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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Writing of the Short Story + +Author: Lewis Worthington Smith + +Release Date: November 10, 2008 [EBook #27224] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WRITING OF THE SHORT STORY *** + + + + +Produced by Jacqueline Jeremy and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<hr /> + +<p class="title"><span class="name">THE WRITING OF THE<br /> +SHORT STORY</span><br /> +<br /><br /><br /> +<span class="by">BY</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="author">LEWIS WORTHINGTON SMITH, A.M.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="location">DRAKE UNIVERSITY, DES MOINES, IOWA</span><br /> +<br /><br /><br /><br /> +<span class="pub">D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS</span><br /> +<span class="pub2">BOSTON NEW</span> <span class="pub2">YORK CHICAGO</span></p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1902,</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">By D. C. Heath & Co.</span></h5> + + + +<hr /> + + +<p class="center"><strong><span class="smcap">It is a pleasure<br /> +to be permitted to associate<br /> +with this little book<br /> +the name of my friend<br /> +Professor L. A. Sherman<br /> +of the University of Nebraska.</span></strong></p> + + +<hr /> + + +<h2>SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS</h2> + + +<p>In the author's classes the three stories in the volume entitled +"Three Hundred Dollars" are first studied because of their +simplicity, and these are followed by parts of "The Bonnie +Brier Bush," and then by the stories from Bret Harte. Mrs. +Phelps Ward's "Loveliness" is especially valuable for illustrating +methods and devices for making a simple theme dramatically +interesting. Students are required to mark stories with +the symbols and discuss them with reference to the principles +of which this little book is an exposition, but no recitation on +the book itself is required. Perhaps one-third of the time in the +class-room is spent in discussion of the short themes written by +the class, and when convenient these are placed on the board +before the class for that purpose. In the theme work following +the suggested subjects the effort is made to confine instruction +and practice to one thing at a time, but at the conclusion of the +work of the term each member of the class is required to hand +in a complete original story.</p> + + +<hr /> + + +<h2><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span> +WRITING OF THE SHORT STORY</h2> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + + +<h2><span class="smcap">Narrative Forms</span></h2> + + +<p><strong>1. Elements of the Story.</strong>—This little volume is meant +to be a discussion of but one of the various forms that +literature takes, and it will be first in order to see what are +the elements that go to the making of a narrative having +literary quality. A story may be true or false, but we +shall here be concerned primarily with fiction, and with +fiction of no great length. In writing of this sort the first +essential is that something shall happen; a story without +a succession of incidents of some kind is inconceivable. +We may then settle upon <em>incident</em> as a first element. As +a mere matter of possibility a story may be written without +any interest other than that of incident, but a story dealing +with men will not have much interest for thoughtful readers +unless it also includes some showing of <em>character</em>. Further, +as the lives of all men and women are more or less conditioned +by their surroundings and circumstance, any story +will require more or less <em>description</em>. Incidents are of but +little moment, character showing may have but slight interest, +description is purposeless, unless the happenings of +the story develop in the characters <em>feelings</em> toward which +we assume some attitude of sympathy or opposition. Including +this fourth element of the story, we shall then have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +<em>incident</em>, <em>description</em>, <em>character</em>, <em>mood</em>, as the first elements +of the narrative form.</p> + +<p><strong>2. A Succession of Incidents Required.</strong>—A series of +unconnected happenings may be interesting merely from +the unexpectedness—or the hurry and movement of the +events, but ordinarily a story gains greatly in its appeal to +the reader through having its separate incidents developed +in some sort of organic unity. The handling of incidents +for a definite effect gives what we call plot. A plot +should work steadily forward to the end or dénouement, +and should yet conceal that end in order that interest may +be maintained to the close. Evidently a writer who from +the first has in mind the outcome of his story will subordinate +the separate incidents to that main purpose and so +in that controlling motive give unity to the whole plot. +Further, the interest in the plot will be put on a higher +plane, if in the transition from incident to incident there is +seen, not chance simply, but some relation of cause and +effect. When the unfolding of the plot is thus orderly in +its development, the reader feels his kindling interest going +forward to the outcome with a keener relish because of the +quickening of thought, as well as of emotion, in piecing +together the details that arouse a glow of satisfaction.</p> + +<p><strong>3. The Character Interest.</strong>—We can hardly have any +vital interest in a story apart from an interest in the +characters. It is because things happen to them, because +we are glad of their good fortune or apprehensive of evil +for them, that the incidents in their succession gain importance +in our emotions. We are concerned with things that +affect our lives, and secondarily with things that affect the +lives of others, since what touches the fortunes of others +is but a part of that complex web of destiny and environment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +in which our own lives are enmeshed. In the story +it is not so true as in the drama that, for the going out of +our sympathies toward the hero or the heroine, there +should be other contrasting characters; but a story gains +color and movement from having a variety of individualities. +Especially if the story is one of action, definite +sympathies are heightened when they are accompanied by +emotional antagonisms. In "The Master of Ballantrae," +we come to take sides with Henry Durrie almost wholly +through having found his rival, the Master, so black +a monster. Such establishment of a common bond of +interest between us and the character with whom our +sympathies are to be engaged is a most effective means of +holding us to a personal involvement in the development +of the plot. There must not be too many characters +shown, the relations between them must not be too various +or too complexly conflicting, but where the interplay of +feeling and clashing motives is not too hard to grasp, a +variety of characters gives life and warmth of human +interest to a story.</p> + +<p><strong>4. Uses of Description.</strong>—Inasmuch as there are other +interests in our lives than those which are established by +our relations with our fellows, interests connected with the +material world about us, any narrative will probably have +occasion to include some description. It may be necessary +merely as an aid to our understanding of some of the +details upon which the plot turns, it may help us to realize +the personalities of the characters, and it is often useful +in creating background and atmosphere, giving us some of +the feelings of those with whom the story deals as they +look upon the beauty, or the gray dullness, of the changing +panorama of their lives. Stevenson's description of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +"old sea-dog" in "Treasure Island" is an excellent illustration +of the effectiveness of a few lines of description in +making us know something very definite in the man.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"I remember him as if it were yesterday, as he came plodding to the +inn door, his sea-chest following behind him in a handbarrow, a tall, +strong, heavy, nut-brown man; his hands ragged and scarred, with +black, broken nails, and the saber cut across one cheek, a lurid white."</p></div> + +<p><strong>5.</strong> Rossetti in "The Bride's Prelude," a story in verse, +after merely glancing at the opening of the tale, devotes +eight stanzas to description introduced for the purpose +of background and atmosphere. Two of them are given +here.</p> + +<div class="block"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="io">"Within the window's heaped recess<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The light was counterchanged<br /></span> +<span class="i0">In blent reflexes manifold<br /></span> +<span class="i0">From perfume caskets of wrought gold<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And gems the bride's hair could not hold<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="io">"All thrust together: and with these<br /></span> +<span class="i2">A slim-curved lute, which now,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">At Amelotte's sudden passing there,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Was swept in some wise unaware,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And shook to music the close air."<br /></span> +</div></div></div> + +<p>This helps us to enter into the life and spirit of the time +and place, to conceive imaginatively the likings, the desires, +the passions, the purposes, and the powers that shall be +potent in the story.</p> + +<p><strong>6. Kinds of Description.</strong>—Description is primarily of +two kinds, that which is to give accurate information, and +that which is to produce a definite impression not necessarily +involving exactness of imagery. The first of these +forms is useful simply in the way of explanation, serving +the first purpose indicated in paragraph four. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +second is useful for other purposes than that of exposition, +often appealing incidentally to our sense of the +beautiful, and requiring always nice literary skill in its +management. It should be borne in mind always that +literary description must not usurp the office of representations +of the material in the plastic arts. It should not be +employed as an end in itself, but only as subsidiary to +other ends.</p> + +<p><strong>7. Various Moods as Incidents.</strong>—The moods in the +characters of a story and their changes are connected with +the incidents of the story, since they are in part happenings, +and with the characters, since they reveal character. +Apart from direct statement of them, we understand the +moods of the actors in the little drama which we are made +to imagine is being played before us from the things they +say, from the things they do, and from gestures, attitudes, +movements, which the author visualizes for us. If these +moods are not made clear to us or we cannot see that they +are natural, definite reactions from previous happenings in +accord with character, we do not have a sense of organic +unity in the narrative. We become confused in trying to +establish the dependence of incident and feeling upon +something preceding, and our interest flags. Everything +that happens in a well-told story gives us feelings which +we look to find in those whom the happenings affect in +the tale, feelings which should call forth some sort of +responsive action for our satisfaction. Clearly, if the +characters are cold, if we cannot find in them moods of +the kind and intensity that to us seem warranted, the story +will be a disappointment.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> + + +<h2><span class="smcap">Literary Divisions and General Principles</span></h2> + + +<p><strong>8. The Conceptual and Emotional.</strong>—Theoretically all +writing is divided easily into two classes, conceptual and +emotional, the literature of thought and the literature of +feeling. In the actual attempt to classify written composition +on this basis, however, no sharp distinction can be +maintained. Even matters of fact, certainly such matters +of fact as we care to write about, are of more or less +moment to us; we cannot deal with them in a wholly +unemotional way. In our daily lives we are continually +reaching conclusions that differ from the conclusions +reached by others about the same matters of fact, and are +trying to make these matters of fact have the same value +for others that they have for us. This is true of our business +life as well as of our social and home life. It always +will be so. It is doubtless true that if our knowledge of +matters of fact embraced a knowledge of the universe, and +if the experience of each of us were just like that of his +fellow and included all possible experience, we might reach +identical conclusions. This is not true and never can be +true. It is in effect true of a small portion of the things +about which we think,—the addition of one to two makes +three for every one,—but outside of these things, writing +need not be and seldom is purely conceptual.</p> + +<p><a name="subject" id="subject"></a><strong>9. Subject-matter.</strong>—Various as are the things about +which we write and manifold as are our interests in them, +they may be classified for our purposes under four heads: +Matters of Fact, Experience, Beauty, Truth. Again, we +shall find difficulty in separating each of these from each +of the others. Some of our experiences have certainly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +been revelations of matters of fact; without our experiences, +we should hardly have acquired any real sense of +the beautiful; save for them we could not have known +anything of truth. No accurate definition of these things +carefully distinguishing between them can be attempted +here. It may be assumed that what is meant by matters +of fact will be understood without definition. As we read +the story in great measure for the purpose of enlarging +our experience, this part of our possible literary material +is worth considering further. In the child we are able to +detect very early a growing curiosity. That curiosity does +not disappear when the child has grown from boy to man; +he is still asking questions of the universe, still trying to +piece the fragments of his knowledge into a law-ordered +and will-ordered whole. What he knows has been the +product of experience, what he may yet know further must +be the product of experience. This experience may not +all be personal, but even that which he gets at second hand +is so far useful in helping him toward that understanding +of the universe for which he hopes. He never will reach +that understanding, all his experience will make but a fraction +of things to be known matters of fact to him; and yet +a deathless interest in the scarcely recognized belief that the +facts and forces of which he has known have some unifying +principle makes his emotions quicken at every new +experience that may have possible significance.</p> + +<p><strong>10. Appeal of Experience, Beauty, and Truth.</strong>—It will +be evident, then, that experience which somehow makes +the impression of superior importance may be presented +inorganically and yet gain an interested hearing. The +method of creating this impression, whether through the +appearance of conviction in the writer or by various literary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +devices, need not detain us here. We shall be concerned +merely with noting that the possible relation of the +particular to the general, of this experience to the whole of +experience, makes it a thing of moment. In just what way +experience develops in us the sense of the beautiful, just +what it is in anything that makes us distinguish beauty in +it, cannot now be determined. It will be enough for us to +know that literature makes a large appeal to a sense of the +beautiful in us, a sense not fortuitous and irrational, though +varying, but normal and almost universal, dependent upon +natural laws of development. Truth is also difficult of +definition, but we may understand that when out of experience, +as through a process of reasoning, we have reached +a conclusion that is something more than a matter of fact, +a conclusion touching our emotions and having vital spiritual +interest to us, the experience, whether our own directly or +at second hand, has brought us to a truth. Truth is, perhaps, +that matter of fact of universal intelligence that +transcends the matter of fact of the finite mind.</p> + +<p><strong>11. Literary Principles and Qualities.</strong>—There are some +fundamental principles of literary presentation which we +may briefly review here. All our study of science, and in +a less obvious fashion, of all the physical, social, and +artistic world about us, is more or less an attempt to +classify, simplify, and unify facts whose relations we do +not see at a glance. We must observe and learn the facts +first, but they will be of no great utility to us as unrelated +items of knowledge. The need of establishing some sort +of law and order in our understanding of the mass of +phenomena of which we must take cognizance is so +insistent that we early acquire the habit of attempting to +hold in mind any new fact through its relation to some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +other fact or facts. In other words, we can retain the +knowledge we acquire only by making one fact do duty +for a great many other facts included in it. Our writing +must not violate what is at once a necessity and a pleasure +of the mind. Unity, simplicity, coherence, harmony, or +congruity, must all be sought as essential qualities of any +writing. We must also indicate our sense of the relative +values of the things with which we deal by a proper selection +of details for presentation, a careful subordination of +the less important to the more important through the proportion +of space and attention given to each, and through +other devices for securing emphasis. Let us keep in mind +value, selection, subordination, proportion, emphasis, as a +second group of terms for principles involved in writing. +We may also wish to give our subject further elements of +appeal through what may be suggested beyond the telling, +through the melody and rhythm of the words, or through +a quickening of the sense of the beautiful. Suggestion, +melody, rhythm, beauty, are to be included, then, in a +third group of qualities that may contribute to the effectiveness +of what we write.</p> + +<p><strong>12. Conceptual Writing.</strong>—Of the literary qualities that +have just been discussed, only the first group is perhaps +essential to what has been designated as conceptual writing. +Here we may place expository writing on subjects wholly +matter of fact, mathematical discussions, scientific treatises +largely, though not necessarily, and other writing of like +character. As unity is the quality of importance here, we +may well consider the units of discourse. Our first unit is +that of the whole composition, the second that of the paragraph, +and the third that of the sentence. Which of these +is the prime unit, as the dollar is the prime unit of our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +medium of exchange, may not be evident at once; but if +we examine the writing of clear thinkers carefully, without +attempting to settle the matter in any doctrinaire fashion, +we shall find that the paragraph, and not the sentence, is +the more unified whole. I turn to Cardinal Newman, and +in the middle of a paragraph find the sentence, "This +should be carefully observed," a sentence meaningless +when taken from the context. As a part of the paragraph +it has a function, but it is certainly as a unit of detail and +not as a prime unit. A writer like Carlyle makes these +lesser units more important, but they are still subordinate +to their use in the paragraph. In all our writing we shall +do much for the unity, simplicity, and coherence of our +work by seeing to it that our paragraphs are properly +arranged and that each fulfills this function of a prime unit +in the composition.</p> + +<p><strong>13. The Sense of Value.</strong>—When, in addition to statement +of mere matters of fact, an author wishes to impress +his readers with his own sense of the importance and the +value of what he has to say, or of some special phase of +his subject, he will employ the principles of the second +group spoken of in a preceding paragraph. They cannot +be ignored, indeed, in explanation of the simplest matters +of fact, but a writer who means to convince and persuade +will make more use of them. His personality will express +itself in the selection of details and in the emphasis he +places upon one detail or another. Among the literary +forms which, besides being conceptual, are also concerned +with persuasion, we find the oration, the essay, a great deal +of business correspondence, and much of what we read in +magazines and newspapers.</p> + +<p><strong>14. Writing having Artistic Quality.</strong>—When in addition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +to expressing matters of fact or truth, appealing perhaps +to experience, we wish to arouse some sense of the beautiful +and the artistic, we shall give our writing some or all of +the qualities of the third group. Evidently, writing of this +sort is in many respects the most difficult, since the writer +must have regard for unity and the related principles, as +well as for the qualities which peculiarly distinguish it. +Experience, beauty, and truth are all available as subject-matter, +and all the principles governing literary composition +are concerned. Here we shall find the poem, the +drama, the oration in some of its forms, most essays of the +better sort, the greater part of good critical writing, literary +description, and all narrative forms except the matter-of-fact +historical writing of unliterary scholars.</p> + +<p><strong>15. Two Things Requisite in Writing.</strong>—It is to be borne +in mind that the foregoing classifications are by no means +absolute. Gardiner in his "Forms of Prose Literature" says +very truly that the "essential elements, not only of literature, +but of all the fine arts, are: first, an organic unity of +conception; and second, the pervasive personality of the +artist." It is true that much of our writing does not aspire +to literary character, but in very little of our writing of any +sort can we afford to neglect the first of these elements, +and in very little of it do we care to leave the second out +of account. Even in exposition of the simpler sort we may +give to our writing the distinction of a more luminous style +and the stronger appeal of a warmer personal interest, if +we shape it into organic unity and make evident in it "the +pervasive personality of the artist."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> + + +<h2><span class="smcap">The Story in Particular</span></h2> + + +<p><strong>16. The Art of the Story.</strong>—However abstract the thinking +of civilized man may become, "all our intelligence," to +quote Ladd's "Outlines of Physiological Psychology," "is intelligence +about something or other, ... resting on a basis +of sensations and volitions." Difficult as it is and difficult +as are the problems involved in its construction, the story +is from some points of view the most elementary of literary +forms. It is concerned directly with matters of sensation +and volition. If it is to play upon our emotions, it must +revive sensations and volitions, make us in some degree +part of the action. Experience is at once its warp and +woof, but while it gives us new experiences, it must, in +connection with them, revive old ones and so become tangible +and real for us.</p> + +<p>Of the memories that have come to us through the senses +of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste, those that are +visual are probably the most clearly defined and persistent +for most people. The sensation of hearing doubtless comes +next, and then those of touch, smell, and taste. A name +will suffice to make us see the face of an absent friend; a +few words, or the sight of a music roll, is enough to make +us hear a favorite melody; a line or two on a printed page +brings back to us the scent of the hayfield or the heavy +odor of hyacinths in a conservatory. We must remember, +too, that this may be in each case, not simply a bringing +back of the idea of the things, but a reviving of the sensations +themselves. The seat of sensation is after all the +brain. Originally we experience sensation through some +excitation of the end organs of sense, the ear, the nerves of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +touch, the retina; but these sensations become associated +with verbal images in the mind, and finally the excitation +of the verbal images results also in the revival of the original +sensation. There is perhaps no one of us who has not +seen wholly imaginary moving shadows or flashing lights +in the dark. Such cases are not good illustrations of the +point, possibly, but most of us can at will hear a connected +succession of notes with which we have familiarized ourselves. +In my own recent experience there occurred a very +clear and wholly unexpected subjective sense of smell when +reading of an experiment with frogs which recalled the +distinctive odor of slimy water. Mr. James Sully, in +"Illusions," says, "Stories are told of portrait painters who +could summon visual images of their sitters with a vividness +equal to that of reality, and serving all the purposes +of their art." The same writer says again, and this is +peculiarly significant, that "the physiologist Gruithuisen +had a dream in which the principal feature was a violet +flame, and which left behind it, <em>after waking</em> for an appreciable +duration, a complementary image of a yellow spot." +Here a purely subjective impression had been reproduced +in the nerves of sense.</p> + +<p><strong>17. The Place of Sensation in Writing.</strong>—The thing that +it seems important to dwell upon here is that subjective +sensations do go out from the brain and stimulate in a very +real fashion the sensations that are naturally excited by +external stimuli localizing themselves in the end organs of +sense. As these sensations, while not the all of emotion, +are largely involved in emotion as its more poignant +element, and as emotion is a first requisite in the appeal of +a story, it is evident that the writer of stories will do well +to acquire the art of reviving sensations. Further, as in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +the quickening of sensations our ideas become more tangible +and real, writers who employ other literary forms +will find that their style gains clarity and distinction by a +like appeal to sensation when possible. Just how successful +story-writers make appeal to sensation, revive experience, +give new experience, and touch the sense of the +beautiful is to be taken up more definitely in the following +pages. We can understand, of course, that subjective +sensations are not as strong as those which we experience +directly, but on the other hand they may be more varied, +they may crowd in upon us more rapidly, they may be more +congruously chosen for a definite effect than in our actual +life. The total effect may then be no less pronounced. In +discovering how this is brought about we shall find the art +of the short story.</p> + + + +<hr /> + + +<h2><span class="smcap">Special Study of the Story</span></h2> + + +<p><strong>18. Symbols for Visualization.</strong>—On analyzing a story +for the purpose of discovering the elements of which it is +composed, and the kind and degree of appeal which they +have for us, we shall find it convenient to employ a few +symbols for the purpose of labeling our findings for discussion +in the class room. Some of the directions which we +make will be based upon differences in the way in which +the things presented are effective in our minds, others +upon differences in the things presented, themselves. First +we shall work with symbols of description and visualization, +of which for convenience we may distinguish four sorts +shading one into the other, not clearly defined, and yet +worth discussing, that we may cultivate a sharper sense of +qualities of effectiveness in visualization. For these four +sorts of visualization we may employ the symbols, <em>V</em><sub>1</sub>, <em>V</em><sub>2</sub>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +<em>V</em><sub>3</sub>, <em>VB</em><sub>3</sub>. For the first of these the symbol <em>V</em><sub>1</sub> is not very +satisfactory, since we will employ it for simple description +which presents rather the idea of the thing than a mental +picture, but it will perhaps be simpler to use it than to use +a symbol for the word description. Having in mind the +idea of a thing, we may by mental effort, if the idea is +defined with sufficient clearness, call up the image of the +object. <em>V</em><sub>2</sub> is the symbol for a visualization through a +suggestion which the mind, by reason of the interest +kindled, fills out to something more than the mere idea, +more or less definite imagery resulting. In the <em>V</em><sub>3</sub> form, +we are, as it were, compelled to see the image without +mental effort, so swiftly and surely do the verbal memory +images reëstablish old sensations or combine with old +sensations to the formation of new. In the fourth form, +we will add the <em>B</em> (Beauty) when the image which we see +is such as to appeal pleasurably to the æsthetic sense. +That there should be perfect agreement in the use of any +one of these symbols in any particular case is, of course, +not to be expected. Our individual experiences have been +so different and the associations of sensation are so varied +that the character and intensity of any visualization must +differ in each individual. This, of course, is one of the +things that complicate the problem of literary composition +and make study of these things of particular importance.</p> + +<p><strong>19. Audition and Other Sensations.</strong>—As the problem of +audition is of less moment than that of visualization, we +will make but the one distinction between such presentation +of sound as calls up the idea of the sound only, <em>a</em><sub>1</sub> and +such as produces in us the sense of the sound itself, <em>a</em><sub>2</sub>, +premising that any one who chooses may make the three +divisions preceding.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p> + +<p>Appeals to the other senses as occurring less often, we +may group together under the symbol <em>S</em>, using 1 with this, +as with <em>a</em>, when it comes to us in the conceptual way, and +2 when it comes as an excitant of sensation.</p> + +<p><strong>20. Instances of Visualization.</strong>—Before we go farther, +it will be well to examine briefly an example or two of +literary description.</p> + +<div class="line"> +<p><span class="linenum"><em>V</em><sub>2</sub></span>"The rim of the sun was burning the hilltops, and already the +vanguard of his strength stemming the morning mists, when I and +<span class="linenum"><em>V</em><sub>2</sub></span>my companion first trod the dust of a small town which stood in +our path. It still lay very hard and white, however, and sharply +<span class="linenum"><em>V</em><sub>1</sub></span>edged to its girdle of olive and mulberry trees drenched in dew, a +compactly folded town well fortified by strong walls and many +<span class="linenum"><em>V</em><sub>2</sub></span>towers, with the mist upon it and softly over it like a veil. For it +<span class="linenum"><em>V</em><sub>1</sub></span>lay well under the shade of the hills awaiting the sun's coming. +In the streets, though they were by no means asleep, but, contrariwise, +<span class="linenum"><em>S</em><sub>2</sub></span>busy with the traffic of men and pack mules, there was a +<span class="linenum"><em>V</em><sub>2</sub></span>shrewd bite as of night air; looking up we could perceive how faint +the blue of the sky was, and the cloud-flaw how rosy yet with the +flush of Aurora's beauty-sleep. Therefore we were glad to get into +the market place, filled with people and set around with goodly +<span class="linenum"><em>S</em><sub>2</sub></span>brick buildings, and to feel the light and warmth steal about our +limbs."</p> +<p class="right">—<span class="smcap">Maurice Hewlett</span>, "Earthwork out of Tuscany."</p> +</div> + +<p>Here we shall first use the symbol <em>V</em><sub>2</sub>, because the image +presented is one that appeals at once to experience, experience +too that has not been dimmed by frequence. The +instant when the <em>rim</em> of the sun comes up bright and red +is the instant when our expectation is most kindled toward +the glory of the dawn and of the day which it foretokens. +"The vanguard of his strength" in the next clause suggests +the purely fanciful. This mixture of the concrete and the +abstract does not go back to sensation, a thing worth noting +and so the visualization is destroyed. The dependent clause<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +brings up a new visualization, a <em>V</em><sub>2</sub>, in the "dust of a small +town." The second sentence is <em>V</em><sub>1</sub>, until the close when it +becomes <em>V</em><sub>2</sub> through the quickening of memories that have +been emotional. The vagueness of a village hidden in the +mist has appealed to our imagination in the assurance of a +something unknown. The next sentence is <em>V</em><sub>1</sub>, and so +also is the next until in "the shrewd bite as of night +air" we get an <em>S</em><sub>2</sub>. The <em>V</em><sub>2</sub> of the faint blue of the sky is +destroyed, as in the first sentence, by the merely intellectual +playing of fancy in "Aurora's beauty-sleep." The next +sentence gives us an <em>S</em><sub>2</sub> in the closing clause, for which the +two preceding have been a preparation.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Solemn and vast at all times, in spite of pettiness in the near details, +the impression becomes more solemn and vast towards evening. The +sun goes down, a swollen orange, as it were, into the sea. A blue-clad +peasant rides home, with a harrow smoking behind him among the dry +clods."</p></div> + +<p>In this from Robert Louis Stevenson the last sentence +brings the description to a <em>V</em><sub>3</sub>; the smoking harrow is suggestive +of so much more than the cloud of dust that has +not yet settled to the earth in the stillness of the approaching +twilight when the work of the day is done.</p> + +<p><strong>21. Motor Effects of Visualization.</strong>—There is another +way in which things seen touch sensation. Look at a +picture of the Laocoön for a moment. Fix your eyes upon +the contortions of the limbs, see the agony of the face, note +the fangs of the serpent ready to embed themselves in the +flesh. While fastening these fearful details in your mind +have you not felt some of the horror of it, and has not that +feeling shown a tendency to innervate some of the muscles, +has not your face shown some of the suffering which you +have been studying, and have you not felt a tendency<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +toward the muscular movements of one writhing in agony? +Certainly, such motor impulses do result from certain kinds +of visualization, and it need hardly be said that they are +peculiarly effective in making us really alive with the emotion +which inheres in the movement or the attitude which +we see. If the gestures of a speaker are to be effective, +they must seem natural to us; that is, they must be such as +we would make if we were in that fashion attempting to +express a similar emotion. Otherwise the motor suggestions +of the words and the motor suggestion of the gestures +may inhibit or neutralize each other, or at least produce a +feeling of confusion. Halleck, in his "Education of the +Central Nervous System," says, "All states of consciousness +contain a motor element." When a visualization or an +audition, as that of a sharp command, seems to have motor +effects, we may add to the symbols of kind and degree of +sensation the symbol <em>x</em>.</p> + +<p><strong>22. Inference in Literature.</strong>—It was apparent in the +visualization quoted from Stevenson that some of the +impressions which we get from literature we get as inferences. +Dust does not arise from a harrow so as to have +the appearance of smoke on a windy day, and therefore we +know that it is quiet. In the opening of a story some +things must be explained directly, and for such explanatory +matter, matter from which we infer nothing beyond the +statement, we will employ the symbol <em>Exp.</em>; but for other +presentation of matters of fact we will employ the symbol +<em>F</em><sub>1</sub>. From facts as presented—and we will use the term +in a comprehensive sense—we may or may not draw inferences, +and we will distinguish facts from which no inference +is drawn by the symbol <em>F</em><sub>1</sub>, and those from which inference +is drawn by the symbol <em>F</em><sub>2</sub>. An inference may be preponderatingly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +intellectual or emotional; we may, when desirable, +add the symbol <em>a</em> for one and <em>b</em> for the other. An inference +we may call an "effect," and a fact as effect, whether +the effect be emotional or conceptual, is clearly more potent +in a literary way than a mere fact.</p> + +<p><strong>23. Effects of Incident and Mood.</strong>—Allied to the fact +as effect is the incident which makes us know something +more than the happening itself. All incidents we may +distinguish under the symbols <em>In</em><sub>1</sub>, <em>In</em><sub>2</sub><em>a</em>, <em>In</em><sub>2</sub><em>b</em>, the secondary +symbols having the significance as with <em>F</em> above. Mood +effects are, in general, more important, and it will be worth +while to distinguish three sorts, <em>m</em><sub>1</sub>, an inference which we +draw regarding the mood of the writer, <em>m</em><sub>2</sub>, a like inference +which becomes infectious, creating in us in some degree a +like feeling, and <em>m</em><sub>3</sub>, an "effect" enabling us to draw an +inference regarding the mood of a character in the story. +In addition to this we shall find direct statement of mood, +but that we shall mark with some of the preceding symbols, +generally <em>F</em><sub>1</sub>, perhaps. We may understand further that +the mood effects are of both kind and degree. When the +showing of mood is such as to make us realize in it the +intensity of strong emotion or passion, we may indicate +the heightening of the feeling by the addition of the symbol +<em>d</em>, using <em>k</em> alone, or with <em>d</em> to indicate that the character of +the mood is shown.</p> + +<p><strong>24. Methods of Characterization.</strong>—In our everyday life +we are continually drawing inferences in regard to the +characters of those about us, and we do the same thing in +a story. Some writers tell us as clearly as they can the +natures of the men and women they are revealing to us, +while others leave that almost wholly for us to conjecture. +We shall employ, then, two sets of symbols for character,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +one for direct statement of character, and one for character +effects. The realization of character through direct statement +may include presentation of motives, ideas, passions, +will, special phases of development. It may come through +report of the talk of others, or through statement of opinion +generally entertained. <em>c</em><sub>1</sub> we will use for direct statement +of character,—"John was a hard old miser,"—and we +will add to this symbol the symbol <em>a</em> to indicate that this is +only so far potent with us as to make us know the writer's +understanding of the character merely, <em>b</em> to indicate that +we recognize the writer's feeling for the character but do +not share it, and <em>c</em> to indicate that the writer's feeling for +his character affects us sympathetically to a like feeling. +Another group of symbols, <em>c</em><sub>2</sub>, <em>c</em><sub>3</sub>, and <em>c</em><sub>4</sub>, we will use for +character "effects," for such knowledge of character as we +gain by inference. <em>c</em><sub>2</sub> is a symbol for a general inference +regarding a group of people or a community; <em>c</em><sub>3</sub> and <em>c</em><sub>4</sub> are +symbols for inferences regarding the individual, <em>c</em><sub>3</sub> indicating +the recognition of type or class qualities, <em>c</em><sub>4</sub>, the +recognition of more individual traits of character. The +distinction here is merely one of matter of fact, a distinction +not always to be made with sureness, since it is one of +degree rather than altogether one of kind. When the way +in which a man is good or cheerful or avaricious is differentiated +for us from the way in which another man is good +or cheerful or avaricious, he is so far individualized. Class +characterization, <em>c</em><sub>3</sub>, may be found along with individualization. +The extreme accentuation of one or a few characteristics +to the disregard of others gives the effect of +individualization, but we shall understand this as in fact +type characterization, since our natures are so complex that +in almost no case can the conduct of any one be understood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +through knowledge of a few dominant traits of character. +Individualization gives us intimacy of acquaintance; type +or class characterization makes us see merely the striking, +peculiar, or controlling expressions of personality. Guy +Mannering in Scott's "Guy Mannering" is but a type of the +conventional soldier. Tito Milema in George Eliot's +"Romola" presents so many sides of a complex nature that +we easily distinguish him from all other characters in fiction +whatever.</p> + +<p><strong>25. The Subjective and Objective.</strong>—Writers, in their +methods of presentation, may be broadly divided into two +classes, those who write subjectively and those who write +objectively. A subjective writer is one whose own personality, +point of view, feeling, is insistent in what he +writes. An objective writer, on the other hand, is one who +leaves the things of which he makes record to produce +their own impression, the writer himself remaining an +almost impassive spectator, telling the story with little or +no comment. Chaucer, in the prologue to the "Canterbury +Tales," betrays his personal feeling for his characters continually, +and so is subjective. Shakespeare in his plays is +objective, presenting all sorts of men and women without +show of his own attitude toward them.</p> + +<p><a name="plot" id="plot"></a><strong>26. Interest of the Plot and its Purpose.</strong>—We have seen +that interest in incident is a first interest in the story. This +interest, we must understand further, is not to be maintained +by having things happen in a matter regulated only +by chance or the exigencies of the author's invention at the +moment. The unification of a story that results from the +subordination of minor incidents to a final outcome is an +essential necessity of the plot. The plot, indeed, is the +arrangement of incidents with reference to the dénouement.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +The development of the plot should be such as to +indicate an end toward which the succession of incidents +is tending, and yet such as to keep the reader in suspense +with regard to the nature of that end. There must be +novelty in the happenings, and yet the novelty must not +be so great as to keep the reader confused or strain belief. +The permanent hold upon us of a piece of fiction is +enhanced if it embodies some central truth, illustrating the +working out of some law of life, or involved in the personal +attitude of the writer toward some problem of existence. +Only dilettanteism and superficiality forget that an artist, +giving the form of beauty to his conceptions, is trying to +make them as significant to others as they are to him, and +that æsthetic and ethical, or spiritual, significance are +inextricably interwoven. It will, of course, be the care of +the artist to see that any didactic purpose is not obtrusive.</p> + +<div class="line"> +<p><span class="linenum2"><em>F<sub>2</sub>b</em></span> 1. A tray of glasses was placed on the table with great +solemnity by the "wricht," who made no sign and invited +none. 2. You might have supposed that the circumstance had +<em>F<sub>2</sub>b</em> escaped the notice of the company, so abstracted and unconscious +was their manner, had it not been that two graven +images a minute later are standing by the table.</p> + +<p><span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>k</em></span> 3. "Ye 'ill taste, Tammas," with settled melancholy.</p> + +<p><span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>k</em></span> 4. "Na, na; I've nae incleenation the day; it's an awful + dispensation, this, Jeems. 5. She wuld be barely saxty."<span class="linenum2"><em>F<sub>2</sub>a</em></span></p> + +<p><span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>k</em></span> 6. "Ay, ay, but we maun keep up the body sae lang as +we're here, Tammas."</p> + +<p><span class="linenum2"><em>c<sub>2</sub>/c<sub>4</sub></em></span> 7. "Weel, puttin' it that way, a'm not sayin' but yir + richt," yielding unwillingly to the force of circumstance.<span class="linenum2"><em>m</em><sub>2</sub></span></p> + +<p><span class="linenum2"><em>c<sub>4</sub>/m<sub>3</sub></em></span> 8. "We're here the day and there the morn, Tammas. + 9. She was a fine wumman—Mistress Stirton—a weel-livin'<span class="linenum2"><em>m</em><sub>3</sub></span> +wumman: this will be a blend, a'm thinkin'."</p> + +<p><span class="linenum2"><em>c<sub>4</sub>/m<sub>3</sub></em></span> 10. "She slippit aff sudden in the end; a'm judgin' it's + frae the Muirtown grocer; <span class="linenum2"><em>m</em><sub>3</sub></span>but a body canna discreeminate +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>on a day like this."</p> + +<p>11. It was George Howe's funeral that broke the custom +and closed the "service." +<span class="linenum2"><em>F<sub>2</sub>b</em></span> 12. When I came into the garden +where the neighbors were gathered, the "wricht" was +removing his tray and not a glass had been touched. +<span class="linenum2">Exp.+<em>m<sub>2</sub></em></span> 13. Then I guessed that Drumtochty had a sense of the fitness +of things and was stirred to its depths.</p> + +<p>14. "Ye saw the wricht carry in his tray," said Drumsheigh +as he went home from the kirkyard.</p> + +<p><span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>d</em></span> 15. "Weel, yon's the last sicht o't ye' ill get or a'm no + Drumsheigh. 16. I've nae objection masel' to a neighbor<span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>k</em></span> +tastin' at a funeral, a' the more if he's come from the upper +end o' the pairish, and ye ken I dinna hold wi' thae teetotal +<span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>d</em></span> fouk. 17. A'm ower auld in the horn to change noo. +<span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>/F<sub>2</sub>b</em></span> 18. But there's times and seasons, as the Gude Buik says, +and it wud hae been an awfu' like business tae luik at a +gless in Marget's Garden, and puir Domsie standing in +ahent the brier bush as if he cud never lift his heid again."</p> +</div> + +<p><strong>27. Interpretative Application of the Symbols.</strong>—A little +discussion of the foregoing from a "A Scholar's Funeral" +in the "Bonnie Brier Bush" may serve to make some of +these things clearer. The fact that the "wricht" is silent +here in the first sentence makes us know that this is the +usual custom and that these people have an underlying +sense of decorum. Sentence two has the same effect in +their abstraction, and this is emphasized again in the "two +graven images." The third sentence is a mood "effect" +of kind, since we recognize the conventionally sobered +feeling without the "settled melancholy." This is true +again in sentence four, and in five we have a "fact as +effect," drawing the inference that they are a long-lived +race in Drumtochty. From the yielding to an invitation +so framed as to put aside the semblance of yielding to +inclination, we get a knowledge of character which seems +to us individual, but which is used by the author to indicate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +a local community characteristic. The author's mood of +amused observation is evident here, too, in his unbelieving +acquiescence in Tammas's point of view. In sentences eight +and nine we come to know Jeems in a more individual way, +through the mingling in him of moods of conventional +solemnity and everyday discussion. This is repeated in +sentence ten. In sentence twelve we draw an emotional +inference concerning the degree of their feeling from the +fact that "not a glass had been touched." This is told +in the explanatory way in thirteen with the addition of a +suggestion of the author's sympathetic understanding and +appreciation. Knowing Drumsheigh's reserve, from things +that have gone before this in the story, we feel that only +strong emotion could have called out sentence fifteen; and +the apologetic tone of sixteen and seventeen indicates rather +mood than such heightened feeling. Sentence eighteen +returns to the mood of fifteen and sixteen, and through the +fact of Domsie's standing "ahent the brier bush" reveals +both Domsie's mood and Drumsheigh's own in our knowledge +of its emotional appeal to him.</p> + +<p><strong>28. Different Forms of the Story.</strong>—It is to be understood +that certain types of the short story are not included +in this study as not being available for detailed work. +Stories in which the interest is almost wholly dependent +upon the succession of incidents can profitably be studied +only with relation to the plot. Generally in such cases the +things that make the story effective will be readily apparent, +and they can be brought out by a few questions. To give +variety and interest to the work the teacher will occasionally +find it desirable to call attention to stories in current +periodicals, requiring the class to bring in analyses of them +showing structure of the plot, methods of managing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +reader's sympathies, fundamental motive of the story, the +treatment of character and methods of presenting it, and +such other things as seem most of moment in the story +in question. When library facilities permit, it will be +found worth while to make some comparison of the short +story as it is now written in America with the short stories +of fifty years ago and of the present day in England and +France. No classification of stories is attempted here, +since such classification is of no particular moment to the +writer of stories.</p> + + + +<hr /> + + +<h2><span class="smcap">A Few Cautions</span></h2> + + +<p><strong>29.</strong> The suggestions that follow are phrased to cover +the matter of visualization, but they touch upon general +principles which are of wider application. It has seemed +more convenient at this point to give them this specific +treatment.</p> + +<p><strong>30. Author's Purpose should be Concealed.</strong>—An attempt +to bring about a visualization or any other artistic effect in +the mind of the reader is foredoomed to failure when in +any way the writer's purpose too evidently betrays itself +as such. Too much in the way of direct statement or +predication is one indication of such purpose, and is therefore +more or less ineffectual. For effective visualization +some sort of preparation of the mood or sympathies of the +reader is generally required. This, however, should be +concealed, being accomplished through suggestion, as is +the visualization itself.</p> + +<p><strong>31. Unity in Visualization.</strong>—A visualization should be +so managed as to bring the whole picture, or nearly all of +it, into the mind at once. It is partly because it does not +do this that the method by details is not generally effective.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +A string of incomplete images passing through the mind, +each one taking the place of the preceding and effacing it, +is not artistically satisfying. It is possible to retain such +separate images and at the end bring them together in a +complete picture, but this will require effort on the part of +the reader; and it is fundamentally important in all writing +to reduce the conscious attention and effort of the reader +to the lowest point. Only extreme literary art can so +nullify this effort in effect as to make description by detail +pleasurable, if of any length. Description by detail is, +perhaps, more admissible in writing having a meditative +tone than in any other, except, of course, technical +description.</p> + +<p><strong>32. Fine Writing.</strong>—Fine writing is especially to be +avoided in visualization, since the tone of artificiality is +immediately destructive of the reader's confidence in the +sincerity of the writer. It betrays the author's purpose of +producing an effect. The appearance of truth free from +any semblance of over-statement is a first requisite.</p> + +<p><strong>33.</strong> In any visualization harmony of detail is of prime +importance. Even in describing something actually seen +it will sometimes be necessary to leave out items really +present, but not of a kind to contribute to the general +effect. The saying that "Truth is stranger than fiction" +should read that fiction may not be as strange as truth. +Harmony of mood is important, as well as harmony of +detail, in the thing described. If the picture is a quiet one, +exclamatory excitement on the part of the writer, however +affecting the scene may be supposed to be, will prevent its +becoming real to the reader. These things are, then, to be +borne in mind with regard to the elements of a visualization: +the details presented must be so far true to common<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +knowledge and experience as to gain ready belief, they +must have unity in fact and in effect, and they must also +be sufficiently individual to appeal to the mind with something +of the sense of novelty.</p> + + + +<hr /> + + +<h2><span class="smcap">Reference Table of Symbols</span></h2> + + +<table summary="Symbols"> +<tr> +<td>Exp.</td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Explanatory matter.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>F<sub>1</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Statement of fact from which no inference is drawn.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>F<sub>2</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Statement of fact from which an inference is drawn.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>F<sub>2</sub>a</em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Statement of fact with inference mainly logical.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>F<sub>2</sub>b</em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Statement of fact with inference mainly emotional.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>In.</em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Statement of incident, secondary symbols as with <em>F</em>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>As<sub>1</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Anticipatory suggestion, a foretelling of something to happen, +leaving the reader in doubt as to how it is to be brought about.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>As<sub>2</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Anticipatory suggestion, a foreshowing of something definite +to happen, exciting the reader's curiosity to know what it is and +how it is to be brought about.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>As<sub>3</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Anticipatory suggestion, a foreshadowing of something to be +expected in the way of character development and consequent +happening.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>V<sub>1</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Description in which the mere idea of the thing described is +presented.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>V<sub>2</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>A kindling hint by which the mind is enabled to piece together +a visualization of the object.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>V<sub>3</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Visualization of so vivid a kind as to possess the mind completely. +This becomes</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>Vb<sub>3</sub></em></td> +<td> </td> +<td>when it pleasurably affects the sensibilities.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>A<sub>1</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Audition in the way of simple idea of the thing to be heard.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>A<sub>2</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Audition as a reviving of the sense of sound.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>S<sub>1</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Sensation, the mere presentation of the idea of an appeal to one +of the other senses.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>S<sub>2</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Sensation, a subjective reviving of the sensation itself.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>x</em></td> +<td> </td> +<td>used to indicate that a subjective excitation of some one of the +senses has motor effects, as in the shiver at the thought of a +file upon the teeth.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>m<sub>1</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Mood "effect," from which we learn the feeling of the writer +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>without experiencing it ourselves.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>m<sub>2</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Mood "effect" from which we sympathetically experience the +feeling of the writer.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>m<sub>3</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Mood "effect," a revelation of the feeling of a character in the +story.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>c<sub>1</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Direct statement of character.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>c<sub>1a</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Direct statement of character that does not reveal the author's +attitude toward the character.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>c<sub>1b</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Direct statement in which we are made aware of the author's +attitude toward the character, but are not affected by it.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>c<sub>1c</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Direct statement of character sympathetically influencing us to +the author's attitude toward the character.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>c<sub>2</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Character "effect," characterization of a group or community of +people.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>c<sub>3</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Character "effect," class or type characterization of the individual.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>c<sub>4</sub></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Character "effect" in the way of individualization.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>d</em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Degree, added to symbol for mood effect to indicate intensity of +the feeling.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em>k</em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>Kind, used to indicate that the inference concerns itself with +character and not intensity.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><em><big>/</big></em></td> +<td>=</td> +<td>A symbol employed (<a href="#plot">see section 26</a>) to indicate that one inference +is drawn as an ultimate conclusion from another more +immediate inference.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr /> + +<h2><span class="smcap">Subjects for Daily Themes</span></h2> + + +<p>Subjects for visualization and the reviving of other sensations.</p> + +<p>1. A sunset sky. 2. A group in the park. 3. A spring freshet. +4. The man at the threshing machine. 5. The city across the river: +night. 6. Moonlight among the hills. 7. A city street. 8. The +college campus. 9. Eleanor's rose garden. 10. The witch of Endor +(1 Sam. xxviii: 6-25). 11. Mt. Pelée in eruption. 12. The woods at +night. 13. David playing before Saul. 14. A ferny water course +among the trees. 15. A bluebird in the orchard. 16. The violinist. +17. In time of apple blossoms. 18. The scent of new-mown hay. +19. Barbara at the piano. 20. The first watermelon. 21. Sailing with +the wind. 22. Dawn in the mountains. 23. The wind among the +pines. 24. The blacksmith and the forge.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> + +<p>Subjects for presentation of mood.</p> + +<p>1. Uncle Dick hears the news. 2. Balboa catches sight of the +Pacific. 3. Silas explains himself. 4. Napoleon looking back at Moscow. +5. Congressman Norris is refused the floor of the convention. +6. Johnnie is told that he may go to the circus. 7. Ethan Allen at +Ticonderoga. 8. Bamba, king of an island in the south seas, sees the +first ship of the white man. 9. Alfred meets a Hallowe'en obstacle.</p> + +<p>Subjects for visualization and presentation of facts as "effects."</p> + +<p>1. A deserted house. 2. In the second-hand store. 3. The railroad +wreck. 4. The beggar at the door. 5. Representative Dongan reads +a letter from "The Corners." 6. A woman at the station. 7. Mrs. +Humphrey's kitchen. 8. The trail of war.</p> + +<p>Subjects for character studies.</p> + +<p>1. The village oracle. 2. The landlord of the Lion Inn. 3. The +old stage-driver. 4. The conductor. 5. An old-fashioned music-master. +6. A pirate captain. 7. A country beau. 8. Deacon +Bradley. 9. The school bully. 10. The female suffragist. 11. One +of the four hundred. 12. A disciple of Mrs. Eddy. 13. "The man +with the hoe." 14. The scissors grinder. 15. Captain Doty of the +police. 16. A candidate for office.</p> + + + +<hr /> + + +<h2><span class="smcap">The Complete Story</span></h2> + + +<p>The invention of situations and plots can hardly be a +matter of class-room instruction. If stories come to one, it +is well. Study of the detailed means of making them +living for the reader will then be worth while. The student +should be encouraged to invent plots of his own, but +as a simplification of this difficulty, to the end that some +exercise in the writing of a complete story may be had, +plots of some successful published stories are here given +with suggestions regarding methods of treatment.</p> + + +<h3>I</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Scene, a saloon where both men and women are drinking. One +of them, a girl, thinks she sees at the window the face of Christ with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +his tender eyes. She leaves and will not permit the others to go with +her.</p> + +<p>At a little distance she comes upon the stranger waiting for her. He +tells her that when she wakes it will be to a new life and she will be his, +bidding her go to a house he points out and remain for the night. She +obeys, and the man passes into the shadow.</p> + +<p>Introductory sentence in the original, giving the atmosphere of the +story: "This was the story the mystic told." Concluding sentence in +the original, connecting it with our sense of unfathomable mysteries: +"And this the listener gravely asked, 'One was chosen, the others left. +Were the others less in need of grace?'"</p> + +<p>Divisions of the story. 1. Visualizing description of the saloon and +of the street outside through which the stranger passes.</p> + +<p>2. Appearance of the face at the pane and its effect on the young +girl (<em>m<sub>3</sub></em> "effect"). This is the difficult part of the story, and the +reader can be made to believe in it only through sympathy with the +girl's feeling.</p> + +<p>3. The talk of her companions and her answers (<em>m<sub>3</sub></em>).</p> + +<p>4. Her search for the stranger in the night (<em>m<sub>3</sub></em>).</p> + +<p>5. His talk to her when she finds him.</p></div> + +<p>This story in the original contains a little less than +two thousand words. It will be seen at once that unless +handled in such fashion as to appeal vividly to the imagination, +a story with this for its theme will seem weak and +unreal. It must be made as suggestive as possible or it +will fail. It preaches, but it must avoid the air of preaching. +Consider carefully how you would present the stranger—whether +first at the window or before—so as to affect the +reader with a sense of something more than human in him.</p> + + +<h3>II</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Scene of the story is the prairie desert of the West in time of drouth. +A party of men, including two who are not yet through their work in an +eastern college, are riding in search of water, having had none for two +days. Water is found, but shortly afterwards one of the two young men +is missing. The talk of the others reveals the absent one's unselfishness<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +and friendly devotion to his chum. Soon he is seen riding up +excitedly and beckoning. The others follow him to a rough eminence, +where he stops and listens, imploring them to tell him whether they +can hear a voice calling. When they hear it too, he is assured that he +has not lost his reason from the thirst, and together they begin a search +which results in their discerning a cavern in the side of an embankment +where a man lies on a couch moaning for water. As they try to enter, +he warns them away with the cry of "smallpox."</p> + +<p>The story is told to a group of friends gathered together of an evening, +and the narrator draws from among his books a copy of Shakespeare +found in the cavern by one of the men, bearing on its fly leaf, in +addition to the owner's name, the word <em>Brasenose</em>, the name of one of +the colleges at Oxford. The pathos of the story is in this last touch, +an Oxford student dying so loathsome a death in a strange and desert +land, and dying so heroically.</p> + +<p>Divisions of the story. 1. Visualization of the desert and the men. +The scent of water. Drinking from the muddied stream.</p> + +<p>2. One of the young men starts off alone in a delirium of pain (<em>m<sub>3</sub></em>). +He returns suffering from the fear that he has lost his reason (<em>m<sub>3</sub></em>).</p> + +<p>3. The discovery of the cave (<em>V<sub>3</sub></em> and <em>F<sub>2b</sub></em>). The delirious talk of +the sick man. His sudden joy in the unexpected presence of human +beings (<em>V<sub>3</sub></em> and <em>m<sub>3</sub></em>). His final "G'way! G'way! Smallpox!"</p> + +<p>4. The narrator of the story shows the copy of Shakespeare and the +inscription on the fly leaf.</p></div> + +<p>The story in the original contains about three thousand +words. It is important that the suffering of the men be +developed at some length in a convincing fashion. It +serves as a preparation for the more terrible suffering of +the one man who moans for water as he tears the foul +smallpox sores. This should be presented in as visualizing +a way as possible and with as full showing of mood as +may be. The conclusion in division 4 must be altogether +different in tone from the preceding. Narrator and listeners +are in a world of ease and comfort, and their interest +in the story is an interest in something pathetically remote.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> + + +<h2><span class="smcap">Situations to be Developed into Plots</span></h2> + +<p class="center">(Adapted from published stories not original)</p> + + +<p>1. Rome in the early centuries after Christ. Three persons are +involved, one man and two women, one of whom has just pledged troth +to the man. The man and the other woman are devotees of a mystic +faith, whose priest residing in a dark cavern in the hills calls now one, +now another devotee to pass through the "void" to eternal fellowship +with God.</p> + +<p>2. Oklahoma at the time of the opening of the strip for settlement. +A man and his wife and two children come from Kansas to find land +in the strip on the day of the run. They have failed in Kansas and are +almost out of money. The husband, who is to make the run for the +strip on horseback when the signal guns are fired, falls sick.</p> + +<p>3. A lumber camp. In addition to the men, a man and his wife who +cook and take care of the camp, and a half-witted chore boy. The +chore boy tries to take care of the men and keep them from drinking. +A number of the men go off to a neighboring town for a spree, and the +chore boy goes with them.</p> + +<p>4. Some place in the region of the mountain whites of the Carolinas +and Tennessee. A beautiful girl with a tinge of negro blood that does +not show in nature, intellectual endowment, or appearance. A mountain +white to whom she is betrothed. A young man from the North visiting +the family with whom she is staying is attracted by her. The contrast +of the life of the mountain whites to which her betrothal if fulfilled +dooms her, and that of the world of taste and culture which her nature +demands.</p> + + + +<hr /> + + +<h2><span class="smcap">Questions on "A Doctor of the Old School," from the +"Bonnie Brier Bush"</span></h2> + + +<h3>I</h3> + +<p>1. <em>a.</em> What has been accomplished in your sympathies by this? +2. <em>b.</em> Has this been through direct statement of things calling for your +sympathies, or through "effects"? <em>c.</em> Is the method cumulative and +gradual, or direct and insistent? <em>d.</em> Would you say that the method +here is objective or subjective? <em>e.</em> What symbols do you find that you +have employed largely, and for what purpose have the devices for which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +two of these stand been employed? <em>f.</em> Would you say that the author +puts much or little meaning into his words? Is the style diffuse and +thin, or does it accomplish much with few words? Indicate a paragraph +or page that justifies your conclusion and say how. <em>g.</em> Are the +inferences which you are made to draw logical or emotional, and do +they seem to you delicate and subtle or simple and direct? Indicate +some of them in confirmation of your conclusion.</p> + + +<h3>II</h3> + +<p>1. <em>a.</em> Do you see any change in the method of presenting MacLure +here? <em>b.</em> How is it an advance in the development of the story or +not? <em>c.</em> Was Part I. preparation for this or not, and if so, how? +<em>d.</em> Does this have a definite climax and dénouement, and if so, where?</p> + + +<h3>III</h3> + +<p>1. <em>a.</em> How does this make an advance upon the preceding in the +revelation of MacLure? <em>b.</em> Does it in any way get nearer to elemental +human feeling? <em>c.</em> Does it anywhere appeal directly to sensation? +<em>d.</em> Do you find in this any feeling for the mystery of existence? Does +it seem to be an integral part of the story, coming from its essential +emotion and free from obtrusive moralizing, or not? <em>e.</em> Is there any +increase in intensity of feeling in this or not, and if so, how is it indicated +in the symbols you have employed? <em>f.</em> Has MacLure now been +presented to us with full showing of his distinguishing characteristics +or not? and do we find in him a vital human nature?</p> + + +<h3>IV</h3> + +<p>1. <em>a.</em> Do you think a death-bed scene a good subject for literary +presentation or not? Why? <em>b.</em> Would you call it a difficult thing to +present or not? <em>c.</em> Do you find anything objectionable here? <em>d.</em> Has +the interest of the whole story depended upon incident or upon showing +of character? <em>e.</em> Does this Part IV. serve in any particular way to +round out our knowledge of MacLure, and if so, in what way? <em>f.</em> What +is the especially appealing thing in the portrait of MacLure? And what +in the fortune and circumstance of his life? <em>g.</em> Does this appeal touch +in any fashion upon our sense of a something inscrutable governing our +lives? <em>h.</em> Which of the different sorts of subject-matter (<a href="#subject">see section 9</a>)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +seem to you to be the more largely employed here? So far as it is concerned +with experience, is it a reviving of what we have experienced or +an addition to our knowledge of life? Is there in it a truth that you +could formulate into a law of life, or is the truth so much a matter of +emotion as merely to touch the sensibilities and so give us a wider vision?</p> + + + +<hr /> + + +<h2><span class="smcap">Questions on "Loveliness," by Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward</span></h2> + +<p class="center">(<em>Atlantic Monthly</em>, August, 1899)</p> + + +<p>1. <em>a.</em> Do you detect in this story any purpose beyond that of recounting +a series of happenings? If so, what? <em>b.</em> If you were to write the +story, would you think it prospectively a difficult thing to arouse interest +in a dog? <em>c.</em> Has that been done here or not? <em>d.</em> If so, what are +some of the author's devices and how successfully employed?</p> + +<p>2. <em>a.</em> What is the artistic purpose of the first two paragraphs? Why +does the author delay so long in telling us that she is writing of a dog? +<em>b.</em> Does she let her own feeling for the girl and dog appear or not? +If so, is it obtrusive or not? Effective or not, as your markings indicate? +<em>c.</em> Are there any incidents in the story that a reader might for +any reason be unwilling to accept? <em>d.</em> If so, how is the handling such +as to disguise the difficulty or not, as the case may be?</p> + +<p>3. <em>a.</em> What devices are employed to make us interested in Adah? +<em>b.</em> Are we made to feel that her dependence upon the dog is natural and +deserving of sympathy or not, and if so, how? <em>c.</em> Are the incidents so +managed as to maintain interest in the expectation of the dénouement +or not? <em>d.</em> Does the story seem to have sufficient unity of purpose and +plan or not?</p> + +<p>4. <em>a.</em> What symbols do you notice that you have employed most +largely? <em>b.</em> Is the story written in the way of direct statement or of +suggestion? <em>c.</em> For what frequent purpose would you say that the +writer employs <em>F<sub>2</sub></em>? <em>M<sub>3</sub></em>? <em>M<sub>2</sub></em>? <em>d.</em> Can you say in what the art of +the story especially consists? <em>e.</em> What would you probably have +thought of the story were its art less delicate and sure?</p> + + + +<hr /> + + +<h2><span class="smcap">General Outline Questions for Study of Stories in +Current Magazines, etc.</span></h2> + + +<p>1. <em>a.</em> Upon what is the interest of the story especially dependent? +<em>b.</em> Are the incidents presented rapidly and coherently, or slowly and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +disconnectedly? <em>c.</em> Is there a clearly defined plot or not? <em>d.</em> Does +the plot have a climax of entanglement, or does it fail in developing +this feature of the story interest?</p> + +<p>2. <em>a.</em> How is character presented? <em>b.</em> Are the characters well +chosen for their reactions among themselves? <em>c.</em> Are the things they +do and say continually consistent or not? <em>d.</em> Are they sufficiently +individualized to escape the appearance of the conventional and to hold +interest?</p> + +<p>3. <em>a.</em> Does the story state facts and happenings merely, or does it +get hold of vital sensations and revive them? <em>b.</em> If so, in what ways +does it seem to do that? <em>c.</em> In general does it seem to you subjective +or objective in method?</p> + +<p>4. <em>a.</em> How much of the interest of the story is in the development +of the plot and how much in the stirring of vital sensations, including +sympathetic moods? <em>b.</em> Does the development of the story center +about any idea or attitude toward life? <em>c.</em> What excellences and +what faults do you find in the story?</p> + + + +<hr /> + + +<h2><span class="smcap">Some Stories Available for Study</span></h2> + + +<p>"Five Hundred Dollars," "The Village Convict," and "Eli," all in a +volume under the title of the first, Heman White Chaplin, Little, Brown +& Co., $1.00.</p> + +<p>"Loveliness," Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward, <em>Atlantic Monthly</em>, +August, 1899.</p> + +<p>"The Flail of Time," Helen Choate Prince, <em>Atlantic Monthly</em>, +August, 1899.</p> + +<p>"A Christmas Carol," Dickens, Cassel's National Library, 10 cents.</p> + +<p>"Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush," Ian MacLaren, David C. Cook, Elgin +and Chicago, paper, 5 cents.</p> + +<p>"The Luck of Roaring Camp," "Tennessee's Partner," Bret Harte, +Houghton, Mifflin & Co., $1.00, <em>Overland Monthly</em>, September, 1902.</p> + +<p>"Bonaventure" (Chapters XVI-XVIII), George W. Cable, copyrighted, +but obtainable in a cheap reprint.</p> + +<p>"The Game and the Nation," Owen Wister, <em>Harper's Monthly</em>, +May, 1900.</p> + +<p>Nettleton's "Specimens of the Short Story," Henry Holt & Co., +50 cents.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> + + +<h2><span class="smcap">Books that may Profitably be Consulted</span></h2> + + +<p>"Education of the Central Nervous System," R. P. Halleck, The +Macmillan Co.</p> + +<p>"The Philosophy of the Short Story," Brander Matthews, Longmans, +Green & Co.</p> + +<p>"The Short Story," Yale Studies in English, Henry Holt & Co.</p> + +<p>"Forms of Prose Literature," J. H. Gardiner, Chas. Scribner's Sons.</p> + +<p>"Working Principles of Rhetoric," J. F. Genung, Ginn & Co.</p> + +<p>"Outline of Psychology," E. B. Titchener, The Macmillan Co.</p> + +<p>"Short Story Writing," C. R. Barrett, Baker & Taylor Co., $ 1.00.</p> + +<p>Chapter XII, "A Study of Prose Fiction," Bliss Perry, Houghton, +Mifflin & Co.</p> + + + +<hr /> + + +<h2>ENGLISH LITERATURE.</h2> + +<h3 class="books"><em>The Arden Shakespeare.</em></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">The Greater Plays in their literary aspect. One play in each volume, with Introduction, +Notes, Essay on Metre, and Glossary. Based on the Globe text. +From 144 to 224 pages. Cloth. Price, 25 cents a volume.</p></div> + +<p>This edition presents the greater plays in their literary aspect, and +not merely as material for the study of philology or grammar. +Verbal and textual criticism has been included only so far as may +serve to help the student in his appreciation of the poetry.</p> + +<p>Questions of date and literary history have been fully dealt with in +the Introductions, but the larger space has been devoted to the interpretative +rather than to the matter-of-fact order of scholarship. Æsthetic +judgments are never final, but the editors have attempted to +suggest points of view from which the analysis of dramatic motive +and dramatic character may be profitably undertaken.</p> + +<p>In the Notes likewise, though it is hoped that unfamiliar expressions +and allusions have been adequately explained, it has been +thought more important to consider the dramatic value of each scene, +and the part that it plays in relation to the whole.</p> + +<p>Each volume has a Glossary, an Essay upon Metre, and an Index. +Appendices are added upon points of interest that could not be +treated in the Introduction or the Notes. The text is based on +that of the Globe edition. The following plays are ready:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><span class="smcap">Hamlet.</span>—Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Macbeth.</span>—Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A., Oxford.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Julius Cæsar.</span>—Edited by Arthur D. Innes, M.A., Oxford.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Merchant of Venice.</span>—Edited by H. L. Withers, B.A., Oxford.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Twelfth Night.</span>—Edited by Arthur D. Innes, M.A., Oxford.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">As You Like It.</span>—Edited by J. C. Smith, M.A., Edinburgh.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">A Midsummer Night's Dream.</span>—Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cymbeline.</span>—Edited by A. J. Wyatt, M.A., Cambridge.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Tempest.</span>—Edited by F. S. Boas, M.A., Oxford.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">King John.</span>—Edited by G. C. Moore Smith, M.A., Cambridge.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Richard II.</span>—Edited by C. H. Herford, L.H.D., Cambridge.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Richard III.</span>—Edited by George Macdonald, M.A., Oxford.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Henry V.</span>—Edited by G. C. Moore Smith, M.A., Cambridge.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Henry VIII.</span>—Edited by D. Nichol Smith, M.A., Edinburgh.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Coriolanus.</span>—Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A., Oxford.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Much Ado About Nothing.</span>—Edited by J. C. Smith, M.A., Oxford.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">King Lear.</span>—Edited by D. Nichol Smith, M.A., Edinburgh.</p> +</div> + + +<h3 class="books"><em>Introduction to Shakespeare.</em></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">By <span class="smcap">Hiram Corson</span>, LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature in +Cornell University. Cloth. 400 pages. Introduction price, $1.00.</p></div> + +<p>This work indicates some lines of Shakespearean thought which +serve to introduce to the study of the plays as plays. The introductory +chapter is followed by chapters on: The Shakespeare-Bacon +controversy,—The Authenticity of the First Folio,—The Chronology +of the Plays,—Shakespeare's Verse,—The Latin and Anglo-Saxon +Elements of Shakespeare's English. The larger portion of +the book is devoted to commentaries and critical chapters upon +Romeo and Juliet, King John, Much Ado about Nothing, Hamlet, +Macbeth, and Anthony and Cleopatra. These aim to present the +points of view demanded for a proper appreciation of Shakespeare's +general attitude toward things, and his resultant dramatic art, rather +than the textual study of the plays.</p> +<h3 class="books"><em>Introduction to Browning.</em></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">By <span class="smcap">Hiram Corson</span>, LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature in +Cornell University. Cloth. 348 pages. Introduction price, $1.00.</p></div> + +<p>This volume affords aid and guidance to the study of Robert +Browning's poetry, which, being the most complexly subjective +of all English poetry, is, for that reason alone, the most difficult. +The exposition presented in the Introduction, of the constitution and +skillful management of the dramatic monologue and the Arguments +given to the several poems included in this volume, will, it is hoped, +reduce, if not altogether remove, the difficulties of this kind. In the +same section of the Introduction certain peculiarities of the poet's +diction are presented and illustrated.</p> + +<p>The following is the Table of Contents:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><small>I. The Spiritual Ebb and Flow exhibited in English Poetry from Chaucer +to Tennyson and Browning. II. The Idea of Personality and of Art, as an +intermediate agency of Personality, as embodied in Browning's Poetry. (Read +before the Browning Society of London in 1882.) III. Browning's Obscurity. +IV. Browning's Verse. V. Arguments of the Poems. VI. Poems. (Under +this head are thirty-three representative poems, the Arguments of which are +given in the preceding section.)</small></p></div> + +<h3 class="books">A Source Book of Greek History</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">By <span class="smcap">Frederick Morrow Fling</span>, Professor of Ancient History, University of +Nebraska. Cloth. xiv + 370 pages. Illustrated. Introduction price, $1.00.</p></div> + +<p>This book serves several purposes. It (1) supplies illustrative +material, drawn from the best Greek sources, that may be used to +supplement the school narrative; (2) by means of searching questions, +it furnishes opportunity for more intensive study of certain periods; +(3) by supplying data upon the writer of source, and at times, more +than one source upon the same topic, it makes possible the study of +simple problems in the value of evidence; (4) extracts are of sufficient +length so that the pupil may be given some idea of Greek literature, as +far as that is possible through the use of translations; (5) the illustrations +not only supplement the written sources on the life of the Greeks, +but have been selected with a view to impressing upon the minds of +students the great value of the artistic work of the Greeks.</p> + +<h3 class="books">A Source Book of Roman History</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">By <span class="smcap">Dana C. Munro</span>, University of Wisconsin. Cloth. Illustrated, x + 258 +pages. Introduction price, $1.00.</p></div> + +<p>The series of extracts from original sources contained in this book +cover the following topics: Sources and credibility of early Roman +history; religion; the army; monarchical institutions; the constitution +of the republic; early laws and history; the conquest of the Mediterranean; +the Punic wars; results of foreign wars; misrule of the optimates; +the last century of the republic; the early empire; Christianity +and Stoicism; Roman life and society—slavery, education, manners, +customs, amusements; provinces and provincial administration, etc. +References to supplementary sources are prefixed to each chapter.</p> + +<h3 class="books">A Day in Ancient Rome</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">A revision of Lohr's <em>Aus dem alten Rom</em>, by <span class="smcap">Edgar S. Shumway</span>, recently +Professor of Latin in Rutgers College. Cloth. 96 pages. Fifty-nine illustrations +(seventeen full page). Retail price, 75 cents. Paper, 30 cents.</p></div> + +<p>This attractive little book gives a picture of the famous old city as +compared with the new. Availing himself of the latest excavations +and of recent photographs, the author pictures graphically persons +and places of classic fame as though vividly present.</p> + +<h3 class="books">Studies in General History</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">(1000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> to 1880 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>) By <span class="smcap">Mary D. Sheldon</span>, formerly Professor of +History in Wellesley College, and Assistant Professor in Leland Stanford Jr. +University. Half leather, xvi + 556 pages. Introduction price, $1.60.</p></div> + +<p>This book gives a collection of historic material, which may be dealt +with first-hand, as the pupil deals with the actual substance in chemistry, +and with the living plant in botany. Work of this kind stimulates +the student's historic sense and judgment. <em>It is especially adapted to +help students and teachers who do not have access to large libraries; +it contains within itself all that is absolutely necessary for the work +required.</em> The material given consists of maps, pictures, lists of important +events, men, works, and deeds, tables of political organizations, and +extracts from original sources, including constitutions, creeds, laws, +chronicles, and poems. It is accompanied by questions in the nature +of problems, the answers to which must be worked out by the pupil +himself from the given data. It is a book to be studied, not read.</p> + +<h3 class="books">Greek and Roman History</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">Or, <em>Studies in General History</em>, from 1000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> to 476 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> By <span class="smcap">Mary Sheldon +Barnes</span>, formerly Professor of History in Wellesley College, and in Leland +Stanford Jr. University. Cloth, xiii + 255 pages. Introduction price, $1.00.</p></div> + +<p>This book contains the portion of Sheldon's <em>Studies in General +History</em> which relates to Greece and Rome, including a small +amount of prefatory ancient history. This portion meets the needs of +students preparing for college, of schools in which ancient history takes +the place of general history, and of students who have used an ordinary +manual and wish to make a spirited and helpful review.</p> + +<h3 class="books">Teacher's Manual to General History</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">By <span class="smcap">Mary Sheldon Barnes</span>. Cloth. 172 pages. Retail price, 85 cents.</p></div> + +<p>The student's edition of the <em>Studies in General History</em> contains +material and problems for independent study. The <em>Teacher's +Manual</em> contains the answers to these problems, embodied in tabulations, +and a running commentary of text, which will furnish suggestions +for discussions and summaries.</p> + + + +<h3 class="books">Aids to the Teaching of General History</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">A pamphlet of 30 pages, by <span class="smcap">Mary Sheldon Barnes</span>. Retail price, 10 cents. +Also bound with the <em>Teacher's Manual</em>.</p></div> + + +<h3 class="books"><em>English Etymology.</em></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">A select glossary, serving as an introduction to the history of the English +Language. By <span class="smcap">Friedrich Kluge</span>, Professor at the University of Freiburg, +Germany, and author of <em>Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache</em>, +and <span class="smcap">Frederick Lutz</span>, Professor at Albion College, Mich. Cloth. 242 pages. +Introduction price, 60 cents.</p></div> + +<p>The purpose of this work is to serve as an introduction to the study +of the historical development of the English language. The scope +of the book is sufficient to give the student an insight into the main linguistic +phenomena. While the method of discussion is concise, care +has been taken to include all words the history of which bears on the +development of the language at large. The authors have, in the first +place, traced back to the older periods loanwords of Scandinavian, +French and Latin origin, and such genuine English words as may afford +matter for investigation. In this way there has been provided a +"basis for every historical grammar of English."</p> + +<h3 class="books"><em>A History of English Critical Terms.</em></h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">By <span class="smcap">J. W. Bray</span>. Cloth. 352 pages. Retail price, $1.00.</p></div> + +<p>In literary criticism, and in the discussion of art, there are more than +a hundred important terms whose history determines their present +use and meaning. There are also several hundred others terms +occasionally used in explaining the larger terms or their synonyms. +All these terms are here arranged in alphabetical order. The history +of the more important terms is presented in full. Under each is +given: (1) Its grouping (by synonyms). (2) The historical limits +of its use. (3) A brief statement of its meanings. (4) An explanation +of its changes of meaning. (5) Representative quotations.</p> + +<p>About one hundred and fifty critics are represented in the quotations, +the work thus covering the entire field of English criticism.</p> + +<p>The vocabulary of criticism is preceded by an Introduction, which +gives a philosophical discussion of critical terms under three heads: +(1) What is a Critical term? (2) General Historical Movements +and Tendencies in Critical Terms. (3) Method of Dealing with the +Separate Critical Terms.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><strong>The Outlook</strong>, <em>New York</em>: The book +is not simply a collection of information; +it is both a contribution to the history of +criticism and a text-book for its study.</p> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h3>English Literature</h3> + +<hr class="hr3" /> + +<div class="block2"> + +<p class="hang"><strong>The Arden Shakespeare.</strong> The plays in their literary aspect, each with introduction, interpretative notes, glossary, and essay on metre. 25 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Bronson's History of American Literature.</strong> 384 pages. 80 cents.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Burke's American Orations.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. J. George.</span>) Five complete selections. 50 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Burns's Select Poems.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. J. George.</span>) 118 poems chronologically arranged, with introduction, +notes, and glossary. Illustrated. 75 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Coleridge's Principles of Criticism.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. J. George.</span>) From the <em>Biographia Literaria</em>. +With portrait. 60 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Cook's Judith.</strong> With introduction, translation, and glossary. Cloth. 170 pages. $1.00.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Cook's The Bible and English Prose Style.</strong> 40 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Corson's Introduction to Browning.</strong> A guide to the study of Browning's poetry. Also +has 33 poems with notes. With portrait of Browning. $1.00.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Corson's Introduction to the Study of Shakespeare.</strong> A critical study of Shakespeare's +art, with comments on nine plays. $1.00.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Crawshaw's The Making Of English Literature.</strong> An interpretative and historical guide +for students. Map and illustrations. 484 pages. $1.25.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Davidson's Prolegomena to Tennyson's In Memoriam.</strong> A critical analysis, with an index +of the poem. 50 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>De Quincey's Confessions of an Opium Eater.</strong> (<span class="smcap">G. A. Wauchope.</span>) 50 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Hall's Beowulf.</strong> A metrical translation. 75 cts. Student's edition, 30 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Hawthorne and Lemmon's American Literature.</strong> Contains sketches, characterizations, +and selections. Illustrated with portraits. $1.12.</p> + +<p><strong>Hodgkin's Nineteenth Century Authors.</strong> Gives aids for library study of 26 authors. +Price, 5 cts. each, or $3.00 per hundred. Complete in cloth. 60 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Howes's Primer of English Literature.</strong> Illustrated. 50 cents.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Meiklejohn's History of English Language and Literature.</strong> Revised. 60 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Milton's Select Poems.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. P. Walker.</span>) Illustrated. 488 pages. 50 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Moulton's Four Years of Novel-Reading.</strong> A reader's guide. 50 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Moulton's Literary Study of the Bible.</strong> An account of the leading forms of literature +represented, without reference to theological matters. $2.00.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Plumptre's Translation of Aeschylus.</strong> With biography and appendix. $1.00.</p> + +<p><strong>Plumptre's Translation of Dante.</strong> Five vols. Illustrated. Student's edition, 50 cts. per +vol. Library edition, $4.00 per set.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Plumptre's Translation of Sophocles.</strong> With biography and appendix. $1.00.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Shelley's Prometheus Unbound.</strong> (<span class="smcap">Vida D. Scudder.</span>) 60 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Simonds's Introduction to the Study of English Fiction.</strong> With illustrative selections. +80 cts. <em>Briefer edition</em>, without illustrative selections. Boards. 30 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Simonds's Sir Thomas Wyatt and His Poems.</strong> With critical analysis. 50 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Webster's Speeches.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. J. George.</span>) Nine select speeches with notes. 75 cts.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Whitcomb's The Study of a Novel.</strong> 251 pages. $1.25.</p> + +<p class="hang"><strong>Wordsworth's Prefaces and Essays on Poetry.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. J. 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