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diff --git a/27918.txt b/27918.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..395eb34 --- /dev/null +++ b/27918.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2636 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Mines and its Wonders, by W.H.G. Kingston + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Mines and its Wonders + +Author: W.H.G. Kingston + +Release Date: January 28, 2009 [EBook #27918] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MINES AND ITS WONDERS *** + + + + +Produced by Nick Hodson of London, England + + + + +The Mines and its Wonders, by W.H.G. Kingston. + + + +CHAPTER ONE. + +THE MINER'S DANGERS. + +A hum of human voices rose from a village in the centre of England, but +they were those of women, girls, and children, the latter playing in the +street, running, skipping, laughing, singing, and shouting in shrill +tones, the former in their yards or in front of their dwellings, +following such avocations as could be carried on out of doors on that +warm summer evening. Not a man or lad, not even a boy above eight years +old, was to be seen. On one side of the village far away could be +distinguished green fields, picturesque hills, widespreading trees, and +a sparkling stream flowing in their midst; on the other, nearer at hand, +a dreary black region, the ground covered with calcined heaps, the roads +composed of coal dust or ashes, and beyond, tall chimneys sending forth +dense volumes of smoke, which, wreathing upwards, formed a dark canopy +over the scene. Then there were large uncouth buildings, above which +huge beams appeared, lifting alternately their ends with ceaseless +motion, now up, now down, engaged evidently in some Titanic operation, +while all the time proceeding from that direction were heard groans, and +shrieks, and whistlings, and wailings, and the sound of rushing water, +and the rattling and rumbling of tram or railway waggons rushing at +rapid speed across the country, some loaded with huge lumps of +glittering coal, others returning to be refilled at the pit's mouth. +Those high buildings contained the steam-engines which worked the +machinery employed in the coal mine; the tall chimneys carried up the +smoke from the furnaces and produced the current of air which kept them +blazing. The deafening noises came from cranks, pulleys, gins, +whimsays, and other contrivances for lifting the coal from the bottom of +the mine, pumping out the water, loading the waggons, ventilating the +shafts and galleries, and for performing duties innumerable of various +descriptions. As the evening drew on, the women retired into their +cottages to prepare supper for their husbands and sons, whose return +home they were now expecting. Already the corves which took them down +to their work in the early morning must be on their way up to the +surface, and it is time to have the savoury messes ready for dishing up. +Abundance is on the board, for the miner's wages are sufficient to +supply him with what would be luxuries to an ordinary labourer above +ground; but were they far higher, could they repay him for a life of +constant danger, of hard incessant toil, and the deprivation for more +than half the year of a sight of the blue sky, the warming rays of the +sun, and the pure air of heaven, except on the one blessed day of the +week when he enjoys them with the rest of God's creatures? For months +together he descends the shaft in the gloom of morning and does not +return till darkness has again shrouded the earth. + +Many of the good wives had looked at their clocks to judge when to take +off the bubbling saucepans from the blazing fires, when, to their +dismay, they felt the earth tremble beneath their feet, while a dull +rumbling sound like the discharge of musketry struck their ears, coming +from the direction of the works. Pale with terror, they rushed +out-of-doors to see a vast black mass of dust and smoke rising into the +air and forming an inverted cone, beneath which, for an instant, could +be distinguished shattered beams and planks, corves and pieces of +machinery, which quickly fell again to the earth. The next instant a +darkness, like that of early twilight, pervaded the atmosphere, and fine +ashes, such as are ejected from a volcano, fell in a thick shower to the +ground, which it covered to such a depth that the feet of the +terror-stricken women left their imprints on it as they ran towards the +scene of the catastrophe--some shrieking and lamenting, but, in most +cases, the intensity of their alarm preventing them from giving +utterance to their feelings. Among them a young woman, superior to the +rest in appearance, went hurrying on towards the pit's mouth, her hand +held by a little boy, who had evidently grasped it, refusing to be left +behind, when startled by the explosion, she had quitted her cottage. +Her fair hair, escaping from beneath her cap, streamed in the wind; her +countenance exhibited the most intense anxiety. Her boy, among the +oldest of those who had remained that morning in the village, was well +able to comprehend what had occurred, yet he did not cry or shriek out, +but did his utmost to keep pace with the woman's rapid steps. + +"Perhaps father and Mat had come up before the blast happened, mother," +said the boy in a hopeful tone. "They would be stopping to see how +things are going on, or maybe to help any poor fellows left in the pit." +The woman answered only by a gasp. "Don't give way, mother dear," +continued the boy. "We shall find them both well above ground, depend +on't." Still the woman made no reply; her heart told her that her worst +anticipations would be realised. She and the rest of the women from the +village arrived in a short time at the pit's mouth, where, among the +ruined buildings, the broken machinery, and the heaps of rubbish, they +rushed frantically here and there seeking for the bread-winners of their +families, many uttering piteous wails when they sought in vain for their +loved ones; while others, when they were discovered, bursting into +shrieks of hysterical laughter, as they flung their arms round the men's +necks, led them off to their homes. Some of the miners had, it +appeared, come up just before the explosion; but what was the fate of +the rest, far beyond a hundred in number, still below? Some, it was +surmised, might have escaped death, and many brave volunteers came +forward ready to descend to their rescue. All was quiet--the shaft +appeared to be free--a fresh corve or teek was procured--a rope attached +to the gin, to the shaft of which a party of men putting their shoulders +worked it with the strength of horses. The corve descended with its +adventurous crew down the shaft. The young woman with the little boy +had been among those who had sought in vain for a husband and son. +"Have any of you seen John Gilbart and his boy Mat?" she asked of those +who had come out of the pit and of others standing by. No one could +give her any information about her husband, though one had replied that +he had seen young Gilbart leaving the trap at which he had been +stationed. + +Unlike the other women, on hearing this she uttered no cry, but stood +speechless and trembling as near as she could venture to the pit's +mouth, where she waited, with intense anxiety, the return of the corve +to the surface. "Don't take on so, mother dear," said little Mark, who +felt her hand trembling. "They say some may have escaped, and things +may have been worse above than they were down at the bottom. Perhaps +they threw themselves flat on their faces, and let the blast pass over +them. I heard father say, only the other day, that was the best thing +to do when fire-damp breaks out. He wouldn't have forgotten that, +mother, would he?" + +"I pray Heaven that he did not," she answered in a scarcely audible +voice. Minute after minute went by, while the brave explorers who had +gone below were searching for their comrades. How that poor mother's +heart ached as she thought of what had too probably happened to those +she loved. Night had come on, but torches and lanterns and a blazing +fire not far off lighted up the scene, casting a lurid glare on the dark +figures of the men, the lighter-coloured dresses and pale faces of the +women, and the surrounding ruins. At last the cry arose that the corve +was ascending. The eager crowd pressing forward could with difficulty +be restrained from impeding the men working at the gin. Then came the +shout, "They're alive! they're alive!" and six dark figures stepped out +on the ground. They were soon recognised by their wives or mothers, and +hurriedly dragged off to their homes, while the rest of the women, +bitterly disappointed, waited till the basket should again come to the +surface. The same scene was again enacted, and the rescued now reported +that there were more to follow, though how many they could not tell. + +Little Mark and his mother waited with trembling hearts. Those they +longed to see had not appeared, and to their anxious inquiries no +satisfactory reply was given. Neither John Gilbart nor his son had been +seen. At length, another party came up from the depths, but this time +there were five boys borne in the arms of stronger men. Alas! two were +motionless--the arms and heads of the others drooped helplessly down. +The poor mothers pressed forward--Mark and Mrs Gilbart among them. +"That's Mat--that's Mat!" cried the child, as one of the first was +placed on the ground. The mother, kneeling by the side of the boy, +gazed into his face. Too truly she recognised her son, but no +responsive glance came from his once bright eyes. "Oh, speak to me-- +speak to me, Mat," she exclaimed. There was no reply. She took his +hand, it was icy cold. Then she knew that her boy was dead. The doctor +came. "I grieve for you, my poor woman; he is past recovery," he said, +and went on to attend to others. Little Mark sat by his dead brother's +side, gazing at him with awe. No one disturbed him. Mrs Gilbart +waited on, hope not yet abandoned. More men came up, some fearfully +injured. They reported that the rest were in the workings far away-- +already the mine was on fire, the heat and smoke unbearable--that it was +a miracle any had escaped, that all but themselves must have perished. +Heartrending were the wailings and shrieks and moanings which arose at +this announcement, confirmed by the viewer and overmen. Still many +lingered on in the hopes that the corve might be again sent down, but +the viewer forbade any to descend, as it must prove their destruction. +At length some men came to carry young Gilbart's corpse to his mother's +cottage. She and Mark followed with tottering steps. The sad truth had +forced itself on her that she was a widow--the two bread-winners of her +household gone. Still it was some poor consolation to have recovered +the body of her son. Many had not that--they were destined never again +to see those they loved. More explosions took place, and the report was +spread that the whole mine was destroyed. This was, however, not the +case. Science enabled the manager to triumph over the fiery element +raging below. By completely closing the mouths of the shafts, the +atmospheric air was excluded, and the flames extinguished. After nearly +three months' labour, the mine was explored, and the bodies of the dead, +scorched and dried to mummies, were recovered. None could be +recognised, and they were buried in a common grave. Mrs Gilbart knew +that her husband was among them. The pit was again opened. Fresh +labourers arrived from other parts, and once more those dark galleries +became the scene of active industry. The cottages were required by the +fresh comers, and Mrs Gilbart, with her son and her little girl Mary, a +year younger than Mark, would have been compelled to go forth houseless +and penniless into the cold world, had not an uncle of her late husband, +a hewer at a pit a few miles away, offered to receive her and her +children into his house. She thankfully went, hoping to maintain +herself and others by her needle. + +Simon Hayes had been a miner from his boyhood. Though there were some +soft places in his heart, he was rough and untutored, and he had many of +the faults common among men of his class. He had a wife much like +himself in several respects, but he had no children. Though receiving +good wages, he had saved nothing, having spent them extravagantly in +obtaining luxuries for himself and his wife, for which they cared but +little. By refraining from these, he was well able to feed these +additional mouths, and for some time his wife made no complaint at his +doing so. Still there was nothing saved up for a rainy day. Simon +Hayes took mightily to little Mary. There was nothing he thought too +good for her; but he showed no affection for Mark. He was a boy doomed +to labour as he had been, and the only labour he could think of for him +was down in the mine, first as a trapper, then as a putter, and finally +as a hewer. Mrs Gilbart shuddered when he alluded to the subject. She +had hoped to bring him up to some trade which he could follow above +ground, though it would be several years before he would be old enough +to be apprenticed. "But he is not very strong, and he is my only one, +uncle, you know," she answered. "Let him go to school first. I have +taught him what I could, but he will get on with his learning there +faster than at home." + +"What's the use of learning to a miner?" exclaimed Simon with a gruff +laugh. "However, you must have your way, Mary, and I don't mind paying +for his schooling, though, look ye, if times get bad, he'll have to earn +his bread like the rest of us." Mrs Gilbart thanked her uncle, hoping +that the evil day was put off for a long time. Little Mark went to +school, and being fond of his books, made rapid progress in reading and +writing. He thus soon possessed himself of the key of knowledge. +Little Mary was also sent to a girls' school, and being bright and +intelligent, soon became a favourite pupil of the mistress. At length +Mrs Hayes fell ill, and her niece's time was so fully occupied in +attending on her, that she could gain nothing by her work. Then there +was the doctor to pay. Simon also was laid up for some weeks from a +severe bruise by a fall of coal. "I can't stand this no longer, niece," +he said one day. "The next time I go down the pit I must take Mark with +me." Mrs Gilbart begged hard that her boy might remain above ground. +She would take him from school and try to get employment for him on a +farm. Simon was obdurate; if she would not agree to his wishes she +might leave his house. Her fears were all nonsense, the boy would do +well enough in the pit, he would get tenpence a-day as a trapper--on a +farm he couldn't get twopence. Without telling her what he was about to +do, the first morning he returned to work he took Mark by the arm and +led him along to the pit's mouth. He had brought a flannel suit. He +made the boy put it on. "Now, Mark, we are going into the pit, and +you'll do what I tell you when we get down," he said, as if it was a +matter of course. "I've arranged with the manager to take you on from +to-day as a trapper. Though you may not like it at first, you'll soon +get accustomed to the work, and so let's have no nonsense. Here's the +corve all ready to go down--come along." + + + +CHAPTER TWO. + +LEARNING TO WATCH. + +Simon, taking Mark by the hand, stepped on to an iron frame-work or +cage, suspended over the pit's mouth. "Take hold of this bar and don't +move as you value your life, boy," he said. + +Mark obeyed. Several other men and two boys stepped on to the cage, it +began to descend. Though little Mark had been hearing of mines all his +life, and felt no especial unwillingness, yet all seemed strange about +him. It appeared to him by the dim light of the lamps which his uncle +and the other men held in their hands, that the shafts were rushing +upwards at a fearful rate, while the light of day, which he could still +see above him, grew gradually less and less. A giddiness overtook him. +He might have fallen, had not his uncle still held him by the shoulder. +How long he had been descending he could not tell, when he found the +cage come to a stand-still, and that he was down beneath the surface of +the earth, a thousand feet or more. + +The rumbling of the trains of laden waggons coming to the shafts, the +faint voices of the men in the distance, were the only sounds heard, +while the lights which flitted here and there only served to make the +long vaulted galleries appear more gloomy and dark. + +"Come along, Mark!" said his uncle, shouldering his pick and spade, and +holding his lantern before him. + +As they stepped out of the cage, they found themselves in a gloomy +vault, on one side of which a huge furnace was unceasingly roaring, +while at the other were the stables in which a number of horses, mules, +and donkeys were kept. Before them was the main gallery, about eight +feet high and the same wide, arched over with bricks four thick, and +extending three miles away from the mouth of the pit. Out of it for its +whole length opened shorter galleries or side galleries where the coals +were now being won. In all of them rails were laid down for the waggons +to run on, and on each side were seams of coal, in some places narrow +near the top, in others close to the ground, and in some there was coal +from the top to the bottom. At the entrance of these side galleries +were doors which had generally to be kept shut, and were only opened +when the waggons, loaded with coal or returning empty, had to pass +through. After Simon and Mark had proceeded a couple of miles along the +main gallery, they stopped at one of these doors. "This is to be your +post, Mark," said Simon. + +"When you hear the waggon coming, you are to open the door, and as soon +as it is passed to shut it. Mind you don't go to sleep. You'll be in +the dark, but that won't hurt you, and if you feel anything running by, +you'll know it's only a rat. It won't touch you while you are awake. I +began my life in this way, so must you. There, go and sit down in that +hole cut out for you. When you hear the rolley coming, pull that rope, +which will open the door. There, now, you know what to do. Take care +that you do it," and Simon, leaving his nephew, proceeded on to the +farther end of the working. He then commenced operations on a new +cutting which the under-viewer had marked out for him in the side of the +gallery. It was about three yards square, and was to be about four feet +six inches back under the bed of coal, he began by hewing away about two +feet six inches from the ground and working upwards, cutting out the +coal with his pick, shovelling it into a large corve or basket which +stood at hand ready for the reception of the lumps. At first the work +was tolerably easy, as he could stand upright and swing his pick with +all his force. As he got deeper and deeper into the bed, he had to fix +a strut or post with a cross beam to support the weight of the roof, and +he had to get the coal out by stooping down low or resting on his knees. +Finally he had to work lying down on one elbow, swinging his pick over +his head with the other arm in a way a miner alone could have used it. + +Occasionally the boy called the putter came by, shoving a rolley or +little band-waggon before him. On to this the full corve was lifted and +the empty one left in its place. Sometimes he proceeded by cutting a +space on each side of the square bed of coal, from the roof to the +floor. He then bored a hole in the middle of the block, into which he +rammed a charge of gunpowder, and having lighted it by a slow match, +retired to a distance. The powder exploding, shattered the whole mass, +and it came tumbling down to the ground in fragments. This could only +have been done where no foul air was present, otherwise the moment the +lamp was opened there would have been a fearful explosion, and he, with +many others, would perhaps have been killed. He laboured on incessantly +until dinner time, when he and all the men in the working, including the +putters, came out, and taking Mark with them, repaired to a central spot +where there were casks of water, and seats, the only accommodation +required by the rough miners. Here their dinners, which had been sent +down during the morning, were eaten. + +"Well, how do you get on?" asked his uncle of Mark. + +"I kept awake, opened the door when the rolleys came by, and shut it +again after they had passed!" answered Mark. + +"That's what I had to do!" said Simon. + +"I only wish that I had a candle, and had brought a book down to read. +I should not have minded it much then, although it was a hard matter to +keep awake!" + +"You were not afraid, then?" asked another man. + +"What was there to be afraid of?" asked Mark. "I heard noises, but I +knew what they were, so I did not mind them!" + +"You'll do!" said his uncle in an approving tone. Mark ate his dinner, +and then went back to his trap. He there sat all alone in the dark, +anxiously waiting for "kenner" time. It came at last, and Mark heard +the words "kenner, kenner," which had been shouted down the pit's mouth, +passed along the galleries. It was the signal for the miners to knock +off work, and return to the upper world. + +Mark, however, could not venture to move until his uncle came for him. +He was very thankful when he saw the glimmer of a light along the +gallery. Slowly it approached. It was carried by his uncle, who having +closed the door, led him along through the main tunnel towards the +shaft. Together they ascended, and returned home. Mrs Gilbart had +been dreadfully alarmed at her son's absence, until told by a neighbour +that she had seen him going along with his uncle towards the pit's +mouth. + +A mother's eye alone could have recognised him, so greatly changed was +he by the coal dust. She soon, however, got that washed off, and +dressed him again in his clean clothes. He did not complain or ask his +mother to keep him out of the mine, so, although still with an unwilling +heart, she allowed his uncle to take him. The next Saturday he received +five shillings, which was as much as she could make by stitching all +day, and sometimes late into the night, by her needle. Simon was well +pleased with Mark, and reported, after he had been some weeks at work, +that no fault had ever been found with him. He was always awake, and +ready to open and close his trap at the proper time. When a little +bigger, he would become a "putter," and have the employment of rolling +the waggons along the tramways. + +Coal mines, it should be understood, are worked in various ways, some in +squares, or what is called the panel system. The main roads are like +the frame of a window, the passages like the wood-work dividing the +panes of glass, and the masses of coal which at first remain, may be +represented by the panes themselves. After the various passages have +been cut out, the masses are again cut into, pillars only remaining, +each of which is about twelve feet by twenty-four feet in thickness. At +length these pillars are removed, and props of wood placed instead, and +thus the whole mine is worked out. There are miles and miles of +passages in which tramways are laid down, leading to the shaft, up which +the coal is raised. As the air in the mine has a tendency to get foul +and close, it is necessary to send currents of wind into the passages to +blow it away. The chief object is to make the wind come down one shaft, +and then to bring it along through the passages, and so up by another +shaft. If the wind which came down were allowed to wander about, it +would produce no good effect. The traps or doors, such as the one at +which Mark was stationed, are used to stop it from going through some +passages and make it move along others until the bad air is blown out of +them. To create a powerful current, a large furnace is placed at the +bottom of one of the shafts, which is called the up-cast shaft, and the +foul air is cast up it. Often, notwithstanding this, the heat below is +very great, and the hewer working away with his heavy pick is bathed in +perspiration. Where no bad gas is generated, open lights may be used, +but this cannot often be done with safety, as fire-damp may at any +moment rush out of a hole, and if set alight it would go off like +gunpowder or gas from coal, killing everybody within its influence, and +bringing down the tops and sides of the passages. + +In some mines where it is important to have ventilation, there are four +shafts, two up and two down-cast. The latter, where the coals are drawn +up to the surface, are in the lowest part of the mine, and all the +passages are on a gentle ascent towards the furnace, so that the air +down the shafts is drawn that way. The furnace consists of a number of +iron bars placed horizontally across the end of a large brick arch, and +the roof and sides are built of the best fired bricks. On the iron bars +nearly a ton of coals is kept constantly burning and throws out a great +heat, relays of men being employed in replenishing it. At the back of +the furnace is a shaft to carry off the smoke. Thus the cool air +circulates all over the mine. When a large supply of air is required in +any particular part of the mine, the doors are closed at the entrance to +the other parts, thus directing the current where it is most wanted. +This current is so strong that on opening one of these doors, care is +necessary in shutting it, as it would slam with a force sufficient to +knock a man down. + +These and other arrangements, and the vast amount of machinery now +employed, had not, however, been introduced when Mark Gilbart began life +as a "trapper." The most dangerous operation is the opening of a new +passage, from which foul air may suddenly escape and poison the miners +inhaling it, or a stream of water may rush forth, rilling up the +gallery, and drowning all within its reach. Numberless, indeed, are the +dangers to which miners are exposed. Their condition is now improved, +but they formerly worked eleven or twelve hours a-day, and occasionally +even from thirteen to sixteen, far down in the depths of the earth, in a +heavy and noxious atmosphere, in a half naked state and in unnatural +positions, kneeling, stooping, lying upon their sides and backs, at any +moment liable to the loss of life. The miner has not only to undergo +bodily labour, but must exercise skill, patience, presence of mind, +coolness, and thoughtfulness. Countless, also, are the dangers to which +they are exposed. To accidents as they come down or go up the shafts by +the breaking of ropes, or the giving way of machinery, from the falling +in of the roof or walls, as also from accidents in blasting, from +spontaneous combustion, from explosion of fire-damp, suffocation from +choke-damp, and eruptions of water, and even quicksands. Sometimes +floods or heavy rains find their way down unknown crevices into the pit, +where the miner is working, and forming a rapid torrent, suddenly +inundates the mine and sweeps all before it. + +Such was the life young Mark Gilbart was apparently doomed to lead. + + + +CHAPTER THREE. + +LEARNING TO WORK. + +We must proceed more rapidly than heretofore with Mark Gilbart's +history. He did his duty as a trapper, never falling asleep, and always +opening and shutting the trap at the proper moment. The rolley boys +never complained of him, and as he was invariably in good humour, and +stood their chaffing, he became a favourite. + +Often he had to go into the pit before daylight, and remain until ten +o'clock at night with one candle to light him on his way to his trap, +and another with which to return. + +As he always told his mother that he was happy, and he appeared to be in +tolerable health, she became reconciled to his being thus employed, +though she little dreamed of what he had really to go through. When he +had shorter hours of work, he employed his time at home in reading and +improving himself in writing. He had also a fancy for making models. +He began by making one of the parts of the pit in which he worked. Then +he tried his hand at making some of the simpler machinery of the pit. +His uncle acknowledged that the rolleys, corves, picks, and spades were +wonderfully exact,--indeed, was so well pleased that he allowed him a +lantern and a supply of candles, so that instead of sitting in the dark, +he could pass his time in reading and cutting out his models, the +materials for which he carried down with him. So perfect were his +models that they were readily purchased by visitors to the pit. His +mother, on one occasion, taking some of them into a neighbouring town, +sold specimens to tradesmen, who offered to buy as many as she could +bring them of the same description. At length Mark became big enough to +be a "putter," or rolley boy. He could no longer read or make models +down in the pit, but he got better wages, shorter hours of work, and his +health improved with the exercise. Being always wide-awake, he escaped +the accidents from which so many of his companions suffered, which they +called "laming." The injuries they received were from various causes, +but generally from falling, when the rolley passed over their arms or +legs, and broken limbs were the consequence. Some had lost one or more +fingers or toes, others had received gashes in their faces, or arms, or +legs, but they had seldom long been laid up, and had willingly again +returned to their work. The term "putter," it should be understood, +includes the specific distinction of the "headsman," "half-marrow," and +"foal." The "headsman," taking the part of conductor, pushes behind. +The "half-marrows" drag at the sides with ropes; while a "foal" precedes +the train, also dragging by a rope. Mark, however, was not very long +employed in this laborious task, for the overseer, hearing of his +talent, appointed him to the duty of "crane-hoister." The term explains +itself. He had to hook on the "corves," and keep an account by chalking +on a board the number hoisted up. In this occupation he was able to +gain a pound a week. Some part of this he laid by, and with the other +he enabled his little sister to attend a respectable school in the +neighbourhood, where she made great progress, and showed a considerable +talent for music. Mark had by this time gained the esteem not only of +his companions but of the under-viewers, and was favourably known to the +viewer. On several occasions when his services had been required, he +had accompanied one of the under-viewers on his visits through the +mines. He thus traversed the main gallery, the side walks, and the old, +or abandoned works. In the latter the roof was propped up by +perpendicular posts and horizontal beams. In many places the beams were +so bent by the weight of the superincumbent earth, that it appeared they +must before long give way. In many places they had to creep on hands +and knees to pass through the old workings, which opened into others +farther on. + +As they made their way along, the under-viewer showed him a fault in the +coal seam, and explained what it was. Coal seams generally run in a +parallel position with the various other strata for a considerable +distance, when, all at once, they abruptly terminate. This is marked as +plainly as if a wall had been built up at the end of the seam. Thus, +while on one side of the wall there is a thick seam of coal, on the +other there is a mass of rock. This break or fault was caused at some +remote period of the world's history by an internal convulsion. It is +known, however, that the seam will again be found, either at a higher or +lower level than the one first worked. To reach the seam a tunnel is +driven right through the rock, when sooner or later the seam is +discovered. In the present fault, a tunnel had been run through the +solid rock for fifty feet in length; and they might afterwards have to +follow up the seam, extending perhaps half-a-mile, or even a mile, for +the whole of which length a gallery would have to be cut, from which, +side workings would extend on either side. So accurately did Mark note +all he saw, that on his return home he was able to draw out a plan of +the mine, with which the under-viewer was so pleased, that he took it to +the manager. + +"This boy deserves encouragement. We must see what can be done for +him!" was the remark. Shortly after this, great improvements were +introduced into the mine. Fresh shafts were sunk, for affording better +ventilation, and for more rapidly getting the coal to the surface. Near +them, engines of great power were placed to perform the various +operations required. An endless wire rope was made to run from the +shafts to the extreme end of the gallery, kept revolving by a +steam-engine down in the mine. The man walking ahead of the leading +waggon, to which is secured a pair of iron tongs, grips hold by them of +this endless rope, which thus drags on his waggons without any labour on +his part, towards the shaft, up which the coals are to be carried to the +surface. The chief gallery was divided by a wall down the centre, with +openings at intervals of twenty yards or so, to enable persons to pass +through. There were also niches on either side, where he could stand +while a train was passing. On one side of the gallery the full trains +ran along on rails from the workings to the shaft; on the other side the +empty waggons returned to the workings to be filled. For the purpose of +better ventilating the mine, an enormous fan, forty feet in diameter, +formed like the paddle-wheels of a steam-ship, and kept constantly +revolving by steam-power, was placed over a shaft sunk for that sole +object. The suction caused by the enormous paddles drew up all the foul +air and noxious vapours from the whole of the mine, and at the same time +drew in from another shaft, more than a mile distant, a current of fresh +air, amounting from 70,000 to 80,000 feet per minute, thus doing the +work of a furnace far more effectually, and at much less cost. + +Instead of the old corve or basket, an iron safety-cage had been +introduced, sliding up and down on steel bars, resembling indeed a +perpendicular rail-road. Wonderfully changed was the appearance of the +mine itself. Mark, who had been employed above ground for some time, +was astonished, on being lowered in the new safety-cage, to find himself +on stepping out at the bottom in a spacious brick-arched vault, almost +the size of a railway terminus, well lighted by large glass lamps +suspended from the roof. The machinery, both steam and hydraulic, +looked in the most perfect order; the steel parts of the engine shining +like burnished silver. Trains of laden waggons were every now and then +arriving. First of all was heard a distant rumbling, with the "whirr" +of the iron rope far back in the darkness. The rumbling sound grew +louder, and at last the train came in sight. A stalwart miner, with his +lamp dimly twinkling slung at his waist, striding along holding in his +left hand the iron tongs before mentioned, and having behind him a long +train of waggons, gradually came into the light. On he went to the foot +of the shaft. Here a strong iron cage appeared, having three floors, +one above the other. In front of this was a stage, on to which the +leading waggon was run. It was then lifted by hydraulic power, until a +second stage appeared below it. On this another waggon was run, that +again rose, until a third stage was level with the tramway--the three +stages being now level with the three floors of the cage. At the same +time three hydraulic rams or arms ran out from the side of the shaft and +pushed the waggons into the cage, which immediately began ascending. It +should have been said that three empty waggons had come down in the +cage, and had in the first instance been withdrawn and placed on the +return tramway. These were at once coupled together by men stationed +there for the purpose, who had now to wait for the return of the cage +with more empty waggons to be again filled with three others from the +full train. The cage on reaching the summit of the shaft was unloaded +much in the same fashion by hydraulic power. This operation was carried +on with wonderful rapidity, so that the outputs, or amount of coal +raised, averaged from 800 to 900 tons per day. + +More than a mile away from this main shaft was the engine-room which +worked the endless rope. On a platform some distance above the ground +sat the engineer, surrounded by a multitude of signals. In spite of the +tremendous noise which prevented one person hearing what another said, +the engineer attended to all his signals with the greatest accuracy, his +complicated machinery in beautiful order, and appearing perfectly at his +ease. Some idea may be formed of the vast amount of labour employed in +this mine when it is understood that the working-faces, with gate-roads, +main roads, air-ways, returns, engine-plains, self-acting and engine +inclines, extended upwards of eleven miles, and with the addition of the +old working roads, including those which were bricked up, the whole +measured the enormous amount of twenty-two miles. All these passages +were kept far better ventilated by the fan than they were by the furnace +hitherto in use, while the pure air brought down, greatly contributed to +the health of the miners. + +Mark had risen step by step. He was now able to take a house for his +mother and Mary, although old Hayes and his wife were very unwilling to +part with them. Mary had greatly improved in her music, of which she +was passionately fond, but she had no piano on which to play at home. + +Mark, who had a holiday, hearing that an auction was to take place at +the neighbouring town, at which a pianoforte was for sale, set off to +attend it. There was some competition, but he had 20 pounds in his +pocket, saved from his earnings, and it was finally knocked down to him +at that price. With proud satisfaction he at once hired a spring cart, +and set off with it for his home, where he had it placed while Mary was +out with their mother. Her delight at seeing it equalled the pleasure +with which he bestowed his gift. The fact was inserted in one of the +local papers by the auctioneer who sold it, that the piano was purchased +by the first 20 pounds saved out of the earnings of a collier boy, as a +present to his sister. + +Unhappily, such instances are rare, for although many collier boys +gained high wages, the money was too generally lavishly spent, without +thought for the future. + +Of late years a considerable improvement has taken place among many +mining populations, but even in former years it was possible for talent +to force its way upwards. Who has not heard of George Stephenson, who +began life trapper in a mine at six years of age, and rose to be a great +engineer, father of Robert Stephenson, M.P., and engineer-in-chief of +the North-Western Railway; of Dr Hutton, who was originally a hewer of +coal in Old Long Benton Colliery; of Thomas Bewick, the celebrated +wood-engraver; of Professor Hann, the mathematician, and of many others +whose names are less known to fame, who have obtained respectable +positions in society. + +Old Hayes had lately moved to another pit some distance from the one in +which he had hitherto laboured, being tempted by higher wages, and Mark +shortly afterwards was offered a situation as under-viewer in the same +pit. It was worked on the old plan, but improvements were being carried +out. + +Old Simon with four other men were coming along the main gallery, being +the last of the miners who were leaving the pit for the night. The rest +had already gained the foot of the shaft, when a rushing, roaring sound +was heard followed by a tremendous blast of wind, which, almost took +them off their feet. The cage was at the bottom of the shaft. They +sprang into it, more than double the number it usually contained +clinging on. Before they could give the signal to be drawn up, they saw +a torrent of water surging on several feet in depth, rapidly filling the +whole lower part of the mine. They were soon out of danger, but what +had become of old Simon and his companions? Mark had come to the pit's +mouth intending to descend and make his usual survey of the mine to see +that all was right. He soon heard on inquiry of the supposed fate of +old Simon and the rest. No one doubted that he had been overwhelmed by +the raging waters, but that such was the case Mark was not thoroughly +satisfied. + +"They may have escaped in one of the side workings, and if so they are +still alive, although it may be a difficult matter to get them out," he +remarked. + +He at once ordered the cage to be lowered, and with two men who +volunteered to accompany him, descended in it. On getting near the +bottom he discovered that although the water had filled the main tunnel +to the roof, there was still a passage running away to the left on a +higher level which was perfectly dry. They proceeded along it although +his companions considered that a search in that direction was useless. + +"If the poor fellows were last seen in the main gallery, it seems +impossible that they should have got up here," they remarked. They, +however, went on and on, but no signs of human beings could be +discovered. They were returning, and were once more approaching the +shaft, when a dull sound was heard, as if some one was striking on a +wall in the far distance. + +Mark placed his ear against the side from which the sound seemed to +come, and he distinctly heard several blows given. The others did the +same. + +"You are right, Gilbart, that comes from the side working nearest to us. +The men must be there," exclaimed one of his companions. + +"We will reply to them," said Mark, and taking a pick he struck several +heavy blows against the side of the gallery. They were replied to by +the same number. + +"How is it that they can be there and not be drowned?" asked one of the +men. + +"The water is prevented from rushing in by the pent-up air in the +working," he answered. "How long it will be kept back I cannot say, but +no time must be lost in hewing a way through to them. Come, lads, with +God's help, we will save them," said Mark. "Keep picking away until I +return," and he hastened to the shaft. + +Having an exact plan of the mine, he was able to determine at once the +working in which old Simon and his companions were imprisoned. The +distance, however, to the spot where he was convinced they must be was +fearfully great, between eighty and ninety yards. It would take days to +bore through. Would those they desired to save be able to exist so +long? The attempt must be made. + +Volunteers were quickly obtained, and descending with a dozen skilful +hewers, he commenced operations at the very spot where the sound of the +blows had reached his ears. In a short time a gang of putters with a +supply of rolleys came down to carry away the coal and earth and rock as +it was hewn out, but five men could only labour at a time. They worked, +therefore, in relays. Day and night they laboured on without cessation, +except occasionally stopping to ascertain that their friends within were +alive, when they were encouraged to proceed by invariably hearing the +knocking which had at first attracted Mark's attention. He directed the +course they were to pursue, never once ascending to the pit's mouth, but +taking his food near the working, and sleeping in a blanket on the hard +rock. Day after day and night after night they worked on. The knocking +from within sounded louder. On the seventh day their leader, an old +friend of Simon's, struck his pick into the rock before him, making a +deep hole, through which there suddenly rushed out a stream of noxious +gas, and he fell overcome. His comrades, seizing him by the arms, +dragged him out, narrowly escaping themselves. Reaching the fresher +air, he soon recovered, and undaunted exclaimed, "Let me go at it again, +lads!" and leading the way, once more the bold miners recommenced +operations. Still another day they worked on, and the partition which +divided them from their friends was growing thinner and thinner. A +second escape of gas once more compelled them to retreat, but as soon as +it had dispersed, with the courage of heroes they again went at it. At +length, on the tenth day since the water had rushed into the mine, but a +thin wall remained between them and the imprisoned ones. They had now +come to the most dangerous part of their undertaking, the moment they +had broken away the wall, the compressed air would rush through the +aperture, with a force far greater than the fiercest hurricane, and the +water surging up might drown those within. Still, they knew they must +risk it. + +"Now, lads, we'll do it," cried their old leader, and lifting his pick +he struck a blow against the rock. As he withdrew it, the air rushing +through extinguished the lights, and they were left to work in darkness. +Notwithstanding this, in spite of the wind in his face, the old man +worked on with thundering blows. Every moment he brought down masses of +rock until he was convinced that he had made a hole large enough to +creep through. + +"Where are you, lads?" he shouted. "Come on, come on!" + +Some faint voices replied, he and four others, clambering through the +aperture, each lifted a man in his arms. They could hear the water +rushing in close to them, but they hesitated not. Dragging out their +friends, they staggered along the gallery they had just formed. They +were met by Mark and a party of men carrying lanterns, and battling +against the fierce blast which rushed through the passage. They were +thus soon relieved of their burdens. Quickly reaching the main gallery, +the doctor took the rescued men in hand, having a plentiful supply of +food, medicine, and attendants ready. Though weak and almost exhausted, +the five men in a few hours were sufficiently recovered to be conveyed +up the shaft, where they were received by their relatives and friends, +who long before had given up all hopes of ever again seeing them. + +It may be asked how were these men able to live so long during their +imprisonment! Fortunately they had with them a small store of +provisions, and knowing that it might be many days before they could be +rescued, they at once put themselves on the very smallest allowance that +would support life, at the same time the air, which as we have seen was +so compressed by the force of the water, was capable of sustaining +respiration for a much longer period than when of its ordinary density. + +There is a very great amount of vitality in the human frame, and where +the wear and tear of active labour does not exist, man can live for a +long period almost without solid food, especially if there be a +plentiful supply of fresh water at hand. + + + +CHAPTER FOUR. + +THE MINES OF EUROPE. + +Mark Gilbart had never thrown a moment away. By study, perseverance, +and strict integrity, and the exercise of the intelligence with which he +was endowed, he had risen step by step to a far higher social position +than he had before enjoyed. Though still young, he had become a mining +engineer, and was greatly respected by all who knew him. He had the +happiness of placing his mother and sister in a house of their own, +without the necessity of labouring for their support. + +He was one day drawing plans in his study, when he received a note from +a Mr Harvey, a gentleman of property, the owner of several mines, +requesting him to call. + +Mr Harvey received him cordially. "I am about to ask you, Mr Gilbart, +to accompany my son Frank on a tour of considerable extent, to visit +some of the more important mines in Europe, and, if there is time, in +other parts of the world, and he is anxious to have a practical man who +will enable him to comprehend the different matters connected with them +more clearly than he would be able to do by himself. I need not say +that I am fully aware of the value of your time, and I therefore offer +you such compensation as I hope you will consider sufficient." + +Mark gladly agreed to the proposal. Such a tour was above all things +such as he desired, and which, indeed, he had himself contemplated +taking at his own cost. Frank Harvey was an active, intelligent, young +man, exactly the sort of companion Mark would have chosen. Having +concluded all their arrangements, they lost no time in setting out. + +Having visited the English, Scotch, and Welsh coal districts, numbering +in all about fifteen, they bent their steps--after seeing the iron and +lead mines in the south of Scotland, and the north and centre of +England--towards Cornwall, to explore its tin and copper mines; after +which they intended to cross the Channel to visit the more remarkable +ones of Europe. + +Their first halting-place was at Redruth, near which is the lofty hill +called Cairn Brea, whence they obtained a view over an extensive mining +district. The country around, covered in many places with enormous +blocks of granite, looked barren and uninviting in the extreme, and no +one would have supposed that any portion of the soil in sight was the +richest in the whole of our island. Within a few miles of the spot +where they stood were, however, numerous copper and tin mines, many of +which had yielded a large profit to their owners. Among them was +Dolcoath, one of the oldest copper mines in Cornwall, 300 fathoms in +depth. Another, Eastpool, a tin and copper mine, from which ores to the +amount of 130,000 pounds have been won, after an original outlay of only +640 pounds. From the former mine native silver, cobalt, and bismuth +have also been obtained. The mineral deposits of Cornwall, it should be +known, are found in granite and grey slate. Those of Derbyshire and the +north of England--lead and iron--in the carboniferous system. + +The travellers visited these and several other mines, among them the +Consolidated Copper Mines, situated in the parish of Gwennap, about +three miles from Redruth. They extend along the brow of a range of +steep hills, into which numerous shafts are sunk. The length of the +whole of these shafts together, it is calculated, is more than twelve +miles in perpendicular depth, and if to these are added the horizontal +galleries, which perforate the hill in all directions, the extent of +subterranean excavation is upwards of sixty miles. + +Eight steam-engines of the largest size, and thirty of smaller +dimensions, are employed for drainage and other purposes, their ordinary +working power being equal to 4000 horses, but when their full power is +put on they almost equal that of 8000. To carry off the water from +these mines, a tunnel, with numerous ramifications has been formed, +measuring nearly thirty miles in length. One branch of this tunnel is +upwards of five miles long, carried underground 400 feet beneath the +surface, finding its outlet into the sea near Falmouth. + +A few years ago the number of tin mines worked in Cornwall amounted to +139, and to 26 in Devonshire; and about 20,000 persons were employed in +them. + +Although the wages of the miners are much inferior to those of the +pitmen in the northern coal-fields, yet they have advantages over their +brethren, being exempted from many of the evils to which the northern +miners are subjected. They have no fear of the fatal fire-damp or +sudden explosions. Intellectually they are also superior, as they are +mostly engaged in work requiring the exercise of mind. Their wages +arise from contract, and depend greatly upon their skill and energy. +They mostly have gardens, which they cultivate, and when near the coast +they engage in the fisheries, thus increasing their incomes and varying +their mode of life. + +After leaving Redruth the travellers proceeded over the wildest and most +desolate of moorlands, with blocks of stone scattered about, towards the +wonderful Botallack Mine, on the Cornish coast. No mine in the world is +so singularly placed. Descending to the shore below, on looking +upwards, the view appeared fearfully grand. In one part was a powerful +steam-engine, which had to be lowered almost 200 feet down the cliffs. +Here tall chimneys, pouring out dense volumes of smoke, were seen +perched on the ledges of a tremendous precipice. Here and there also +were the huts of the miners, disputing the ground with the wild +sea-birds, while ladders of great length scaled the rocks in all +directions, enabling them to ascend and descend to their work. In some +parts were paths up which sure-footed mules, with riders on their backs, +were trotting briskly along, where few people unaccustomed to dizzy +heights would have wished to venture even on foot. + +As they had determined to visit the mine, they had to ascend to the top +of the cliff and then once more to descend among the rugged rocks to a +ledge about midway between the summit and the ocean, where a small +building, occupied by the mining agent, marked the entrance. Hearing +who they were, the agent at once undertook to guide them, and produced a +couple of woollen mining dresses and two large felt hats. + +Each person having fastened four or five candles to his button hole, +while he carried another in his hand, they began to descend through a +trap-like entrance, by a series of ladders, which although strong enough +in reality had a very rickety feeling. On reaching the foot of one +ladder, they were conducted to the top of another, on to which they had +to step, and thus descending ladder after ladder and passing ledge after +ledge, they at length reached the bottom of the pit, where the end of a +pump was seen drawing up the water from all parts of the mine. + +They then commenced their progress along one of the numberless +galleries, which was so narrow that two persons could scarcely pass each +other. Now having to step over rough stones and often close to the +edges of fearful pits, now to bend low under masses of overhanging rock, +and sometimes to find themselves crossing unknown abysses by shaky +bridges of planks, while the damp air felt hot and sickly, making the +candles burn dimly. Here miners were at work with pickaxes getting out +the ore. Having thus gone over, through, and under all impediments, +they were informed that they were 120 feet below the level of the sea +vertically, and horizontally 480 feet below low-water mark. Boats might +even then be passing over their heads. Human beings were working still +lower down. On the roof, the strips of pure copper could be +distinguished among the crevices of the rocks through which the salt +water was seen percolating in an unpleasant abundance. In their +eagerness to obtain the rich ore, the miners had worked upwards until +they had got within five or six feet of the bottom of the ocean. There +the metal was still clearly visible, but even the most hardy miners +would scarcely have ventured on an attempt to win another grain from the +rock overhead, lest the water should rush in and overwhelm them, and +inundate the mine. + +Passing into a gallery where no one was at work, the travellers listened +in perfect silence, and could hear the low murmur of the ocean rolling +above their heads. + +"Oh, that is nothing now," said their guide. "When a storm is raging, I +have heard the sound of the pebbles, which some large wave has carried +outwards, bounding and rolling over the rocky bottom. On standing +beneath the base of the cliff, where not more than nine feet of rock +intervened between the sea and my head, the heavy roll of the large +boulders, the ceaseless grinding of the pebbles, the fierce thunder of +the billows with the crackling and boiling as they rebounded, produced +an uproar such as those who heard it can never forget." + +For many years a blind man worked in the Botallack Mine, and supported a +large family by his labour. So complete was his recollection of every +turning and winding, that he became a guide to his fellow-labourers, +when by any accident their lights were extinguished. He being +afterwards cruelly discharged, engaged himself as an attendant to some +bricklayers. While thus employed, with a hod of mortar on his back, he +fell from a platform and was killed. + +There are several other mines similarly situated to that of the +Botallack on the coast of Cornwall, where the works are carried far +under the ocean. Among them are the Wheal Edward, the Levant, the Wheal +Cock, and the Little Bounds. In the two latter, the miners have +actually followed the ore upwards until the sea itself has been reached, +but the openings formed were so small that they were able to exclude the +water, by plugging them with wood and cement. + +On returning from the mine, the travellers, having doffed their miners' +dresses, inspected the outward machinery employed in crushing the ore on +the landing-place in the side of the cliff, and drawing it up the +precipitous tram, which leads to the summit, where it is stamped and +prepared for exportation. It is mostly carried to Swansea, which, in +consequence of the abundance of fuel in the neighbourhood, owing to its +nearness to the sea, to its canals and railroads, has, in the course of +half-a-century, from a mere fishing village become a town containing +fully 40,000 inhabitants. + +The Cornish mines are not the only ones which run under the sea. On the +Irish and some parts of the English coasts there are several coal mines +which are worked beneath the ocean bed to a great distance. + +Another remarkable mine, that of Huelwherry, existed for many years on +the Cornish coast. A rocky spot at about 120 fathoms from the beach was +left dry at low-water, on which small veins of tin ore were discovered +crossing each other in every direction. Although the surface was +covered for about ten months in the year, and had at spring-tides +nineteen feet of water over it, while a heavy surf often broke on the +shore, a poor miner, named Thomas Curtis, about a century ago determined +to attempt winning the ore. The work could only be carried on during +the short time the rock appeared above water. Three summers were spent +in sinking the pump-shaft, which had every tide to be emptied of water. + +A frame of boards, raised to a sufficient height above the spring-tides, +and rendered water-tight by pitch and oakum, was placed above the mouth +of the shaft. Its sides were supported by stout props in an inclined +direction. At the top of this wooden construction, which was twenty +feet in height, a platform of boards was secured, on which a windlass +was placed. The water was now pumped out of the mine and the machinery +set to work; but the sea penetrated through the fissures of the rock, +and greatly added to the labour of the workmen, while during the winter +months, on account of the swell, it was impossible to convey the tin ore +to the beach. Notwithstanding all these difficulties, the persevering +projector was rewarded by obtaining many thousand pounds worth of tin. +At length, during a gale, an American vessel broke from her moorings, +and demolished the machinery by striking against the stage, when the +water rushing in filled the mine. An attempt has been made of late +years to again work the mine with improved machinery, but the venture +not proving profitable it has been abandoned. + +The travellers also visited the curious Carclaze tin mine near the town +of Saint Austell. It is a prodigious hollow or basin, nearly thirty +fathoms in depth and a mile in circumference, and has the appearance of +a natural crater rather than a hollow made by human hands. + +The sides are almost perpendicular, and a few footpaths alone lead down +amid the rocks to the bottom. In every direction are seen the hollows +made by the miners of ancient days, the white colour of the granite +veined with the darker metalliferous streaks, and the curious shape of +the rocks formed by the streams flowing down its sides, give it a +remarkably picturesque appearance. + +The machinery used for crushing the rock is set in motion by these +streams. On every side the men, women, and children employed on the +works are seen moving about in all directions, like a busy colony of +ants. The ore is obtained without much difficulty. + +A tunnel has been formed at the bottom of the mine through which the +waters flow after they have performed their task, which also carries +away the crushed granite, while the heavier metalliferous substances are +precipitated into the troughs. Neither engine-house nor chimneys such +as are seen in other mines are visible, while every detail of the work +is exposed to view--indeed, the huge basin has the appearance of a mine +completely turned inside out. + +There are two methods of smelting tin. By the most common, the ore, +mixed with culm, is subjected to heat on the hearth of a reverberating +furnace, when ordinary coal is employed. By the other method, the ore +is fused in a blast furnace, when wood fuel or charcoal is used. The +tin when smelted runs off from the furnace into an open receiver, from +which it flows into a large vessel, where it is allowed to settle. +After the scoriae have been skimmed off, the upper and purer portion of +the mass is refined, and the lower part re-melted. + + + +CHAPTER FIVE. + +THE METALS FOUND IN MINES. + +The chief object of the travellers was to inquire into the mode in which +mines in different countries are worked, the causes of accidents, and +the best method of preventing them. Their knowledge was superior to +that which most of our readers are likely to possess, and it will be +necessary, in order to understand their proceedings, to glance at the +mining districts of the world, and to describe some of the principal +mines among them. + +No country possesses, within the same area, so large an amount of varied +mineral wealth as Great Britain. Besides the seventeen coal districts +of Great Britain, we find in Scotland numerous lead mines in the clay +slate mountains on the borders of Lanarkshire and Dumfriesshire. In the +north of England, with Alston Moor as the centre, along the borders of +Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham, are extensive +veins of lead. Cumberland, the north of Wales, and the Isle of Anglesey +produce copper ore, as also mines of lead and magnesia, with many other +metals,--zinc, arsenic, cobalt, and bismuth. Iron in large quantities +is found in South Wales, South Staffordshire, and in the Scottish +coal-fields, where the ironstone appears in abundance alternating with +layers of coal and other strata, and is generally won from the same pit +as that from which the coal is extracted. + +Besides coal, Ireland contains mines of copper and lead, found in the +slate and limestone ranges, contiguous to the sea coast. Crossing from +thence to Spain, we arrive in a country rich in mines, though, owing to +its distracted state, for many years greatly neglected. Here lead is +found in large quantities in the mountain chains. + +Quicksilver is abundant from extensive veins of cinnabar in the province +of Mancha. In Galicia tin has been produced from very early times. +Iron ore is very abundant, and silver mines, for many centuries +abandoned, are now again being reworked. Gold was at one period +discovered in large quantities, but is supposed to be almost exhausted. + +The most important coal-field of France is round Etienne, near Lyons. +Mining operations are also carried on in Brittany and the Vosges. +Although possessing less mineral wealth than England, the French were +far in advance of us in regard to the management of their mines. +Germany possessed the chief school for scientific mining. Its principal +metalliferous sites are the Hartz Mountains, on the borders of Hanover +and Prussia, and the Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains, which separate Saxony +from Bohemia. They yield silver, copper, lead, iron, tin, and cobalt. + +The most prolific sites of the precious metals in Europe are possessed +by Austria. The Styrian Alps furnish a vast amount of iron. The +province of Carniola supplies quicksilver. Hungary and Transylvania, +copper, lead, antimony, and iron. The most extensive works are found in +the neighbourhood of the town of Cremnitz and Schemnitz. The veins in +this region obtain the enormous dimensions of from 20 to 200 feet in +width. The extensive forests of oak, pine, and beech which clothe the +hills supply fuel for the numerous smelting works, while water, +carefully collected into reservoirs, moves the required machinery. The +whole of the drainage of the mines is collected in a receptacle 600 feet +below the surface, from whence it is conveyed under a lofty mountain +ridge by a magnificent gallery twelve miles in length. + +Norway and Sweden possess extensive mines of iron and copper, as also +silver. The latter country furnishes the best iron in the world, and it +is much used in England for the manufacture of steel. + +Passing eastward to Russia, we find the rich mines of the Ural +Mountains, which divide Europe from Asia, and then on to the Altai chain +on the southern frontier of Siberia, we meet with rich mines of gold and +silver, and other valuable metals. On the European side of the Ural +there is a deposit of copper sand-ore, extending over a district of 480 +miles in length, by 280 in breadth. The mineral wealth of Asiatic +Russia is far greater. It consists of copper ores; iron cropping out at +the surface, gold and platinum. The Altai Mountains especially produce +silver, and some gold, with lead and copper ores. The silver mines of +this region were worked at a very early period, as is proved by the +discovery of an excavation a thousand feet in length, from which a stone +sphinx was dug up, corroborating a statement of Herodotus that the +Scythians possessed mines of gold and silver, which, according to his +account, were guarded by monsters and griffins. Baron Humboldt supposes +that he referred to the bones of elephants, and other gigantic animals, +discovered at the present day in the steppes between the Ural and Altai +chains. + +Crossing the Atlantic to America, we find vast quantities of the +precious metals in the mountains of the Brazils and along the whole +range of the Andes. In the province of Minasgeraes, gold is obtained +from subterranean excavations, as also by washing the surface soil, when +diamonds are also found. Auriferous deposits exist in the deep valleys +among the mountains of Chili, and in Peru and Bolivia are immense veins +of silver ore. High up on the Andes are the mines of Pasco and Potosi; +while in the same region, quicksilver, copper, lead, tin, and other +metals have been discovered. The copper mines being nearest the sea, +are generally worked, the ore being sent to Swansea. + +The lofty plateau of Mexico in North America has, from the first, been +celebrated for its rich silver mines, of which there have altogether +existed no less than three thousand, but the larger number of these have +long been unworked. The gold mines of California and of Australia are +too well known to require mention; but we must not forget the rock oil, +concealed for ages in the North American continent. Both the United +States and Canada now yield an abundant supply. + +The number of metals discovered beneath the surface, including the +metallic basis of the earth and alkalies, amounts to forty-two, but +metals, commonly so-called, number only twenty-nine. These are +platinum, gold, tungsten, mercury, lead, palladium, silver, bismuth, +uranium, vanadium, copper, cadmium, cobalt, arsenic, nickel, iron, +molybdenum, tin, zinc, antimony, tellurium, manganese, tatiaum, +chromium, columbium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, cerium. Many of these, +however, are so rare, that as yet they are of no practical use. Gold +has been known from the earliest ages, and is found in scales, threads, +grains, and rolled masses, or nuggets, which latter have been discovered +in California and Australia weighing from twenty to thirty pounds, but +the largest of all met with was in Asia, on the southern side of the +Urals. + +Large quantities of gold were discovered on a marshy plain which had +been thoroughly turned over, when it was resolved to take down the +buildings in which the gold was washed, and under the very corner of one +of them a lump was found, weighing no less than ninety-six and a-half +pounds troy, and valued at 4000 pounds. Gold has been found in +Scotland, and in the county of Wicklow, Ireland, where about 10,000 +pounds worth was picked up in the bed of a river by the inhabitants, +before the Government became aware of its existence. Gold is so +malleable that a single grain can be beaten out to form a gold leaf +covering a surface of fifty-six square inches, and it is so ductile that +the same quantity may be drawn into a wire 500 feet in length. Silver +is found embedded in various rocks, where it occurs in veins, assuming +arborescent or thread-like forms, and occasionally appearing in large +masses. The largest mass found in Europe was brought from Kongsberg, in +Norway, weighing upwards of 560 pounds, but another, won from the mines +of Peru, was said to weigh 800 pounds. The celebrated mines of Potosi, +10,000 feet above the sea, were discovered in 1545 by an Indian who, +when chasing a deer, laid hold of a shrub to assist in his ascent; it +came up by the roots, to which he found attached a quantity of +glittering particles, which he at once knew to be silver. Veins of +silver have been discovered in England and Scotland, but generally mixed +with lead. + +Iron, the most useful of all metals, is found in large quantities in +England, in many parts of Europe, and the United States. At one time +Sussex was full of iron mines, the furnaces being fed with charcoal, +until so extensive was the destruction of the woods and forests that the +Government interfered, and placed restrictions on the consumption of the +timber. + +On the discovery of the present method of smelting with pit coal, the +works, which at one time numbered 140 in Sussex alone, were abandoned, +and hop-fields now cover the ground where furnaces once blazed. + +Copper ranks next to iron in utility. In Cornwall there are upwards of +100 copper mines. It derives its name from the island of Cyprus, where +it was first obtained by the Greeks. It is employed pure for numerous +purposes, and is also mixed with other metals to form bell metal, +speculum metal, for optical purposes, and German silver. + +Lead occurs in veins most plentifully in mountain limestone districts, +and usually contains some portion of silver. There are lead mines in +various parts of England, as well as in Spain, Saxony, and in Bohemia, +and some very rich lead mines have of late years been worked in the +United States. + +Tin is found in Cornwall in larger quantities than in any other part of +the world. It is generally discovered in the alluvial soil of low +grounds, where it is known as stream tin, because it has been washed by +the agency of water from the rocks in which it was originally embedded +mixed with sand and gravel. Tin is also found in the island of Banca, +in the Indian Archipelago, in Bohemia and Saxony, Chili and Mexico. + +Mercury is a rare metal. The richest mines are at Almaden, a small town +of La Mancha, in Spain. It is also found in Austria, China, and Peru, +and a few other places. It is sometimes found in globules, but it is +generally procured from one of its ores, cinnabar, a sulphate of the +metal, of a red colour, and indeed identical with the richly prepared +paint vermilion. A thousand workmen are employed in the Spanish mines, +above or under ground. It freezes at an exceedingly low temperature, +and was found solid during midwinter by the traveller Pallas. Of the +other metals, some used as medicines, or pigments, or to form alloys, we +have not time now to speak. + + + +CHAPTER SIX. + +SALT AND QUICKSILVER MINES. + +The object of the travellers was not only to inspect coal mines, but to +view the wonders of the subterranean world. It is impossible to do more +than give a very brief account of the places they visited. They had +found their way to the Carpathian Mountains, in order to visit the salt +mines of Wieliczka, a small town to the south of Cracow. The valley in +which the mine is situated is fruitful and picturesque. Descending by a +staircase of thirty feet or so, through a bed of clay, they arrived at +the commencement of the level galleries, which branch off in all +directions. Overhead was a ceiling of solid salt, under foot a floor of +salt, and on either side grey walls of salt, sparkling here and there +with minute crystals. The guide led them on through a bewildering maze +of galleries. Now they entered a grand hall, now descended by +staircases to another series of vaulted chambers. On every side was +solid salt, except where stout piers of hewn timber had been built up to +support the roof, or wooden bridges had been thrown over some vast +chasm. As they descended, the air became dry and agreeable, and the +saline walls more pure and brilliant. One hall, 108 feet in length, +resembled a Grecian theatre, the places where the blocks had been taken +out in regular layers representing seats for the spectators. Here and +there were gangs of workmen, some labouring at the solid floor, others +trundling wheel-barrows full of cubes of salt. + +Soon after entering, they reached the chapel of Saint Anthony, excavated +in the times of the Byzantines, supported by columns, with altar, +crucifix, and life-size statues of saints. They appeared, from being +coated with smoke, to be of black marble, but Mark, putting his tongue +to the nose of one of the saints, discovered it to be of salt. Many of +the saints, however, were disappearing before the damp, which enters in +that higher region from the upper world. The heads of some, and the +limbs of others had already fallen. + +The guide had come provided with some Bengal lights, one of which he +kindled on the altar, bringing into light this strange temple; then, as +the flame burnt out, the whole vanished as if by magic. Passing across +a wooden bridge, resting on piers of salt, they entered a vast irregular +vault in which were two obelisks of salt, to commemorate the visit of +Francis the First and his empress. As they reached the floor, a boy ran +along the bridge above with a burning Bengal light, which threw flashes +of blue lustre on the obelisks, the scarred walls, the vast arches, the +entrance to the deeper halls, and the lofty roof, fretted with the picks +of the workmen. Another hall was entered, with cavernous tunnels at the +farther end, passing through one of which, they embarked upon a lake in +a heavy, square boat, and entered a gloomy passage, over the entrance to +which was inscribed, in salt letters, "Good luck to you." Midway in the +tunnel the halls at either end were suddenly illuminated, and a crash, +as of a hundred cannon bellowing through the vaults, shook the air in +such a way that the boat had not ceased to tremble when they landed in +the farther hall. The noise was produced by a single gun. + +A tablet, on which was inscribed, "A hearty welcome," greeted them on +landing. At a depth of 450 feet their journey ceased, although they +were but half-way to the bottom. About 1500 men are employed in the +mines, who labour only six hours at a time, and live in the upper world. +The blocks are first marked out on the surface by a series of grooves. +One side is then deepened to the required thickness, and wedges being +inserted under the block it is soon split off. This salt bed occupies a +space of 9000 feet in length and 4000 in width, and consists of five +successive stages, separated from each other by intervening strata of +from 100 to 150 feet in thickness, and reaching to the depth of 1500 +feet. + +More than ten years ago a serious accident, which threatened the +destruction of the mine, occurred. While boring, to obtain some potash +salts, through an aquiferous stratum, a spring was tapped, which poured +an immense quantity of water into the lower galleries. The inhabitants +feared not only the ruin of the mine, but the falling in of their houses +from the melting of the salt pillars; but fortunately the inundation was +confined to the lower galleries, and a powerful steam-engine being set +to work, the water was again pumped out, and the spring blocked up. +However, so vast are the excavations that it would have taken many years +to fill them. + +Contrasting with the bright glitter of the salt mines of Wieliczka are +the gloomy slate quarries of Saint Peter's Mount, near Maestricht, in +the Netherlands, the most extensive in the world. For centuries they +have been worked, both for building and manuring, and probably +benefiting the agriculturist more than the architect. In spring and +summer the labourers occupy themselves in their fields above ground, and +not until winter approaches do they begin to burrow in the entrails of +the earth. + +The two travellers followed a trusty guide through those endless +passages, which constantly crossed each other, either to the left hand +or to the right. Darkness to be felt, silence profound, reigned +everywhere, even the human voice seemed to die away without awakening an +echo--the only sound to be heard being an occasional dropping of water +from the roof into a small pool below. + +Suddenly the guide extinguished his torch, when, bold as they were, and +well accustomed to subterranean regions, a sensation of awe crept over +them. Their first impulse was to feel for the wall, for in vain their +eyes sought a ray of light, as in vain, also, their ears listened for +the slightest sound. + +Neither spoke for some minutes, and they experienced a sensation of +relief when the guide relit his torch. Numbers of hapless beings have +been lost in these trackless galleries, and here and there are +inscriptions on the walls, notifying that a corpse was found on the +ground below. One poor workman lost his way, and roamed about until his +torch died out of his burnt fingers. The lamp of another was +overturned, and he in vain endeavoured to find his way out of some +remote gallery. + +A French geologist while exploring the quarry discovered a corpse +shrivelled to a mummy, the hat lying close to his head, a rosary in his +hand. It was conjectured to be the body of a workman who had died more +than half-a-century before, the dry air and the absence of insects +explaining the preservation of the corpse. Two centuries ago four +Franciscan monks resolved to construct a chapel in honour of their +tutelar saint. In order to be able to retrace their steps, they took +with them a large ball of twine, leaving one end secured to a spot where +people were constantly passing. Their twine unwound, they at length +reached a vast hall, probably not visited for many ages. Near the +entrance one of them drew a sketch of the convent, and wrote beneath it +the date of their discovery. When about to return, what was their +horror to find that their twine had snapped. They must have searched +for it in vain, for never more did they return. + +At last the prior, alarmed at their absence, sent parties to explore the +excavations, but so vast were they even then, that seven days elapsed +before the corpses of the hapless friars were found, their faces +downwards, and their hands folded as if in prayer. + +During the siege of Maestricht by the French Republic, a party of the +besiegers occupied the quarries. The Austrians who garrisoned Fort +Pierre at the back of the mountain, formed a plan to drive them out, and +tunnelling made their way towards their enemies. Although they marched +silently along, their torches betrayed them, and the besiegers pouring +in a volley of musketry killed a large number, made prisoners of some, +and drove the rest into the depths of the cavern. + +On the banks of the Nile are several prodigious stone quarries, from +which the cities of ancient Egypt were built. Perhaps the largest is +that of Haggar Silsibis. Here passages, broad as streets, with walls +fifty or sixty feet high, now stretching straight forward, now curved, +extend from the east bank of the river into the heart of the mountain, +where halls have been hollowed out large enough to contain the Roman +Colosseum, the rough hewn irregular roof resting upon immense square or +many-sided pillars, some of which are eighty to a hundred feet in +circumference. Here numerous blocks, already completely separated from +the rock, appear ready to be transported; the labours of the quarry-men +having suddenly been arrested by the invasion of the Conqueror, who +overthrew the priests of Isis. + +One of the most curious quarries of ancient days is found near Syracuse. +The greater portion is a hundred feet below the level of the earth, and +of vast extent, the whole hewn out of rock as hard as marble, the blocks +thus obtained being employed in building Syracuse. It is converted by +the monks, who have a convent above it, into a garden--a romantic and +beautiful spot, as no wind can touch it. It is filled with a variety of +vines and shrubs and fruit trees, among which oranges, citrons, +pomegranates, and figs grow luxuriantly, and obtain an unusual size. +Sicily produces sulphur in large quantities--the chief sulphur pits +being near Girgenti. Most of the inhabitants are employed in them, to +the neglect of the rich soil of their island; they labour away in the +most primitive manner, pickaxe and spade being the only implements +employed. + +When a promising vein is struck, the miners set to work, and filling +their baskets with the sulphur, carry it out and throw it into large +heaps of a conical shape. These mounds are covered over with moist +clay, some openings being left for the escape of smoke; the bottom is +then ignited, and the matted sulphur flows out through grooves into +pans, where it congeals in solid masses. The passages to the mines are +so narrow, that persons can with difficulty pass each other; they then +expand into high vaults, the roofs of which are ornamented with +beautiful crystals of celestine and gypsum. On account of the excessive +heat, the workmen labour in a nearly nude state, their dark brown skins +sprinkled with light yellow sulphur dust, making them look savage and +strange in the extreme. Towards the end of the last century, the +sulphur mine of Sommatin caught fire, the conflagration causing the +complete abandonment of the pit. For two years it raged, until the +mountain, suddenly bursting asunder, a stream of molten sulphur gushed +forth, and precipitated itself into the neighbouring river. The mass of +sulphur, amounting to upwards of 40,000 tons, was thus obtained by the +owners of the former pit, who had believed themselves ruined. + +There are sulphur mines in different parts of the world, the largest of +which are in Japan, but too remote to be worked with advantage. Gypsum, +or sulphate of lime, better known as Plaster of Paris, is found in +prodigious quantities at Montmartre, close to that city; but as it can +readily be worked without having recourse to subterranean excavation, it +need not be mentioned further. + +When gypsum assumes an opaque, consistent, and semi-transparent form, it +is known as Alabaster. The largest quarries are near Volterra, in +Italy. Here the whole population have been employed for centuries, +either in cutting it out of the mine, or in converting it into elegant +forms of great variety, which are sent to all parts of the world. + +Great Britain possesses inexhaustible alabaster mines in the +neighbourhood of Derby. Some is worked on the spot, but the finest +blocks are sent to the studios of sculptors. + +Quicksilver, or mercury, is among the rarest of metals. The only two +important mines in Europe are at Almaden, in Spain, and Idria, in +Carniola. The former, situated on the Sierra Morena, was for many years +farmed off to the Fuggers of Augsburg, but are now worked either by +government or private companies. This was one of the most interesting +spots visited by the two travellers. + +Entering a spacious tunnel, completely walled with solid masonry, they +advanced into the very bosom of the mountain. Here galleries branch out +in various directions, hewn in the slate forming the matrix of the vein. +One of them leads to a vast circular hall, called the Boveda de Santa +Clara. At one time a horse gin was employed in this hall for raising +the ore, but at present this work is performed through a shaft +descending to the lowest level of the mine. Convenient steps lead down +from another gallery to the first working level, and thence the descent +is by short ladders to deeper storeys. The galleries are of a +sufficient height to allow a person to work upright. The upper ones are +dry, but the lower are humid and damp, although the water is easily +raised by hand-pumps from storey to storey into a large receiver, which +is emptied by a steam-engine. So extremely rich are the veins, that +although worked for many centuries, the mine has scarcely yet reached a +depth of 1140 feet. The present quantity raised annually amounts to +eighty-thousand hundredweight of pure mercury. The ore known as +cinnabar is of a dark-red colour, and gives a beautiful appearance to +the galleries. Sometimes when a hewer detaches a block of ore with his +pick mass of quicksilver, the size of a pigeon's egg, rolls out, and +leaping along the floor, divides into thousands of small drops. Owing +to the imperfect apparatus with which the ore is sublimated, nearly +one-half is lost. Formerly criminals only were employed in these mines. +They were conducted at sunrise from prison by a subterranean passage +into the mine, and compelled to toil on until the evening, when they +were led back again to their dungeons. In a few years the greater +number died, through inhaling the poisonous vapours of the mercury. +Reduced to despair, a century and a-half ago, they set fire to the +galleries, which, being then constructed of wood, were destroyed, and +mining operations put a stop to for many years. Only free labourers are +now employed, who are not allowed to work longer than six hours a-day. +Most of these, however, die between the ages of thirty and forty, and +those who exist longer are affected by palsy. + +The quicksilver mines of Idria were discovered upwards of three +centuries ago by a peasant who had placed a tub under a spring issuing +from the mountain side. On attempting to move it, he found it +excessively heavy, and on examining the bottom he saw that it was partly +full of a heavy liquid, shining like silver. Ignorant of the value of +the substance, he had sense enough to take it to a goldsmith, without +mentioning the place where he had found it. In course of time, however, +a man named Anderlein, having bribed him, became master of the secret, +and with several others began to work the mine. In the next century the +Venetians drove out the Germans, but were finally compelled by the +Emperor Maximilian to give it up, and he restored it to its rightful +owners. The mine has since been worked by the State. Ingress to the +mine can be obtained by descending a convenient flight of steps, with +galleries running off here and there from landing-places, or by +descending in a few minutes through a perpendicular shaft in one of the +tubs by which the ore is raised. The galleries lead to the various +storeys of the mine, the lowest of which is 145 fathoms beneath the +surface. The vein itself descends to an unknown depth, and is +horizontal, but its extent has not yet been measured. The ores being +embedded in limestone of a loose nature, all the galleries had from the +first to be supported by wooden props. The wood has, on several +occasions caught fire, with disastrous results. Early in this century +the labourers observed a thick smoke issuing from the deepest part of +the mine. It rose higher and higher, spreading through the upper +galleries, yet no fire was to be seen, nor sound of flames heard. + +Some of the workmen attempted to reach the scene of the fire, but were +driven back by the dense and suffocating smoke, impregnated with +vapours. Endeavours were made to smother the fire, but though the mine +remained closed for five weeks, no sooner was it re-opened than the fire +burst forth more furiously than at first. The howling of the flames +ascending from the lowest depths of the pit awed the spectators, and the +mercurial and sulphureous fumes arising from it threatened instant +destruction to all who might approach. The director of the mine, as a +last resource, came to the decision of flooding the works, and a river +turned into the shaft ran down it for two days and three nights. At +first no perceptible effect was produced, but on the second a terrific +explosion shook the mountain as if an earthquake had taken place. The +huts near the opening were blown to pieces, and even the stone houses on +the slopes of the hill, fell with tremendous crashes. Water, however, +gained the victory. Gradually the vapour dispersed, and after a few +weeks the workmen were able to descend into the pit. They found, +however, the galleries torn up, the vaulted roofs burst, and the stairs +destroyed. It took two years to pump out the water, which, it is said, +poisoned all the fish in the Idriza. + +High pay being offered to any who would venture in to collect the +quicksilver, which had accumulated in considerable quantities, many, +tempted by the bribe, made their way into the workings, but overcome by +the mercurial vapours, several perished. + +The galleries have now been formed of stone, seven feet high and six +feet broad, though some are still propped up with wood. They are of +immense extent, amounting to no less than fifty miles. As late as 1846 +another fire occurred in the wooden galleries, which was quenched by +putting that part under water. The workmen labour in a tropical heat +and an atmosphere full of deadly vapours. It is no wonder that a +premature age overtakes many of them, and that young men are seen +trembling in every limb, though it is said that those who survive their +forty-fifth year may live on until they are sixty or seventy. To +transport mercury, the greatest care is required. It is first packed in +sacks of sheepskin, tanned with alum. The sack, being pressed and +punched to ascertain if it is sound, is enclosed in a second skin. +These are then placed in a small cask, and the cask again in a square +box. Notwithstanding these precautions, as the sacks sometimes burst, +the loss of the metal is great, and the mercury is now generally +transported in large iron bottles, the stoppers being screwed down by +means of a machine; in this condition, it is exported to England. + + + +CHAPTER SEVEN. + +STALACTITE AND ICE-CAVERNS. + +Numberless and varied are the cavernous regions below the earth, +presenting the strangest and often awe-inspiring sights to the +spectator. In some rivers flow hundreds of feet beneath the green +fields and widespreading trees. + +Through the caverns of Adolsberg, Planina, and Upper Laibach flows a +river known as the Poik, which then assumes other denominations, +according to its locality. In some places it forms cataracts, leaping +over the most picturesquely grouped rocks. In others it has forced a +passage amid them, and then flows gently on. + +Our travellers resolved to undertake a voyage on the Poik, and embarked +in a boat, their progress being stream upwards through the celebrated +cave of Planina. They had to be cautious, for often the current ran +with great rapidity, and to keep a watchful eye for rocks which lay +hidden beneath the water. + +Rowing on for about 600 feet from the entrance of the cavern, at the +end of a magnificent dome, they found that the river occupied the whole +space. To this part persons on foot could proceed, as the ground on +either side of the river was level. Now passing through a portal 48 +feet high and about 24 broad, and as well proportioned as if cut out by +the hand of man, their ears were saluted by the thundering roar of a +distant cataract. As the archway widened, they suddenly emerged on a +lake 250 feet in length and 150 broad, beyond which the cave divided +into two arms, forming the channels of two streams, whose confluent +waters formed the lake. + +The walls of the cavern on either side rose abruptly out of the water, +with the exception of one small landing-place at the foot of a +projecting ridge. Here and there hung masses of stalactite, resembling +a petrified cascade, the rest of the rock being black and naked. So +high was the vault that their torches could not pierce the gloom, the +impressiveness of which was increased by the roar of a waterfall heard +through the channel to the left. + +Hitherto their progress had been easy, but they now resolved to proceed +up the left branch. They had frequently to get out of their boat, and +wading, drag her over the shallows. The voyage terminated at the end of +a small hall with a circular dome, the floor being a lake 180 feet in +length, and from 40 to 45 feet in depth. In the roof appeared a chasm, +sloping upwards through a small aperture, in which a violent current of +air set in, almost extinguishing their torches. + +Beyond the mouth of the chasm another gallery opened out, into which the +persevering travellers penetrated. Nothing could surpass the beauty of +the spar crystals with which its walls were encrusted. At the entrance +stood a white figure, which might easily be supposed to be an angel, +guarding the entrance with a glittering sword, threatening all who +should venture with profane hands into his sanctuary. + +Further on, projected in bold relief, was a colossal statue of a +monarch, sceptre in hand. As they proceeded they passed groups of +stalagmitic cones of all shapes and sizes. Some like the smallest +icicles, others rising six feet in height from the ground, as thick as a +human figure, the whole shining and glittering as the light of the +torches fell upon them, and standing out in bold relief against the dark +background formed by the brown wall of the cavern. + +Returning to the central hall, they made their way up the eastern +branch, which is much larger than the one they had just visited, the +main stream flowing through it. As they pulled up, the increasing roar +of waters announced a large waterfall. They found that enormous masses +of stone, falling from the roof, had narrowed the bed of the river to +about fifteen feet, over which the water shot in a broad sheet, fully +ten feet in height. The effect as it rushed over the jet-black rocks, +casting up flakes of milky white foam, when illuminated by the torches, +was very beautiful. + +Having hauled up the boat over the rugged mound, they again embarked, +encountering a couple of reefs. They then proceeded on between steep +walls with a free navigation, for upwards of four miles. In many places +the roof was adorned with draperies formed of snow-white stalactites, +but generally the black walls alone appeared. In some parts the roof +descended so low that they were compelled to lie down, and shove the +boat along by holding to the roof above their heads, until at length +they found that they could proceed no further. + +Of the world beneath the surface some of the most beautiful scenes are +presented by the ice-caves of France and Switzerland. One of the most +curious is the glaciere "Grace Dieu," near Besancon. In the centre of +the cave rose three stalagmites of ice. The central mass was 66.5 feet +in circumference. Some distance above the ice-floor on the right was a +small fir-tree, which had been fixed in the ground, and had become +completely covered so that the tree itself had disappeared, its crystal +incrustation showing every elegance of variety in form. From each twig +of the different boughs, complicated groups of icicles streamed down. +The mass to the left, however, was the grandest and most beautiful. It +consisted of two vast heads, with several others of less height +resembling a group of lions' heads bending down, richly decked with icy +manes, huge masses measuring 76.5 feet in circumference. On looking at +this column from the side opposite the entrance to the cave, so that it +stood in the centre of the light pouring down in a long slope from the +outer world, the transparency of the ice made the whole appear as if it +were set in a frame of impalpable liquid blue, the effect of the light +penetrating through the mass at its extreme edges. + +The Schafloch or Trou-aux-Moutons, a vast ice-cave on the Rothhorn, in +the canton of Berne, is equally beautiful and curious. It takes its +name from the fact that on the approach of a storm, the sheep and goats +fly to it for shelter, although never going as far in as the place where +the ice commences. The travellers entered the cave amid masses of loose +stone, with which in a short time the ice was found to intermingle until +it entirely hid the naked rock. They passed between two magnificent +columns of ice which formed the portal to the fairy cavern. The floor, +composed of ice, rose on either side to meet these columns in a graceful +swelling curve, so that it appeared as if their bases expanded and met +in the middle of the cave. + +They had now to make their way amidst stalagmites rising from the floor, +met by stalactites descending from the roof. All the time as they +twisted in and out among the glittering pillars of ice, endeavouring to +do as little harm as possible, they were accompanied by an incessant +fall of small portions, shivering and glittering on reaching the ground. + +Passing beyond the two columns, they saw before them a perfect sea of +ice, which became broader and broader until they reached the edge of a +magnificent ice-fall, smooth and unbroken, beyond which they were unable +to penetrate. + +They afterwards visited another beautiful ice-cavern known as the +glacier of Saint Sivres, into which a stream flows, becoming completely +congealed. + +There are many other ice-caverns in Bohemia, Hungary, the Hartz +Mountains, and in various parts of North America. One of them, however, +surpassing in size the others, is the cave of Yermalik, in the province +of Kondooz, in the centre of Asia. When Kondooz was invaded by the +savage warrior Genghis Khan, 700 men with their wives and children took +refuge in this cavern, and offered so brave a defence, that after +attempting in vain to destroy them by fire, the barbarous invader built +up the entrance with large blocks of stone, and left them to perish of +hunger. + +Nearly forty years ago the cave was visited by two British officers, who +had great difficulty in obtaining guides, as the natives believed the +cave to be the abode of Satan. The entrance is about half-way up a +hill, and about fifty feet in height, and about the same in breadth. +Squeezing their way through a narrow passage between two rocks, probably +the remains of Genghis Khan's fatal wall, they came to a drop of about +sixteen feet. Down this, by means of ropes, they were lowered by two +men, who remained to haul them up again. Passing through a narrow +tunnel, over a floor of smooth ice, they reached a vast hall, damp and +dripping, the light of their torches not enabling them to form any idea +of its size. Here they discovered hundreds of skeletons, the victims of +Genghis Khan's cruelty. Among them was one, evidently the skeleton of a +mother, holding in its long arms the skeletons of two infants. The +bodies of others had been preserved, and lay as they had fallen, +shrivelled into mummies. After leaving this vast sepulchre, they +proceeded through several low arches with smaller caverns, until they +reached an enormous hall, in the centre of which was a prodigious mass +of clear ice, in the form of a bee-hive, its dome-shaped top just +touching the long icicles which depended from the jagged roof. + +A small opening led into the centre of this wonderful ice-heap, which +was divided into several compartments, presenting numerous fantastic +forms. In some the glittering icicles hung like curtains from the roof, +in others the whole compartment was as smooth as glass. The prismatic +colours which presented themselves as the torches flashed on the surface +of the ice were beautifully brilliant. + +On every side they were surrounded by solid ice, and, scarcely able to +keep their feet, they slid noiselessly over the glittering surface of +the mysterious hall. + +The icicles having reached the floor of one of the largest of the +compartments, had the appearance of pillars supporting the roof. + +In Italy and the South of France there are caverns with some distant +aperture through which the wind enters, and being cooled in its +subterraneous passage, sends forth a cold blast at the other end, such +as the Aeolian Cavern, near Terni. It has been utilised by the +proprietors of some of the neighbouring villages, who have conducted the +cold air to their houses by means of leaden pipes, which on sultry +summer days convey a pleasant coolness through plaster-of-paris masks, +with wide distended mouths, fixed in the walls of the rooms. + + + +CHAPTER EIGHT. + +COPPER MINES. + +Next to England, Sweden is one of the chief copper-producing countries +of Europe. + +The mine of Fahlun, in Dalecarlia, has been worked from times +immemorial. In consequence of the careless way in which the excavations +were propped up, in the year 1678 the surface of the ground fell in, +forming a vast pit of above 180 feet in depth, 1200 feet long, and 600 +feet broad, with precipitous and sometimes overhanging walls, so that +the spectator appears to be standing on the brink of an enormous crater. +The bottom is filled with masses of rubbish and the remnants of ancient +shafts, and thick beams of wood are seen protruding in all directions. +A broad and convenient wooden staircase has, however, been formed on the +northern side of the pit, by which not only the miners, but even horses +can descend to their work. Passing through the entrance, the mine +gradually widens underground to a depth of 1062 feet. The chief mass of +ore is 600 feet broad on its upper surface, greatly narrowing as it +descends to a depth of 1200 feet. Round it are other similar deposits. +As the copper pyrites are deposited generally on the circumference of +the outer shell of these masses, which are of a very irregular outline, +the mining operations are carried on in a perfect labyrinth of winding +passages and galleries, situated at various depths, and supported either +by pillars or walls. It at one time yielded 5000 tons of copper +annually, but has of late years furnished no more than 600 tons. + +A romantic incident is connected with this mine. In the year 1719, +while some miners were exploring an abandoned passage, they discovered a +human body, preserved from corruption by the blue vitriol or sulphate of +copper produced in the mine under the influence of the atmosphere and +water. It was that of a handsome young man. On being brought to the +surface, people from all directions flocked to see it, but nobody could +recognise in its features a lost kinsman or friend. At length a woman, +with tottering steps, upwards of eighty years of age, approached the +corpse, when scarcely had she cast a glance at it than she uttered a +piercing shriek, and exclaimed,--"It is he! It is Gustavus, for whom I +have mourned so long, whom I accused of fickleness in deserting me." + +She had in truth recognised her affianced lover, who had mysteriously +disappeared more than sixty years previously, but whose image she still +bore in her memory. As he was not employed in the mines, no one thought +of searching for him underground. The surface is traversed by various +crevices, some leading to the workings underground; and probably +Gustavus, prompted by curiosity, had looked down one of them, and had +either, losing his balance, fallen in, or been precipitated by some +jealous rival in the good graces of the once blooming girl, now a +tottering old woman, weighed down with a double burden of infirmity and +age. She probably forgot how years had passed away, as she gazed once +more on the face of her youthful and handsome lover. + +Besides copper, Sweden produces iron of great excellence, won from its +celebrated mines of Dannemora, and largely imported into England for the +manufacture of steel. + +Leaving the university town of Upsala, and passing through a natural +barrier of forests and lakes, in which lie the iron-works of Oesterby, +the travellers reached the place in which the pit of Dannemora is +situated; not a sign announced the vicinity of the mine, until they saw +the machines for lifting the ore, and a few huts scattered about, when +they found themselves standing on the brink of a vast pit or crater, +whose black and precipitous walls fence an abyss of a mile in +circumference, and a depth of 450 feet. Here and there in that cold +region they perceived patches of perennial snow and along the black +walls, the dark entrance to labyrinthine caves fringed with long +stalactites of ice. In some of these hollows flames were seen creeping +along the cliff as they issued from piles of fir wood to soften the hard +rock, while on every part of the deep gulf human beings were at work, +the clang of their hammers sounding like the clicking of numberless +clocks, mingled with the creaking of machinery, which brings to the +surface the casks of ore. At length a bell tolled, and men, women, and +children were seen ascending in the tubs, some standing on the edges, +holding on with perfect confidence to the rope by which they were +hoisted up. + +Silence now reigned below, except when the voices of overseers were +heard summoning those who had lagged behind, to ascend in haste. +Scarcely had they reached the upper surface when a loud thundering roar +was heard, which echoed through the cavern. The ground trembled as if +convulsed by an earthquake, while black masses of smoke with pieces of +stone or ore ascended from the gulf, and the crashing sound of falling +masses rent from the mother earth was heard. When all the charges had +exploded, the miners again descended to their work. + +Although it cannot be classed among the wonders of the subterranean +world, the famous Erzgebirge or iron mountain in the Styrian Alps +deserves mention. It rises to the height of 3000 feet, the whole being +coated with a thin mantle of the richest ore. In all directions it is +covered with machines of various forms, horizontal and vertical +galleries, tunnels and roads, and represents, as it were, a mine turned +inside out. The whole of the operations are exposed to view, like those +in the Carclaze tin mine in Cornwall, only in the former the ore is +conveyed by tram-roads, galleries, and shafts to the bottom of the +mountain, where they all unite in one main shaft, from which a tramway +runs to the smelting-ovens of Eisenerz and Vordernberg. + +Among the beautiful productions of nature, rock-crystal may be classed, +known as the false topaz when yellow, the morion when black, and the +smoky quartz when brown. The colourless kinds are often called Bristol +or Irish diamonds, and the violet the amethyst. Some few years ago, a +party of tourists, led by a guide, Peter Sulzer, set out from Guttannew, +in Switzerland. When descending the mountain they reached a dark +cavity, out of which they extracted some pieces of black rock-crystal +with the handles of their Alpine stocks. The following year, Sulzer and +his son, with a few companions, made an attempt to force their way into +the cave, by widening the entrance with gunpowder. In spite of hail, +rain, and bitter cold, they persevered, remaining during the night close +to the cavern, in order to renew their labours the next morning. + +Having widened the entrance, they penetrated to a considerable depth +into the mountain, through a large cave piled up with debris, in which +were embedded large planes of jet-black morions. These beautiful +crystals had grown originally from the sides or roof, and had either +fallen from their own weight, or been shaken out by some convulsion of +nature. Their toil was rewarded by upwards of a thousand large +crystals, varying from fifty pounds to more than three hundredweight. + +Their expedition and its result becoming known, the whole population of +Guttannew turned out with hammers, spades, and baskets, to carry off +what they had left. As it was reported that the Government intended to +interfere, they laboured night and day for a week, until, by the time +the authorities arrived from Ijri, the whole had been removed. Some of +the finest specimens are still to be seen in the museum at Berne. + +Amber, about which all sorts of fabulous stories have passed current, is +found more frequently in the depths of the sea than in those of the +earth. There can be no doubt that it is the product of several +conifers, or cone-bearing trees, overwhelmed by the waves. Although the +gum which exuded from them has remained concealed for ages, until washed +up from the bottom of the ocean, flies and spiders, which must have been +caught when it was in a semi-fluid state, have been found embedded in +it. The insects now appear as perfect as they were thousands of years +ago. + +The naturalist, Dr Berndt, has discovered 800 different species of +insects in amber. + +The famed cavern in Kentucky is as well worthy of a visit as any +subterranean region. Of late years an hotel has been built near the +entrance, detracting from its once romantic appearance. Visitors first +descend a well-like pit, into which a stream falls, by a flight of +steps, and then passing under a high archway, proceed along a level +road, to what are called the vats, where saltpetre was once +manufactured. Their blazing torches, numerous as they may be, hardly +light up the vast subterranean region. From the large hall they make +their way through a low narrow passage, known as the "Vale of Humility," +into another hall of enormous extent, the roof so lofty that the torches +scarcely illuminate either the walls or roof. At their feet can be seen +the glitter of water, extending far away into the interior, a bright +stream flowing over a rocky bed into it. Moving on, they in a short +time reach Echo River, on the shore of which a boat is found. When +looking upwards, it appears as if a canopy of black clouds hung over +their heads. On either side can be seen precipitous cliffs, rising +apparently into the sky. Silence and darkness reign around, the smooth +sluggish water alone reflecting the glare of the torches. The visitors +are not disposed to utter a word, until the voice of one of the native +guides suddenly bursts forth into a melancholy chant, which seems as if +echoed by the spirit of his departed brethren. Now the notes rise, now +they fall, as he gives them forth with the full force of his lungs, or +warbles softly, finishing with a melancholy wail, which produces a most +mournful effect. When a pistol is fired off, there comes a succession +of crashing thundering sounds, echoed from every angle of this enormous +vault; backwards and forwards they rush, roaring and reverberating from +wall to wall with terrific crashes. The guides say it is perfectly safe +at all times of the year to traverse the cavern, but there have been +occasions when the waters, rising suddenly, have prevented the return of +explorers. A way, however, was at length discovered through a narrow +passage, the course evidently, at one time, of a stream, up which they +can climb over the mud, and save themselves from being drowned or +starved. This passage has appropriately been called "Purgatory." In +one part the river expands into a lake, the gloomy effect of whose dark +waters, lost in the darkness, is indescribable. Leaving Echo River, +they enter another cavern, known as Cleveland Cabin--a fairy region. +Above their heads, and on either side, the roof and walls are adorned +with delicate flowers, of snowy whiteness, and domes, turrets, spires, +shrubs, and trees, as well as with the forms of birds and beasts of all +descriptions; indeed, figures of every shape which imagination, without +any great exertion, can picture, appear around. The representations of +some are so perfect, that it is difficult to believe that they have not +been carved by the hand of man, and yet all of them have been produced +by the dripping of water from the gypsum rock. The cavern is not +destitute of inhabitants. Huge crickets and spiders of an almost white +colour crawl along over the ground, and rats as big as leverets run by, +exhibiting sharp teeth and long tails. Another cavern is called +"Martha's Vineyard." It appears as if a vine had climbed up the sides +and spread its branches over the roof, from which hang suspended what +look like clusters of grapes, but all of the same stony nature. In +another cave it seems to the visitor that he is standing in a wintry +scene, ice above and ice on the ground, with here and there patches of +snow, the appearance being caused by the excessive whiteness of the +gypsum. Farther on, there is a beautiful grotto, called "Serena's +Arbour," the walls of which are covered with a drapery resembling yellow +satin, falling in graceful folds, while through it murmurs a rivulet, +which makes its way to one of the many rivers running through the +cavern. In another, on the torches being extinguished it appears as if +stars innumerable were glittering in the sky. On a stone being thrown +upwards, it quickly strikes the roof, and it is soon seen that these +seeming stars are produced by pieces of mica embedded in the roof, on +which the light of a lantern being thrown in a peculiar way is brightly +reflected. Although the caverns seem to be of immense height, the +ceiling in most parts is not more than thirty feet from the ground. In +the centre of one cavern, a regular hill rises from the ground, with a +stream running at its base. Several rivers are crossed in this vast +cavern, one is called the Echo River, another the Styx, and a third the +Lethe. They are inhabited by fish and crawfish, sightless and perfectly +white. + +This vast cavern, the ramifications of which are said to measure nine +miles, was not known to white men until 1802. For many years no one +advanced beyond three miles from the entrance, further progress being +stopped by a deep cavern called the "Bottomless Pit," 1000 feet deep. +At length, however, a daring guide threw a ladder over it, and crossing +by this means, he was able to explore six more miles of this +subterranean region. + +A bridge has now been constructed by which people can pass over in +perfect safety. It is said that no dog will willingly enter the cavern; +indeed, few persons can pass along its passages without a sensation of +awe, although with a guide it may be traversed without danger. + + + +CHAPTER NINE. + +SILVER MINES, ETCETERA. + +If a true history of the silver mines of South America were to be +written it would reveal the cruel death of thousands and thousands of +human beings, sacrificed to the lust of gain. High up among the Andes, +surrounded by a succession of steep and naked rocks, is the town of +Pasco, built above the mines, from which the inhabitants obtain their +subsistence. The entrances to most of the mines are situated in the +midst of the town. The irregular shafts descend directly down into the +interior of the mountain, access being by a series of ladders often +ill-constructed and rough, ropes and chains being employed to hoist up +the ore. Frequently, the overseers having neglected to put up the +necessary props, portions of the mines have broken in and destroyed many +of the hapless workers. In one instance 300 perished at once by this +means. In most of the mines the labourers, after getting out the ore, +have to bring it to the surface in baskets on their backs, often from +immense depths, and were it not for the sustaining coca leaf they would +be unable to undergo such excessive toil. When rich veins are struck, +the wages of the miners increase, but in most instances they spend them +in drinking and debauchery, while the proprietors of the mines are +almost equally uncivilised. + +Fourteen miles from the town of Caxamarca is an isolated mountain called +the Cerro de San Fernando de Gualgayoc, traversed by numberless veins of +silver. At its summit rise a number of pyramidal pinnacles. Its steep +sides are pierced by several hundred galleries formed for the extraction +of the ore, as well as by numerous natural openings, while in all +directions are seen the huts of the labourers, sticking like the nests +of birds, wherever a ledge has enabled them to be constructed. One of +the richest silver mines of Peru is that of Salcedo, but nothing is now +known of it except its tragical history. A Don Jose Salcedo, a +Spaniard, without a maravedi in his pocket, made love to an Indian girl, +whose mother promised to reveal to him a rich silver lode on condition +that he married her daughter. + +Aided by his Indian relatives, with whom he lived on the most friendly +terms, he obtained vast quantities of silver from the mine, the entrance +to which was kept carefully concealed. + +His wealth excited the rapacity of the viceroy Count Lemos, who, to +obtain possession of it, accused him of exciting the natives to +rebellion, and cast him into prison. In vain Salcedo entreated that he +might appeal to the mercy of the king, and promised to give the viceroy +a bar of silver daily, from the time the ship left the port of Callao to +her return from Europe, which would probably be upwards of a year; but +the viceroy, instead of listening to the proposal of Salcedo, ordered +him to be hung. No sooner was this known to the natives than they +destroyed the works, and so carefully concealed the entrance, that even +to the present day it is unknown. The tribes afterwards dispersed, and +even cruel tortures could not induce them to reveal the secret. + +There can be no doubt that there are many rich lodes in existence worked +by Indians, who, knowing that they will be compelled to labour for the +benefit of their masters, carefully conceal them. In many of the mines +of Peru, the natives having almost been exterminated, the proprietors +endeavoured to kidnap the inhabitants of the Pacific to supply their +places, but after several hundreds had been nefariously captured, the +Governments of England and France interfered and put a stop to the +practice. In another part of South America, near the town of Cumana, is +a vast cavern in the Valley of Caripe, which was many years ago visited +by Baron Humboldt, who found it inhabited by a remarkable species of +nocturnal bird, called the guacharo. The mouth of the cavern is pierced +in the side of the cliff looking towards the south, in the form of an +arch, eighty feet wide and seventy-two in height. The summit of the +cliff is covered with trees of gigantic size, and with shrubs and plants +growing in all the luxuriance of a tropical vegetation, while a variety +of creeping plants hang in elegant festoons before its entrance. +Visitors can proceed for upwards of 430 feet without being compelled to +light their torches. When the light of day begins to fail, the hoarse +cries of the nocturnal birds are heard coming out of the dark recesses +of the interior. The guacharo is of the size of the common fowl; its +hooked bill is white, like that of the goat-sucker, and furnished at the +base with stiff hairs, directed forwards. The plumage is of a sombre +brownish grey, mixed with black stripes and large white spots. Their +eyes are incapable of bearing the light of day, and their wings are +disproportionately large, measuring no less than four and a-half feet +from tip to tip. The birds quit the cavern only at nightfall, to feed +on fruits. A most horrible noise is made by them in the dark recesses +of the cavern, and the clamour increases as they are disturbed by the +visitors advancing deeper into it with torches, and those nestling in +the side avenues begin to utter their mournful cries. When the first +sink into silence, it seems as if the more remote inhabitants were +alternately complaining to each other of the intruders. The nests of +these birds are fixed fifty or sixty feet from the ground, in +funnel-shaped holes, with which the cavern roof is pierced like a sieve. + +Armed with poles, the natives once a year, about mid-summer, enter the +cavern and knock down the young birds, while the old ones, with +lamentable cries, hover over the heads of the robbers. The young which +are taken are opened on the spot, when the peritonaeum is found loaded +with fat, and a layer of substance reaches from the abdomen to the vent, +forming a kind of cushion between the bird's legs. At this period, +called by the Indians the oil harvest, huts are erected by them, with +palm leaves, near the entrance. Here the fat of the young birds is +melted in clay pots, over a brushwood fire; but although thousands are +killed, not more than 160 jars of clear oil are obtained. A small river +flows through the cavern, and the visitor is compelled, as he proceeds, +to wade through water, not, however, more than two feet deep. From the +entrance as far as 1458 feet the cavern maintains the same direction, +width, and height, after which it loses its regularity, and its walls +are covered with stalactites. The same bird has been found in the +province of Bogota, and may probably be discovered in other caverns. +Animal life exists in considerable quantities in many subterranean +regions, such as beetles, eyeless spiders, scorpions, millipedes, and +crustaceans. The most curious is the Proteus anguinus, which breathes +at the same time through lungs and gills. It has a long eel-like body, +with an elongated head, and four very short and thin legs. The skin is +flesh-coloured, and so translucent that the liver and heart, which beat +about fifty times a minute, can be seen distinctly beneath. Two little +black spots, resembling eyes, lie buried under the skin, and are only +partially developed. Weak as it appears, it glides rapidly through the +water, when its four little legs remain motionless; it uses them, +indeed, only for creeping, and then in a very imperfect manner. Seven +distinct species of proteus have been discovered, six of which were +found in the cavern of Carniola, besides crickets, spiders, and a few +crustaceae. A peculiar blind rat is found in the Mammoth Cave of +Kentucky. A blind fish swims in its rivers, and Professor Agassiz is of +opinion that they, like all other blind animals of the cavern world, +have at no time been connected with the world of light. + +Vegetable life also exists in caverns, but consists of such mushrooms or +fungi which, shunning the light, love darkness and damp. For their +existence, however, moisture and warmth of air is necessary, but they +are invariably dependent on organic basis, and are commonly found +germinating on pieces of wood, particularly in a state of decomposition. +More than seventy subterranean fungi have been discovered, some +remarkable for their size. A few years ago a fungus was found growing +from the wood-work of a tunnel near Doncaster, which measured no less +than fifteen feet in diameter. + +In the neighbourhood of Paris the cultivation of edible mushrooms is +extensively carried on in the catacombs or caverns, seventy or eighty +feet below the surface, where the temperature is uniform all the year +round. In one of the caves of Mount Rouge there are no less than six or +seven miles of mushroom bedding. Among the wonders of the subterranean +world must be classed the bone caves of Europe and other parts of the +world. In some caves in England, the bones of a prodigious bear have +been found, and many hundreds of those of a hyena, considerably larger +and more formidable than those existing in Africa. Besides the bear and +hyena, upwards of a hundred species of extinct animals have been found +in the ossiferous caves of Great Britain, among them being those of the +elephant and a rhinoceros. Though in Europe bone caves contain the +remains of animals very different from those now existing in the same +regions, yet in the caves of Brazil extinct species of nearly all the +territorial quadrupeds now inhabiting this region occur. The Australian +caverns contain fossil bones of a large extinct kangaroo. In New +Zealand the wingless apteryx is still found in the wilds, and the caves +of that country show us that it was preceded by other wingless birds of +gigantic stature; among them the moa, which, when alive, must have stood +about thirteen or fourteen feet high. A complete leg of the bird has +been discovered six feet in length, and portions of the eggs show that +they had been about 6 or 7 inches diameter. + + + +CHAPTER TEN. + +ARRANGEMENTS OF THE MINES. + +In Germany mining operations are carried on in the most systematic +manner. Miners are dressed as their ancestors were hundreds of years +ago, and they cling pertinaciously to their ancient usages. In some +workings prayers are offered up, led by the engineer, before the miners +descend to their work, while they stand grouped round him at the opening +of the mine, a custom which might well be adopted in our own country. +The German miner retains also the superstitions of his forefathers, and +still believes in the genii of the mines, named Nickel and Kobald, after +whom he has called two metals, nickel and cobalt, originally discovered +in the mines of Saxony. + +The Germans have introduced into their mines a regular military system, +and the engineers, who are denominated captains, wear when in full dress +a uniform of a very military appearance, set off by epaulets and gold +embroidery. Not inferior to them, however, are the Cornish miners, +their captains being those who have risen by their industry and +intelligence from the lowest to the highest grades, although men of less +education than their German brethren. + +The Spanish miners are a sober and frugal race, enjoying their +cigarettes even while at work. On leaving the mine they put on their +snuff-coloured cloaks and broad-brimmed sombreros. In the southern part +of the Peninsula they wear grass sandals, cloaks of bright colours, and +handkerchiefs bound round their heads. Leading lives of toil and +hardship, their huts are wretched abodes built of stones and mud, their +beds the ground, an iron or copper kettle hung from the roof above the +fire in the centre of the cabin, a few wicker baskets, and a waterbottle +of porous clay constitute their furniture. Still, the lot of the miner +of the Sierra Morena is far superior to that of the miner of Almaden, +who, poisoned by the noxious vapours of mercury, quickly succumbs, ere +he has gained the prime of manhood. + +In South America the mining operations of the inhabitants somewhat +resemble those of their Spanish ancestors, their habits and customs +being imitated by the Indians, who have, however, to perform the harder +part of the work. While Mexico and Peru were under the mother country, +the Mita or law of compulsion existed, the Indians being forced to toil +against their will in the mines, but since the emancipation of the +colonies and the abolition of that nefarious law, they have returned to +their agricultural pursuits, and are only occasionally found of their +own free will labouring in the mines. + +Various modes are adopted for descending the mines. In some merely a +single rope or chain with a loop at the end in which the miner places +his foot is used, even when the depth is several hundred feet; in other +mines baskets or tubs in which three or four men can stand are employed. +While one of these is hauled up, another descends, and often fearful +accidents have occurred by the tubs striking against each other, when +their occupants have been thrown out. Occasionally the ropes and chains +have given way, and the hapless miners have been dashed to pieces. + +Some few years ago, as the engineer and several men of the mine of Meons +were descending standing in a tub, each with a lamp in one hand, and +holding on to the chain above him with the other, a couple of tubs +loaded with coal unhooked theirs, which fell to the bottom. +Providentially they had not relaxed their grasp of the chain above their +heads, and at once letting go their lamps and desperately seizing it +with both hands, they continued their descent, though huge lumps of coal +were falling out of the tubs above them. Wonderful to relate, they +reached the bottom in safety. On another occasion, while the same +engineer was ascending in a tub, it was upset in consequence of the +engineman raising the rope too suddenly. The engineer hanging on by one +leg, with his head downwards was hoisted a height of forty yards, before +the alarm was given and he was lowered to the bottom. + +In the same mine, another engineer, while descending in a tub, had his +clothes caught by a strut which projected from the side of the pit; he +here hung suspended while his companions continued to descend, terrified +for his safety and alarmed for their own, as should he fall, they +expected to be crushed by his weight. In vain they shouted for +assistance, the men at the top of the pit having gone out of hearing. +Not until they reached the bottom could they send any aid to their +companion. He in the meantime had been vainly endeavouring to find some +support so as to relieve the strain on his torn garments, which +threatened every instant to give way. After hanging thus for twenty +minutes, he was at length set free, but no sooner was he received in the +tub than he became insensible. A severe illness of long duration +followed, but he ultimately recovered, though he ever afterwards +preferred going down the ladders to descending in a tub. Anecdotes of +the same description could be given without end. Most accidents of this +character have ended fatally. To avoid them various inventions have +been devised, one of which is known as the mounting machine, or +man-engine. It consists of two parallel rods, furnished at equal +distances with steps, while one is raised to a certain height the other +is lowered to the same distance. While the movement of the crank is on +its turning point, the miner passes from the step on which he is +standing to the opposite step of the other. As they are constantly +moving up and down, his next step is back again to the rod he had before +left, which rising a few feet, he is able to step back to the other, +just as it, having gone down, is once more ascending; and thus he +reaches the top with little fatigue. + +Far superior to this mode of ascending or descending are the +safety-cages introduced of late years, which have guides the whole +length of the shaft, and bonnets or roofs to protect the heads of the +men within. They are made with several stages, in which either the tubs +or waggons can be placed, or where the miners can stand or sit. If a +rope breaks, a spring placed above the cage and kept taut by the tension +of the rope, is set free, and acts upon a double clutch made of the best +tempered steel. This catch or wedge falls between the wooden guide and +a part of the cage, and brings the latter immediately to a stand-still. +By this means numberless accidents have been prevented. The man-engines +which have been described are dangerous for novices, for should a person +stop at the wrong time, he may be hurled to the bottom, or crushed at +the return stroke. + +One of the most frequent accidents to which miners are exposed arises +from an outbreak of fire-damp. To avoid this, various safety-lamps have +been invented. The most celebrated is that known as Sir Humphrey Davy's +lamp. The flame is enclosed in a fine wire gauze, through which, under +ordinary circumstances, the gas cannot penetrate. There are other lamps +in use constructed on the same principle, but superior in some respects. +Too often, however, the miners open them at some fatal moment, or enter +the mine, against orders, with naked candles. Still, by means of these +lamps, when properly employed, many accidents have been prevented. +Another invention exists by which a person can enter in the midst of +impure air. The apparatus was devised by Monsieur Kouquayrol, a French +engineer. It consists of a reservoir made of sheet iron, into which the +air is forced, and, by an ingeniously contrived pump, is secured like a +knapsack to a man's back, and the air is conveyed by means of a tube to +the mouth of a nose, and thus into the lungs at the ordinary pressure, +while a small external valve allows of the escape of the air after it +has been respired. + +A still more simple apparatus has been invented by Monsieur Galibert. +The system for condensing the pure air is more perfect, while the +reservoir consists of a well-prepared goat-skin, which, when inflated, a +man can with ease carry on his back. It is furnished with a similar +contrivance to the former, a tube passing from the reservoir to the +mouth, while the nostrils are compressed, the eyes and head are +protected, so that provided with it, a person may exist for a quarter of +an hour in the foulest atmosphere, or in the midst of dense smoke. +Although the metal miner is subjected to fewer accidents than are his +brethren working in coal mines, the atmosphere in the former is far more +destructive to human life. In lead mines, the duration of life averages +scarcely more than thirty-two years, and in those containing arsenical +pyrites or quicksilver ores, the average is still lower. Before the use +of gunpowder in underground operations, the rocks containing the ore +were attacked with fire, indeed the practice is still retained in some +countries. Huge wood fires are made up against the face of the rock, +which becomes shattered and traversed by cracks, and when cooled, it is +easily detached with a pick or fork. Of late years, however, machines +have been devised for boring or breaking the rock. Some form a hole by +the continuous motion of a rotating drill, others by means of +intermittent blows. One of these rock-boring machines, manufactured by +Messrs. Turner, of Ipswich, performs its work by a combination of both +these operations. By the employment of these machines, the formation of +the tunnel under Mount Cenis was greatly facilitated. An example has +already been given of the way in which people have been saved from the +effects of inundations in mines, others have been dug out when buried by +the fall of roofs, but almost countless are the numbers who have +perished from other causes, for if the first have destroyed their +hundreds, the fire-damp in coal mines has proved the destruction of +thousands. It was at one time considered right every night to provoke +an explosion by lighting the fire-damp in order that the working stalls +should be accessible next morning. The man who performed this dangerous +operation wore a thick covering of wool or leather, his face was +protected, and his head was covered by a hood like a monk's cowl. He +crept along the ground, carrying in his hand a long pole with a light at +the end of it. He was known in the English mines as the fireman, but in +the French he was called either the cannonier, the monk, or the +penitent, the latter name being given him from his dress resembling that +of certain so-called religious orders in the Romish Church. Too +frequently the hapless penitent was destroyed by the explosion he had +provoked. + +Our two friends, however, might have written several large volumes had +they given accounts of even a portion of the interesting matters +concerning mines which they gathered up during their long and varied +tour. + +Mark did not fail to benefit largely by the information he obtained, and +he ultimately, with the numerous improvements he introduced, became the +proprietor of two of the coal mines in which he had worked in his +boyhood, while his young sister, on whom he had had the satisfaction of +bestowing a high-class education, refined in mind and manners, became +the wife of his friend and fellow-traveller. + +THE END. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Mines and its Wonders, by W.H.G. 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