>, devoted its +front cover to depicting one corner of the study and laboratory room of +the shop.<a name="FNanchor_43_16" id="FNanchor_43_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Also, in a letter dated January 2, 1947, addressed to Dr. +Alexander Wetmore, then Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. +Robert P. Fischelis, the secretary of the American Pharmaceutical +Association, considered the completion of the deposited exhibition a +triumph and “as one of the highlights of the accomplishments of the +Association in 1946.”</p> + +<p>From 1946 to 1948, the Division’s collection was further enriched with +a number of historical specimens, among which was a “grosse Flamme” x-ray machine with induction-coil tube and stand developed by Albert B. +Koett. It is one of the earliest American-made machines of its kind, +producing a 12-inch spark, the largest usable at that time with +180,000-volt capacity, and a forerunner of later autotransformers. Other +accessions included two 19th-century drug mills, an electric belt used +in quackery, two medicine chests, three sets of Hessian crucibles used +in a pioneer drugstore in Colorado, a drunkometer, mineral ores, and +purely <a name="corr_43_1a" id="corr_43_1a"></a><ins id="corr_43_1" class="mycorr" title="Original: produced, chemical">produced chemical</ins> elements.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 620px;"> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 290px;"> + <img src="images/i_287a.jpg" height="510" alt="Figure 15.—Late 16th-century, wooden drug container." + title="Figure 15.—Late 16th-century, wooden drug container." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 15.—<span class="smcap">Late 16th-century</span>, wooden drug container with + coat-of-arms, in the Squibb collection. The inscription <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">Ungula Alcis</em> + (the hoof of the elk) suggests a superstitious attitude in medical + practice and the wide use of animal organs in medical treatment. + (<em>Courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association.</em>)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 290px;"> + <img src="images/i_287.jpg" width="290" alt="Figure 16.—A Rare, Antwerp, 16th-century drug jar." + title="Figure 16.—A Rare, Antwerp, 16th-century drug jar." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 16.—<span class="smcap">A Rare, Antwerp</span>, 16th-century drug jar in the + Squibb collection deposited by the American Pharmaceutical Association.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p style="clear: both;">In the spring of 1948, Associate Curator Whitebread retired after 30 +years of service with the U.S. National Museum. He was a pioneer in the +field of health museums and during his curatorship had developed a +moribund section into a Division of field-wide importance. Dr. +Whitebread was succeeded by George S. Thomas, also a pharmacist, who +served as associate curator from August 1948 until early 1952.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> + <img src="images/i_288.jpg" width="600" alt="Figure 17.—The Apothecary Shop." + title="Figure 17.—The Apothecary Shop." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 17.—<span class="smcap">The Apothecary Shop</span> as seen in the Arts and + Industries building (1946-1964). (<em>Courtesy of the American + Pharmaceutical Association.</em>)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> + <img src="images/i_289.jpg" width="600" height="431" alt="Figure 18.—View of the laboratory and study room of the apothecary shop." + title="Figure 18.—View of the laboratory and study room of the apothecary shop." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 18.—<span class="smcap">View of the laboratory and study room</span> of the + apothecary shop. On the left, the German-Swiss bronze mortar and pestle + (1686) sign and above it an 18th-century German painting on canvas of + Christ, “the apothecary of the soul.” The drug containers represent “the + fruits of the spirit,” faith, patience, charity, etc., and the scales + represent justice. Underneath is the verse from Matthew, 11:28, “Come + unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you + rest.” (<em>Courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association.</em>)</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span>During his almost-three and a half years of service, Thomas acquired +hearing-aid appliances from which he designed an exhibit on the +development of these aids, surgical sutures, early samples of +Aureomycin, and a static-electricity machine made by Henkel about 1840. +He also published three short articles under the title, “Now and Then,” in the <cite>National Capital Pharmacist</cite> (1950), no. 1, pp. 8-9; no. 2, pp. +18-19, 29; and no. 3, pp. 15-16. In early 1952, Dr. Arthur O. Morton +presented to the Division, a Swiss-made keratometer which he had +purchased in 1907, and it is believed to be one of the first used in the +United States to measure the curves of the cornea.</p> + +<p>The achievements of the Division reached their highest point, thus far, +in significantly increasing the national collection, as well as in +contributing to the scientific, historical, and professional literature, +under the curatorships of George B. Griffenhagen (December 8, 1952, to +June 27, 1959) and John B. Blake (July 1, 1957, to September 2, 1961). +Their reorganization of exhibits and collections, their competence and +industry, fulfilled the hopes, plans, and purposes laid down by earlier +curators for the Division.</p> + +<p>Immediately after assuming the responsibilities of the Division and +throughout 1953, Mr. Griffenhagen (M.S. in pharmaceutical chemistry from +the University of Southern California) undertook to develop the +collections still further. He increased the emphasis not only on +historical pharmacy, but also on medicine, surgery, and dentistry. He +also renovated the exhibits in the medical gallery.</p> + +<p>In 1954, several antibiotics were donated to the Division including a +mold of <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">Penicillium notatum</em> prepared and presented to the Smithsonian +Institution by Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955), the discoverer of +penicillium (1929), and a few Petri dishes used by botanist Benjamin M. +Daggar who, while working for Lederle Laboratories, developed Aureomycin +(chlortetracycline) in 1948. The Forest D. Dodrill—G.M.R. mechanical +heart (1952), the first machine reported to be used successfully for the +complete bypass of one side of the human heart during a surgical +operation,<a name="FNanchor_43_17" id="FNanchor_43_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> was presented to the Smithsonian Institution.</p> + +<p>The following year, 1955, the Division acquired one of the earliest +Einthoven string <a name="corr_43_2a" id="corr_43_2a"></a><ins id="corr_43_2" class="mycorr" title="Original: galvanometer-">galvanometers</ins> (named after the Dutch physiologist Willem +Einthoven, 1860-1927) made in the United States in 1914 by Charles F. +Hindle for an electrocardiograph. Also added to the Division’s +collections was the electrocardiograph used by Dr. Frank E. Wilson of +the United States, a pioneer educator in this field. Two temporary +exhibits on allergy and surgical dressings were installed in the +gallery. In the same year, Curator Griffenhagen published <cite>Early +American Pharmacies</cite>, a catalog on 28 pharmacy restorations in this +country.</p> + +<p>In 1956, among many publications of interest in the fields of medical +and pharmaceutical history, was Curator Griffenhagen’s <cite>Pharmacy +Museum</cite>, with a foreword by Laurence V. Coleman, who termed it a useful +catalog and “a good reflection of the history of the museum movement at +large.” A third x-ray tube of Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen (1845-1922) was +added to the collection in 1957 as well as a complete set of +hospital-ward fixtures of about 1900 from the Massachusetts General +Hospital, rare patent medicines, 18th-century microscopes, and a +13th-century mortar and pestle made in Persia.</p> + +<p>In 1957, Mr. Griffenhagen published a series of illustrated articles in +the <cite>Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical +Pharmacy Edition</cite>, which were later reprinted by the Association in a +booklet entitled, <cite>Tools of the Apothecary</cite>. In it, he described several +pharmaceutical specimens in the collection and their place in history.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h3><a name="Division_of_Medical_Sciences_1957_to_Present" id="Division_of_Medical_Sciences_1957_to_Present"></a>Division of Medical Sciences (1957 to Present)</h3> + +<p>The U.S. National Museum was reorganized on July 1, 1957, into two +units, the Natural History Museum and the Museum of History and +Technology. At the same time, and in view of the widening scope of the +Division, its more scientifically based planning, and the constantly +increasing collection with equal emphasis on all branches of the healing +arts, the Division’s title was changed to the Division of Medical +Sciences—the title it still bears in 1964. With the reorganization, the +Department of Engineering and Industries, under which the Division fell +administratively, was renamed the Department of Science and Technology +of the Museum of History and Technology. It was also the first time +since its establishment in 1881 that the Division had two curators, for +on July 1, 1957, Dr. John B. Blake joined the staff.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <img src="images/i_291.jpg" width="600" height="400" alt="Figure 19.—Curators John B. Blake and George Griffenhagen" + title="Figure 19.—Curators John B. Blake and George Griffenhagen." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 19.—<span class="smcap">Curators John B. Blake and George + Griffenhagen</span> examine the newly acquired (1957) electromagnetic, + Morton-Wimshurst-Holz Influence Machine. It was manufactured by the + Bowen Company of Providence, Rhode Island (1889). With the discovery of + x-ray, it was used for making x-ray photographs until early in the 20th + century.</p> +</div> + +<p>As a result of these changes, the Division was subdivided into a Section +of Pharmaceutical History and Health and a Section of Medical and Dental +History. The former was planned to encompass the collections of <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em>, pharmaceutical equipment, and all material related to the +history of pharmacy, toxicology, pharmacology, and biochemistry, as well +as the Hall of Health which was opened November 2, 1957, and which +emphasizes man’s progressing knowledge of his body and the functions of +its major organs.<a name="FNanchor_43_18" id="FNanchor_43_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> The latter Section was planned to include all that +belongs to the development of surgery, medicine, dentistry, and nursing, +especially in relation to hospitals.</p> + +<p>In October 1957, the Division acquired a collection of rare, ceramic, +drug jars which included two, 13th-century, North Syrian and Persian, +albarello-shaped, majolica jars; a 15th-century, Hispano-Moresque drug +container; and a 16th-century, Italian faience, dragon-spout ewer. +During the following two years, Curator Griffenhagen periodically toured +museums and medical and pharmaceutical institutions in this country, +South America, and Europe gathering specimens and information for the +Division and for publication, respectively. However, on June 27, 1959, +he resigned his curatorship to join the staff of the American +Pharmaceutical Association in Washington, D.C. Dr. Blake became the +curator in charge of the Division and Mr. Griffenhagen was succeeded on +September 24, 1959, by the author of this paper as associate curator in +charge of the Section of Pharmaceutical History and Health.</p> + +<p>Dr. Blake, as curator of the Section of Medical and Dental History, +acquired a large number of valuable and varied specimens for the +Division’s collections. They included optometric refracting instruments, +an early 1920’s General Electric, portable, x-ray machine, the Charles +A. Lindbergh and Alexis Carrel pump (designed in 1935 to perfuse +life-sustaining fluids to the organs of the body), the Sewell heart pump +(1950) to control delivery of air pressure and suction to the pumping +mechanism, and a large and valuable collection of dental equipment +formerly at the universities of Pennsylvania and Illinois. Dr. Blake +wrote the explanatory material and supervised the design and production +of the majority of exhibits in the renovated hall of medical and dental +history. He also contributed several scholarly articles and a book (see +bibliography) on the history of the healing arts and public health in +particular. He resigned on September 2, 1961, to join the staff of the +National Library of Medicine as chief of the History of Medicine +Division, and was succeeded by the author as curator of the Division. +From the summer of 1962 to April 1964, the Division benefited from the +expert advice of Dr. Alfred R. Henderson as consultant in the +preparation and designing of the surgical and medical exhibits of the +Museum of History and Technology.</p> + +<p>During the period from 1961 to May 1964, the Division’s collections +expanded greatly through its <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>medical, dental, and pharmaceutical +acquisitions. Specimens of antiques acquired from 1961 through 1963 +numbered up to 1,539 and included gifts from leading institutions and +individual philanthropists. The scope of these gifts and acquisitions +ranges from electronic resuscitators, microscopes, x-ray equipment, and +spectacles, to patent medicines, amulets, apothecary tools, dental +instruments, and office material of practitioners.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <img src="images/i_292.jpg" width="600" height="371" alt="Figure 20.—Exhibit on spectacles, lorgnettes, optometers, and refraction." + title="Figure 20.—Exhibit on spectacles, lorgnettes, optometers, and refraction." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 20.—<span class="smcap">Exhibit on spectacles, lorgnettes, + optometers</span>, and refraction, completed in 1960. It features a cross + section of the Division’s large collection of eyeglasses. (Smithsonian + photo 47943-D.)</p> +</div> + +<p>In the last decade, the interest in the national endeavor for promoting +research and scholarship in the history of medicine has increased +greatly. It was most appropriate, therefore, for the Smithsonian +Institution to play host on May 2 for two sessions of the 37th annual +meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine held in +the Washington, D.C., area from April 30 through May 2, 1964. In +welcoming the members to the morning session in the auditorium of the +new Museum of History and Technology, Frank A. Taylor, director of the +United States National Museum, expressed the feeling that the meeting of +the Association was, in a sense, a dedication of the new auditorium and +an opportunity for the Smithsonian to reaffirm its deep interest and +commitment in fostering research and furthering the appreciation of +scholarly endeavor in the history of the healing arts.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h3><a name="A_New_Dimension_For_the_Healing_Arts" id="A_New_Dimension_For_the_Healing_Arts"></a>A New Dimension For the Healing Arts</h3> + +<p>“One day the United States will have a National Museum of science, +engineering, and industry, as most large nations have.” This was the +prediction made in 1946 by the director of the U.S. National Museum, Mr. +Frank A. Taylor, then curator of the Division of Engineering.<a name="FNanchor_43_19" id="FNanchor_43_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> It was +in 1963, that the new $36,000,000 building of the Museum of History<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> +and Technology was completed, and opened to the public in 1964. The +offices of the Division of Medical Sciences as well as the reference and +study collections were moved to the fifth floor of the new building. The +exhibits, however, will be displayed in the gallery at the southwest +corner of the first floor. These exhibits, it is hoped, will show a new +dimension and an unprecedented approach in displaying the development of +the healing arts throughout the ages and the instruments and equipment +associated with health professions. They also present the expanding +objectives and plans of the Division’s growth as an integral part of the +Smithsonian Institution. Conveniently, the exhibits form four, closely +connected halls in one large gallery which will be open to the public in +the summers of 1965 to 1966.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <img src="images/i_293.jpg" width="600" height="430" alt="Figure 21.—Exhibit on the development of blood-pressure instruments." + title="Figure 21.—Exhibit on the development of blood-pressure instruments." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 21.—<span class="smcap">Exhibit on the development of blood-pressure + instruments</span> and the early 20th-century sphygmomanometers which was + completed in 1960. (Smithsonian photo 47943-M.)</p> +</div> + +<p>1. <span class="smcap">The Hall of Health</span> displays models and graphic and historical exhibit +materials to demonstrate the function of the various healthy organs of +the human body. The main topics emphasized are: embryology and +childbirth; tooth structure; the heart and blood circulation; +respiration; the endocrine glands; kidneys and the urinary-excretory +system; the brain and the nervous system; the ear; and vision and the +use of eyeglasses.</p> + +<p>The most appreciated exhibit of all in this Hall is the “transparent +woman” figure which rotates, automatically, every 15 minutes with a +recorded message describing the function of each major organ of the body +at the same time that the organ is electronically lighted, so that the +viewer can see its place in the body.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <img src="images/i_294.jpg" width="600" height="519" alt="Figure 22.—Hearing-aid exhibit designed in 1962." + title="Figure 22.—Hearing-aid exhibit designed in 1962." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 22.—<span class="smcap">Hearing-aid exhibit</span> designed in 1962. It + includes otologist Julius Lempert’s personal memorabilia and original + surgical instruments used in the fenestration operation for restoring + hearing. (Smithsonian photo 49345-C.)</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <span class="smcap">The Hall of Medicine and Dentistry</span> will depict the history of these +two sciences with exhibits of the equipment used through the centuries. +In the medical field, early trephining and other surgical instruments +will be displayed along with a diorama of an 1805 surgical operation +performed by Dr. Philip Syng Physick in the amphitheater of the +Pennsylvania Hospital. Diagnostic instruments such as stethoscopes, +endoscopes, speculums, and blood-pressure measuring devices will be +exhibited with a series of microscopes illustrating the development of +these instruments. Exhibits of original galvanometers and other +apparatus will trace the development of cardiography. The early use of +anesthesia will be shown by apparatus of William Morton and Crawford W. +Long, American pioneers in this field. The development of the devices of +modern medicine and surgery will be shown by exhibits of the iron lung +and x-ray tubes, including a tube used by W. K. Roentgen. Medicine +chests and surgical kits of different periods will graphically summarize +the state of medical science in the period each represents.</p> + +<p>Exhibits on the development of dentistry and dental surgery will display +examples of tooth-filling and extracting tools, drilling apparatus from +the early hand and foot engines to the first ultrasonic cutting +instrument (1954), and the original contra-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>angle, hydraulic and +air-turbine handpiece model<a name="FNanchor_43_20" id="FNanchor_43_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> which revolutionized the field of +instrumentation for dental surgery (with speeds of 200,000 to 400,000 +rpm). This hydraulic turbine of Dr. Robert J. Nelson and associates of +the National Bureau of Standards set the design pattern for the +remarkable and successful high-speed, air-turbine handpiece developed by +Paul H. Tanner and Oscar P. Nagel of the U.S. Naval Dental School in +1956. Also underway is the reconstruction of the offices of famous +dentists such as G. V. Black and the father of American orthodontia, +Edward H. Angle, using their original equipment and instruments. In +addition, an exhibit is planned to include x-ray tubes and the electric +dental engine, the first to be operated in a human mouth by the pioneer +dentist on dental skiagraphy, Charles E. Kells (1856-1928).<a name="FNanchor_43_21" id="FNanchor_43_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <img src="images/i_295.jpg" width="600" height="452" alt="Figure 23.—Exhibit on nursing bottles and measures to promote child health." + title="Figure 23.—Exhibit on nursing bottles and measures to promote child health." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 23.—<span class="smcap">Exhibit on nursing bottles</span> and measures to + promote child health to counteract the once-common diseases of + childhood. This display was completed in 1962. (Smithsonian photo + 49345-G.)</p> +</div> + +<p>3. <span class="smcap">The Hall of Pharmaceutical History</span> will feature exhibits on the +reconstruction of two pharmacy shops: an 18th-century apothecary shop, +originally from Germany, with a very elegant collection of drug jars, +decorated medicinal bottles, balances, mortars and pestles, and other +tools and documents pertaining to the apothecary art, and a late +19th-century American drugstore with shelves filled with patent +medicines and drug containers of various sizes and shapes. The window +will also feature symbols of pharmacy and beautiful show globes. +Displays will show the development of antibiotics and the early tools +used in the manufacture of the so-called “miracle drugs,” including a +mold from Sir Alexander Fleming, the discoverer of penicillin. In +addition, a platform will be reconstructed to display a variety of +pharmaceutical apparatus used in the preparation and manufacture of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>drugs, such as tablet and capsule machines and drug mills and +percolators. Recently, with the assistance of Professor Glenn +Sonnedecker, the Division acquired a fine collection of pharmaceutical +equipment and devices from the School of Pharmacy of the University of +Wisconsin.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> + <img src="images/i_296.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="Figure 24.—The origins of drugs." + title="Figure 24.—The origins of drugs." /> + <p class="caption2">Figure 24.—<span class="smcap">The origins of drugs</span> from the three natural + kingdoms, drug synthesis, and the increase in the manufacture of + vitamins. This display was completed in 1962 and is now on display at + the Museum of History and Technology. (Smithsonian photo P6316.)</p> +</div> + +<p>Since the Division houses the largest collection of <em lang="lat" xml:lang="lat">materia medica</em> in +the country, a representative cross section of crude drugs will be +displayed in alphabetical order as well as a display illustrating the +role of cinchona and antimalarial drugs in the fight against disease. An +exhibit will portray the “origin of drugs” from the three natural +kingdoms, animal, vegetable, and mineral, together with synthetic drugs +including the manufacture of vitamins.</p> + +<p>Plans are being made for an elaborate exhibit of weights and balances +used in many countries throughout the centuries, their impact on +accuracy of dosage and weighing of drugs, and their use in the +apothecary art.</p> + +<p>The Division will also display pictorial and printed materials, as well +as artifacts from all periods and all countries. These collections are +intended to help in presenting a more complete picture of the story of +the medical sciences for educational purposes and research, and to +increase man’s knowledge in fighting disease and promoting health.</p> + +<p>Thus, from a few hundred specimens of crude drugs in the Section of +Materia Medica of 83 years ago, there has developed a Museum Division +today which embraces the evolution of the health professions through the +ages. This Division now has the largest collection in the Western +Hemisphere of historical objects which are related to the healing arts. +The reference collections are available to the researcher and scholar, +and the exhibits are intended for pleasure and educational purposes in +these fields. The plans for expansion have no limitation as we keep pace +with man’s progress in the medical sciences and continue to collect +materials that contributed to the historical development in the fight +against diseases and the attempts to secure better health for everyone.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>Footnotes</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_1" id="Footnote_43_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> +<cite>Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the Year 1882</cite> [hereinafter referred to as the +<cite>Smithsonian Annual Report</cite>], pp. 101-103; and introductory +“advertisement” to the lectures published by the Smithsonian Institution +in its Miscellaneous Collections (see bibliography).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_2" id="Footnote_43_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Dr. J. J. Woodward’s lecture explained the progress of medical +knowledge of morbid growth and cancerous tumors from 1865 to 1872. It +cautioned that uncertain methods of diagnosis at that time allowed +charlatans and uneducated practitioners to report cures of cancer in +instances where nonmalignant growths were “removed by their caustic +pastes and plasters.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_3" id="Footnote_43_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The two longest intervals were in preparing the last two lectures: +the ninth in 1884, and the tenth, 1889. Both came after the +establishment in 1881 of the Section of Materia Medica in the U.S. +National Museum, to display the development and progress of the health +professions.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_4" id="Footnote_43_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <cite>Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the year 1883</cite>, pp. +190, 614-615.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_5" id="Footnote_43_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> For classifying chemical compounds, Dr. Flint relied on the work of +H. E. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmez, <cite>A Treatise on Chemistry</cite>, 2 vols. (New +York: D. Appleton, 1878-1800.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_6" id="Footnote_43_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <cite>Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the year 1882</cite>, vol. +2, part 2, pp. 100, 228, 656-657. Dr. Flint in his article “Report on +Pharmacopoeias of All Nations,” ibid., pp. 655-680, remarks that there +were then 19 official pharmacopoeias in the world, besides three +semiofficial formularies in certain localities in Italy. The +pharmacopoeias collected represent Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, +Great Britain, Greece, Holland, India, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Spain, +Sweden, Switzerland (two), and the United States.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_7" id="Footnote_43_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The <cite>Universal Formulary</cite>, by R. Eglesfeld Griffith, first edited in +March 1850 (3rd ed. rev. and enlarged by John M. Maisch, Philadelphia: +Lea, 1874) should not be considered an international drug standard. It +was mainly concerned with compiling a great number of formulas and +recipes, methods of preparing and administering official and other +medicines, and tables on weights and measures for utilization by the +U.S. practitioners of the time.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_8" id="Footnote_43_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Other elaborate arrangements were also made to improve and expand +the Section’s activities and services, though some have never +materialized. For example, a herbarium was suggested from which +specimens could be obtained for display of the actual drug with painted +pictures of its plant next to it. Consideration was given to displaying +enlarged drawings to show the minute structure of the specimen for +better identification. In addition, an exhibition of several 10-liter +vessels of the most popular mineral waters was planned. The amount of +saline substances which analysis had shown to be present in each vessel +was to be listed in a table to be attached to that vessel, or the same +amount of minerals was to be put in a small bottle beside it. This plan +was carried out to the best advantage at the Cotton States and +International Exposition held in 1895 in Atlanta, Georgia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_9" id="Footnote_43_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Holt</span>, “A Sketch of the Development of the Rockefeller Institute for +Medical Research,” p. 1. A similar comment was voiced by <span class="smcap">Galdston</span>, +” Research in the United States,” p. 366.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_10" id="Footnote_43_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <cite>Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association</cite> (1918), vol. +7, pp. 376-377, 466.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_11" id="Footnote_43_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Two decades later, Dr. Whitebread designed a panel showing +photographs of famous medical pioneers of all nationalities. See his +article, “The Odd Origin of Medical Discoveries,” p. 321.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_12" id="Footnote_43_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Gebhard</span>, “From Medicine Show to Health Museum,” p. 579. The +original plan for this Hall of Health was to feature exhibits on public +health for popular educational purposes, including an illustrated +exhibit on hospital care. See <span class="smcap">Foley</span>, “Smithsonian Institution Devotes +Much Space to Hospital Exhibit,” pp. 43-44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_13" id="Footnote_43_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Lack of space notwithstanding, valuable accessions were added about +1930, including a collection of early x-ray tubes and personal +memorabilia of Drs. William T. G. Morton (1819-1868), Crawford W. Long +(1815-1878), and William Gorgas (1854-1920).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_14" id="Footnote_43_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> <span class="smcap">D. Riley Moore</span> published a series of short reports under the title “Committee on Osteopathic Exhibits in the U.S. National Museum,” in the +<cite>Journal of the American Osteopathic Association</cite> (1933-1946), vols. +33-46, regarding the exhibit on osteopathy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_15" id="Footnote_43_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> [<span class="smcap">Klein</span>], “He Directs Pharmacy Exhibits at the Smithsonian +Institution,” pp. 20-21.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_16" id="Footnote_43_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Several other journals reported the exhibition with illustrations: +<cite>Drug Topics</cite> (July 8, 1946), vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 2, 79; <cite>National Capital Pharmacist</cite> (September 1945), vol. 7, p. 11, and (September +1946), vol. 8, pp. 11-13; and <cite>The Scientific Monthly</cite> (November 1952), +vol. 75, p. 268.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_17" id="Footnote_43_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Dodrill</span>, and others, “Temporary Mechanical Substitution for the +Left Ventricle in Man,” pp. 642-644, and “Pulmonary Volvuloplasty under +Direct Vision using the Mechanical Heart for a Complete Bypass of the +Right Heart in a Patient with Congenital Pulmonary Stenosis,” pp. +584-595.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_18" id="Footnote_43_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> For the design, expert arrangement of the exhibits, and the legends +that accompany each exhibit in the Hall of Health, we are indebted to +Drs. Bruno Gebhard, Richards H. Shryock, Thomas G. Hull, James Laster, +Walle J. H. Nauta, Leslie W. Knott, Theodore Wiprud, and other +physicians, dentists, and scholars who have offered their advice, +assistance, and expert skills.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_19" id="Footnote_43_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Taylor</span>, “A National Museum of Science, Engineering and Industry,” p. 359.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_20" id="Footnote_43_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Nelson, Pelander, and Kumpula</span>, “Hydraulic Turbine, Contra-angle +Handpiece,” pp. 324-329.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_21" id="Footnote_43_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Monell</span>, “Dental Skiagraphy,” pp. 313-336.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h3> + +<div class="blockquotn"> + <p>The <cite>Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution</cite> from 1872 to date and the + <cite>Proceedings of the United States National Museum</cite> from 1881 to date were used + extensively as sources in this survey. In the latter, see in + particular, the year 1881, pp. 545-546; 1882, pp. 1-2; and 1884, + pp. 431-475.</p> +</div> + +<div class="hang"> + <p><span class="smcap">Atkinson, William B</span>. <cite>The physicians and surgeons of the United States.</cite> + Philadelphia, 1878. [On Dr. Toner.]</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Blake, John B</span>. Dental history and the Smithsonian Institution. <cite>Journal of the American College of Dentists</cite> (1961), vol. 28, pp. 125-127.</p> + + <p>—— <cite>Public health in the town of Boston, 1630-1822.</cite> Cambridge, Mass.: + Harvard University Press, 1959.</p> + + <p>[<span class="smcap">Braisted, William C</span>.] The biography of Dr. Beyer. Page 94 in + <cite>Dictionary of American medical biography</cite>, by <span class="smcap">Howard A. Kelly</span> and + <span class="smcap">Walter L. Burrage; New York</span>: D. Appleton and Co., 1928.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Clark, Leila F</span>. The library of the Smithsonian Institution. <cite>Science</cite> + (1946), vol. 104, p. 143.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Coleman, Laurence Vail</span>. <cite>The museum in America: A critical study.</cite> 3 + vols. Baltimore: Waverly Press, 1939. [Printed for the American + Association of Museums, Washington, D.C.] See vol. 1, pp. 3, 11-12, + 32-33, 143-146, 222, 318; vol. 3, p. 471.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Daukes, S. H</span>. <cite>The medical museum: modern developments, organization and technical methods based on a new system of visual teaching.</cite> London: + Wellcome Foundation Ltd., 1929.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Dodrill, Forest D</span>., and others. Pulmonary volvuloplasty under direct + vision using the mechanical heart for a complete bypass of the right + heart in a patient with congenital pulmonary stenosis. <cite>Journal of + Thoracic Surgery</cite> (1953), vol. 26, pp. 584-595.</p> + + <p>—— Temporary mechanical substitution for the left ventricle in man. + <cite>Journal of the American Medical Association</cite> (1952), vol. 150, pp. + 642-644.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Dunglison, Robley</span>. <cite>A dictionary of medical science.</cite> Rev. ed. Pp. + 629-630. Philadelphia: Lea, 1874.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Edwards, J. J</span>., and <span class="smcap">Edwards, M. J</span>. <cite>Medical museum technology.</cite> London: + Oxford University Press, 1959. [See in particular, pp. 33-62, 142-159.]</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Ferchl, Fritz</span>. Die Mörser der Sammlung Jo Mayer—Wiesbaden; Libri rari + et curiosi der Sammlung Dr. Jo Mayer—Wiesbaden; Bildnisse und Bilder + der Sammlung Jo Mayer—Wiesbaden; Kuriositäten und Antiquitäten der + Sammlung Jo Mayer—Wiesbaden; and Gläser, Majoliken und Faensen der + Sammlung Jo Mayer—Wiesbaden. <cite lang="ger" xml:lang="ger">Pharmazeutische Zeitung</cite> (Berlin, 1930), + vol. 75: January 4, no. 2, pp. 19-24; February 15, no. 14, pp. 219-223; + March 8, no. 20, pp. 309-314; April 19, no. 32, pp. 487-489; and June + 21, no. 50, pp. 735-740.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Flint, James M</span>. Classification and arrangement of the materia medica + collection. <cite>Proceedings of the United States National Museum</cite> (1881), + vol. 4, app. no. 6.</p> + + <p>—— Classification of the materia medica collection of the United + States National Museum, and catalogue of specimens. <cite>Proceedings of the + United States National Museum</cite> (1883), vol. 6, app. 19, pp. 431-475.</p> + + <p>—— Directions for collecting information and objects illustrating the + history of medicine. Part S of <cite>Bulletin of the United States National + Museum</cite> (1905). No. 39.</p> + + <p>—— Memoranda for collectors of drugs for the materia medica section of + the National Museum.<span class="pagenum" style="padding-left:2.5em;"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> <cite>Proceedings of the United States National Museum</cite> + (1881), vol. 4, app. 8.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Foley, Matthew O</span>. Smithsonian Institution devotes much space to hospital + exhibit. <cite>Hospital Management</cite> (April 1929), pp. 271-287.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Galdston, Iago</span>. Research in the United States. <cite>Ciba Symposia</cite> + (June-July 1946), vol. 8, nos. 3 and 4, p. 366.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Garrison, Fielding H</span>. <cite>An introduction to the history of medicine.</cite> 2d + ed. p. 38. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1917.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Gebhard, Bruno</span>. From medicine show to health museum. <cite>Ciba Symposia</cite> + (March 1947), vol. 8, no. 12, p. 579.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Goode, George Brown</span>. <cite>The Smithsonian Institution (1846-1896): The + history of its first half century.</cite> Pp. 325-329, 362-363. Washington, + 1897.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Griffenhagen, George</span>. <cite>Pharmacy museums</cite>. Madison, Wis.: American + Institute of the History of Pharmacy, 1956.</p> + + <p>—— and <span class="smcap">Hughes, Calvin H</span>. The history of the mechanical heart. <cite>Annual + report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the + year ended June 30, 1955</cite> (Washington, 1956), pp. 339-356.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Hamarneh, Sami</span>. At the Smithsonian ... exhibits on pharmaceutical dosage + forms. <cite>Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association</cite> (1962), new + ser., vol. 2, pp. 478-479.</p> + + <p>—— For the collector, facts and artifacts. <cite>Pharmacy in History</cite> + (1961), vol. 6, p. 48.</p> + + <p>—— Historical and educational exhibits on dentistry at the Smithsonian + Institution. <cite>Journal of the American-Dental Association</cite> (July 1962), + vol. 65, pp. 111-114.</p> + + <p>—— New dental exhibits at the Smithsonian Institution. <cite>Journal of the + American Dental Association</cite> (May 1963), vol. 66, pp. 676-678.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Haynes, William</span>. Out of alchemy into chemistry. <cite>The Scientific Monthly</cite> + (November 1952), vol. 75, p. 268.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Holt, L. Emmett</span>. A sketch of the development of the Rockefeller + Institute for Medical Research. <cite>Science</cite> (July 6, 1906), new ser., vol. + 24, no. 601, p. 1.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Howell, William H</span>. The American Physiological Society during its first + twenty-five years. Pp. 21-22 [biography of Dr. Beyer] in <cite>History of the + American Physiological Society semicentennial, 1881-1937</cite>; Baltimore, + 1938.</p> + + <p>[<span class="smcap">Klein, Allen</span>.] He directs pharmacy exhibits at the Smithsonian + Institution. <cite>Modern Pharmacy</cite> (July 1941), vol. 25, pp. 20-21.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">LaWall, Charles H</span>. Ancient pharmacy on display. <cite>Pacific Drug Review</cite> + (1933), vol. 45, p. 18.</p> + + <p>—— <cite>The curious lore of drugs and medicines</cite>. Garden City, N.Y.: + Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., 1927. [See p. 453 on Division of + Medical Sciences’ collection.]</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Lewton, Frederick L</span>. A national pharmaceutical collection. <cite>Journal of + the American Pharmaceutical Association</cite> (1919), vol. 8, pp. 45-46.</p> + + <p>—— The opportunity for developing historical pharmacy collections at + the National Museum. <cite>Journal of the American Pharmaceutical + Association</cite> (1917), vol. 6, pp. 259-262.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Long, Esmond R</span>. The Army Medical Museum. <cite>Military Medicine</cite> (May 1963), + vol. 128, pp. 367-369.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Monell, S. H</span>. “Dental Skiagraphy” (pp. 313-336 in <cite>A system in x-ray + methods and medical uses of light hot-air, vibration and high-frequency + currents</cite> by Monell; New York: Pelton, 1902).</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Murray, David</span>. <cite>Museums, their history and their use</cite>. Glasgow: + MacLehose, 1904. [See vol. 1, pp. 13-77.]</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Nelson, Robert J.; Pelander, Carl E</span>.; and <span class="smcap">Kumpula, John W</span>. Hydraulic + turbine, contra-angle handpiece. <cite>Journal of the American Dental + Association</cite> (September 1953), vol. 47, pp. 324-329.</p> + + <p><cite>Official Catalogue of the Cotton States and International Exposition</cite>: + Atlanta, Georgia, September 18 to December 31, 1895. Atlanta: Claflin + and Mellichamp, 1895. [See p. 204.]</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Packard, Frances R</span>. <cite>History of medicine in the United States</cite>. New + York, 1931. [See vol. 1, pp. 5-6, 37-51, 168-176, 602-607 on Dr. Toner.]</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Pickard, Madge E</span>. Government and science in the United States: + Historical background. <cite>Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied + Sciences</cite> (1946), vol. 1, nos. 2 and 3, pp. 265-266, 289, 446-447, 478.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Purtle, Helen R</span>. Notes on the Medical Museum of the Armed Forces + Institute of Pathology. <cite>Bulletin of the Medical Library Association</cite> + (1956), vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 300-305.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Rathbun, Richard</span>. <cite>A descriptive account of the building recently + erected for the Departments of Natural History of the United States + National Museum.</cite> (U.S. National Museum Bulletin 80.) Washington, 1913. + [See pp. 7-15.]</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Rhees, William J</span>. <cite>The Smithsonian Institution; documents relative to + its origin and history, 1835-1899.</cite> 2 vols. (Smithsonian Miscellaneous + Collections: vol.<span class="pagenum" style="padding-left:2.5em;"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> 42, <em>1835-1881</em>; vol. 43, <em>1881-1899</em>.) Washington, + 1901.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Shufeldt, R. W</span>. Suggestions for a national museum of medicine. <cite>Medical + Record</cite> (March 22, 1919), pp. 4-5. [Also reprinted, 1919, by William + Wood and Co., New York.]</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Sigerist, Henry E</span>. <cite>Primitive and archaic medicine</cite>. (Vol. 1 of <cite>A + history of medicine</cite>, by Sigerist.) New York: Oxford University Press, + 1951. [See pp. 525-531.]</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Silver, Edwin H</span>. Description of the exhibit on conservation of vision + placed in the United States Museum at Washington, D.C. <cite>The Optical + Journal and Review of Optometry</cite> (February 3, 1927), vol. 59, no. 5, pp. + 39-40.</p> + + <p>[<span class="smcap">Sonnedecker, Glenn</span>.] Apothecary shop nears completion. <cite>Journal of the + American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition</cite> (1946), + vol. 7, pp. 157.</p> + + <p>—— Dr. Charles Whitebread, pharmacist and museum curator. <cite>Journal of + the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition</cite> + (1946), vol. 7, p. 203.</p> + + <p>—— Old apothecary shop. <cite>Journal of the American Pharmaceutical + Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition</cite> (1945), vol. 6, pp. 184-187.</p> + + <p>—— Old apothecary shop opened. <cite>Journal of the American Pharmaceutical + Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition</cite> (1946), vol. 7, p. 427.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Taylor, Frank A</span>. A national museum of science, engineering and industry. + <cite>The Scientific Monthly</cite> (1946), vol. 63, pp. 359.</p> + + <p>—— The background of the Smithsonian’s Museum of Engineering and + Industries. <cite>Science</cite> (1946), vol. 104, no. 2693, pp. 130-132.</p> + + <p>Toner Lectures:</p> + + <div class="hang2"> + <p>1. <span class="smcap">J. J. Woodward</span>. On the structure of cancerous tumors and the mode in + which adjacent parts are invaded. No. 266 in <cite>Smithsonian Miscellaneous + Collections</cite>, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on March 28, + 1873.]</p> + + <p>2. <span class="smcap">C. E. Brown-Séquard</span>. Dual character of the brain. No. 291 in + <cite>Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections</cite>, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. + [Lecture given on April 22, 1874.]</p> + + <p>3. <span class="smcap">J. M. Da Costa</span>. On strain and over-action of the heart. No. 279 in + <cite>Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections</cite>, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. + [Lecture given on May 14, 1874.]</p> + + <p>4. <span class="smcap">H. C. Wood</span>. A study of the nature and mechanism of fever. No. 282 in + <cite>Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections</cite>, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. + [Lecture given on January 20, 1875.]</p> + + <p>5. <span class="smcap">William W. Keen</span>. On the surgical complications and sequels of the + continued fevers. No. 300 in <cite>Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections</cite>, + vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on February 17, 1876.]</p> + + <p>6. <span class="smcap">William Adams</span>. Subcutaneous surgery: Its principles, and its recent + extension in practice. No. 302 in <cite>Smithsonian Miscellaneous + Collections</cite>, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on September 13, + 1876.]</p> + + <p>7. <span class="smcap">Edward O. Shakespeare</span>. The nature of reparatory inflammation in + arteries after ligatures, acupressure, and torsion. No. 321 in + <cite>Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections</cite>, vol. 16; Washington, 1880. + [Lecture given on June 27, 1878.]</p> + + <p>8. <span class="smcap">George E. Waring</span>. Suggestions for the sanitary drainage of Washington + City. No. 349 in <cite>Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections</cite>, vol. 26; + Washington, 1883. [Lecture given on May 26, 1880.]</p> + + <p>9. <span class="smcap">Charles K. Mills</span>. Mental over-work and premature disease among public + and professional men. No. 594 in <cite>Smithsonian Miscellaneous + Collections</cite>, vol. 34; Washington, 1893. [Lecture given on March 19, + 1884.]</p> + + <p>10. <span class="smcap">Harrison Allen</span>. A clinical study of the skull. No. 708 in + <cite>Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections</cite>, vol. 34; Washington, 1893. + [Lecture given on May 29, 1889.]</p> + </div> + + <p><span class="smcap">True, Webster P.</span> <cite>The Smithsonian Institution.</cite> (Vol. 1 of the + Smithsonian Scientific Series.) Washington, 1929.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Urdang, George</span>, and <span class="smcap">Nitardy, F. W.</span> <cite>The Squibb ancient pharmacy.</cite> New + York, 1940. [Out of print, but remaining catalogs were given to the + Division of Medicine to “be reserved for pharmaceutical educators, + foreign dignitaries, pharmacists of national and international + reputation, and pharmaceutical historians,” according to a letter from + Mr. Nitardy in 1945.]</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Whitebread, Charles</span>. Animal pharmaceuticals of the past and present. + <cite>Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association</cite> (1933), vol. 22, + pp. 431-437.</p> + + <p>—— An old apothecary shop of 1750. <cite>National Capital Pharmacist</cite> + (September 1946), vol. 8, pp. 11-13, 35.</p> + + <p>—— Early American pharmaceutical inventions.<span class="pagenum" style="padding-left:2.5em;"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> <cite>Journal of the American + Pharmaceutical Association</cite> (1937), vol. 26, pp. 918-928.</p> + + <p>—— <cite>Handbook of the health exhibits of the United + States National Museum.</cite> Baltimore: Lord Baltimore Press [1924].</p> + + <p>—— Health superstitions. <cite>Journal of the American Pharmaceutical + Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition</cite> (1942), vol. 3, pp. 268-274.</p> + + <p>—— Medicine making as depicted by museum dioramas. <cite>Journal of the + American Pharmaceutical Association</cite> (January 1936), vol. 25, pp. 40-46.</p> + + <p>—— Superstition, credulity and skepticism. <cite>Journal of the American + Pharmaceutical Association</cite> (1933), vol. 22, pp. 1140-1145.</p> + + <p>—— The Indian medical exhibit of the Division of Medicine in the + United States National Museum. Article 10 in vol. 67 of <cite>Proceedings of + the U.S. National Museum</cite>; Washington, 1926.</p> + + <p>—— The magic, psychic, ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman medical + collections of the Division of Medicine in the United States National + Museum. Article 15 in vol. 65 of <cite>Proceedings of the U.S. National + Museum</cite>; Washington, 1925.</p> + + <p>—— The odd origin of medical discoveries. <cite>Journal of the American + Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition</cite> (1943), vol. 4, + p. 321.</p> + + <p>—— The United States National Museum pharmaceutical collection, its + aims, problems, and accomplishments. <cite>Journal of the American + Pharmaceutical Association</cite> (1930), vol. 19, pp. 1125-1126.</p> + + <p><span class="smcap">Winters, S. R.</span> Magic medicine. <cite>Hygeia</cite> (July 1937), vol. 15, pp. + 630-633.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center" style="font-size:0.8em;"><br /><br /><br />U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1964</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p class="center">For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office<br /> +Washington, D.C., 20402. Price 30 cents.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a><em>Index</em></h3> + +<p>Angle, Edward H., <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br /><br /></p> + +<p>Beyer, Dr. Henry Gustav, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></p> + +<p>Black, G. V., <a href="#Page_295">295</a></p> + +<p>Blake, John B., <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></p> + +<p>Boyd, John C., <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /><br /></p> + +<p>Carrel, Alexis, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></p> + +<p>Coleman, Laurence V., <a href="#Page_290">290</a></p> + +<p>Colton, Arthur, and Company, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /><br /></p> + +<p>Dagger, Benjamin M., <a href="#Page_290">290</a></p> + +<p>Dixon, William S., <a href="#Page_276">276</a></p> + +<p>Dodrill, Forest D., <a href="#Page_290">290</a></p> + +<p>Donner, Joseph, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Einthoven, Willem, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></p> + +<p>Emerson, John Haven, <a href="#Page_285">285</a><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Ferchl, Fritz, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></p> + +<p>Fischelis, Robert P., <a href="#Page_287">287</a></p> + +<p>Fleming, Sir Alexander, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></p> + +<p>Flint, James Milton, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Garfield, James A., <a href="#Page_272">272</a></p> + +<p>Garrison, Fielding H., <a href="#Page_277">277</a></p> + +<p>Goode, G. Brown, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p> + +<p>Gravatt, C. U., <a href="#Page_276">276</a></p> + +<p>Griffenhagen, George B., <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Hammond, William Alexander, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p> + +<p>Henderson, Alfred R., <a href="#Page_291">291</a></p> + +<p>Henkel, Silon, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></p> + +<p>Hindle, Charles F., <a href="#Page_290">290</a></p> + +<p>Holt, L. Emmett, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Kells, Charles E., <a href="#Page_295">295</a></p> + +<p>Koett, Albert B., <a href="#Page_287">287</a><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>LaWall, Charles H., <a href="#Page_285">285</a></p> + +<p>Lederle Laboratories, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></p> + +<p>Lewton, Frederick L., <a href="#Page_277">277</a></p> + +<p>Lilly, Eli, and Company, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></p> + +<p>Lindbergh, Charles A., <a href="#Page_291">291</a></p> + +<p>Long, Crawford W., <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Marmion, R. A., <a href="#Page_276">276</a></p> + +<p>Mayer, Jo, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></p> + +<p>McMurtrie, Daniel, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></p> + +<p>Morton, Arthur O., <a href="#Page_290">290</a></p> + +<p>Morton, William, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Nagel, Oscar P., <a href="#Page_295">295</a></p> + +<p>Nelson, Robert J., <a href="#Page_295">295</a></p> + + +<p>Parke, Davis & Company, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p> + +<p>Physick, Philip Syng, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Schieffelin and Company, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p> + +<p>Sonnedecker, Glenn, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></p> + +<p>Squibb, E. R., and Sons, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br /><br /></p> + +<p>Tanner, Paul H., <a href="#Page_295">295</a></p> + +<p>Taylor, Frank A., <a href="#Page_292">292</a></p> + +<p>Thomas, George S., <a href="#Page_287">287</a></p> + +<p>Toner, Joseph Meredith, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /><br /></p> + +<p>Wallace Brothers, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p> + +<p>Wetmore, Dr. Alexander, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></p> + +<p>White, C. H., <a href="#Page_276">276</a></p> + +<p>Whitebread, Charles, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, +<a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></p> + +<p>Wilson, Frank E., <a href="#Page_290">290</a></p> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<div class="tnote"> +<a id="corrections_43" name="corrections_43"></a> +<p>Transcriber's corrections:</p> +<p>P. <a href="#corr_43_3a">277</a> ‘the basis of scientific, historical’—was ‘the bases of scientific, historical’</p> +<p>P. <a href="#corr_43_1a">287</a> ‘purely produced chemical elements’—was ‘purely produced, chemical elements.’</p> +<p>P. <a href="#corr_43_2a">290</a> ‘string galvanometers (named’—was ‘string galvanometer- (named.’</p> +</div> + + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE DIVISION OF MEDICAL SCIENCES***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 27932-h.txt or 27932-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/7/9/3/27932">http://www.gutenberg.org/2/7/9/3/27932</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: History of the Division of Medical Sciences + United States National Museum Bulletin 240, Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, paper 43, 1964 + + +Author: Sami Khalaf Hamarneh + + + +Release Date: January 29, 2009 [eBook #27932] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE DIVISION OF MEDICAL +SCIENCES*** + + +E-text prepared by Colin Bell, Louise Pattison, Joseph Cooper, and the +Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team +(https://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 27932-h.htm or 27932-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/7/9/3/27932/27932-h/27932-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/7/9/3/27932/27932-h.zip) + + +Transcriber's Note: + + This is Paper 43 from the Smithsonian Institution United States + National Museum Bulletin 240, comprising Papers 34-44, which will + also be available as a complete e-book. + + The front material, introduction and relevant index entries from + the Bulletin are included in each single-paper e-book. + + + + + +SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION + +UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM +BULLETIN 240 + +[Illustration] + +Smithsonian Press + +Museum of History and Technology + +Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology + +Papers 34-44 +On Science and Technology + +Smithsonian Institution . Washington, D.C. 1966 + +Publications of the United States National Museum + +The scholarly and scientific publications of the United States National +Museum include two series, _Proceedings of the United States National +Museum_ and _United States National Museum Bulletin_. + +In these series, the Museum publishes original articles and monographs +dealing with the collections and work of its constituent +museums--The Museum of Natural History and the Museum of History +and Technology--setting forth newly acquired facts in the fields of +anthropology, biology, history, geology, and technology. Copies of each +publication are distributed to libraries, to cultural and scientific +organizations, and to specialists and others interested in the different +subjects. + +The _Proceedings_, begun in 1878, are intended for the publication, in +separate form, of shorter papers from the Museum of Natural History. +These are gathered in volumes, octavo in size, with the publication date +of each paper recorded in the table of contents of the volume. + +In the _Bulletin_ series, the first of which was issued in 1875, appear +longer, separate publications consisting of monographs (occasionally in +several parts) and volumes in which are collected works on related +subjects. _Bulletins_ are either octavo or quarto in size, depending on +the needs of the presentation. Since 1902 papers relating to the +botanical collections of the Museum of Natural History have been +published in the _Bulletin_ series under the heading _Contributions from +the United States National Herbarium_, and since 1959, in _Bulletins_ +titled "Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology," have +been gathered shorter papers relating to the collections and research of +that Museum. + +The present collection of Contributions, Papers 34-44, comprises +Bulletin 240. Each of these papers has been previously published in +separate form. The year of publication is shown on the last page of each +paper. + +FRANK A. TAYLOR +_Director, United States National Museum_ + + + + +Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology: +Paper 43 + +HISTORY OF THE DIVISION OF MEDICAL SCIENCES + +by + +SAMI HAMARNEH + + + + + + + + +SECTION OF MATERIA MEDICA (1881-1898) 272 + +DIVISION OF MEDICINE (1898-1939) 276 + +DIVISION OF MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH (1939-1957) 281 + +DIVISION OF MEDICAL SCIENCES (1957 TO PRESENT) 290 + +A NEW DIMENSION FOR THE HEALING ARTS 292 + +FOOTNOTES + +BIBLIOGRAPHY 297 + +INDEX + +[Illustration: Figure 1.--EARLY VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL +MUSEUM, known for the last quarter of a century as the Arts and +Industries building. Completed in 1881, it housed the Division of +Medical Sciences from its establishment in 1881 as a Section of Materia +Medica to the time of the writing of this paper. While the medical +collection remained in the Department of Arts and Industries, by the end +of June 1912 practically all other collections belonging to the fields +of natural history and anthropology were transferred to the then new +Natural History building.] + + +_Sami Hamarneh_ + + + + +HISTORY of the DIVISION of MEDICAL SCIENCES + +_In The Museum of History and Technology_ + + _This paper traces, for the first time, the history of the + Division of Medical Sciences in the Museum of History and + Technology from its small beginnings as a section of materia + medica in 1881 to its present broad scope. The original + collection of a few hundred specimens of crude drugs which had + been exhibited at the centennial exhibition of 1876 at + Philadelphia, has now developed into the largest collection in + the Western Hemisphere of historical objects related to the + healing arts._ + + THE AUTHOR: _Sami Hamarneh is the curator of the Division of + Medical Sciences in the Smithsonian Institution's Museum of + History and Technology._ + + +By the early 1870's, leading figures from both the health professions +and the general public had begun to realize the necessity for having the +medical sciences represented in the Smithsonian Institution. The impetus +behind this new feeling resulted from the action of a distinguished +American physician, philanthropist, and author, Joseph Meredith Toner +(1825-1896), and came almost a decade before the integration of a new +section concerned with research and the historical and educational +aspects of the healing arts in the Smithsonian Institution. + +In 1872, Dr. Toner established the "Toner Lectures" to encourage efforts +towards discovering new truths "for the advancement of medical science +... for the benefit of mankind." To finance these lectures, he provided +a fund worth approximately $3,000 to be administered by a board of +trustees consisting of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, the +Surgeon General of the U.S. Navy, the Surgeon General of the U.S. Army +(only in some years), and the president of the Medical Society of the +District of Columbia. The interest from this fund was to compensate +physicians and scholars who were to deliver "at least two annual memoirs +or essays" based on original research on some branch of the medical +sciences and containing information which had been verified "by +experiments or observations."[1] + +The Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution agreed to have these +lectures published by the Institution in its Miscellaneous Collections. +The first lecture given by the Assistant Surgeon of the U.S. Army, "On +the Structure of Cancerous Tumors and the Mode in which Adjacent parts +are Invaded," deserves credit even by current standards of scientific +research.[2] Only 10 lectures were given between 1873 and 1890 (see +bibliography), despite the recommendation for at least two every +year.[3] + +[Illustration: Figure 2.--DR. JOSEPH M. TONER, a leading physician in +Washington, D.C., and founder of the "Toner Lectures" for the promotion +and advancement of medical education and research. In 1873, Dr. Toner +became president of the American Medical Association and, in 1874, he +became president of the American Public Health Association. He was a +physician to St. Joseph's Male Orphan Asylum and St. Ann's Infants' +Asylum in Washington, D.C. In addition, he was instrumental in +establishing Providence Hospital in the District of Columbia. He also +provided a workable plan for the American Medical Association's library +in Washington, D.C. (1868-1871). Among his several publications are: +_Contributions to the Annals of Medical Progress and Medical Education +in the United States before and during the War of Independence_ +(Washington: Government Printing Office, 1874) and _Medical Men of the +Revolution_ (1876). In 1882, he donated his large library, consisting of +44,000 books and pamphlets on topics related mainly to medicine and +history, to the Library of Congress. (_Photo courtesy of National +Library of Medicine._)] + +A more direct factor, which not only contributed to the establishment of +a section on the healing arts, but also had a greater effect upon the +Smithsonian Institution than any other event since its founding, was the +1876 centennial exhibition in Philadelphia. + +This magnificent international fair commemorated the hundredth +anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The +finest exhibits of 30 foreign countries and various States of the Union +participating in the fair were finally donated to the Smithsonian +Institution as the official depository of historical and archeological +objects for this country. As a result, the Institution's collections +increased to an extent far beyond the capacity of the first Smithsonian +building. This led to the erection of the National Museum, known for the +last two decades and until date of publication as the Arts and +Industries building, which was completed on March 4, 1881, and was used +that evening for the inaugural reception of incoming President James A. +Garfield. + + + + +Section of Materia Medica (1881-1898) + +Throughout the 19th century, the study of _materia medica_ (dealing with +the nature and properties of drugs of various kinds and origins, their +collection and mode of administration for the treatment of diseases, and +the medicinal utilization of animal products) held an increasingly +important place among the medical sciences. In the United States, as in +other civilized countries, this topic was greatly emphasized in the +curriculum of almost every school teaching the health professions. +Today, the subject matter contained in this branch of science is taught +under the heading of several specialized fields, such as pharmacology, +pharmacognosy, and drug analysis of various types. However, when the +decision was made in 1881 to promote greater knowledge and interest in +the healing arts by creating a section devoted to such pursuits in the +U.S. National Museum, the title of Section of Materia Medica was +adopted. Added to this, was the fact that the bulk of the first +collections received in the Section was a great variety of crude drugs, +which constituted much of the material then taught in the academic +courses of _materia medica_. + +The new Section was included in the Department of Arts and Industries, +then under the curatorship of Assistant Director G. Brown Goode. From +its beginning and for two decades, however, the Section of Materia +Medica was sponsored and supervised by the U.S. Navy in cooperation with +the Smithsonian Institution. For this reason, the Navy decided not to +establish a similar bureau for a health museum as did the Army in +starting the Medical Museum (of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology) +in 1862 through the efforts of Dr. William Alexander Hammond. The +Smithsonian did, however, provide a clerk to relieve the curator of much +of the routine work. The Section's early vigorous activities were the +result of the ingenuity of the first honorary curator, Dr. James Milton +Flint (1838-1919), an Assistant Surgeon of the U.S. Navy. From the +establishment of the Section, in 1881, to 1912, Dr. Flint was curator +during separate periods for a total of nearly 25 years. For three of his +tenures (1881-1884; 1887-1891; 1895-1900), he was detailed to the +Smithsonian Institution by the Surgeon General of the U.S. Navy. During +the interim periods, other naval doctors were detailed as curators. +Finally, in 1900, Dr. Flint retired from the Navy with the rank of Rear +Admiral and volunteered to continue his services to the National Museum. +The proposal was gladly accepted and he continued as a curator until his +retirement from the Smithsonian Institution in 1912. + +[Illustration: Figure 3.--REAR ADMIRAL JAMES M. FLINT, U.S. Navy surgeon +and first honorary curator of the Section of Materia Medica. (_Photo +courtesy of the Library of Congress._)] + +The Section commenced with a wealth of material. After the close of the +1876 centennial exhibition, its _materia medica_ collection had been +stored with the other collections in a warehouse, awaiting an +appropriation by Congress for transfer and installation. This collection +was gradually brought into the new National Museum after that building's +completion in 1881. Many other _materia medica_ specimens were +transferred from the Department of Agriculture. In addition to these +large collections of crude drugs, generous contributions came from +several prominent pharmaceutical firms such as Parke, Davis & Company of +Detroit, Michigan; Wallace Brothers of Statesville, North Carolina; and +Schieffelin and Company of New York City. These manufacturing houses are +mentioned here because they and their agents abroad were the first to +take interest and donate to the Section, complete assortments of +contemporary remedial agents then in common use throughout the United +States and Europe, besides many hundreds of "rare and curious drugs." +Thus, in spite of difficulties encountered from bringing several +collections into the building at one time, the _materia medica_ +exhibition got off to a good start. + +It was Dr. Flint, the first curator, who stated in 1883 that remedial +agents used by a nation or a community are as indicative of the degree +of their cultural development and standard of living as is the nature of +their food, the character of their dwellings, and their social and +religious traditions. Therefore, he felt that collections of drugs and +medical, surgical and pharmaceutical instruments and appliances should +not be thought of or designed as instructive to the specialist only, but +should also possess a general interest for the public. Because of these +objectives, Dr. Flint added, this section was conceived as a +departmental division for the collecting and exhibiting of objects +related to medicine, surgery, pharmacology, hygiene, and all material +related to the health field at large.[4] + +During his first term of curatorship (1881-1884), Dr. Flint devoted much +of his time to sorting, examining, identifying, and classifying the +_materia medica_ specimens.[5] In 1881, he issued a memorandum of +instructions to be followed by collectors of drugs and urged them to +give detailed and accurate information regarding acquired specimens so +that they might be "more than mere museum curiosities." In addition, in +1883, he prepared a brief manual of classification of the _materia +medica_ collection in the Museum as well as a useful, detailed catalog +of informational labels of the individual objects on exhibition. The +unpublished catalog is still the property of the Smithsonian Institution +Archives, Division of Medical Sciences' Library. + +It was Dr. Flint's ambition to obtain a comprehensive, worldwide +collection of all substances used as remedies. Then, in order to +identify drugs from foreign countries, he tried to collect illustrated +works on medical botany and printed pharmacopoeias of all nations having +them. He rightly defined an official pharmacopoeia as "a book containing +directions for the identification and preparation of medicines prepared +and issued with the sanction of a government or organized and +authorized medical and pharmaceutical societies. Its purpose is to +establish uniformity in the nomenclature of remedies and in the +character and potency of the pharmaceutical preparations. It is enacted +by legislation, and thus becomes binding on all who prepare drugs or +sell them for medication." By soliciting the help of various American +consuls and Navy officers abroad, about 16 such official pharmacopoeias +were collected, making an almost complete international representation +of all available, official, drug standards. With these sources of +information, Dr. Flint compiled and arranged an international list of +_materia medica_ specimens, indicating the authorized preparations of +each. By so doing, the first curator of this Section took the initiative +at least in proposing and, to some extent acting, on the preparation of +an international pharmacopoeia of drugs used in existing authorized +formularies giving "official synonyms, and tables showing the +constituents and comparative strength of all preparations."[6] This +undertaking is of special importance in the history of American +pharmacy, since it was probably the first attempt of its kind in the +United States.[7] In addition, colored plates and photographs of +medicinal plants were collected, forming the nucleus of the Division's +current collection of pictorial and photographic material related to the +history of the health field. + +Dr. Flint also put on exhibition 630 Chinese _materia medica_ specimens +from the 1876 Philadelphia centennial. These had been collected +originally by the Chinese Imperial Customs Commission for the centennial +and were subsequently given to this country. + +In 1881, the numbered objects in the Section's register amounted to +1,574 entries. In the following year, 1,590 more specimens were added, +most of them drugs in their crude state. By the end of 1883, the total +collection had reached 4,037, out of which 3,240 individual drugs in +good condition were classified and put on display. Of these, about 500 +specimens with beautiful illustrations of parts of their original plants +had been mounted for exhibition. The drug exhibitions also included +materials transferred from the Department of Agriculture in 1881, which +originally had been brought from Central America and South America for +the 1876 centennial exhibition, a variety of opium specimens from +Turkey, and a number of rare drugs listed in the official formulary +which were acquired from the Museum of Karachi in what was then India. + +Dr. Flint commented in the _Smithsonian Annual Report_ for 1883 that the +collection of cinchona barks was especially complete. It was comprised +of specimens of nearly all the natural cinchona barks of South America +and every known variety of the cultivated product from the British +government plantations in India. In addition, there were specimens from +Java, Ceylon, Mexico, and Jamaica. The Indian and Jamaican barks were +accompanied by herbarium specimens of the leaf and flower (and, in some +cases, the fruit) of each variety of tree from which the bark was +obtained.[8] + +In an attempt to protect specimens liable to attack by insects, a small +piece of blotting paper moistened with chloroform was inserted +underneath the stopper in each bottle. Later on, bichloride of mercury +was found to be a better insecticide. + +These early collections of the Section were brought into admirable +condition and received compliments for their organization and +completeness. In the _Smithsonian Annual Report_ for 1883, the +collections were praised as "superior to any other in the United States +and scarcely excelled by any in Europe." + +[Illustration: Figure 4.--DR. HENRY GUSTAV BEYER, the second honorary +curator of the Section of Materia Medica (1884-1887). (_Photo courtesy +of American Physiological Society._)] + +In spite of the apparent emphasis on the displaying of drugs, the first +curator of the Section had envisioned that the exhibits eventually would +embrace the entire field of the healing arts. In the _Smithsonian Annual +Report_ for 1883, Dr. Flint noted that "in the establishment of a museum +designed to illustrate man and his environment, it is proper that the +materials and methods used for the prevention and cure of disease should +have a place." However, his plans were temporarily interrupted when his +first term as honorary curator ended in 1884. + +On June 4, 1884, Dr. Henry Gustav Beyer was detailed by the Department +of the Navy to become the second honorary curator of the Section of +Materia Medica. As a young man, Dr. Beyer (1850-1918) had come from +Saxony, Germany, to the United States and, in due course, became a +naturalized citizen. He was graduated from the Bellevue Hospital +Medical College of New York City in 1876. + +Because of his interest in physiological experimental research, Dr. +Beyer enrolled at the Johns Hopkins University, where he was awarded a +Ph. D. degree in 1887. Unlike his predecessor, Dr. Beyer was primarily +interested in carrying on research on the physiological action of +certain drugs and in pharmacology. This was evident from the original +scientific papers mentioned in the _Smithsonian Annual Reports_ and +published by him during the period of his curatorship from 1884 to 1887. + +Despite the pressure of his postgraduate studies at Johns Hopkins +University, Dr. Beyer helped in arranging and classifying the _materia +medica_ collection without trying to extend materially the scope of the +Section. + +After the term of Dr. Beyer expired in 1887, Dr. Flint returned to take +charge of the Section. Surprisingly, at this time, it seems that he +showed less enthusiasm and devotion to the work of the Museum which he +had previously served so well. It could have been a disappointment +resulting from a lack of evidence of any real progress in the Section +since he had left it three years before. Whatever the reasons may have +been, the _Smithsonian Annual Reports_ show that only a few hundred +specimens were added to the _materia medica_ collections between 1887 +and 1890, bringing the total to 5,915 preserved in good condition. +Further curtailment of the Section's activities began in November 1891 +when Dr. Flint was again transferred to other duties for the U.S. Navy. +From November 1891 to May 24, 1895, curatorship of the Section was +charged to five physicians of the U.S. Navy: Drs. John C. Boyd (from +November 1891 to April 6, 1892); William S. Dixon (April 1892 to January +5, 1893); C. H. White (January 1893 to July 15, 1893); C. U. Gravatt +(July 1893 to January 22, 1894); R. A. Marmion (January 22, 1894 to June +15, 1894); and to Medical Inspector Daniel McMurtrie (June 1894 to May +24, 1895). During this interim of nearly three and a half years, there +were neither literary contributions nor additions made to the +collections of the Section that were of any significance. The reason is +obvious, for all of these curators averaged less than seven months of +service which is not enough time, even for a well-trained individual, to +accomplish very much in a museum. Therefore, it is easy to imagine that +when the Secretary of the Navy detailed Dr. Flint for a third time to +take charge of the Section, he was rather discouraged. Nevertheless, at +the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia, from +September 18 to December 31, 1895, the _materia medica_ was represented +by two displays: one on mineral waters and amounts of solid constituents +in pure state; and another showing the quantities of minerals after +analysis of the composition of the human body. + +A similar project was undertaken in 1897 at the Tennessee Centennial +Exposition (May 1 to October 31) in Nashville, where there were two +displays of _materia medica_. One showed several kinds of the cinchona +barks and the medicinal preparations made from them, and another +containing the commercial varieties of the alkaloids of opium. + +At this time, Dr. Flint's attention turned to a new phase of medical +exhibition. He felt the need for a program of exhibits on the practice +and the historical development of the healing arts. A change of the +Section's name was deemed necessary and, thus, in 1898 the more +comprehensive title of Division of Medicine was adopted. + + + + +Division of Medicine (1898-1939) + +The statement by L. Emmett Holt of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical +Research, that before 1906, the Smithsonian Institution was never a +beneficiary to medicine in any form,[9] is not entirely applicable. The +previous discussion has clearly shown that the U.S. National Museum's +cooperation with the Navy contributed materially towards encouraging and +promoting medical knowledge. Furthermore, Dr. Flint tried to bring many +of his plans for this medical division of the Museum to a practical +fulfillment. He devised a program for presenting medical history in a +way which would be of interest both to the public and to the profession. +In order to best illustrate the history of the healing art, he divided +his subject matter into five provisional classifications according to +the _Report upon the Condition and Progress of the U.S. National Museum_ +during 1898: + + 1. Magical medicine including exorcism, amulets, talismans, + fetishes and incantation; + + 2. Psychical medicine including faith cures, and hypnotism; + + 3. Physical and external medicine including baths, exercise, + electricity, massage, surgery, cautery, and blood-letting; + + 4. Internal medicine including medications and treatment used by + the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Hindus, Arabians, and Chinese; + and + + 5. Preventive medicine including beverages, food, soil, clothing + and habitation. + +It is certainly to Dr. Flint's credit that from its early conception, +first as Section of Materia Medica and thereafter as Division of +Medicine, he planned for an all-embracing exhibition and reference +collection of the medical sciences. Until the end of the 19th century +and the early years of the 20th century, crude drugs as well as +primitive and magic medicine held a more prominent place than medical +instruments in the exhibits and collections. In 1905, Flint issued his +last, known, literary contribution, "Directions for Collecting +Information and Objects Illustrating the History of Medicine," in Part S +of _Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum_, no. 39. The emphasis he put +upon this shows Dr. Flint's interest in collecting medical and +pharmaceutical objects and equipment of historical value. Consequently, +he arranged new exhibits including one on American Indian medicine. A +medical historian, Fielding H. Garrison, inspected these about 1910 and, +in his "An Introduction to the History of Medicine," wrote of their +novelty and appeal. "In the interesting exhibit of folk medicine in the +National Museum at Washington," he commented, "a buckeye or horse +chestnut (_Aesculus flavus_), an Irish potato, a rabbit's foot, a +leather strap previously worn by a horse, and a carbon from an arc light +are shown as sovereign charms against rheumatism. Other amulets in the +Washington exhibit," he added, "are the patella of a sheep and a ring +made out of a coffin nail (dug out of a graveyard) for cramps and +epilepsy, a peony root to be carried in the pocket against insanity, and +rare and precious stones for all and sundry diseases." It had been Dr. +Flint's intention, besides presenting an educational display on the +history of the medical arts, to warn the public against the perils of +quackery and the faults of folk medicine, as well as to expose evils in +drug adulteration. Today, we can see actual fulfillment of these +intentions in the present exhibit at the medical gallery which has been +executed recently on the basis of scientific, historical research. + +After Dr. Flint's retirement from the Smithsonian Institution in 1912, +there was no replacement for over five years. Therefore, the Division +of Medicine was placed, for administrative purposes, under the +supervision of the curator of the newly reestablished (1912) Division of +Textiles, Frederick L. Lewton. During these years, he fought against the +dispersal of the medical and _materia medica_ collections. Thus, for +lack of a curator of its own, almost all new activities in the Division +of Medicine were curtailed until 1917. + +On January 31, 1917, Lewton addressed members of the American +Pharmaceutical Association inviting them to cooperate in gathering up +and preserving at the National Museum the "many unique and irreplaceable +objects" connected with the early history of pharmacy in this country +which could still be saved.[10] Then, on March 14, 1917, an examination +was announced by the Civil Service (held May 2) for an assistant curator +for the Division of Medicine, and the position was filled by Joseph +Donner on August 16, 1917. Donner was the first full-time employee paid +by the Smithsonian Institution for the curatorship of this Division. He +held the post until January 31, 1918, when he was inducted into the +Sanitary Corps of the United States Army. No significant activities in +the Division of Medicine were reported during these few months. + +Mr. Donner was followed by a second, full-time, museum officer who +promoted a great amount of good will towards the Division during his +curatorship of a little over 30 years. Dr. Charles Whitebread +(1877-1963), the first pharmacist to head the Division, joined the +Smithsonian in 1918 and remained until his retirement in 1948, the +longest service, thus far, of any individual in the Division. + +Dr. Whitebread received his degree of Doctor of Pharmacy from the School +of Pharmacy at George Washington University in Washington, D.C., in +1911. He entered government service late in 1915, but it was not until +April 2, 1918, that he agreed to become assistant curator of the +Division of Medicine. + +Curator Whitebread's first year was an active and challenging one, for +in this new position he began to develop a deep interest in the history +of the healing arts. He made a number of important acquisitions, most of +them pertaining to pharmaceutical products, synthetic chemicals and +crude drugs. He found that many specimens from the older drug +collections had deteriorated to such an extent as to be worthless, and +he began replacing them with freshly marketed drugs. + +[Illustration: Figure 5.--CURATOR CHARLES WHITEBREAD inspecting, with +admiration, five drug containers from the Squibb collection (1945). +(_Photo courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association._)] + +Plans were completed for the opening of new medical exhibits and +adopting, with some modifications and additions, earlier classifications +set by Dr. Flint. Dr. Whitebread grouped these into the following +classes: the evaluation of the healing arts; a picture display of +medical men prominent in American history;[11] a _materia medica_ +display including the history of pharmacy; and an exhibition on +Sanitation and Public Hygiene[12] which was later to evolve into the +Hall of Health. + +In 1920, Dr. Whitebread added a number of specimens of medical-dosage +forms and pharmaceutical preparations to the Division's collections. He +also acquired other gifts to complete existing exhibits illustrating the +basic principles of the various schools of medicine, such as homeopathy +and osteopathy--their methods, tools, and ways of thought. + +In 1921, a tablet machine by the Arthur Colton Company of Detroit, +Michigan, was acquired, and an exhibit illustrating vaccine and serum +therapy was installed in the medical gallery. This was followed, in +1922, by a collection arranged to tell the story of the prevention and +cure of specific diseases by means of biological remedies. + +During the following two years, two more exhibits related to hospital +supplies and sanitation were added to the rapidly developing Hall of +Health exhibition which was opened in 1924. A third exhibit in 1925 +consisted of 96 mounted color transparencies illustrating services +provided by hospitals to promote public health. Plans for the further +development of the Hall of Health continued during 1926, and contacts +were made with organizations interested in the educational aspects of +the healing arts. As a result, several new exhibits were added. In 1926, +the American Optometric Association helped in the installation of an +exhibit on conservation of vision or the care of the eyes under the +slogan "Save your vision," as a phase of health work. Other exhibits in +the Hall at this time were: what parasites are; water pollution and how +to obtain pure water; waste disposal; ventilation and healthy housing, +and the importance of recreation; purification of milk and how to obtain +pure milk; transmission of diseases by insects and animals; how life +begins; prenatal and postnatal care and preschool care; duties of the +public health nurse; and social, oral and mental hygiene. + +With the acquiring of more medical appliances and the widening of the +scope of the exhibits, more and more space was needed, and attention was +turned to the area of the medical gallery which had been occupied by the +_materia medica_ collection for almost four decades. To gain more +exhibit space, it was decided that the greater part of the crude drugs +should be removed from the exhibits and be kept as a reference +collection and for research.[13] + +[Illustration: Figure 6.--EXHIBIT ON EGYPTIAN AND HEBREW MEDICINE, +installed about 1924, which was illustrated by graphs and drugs +mentioned in extant records of this ancient period. (Smithsonian photo +30796-C.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 7.--EXHIBIT ON MEDICAL HISTORY during the +Greco-Roman period. (Smithsonian photo 30796-D.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 8.--EXHIBIT ON REMEDIES DERIVED FROM DRUGS of +vegetable origin, displayed about mid-1930's. (Smithsonian photo +30439.)] + +In 1926, original patent models including those related to pharmacy, +medicine, and dentistry, were transferred from the U.S. Patent Office to +the National Museum. These patent models, together with other apothecary +tools and the machines used in drug production took up most of the +available space. This unfortunate situation led Dr. Whitebread to turn +down significant medical and pharmaceutical collections offered the +Museum between 1927 and 1930. Since the patent models were devised for +inventions designed to simplify the practice of the health professions, +three cases of these models were displayed in the medical gallery in the +early 1930's. Other exhibits shown during this decade included the +deception of folk medicine with warnings against superstitions, and an +exhibition on osteopathy,[14] as well as dioramas on the manufacture of +medicines and their use in scientific medical treatment. + +In the meantime, Dr. Whitebread was an active contributor to the +literature of the health field in various periodicals, as well as in +pamphlets issued by the Museum and other governmental agencies (see +bibliography). His literary contributions, guided by the exhibits he +designed and the collections he acquired, were focused on the Division's +collections, such as primitive and psychic medicine and warnings against +reliance on magic and superstitions in treatment, medical oddities, and +the utilization of drugs of animal origin, both past and present. + + + + +Division of Medicine and Public Health (1939-1957) + +After taking charge of the Division of Medicine in 1918, Dr. Whitebread +gave special attention to public health displays. His activities in this +area were accelerated after 1924 when the health exhibit at the +Smithsonian Institution was inaugurated. As the exhibits in this field +increased, the Division, in 1939, took the more comprehensive title of +Division of Medicine and Public Health. Also, in 1939, Dr. Whitebread +was promoted to the rank of associate curator. + +[Illustration: Figure 9.--EXHIBIT ON METHODS OF TREATMENT of diseases +through mental impressions and psychic conditions as displayed about +1925. (Smithsonian photo 30796-B.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 10.--AN EXHIBIT ON SUPERSTITIONS, EMPIRICISM, +magic, and faith healing in the light of scientific medicine, completed +in 1962, is in sharp contrast with that shown in figure 9.] + +He continued his efforts to collect more specimens of interest to +medical history and to contribute to the literature. Among exhibited +specimens in 1941 were a powder paper-crimping machine, a portable drug +crusher, an odd device for spreading plaster on cloth, a pill-coating +apparatus, various suppository molds, a lozenge cutter, and an ingenious +Seidlitz powder machine. The derivation of medicinal drugs from animal, +vegetable, and mineral sources was also depicted, as were synthetic +materials and their intermediates. Basic prescription materials were +displayed, and rows of glass-enclosed cases held samples of crude +botanical drugs from almost every part of the globe with explanatory +cards giving brief, concise descriptions. The exhibition provided +medical and pharmaceutical students about to take state-board +examinations, the opportunity to study the subject in detail, especially +the enormous collection of _materia medica_ samples.[15] Also in 1941, +Eli Lilly and Company donated an exhibit on the medical treatment of +various types of anemia. In the same year, a diorama including a +hypochlorinator for purification of water on a farm was installed in the +gallery. In 1942, the first Emerson iron lung (developed in 1931 by John +Haven Emerson) for artificial respiration was acquired by the Division. +The Division acquired, in 1944, the first portable x-ray machine known +to have been operated successfully on the battlefield, as well as other +x-ray equipment and early medicine chests. + +[Illustration: Figure 11.--OLD PUBLIC HEALTH EXHIBITION installed in the +gallery about 1924. (Smithsonian photo 19952.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 12.--THE HALL OF HEALTH, reestablished and opened +in November 1957. (Smithsonian photo 44931.)] + +[Illustration: Figure 13.--EARLY EXHIBIT ON HOMEOPATHY showing its +history, methods and remedies which was installed about 1929. +(Smithsonian photo 27049.)] + +Without a doubt, the most outstanding accession in the field of +pharmaceutical history during Dr. Whitebread's years of service was the +acquisition of the E. R. Squibb and Sons old apothecary shop. Most of +the baroque fixtures, including the stained-glass windows with +Hessian-Nassau coats of arms and wrought-iron frames, were part of the +mid-18th-century cathedral pharmacy "Muenster Apotheke" in Freiburg im +Breisgau, Germany. It was offered for sale in September 1930 by Dr. Jo +Mayer of Wiesbaden, Germany, who was an enthusiastic collector of +antiques, especially those related to the health professions. Earlier +that year, a historian of pharmacy and chemistry, Fritz Ferchl of +Mittenwald, Germany, had published a series of scholarly and informative +articles on the Meyer collection in which the outstanding specimens were +beautifully portrayed and thoroughly described (see bibliography). + +As a result of Dr. Mayer's efforts to sell his collection, the impact of +Ferchl's illustrated articles, and the uniqueness of the collection, E. +R. Squibb and Sons purchased it in 1932 and brought it to the United +States "with the thought that it would provide for American pharmacy, +its teachers and students, a museum illuminating the history, growth, +and development of pharmacy, its interesting background and struggle +through the ages." It was displayed at the Century of Progress +exposition held in Chicago during 1933 and 1934; subsequently, it was +assembled in the Squibb Building in New York City as a private museum +where, for about 10 years, it was visited by many interested in +pharmacy, ceramics, and art. Charles H. LaWall, who was originally +engaged to prepare a descriptive catalog on the exhibit, gave it the +title "The Squibb Ancient Pharmacy." + +Late in 1943, E. R. Squibb and Sons offered the collection as a gift to +the American Pharmaceutical Association if the latter would provide +museum space for it. The offer was accepted, but the Association +finally found it difficult to spare the needed space for the collection +and decided to take up the matter with the U.S. National Museum. + +[Illustration: Figure 14.--THIS EARLY EXHIBIT ON OSTEOPATHY was +renovated several times prior to the early 1940's. (Smithsonian photo +19250.)] + +At this point, it should be stated that since 1883 the members of the +American Pharmaceutical Association have been keenly interested in +having the National Museum serve as the custodian for all collected +objects and records of historical interest to pharmacy. In 1944, the +Association officially offered to deposit on permanent loan, the +Squibb's pharmacy collection in the Smithsonian Institution with the +understanding that a suitable place would be provided for prompt and +permanent display. The offer was accepted, and during April and May of +1945, the entire collection was transferred to the Smithsonian +Institution, and construction to recreate the original two rooms for the +old, 18th-century, European "Apotheke" was underway. + +By August 1946, the exhibit was completed. In the large room where the +pharmacist met his customers, the shelves were filled with 15th-to +19th-century, European pharmaceutical antiques. These included +Renaissance mortars; 16th-and 17th-century nested weights; beautiful +Italian, French, Swiss, and German majolica and faience drug jars; Dutch +and English delft; drug containers made of flint or opal glass with +fused-enamel labels with alchemical symbols; rare, 16th-century, wooden +drug containers, each with the coat of arms of the city in which each +was made; and two glass-topped, display tables contained franchises +issued and signed by Popes or state rulers, medical edicts, +dispensatories, herbals, pharmacopoeias, and pharmaceutical utensils. + +On the walls in the small laboratory room, which also had been used as a +workshop and a study, were a stuffed crocodile, shark's head, tortoise, +fish, and salamander, parts of which were utilized as remedial agents. +Their presence provided tangible evidence that the pharmacy dispensed +genuine drugs and not substitutes. + +The pharmaceutical profession in this country hailed the outstanding +exhibition, and the November 1946 issue of the _Journal of the American +Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_, devoted its +front cover to depicting one corner of the study and laboratory room of +the shop.[16] Also, in a letter dated January 2, 1947, addressed to Dr. +Alexander Wetmore, then Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. +Robert P. Fischelis, the secretary of the American Pharmaceutical +Association, considered the completion of the deposited exhibition a +triumph and "as one of the highlights of the accomplishments of the +Association in 1946." + +[Illustration: Figure 15.--LATE 16TH-CENTURY, wooden drug container with +coat-of-arms, in the Squibb collection. The inscription _Ungula Alcis_ +(the hoof of the elk) suggests a superstitious attitude in medical +practice and the wide use of animal organs in medical treatment. +(_Courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association._)] + +From 1946 to 1948, the Division's collection was further enriched with +a number of historical specimens, among which was a "grosse Flamme" +x-ray machine with induction-coil tube and stand developed by Albert B. +Koett. It is one of the earliest American-made machines of its kind, +producing a 12-inch spark, the largest usable at that time with +180,000-volt capacity, and a forerunner of later autotransformers. Other +accessions included two 19th-century drug mills, an electric belt used +in quackery, two medicine chests, three sets of Hessian crucibles used +in a pioneer drugstore in Colorado, a drunkometer, mineral ores, and +purely produced chemical elements. + +[Illustration: Figure 16.--A RARE, ANTWERP, 16th-century drug jar in the +Squibb collection deposited by the American Pharmaceutical Association.] + +In the spring of 1948, Associate Curator Whitebread retired after 30 +years of service with the U.S. National Museum. He was a pioneer in the +field of health museums and during his curatorship had developed a +moribund section into a Division of field-wide importance. Dr. +Whitebread was succeeded by George S. Thomas, also a pharmacist, who +served as associate curator from August 1948 until early 1952. + +[Illustration: Figure 17.--THE APOTHECARY SHOP as seen in the Arts and +Industries building (1946-1964). (_Courtesy of the American +Pharmaceutical Association._)] + +[Illustration: Figure 18.--VIEW OF THE LABORATORY AND STUDY ROOM of the +apothecary shop. On the left, the German-Swiss bronze mortar and pestle +(1686) sign and above it an 18th-century German painting on canvas of +Christ, "the apothecary of the soul." The drug containers represent "the +fruits of the spirit," faith, patience, charity, etc., and the scales +represent justice. Underneath is the verse from Matthew, 11:28, "Come +unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you +rest." (_Courtesy of the American Pharmaceutical Association._)] + +During his almost-three and a half years of service, Thomas acquired +hearing-aid appliances from which he designed an exhibit on the +development of these aids, surgical sutures, early samples of +Aureomycin, and a static-electricity machine made by Henkel about 1840. +He also published three short articles under the title, "Now and Then," +in the _National Capital Pharmacist_ (1950), no. 1, pp. 8-9; no. 2, pp. +18-19, 29; and no. 3, pp. 15-16. In early 1952, Dr. Arthur O. Morton +presented to the Division, a Swiss-made keratometer which he had +purchased in 1907, and it is believed to be one of the first used in the +United States to measure the curves of the cornea. + +The achievements of the Division reached their highest point, thus far, +in significantly increasing the national collection, as well as in +contributing to the scientific, historical, and professional literature, +under the curatorships of George B. Griffenhagen (December 8, 1952, to +June 27, 1959) and John B. Blake (July 1, 1957, to September 2, 1961). +Their reorganization of exhibits and collections, their competence and +industry, fulfilled the hopes, plans, and purposes laid down by earlier +curators for the Division. + +Immediately after assuming the responsibilities of the Division and +throughout 1953, Mr. Griffenhagen (M.S. in pharmaceutical chemistry from +the University of Southern California) undertook to develop the +collections still further. He increased the emphasis not only on +historical pharmacy, but also on medicine, surgery, and dentistry. He +also renovated the exhibits in the medical gallery. + +In 1954, several antibiotics were donated to the Division including a +mold of _Penicillium notatum_ prepared and presented to the Smithsonian +Institution by Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955), the discoverer of +penicillium (1929), and a few Petri dishes used by botanist Benjamin M. +Daggar who, while working for Lederle Laboratories, developed Aureomycin +(chlortetracycline) in 1948. The Forest D. Dodrill--G.M.R. mechanical +heart (1952), the first machine reported to be used successfully for the +complete bypass of one side of the human heart during a surgical +operation,[17] was presented to the Smithsonian Institution. + +The following year, 1955, the Division acquired one of the earliest +Einthoven string galvanometers (named after the Dutch physiologist Willem +Einthoven, 1860-1927) made in the United States in 1914 by Charles F. +Hindle for an electrocardiograph. Also added to the Division's +collections was the electrocardiograph used by Dr. Frank E. Wilson of +the United States, a pioneer educator in this field. Two temporary +exhibits on allergy and surgical dressings were installed in the +gallery. In the same year, Curator Griffenhagen published _Early +American Pharmacies_, a catalog on 28 pharmacy restorations in this +country. + +In 1956, among many publications of interest in the fields of medical +and pharmaceutical history, was Curator Griffenhagen's _Pharmacy +Museum_, with a foreword by Laurence V. Coleman, who termed it a useful +catalog and "a good reflection of the history of the museum movement at +large." A third x-ray tube of Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen (1845-1922) was +added to the collection in 1957 as well as a complete set of +hospital-ward fixtures of about 1900 from the Massachusetts General +Hospital, rare patent medicines, 18th-century microscopes, and a +13th-century mortar and pestle made in Persia. + +In 1957, Mr. Griffenhagen published a series of illustrated articles in +the _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical +Pharmacy Edition_, which were later reprinted by the Association in a +booklet entitled, _Tools of the Apothecary_. In it, he described several +pharmaceutical specimens in the collection and their place in history. + + + + +Division of Medical Sciences (1957 to Present) + +The U.S. National Museum was reorganized on July 1, 1957, into two +units, the Natural History Museum and the Museum of History and +Technology. At the same time, and in view of the widening scope of the +Division, its more scientifically based planning, and the constantly +increasing collection with equal emphasis on all branches of the healing +arts, the Division's title was changed to the Division of Medical +Sciences--the title it still bears in 1964. With the reorganization, the +Department of Engineering and Industries, under which the Division fell +administratively, was renamed the Department of Science and Technology +of the Museum of History and Technology. It was also the first time +since its establishment in 1881 that the Division had two curators, for +on July 1, 1957, Dr. John B. Blake joined the staff. + +[Illustration: Figure 19.--CURATORS JOHN B. BLAKE AND GEORGE +GRIFFENHAGEN examine the newly acquired (1957) electromagnetic, +Morton-Wimshurst-Holz Influence Machine. It was manufactured by the +Bowen Company of Providence, Rhode Island (1889). With the discovery of +x-ray, it was used for making x-ray photographs until early in the 20th +century.] + +As a result of these changes, the Division was subdivided into a Section +of Pharmaceutical History and Health and a Section of Medical and Dental +History. The former was planned to encompass the collections of _materia +medica_, pharmaceutical equipment, and all material related to the +history of pharmacy, toxicology, pharmacology, and biochemistry, as well +as the Hall of Health which was opened November 2, 1957, and which +emphasizes man's progressing knowledge of his body and the functions of +its major organs.[18] The latter Section was planned to include all that +belongs to the development of surgery, medicine, dentistry, and nursing, +especially in relation to hospitals. + +In October 1957, the Division acquired a collection of rare, ceramic, +drug jars which included two, 13th-century, North Syrian and Persian, +albarello-shaped, majolica jars; a 15th-century, Hispano-Moresque drug +container; and a 16th-century, Italian faience, dragon-spout ewer. +During the following two years, Curator Griffenhagen periodically toured +museums and medical and pharmaceutical institutions in this country, +South America, and Europe gathering specimens and information for the +Division and for publication, respectively. However, on June 27, 1959, +he resigned his curatorship to join the staff of the American +Pharmaceutical Association in Washington, D.C. Dr. Blake became the +curator in charge of the Division and Mr. Griffenhagen was succeeded on +September 24, 1959, by the author of this paper as associate curator in +charge of the Section of Pharmaceutical History and Health. + +Dr. Blake, as curator of the Section of Medical and Dental History, +acquired a large number of valuable and varied specimens for the +Division's collections. They included optometric refracting instruments, +an early 1920's General Electric, portable, x-ray machine, the Charles +A. Lindbergh and Alexis Carrel pump (designed in 1935 to perfuse +life-sustaining fluids to the organs of the body), the Sewell heart pump +(1950) to control delivery of air pressure and suction to the pumping +mechanism, and a large and valuable collection of dental equipment +formerly at the universities of Pennsylvania and Illinois. Dr. Blake +wrote the explanatory material and supervised the design and production +of the majority of exhibits in the renovated hall of medical and dental +history. He also contributed several scholarly articles and a book (see +bibliography) on the history of the healing arts and public health in +particular. He resigned on September 2, 1961, to join the staff of the +National Library of Medicine as chief of the History of Medicine +Division, and was succeeded by the author as curator of the Division. +From the summer of 1962 to April 1964, the Division benefited from the +expert advice of Dr. Alfred R. Henderson as consultant in the +preparation and designing of the surgical and medical exhibits of the +Museum of History and Technology. + +During the period from 1961 to May 1964, the Division's collections +expanded greatly through its medical, dental, and pharmaceutical +acquisitions. Specimens of antiques acquired from 1961 through 1963 +numbered up to 1,539 and included gifts from leading institutions and +individual philanthropists. The scope of these gifts and acquisitions +ranges from electronic resuscitators, microscopes, x-ray equipment, and +spectacles, to patent medicines, amulets, apothecary tools, dental +instruments, and office material of practitioners. + +[Illustration: Figure 20.--EXHIBIT ON SPECTACLES, LORGNETTES, +OPTOMETERS, and refraction, completed in 1960. It features a cross +section of the Division's large collection of eyeglasses. (Smithsonian +photo 47943-D.)] + +In the last decade, the interest in the national endeavor for promoting +research and scholarship in the history of medicine has increased +greatly. It was most appropriate, therefore, for the Smithsonian +Institution to play host on May 2 for two sessions of the 37th annual +meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine held in +the Washington, D.C., area from April 30 through May 2, 1964. In +welcoming the members to the morning session in the auditorium of the +new Museum of History and Technology, Frank A. Taylor, director of the +United States National Museum, expressed the feeling that the meeting of +the Association was, in a sense, a dedication of the new auditorium and +an opportunity for the Smithsonian to reaffirm its deep interest and +commitment in fostering research and furthering the appreciation of +scholarly endeavor in the history of the healing arts. + + + + +A New Dimension For the Healing Arts + +"One day the United States will have a National Museum of science, +engineering, and industry, as most large nations have." This was the +prediction made in 1946 by the director of the U.S. National Museum, Mr. +Frank A. Taylor, then curator of the Division of Engineering.[19] It was +in 1963, that the new $36,000,000 building of the Museum of History +and Technology was completed, and opened to the public in 1964. The +offices of the Division of Medical Sciences as well as the reference and +study collections were moved to the fifth floor of the new building. The +exhibits, however, will be displayed in the gallery at the southwest +corner of the first floor. These exhibits, it is hoped, will show a new +dimension and an unprecedented approach in displaying the development of +the healing arts throughout the ages and the instruments and equipment +associated with health professions. They also present the expanding +objectives and plans of the Division's growth as an integral part of the +Smithsonian Institution. Conveniently, the exhibits form four, closely +connected halls in one large gallery which will be open to the public in +the summers of 1965 to 1966. + +[Illustration: Figure 21.--EXHIBIT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF BLOOD-PRESSURE +INSTRUMENTS and the early 20th-century sphygmomanometers which was +completed in 1960. (Smithsonian photo 47943-M.)] + +1. THE HALL OF HEALTH displays models and graphic and historical exhibit +materials to demonstrate the function of the various healthy organs of +the human body. The main topics emphasized are: embryology and +childbirth; tooth structure; the heart and blood circulation; +respiration; the endocrine glands; kidneys and the urinary-excretory +system; the brain and the nervous system; the ear; and vision and the +use of eyeglasses. + +The most appreciated exhibit of all in this Hall is the "transparent +woman" figure which rotates, automatically, every 15 minutes with a +recorded message describing the function of each major organ of the body +at the same time that the organ is electronically lighted, so that the +viewer can see its place in the body. + +[Illustration: Figure 22.--HEARING-AID EXHIBIT designed in 1962. It +includes otologist Julius Lempert's personal memorabilia and original +surgical instruments used in the fenestration operation for restoring +hearing. (Smithsonian photo 49345-C.)] + +2. THE HALL OF MEDICINE AND DENTISTRY will depict the history of these +two sciences with exhibits of the equipment used through the centuries. +In the medical field, early trephining and other surgical instruments +will be displayed along with a diorama of an 1805 surgical operation +performed by Dr. Philip Syng Physick in the amphitheater of the +Pennsylvania Hospital. Diagnostic instruments such as stethoscopes, +endoscopes, speculums, and blood-pressure measuring devices will be +exhibited with a series of microscopes illustrating the development of +these instruments. Exhibits of original galvanometers and other +apparatus will trace the development of cardiography. The early use of +anesthesia will be shown by apparatus of William Morton and Crawford W. +Long, American pioneers in this field. The development of the devices of +modern medicine and surgery will be shown by exhibits of the iron lung +and x-ray tubes, including a tube used by W. K. Roentgen. Medicine +chests and surgical kits of different periods will graphically summarize +the state of medical science in the period each represents. + +Exhibits on the development of dentistry and dental surgery will display +examples of tooth-filling and extracting tools, drilling apparatus from +the early hand and foot engines to the first ultrasonic cutting +instrument (1954), and the original contra-angle, hydraulic and +air-turbine handpiece model[20] which revolutionized the field of +instrumentation for dental surgery (with speeds of 200,000 to 400,000 +rpm). This hydraulic turbine of Dr. Robert J. Nelson and associates of +the National Bureau of Standards set the design pattern for the +remarkable and successful high-speed, air-turbine handpiece developed by +Paul H. Tanner and Oscar P. Nagel of the U.S. Naval Dental School in +1956. Also underway is the reconstruction of the offices of famous +dentists such as G. V. Black and the father of American orthodontia, +Edward H. Angle, using their original equipment and instruments. In +addition, an exhibit is planned to include x-ray tubes and the electric +dental engine, the first to be operated in a human mouth by the pioneer +dentist on dental skiagraphy, Charles E. Kells (1856-1928).[21] + +[Illustration: Figure 23.--EXHIBIT ON NURSING BOTTLES and measures to +promote child health to counteract the once-common diseases of +childhood. This display was completed in 1962. (Smithsonian photo +49345-G.)] + +3. THE HALL OF PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORY will feature exhibits on the +reconstruction of two pharmacy shops: an 18th-century apothecary shop, +originally from Germany, with a very elegant collection of drug jars, +decorated medicinal bottles, balances, mortars and pestles, and other +tools and documents pertaining to the apothecary art, and a late +19th-century American drugstore with shelves filled with patent +medicines and drug containers of various sizes and shapes. The window +will also feature symbols of pharmacy and beautiful show globes. +Displays will show the development of antibiotics and the early tools +used in the manufacture of the so-called "miracle drugs," including a +mold from Sir Alexander Fleming, the discoverer of penicillin. In +addition, a platform will be reconstructed to display a variety of +pharmaceutical apparatus used in the preparation and manufacture of +drugs, such as tablet and capsule machines and drug mills and +percolators. Recently, with the assistance of Professor Glenn +Sonnedecker, the Division acquired a fine collection of pharmaceutical +equipment and devices from the School of Pharmacy of the University of +Wisconsin. + +[Illustration: Figure 24.--THE ORIGINS OF DRUGS from the three natural +kingdoms, drug synthesis, and the increase in the manufacture of +vitamins. This display was completed in 1962 and is now on display at +the Museum of History and Technology. (Smithsonian photo P6316.)] + +Since the Division houses the largest collection of _materia medica_ in +the country, a representative cross section of crude drugs will be +displayed in alphabetical order as well as a display illustrating the +role of cinchona and antimalarial drugs in the fight against disease. An +exhibit will portray the "origin of drugs" from the three natural +kingdoms, animal, vegetable, and mineral, together with synthetic drugs +including the manufacture of vitamins. + +Plans are being made for an elaborate exhibit of weights and balances +used in many countries throughout the centuries, their impact on +accuracy of dosage and weighing of drugs, and their use in the +apothecary art. + +The Division will also display pictorial and printed materials, as well +as artifacts from all periods and all countries. These collections are +intended to help in presenting a more complete picture of the story of +the medical sciences for educational purposes and research, and to +increase man's knowledge in fighting disease and promoting health. + +Thus, from a few hundred specimens of crude drugs in the Section of +Materia Medica of 83 years ago, there has developed a Museum Division +today which embraces the evolution of the health professions through the +ages. This Division now has the largest collection in the Western +Hemisphere of historical objects which are related to the healing arts. +The reference collections are available to the researcher and scholar, +and the exhibits are intended for pleasure and educational purposes in +these fields. The plans for expansion have no limitation as we keep pace +with man's progress in the medical sciences and continue to collect +materials that contributed to the historical development in the fight +against diseases and the attempts to secure better health for everyone. + + + + +Footnotes: + +[1] _Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian +Institution for the Year 1882_ [hereinafter referred to as the +_Smithsonian Annual Report_], pp. 101-103; and introductory +"advertisement" to the lectures published by the Smithsonian Institution +in its Miscellaneous Collections (see bibliography). + +[2] Dr. J. J. Woodward's lecture explained the progress of medical +knowledge of morbid growth and cancerous tumors from 1865 to 1872. It +cautioned that uncertain methods of diagnosis at that time allowed +charlatans and uneducated practitioners to report cures of cancer in +instances where nonmalignant growths were "removed by their caustic +pastes and plasters." + +[3] The two longest intervals were in preparing the last two lectures: +the ninth in 1884, and the tenth, 1889. Both came after the +establishment in 1881 of the Section of Materia Medica in the U.S. +National Museum, to display the development and progress of the health +professions. + +[4] _Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the year 1883_, pp. +190, 614-615. + +[5] For classifying chemical compounds, Dr. Flint relied on the work of +H. E. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmez, _A Treatise on Chemistry_, 2 vols. (New +York: D. Appleton, 1878-1800.) + +[6] _Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the year 1882_, vol. +2, part 2, pp. 100, 228, 656-657. Dr. Flint in his article "Report on +Pharmacopoeias of All Nations," ibid., pp. 655-680, remarks that there +were then 19 official pharmacopoeias in the world, besides three +semiofficial formularies in certain localities in Italy. The +pharmacopoeias collected represent Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, +Great Britain, Greece, Holland, India, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Spain, +Sweden, Switzerland (two), and the United States. + +[7] The _Universal Formulary_, by R. Eglesfeld Griffith, first edited in +March 1850 (3rd ed. rev. and enlarged by John M. Maisch, Philadelphia: +Lea, 1874) should not be considered an international drug standard. It +was mainly concerned with compiling a great number of formulas and +recipes, methods of preparing and administering official and other +medicines, and tables on weights and measures for utilization by the +U.S. practitioners of the time. + +[8] Other elaborate arrangements were also made to improve and expand +the Section's activities and services, though some have never +materialized. For example, a herbarium was suggested from which +specimens could be obtained for display of the actual drug with painted +pictures of its plant next to it. Consideration was given to displaying +enlarged drawings to show the minute structure of the specimen for +better identification. In addition, an exhibition of several 10-liter +vessels of the most popular mineral waters was planned. The amount of +saline substances which analysis had shown to be present in each vessel +was to be listed in a table to be attached to that vessel, or the same +amount of minerals was to be put in a small bottle beside it. This plan +was carried out to the best advantage at the Cotton States and +International Exposition held in 1895 in Atlanta, Georgia. + +[9] HOLT, "A Sketch of the Development of the Rockefeller Institute for +Medical Research," p. 1. A similar comment was voiced by GALDSTON, +"Research in the United States," p. 366. + +[10] _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association_ (1918), vol. +7, pp. 376-377, 466. + +[11] Two decades later, Dr. Whitebread designed a panel showing +photographs of famous medical pioneers of all nationalities. See his +article, "The Odd Origin of Medical Discoveries," p. 321. + +[12] GEBHARD, "From Medicine Show to Health Museum," p. 579. The +original plan for this Hall of Health was to feature exhibits on public +health for popular educational purposes, including an illustrated +exhibit on hospital care. See FOLEY, "Smithsonian Institution Devotes +Much Space to Hospital Exhibit," pp. 43-44. + +[13] Lack of space notwithstanding, valuable accessions were added about +1930, including a collection of early x-ray tubes and personal +memorabilia of Drs. William T. G. Morton (1819-1868), Crawford W. Long +(1815-1878), and William Gorgas (1854-1920). + +[14] D. RILEY MOORE published a series of short reports under the title +"Committee on Osteopathic Exhibits in the U.S. National Museum," in the +_Journal of the American Osteopathic Association_ (1933-1946), vols. +33-46, regarding the exhibit on osteopathy. + +[15] [KLEIN], "He Directs Pharmacy Exhibits at the Smithsonian +Institution," pp. 20-21. + +[16] Several other journals reported the exhibition with illustrations: +_Drug Topics_ (July 8, 1946), vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 2, 79; _National +Capital Pharmacist_ (September 1945), vol. 7, p. 11, and (September +1946), vol. 8, pp. 11-13; and _The Scientific Monthly_ (November 1952), +vol. 75, p. 268. + +[17] DODRILL, and others, "Temporary Mechanical Substitution for the +Left Ventricle in Man," pp. 642-644, and "Pulmonary Volvuloplasty under +Direct Vision using the Mechanical Heart for a Complete Bypass of the +Right Heart in a Patient with Congenital Pulmonary Stenosis," pp. +584-595. + +[18] For the design, expert arrangement of the exhibits, and the legends +that accompany each exhibit in the Hall of Health, we are indebted to +Drs. Bruno Gebhard, Richards H. Shryock, Thomas G. Hull, James Laster, +Walle J. H. Nauta, Leslie W. Knott, Theodore Wiprud, and other +physicians, dentists, and scholars who have offered their advice, +assistance, and expert skills. + +[19] TAYLOR, "A National Museum of Science, Engineering and Industry," +p. 359. + +[20] NELSON, PELANDER, and KUMPULA, "Hydraulic Turbine, Contra-angle +Handpiece," pp. 324-329. + +[21] MONELL, "Dental Skiagraphy," pp. 313-336. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + + The _Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian + Institution_ from 1872 to date and the _Proceedings of the + United States National Museum_ from 1881 to date were used + extensively as sources in this survey. In the latter, see in + particular, the year 1881, pp. 545-546; 1882, pp. 1-2; and 1884, + pp. 431-475. + +ATKINSON, WILLIAM B. _The physicians and surgeons of the United States._ +Philadelphia, 1878. [On Dr. Toner.] + +BLAKE, JOHN B. Dental history and the Smithsonian Institution. _Journal +of the American College of Dentists_ (1961), vol. 28, pp. 125-127. + +---- _Public health in the town of Boston, 1630-1822._ Cambridge, Mass.: +Harvard University Press, 1959. + +[BRAISTED, WILLIAM C.] The biography of Dr. Beyer. Page 94 in +_Dictionary of American medical biography_, by HOWARD A. KELLY and +WALTER L. BURRAGE; NEW YORK: D. Appleton and Co., 1928. + +CLARK, LEILA F. The library of the Smithsonian Institution. _Science_ +(1946), vol. 104, p. 143. + +COLEMAN, LAURENCE VAIL. _The museum in America: A critical study._ 3 +vols. Baltimore: Waverly Press, 1939. [Printed for the American +Association of Museums, Washington, D.C.] See vol. 1, pp. 3, 11-12, +32-33, 143-146, 222, 318; vol. 3, p. 471. + +DAUKES, S. H. _The medical museum: modern developments, organization and +technical methods based on a new system of visual teaching._ London: +Wellcome Foundation Ltd., 1929. + +DODRILL, FOREST D., and others. Pulmonary volvuloplasty under direct +vision using the mechanical heart for a complete bypass of the right +heart in a patient with congenital pulmonary stenosis. _Journal of +Thoracic Surgery_ (1953), vol. 26, pp. 584-595. + +---- Temporary mechanical substitution for the left ventricle in man. +_Journal of the American Medical Association_ (1952), vol. 150, pp. +642-644. + +DUNGLISON, ROBLEY. _A dictionary of medical science._ Rev. ed. Pp. +629-630. Philadelphia: Lea, 1874. + +EDWARDS, J. J., and EDWARDS, M. J. _Medical museum technology._ London: +Oxford University Press, 1959. [See in particular, pp. 33-62, 142-159.] + +FERCHL, FRITZ. Die Moerser der Sammlung Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; Libri rari +et curiosi der Sammlung Dr. Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; Bildnisse und Bilder +der Sammlung Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; Kuriositaeten und Antiquitaeten der +Sammlung Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; and Glaeser, Majoliken und Faensen der +Sammlung Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden. _Pharmazeutische Zeitung_ (Berlin, 1930), +vol. 75: January 4, no. 2, pp. 19-24; February 15, no. 14, pp. 219-223; +March 8, no. 20, pp. 309-314; April 19, no. 32, pp. 487-489; and June +21, no. 50, pp. 735-740. + +FLINT, JAMES M. Classification and arrangement of the materia medica +collection. _Proceedings of the United States National Museum_ (1881), +vol. 4, app. no. 6. + +---- Classification of the materia medica collection of the United +States National Museum, and catalogue of specimens. _Proceedings of the +United States National Museum_ (1883), vol. 6, app. 19, pp. 431-475. + +---- Directions for collecting information and objects illustrating the +history of medicine. Part S of _Bulletin of the United States National +Museum_ (1905). No. 39. + +---- Memoranda for collectors of drugs for the materia medica section of +the National Museum. _Proceedings of the United States National Museum_ +(1881), vol. 4, app. 8. + +FOLEY, MATTHEW O. Smithsonian Institution devotes much space to hospital +exhibit. _Hospital Management_ (April 1929), pp. 271-287. + +GALDSTON, IAGO. Research in the United States. _Ciba Symposia_ +(June-July 1946), vol. 8, nos. 3 and 4, p. 366. + +GARRISON, FIELDING H. _An introduction to the history of medicine._ 2d +ed. p. 38. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1917. + +GEBHARD, BRUNO. From medicine show to health museum. _Ciba Symposia_ +(March 1947), vol. 8, no. 12, p. 579. + +GOODE, GEORGE BROWN. _The Smithsonian Institution (1846-1896): The +history of its first half century._ Pp. 325-329, 362-363. Washington, +1897. + +GRIFFENHAGEN, GEORGE. _Pharmacy museums._ Madison, Wis.: American +Institute of the History of Pharmacy, 1956. + +---- and HUGHES, CALVIN H. The history of the mechanical heart. _Annual +report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the +year ended June 30, 1955_ (Washington, 1956), pp. 339-356. + +HAMARNEH, SAMI. At the Smithsonian ... exhibits on pharmaceutical dosage +forms. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association_ (1962), new +ser., vol. 2, pp. 478-479. + +----For the collector, facts and artifacts. _Pharmacy in History_ +(1961), vol. 6, p. 48. + +---- Historical and educational exhibits on dentistry at the Smithsonian +Institution. _Journal of the American-Dental Association_ (July 1962), +vol. 65, pp. 111-114. + +---- New dental exhibits at the Smithsonian Institution. _Journal of the +American Dental Association_ (May 1963), vol. 66, pp. 676-678. + +HAYNES, WILLIAM. Out of alchemy into chemistry. _The Scientific Monthly_ +(November 1952), vol. 75, p. 268. + +HOLT, L. EMMETT. A sketch of the development of the Rockefeller +Institute for Medical Research. _Science_ (July 6, 1906), new ser., vol. +24, no. 601, p. 1. + +HOWELL, WILLIAM H. The American Physiological Society during its first +twenty-five years. Pp. 21-22 [biography of Dr. Beyer] in _History of the +American Physiological Society semicentennial, 1881-1937_; Baltimore, +1938. + +[KLEIN, ALLEN.] He directs pharmacy exhibits at the Smithsonian +Institution. _Modern Pharmacy_ (July 1941), vol. 25, pp. 20-21. + +LAWALL, CHARLES H. Ancient pharmacy on display. _Pacific Drug Review_ +(1933), vol. 45, p. 18. + +---- _The curious lore of drugs and medicines._ Garden City, N.Y.: +Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., 1927. [See p. 453 on Division of +Medical Sciences' collection.] + +LEWTON, FREDERICK L. A national pharmaceutical collection. _Journal of +the American Pharmaceutical Association_ (1919), vol. 8, pp. 45-46. + +---- The opportunity for developing historical pharmacy collections at +the National Museum. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical +Association_ (1917), vol. 6, pp. 259-262. + +LONG, ESMOND R. The Army Medical Museum. _Military Medicine_ (May 1963), +vol. 128, pp. 367-369. + +MONELL, S. H. "Dental Skiagraphy" (pp. 313-336 in _A system in x-ray +methods and medical uses of light hot-air, vibration and high-frequency +currents_ by Monell; New York: Pelton, 1902). + +MURRAY, DAVID. _Museums, their history and their use._ Glasgow: +MacLehose, 1904. [See vol. 1, pp. 13-77.] + +NELSON, ROBERT J.; PELANDER, CARL E.; and KUMPULA, JOHN W. Hydraulic +turbine, contra-angle handpiece. _Journal of the American Dental +Association_ (September 1953), vol. 47, pp. 324-329. + +_Official Catalogue of the Cotton States and International Exposition_: +Atlanta, Georgia, September 18 to December 31, 1895. Atlanta: Claflin +and Mellichamp, 1895. [See p. 204.] + +PACKARD, FRANCES R. _History of medicine in the United States._ New +York, 1931. [See vol. 1, pp. 5-6, 37-51, 168-176, 602-607 on Dr. Toner.] + +PICKARD, MADGE E. Government and science in the United States: +Historical background. _Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied +Sciences_ (1946), vol. 1, nos. 2 and 3, pp. 265-266, 289, 446-447, 478. + +PURTLE, HELEN R. Notes on the Medical Museum of the Armed Forces +Institute of Pathology. _Bulletin of the Medical Library Association_ +(1956), vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 300-305. + +RATHBUN, RICHARD. _A descriptive account of the building recently +erected for the Departments of Natural History of the United States +National Museum._ (U.S. National Museum Bulletin 80.) Washington, 1913. +[See pp. 7-15.] + +RHEES, WILLIAM J. _The Smithsonian Institution; documents relative to +its origin and history, 1835-1899._ 2 vols. (Smithsonian Miscellaneous +Collections: vol. 42, _1835-1881_; vol. 43, _1881-1899_.) Washington, +1901. + +SHUFELDT, R. W. Suggestions for a national museum of medicine. _Medical +Record_ (March 22, 1919), pp. 4-5. [Also reprinted, 1919, by William +Wood and Co., New York.] + +SIGERIST, HENRY E. _Primitive and archaic medicine._ (Vol. 1 of _A +history of medicine_, by Sigerist.) New York: Oxford University Press, +1951. [See pp. 525-531.] + +SILVER, EDWIN H. Description of the exhibit on conservation of vision +placed in the United States Museum at Washington, D.C. _The Optical +Journal and Review of Optometry_ (February 3, 1927), vol. 59, no. 5, pp. +39-40. + +[SONNEDECKER, GLENN.] Apothecary shop nears completion. _Journal of the +American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1946), +vol. 7, pp. 157. + +---- Dr. Charles Whitebread, pharmacist and museum curator. _Journal of +the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ +(1946), vol. 7, p. 203. + +---- Old apothecary shop. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical +Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1945), vol. 6, pp. 184-187. + +---- Old apothecary shop opened. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical +Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1946), vol. 7, p. 427. + +TAYLOR, FRANK A. A national museum of science, engineering and industry. +_The Scientific Monthly_ (1946), vol. 63, pp. 359. + +---- The background of the Smithsonian's Museum of Engineering and +Industries. _Science_ (1946), vol. 104, no. 2693, pp. 130-132. + +Toner Lectures: + + 1. J. J. WOODWARD. On the structure of cancerous tumors and the + mode in which adjacent parts are invaded. No. 266 in _Smithsonian + Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture + given on March 28, 1873.] + + 2. C. E. BROWN-SEQUARD. Dual character of the brain. No. 291 in + _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15; Washington, + 1878. [Lecture given on April 22, 1874.] + + 3. J. M. DA COSTA. On strain and over-action of the heart. No. + 279 in _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15; + Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on May 14, 1874.] + + 4. H. C. WOOD. A study of the nature and mechanism of fever. No. + 282 in _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15; + Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on January 20, 1875.] + + 5. WILLIAM W. KEEN. On the surgical complications and sequels of + the continued fevers. No. 300 in _Smithsonian Miscellaneous + Collections_, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture given on + February 17, 1876.] + + 6. WILLIAM ADAMS. Subcutaneous surgery: Its principles, and its + recent extension in practice. No. 302 in _Smithsonian + Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 15; Washington, 1878. [Lecture + given on September 13, 1876.] + + 7. EDWARD O. SHAKESPEARE. The nature of reparatory inflammation + in arteries after ligatures, acupressure, and torsion. No. 321 in + _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 16; Washington, + 1880. [Lecture given on June 27, 1878.] + + 8. GEORGE E. WARING. Suggestions for the sanitary drainage of + Washington City. No. 349 in _Smithsonian Miscellaneous + Collections_, vol. 26; Washington, 1883. [Lecture given on May + 26, 1880.] + + 9. CHARLES K. MILLS. Mental over-work and premature disease among + public and professional men. No. 594 in _Smithsonian + Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 34; Washington, 1893. [Lecture + given on March 19, 1884.] + + 10. HARRISON ALLEN. A clinical study of the skull. No. 708 in + _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. 34; Washington, + 1893. [Lecture given on May 29, 1889.] + +TRUE, WEBSTER P. _The Smithsonian Institution._ (Vol. 1 of the +Smithsonian Scientific Series.) Washington, 1929. + +URDANG, GEORGE, and NITARDY, F. W. _The Squibb ancient pharmacy._ New +York, 1940. [Out of print, but remaining catalogs were given to the +Division of Medicine to "be reserved for pharmaceutical educators, +foreign dignitaries, pharmacists of national and international +reputation, and pharmaceutical historians," according to a letter from +Mr. Nitardy in 1945.] + +WHITEBREAD, CHARLES. Animal pharmaceuticals of the past and present. +_Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association_ (1933), vol. 22, +pp. 431-437. + +---- An old apothecary shop of 1750. _National Capital Pharmacist_ +(September 1946), vol. 8, pp. 11-13, 35. + +---- Early American pharmaceutical inventions. _Journal of the American +Pharmaceutical Association_ (1937), vol. 26, pp. 918-928. + +---- _Handbook of the health exhibits of the United +States National Museum._ Baltimore: Lord Baltimore Press [1924]. + +---- Health superstitions. _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical +Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1942), vol. 3, pp. 268-274. + +---- Medicine making as depicted by museum dioramas. _Journal of the +American Pharmaceutical Association_ (January 1936), vol. 25, pp. 40-46. + +---- Superstition, credulity and skepticism. _Journal of the American +Pharmaceutical Association_ (1933), vol. 22, pp. 1140-1145. + +---- The Indian medical exhibit of the Division of Medicine in the +United States National Museum. Article 10 in vol. 67 of _Proceedings of +the U.S. National Museum_; Washington, 1926. + +---- The magic, psychic, ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman medical +collections of the Division of Medicine in the United States National +Museum. Article 15 in vol. 65 of _Proceedings of the U.S. National +Museum_; Washington, 1925. + +---- The odd origin of medical discoveries. _Journal of the American +Pharmaceutical Association, Practical Pharmacy Edition_ (1943), vol. 4, +p. 321. + +---- The United States National Museum pharmaceutical collection, its +aims, problems, and accomplishments. _Journal of the American +Pharmaceutical Association_ (1930), vol. 19, pp. 1125-1126. + +WINTERS, S. R. Magic medicine. _Hygeia_ (July 1937), vol. 15, pp. +630-633. + + +U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1964 + +For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing +Office Washington, D.C., 20402. Price 30 cents. + + + + +_Index_ + + +Angle, Edward H., 295 + + +Beyer, Dr. Henry Gustav, 275, 276 + +Black, G. V., 295 + +Blake, John B., 290, 291 + +Boyd, John C., 276 + + +Carrel, Alexis, 291 + +Coleman, Laurence V., 290 + +Colton, Arthur, and Company, 278 + + +Dagger, Benjamin M., 290 + +Dixon, William S., 276 + +Dodrill, Forest D., 290 + +Donner, Joseph, 277 + + +Einthoven, Willem, 290 + +Emerson, John Haven, 285 + + +Ferchl, Fritz, 285 + +Fischelis, Robert P., 287 + +Fleming, Sir Alexander, 290, 295 + +Flint, James Milton, 273 + + +Garfield, James A., 272 + +Garrison, Fielding H., 277 + +Goode, G. Brown, 273 + +Gravatt, C. U., 276 + +Griffenhagen, George B., 290, 291 + + +Hammond, William Alexander, 273 + +Henderson, Alfred R., 291 + +Henkel, Silon, 290 + +Hindle, Charles F., 290 + +Holt, L. Emmett, 276 + + +Kells, Charles E., 295 + +Koett, Albert B., 287 + + +LaWall, Charles H., 285 + +Lederle Laboratories, 290 + +Lewton, Frederick L., 277 + +Lilly, Eli, and Company, 283 + +Lindbergh, Charles A., 291 + +Long, Crawford W., 294 + + +Marmion, R. A., 276 + +Mayer, Jo, 285 + +McMurtrie, Daniel, 276 + +Morton, Arthur O., 290 + +Morton, William, 294 + + +Nagel, Oscar P., 295 + +Nelson, Robert J., 295 + + +Parke, Davis & Company, 273 + +Physick, Philip Syng, 294 + + +Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad, 290, 294 + + +Schieffelin and Company, 273 + +Sonnedecker, Glenn, 296 + +Squibb, E. R., and Sons, 285, 286 + + +Tanner, Paul H., 295 + +Taylor, Frank A., 292 + +Thomas, George S., 287 + +Toner, Joseph Meredith, 271 + + +Wallace Brothers, 273 + +Wetmore, Dr. Alexander, 287 + +White, C. H., 276 + +Whitebread, Charles, 277, 278, 281, 283, 285, 287 + +Wilson, Frank E., 290 + + + + + * * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + The following typographical erros have been corrected: + + P. 277 'the basis of scientific, historical'--was 'the bases of + scientific, historical' + + P. 287 'purely produced chemical elements'--was 'purely produced, + chemical elements' + + P. 290 'string galvanometers (named'--was 'string galvanometer- + (named.' + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE DIVISION OF MEDICAL +SCIENCES*** + + +******* This file should be named 27932.txt or 27932.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/7/9/3/27932 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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