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diff --git a/27057.txt b/27057.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9e4d43e --- /dev/null +++ b/27057.txt @@ -0,0 +1,891 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Ireland and Poland, by Thomas William Rolleston + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ireland and Poland + A Comparison + +Author: Thomas William Rolleston + +Release Date: October 26, 2008 [EBook #27057] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IRELAND AND POLAND *** + + + + +Produced by Jimmy O'Regan (This file was produced from +images generously made available by The Library of the +University of California, Los Angeles/The Internet Archive) + + + + + +IRELAND AND POLAND + +A COMPARISON + +BY + +T. W. ROLLESTON + +FIRST HON. SECRETARY OF THE IRISH LITERARY SOCIETY, LONDON; LATE +ASSISTANT EDITOR OF THE "NEW IRISH LIBRARY," AND CO-EDITOR OF "A +TREASURY OF IRISH POETRY"; AUTHOR OF "MYTHS AND LEGENDS OF THE CELTIC +RACE," ETC. + + +NEW YORK +GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY +Publishers in America for Hodder & Stoughton +MCMXVII + + +IRELAND AND POLAND + +The United Kingdom is composed of four distinct nationalities. Each of +these has retained its own distinct character, its own national history, +its own patriotism and self-respect. Their affairs, great and small, +general or local, are administered by one Parliament in which each is +fully represented. A large majority of the Irish people have, however, +asked that in addition to some representation in the united Parliament +they shall be granted a local Parliament for the management of their own +internal affairs. The fact that this demand, which has an important +imperial as well as local bearing, has not yet been complied with has +constantly been used by the enemies of the Entente Powers to represent +as false and hypocritical the claims of those Powers to be regarded as +the champions of the rights of small nationalities; and the case of +Ireland has been compared with that of Prussian Poland, as though the +peoples of these two countries were suffering the same kind of +oppression, the same injustice, the same denial of the right of every +man to live and prosper in his own land on equal terms with his +fellow-citizens in every other part of the realm. + +The best answer to this charge is to tell plainly, without contention or +exaggeration, what the united Parliament has done for Ireland since the +beginning of the period of reform nearly fifty years ago. That is what +is here attempted, so far as it can be done in a few pages. It must be +fully understood that on the Home Rule question the present statement +has no bearing whatever. That difficult problem lies in an altogether +different sphere of politics, and must he judged by considerations which +cannot be touched on here. Without, however, trenching in any degree on +controversial ground, it may be pointed out that the crucial difficulty +of the Home Rule question lies, and has always lain, in the fact that in +Ireland a substantial and important minority amounting to about 25 per +cent. of the population, and differing from the rest of the country in +religion, national traditions, and economic development, has hitherto +been resolutely opposed to passing from the immediate government of the +imperial Parliament to that of any other body. This minority being, for +the most part, grouped together in the North-east counties, the late +Government attempted to solve the difficulty by offering immediate Home +Rule to that section of Ireland which desires it, while leaving the +remainder as it is until Parliament should otherwise decree. This +proposal was rejected by the general opinion of Nationalist Ireland, +which was firmly opposed to the partition of the country for any +indefinite period. The question, therefore, remains for the present in +suspense, until a solution can be found which will not only ensure the +integrity and security of the Empire but reconcile the conflicting +desires and interests of Irishmen themselves. + + +Ireland Fifty Years Ago + +So much to clear the ground in regard to the Home Rule controversy. I +shall now ask the reader to glance for a moment at the condition of +Ireland fifty years ago. At that time almost the whole agricultural +population were in the position of tenants-at-will, with no security +either against increased rents or arbitrary eviction. The housing of the +rural population, and especially of the agricultural labourers, was +wretched in the extreme. Local taxation and administration were wholly +in the hands of Grand Juries, bodies appointed by the Crown from among +the country gentlemen in each district. Irish Roman Catholics were +without any system of University education comparable to that which +Protestants had enjoyed for three hundred years in the University of +Dublin. A Church which, whatever its historic claims may have been, +numbered only about 12 per cent. of the population was established by +law and supported by tithes levied on the whole country. Technical +education was inaccessible to the great bulk of the nation; and in no +department of public education, of any grade or by whomsoever +administered, was any attention paid to Irish history, the Irish +language, Irish literature, or any subject which might lead young +Irishmen to a better knowledge and understanding of the special problems +of their country and its special claims to the love and respect of its +children. + +That was the Ireland of fifty years ago. It is an Ireland which at the +present day lives only on the lips of anti-British orators and +journalists. It is an Ireland as dead as the France of Louis XIV. Of the +abuses and disabilities just recounted not one survives to-day. The +measures by which they have been removed place to the credit of the +United Kingdom a record of reform the details of which, for the benefit +of friends or foes, may be here very briefly set down. + + +Religious Equality + +In 1869 the Protestant Episcopal Church was disestablished and +disendowed, and is now--many Churchmen believe to its great spiritual +advantage--on the same level as regards its means of support as every +other denomination in Ireland. It may be mentioned that the Roman +Catholic Church in Ireland was long in the enjoyment of a State subsidy +for the education of its clergy, a subsidy commuted in 1869 for a +capital sum of 370,000 pounds. + + +Land Reform + +As comparisons have been drawn between the systems of government in +Ireland and in Poland, let us consider for a moment the condition of the +Polish rural population under German rule. It must be noted that the +recent promises of Polish autonomy made by Germany--obviously for +military and temporary reasons--refer only to those portions of Polish +territory held by other States. No change is to be made in the position +of Prussian Poland. Here, for many years, it has been, and still is, the +avowed object of the Prussian Government either to extirpate or forcibly +Teutonise this Slavonic population, and to replant the country with +German colonists. The German Chancellor in 1900, Prince von Buelow, +defended this anti-Polish policy in the cynical saying that "rabbits +breed faster than hares," and the meaner animal, the Pole, must +therefore be drastically kept down in favour of the German. Between 1886 +and 1906 the Prussian Government was spending over a million sterling a +year in buying out Polish landowners, great and small, and planting +Germans in their stead. The measure proved futile; the "rabbits" still +multiplied, for the Poles bought land from German owners faster than the +Government did from them. In 1904, in order to check the development of +Polish agriculture and land-settlement, the Government took the extreme +step of forbidding Poles to build new farmhouses without a licence. A +still more oppressive measure came in 1908, when, in clear defiance of +the German Constitution, the Prussian Government actually took powers +and were voted funds--from taxation paid by Poles and Germans alike--for +the compulsory expropriation of Polish owners against whom nothing +whatever could be alleged except their non-German nationality. These +powers have been put into operation, and every Pole in Prussia now holds +his patrimony on his own soil on the sufferance of a Government which +regards his very existence as a nuisance, because he occupies a place +which a German might otherwise fill. + +During precisely the same period the British Government in Ireland has +been bending the wealth and credit of the United Kingdom to objects +precisely the reverse. Ireland, owing to the wars and confiscations of +the seventeenth century, had come to have a land-owning aristocracy +mainly of English descent with a Celtic peasantry holding their farms as +yearly tenants. The object of British land-legislation has been to +expropriate the landlords, so far as their tenanted land is concerned, +and to establish the Irish peasant, as absolute owner of the land he +tills. The Irish tenant is now subject only to rents fixed by law; he +can at any time sell the interest in his farm, which he has, therefore, +a direct interest in improving; he is also assisted by a great scheme of +land-purchase to become owner of his land on paying the price by +terminable instalments, which are usually some 20 per cent. less than +the amount he formerly paid as rent. Under this scheme about two-thirds +of the Irish tenantry have already become owners of their farms, while +the remainder enjoy a tenure which is almost as easy and secure as +ownership itself. It is not surprising, then, that a German economist +who has made a special study of this subject should declare that "the +Irish tenants have had conditions assured to them more favourable than +any other tenantry in the world enjoy"; adding the dry comment that in +Ireland the "magic of property" appears to consist in the fact that it +is cheaper to acquire it than not.[*] That magic has been worked for +Ireland by the British Legislature and by British credit. As in Prussia, +compulsory powers (limited by certain conditions and to certain +districts) stand behind the schemes of the Government; but the +compulsion is exercised not against the Irishman in favour of the +English settler, but against the (usually) English landlord in favour of +the Irish tenant. The State is now pledged to about 130,000,000 pounds +for the furtherance of this scheme, the instalments and sinking fund to +the amount of about 5,000,000 pounds a year being paid with exemplary +regularity by the farmers who have taken advantage of it. + +[Footnote *: Professor M. Bonn, of Munich University. "Modern Ireland +and her Agrarian Problem," pp. 151, 162, translated from "Die irische +Agrarfrage." _Archiv fuer Sozialwissenschaft_; Mohr, Tuebingen.] + + +The Congested Districts Board + +In the poorer and more backward regions of the West it has been felt +that the above measures are not enough, and a special agency has been +constituted with very wide powers to help the Western farmer, and not +only the farmer, but the fisherman, the weaver, or anyone pursuing a +productive occupation there, to make the most of his resources and to +develop his industry in the best possible way. This Board commands a +statutory endowment of 231,000 pounds a year. A system of light railways +which now covers these remote districts has given new and valuable +facilities for the marketing of fish and every kind of produce. + +The various Boards and other agencies by which these measures are +carried into execution are manned almost exclusively by Irishmen. + + +The Agricultural Labourer + +There is a world of difference between the present lot of the Irish +agricultural labourer and his condition in 1883, when reform in this +department was first taken in hand. Cottages can now be provided by the +Rural District Councils and let at nominal rents. Nearly nine millions +sterling have been voted for this purpose at low interest, with sinking +fund, and up to the present date 47,000 cottages have been built, each +with its plot of land, while several thousand more are sanctioned. + +Of the results of the Labourers' Act a recent observer writes: + + "The Irish agricultural labourer can now obtain a cottage with three + rooms, a piggery, and garden allotment of an acre or half an acre, + and for this he is charged a rent of one to two shillings a week ... + These cottages by the wayside give a hopeful aspect to the country + ... flowers are before the doors of the new cottages and creepers + upon the walls. The labourer can keep pigs, poultry, and a goat, and + grow his potatoes and vegetables in his garden allotment."[*] + +[Footnote *: Padraic Colum: "My Irish Year," pp. 18, 19.] + + +Local Government + +In 1898 a Local Government Bill was passed for Ireland which placed the +administration of the poor law and other local affairs for rural +districts on the same footing as in England. The rule of the Grand +Juries, which had lasted for two and a half centuries, and which had, on +the whole, carried on local affairs with credit and success, was now +entirely swept away, and elected bodies were placed in full control of +local taxation, administration, and patronage. In the case of the larger +towns free municipal institutions had already existed for some sixty +years. In these the franchise was now reduced, and is wide enough both +in town and country to admit every class of the population. Since 1899 +the new elective bodies have had important duties to fulfil in regard to +the development of agriculture and technical instruction. + + +The Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction + +This new Irish Department of State grew out of a demand formulated after +long inquiry and discussion by a voluntary Irish committee representing +both Unionist and Nationalist opinion. It was established in 1899, and +now commands the large endowment of 197,000 pounds a year, with a +capital sum of over 200,000 pounds. The annual endowment is clear of all +charges for offices and staff, which are on the Civil Service Estimates. +Its head is a Minister responsible to Parliament, but associated with +him are Boards of Agriculture and Technical Instruction, two-thirds of +which are elected respectively by County and Borough Councils. Without +their concurrence no expenditure can be undertaken, and local work is +largely carried on through committees appointed by these Councils. The +people at large are therefore intimately and responsibly associated with +the work of the Department, the annual meetings of which form a kind of +industrial Parliament, where the whole economic organisation of Ireland +can be reviewed, debated, and developed. The Department works by +teaching, by inquiry, by experiment, and has an immense field of +activity in dealing with cattle diseases, the improvement of stock, the +control of creameries, the marketing of produce, etc. It has also +brought facilities for technical instruction into every important centre +of population. + + +University Education + +This important question was settled in 1908 by the foundation of a new +University, the "National University," with its central authority in +Dublin and colleges in Dublin (the old Catholic University of which +Cardinal Newman was rector), in Cork, and in Galway. The University is +open to all creeds, and may not impose religious tests upon its +students, but its government is mainly in the hands of the Roman +Catholic hierarchy, and it is accepted as a fair settlement of the +question of Catholic higher education in Ireland. In the management of +its internal affairs, the appointment of professors, the selection of +textbooks, etc., the National University is wholly autonomous and free +from Government interference. One of its most remarkable features is +that the Irish language has been made an obligatory subject for +matriculation. The endowment of the University, with its constituent +colleges, amounts to 74,000 pounds a year, and it was voted a capital +sum for building and equipment of 170,000 pounds. It need hardly be said +that no parallel to this institution exists in Prussian Poland. + + +Language and Native Culture + +In this as in other respects a comparison with the theory and practice +of German administration may help to place the policy of the United +Kingdom in its proper light. When at the Congress of Vienna, 1815, +Prussia definitely acquired her present share of Polish territory, King +Friedrich Wilhelm III promised for himself and his successors, "on my +kingly word," that the Poles should have religious freedom, the use of +the Polish language in administration, in the Law Courts and in the +schools, and be in all respects on an equality with their German +fellow-citizens. We have already seen how these promises were kept in +regard to the vital question of the ownership of land. They have been no +less flagrantly broken in regard to the national language. The use of +Polish is strictly prohibited at all public meetings. No Polish deputy +to the Reichstag may address his constituents in the only language they +understand. Since 1873 German alone may be taught in the national +schools. The language of instruction must be German wherever half the +pupils are capable of understanding it, and after 1928 it is decreed +that no other language must be heard in the schoolroom. A decree of 1899 +forbids teachers to use Polish even in their own family circles. Anyone +who is caught teaching Polish, even gratuitously, is punished by fine or +imprisonment. Polish literature found in the houses of private persons +is confiscated, and its possessors imprisoned, if the police consider it +to bear the least trace of any propagandist character.[*] + +[Footnote *: "The Evolution of Modern Germany," by W. H. Dawson, brings +together in its twenty-third chapter most of the facts relating to this +question. See especially a letter from a prominent member of the Polish +aristocracy quoted on p. 475.] + +All this, it will be seen, is merely the drastic execution tion of the +policy laid down by Treitschke, the prophet of modern Germany, and more +recently urged by the most popular living representative of Prussian +ideals, H. S. Chamberlain. + + "There is," writes Chamberlain, "no task before us so important as + that of forcing the German language on the world (_die deutsche + Sprache der Welt aufzuzwingen_.)" The German has "a twofold duty" + laid on him: "never must a German abandon his own speech, neither he + nor his children's children; and in every place, at every time, he + must remember to compel others to use it until it has triumphed + everywhere as the German Army has done in war. ... So far as the + German Empire extends, the clergy must preach in German alone, in + German alone the teacher must give his lessons ... Mankind must be + made to understand that anyone who cannot speak German is a + pariah."[*] + +[Footnote *: "Kriegsaufsaetze," 1914.] + +Such are the ideals and such the practice of the people whom Roger +Casement and one or two other enthusiasts for Gaelic culture in Ireland +have sought to make the dominant power in that country, because it will +rid them of "English" rule. + +Let us now see what "English" rule (it is not really English at all, but +the rule of the United Kingdom) is actually like in regard to this +particular subject. Up to the decade 1830-40 it may be said that the +Irish language was spoken by fully half the population of Ireland. No +restrictive measures were in force against it. But during that decade a +general system of elementary education was introduced, and in the Board +Schools the language withered away with astonishing rapidity. At the +last census (1911) only 16,000 persons were recorded as speaking Irish +alone, while the number of those who knew anything of the language was +only about 13 per cent. of the population. Whether this change was a +blessing or a bane to Ireland is a subject which is outside the range of +this discussion, but whatever it was the Irish people themselves had a +full share of responsibility for the result. With scarcely an exception, +the abandonment of Irish was approved by the clergy, the political +leaders, and the masses of the people "The killing of the language," +writes Dr. Douglas Hyde, "took place under the eye of O'Connell and the +Parliamentarians, and, of course, under the eye and with the sanction of +the Catholic priesthood and prelates ... From a complexity of causes +which I am afraid to explain, the men who for the last sixty years have +had the ear of the Irish race have persistently shown the cold shoulder +to everything that was Irish and racial."[*] Their attitude is easily +understood. Irish had long ceased to be used for literary purposes. No +Irish newspapers, no Irish books were printed; English was regarded as +the only available key to the world of modern culture, and Ireland +became an English-speaking country without a struggle and almost without +a regret. + +[Footnote *: "Beside the Fire," pp. xliii, xliv (1890). Dr. Hyde was the +first president of the Gaelic League, and is now Professor of Modern +Irish in the National University.] + +In the early 'nineties, however, a popular movement took shape for the +rescue of what still remained of the language and for its restoration, +so far as was practically possible. Classes for the study of Irish were +formed all over the country, folk-tales were collected, MSS. of +half-forgotten poets were disinterred and edited, the first scholarly +and adequate dictionary of modern Irish was compiled,[*] and plays, +poems, and stories began to be written in the re-discovered language. +These activities were mostly organised and directed by the Gaelic +League, a body founded in 1893. One can easily imagine how a Prussian +Government would have dealt with such a movement, especially as a +certain disaffected element in the country immediately began to make use +of it for its own ends. The British Government looked on not only calmly +but approvingly. When a general demand arose for the effective teaching +of Irish in the elementary schools--though at this time only about +21,000 old people were recorded in the census as ignorant of English--it +was at once agreed to. Irish had been permitted and paid for, though not +markedly encouraged, since 1879. It was now placed on a list of subjects +which might be taught in school hours, and extra fees were allotted for +teaching it at the rate of ten shillings per pupil--twice the amount +allowed for French, Latin, or music. Grants are also made to certain +colleges where teachers of the language can be trained. All this began +in 1901, and since that time over 12,000 pounds a year has been paid for +Irish teaching directly from Imperial funds--about twice the amount +collected in the same period by voluntary contributions from Ireland and +the rest of the world. Nor is this the limit of the grant; it is limited +only by the willingness of school managers and parents to make use of +it. Indirectly, the State is paying much more, for the various +professorships and lectureships in Irish subjects--language history, +archaeology, and economies--established under the National University +account for well over 3,500 pounds a year. Taking the direct expenditure +on elementary education alone, the State has paid for Irish teaching +since 1879 a sum of no less than 209,000 pounds. It may therefore be +claimed that in cultivating her ancient language and native traditions, +Ireland enjoys the fairest and most liberal treatment ever accorded to a +small nationality incorporated in a great Empire. + +[Footnote *: By the Rev. P. S. Dineen; published by the Irish Tests +Society.] + + +Reforms and Their Results + +On the reforms which have been thus briefly sketched, one or two general +remarks may be in place. + +It has sometimes been contended that except by violence, or the menace +of violence, Ireland has never obtained anything from the English +Legislature. It would be truer to say that she has never obtained +anything at all. England is not a sovereign Power, and does not +administer Irish affairs, nor even her own. What has been gained has +been gained from the Legislature of the United Kingdom, in which +Irishmen, like every other race inhabiting that kingdom, have had their +full share of representation and of influence. And if in Ireland, as in +other countries, the necessity of reform has sometimes been made evident +by disorder, it is wholly untrue to say that this has been always or +even usually the case. Land-reform in its earliest stages, like trade +unionism in England, was accompanied by disorder. But the greatest +measure of Irish land-reform--the Wyndham Act of 1903--was worked out on +Irish soil by peaceable discussion among the parties concerned, and +Parliament acted at once upon their joint demand. It was in precisely +the same way that the Department of Agriculture came into being; nor did +the great measures of Local Government, of University education for +Catholics, of the Labourers' Acts, or the recognition extended to the +Gaelic movement, owe their origin to any other cause than the wholesome +influences of reason and goodwill. + +The internal condition of Ireland already shows a marked response to the +altered state of things. It is visible, as many travellers have noticed, +in the face of the country; it is proved by official records and +statistics. Emigration has declined to its lowest point; education has +spread amongst the people. Irish emigrants, when they do leave their own +shores, take higher positions than ever before. A population of some +four millions, largely composed of small farmers, has lent forty-seven +millions sterling to the Government; and, what is still more +significant, the deposits in Post Office Savings Banks have risen from +six millions in 1896 to over thirteen millions the year before the war. +The new War Loan is reported to have had an extraordinary success in +Ireland. On the last day of subscription a single Dublin bank took in +one million sterling.[*] With some self-appointed champions of Ireland +abuse of the British Empire is a very popular amusement, but the Irish +farmer and the Irish trader put their money in it, and with it they +stand to win or lose. + +[Footnote *: The Times, Feb. 17, 1917.] + +Irish agriculture, partly owing to climatic conditions and partly to the +fact that Ireland has a monopoly of the export of live cattle to +England, has developed hitherto rather in the direction of +cattle-raising than of tillage; and cattle have increased since 1851 +from three million to over five million head, and sheep from two +millions to three million six hundred thousand. Poultry have nearly +quadrupled in the same period. The gross railway receipts--another +significant symptom--were 2,750,000 pounds in 1886. In 1915 they had +risen to 4,831,000 pounds. The co-operative agricultural associations, +in which Ireland has shown the way to the English-speaking world, now +number about 1,000, and do a trade of well over five millions a year. +The thousands of labourers' cottages which have sprung up, each with its +plot of land, have been to the Irish labourers what the Land Acts have +been to the farmer--they have completely transformed his economic status +in the country. + +Accompanying these symptoms of material progress, we have witnessed in +recent years a striking outburst of intellectual activity. Irish +literature, in poetry and drama, has attracted the attention of the +whole world of culture, and exact and scholarly research in history and +archaeology have flourished and found audiences as they were never known +to do in Ireland till now. This has not been the work of any one section +of the people, either in creed or in politics; but the whole movement +has been inspired by an Irish patriotism which no sane person regards as +conflicting in any degree with allegiance to the Empire under the +shelter of which it has grown and prospered. + +The circumstances above set forth do not pretend to be the whole story +about modern Ireland, nor do they show that the millennium has arrived +in that country. Apart from Home Rule, which is outside our present +field, much still remains to be done--there is elementary education to +be advanced, commercial facilities to be developed, land-purchase to be +completed. But it is contended that the real facts about Ireland are +wholly and absurdly inconsistent with the picture of that country which +the friends of Germany circulate so industriously at the present time. +Ireland is not an oppressed and plundered nation, ground under the heel +of a foreign Power, and with her individual life deliberately stifled +like that of Poland in the German Empire. Only through ignorance or +malice could such an illusion gain currency, and it needs only the touch +of reality--reality which every one can easily see or verify for +himself--to dispel it for ever from the mind of every candid inquirer. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Ireland and Poland, by Thomas William Rolleston + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IRELAND AND POLAND *** + +***** This file should be named 27057.txt or 27057.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/7/0/5/27057/ + +Produced by Jimmy O'Regan (This file was produced from +images generously made available by The Library of the +University of California, Los Angeles/The Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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