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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Prisoners Their Own Warders, by 
+J. F. A. McNair and W. D. Bayliss
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Prisoners Their Own Warders
+       A Record of the Convict Prison at Singapore in the Straits
+       Settlements Established 1825
+
+Author: J. F. A. McNair
+        W. D. Bayliss
+
+Release Date: October 20, 2008 [EBook #26974]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRISONERS THEIR OWN WARDERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ronald Lee
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PRISONERS THEIR OWN WARDERS
+
+[Illustration: _Frontispiece_
+
+GENERAL MONTHLY MUSTER OF THE CONVICTS, SINGAPORE JAIL.]
+
+
+
+
+  PRISONERS THEIR OWN
+  WARDERS
+
+  A RECORD OF THE CONVICT PRISON AT SINGAPORE
+  IN THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS ESTABLISHED 1825,
+  DISCONTINUED 1873, TOGETHER WITH A
+  CURSORY HISTORY OF THE CONVICT
+  ESTABLISHMENTS AT BENCOOLEN,
+  PENANG AND MALACCA FROM
+  THE YEAR 1797
+
+
+  BY MAJOR J. R A. McNAIR
+
+  _Late Royal Artillery, C.M.G., A.M.I.C.E., F.L.S., and F.R.G.S
+  Late Colonial Engineer and Surveyor General and
+  Comptroller of Indian Convicts
+  Straits Settlements from 1857 to 1877
+  Author of "Perak and the Malays"
+  (Sarong and Kris)_
+
+
+  ASSISTED BY W. D. BAYLISS
+
+  _Mem. Soc. Engineers Lond., Late Superintendent of Works and
+  Surveys and Superintendent of Convicts, Singapore_
+
+
+  WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  "A willing bondman."
+              --SHAKESPEARE
+                (_Julius Caesar_, Act I., Sc. 3)
+
+
+  WESTMINSTER
+  ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND CO
+  2 WHITEHALL GARDENS
+  1899
+
+
+  ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
+
+
+
+
+  BUTLER & TANNER,
+  THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS,
+  FROME, AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: DUFFADAR ARJOON, SENIOR PETTY OFFICER
+OF ARTIFICERS.
+
+_McNair._]
+
+
+Preface
+
+
+Some explanation appears to be due from us for writing this account of
+the Singapore Convict Jail so long after the date of its final
+abolition.
+
+The truth is, that for several years it has been our opinion that it
+ought to be written by some one, and the same suggestion had often been
+made to one of us by the late Doctor Mouat, Inspector General of Jails,
+Bengal, and others who were well acquainted with its administration.
+
+An opportunity lately occurred to bring us into communication on the
+subject, and when we came to compare the voluminous notes that each of
+us had collected during the time that the jail was in full vigour, we
+arrived at the conclusion that there was abundant material for a work
+upon it. It also appeared to us that there were some exceptional
+features in the training and discipline of these native convicts, that
+might even at this day prove of service to other Superintendents of
+native jails in different parts of India and the Colonies; while, at the
+same time, such a work would not be devoid of some interest to those who
+make a study of the punishment and reformation of the criminal class of
+all countries, a subject in regard to which, in spite of the great
+progress we have made, the last word has certainly not yet been said.
+
+This, then, is our apology for the attempt we have made, and we trust
+that our joint labours may be received with indulgence.
+
+When this old Singapore jail was put an end to in 1873, some six years
+after the transfer of the Straits Settlements to the Crown, the convicts
+then under confinement were removed to the Andaman Islands, at that time
+not long established as a penal settlement for India; while those on a
+ticket-of-leave were permitted to merge into the population, continuing
+to earn their livelihood as artizans, cow keepers, cart drivers, and the
+like. Those who were old and infirm were retained at Singapore at the
+expense of the Indian Government, and a certain number of convicts from
+Hongkong were returned to that colony to complete their sentences. There
+remained, therefore, only the local prisoners to be dealt with, and for
+these, under the subsequent orders of the Colonial Government, was
+planned and constructed by our Department, and under our supervision, a
+spacious prison on the cellular system, and situated on a more healthy
+site than the old convict jail, which had become surrounded by the
+buildings of the town.
+
+We should much like to have given a consecutive history of this old jail
+from the date of its first construction until it was finally abolished,
+but unfortunately the jail registers have not been carefully kept from
+the beginning, or are not forthcoming; but we have had access to some
+old scattered letters and papers, and to statistics from the year 1844,
+since which time the records have been regularly kept from year to year.
+
+A good deal of useful information has also come within our reach from
+works written upon Singapore and the Straits Settlements, and especially
+are we indebted to an _Anecdotal History of Singapore_, published by the
+_Free Press_, and extending from the year 1822 to 1856, which gives an
+interesting account of our early occupation of that island, and of the
+use to which the labour of these convicts was turned.
+
+From the Memoirs of _Sir Stamford Raffles_, written by his widow in
+1830, and from his _Life_ by Demetrius Charles Boulger, in 1897, we have
+been able to trace that, so far back as the year 1823, there were
+between 800 and 900 of these Indian convicts at our settlement of
+Bencoolen, on the south-west coast of Sumatra; and that, when this place
+was conceded to the Dutch by the London treaty of 1825, these convicts
+were removed to Penang, and were subsequently distributed amongst the
+three settlements of Penang, Malacca, and Singapore. This distribution
+would in all probability have taken place about the year 1825, when
+Singapore was incorporated with Penang and Malacca, under the Governor
+and Council of the Incorporated Settlements.
+
+We think the account which we are about to give of the various
+employments of these Indian convicts at Singapore, will abundantly show
+how considerably this important settlement has benefited by their early
+introduction. They made most of the roads in the settlement, including
+timber bridges, viaducts and tunnels, and executed for the Government
+many important public buildings. Moreover, when released from
+imprisonment upon a ticket-of-leave, they were absorbed innoxiously into
+the native community, and again contributed to the advantage of the
+place in the various occupations they had recourse to, in order to
+obtain an honest livelihood. By a judicious system of rewards, and a
+graduated scale of promotion, a very remarkable spirit of industry was
+infused into the bulk of these convicts during their incarceration, and
+it may be honestly said that this was effected without the sacrifice of
+that wholesome discipline always essential in the control especially of
+the criminal class.
+
+We could not, of course, interfere with their religion, but by a
+well-judged scale of punishments and rewards, and by instruction given
+to them in their own vernacular, we endeavoured to raise their character
+by helping them to good conduct, and to a better way of living. To
+encourage and foster that industry to which we have referred, we taught
+them the trades to which each of them appeared to be best adapted, and
+held out to them the hope that they might again become good citizens,
+and earn for themselves a creditable subsistence; and, as it was our
+practice to deal with each of them "individually," we were often made
+aware that there was many an honest heart immured within those prison
+walls.
+
+In the narrative we have given of the Settlements, it may seem that we
+have dwelt at too great length upon their early history, but we thought
+it would add to the interest of the work, if we gave what is really only
+a limited sketch of the various places to which those Indian convicts
+were first banished beyond the seas.
+
+In the initiation of the system of industrial training among these
+convicts, special credit is due to the late General (then Captain) Man,
+who in his early years had been trained at Chatham as a sapper. The late
+Colonel Macpherson, who succeeded him, carried on and improved the
+system, and both these officers were well seconded in their efforts by
+the late Mr. J. Bennett, C.E., who practically was their clerk of the
+works. Mr. Bennett subsequently rose to a high position in the
+Department.
+
+It would be impossible to mention the names of all the subordinate
+staff, but Burnett, Stuart, and Lamb are prominent in our recollection
+as having done good service as warders and instructors.
+
+In 1864, the Resident of Rhio, Java, Mr. E. Netscher, was appointed by
+the Dutch Government to study and report upon the convict system in
+force in Singapore, and both the Siam and Japan Governments sent special
+missions for the like purpose, the mission from Japan being accompanied
+by Mr. Hall, of the British Consulate. Many others, also, recorded their
+opinions in its favour, and some among them were authorities upon prison
+systems pursued in some parts of both Europe and America.
+
+The local government, we should add, in their direction of this convict
+establishment, fully recognised that the distinctive feature in the
+native mind was to look to one rather than to many masters, to one
+European executive officer rather than to a collective body of
+magistrates, and, therefore, beyond that general supervision which the
+Government must ever assume over its Departments, it committed the whole
+of the management, discipline, and control of this large body of
+convicts entirely to their Superintendent, under the approved rules and
+regulations for his guidance, and for the administration of the whole
+establishment.
+
+
+  J. F. A. McNAIR, R.A., C.M.G.
+  W. D. BAYLISS.
+
+
+  SCOTIA, PRESTON PARK,
+  BRIGHTON, SUSSEX.
+
+
+
+
+  Contents
+
+
+  Chapter I
+
+  EARLY RECORDS OF BENCOOLEN AND
+  OBSERVATIONS ABOUT CONVICTS                  1
+
+
+  Chapter II
+
+  A SLIGHT SKETCH OF PENANG AND THE
+  TREATMENT OF THE CONVICTS THERE             14
+
+
+  Chapter III
+
+  OLD MALACCA, AND THE FIRST INTRODUCTION
+  OF CONVICTS THERE                           25
+
+
+  Chapter IV
+
+  A RUNNING HISTORY OF SINGAPORE: ITS JAIL
+  SYSTEM AND ADMINISTRATION                   31
+
+
+  Chapter V
+
+  SINGAPORE (CONTINUED)                       47
+
+
+  Chapter VI
+
+  SINGAPORE (CONTINUED)                       59
+
+
+  Chapter VII
+
+  SINGAPORE (CONTINUED)                       75
+
+
+  Chapter VIII
+
+  DIVISION INTO CLASSES, TRADERS,
+  FOOD AND CLOTHING                           84
+
+
+  Chapter IX
+
+  PUBLIC WORKS AND INDUSTRIES                 96
+
+
+  Chapter X
+
+  STORIES ABOUT INDIAN CONVICTS AND
+  EUROPEAN LOCAL PRISONERS                   113
+
+
+  Chapter XI
+
+  ABOLITION OF THE CONVICT DEPARTMENT
+  AND DISPOSAL OF THE CONVICTS               143
+
+
+  Chapter XII
+
+  DISEASES AND MALINGERING                   147
+
+
+  Chapter XIII
+
+  CONCLUSION                                 156
+
+
+  APPENDICES                                 169
+
+
+
+
+  List of Illustrations and Plates
+
+
+  GENERAL MONTHLY MUSTER OF THE CONVICTS,
+  SINGAPORE JAIL                                   _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                     TO FACE PAGE
+
+  DUFFADAR ARJOON                                               v
+
+
+  Plate I
+
+  OLD MAP SHOWING PENAL SETTLEMENTS                             1
+
+
+  Plate II
+
+  FORT CORNWALLIS, PENANG                                      14
+
+
+  Plate III
+
+  BOUNDARIES OF MALACCA, PORTUGUESE PERIOD                     25
+
+
+  Plate IV
+
+  OLD MALACCA                                                  26
+
+
+  Plate V
+
+  ALBUQUERQUE                                                  26
+
+
+  Plate VI
+
+  MALACCA RIVER                                                28
+
+
+  Plate VII
+
+  ST. FRANCIS XAVIER                                           28
+
+
+  Plate VIII
+
+  TOWN AND ENVIRONS OF SINGAPORE                               31
+
+
+  Plate IX
+
+  ORIGINAL HUTS FOR CONVICTS, SINGAPORE                        39
+
+
+  Plate X
+
+  DISTRIBUTION OF JAIL BUILDINGS, SINGAPORE                    77
+
+
+  Plate XI
+
+  MAIN GATE OF SINGAPORE JAIL                                  78
+
+
+  Plate XII
+
+  DUFFADAR RAM SINGH                                           84
+
+
+  Plate XIII
+
+  HEAD TINDAL MAISTRI                                          86
+
+
+  Plate XIV
+
+  CONVICT OF SECOND CLASS AND MUNSHI                           88
+
+
+  Plate XV
+
+  CONVICTS OF FIFTH CLASS, AND FIFTH CLASS SECTION A           90
+
+
+  Plate XVA
+
+  CHETOO--CONVICT OF FIFTH CLASS                               92
+
+
+  Plate XVI
+
+  CATHEDRAL, SINGAPORE                                         97
+
+
+  Plate XVII
+
+  GOVERNMENT HOUSE, GARDEN, AND MORTAR MILL                   101
+
+
+  Plate XVIII
+
+  GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE, APPROACHING COMPLETION         102
+
+
+  Plate XIX
+
+  GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE, COMPLETED                      104
+
+
+  Plate XX
+
+  CONVICTS STONE-QUARRYING                                    111
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Plate I.]
+
+
+Chapter I
+
+EARLY RECORDS OF BENCOOLEN AND OBSERVATIONS ABOUT CONVICTS
+
+
+In opening this account of the old convict jail at Singapore, it will be
+necessary to refer, as we have said, in some little detail to the
+history of the settlements of Bencoolen, Penang, and Malacca, to which
+convicts from India were first sent, prior to their reception into the
+Singapore prison.
+
+The first penal settlement was Bencoolen, the Banka-Ulu[1] of the
+Malays, to which they were transported from India about the year 1787,
+much about the same time that transportation to Australia for English
+convicts was sanctioned by our laws.
+
+    [Footnote 1: Literally, swollen at the source.]
+
+Bencoolen was singularly adapted as a receptacle for convict labour; it
+was not a populous place when we took it in 1685, nor, as far as we can
+gather, had the population much increased up to the year 1787, and the
+few Sumatrans and Malays that were its inhabitants were an indolent
+race, and preferred a life of ease to any kind of labour. They were
+content to get their livelihood from fishing, and they had no artificial
+wants. They would occasionally work upon pepper plantations, and would
+bring the berries to Bencoolen for sale to British merchants. Labour was
+therefore wanted here, and the East India Company thought that by its
+introduction they would make of Bencoolen a thriving settlement; but as
+it turned out they were greatly disappointed, for both pepper and
+camphor, which were the only commodities there for trade, greatly
+declined; and commerce, which was all-important to the East India
+Company, almost entirely disappeared after its establishment for some
+few years. It was a miserable place from all accounts, and was described
+by Captain James Lowe, in 1836, "as an expensive port, and of no use to
+any nation that might possess it," and he only echoed what was
+previously said of it by William Dampier, who had once been there in the
+humble position of a gunner, that it was "a sorry place, sorrily
+governed, and very unhealthy." So unhealthy was it, that it became
+necessary as early as 1714 to remove the Residency and offices to a
+point of land about two miles further off the coast, which was called
+Fort Marlborough; but even this locality was found not to be beyond the
+reach of malaria, and the place continued, as Crawfurd says, to be more
+or less unhealthy down to the cession of the settlement in 1825. But it
+had, however, done its work in providing for us a firm footing in those
+seas, and was a help to the next step in our progress towards a wider
+empire.
+
+It is important to relate here that its last Lieut.-Governor was the
+founder of our now important settlement of Singapore. He took up the
+appointment at Bencoolen on the 20th March, 1818, founded Singapore in
+1819, returned to Bencoolen in 1820, and finally left for England in
+1824.
+
+It is not our present purpose to dwell upon the intellectual and moral
+greatness of this remarkable man, for full justice has been done to his
+memory in the recent account of his life by Demetrius Boulger, and by an
+impressive tribute to his worth by General Sir Andrew Clarke, R.E.,
+G.C.M.G., in a paper read by him in May last at the Royal Institution.
+
+It is of course impossible at this late date to trace what was done in
+connection with the convicts on their first arrival at this settlement,
+though we gather from old letters that they were employed principally
+upon road-making, and on clearing estates which, "owing to their owners
+having died intestate, had reverted to the State." They were also let
+out to planters on a guarantee as to their not quitting the settlement.
+
+The first authentic information we have in regard to the management and
+treatment of these convicts is from a letter to the Government by Sir
+Stamford Raffles, written from Bencoolen in 1818; which we give bodily
+from his Life, written by his widow in 1830. It is a paper which gives
+evidence of the soundness of his views upon this subject, and indeed it
+may be truly said, that with every question with which he had to deal he
+always displayed the greatest judgment and keenness of insight.
+
+It is as follows:--
+
+    "But there is another class of people that call for immediate
+    consideration. Since 1787 a number of persons have been
+    transported to this place from Bengal for various crimes of
+    which they have been found guilty.
+
+    The object of the punishment as far as it affects the parties
+    must be the reclaiming them from their bad habits, but I much
+    question whether the practice hitherto pursued has been
+    productive of that effect. This I apprehend to be, in a great
+    measure, in consequence of sufficient discrimination and
+    encouragement not having been shown in favour of those most
+    inclined to amendment, and perhaps to the want of a
+    discretionary power in the chief authority to remit a portion
+    of the punishment and disgrace which is at present the common
+    lot of all. It frequently happens that men of notoriously bad
+    conduct are liberated at the expiration of a limited period of
+    transportation, whilst others, whose general conduct is perhaps
+    unexceptional, are doomed to servitude till the end of their
+    lives.
+
+    As coercive measures are not likely to be attended with
+    success, I conceive that some advantage would arise from
+    affording inducements to good conduct by holding out the
+    prospect of again becoming useful members of society, and
+    freeing themselves from the disabilities under which they
+    labour. There are at present about 500 of these unfortunate
+    people. However just the original sentence may have been, the
+    crimes and characters of so numerous a body must necessarily be
+    very unequal, and it is desirable that some discrimination
+    should be exerted in favour of those who show the disposition
+    to redeem their character. I would suggest the propriety of the
+    chief authority being vested with a discretionary power of
+    freeing such men as conduct themselves well from the obligation
+    of service, and permitting them to settle in the place and
+    resume the privileges of citizenship. The prospect of
+    recovering their characters, of freeing themselves from their
+    present disabilities, and the privileges of employing their
+    industry for their own advantage would become an object of
+    ambition, and supply a stimulus to exertion and good conduct
+    which is at present wanting.
+
+    It rarely happens that any of those transported have any desire
+    to leave the country; they form connections in the place, and
+    find so many inducements to remain, that to be sent away is
+    considered by most a severe punishment.
+
+    While a convict remains unmarried and kept to daily labour very
+    little confidence can be placed in him, and his services are
+    rendered with so much tardiness and dissatisfaction that they
+    are of little or no value; but he no sooner marries and forms a
+    small settlement than he becomes a kind of colonist, and if
+    allowed to follow his inclinations he seldom feels inclined to
+    return to his native country.
+
+    I propose to divide them into three classes. The first class to
+    be allowed to give evidence in court, and permitted to settle
+    on land secured to them and their children; but no one to be
+    admitted to this class until he has been resident in Bencoolen
+    three years. The second class to be employed in ordinary
+    labour. The third class, or men of abandoned and profligate
+    character, to be kept to the harder kinds of labour, and
+    confined at night.
+
+    In cases of particular good conduct a prospect may be held out
+    of emancipating deserving convicts from further obligation of
+    services on condition of their supporting themselves and not
+    quitting the settlement.
+
+    Upon the abstract question of the advantage of this arrangement
+    I believe there will be little difference of opinion. The
+    advantage of holding out an adequate motive of exertion is
+    sufficiently obvious, and here it would have the double
+    tendency of diminishing the bad characters and of increasing
+    that of useful and industrious settlers, thereby facilitating
+    the general police of the country and diminishing the expenses
+    of the Company."
+
+These intentions were acted upon afterwards, and the good effects of
+the regulations were soon apparent; a large body of people who had been
+living in the lowest state of degradation soon became useful labourers
+and happy members of society. So grateful were they for the change, that
+when they were sent round to Penang on the transfer of Bencoolen to the
+Dutch in 1825, as we have stated, they entreated to be placed on the
+same footing as they had been placed at Fort Marlborough, and not
+reduced to the state of the convicts in Prince of Wales Island, who were
+kept as a Government gang to be employed wherever their services might
+be thought most desirable.
+
+Upon December 20th, 1823, Sir Stamford Raffles wrote a further letter to
+Government in regard to these convicts, of which we can only give an
+extract, which runs thus--
+
+    "As the management of convicts ought to be a subject of
+    consideration, I send you a copy of the regulations established
+    for those of this place. The convicts now at Bencoolen amount
+    to 800 or 900, and the number is gradually increasing. They are
+    natives of Bengal and Madras; that is to say, of those
+    presidencies. The arrangement has been brought about gradually,
+    but the system now appears complete, and, as far as we have yet
+    gone, has been attended with the best effects. I have entrusted
+    Mr. John Hull with the superintending of the department, and he
+    feels great pleasure and satisfaction in the general
+    improvement of this class of people."
+
+It is greatly to be regretted that we have been unable to obtain a copy
+of the regulations to which Sir Stamford Raffles refers, but we have no
+doubt they formed the basis of what were hereafter called the "Penang
+rules."
+
+It was, as we have said, in the year 1825 that the whole of the
+Bencoolen convicts were transferred to Penang, and thence, as
+opportunities offered later on, to Malacca and Singapore. One point we
+trace in regard to those convicts is that, greatly to their
+disappointment, they missed the freedom they had possessed at Bencoolen,
+for they were sent to work in gangs upon the roads, and in levelling
+ground near the town of Penang. At first they were tried at jungle
+cutting and burning, but had no aptitude for it. This work was therefore
+entrusted to Malays, who we all know have a natural bent for cutting
+down trees and underwood, and are possessed of implements wonderfully
+suited for the purpose.
+
+We may remark here that transportation in those early times had its
+terrors both to the European from our shores to Australia, and to the
+native of India to these settlements, and more especially to the latter.
+
+Though, by a system of "assignment" or "compulsory" servitude to
+masters, or by a ticket of leave which made it open to the European
+criminal to work for whom and where he pleased, expatriation became in
+time to be less severely felt; still, for a long period it continued to
+act as a deterrent to others, though to the convict himself it was
+"greater in idea perhaps than in reality." To the native of India it
+meant even a severer punishment than to the European, for to be sent
+across the "kala pani," or "black water," in a convict ship or "jeta
+junaza," or "living tomb" as they called it, meant, especially to a man
+of high caste, whether of the right or left hand section, the total loss
+to him of all that was worth living for. He could never be received in
+intercourse again with his own people, and so strong are the caste ideas
+of ceremonial uncleanness that it would be defilement to his friends and
+relations even to offer to him sustenance of any kind, and he was in
+point of fact excommunicated and avoided. Happily this dread of caste
+defilement has now, by railway communication over the country and
+equalization of classes under our rule, greatly diminished, but it is
+still, as Balfour says, "a prominent feature in every-day Hindu life."
+Sir Stamford Raffles' views as to the treatment of those transported
+convicts have in the main been recognised by all authorities in the
+Straits Settlements since his time; and his suggestion as to the
+privileges to be granted to men of the first class, though not defined
+by him as a "ticket of leave," has been all along kept in view, and was
+in regular force in the jail of which we treat. He divided his convicts
+into three classes only, but as time went on they were separated into
+six classes, and later on in the narrative will be given the reasons for
+this enlargement of the number. Dr. Mouat, Inspector General of Jails,
+Bengal, in a paper read before the Statistical Society some few years
+ago, spoke of this jail and the ticket-of-leave system as follows:--
+
+    "I visited the Straits Settlements in 1861 when under the rule
+    of my friend, Sir Orfeur Cavenagh, and found in existence a
+    system of industrial training of convicts superior to anything
+    we had at that time on the continent of India. It was said to
+    have been inaugurated by the celebrated Sir Stamford Raffles in
+    1825, when Singapore was first selected for the transportation
+    of convicts from India, and to have been subsequently organised
+    and successfully worked by General H. Man, Colonel MacPherson,
+    and Major McNair. The ticket-of-leave system was in full and
+    effective operation, and very important public works have been
+    constructed by means of convict labour, chief amongst them St.
+    Andrew's Cathedral, a palace for the Governor, and most of the
+    roads. The ticket-of-leave convicts were said to be a
+    well-conducted, industrious lot of men, who very rarely
+    committed fresh crimes, who all earned an honest livelihood,
+    and were regarded as respectable members of the community
+    amongst whom they dwelt. The public works were creditable
+    examples of prison industry and skill St. Andrew's Cathedral,
+    built under Major McNair from plans prepared by Colonel
+    MacPherson entirely by convict labour, struck me as one of the
+    finest specimens of ecclesiastical architecture which I had
+    seen in the East, and I believe there exists in no other
+    country a more remarkable example of the successful industrial
+    training of convicts."
+
+We are not of course greatly concerned in this treatise with the
+original crimes committed by those Indian convicts, and for which they
+had received a sentence of transportation. Suffice it to say that their
+warrants showed generally that, in the case of convicts for life, the
+crimes were for the most part those of Murder, Thuggee, and Dacoity;
+while those sentenced to a term of years had been tried and convicted of
+frauds and forgeries, robbery with violence, and such like
+misdemeanours. "Thuggee," we all know, though it will bear repetition
+here, was in full operation all over India from very early times, but at
+the beginning of this century it engaged the serious attention of the
+Indian Government; and it was found to be an hereditary pursuit of
+certain families who worked in gangs--the Hindus to satisfy their
+goddess Bhawani, and other sects the goddess Devi--and they committed a
+countless number of murders all over the country. Thugs were a bold,
+resolute set of men, and as a rule divided themselves into groups
+consisting of a leader, a persuader, a strangler, a scout, and a
+gravedigger, but all the gangs, happily for India, were finally broken
+up under Colonel Sleeman about 1860. Some of the men were hanged, and
+many transported to our penal settlements in the Straits of Malacca.
+Dacoity was in some parts of India akin to Thuggee, for the leaders
+carried with them in the same way a sacred implement, which was devoted
+to Bhawani. In the case of the Thugs this was a pickaxe, but with the
+Dacoits it was an axe with a highly-tempered edge.
+
+In the early days we talk of, it was the common practice of the
+authorities to brand these life convicts with a hot iron to indicate the
+character of their crime, and this was in some cases done upon the
+forehead both in the English language and in the vernacular of the
+district where the crime was committed. This was very properly put a
+stop to shortly after the custom became known. We have seen some of
+those in our jail who, by good conduct, have risen to a ticket of leave,
+using their utmost endeavours to get rid of the marks, but without
+effect; and finally as a last resource they were obliged to be content
+to hide the "stigma" by wearing their turbans, or head-dresses,
+inconveniently low down over their brows.
+
+It is worthy of remark here, in reference to those native criminals who
+are in the habit of working in gangs, more especially among the Thugs,
+how signally they often fail when they attempt to act alone. Amongst our
+Thugs we had one (a strangler) who, coveting a pair of gold bangles on
+the wrist of a fellow-convict employed at the General Hospital, one
+night tried the handkerchief upon him, but missed his mark, and got away
+without being detected. Later on, the convict authorities examined the
+warrants of all the men at the hospital, and this gave them a clue,
+which they followed up successfully and caught the "Thug." He was
+punished, and then confessed, saying, "Bhawani was unkind, and I could
+not do it by myself; I missed my companions," or "saubutwalé" as he
+called them, literally meaning those "I kept company with."
+
+It will not be inappropriate to mention here the callous and brutalized
+nature of those gang-robbers, of whom it is recorded that, when one of
+their gang was suddenly arrested, they at once decapitated him, and
+carried off the head, lest the whole gang should be betrayed.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter II
+
+A SLIGHT SKETCH OF PENANG AND THE TREATMENT OF THE CONVICTS THERE
+
+
+Penang, also named "Prince of Wales" Island as a compliment to the then
+Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. This name for the island has
+become almost obsolete, and the Malay name Pi'nang, for the "Areka
+Palm," which flourishes there, is that by which it is now always known.
+It is situated at the northern extremity of the Malacca Straits, and was
+ceded to us by the Rajah of Kedah in 1785, when we gave up, but only for
+a time, our British settlement on the North Andaman, which we had
+acquired in 1789 and abandoned in 1796. Province Wellesley, opposite to
+Penang, upon the Malay Peninsula, was thirteen years later taken by us
+for the purpose of suppressing piracy, and forms part of this British
+settlement. The island has an area of 107 square miles, and the province
+of 270 square miles. Another dependency of the settlement since 1889 is
+the Dindings with the Island of Pangkor, where the treaty of 1874 was
+made by Sir Andrew Clarke, and which eventually led to our protectorate
+of several of the native states of the Malay Peninsula, and their
+complete federation in 1896.
+
+[Illustration: FORT CORNWALLIS, PENANG.
+
+_Plate II._]
+
+When Penang was first occupied it was almost uninhabited, and the whole
+island was covered with the densest jungle, but it was not long before
+Captain Light, who was appointed the first Superintendent of Trade, made
+a road to the highest point of the island, then called "Bel retiro" but
+now Penang Hill.[2] A great part of the island was soon cleared and
+roads made, so that in 1792, seven years after it came into our hands,
+Captain Light was able to report that the population had increased to
+10,000 souls; this increase of population has been steadily going on
+from year to year, until, with its dependencies, Penang, after a little
+more than a century, now numbers no less than 240,000.
+
+    [Footnote 2: There is an old legend in the island that Captain
+    Light, in order to encourage the Malays in the work of cutting
+    down the jungle, pointed a cannon in the direction in which he
+    required it to be cleared, then he loaded it with powder, and
+    instead of a shot he put in several dollars, and firing it off
+    he called out to the Malays, "Now you may have all you can
+    find."
+
+    It is said that the eager contest which ensued, of one
+    endeavouring to get the money before another, led to a regular
+    scramble, which considerably helped forward the work.]
+
+Since 1825, when the Indian convicts from Bencoolen were added to those
+already on the island, their labour was almost wholly turned to account
+in the construction of roads both on the island and in the province; but
+about 1850 some intramural work was also undertaken. The gangs in the
+province were at last taught to cut and burn the jungle as well as to
+construct the roads, and the records say at some risk from tigers which
+infested the province in those days, and occasionally carried off a
+straggler from the gangs at work. They were also bitten in large numbers
+by the venomous hamadryads which used to abound there, and from the
+poison of which some died.
+
+About the time our treatise commences, Penang had acquired the monopoly
+of the trade of the Malayan Peninsula and Sumatra. It also had a large
+traffic with China, Siam, Borneo, the Celebes, and other places in the
+Eastern Archipelago; but after the establishment later on of Singapore
+it had begun to decline, and the settlement then became second only in
+commercial importance. But within the last quarter of a century the
+trade has considerably revived, owing largely to the planting of tobacco
+in Sumatra by European planters, and the annexation of the native states
+of the Malayan Peninsula, both of which have constituted Penang the
+chief shipping centre for their produce.
+
+Before we pass on to treat of the Singapore jail, it will be well
+briefly to describe the method pursued in dealing with the Indian
+convicts on their first arrival in Penang, as far back as we can trace
+any definite notice in regard to them. They were confined at the outset
+in the then existing prison known as "Chowrusta Lines," situated on the
+Penang road; but this proving to be too small to accommodate all the
+convicts from India, a larger and more commodious prison was built on
+the opposite side of the road. It consisted of an enclosure, surrounded
+by a high brick wall, subdivided into yards, in each of which were
+erected the wards or dormitories. These were simply long rooms open to
+the high roof, having windows on either side secured by iron bars. Iron
+gates closed the doorways to each ward, which were locked at night. A
+gangway seven to eight feet wide ran the whole length of the ward, and
+sleeping platforms about seven feet wide extended to the full length of
+the ward on either side of this gangway. The hospital ward was similar
+to the others, except that it was a two-storied building, and cots were
+provided instead of the continuous sleeping platforms. The hospital and
+women's ward were all within the enclosure in a separate yard. Warders'
+and apothecary's quarters were provided at the main entrance to the
+prison. Cooking places for the different castes and latrines were
+constructed in each yard; a military guard room, food and clothing
+stores were also supplied. Little can be said in favour of this prison,
+as the wards were ill-ventilated, and the sanitary arrangements were
+very imperfect. All the prisoners were in a somewhat lax system of
+association, except those undergoing punishment in cells. Prior to the
+receipt of the convicts from Bencoolen, Penang itself, as a penal
+settlement, had already been supplied from India with a number of
+transported criminals of all tribes and castes, who were working in
+gangs under free warders; but from vacancies and dismissals, and the
+consequent inability to supply the place of these warders, where free
+labour of the kind required was not obtainable, an attempt was then made
+to enlist the services of well-behaved convicts to oversee their
+fellow-prisoners. But it does not appear to have at all succeeded at
+that time, and we have it on record that the Governor in Council at
+Penang, in the year 1827, deemed it necessary to revise the regulations
+under which these Indian convicts were controlled; and accordingly we
+learn that a committee was appointed to assemble at Penang in November,
+1827, when a code of revised rules was drawn up, and the following
+comment was made by the committee as to the employment of convicts as
+warders: "With regard to the present system of employing convicts as
+tindals and sirdars, the committee think it very objectionable, as it is
+impossible that men so intimately connected with those over whom they
+are placed can exercise that authority and control which is so essential
+in the management of such a body of men as the convicts. The duties at
+present performed by these servants are provided for in the proposed
+increase to the establishment."
+
+These rules, subsequently known as the "Penang Rules," received the
+sanction of the Governor in Council, and were sent for guidance to the
+Resident Councillor at Singapore, to which settlement some few convicts
+had already been sent. This remark of the Penang committee, which in all
+fairness we have quoted, was doubtless quite true at the time when it
+was penned, and when the system of employing prisoners as warders was in
+its infancy, and, moreover, when the whole prison discipline was
+acknowledged to be in more or less an indifferent state; but, as will
+hereafter be shown, it did not hold good when the system was well
+established, and the choice of warders was made from those classes best
+suited for the control of their fellow-prisoners, especially in the
+outstations, or "commands" as they were called, where gangs of convicts
+were placed under their control in the construction and repairs of roads
+or in stone-quarrying.
+
+In these early days, no organised system of industrial employment
+appears to have been carried on in this Penang jail, and no intramural
+workshops of any kind were provided, the convicts being employed almost
+exclusively on extramural works, such as opening up roads on the Penang
+Hill and throughout the island, and in Province Wellesley; also in
+brick-making, felling timber, burning lime, and reclaiming mangrove
+swamps. The ground on which some portion of the present town is built
+was filled up by convict labour. Much later on, however, in the Fifties,
+rattan work was introduced into the prison, and easy chairs, lounging
+chairs, baskets, and other articles of a very substantial quality were
+manufactured and sold to the public at a higher price than that for
+which the same articles could be purchased in the town, but they were
+far superior both in the quality of rattan and in their make. About the
+year 1860, blacksmiths' and carpenters' shops were established in the
+prison, and on the different "commands" in the country districts.
+
+The ordinary discipline of the jail was carried out in accordance with
+the "Penang Rules" referred to, and any breach of these rules was
+punished according to the nature of the offence, at the discretion of
+the Superintendent. There was then no formal investigation or inquiry
+into convict complaints or misdemeanours, and no records of them were
+kept with any show of regularity. It was only after the appointment of
+the late General Man as Resident Councillor of Penang, Captain Hilliard
+being Superintendent, that a manifest improvement in the management and
+control of the convicts took place, and especially in their industrial
+training. He brought with him the system in force in Singapore, and the
+new rules and regulations formed with the sanction of the Governor, then
+Colonel Butterworth, and which were an improvement on the old Penang
+rules, but were only at this time being tentatively carried out in
+Penang. By these rules the entire abolition of free warders was
+approved, and petty officers raised from amongst the convicts themselves
+fully established, though as the Governor himself said in his letter to
+the Resident Councillor of Singapore in August, 1854, "I had drawn up
+these rules as long ago as 1845 in the face of much opposition."
+
+The late General Man held the appointment at Penang from 1860 until
+1867, when the Straits Settlements were transferred to the Crown, and
+from Penang he went to the Andaman Islands to introduce there the system
+of convict management in force in the Straits Settlements;[3] and with
+the view to uniformity of practice, the Government of India had
+previously deputed Major, now General, Forlong to prepare a code of
+rules based on those in force in the Singapore jail.
+
+    [Footnote 3: Now under the able management of Col. R. C.
+    Temple, C.I.E.]
+
+When the transfer was fully effected, the new office of Comptroller of
+Indian Convicts was created, and the whole of those Indian convicts in
+the three settlements were placed under his charge. The "Butterworth
+Rules" remained in force, with certain alterations and improvements,
+until the disestablishment of the whole department in 1873.
+
+As many of the convicts were continued to be employed at Penang and
+Province Wellesley on roads and works at a distance from the main jail,
+it was necessary to provide accommodation for them in convict lines, or
+"commands," as we have said, pronounced "kumman" by the convicts.[4] It
+will be interesting to give some particulars about them: They consisted
+of a stockaded fence, constructed of rough poles of wood from four to
+six inches in diameter, and from ten to twelve feet long, set
+perpendicularly in a trench about two feet deep, and placed close
+together, being secured longitudinally by adze-dressed poles nailed
+securely on the outside and along the top of them. The stockade enclosed
+an area sufficient for the erection of the dormitory, cooking place, and
+sheds for the bullocks employed in carts to convey road material, and
+for protection also against the possible attacks of wild animals. The
+walls of the dormitory were constructed in what is well known as "wattle
+and daub." They were made with stout stakes driven firmly into the
+ground at about one foot apart, twigs of trees were then interwoven, and
+the whole then thickly plastered with a mixture of clay and cowdung, and
+when this had become thoroughly dry it was coated with whitewash. This
+formed both a substantial, and at the same time a sanitary walling,
+which was frequently treated with a further coating of limewash made
+thin. The dormitories were ten feet high, with a continuous open grating
+of wooden bars at the top, under the eaves of the roof, for the purpose
+of complete ventilation. The sleeping platforms were raised three feet
+off the ground floor, which was covered with the same composition as
+that of the walls, and the building was roofed with thatch. In the
+centre of the dormitory an earthenware brazier of burning charcoal was
+always maintained day and night, and occasionally crude fragrant gum
+Benjamin was thrown upon it. The natives believe that an aromatic
+perfume exhaled by fire keeps off all noxious effluvia; and we certainly
+found that they were in better health from the use of this incense, and
+from the fresh plastering of the floor every morning with cowdung
+diluted with water, which is a common practice in most of the native
+huts in India. This was regularly kept up by two convicts of the invalid
+class, who also acted as caretakers. The entrance to the enclosure was
+secured by a stout gate, which, after the roll was called, was locked
+every night at nine o'clock. The number of convicts stationed on one
+"command" averaged about thirty, and they were under the charge of a
+responsible convict warder of the grade of a tindal, with a peon and two
+orderlies and a native "moonshi," or timekeeper, to keep account of work
+done, and to forward reports to the main jail. By a system of surprise
+visits both day and night occasionally, we rarely found that any
+irregularities occurred.
+
+    [Footnote 4: Simpson, in his _Side Lights on Siberia_, uses
+    "command" as denoting a jail outside of the prison walls.]
+
+It has not been already mentioned that the local jails, or houses of
+correction, though according to law they were kept distinct from the
+convict jails at the several settlements, nevertheless were in their
+superintendence placed under the Superintendent of Convicts and convict
+petty officers. A good proportion of these local prisoners were employed
+upon extramural works, under the guard of these convict petty officers,
+who, being natives of India, had nothing in common with the Chinese and
+Malays who formed the bulk of these prisoners, and they kept them well
+under control, and allowed but few escapes, and, moreover, they were
+never found open to the taking of bribes from the prisoners' relations
+and friends, who now and again would attempt to offer them forbidden
+articles.
+
+At Penang there were a considerable number of these Indian convicts upon
+ticket of leave, who gained their livelihood in a variety of ways. Some
+of them were the first to discover the palm known by the Malays as "Plas
+tikoos," and by botanists as the "Licuala acutifida," a small palm,
+ordinarily not higher than from five to six feet. From this palm, which
+grew mostly upon the Penang Hill, were constructed walking-sticks called
+"Penang lawyers," and the process of preparing them was very simple: the
+epidermis, or exterior coating, was scraped off with glass, and then the
+stick was straightened with fire, as is done by the Malays in preparing
+the Malacca canes. Several of these Penang lawyers were sold by the
+convicts on the spot, and many more were exported to Europe and
+America.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: BOUNDARIES OF MALACCA, PORTUGUESE PERIOD
+
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+
+_Plate III._]
+
+
+Chapter III
+
+OLD MALACCA AND THE FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CONVICTS THERE
+
+
+Authorities differ very considerably as to the origin of the name of
+this place. Some attribute it to the Malay name for a shrub which
+largely abounded near the shore, a sort of "Phyllanthus emblica" of the
+spurge order; others, again, ascribe it to a plant called the "Jumbosa
+Malaccensis," or "Malay apple tree" of the myrtle bloom order; others,
+again, say that the Javanese were the first to colonize the place about
+the year 1160 of our time, and that they gave it the name "Malaka,"
+which in that language means "an exile," in memory of one "Paramisura"
+who came there as a fugitive from the kingdom of Palembang.
+
+In the original manuscript of Godinho de Eredia, of date 1613,
+reproduced by Janssen in 1882, he says that "Paramisura," the first king
+of the Malays, settled on the coast near to the Bukit China River, which
+is close to the present town, and called it "Malaka," after the fruit of
+a tree which grew there. (See sketch from that old work, Plate IV.)
+Anyway, like all Malay history, it is full of obscurity, and it really
+does not concern us very much just now as to what it is really derived
+from, though it would be no doubt interesting to Malay scholars to
+pursue the inquiry.
+
+We know, however, on the best authority, that it was the first
+settlement formed by a European power in those seas. The Portuguese, in
+their palmy days under Albuquerque, took it from a Malay Sultan, named
+Mahomed Shah, in 1511. They kept quiet possession of it for 134 years,
+when it fell into the hands of the Dutch, who held it for seventy-four
+years; then the British took possession in 1795, restored it to the
+Dutch in 1818, who gave it back in 1824, and we have held it ever since.
+In size it is forty-two miles long and from eight to twenty-five miles
+broad, and contains 659 square miles.
+
+In the old Portuguese days it was a very important place of trade, so
+much so that De Barros, their famous historian, wrote of it that, "the
+native town was a good league in length along the shore, and that there
+were many merchant vessels there from Calicut, Aden, Mecca, Java, and
+Pegu, and other places." This splendid trade, however, began to decline
+in the time of the Dutch, and shortly after we had opened Penang in 1785
+it had almost entirely vanished.
+
+[Illustration: OLD MALACCA
+
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+
+_Plate IV._]
+
+[Illustration: ALBUQUERQUE
+
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+
+_Plate V._]
+
+The Portuguese must have attached great value to this their first
+settlement in what was then known as the "Golden Chersonese," for they
+spent vast sums of money in fortifying it, and enclosed a considerable
+enceinte by a wall of great height and thickness, and crowned the small
+hill of St. Paul's within by the erection of a fine cathedral dedicated
+to our Lady Del-Monte, with a monastery annexed to it. These
+fortifications were afterwards razed to the ground, and some of the old
+foundations may still be seen; but we left the buildings standing and
+the greater part of the cathedral to go to ruins. Some of the tombstones
+in the old nave bear the date 1515, and there is a tomb to the two
+Bishops of Japan, but there is nothing to indicate that the saintly St.
+Francis Xavier laboured here beyond a small tablet; but the memory of
+his deeds is yet fresh amongst the traditions of the Portuguese
+descendants still resident there.
+
+Seen from the sea in these days, Malacca looks an antiquated old place,
+with all the signs of desertion about it. The old ruins on the hill form
+the most prominent feature in the landscape, and the once busy river
+(see Plate VI.) is now almost closed even to boat traffic by the silt
+which has been brought down from the interior. It is difficult indeed to
+realize that this strange, dim old place was once the centre of a
+thriving trade from so many distant countries, though it still carries
+on its cultivation of rice and other grain, and this is yearly being
+more developed.
+
+As far as we can gather, the first batch of convicts were sent to this
+place from Penang shortly after we took possession, and that they were
+employed in filling up the moat to suit it and the glacis for a parade
+ground. These convicts were confined first of all in the town jail,
+which was situated on the steep or eastern side of St. Paul's Hill, and
+was in point of fact the old Portuguese soldiers' barrack, and was
+constructed on a terrace excavated from the hillside; and, together with
+a hospital, warders' quarters, store rooms and other necessary
+buildings, was surrounded by a high wall built from the stone from the
+old fort ramparts. The few local prisoners were put into the old Dutch
+prison, and both these prisoners and the convicts were placed under the
+charge of half-blood Portuguese warders. For some years few convicts
+were sent into the interior, their labour being required for the public
+works in and near the town; but about the year 1840, as fresh arrivals
+came from Penang, which is about 250 miles north of it, gangs were made
+up to keep in repair about 100 miles of the public roads that were left
+to us, and to open up new communications near the frontier; so that we
+now have nearly 300 miles to keep in order. They were located in
+temporary huts surrounded by a palisading, and warders were raised from
+amongst the best behaved to be responsible for their work and general
+supervision. This practice was continued with satisfactory results, and
+gradually was introduced into the town jail, and the half-bred
+Portuguese warders were dismissed.
+
+[Illustration: MALACCA RIVER IN 1870.
+
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+
+_Plate VI._]
+
+[Illustration: ST. FRANCIS XAVIER
+
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+
+_Plate VII._]
+
+Prior to the appointment to Malacca of Captain Man as Resident
+Councillor, but little had been done in the way of training the convicts
+in industrial occupation, but he established a few workshops and started
+them in various trades. It was not, however, until 1860 that anything
+approaching to really skilled labour could be got out of them. They were
+then supplied with good tools and an instructor, also a convict, was
+sent down from Singapore. After this, carts for the roads, iron and wood
+work for bridges, roofing timbers for public works, and other necessary
+requirements for the erection of minor works were satisfactorily
+accomplished. For some classes of work the convicts were superior to the
+Chinese workmen in the town, especially in metal turning and fitting.
+One Cingalese convict became so expert at this trade that upon his
+release from confinement he established himself in Ceylon, and has been
+doing a very profitable business, and occupies now a respectable
+position in life.
+
+As far as can be gathered from the records, the convicts were, as a
+rule, well behaved, though in the early Sixties, owing to their
+maltreatment by an overseer who had the supervision of a gang for
+clearing the jungle and making roads upon Cape Rachado for the erection
+of a lighthouse, an _emeute_ took place, and some life was lost, and
+many escaped inland, but were subsequently returned by the native Malay
+chiefs.
+
+Some of the Indian convicts here on ticket of leave were expert
+shikarries, and frequently with their trained dogs would hunt the deer
+and wild boar, and dispose of the flesh to Chinese in the town at some
+profit to themselves.
+
+In 1873, when the convict establishments in the Straits Settlements were
+finally broken up, those convicts still wanting time to complete their
+sentences were transferred to Singapore for transmission to the
+Andamans, those upon ticket of leave being permitted to merge into the
+population.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: TOWN AND ENVIRONS OF SINGAPORE IN 1878.
+
+_Plate VIII._]
+
+
+Chapter IV
+
+A RUNNING HISTORY OF SINGAPORE: ITS JAIL SYSTEM AND ADMINISTRATION
+
+
+The origin of the name of this island it is difficult to trace, but the
+generally accepted derivation is from the Sanscrit words, "Singh," a
+lion, and "Pura," a city or town; and if so, it would not have been
+given by the Malays, but more probably by the Indians, who, according to
+native history, came over with one, Rajah Suran, and conquered Johore
+and this island in about the year A.D. 1160. "Singh" is a title adopted
+by the Hindus, and by several military castes of Northern India, and the
+word "Singhpur" is often used by them to mean the grand entrance gate to
+a palace.
+
+If, on the other hand, we assume that the Malays conferred the name to
+the island, they would in all probability have given it from their word
+"Singgah," which means "a place to stop at," or "to bait by the way,"
+and as the embouchure of the Singapore river formed a commodious and
+sheltered retreat for their rowing and sailing prahus, this view is not
+inappropriate, the more especially as the affix "pura," meaning a city,
+had been known to them from the earliest times, and of which we have one
+instance at least from their original home of Sumatra, in the naming of
+their kingdom of Indrapura, which was, as Marsden says, "for a long
+time, from 1400 A.D., the seat of a monarchy of some consideration and
+extent."
+
+The island is about twenty-seven miles long by fourteen broad, and
+contains an area of 206 square miles, and therefore is somewhat larger
+than the Isle of Wight. It is separated from the mainland of Johore by
+what is known as "The Old Straits," from its having been the only
+channel used in the early days by vessels bound eastward. The island was
+first settled upon, according to Balfour, "in A.D. 1160, by one Sri Sura
+Bawana," and from an inscription on a sandstone rock at the mouth of the
+Singapore River, now unfortunately destroyed, it would appear that Rajah
+Suran, of Amdan Nagara, after conquering the state of Johore with
+certain natives of India (Klings), proceeded in 1201 to a country then
+called "Tamask," and afterwards returned to "Kling," leaving the stone
+inscription in memory of his visit and victory. To have conquered
+Johore, the Rajah's vessels must have sailed by the Old Straits; but we
+have no record as to where "Tamask" was situated, and it is not given
+in the oldest Atlases we have been able to consult, viz. by D'Anville
+and others, though it may be in the charts of the 14th and 15th
+centuries. It seems more probable that the expedition set out from Java
+or Sumatra, to which places Hindus had, as we know, in very remote times
+proceeded from India, as the old ruins they have left there of their
+temples, supposed to be of the 7th century, plainly prove.
+
+Sir Stamford Raffles, as we have already stated when treating of
+Bencoolen, took up the appointment of Lieutenant-Governor of that
+settlement on the 22nd March, 1818, and he had not been there long
+before he recognized the fact that British interests needed a trading
+centre somewhere in the Straits of Malacca. It was, he said, "not that
+any extension of territory was necessary, but the aim of Government
+should be to acquire somewhere in the Straits a commercial station with
+a military guard, and that, when once formed, it was his belief that it
+would soon maintain a successful rivalry with a neighbouring Power, who
+would be obliged either to adopt a liberal system of free trade, or see
+the trade of these seas collected under the British flag."
+
+It is well known how the port of Rhio, on the west coast of the island
+of Bintang, which is separated from the island of Battam by the Rhio
+Strait, was first thought of; but we were too late in occupying it. Then
+the Carrimon Islands were suggested by the Resident Councillor of
+Malacca, at that time Major Farquhar; but the harbour was too exposed to
+the prevailing monsoon. Subsequently Tanjong Jatti, on the island of
+Bengkalis, was deemed to be a suitable site, but this had its objection
+as to situation; and after coasting about these seas for some little
+time, Sir Stamford Raffles finally fixed upon the island of Singapore
+for an entrepot for trade, and the wisdom and sagacity displayed by him
+in this selection has been abundantly proved.
+
+Sir Stamford Raffles concluded the treaty with the native chiefs for the
+cession of the island to Great Britain, and the British flag was planted
+on the island on the same day that the treaty was signed, viz., the 19th
+February, 1819, but it has since been found to have been actually signed
+on the 6th of that month.
+
+Our new possession, some 600 miles from Batavia, then contained in round
+numbers about 120 Malays and 30 Chinese. Some of these lived wholly in
+their boats at the mouth of the river, and the remainder in huts at
+Teloh Blangah, on the south side of the island. In the course of a year
+the population had risen to 5,000, and in little more than five years to
+19,000 or 20,000 of all nations actively engaged in commerce, "offering
+to each and all a handsome livelihood and abundant profit." When the
+census was taken in 1881 the population had risen to 139,208, and in
+1891 there was an increase of 45,346, making a total of 184,554,
+representing nearly every nationality and tribe in the Indian
+Archipelago, China, and India, and about 1,500 Europeans.
+
+In the year 1822, the first settlers to dwell on the island were traders
+in the Archipelago, and they lived in raft houses, so called, or more
+probably in huts, erected on poles in the Malay style, and these were
+located on the site of the present "Commercial Square," which was then
+little more than a mud flat covered by the sea at high water. One of the
+first steps taken by the Government was to fill up this low-lying sea
+marsh, which was executed by free labour, but was subsequently largely
+assisted by some local prisoners who were confined in a temporary jail
+near by, on the site where the present Court-house now stands. The first
+magistrates to be appointed in the settlement, and who tried and
+sentenced these prisoners, were men whose names will ever be preserved
+unforgotten by the colony, and we make no excuse in giving them in full
+as obtained from _The Anecdotal History_, viz., Messrs. A. L. Johnstone,
+D. A. Maxwell, D. F. Napier, A. F. Morgan, John Purvis, Alexander
+Guthrie, E. Mackenzie, W. Montgomery, Charles Scott, John Morgan, C. R.
+Read, and Andrew Hay. Two magistrates sat in court with the Resident
+Councillor, to decide cases both civil and criminal, and juries were
+formed of five Europeans, or four Europeans and three leading natives.
+This court sat once a week, but a court of two magistrates sat twice a
+week to try cases, their office being open daily to hear complaints.
+
+The insecurity of the temporary prison mentioned above, and the defects
+in its control, led to changes in its structure and general management.
+The Resident, then Mr. J. Crawford, expended $900 towards the
+construction of a more substantial building for the local prisoners, the
+transmarine convicts from Bencoolen and India having not yet arrived in
+the settlement. In April, 1823, as there was a great difficulty in
+obtaining free labour, the local prisoners were ordered to work upon the
+public roads.
+
+When finally leaving the settlement, Sir Stamford Raffles entered into a
+new agreement with the Sultan and Tummongong of Johore, by which the
+whole of the island of Singapore and the adjacent islands were to be
+considered as entirely British territory. He considered this fresh
+agreement necessary on account of some peculiar ideas that were held at
+the time by certain dissentients.
+
+On his final departure from Singapore, Sir Stamford Raffles received an
+address from the European and native merchants of Singapore, from which
+we quote the following significant extract:
+
+    "To your unwearied zeal, your vigilance, and your comprehensive
+    views, we owe at once the foundation and maintenance of a
+    settlement, unparalleled for the liberality of the principles
+    on which it has been established--principles, the operation of
+    which has converted in a period short beyond all example a
+    haunt of pirates into the abode of enterprise, security, and
+    opulence."
+
+Sir Stamford replied with his characteristic modesty in a letter dated
+Singapore, June 9th, 1823. The letter is too long to quote _in
+extenso_, but we give the following extracts from it. After
+acknowledging the receipt of their address, and remarking upon the
+impossibility of his being indifferent to any of the interests,
+especially the commercial interests, of Singapore, under the peculiar
+circumstances of his connection with the establishment of the
+settlement, he says, "It has happily been consistent with the policy of
+Great Britain, and accordant with the principles of the East India
+Company, that Singapore should be established as a 'free port,' and that
+Singapore will long, and always remain a free port, and that no taxes on
+trade or industry will be established to check its future rise and
+prosperity, I can have no doubt." "I am justified in saying thus much on
+the authority of the Supreme Government of India, and on the authority
+of those who are most likely to have weight in the councils of our
+nation at home."
+
+Referring to difficulties which had to be encountered on the
+establishment of the freedom of the port, he says, "In the commanding
+station in which my public duty has placed me, I have had an opportunity
+of, in a great measure, investigating and determining the merits of the
+case, and the result renders it a duty on my part, and which I perform
+with much satisfaction, to express my most unqualified approbation of
+the honourable principles which actuated the merchants of Singapore on
+that occasion."
+
+We give the above extracts to show the rapid advance that had been made
+in the first five years of the settlement's existence, owing mainly to
+the sagacity, forethought, and wisdom of its eminent founder, and we
+have added the population up to this period to show its steady rise and
+progress.
+
+It was, however, in January, 1824, that the first regular census was
+taken. The population then consisted of 74 Europeans, 16 Armenians, 15
+Arabs, 4,580 Malays, 3,317 Chinese, 756 natives of India, and 1,925
+Bugis, making a total of 10,683. It was in this year that Singapore was
+first mentioned in the House of Commons, in a remark made by Mr.
+Canning, who had been nominated Governor-General of India in 1822, but
+did not go out to that country, that "Singapore in six years would
+produce spices sufficient for the consumption of Great Britain and her
+colonies"--a prophecy not yet fulfilled.
+
+In May of the same year the Resident made a voyage round the island in
+the ship _Malabar_, 380 tons burden, to view the boundary of the island
+and to take formal possession; and it was while on this voyage that the
+British flag was planted on the island of "Pulo Obin," an island which
+has since largely supplied the town of Singapore with granite for making
+roads and also for building purposes. The Government quarries situated
+upon it were subsequently worked almost entirely by transmarine
+convicts, of which more will be said hereafter.
+
+[Illustration: ORIGINAL HUTS FOR CONVICTS, SINGAPORE
+
+(From _Life of Sir Stamford Raffles_).
+
+_Plate IX._]
+
+On the 18th of April, 1825, the first batch of convicts transported
+from India to Bencoolen were transferred from there to Singapore. They
+arrived in the brig _Horatio_, and consisted of 80 convicts transported
+from Madras, of whom 73 males and 1 female were for life, and 6 male
+convicts on short sentences. On the 25th of the same month another batch
+was received, also convicts from Bencoolen. These consisted of 122
+convicts transported from Bengal, of whom 88 males and 1 female were for
+life, and 33 for short terms. When these Indian convicts were landed at
+Singapore they were placed at first in an open shed, or godown (from the
+Malay word "godong," a shed), which stood on the site where the present
+public offices stand, with only four free petty officers, or "peons,"
+natives of Chittagong in the Bengal presidency, in charge of them.
+Subsequently temporary buildings, to contain 1,200 to 2,000 convicts,
+were erected near the Hindu temple, then situated near the Brass Basa
+Canal, and at a considerable cost it is given as £13,199 (see Plate
+IX.). They were all located in these sheds, and there was little or no
+prison control over them; only, occasionally, an officer of the police
+came and called the roll in order to report to Government that all were
+present. These convicts were afterwards detailed to the work of filling
+up the mud flat before referred to as the site of the present
+"Commercial Square." For this purpose they carried the soil from near the
+Hindu temple and from Pearls Hill. Mr. Bonham, the Resident, finding
+that the convicts worked willingly, and were well behaved, discharged
+the free "peons," or warders, and selected five Madrasees and five
+Bengalees from their number to supervise their fellow-convicts. This
+was, as far as we gather, the first trial of the system of convict
+warders at Singapore, possibly the first venture of the kind made in any
+penal establishment. As convicts continued to arrive from India, many of
+those from Bencoolen were constituted warders over their fellows, in the
+proportion of one warder to every twenty convicts. Each warder was
+granted a monthly wage of $3.00 in addition to his rations and clothing,
+with the usual blanket given to each convict once a year. In addition to
+his ordinary rations, clothing, and annual blanket, each convict
+received a monthly allowance of 50 cents (say 2s.) a month, to
+purchase condiments and salt. A European overseer was placed in
+immediate charge of the convicts, and a Superintendent over the whole
+convict establishment, this responsible duty first falling upon
+Lieutenant Chester, of the Bengal Native Infantry.
+
+The convicts from Bencoolen were not sent over to the Straits of Malacca
+in chains, but those received from India in the earliest times were
+manacled with light leg fetters, in which they had to work for a
+probationary period of three months. As, however, they were granted,
+equally with the others, the privilege of going about the town to make
+their purchases, it is said they ceased to consider their fetters a
+mark of degradation, being so completely overwhelmed with the thought of
+banishment from their country and kindred; and to many men of caste it
+must be remembered that transportation alone was a severe punishment.
+
+In the year 1826 there was a change of government in the settlements.
+Hitherto the settlements of Penang, Malacca, and Singapore had not been
+incorporated under one government. In this year it was decided by the
+Supreme Government to do so, and the seat of government was fixed at
+Penang, that being our oldest settlement in these seas. On this change
+taking place, many more of the Indian convicts from Penang were sent
+down to Singapore, the ship _Esperanza_ bringing down a further batch of
+23 Bengal life convicts (males), and 26 Madras convicts (males), and 1
+female; 31 Bombay (males), and 2 female convicts.
+
+From the accounts given in the newspapers of that day, the convicts were
+at this time treated with great indulgence if of proved good behaviour,
+being permitted, after their work was over, to engage themselves as
+servants to the residents, who, in the scarcity of labour at that time,
+and the fitness of the convicts for such service, were content to give
+them a very liberal wage. In the early days of penal colonies this has
+not infrequently occurred, and some of these old convicts have been
+known to amass considerable sums of money, and, indeed, to become
+possessed of landed property in the town. The Government, however,
+under Major Campbell, who succeeded Lieutenant Chester, took care to
+exact from them a large amount of useful work in the filling up of
+swampy ground near the town, and laying out plots of land for building
+purposes. They also blasted the rocks at the mouth of the Singapore
+river, on the site of which was afterwards constructed a fort, named
+after the first Resident, Mr. Fullerton, and much of the rock was also
+used in the construction of the sea and river walls adjoining. Their
+services were also turned to account on any occasion when the presence
+of a body of men under discipline was required, such as the suppression
+of fires. An instance is given in the journal already quoted of a
+serious outbreak of fire in Market Street, in the year 1830, which
+threatened to consume the houses in several streets adjoining. There
+were no fire engines in those days, and the only supply of water was
+carried in buckets by the convicts, which materially helped to subdue
+it. The houses in the square at the back of Market Street were not
+burnt; they, and also the houses on the side of Market Street next the
+square, were partly built of brick, but those on the opposite side were
+wholly of wood, and were quickly destroyed. The middle of the square was
+covered with goods carried from the burning houses.
+
+Occasionally, even in those days, convicts were employed as orderlies
+and servants to public officers, and when Dr. Oxley's house was
+attacked by burglars in 1821, his Indian convict servant, though wounded
+by a "kris," succeeded in capturing the burglar, who turned out to be a
+Malay pirate from Bencoolen. Robbery on land was not common amongst
+Malays in those days, but piracy was one of their pastimes, and their
+romances always glorify their ancestors in this pursuit.
+
+The rules at that time in force amongst the convicts were what were
+known as the "Penang Rules," already mentioned, and published in 1827;
+but there were also a few scattered rules known as the "Bencoolen
+Rules," probably some of those drawn up by Sir Stamford Raffles, and
+referred to in his letter of the 20th September, 1823, and incorporated
+with the former.
+
+In 1832 an alteration in the seat of government took place. Penang had
+hitherto been the seat of government, but in this year it was
+transferred to Singapore, which had by this time become the most
+important of the three Settlements.
+
+When later on, in the year 1833, Mr. G. D. Coleman was placed in charge
+of the convicts as "Surveyor and Executive Officer of Government," a
+great improvement was set on foot in the regular and systematic
+employment of these convicts. He, by their means, reclaimed large plots
+of land as intakes from the sea and river marshes, and largely extended
+the town lots, so that Captain Begbie, who in that year wrote a book
+upon the Straits Settlements, stated that "200 of these convicts, in
+eight months, at a small money outlay of $500 for covered drains, had
+reclaimed 28 acres of marsh, and intersected it with roads. This land
+was shortly afterwards sold at a handsome price, and was very quickly
+covered with good, substantial upper-story houses, which were readily
+let."
+
+Under Mr. Coleman the public roads on the sea front were marked out and
+constructed, and also the main road from the town to Campong Glam, now
+known as North and South Bridge Roads. He surveyed and marked out the
+first country road towards Bukit Timah, and he afterwards laid out the
+Serangoon, the New Harbour, Budoo, and Thompson's Roads, and employed
+Indian convicts principally in their construction. When the convicts
+could not be marched out to and from their daily work to the prison,
+owing to the long distance they had to traverse, Mr. Coleman constructed
+for them temporary buildings, surrounded by a fence, similar to those
+already described when treating of Province Wellesley and Malacca. In
+these "commands" they were located until the work on which they were
+employed was completed; and in many cases these "commands," as they were
+always called, became permanent stations for the convicts employed in
+maintaining the roads. At first their rations were sent out to them from
+town once a month, but subsequently it was found desirable for them to
+attend the general muster at the main prison on the first of every
+month, and to receive their rations then, and to be inspected at the
+same time by the Superintendent.
+
+The records of the jail at this time, and until the year 1844, have not
+been kept, as we have said, with any precision, and, indeed, most of
+them are missing; but the excellent work performed by Mr. Coleman (in
+the execution of which he, as far as possible, employed convict labour)
+is, fortunately, to be seen in the map of the town and its environs
+surveyed by him in 1836, and lithographed in Calcutta the same year, a
+copy of which is given in Moor's _Notices of the Indian Archipelago_.
+
+Mr. Coleman was no mean architect. It was he who designed the first
+church for Singapore. It was erected on the site where the present
+cathedral stands. It was completed in 1837, and consecrated in
+September, 1838, but was opened for service on the 18th June, 1837, by
+the first chaplain appointed from Bengal, the Rev. Edmund White. Indian
+convicts were employed in the erection of this church, chiefly as
+labourers, as they were also at the public buildings which were erected
+about this time, notably the first extension of the Raffles Institution
+and its museum.
+
+To Mr. Coleman, however, the colony is chiefly indebted for the many
+excellent roads on the island, and the carrying out of the disposition
+of town allotments, projected in the first instance by Sir Stamford
+Raffles himself, in his instructions to the Committee appointed for the
+purpose shortly after the settlement was founded.
+
+Mr. G. D. Coleman died on the 27th March, 1885, and the newspapers of
+the day, in regretting his death, brought about by hard work and
+exposure in the public service, spoke in the highest terms of his
+ability as an architect and surveyor, and Superintendent of Convicts.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter V
+
+SINGAPORE (_Continued_)
+
+
+There were then about 1,100 or 1,200 Indian convicts in Singapore,
+divided into six classes, and employed in various ways as already
+narrated, but the following extract from _The Anecdotal History_ is
+worth quoting verbatim:
+
+    "Singapore, Malacca, Penang, and Maulmein were the Sydneys of
+    India. There are upon an average about 1,100 to 1,200 native
+    convicts from India constantly at Singapore. These are employed
+    making roads and digging canals; and, undoubtedly, without them
+    the town, as far as locomotion is concerned, would have been
+    now but a sorry residence. They are secured within high walls,
+    and although a few now and then escape, they meet with such
+    rough treatment from the Malays on the Peninsula, that they
+    find it commonly the most prudent course to return, or allow
+    themselves to be brought back. The native of India accommodates
+    himself more easily to banishment than a European does, because
+    his ideas lead to predestination, and his habits are simple.
+    In former days, when convict discipline was not so well
+    understood as it is now, the convicts transported from India
+    used to traffic and amass money; banishment was in some cases,
+    perhaps, sought for, and crimes were, it is feared, sometimes
+    committed by natives to obtain it; but the felon must now
+    expect to be kept in his place and hard at work. Still, the
+    convict whose period is short, contrives to save something out
+    of his allowance, and on the expiration of his term he
+    generally sets up as a keeper of cattle, or a letter-out of
+    carriages and horses; and undoubtedly some of these men are as
+    well, if not better behaved than many of their native
+    neighbours of higher pretensions. There are regulations by
+    which the convict is encouraged by certain rewards, or
+    remission short of emancipation, to orderly conduct."
+
+When Mr. Coleman resigned, the duties of Superintendent were taken up by
+Captain Stevenson of the 12th Madras Native Infantry, who carried out
+the system then in force, and somewhat added to the strength of the
+convict warders; for we find in his annual report for 1845 the following
+remarks: "Convict peons are selected from the second class for general
+good conduct and intelligence, and they continue to receive $3 each per
+mensem, in addition to provisions and clothing. Free peons were, I hear,
+formerly tried, but found not to be so well suited for the peculiar
+duties required of them; besides, the prospect of gaining a belt--a
+mark of authority--is a strong inducement to good conduct on the part of
+the convict, and conduces much towards lightening, in the well disposed,
+the feeling of hopelessness that ever accompanies a sense of
+imprisonment and slavery for life."
+
+At this time (1840 to 1845), Singapore was more than ever before
+infested with tigers--it is supposed that they swam across the narrow
+part of the Old Straits, from Johore to Kranji. The number of natives,
+principally Chinese, employed on gambier and pepper farms, that were
+carried off or destroyed by them annually was considerable, and it was
+said at the time that not a day passed without one man being killed by
+wild animals. Whether it was actually so or not, there are no police
+statistics to prove, but as many as five in eight days were reported at
+that time, and in later years, about 1860, as many as 200 deaths were
+notified to the police in one year, and probably a great number never
+were brought to notice, because the difficulty of obtaining coolies to
+work in the thick jungle, as it then was, was a great inducement to the
+"Towkays," or Head Chinese, to keep the number of deaths as much as
+possible from being known. In those days a reward of one hundred dollars
+was offered by Government for every tiger brought to the police station,
+whether alive or dead; and this sum, owing to their continued ravages,
+was subsequently increased to one hundred and fifty dollars.
+
+One seizure of a man-eater is worth recording here; it is taken from
+_The Singapore Free Press_ of the year 1840, and runs as follows:--
+
+    "The news of the capture and death of a tiger last Saturday
+    night on a Chinaman's plantation, close to that of Mr.
+    Balustier, the American Consul, gave general satisfaction,
+    being the first of these destructive animals which the Chinese
+    had succeeded in catching alive. A pit was dug where his track
+    had been observed, the mouth of which was covered lightly over,
+    and two or three dogs tied as bait. The ruse luckily took
+    effect, and, when advancing to his imagined prey, he was
+    himself precipitated into the pit head foremost, where he was
+    very soon despatched by the natives, who pounded him to death
+    with stones. He was a large animal for the Malay type,
+    measuring 9 ft. 3 in. from the nose to the tip of the tail,
+    which was 35 inches long, the circumference round the forearm
+    being 21 inches. The captors have claimed and obtained from the
+    local authorities the promised reward of one hundred dollars,
+    besides having sold the flesh of the animal itself to the
+    Chinese, Klings, and others for six fanams a catty (a fanam is
+    about three halfpence), by which they realized about seventy
+    dollars more."
+
+It is singular how all natives believe that by eating the flesh of the
+tiger they absorb the essence or distinctive features of the animal.
+Balfour says that "the clavicle or collar-bone of the tiger is
+considered of great virtue by many natives of India. The whiskers are
+supposed by some to endow their possessor with unlimited power over the
+opposite sex." Tiger bones are often sold in China to form an ingredient
+in certain invigorating jellies, made of hartshorn, and the plastron of
+the terrapin or tortoise. Burmese and Malays eat the flesh of the tiger,
+because they believe that by eating it they acquire the courage and
+sagacity of the animal. Tigers' claws are used as charms, and the most
+solemn oath of one of the aboriginal tribes of India, the "Santals," is
+sworn when touching a tiger's skin; handsome brooches and earrings are
+also made from tigers' claws mounted in gold. In 1854 no less than six
+persons were killed within the space of a few days not far from the
+town, and in April of that year the Government, alarmed for the safety
+of the people, sanctioned a considerable expenditure for the
+construction of tiger pits over many parts of the island. In August of
+the same year the following article appeared in _The Singapore Free
+Press_:--
+
+    "The attention of His Honour the Governor having been directed
+    to the continued deplorable ravages committed by tigers on the
+    island, he has expressed himself ready to adopt any measures
+    which may tend to remove the evil. It has been suggested that
+    persons are to be found in the vicinity of Calcutta trained for
+    the purpose of destroying tigers; and His Honour has written to
+    the Bengal Government requesting that half a dozen of these
+    'shikarries' should be sent to the Straits for a limited
+    period, to be employed in the destruction of these animals. The
+    Governor has also directed that in the meantime, should it be
+    deemed expedient, a certain number of volunteers from convicts
+    of the third class should be permitted to beat the jungle once
+    every month with tom-toms (native drums), horns, etc., which,
+    if they do not lead to the destruction of the tigers, may
+    frighten them away from the island, to which they come from the
+    neighbouring state of Johore."
+
+Later, in 1859, finding that the number of tigers on the island, and the
+number of people killed by them, were still increasing, the Governor,
+General Sir Orfeur Cavenagh, discussed the matter with the then
+Superintendent of Convicts (Major McNair), who informed him that he had
+good shikarries amongst the Indian convicts, and it was arranged to
+organize parties of convicts for their destruction. Three parties, of
+three men in each party, were selected, and armed with the old
+muzzle-loading muskets and ball ammunition. One party was sent to the
+Bukit Timah or Central district, another to the Serangoon and Changi or
+Eastern district, and the third to the Choo Choo Kang or Western
+district. These parties were generally successful in killing half a
+dozen or so in the course of the year, chiefly in the Central or garden
+district. Recourse was also had to trapping them in cleverly-constructed
+deep pits, built cone-wise, and by heavy beams of timber suspended from
+tree to tree over their tracks, connected on the ground with springes;
+but only upon rare occasions were they successful in this way. We had in
+our possession several skins and skulls from those destroyed by
+convicts. Some castes amongst these convicts from India, when employed
+on this duty, were also very expert in catching such venomous snakes as
+cobras and craits. They appeared not to possess the slightest dread of
+them, and would stealthily follow them to their burrows, then grasp the
+tail, and by a rapid movement of the other hand along the body to just
+below the head, grip the snake firmly at the neck and allow it to coil
+round their arm. During the construction of Fort Canning, later on, many
+were so caught and brought down to the jail for the reward. They were
+then destroyed, the convicts at the time always asking pardon of the
+snake for so betraying it to their masters. It is worth mentioning here
+that in the jail there were so many different races of India, and men of
+so many occupations and artifices, that what a man of one caste did not
+know, another would be sure to volunteer to perform. This collection of
+such a variety of races in a jail under the association system had
+another and more important advantage, for it was at once a safeguard
+and protection against any possible combined revolt against the
+authorities, for one caste would invariably "split" against another.
+
+It was in the year 1841 that it was decided to erect a jail for the
+Indian convicts on a site near the Brass Basa Canal on the east of the
+town, and immediately below Government Hill, now known as Fort Canning.
+The boundary wall was first built, and then a brick building within,
+which was subsequently used as a convict hospital. This is shown in the
+plan of the whole prison made in 1872, a copy of which is given later.
+In this brick building the defaulters and those in irons were placed on
+one side, and the local prisoners on the other. The remainder of the
+convicts were lodged in temporary structures inside the enclosure wall;
+and those employed in positions of trust were allowed to erect small
+huts for themselves in the style of a native village just outside the
+wall, in which they were allowed to have their wives and families. There
+was but one entrance to this enclosure, where convict warders were at
+all times stationed as a gate guard. It will be readily understood that
+discipline could not well be maintained under such circumstances, while
+no records appear to have been kept of any kind, relating to their daily
+employment or occupation, so there is nothing to show whether the
+convicts were employed in the erection of this boundary wall; but it is
+more probable that they were only used as labourers, and not as
+artisans, for it was not until a later date that they were organized and
+trained as skilled workmen.
+
+It may be well for us to indicate here the progress made in the
+Singapore town up to 1842, as given by _The Free Press_ newspaper in
+that year. It runs thus:--
+
+    "A stranger visiting Singapore cannot fail to be struck by the
+    signs everywhere exhibited of the settlement being in a high
+    state of prosperity and progressive improvement. If he lands on
+    the side next the town he beholds the pathway in front of the
+    merchants' 'godowns' or warehouses cumbered with packages, and
+    if he glances inside one of the 'godowns' he will see it filled
+    with packages and bales of goods from all parts of the world.
+    If he goes among the native shops he finds them filled with
+    clamorous Klings (natives of the Coromandel Coast of India) and
+    Chinese, all busily engaged in driving bargains. Passing on, he
+    comes to where, near the jail, the swamp is being filled up and
+    covered with shops, which are seen in every stage of progress,
+    some with the foundations newly laid, and others nearly
+    completed. If he wishes to leave the town he crosses the
+    Singapore River by a new bridge, which was built two years ago.
+    The scene now undergoes a change: in place of the narrow and
+    crooked streets the stranger finds himself amongst rows of neat
+    villas, each standing in its own enclosure. The Governor's
+    residence is to the left upon a small hill commanding a fine
+    view of the town and harbour. The flag-staff is also placed
+    there, and at all hours of the day may be seen covered with
+    flags, announcing the approach of ships from every quarter of
+    the globe. If he should go into the country, the many thriving
+    plantations of spices and other tropical productions (amongst
+    which are to be noted one or two sugar estates) present an
+    equally pleasing sight, and give promise of a long continuance
+    to the well-being of the settlement."
+
+In this year, 1842, or it may perhaps have been in the previous year,
+Mr. J. T. Thompson came to Singapore in the capacity of Government
+Surveyor; whereupon the Government called upon all holders and occupiers
+of land to point out to him their boundaries, preparatory to the issue
+of proper leases. Under his direction there was a systematic survey made
+of all allotments upon the island; and intelligent Indian convicts were
+provided him to act as his survey party, being preferred for that duty
+over freemen to be obtained in the town. These convicts formed the
+nucleus of a regular native staff for this department of the Government;
+and, indeed, up to the time of the abolition of the jail they continued
+to be employed as chainmen and survey assistants.
+
+When Mr. Thompson visited Malacca, to inquire into the system pursued
+there, he found it to be of the most primitive type. For the linear
+measurements the surveyor had for a chain, rattans jointed together, and
+this, with a ten-foot rod and a common compass, formed their whole
+equipment. When he tested however the measurements of the fields and the
+town lots, he was surprised to find to what approach to accuracy they
+had arrived with their rude implements. Indian convicts were also there
+employed as land measurers and assistants.
+
+Upon his return to Singapore, Mr. Thompson designed a European hospital,
+and adjoining it a pauper hospital, erected mostly at the cost of a
+benevolent Chinese gentleman of the name of Tan-Tock-Seng. They were
+built on a plateau of Pearls Hill facing the town. Some years later
+these buildings were required for military purposes, and were adapted
+for the purposes of a Commissariat and Ordnance Department respectively.
+A new building, in which was incorporated a general hospital, was
+subsequently erected facing the Bukit Timah Road, and the Tan-Tock-Seng
+hospital for paupers was built further outside the town on the Serangoon
+Road. In the erection of these buildings convict labour was very largely
+utilised, and in the front elevation of Tan-Tock-Seng's hospital they
+had some rather difficult mouldings to execute.
+
+In the year 1844, owing to the amount of building that was then going on
+in the town, there was a great dearth of bricks; so much so, that the
+Chinese brick-kilns could not supply the immense demand, and the price
+per laksa of 10,000 rose more than fifty per cent. This led to the
+determination on the part of the Government to make their own bricks,
+and an order was issued to the Public Works Department to arrange for
+their manufacture by the convicts. This was subsequently done; and a
+suitable site having been found upon the Serangoon Road, a large
+establishment was started, an account of which will be given in detail
+when we come to deal with the industrial occupations of the Indian
+convicts. The first Government brick-field, however, was started at
+Rochore, under Captain Faber, but was given up after only a short trial.
+He employed free labour.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VI
+
+SINGAPORE (_Continued_)
+
+
+During the year 1845 the Bukit Timah Road was opened up by convict
+labour between Bukit Timah and Kranji, so that the produce hitherto
+carried by water to Singapore from the neighbouring country of Johore
+could now be brought into town by road, while at the same time land was
+thus opened up for cultivation. The convicts were also employed in this
+year in constructing a road to the summit of Telok Blangah Hill, now
+called Mount Faber, for the purpose of building there a signal station,
+that upon the island of Blakan Mati having proved unhealthy, due, as it
+was said at the time, to malaria from the enclosed marsh at the back of
+the island, and to the tainted air from decaying pine-apple leaves,
+which were left by the Malays, who cultivated the fruit upon all the
+available soil. Pine-apple growing has been largely extended in this
+island, as is now generally known at home; and as it is a source of some
+wealth to the colony, it may be incidentally mentioned in this running
+history of the place, and more particularly in reference to the fact
+that the Indian convicts upon ticket of leave have been often employed
+in its culture in order to earn a daily wage. The plant that produces
+the pine-apple known as the "ananas," or by the Malays as "nanas," grows
+literally wild upon the hills on Blakan Mati Island, and other islands
+round about Singapore. It delights in a moist climate, and here it has
+it to perfection, with just enough heat to help its growth. There is
+little or no trouble in its propagation, for after the apple is
+sufficiently ripe and cut, the crown that surmounts the fruit is
+planted, and a new plantation soon springs up. There is, however, some
+difference in the sweetness and flavour of the fruit, according to the
+exposure to which it is subjected, those having the benefit of the sun
+being preferred.
+
+The first to export the tinned fruit to Europe was a Frenchman named
+Bastiani,[5] who succeeded far beyond his expectations, and the industry
+has since been taken up largely by the Chinese in Singapore and Johore.
+
+    [Footnote 5: He was known to both of us when he commenced the
+    undertaking.]
+
+Yet another of the important public works of the colony, upon which the
+labour of Indian convicts was employed some five years earlier, was at
+the construction of the lighthouse on "Pedro Branca," called the
+"Horsburgh," after the celebrated hydrographer of that name. The design
+was by Thompson, and the selection of the site by Sir Edward Belcher,
+R.N., and most of the detail work was under the direct supervision of
+Mr. J. Bennett, a civil and mechanical engineer, who afterwards, as we
+have said, played a prominent part in the direction and control of the
+labour and industrial training of the Indian convicts in the Singapore
+jail. He had, as an assistant, Mr. Magaelhaens of the Convict
+Department, and both the officers and the convicts lived on board of a
+"Tonkong," or a large boat, which was anchored close to the rock. The
+convicts were chiefly employed in the capacity of blasters and dressers
+of stone. The foundation stone was laid with masonic honours by the
+Worshipful Master Brother M. F. Davidson, on the 24th May, 1850, in the
+presence of the Governor, Colonel Butterworth, and a large party from
+Singapore; and the work was completed and the lamps lighted on the 27th
+September, 1851.
+
+The _Free Press_ spoke of it as an edifice of which Singapore might well
+be proud. "The granite blocks which form the walls were quarried and
+shaped at Pulo Ubin, the timber used in the building was the growth of
+our island, the brass rails of the staircases were moulded and turned in
+this settlement, and last, not least, the architect and engineer
+acquired the skill and experience which enabled him to erect so rapidly
+the chaste and stately building during a long and useful career as
+Government Surveyor at Singapore." Both the quarrying of the stone at
+Pulo Ubin, and the felling of the timber required in the erection of
+this lighthouse, were by the work of Indian convicts.
+
+In 1845 the foundation stone of a second lighthouse was laid on a reef
+near a small island at the eastern entrance to the Straits of Malacca
+called "The Coney." It was also laid with masonic honours by the
+Worshipful Master and Brethren of the Lodge Zetland in the East, No.
+748, in the presence of the Governor, Colonel Butterworth, and many of
+the British and foreign residents at Singapore. This lighthouse was
+named after the eminent founder of the settlement, Sir T. Stamford
+Raffles, and was completed in 1856. It was built by free labour, but
+many convicts were employed, as at the "Horsburgh," as stone cutters,
+blasters, and as labourers, under the charge of an officer of the
+Convict Department.
+
+We have referred elsewhere to the rules that had from time to time been
+framed for the control of these Indian convicts, but now we are able to
+state that in 1845-46 what may be called the most complete code of rules
+was permanently established. Colonel Butterworth, who was then Governor
+of the Straits Settlements, in consultation with the Superintendent of
+the Convicts, collected all that had been previously issued, together
+with those that subsequent experience had shown to be necessary, and
+working on the principles laid down by Sir Stamford Raffles, the new set
+of "Rules and Regulations for the Management of the Indian Convicts"
+was formally sanctioned, and put in force under the title of the
+"Butterworth Rules."
+
+These rules practically recognised the total abolition of free warders
+in the control of the convicts, and the substitution entirely of petty
+officers, raised from amongst the convicts themselves, together with the
+division of the convicts into six distinct classes, according to their
+date of arrival in the prison, and their general subsequent behaviour;
+holding out to one and to all by exemplary conduct during their
+probationary period a certain progressive reward and promotion.
+
+Added to these "Butterworth Rules" were several others of importance,
+introduced by Major McNair in 1858-59, and sanctioned by the Government
+from time to time as additions to this code. Later, Captain, now
+General, J. G. Forlong came to Singapore, as we have stated, to study
+the convict system in force; and from the rules in use and the numerous
+standing orders that had been issued at various times, he prepared a
+valuable digest of the whole, which he duly submitted to the Government
+of India, in which he said, "I have but lately visited most of the
+convict prisons of England, living for some time with the Governor of
+the Dartmoor jail, and I have seen many Indian prisons, and can state
+for the Singapore system and establishment, that it is not inferior to
+those of England, and quite unequalled by any I have seen in India."
+
+It is to Captain, the late General, Man that the initiation of several
+handicrafts is due, and he commenced by starting all kinds of carpenter
+work. The old Guthrie's timber bridge across the Singapore River, for
+instance, was entirely their work. They were also then taught
+brick-laying and blacksmith work; and so valuable was this trained
+labour to the State, even at that time, that the Superintending Engineer
+of the station wrote to Government in 1849 as follows:--
+
+    "I can most confidently, and without fear of refutation, assert
+    it to be simply impracticable to induce and obtain from Chinese
+    carpenters that accurate, close, substantial, and lasting
+    workmanship which not only can be, but is derived from the
+    convict artificers under the absolute control of the present
+    able and zealous Superintendent, Captain Man."
+
+We must here not forget to refer to another public building, in the
+erection of which the Indian convicts took their part, viz. the New
+Civil Jail at Pearls Hill, the foundation stone of which was laid by
+Captain Faber, the Superintending Engineer of the Straits Settlements.
+Below the stone a brass plate was deposited with the following
+inscription, which we give in full as of some peculiar interest, and
+evidence of the progress of the settlement up to 1847.
+
+                This Foundation Stone
+                         of
+              H. M. Gaol, at Singapore,
+    was laid by Captain Faber, Madras Engineers,
+    Superintending Engineer, Straits Settlements,
+              on the 6th February, 1847,
+       the 27th Anniversary of the Foundation
+               of a British Settlement
+                   on this Island.
+    The Hon'ble Colonel W. J. Butterworth, C.B.,
+      being Governor of Prince of Wales Island,
+               Singapore, and Malacca,
+                        and
+               the Hon'ble T. Church,
+          Resident Councillor at Singapore.
+                     VICTORIA,
+         Queen of Great Britain and Ireland,
+       the Right Hon'ble Lord Hardinge, G.C.B.,
+         Governor-General of British India.
+                God save the Queen.
+
+In a bottle, likewise placed below the stone, the following statistical
+information relative to the Straits Settlements, written on parchment,
+was enclosed.
+
+The trade for the year 1845-46 of Prince of Wales Island, Singapore, and
+Malacca aggregated the sum of Company's Rs. 52,190,685 in merchandise,
+and Company's Rs. 9,606,061 in bullion and treasure, making a grand
+total of Rs. 61,796,746 (exclusive of the trade between the three
+settlements) as follows:--
+
+                      Imports.     Exports.       Total.
+
+  P.W. Island    Rs.  6,614,794   6,528,452  =  13,143,246
+
+  Singapore      "   26,616,448  21,162,987  =  47,779,435
+
+  Malacca        "      509,872     364,193  =     874,065
+                                                __________
+                   Grand total, Company's Rs.   61,796,746
+                                                ----------
+
+                          W. J. BUTTERWORTH, Governor.
+
+    SINGAPORE, _6th February, 1847_.
+
+The revenue and charges for the year 1845-46 of Prince of Wales Island,
+Singapore, and Malacca, including Civil, Military, Marine, Judicial,
+Convicts, etc., were as follows:--
+
+                             _Charges._
+
+  P.W. Island     Co.'s Rs.  402,783 15 11
+
+  Singapore        "     "   497,186 14  5
+
+  Malacca          "     "   231,158 12  5
+                             -------------Rs. 1,131,129 10  5
+
+                             _Revenue._
+
+  P.W. Island     Co.'s Rs.  185,443  2  9
+
+  Singapore                  530,040 15  7
+
+  Malacca                     64,408  9 11
+                             -------------Rs.   779,893 12  3
+                                              ---------------
+  Total deficit at three settlements      Rs.   351,236 14  6
+                                              ===============
+
+                          W. J. BUTTERWORTH, Governor.
+
+    SINGAPORE, _6th February, 1847_.
+
+In the year 1848 we find that the Indian convicts were employed in
+blasting some considerable part of a mass of rock known to the Malays as
+Batu Belayer, or "Stone to sail to," and by Europeans as "Lot's wife."
+It was a dangerous obstruction to navigation, being situated on the
+Singapore side of the western entrance to the New Harbour.[6] It is
+reported as known to the old navigators of those seas, and was shown on
+old charts over two hundred years ago.
+
+    [Footnote 6: This entrance to Singapore was called New Harbour
+    after the construction there of Cloughton's Dock, now the much
+    improved New Harbour Dock. Singapore can now boast of another
+    fine dock at Tanjong Pagar, constructed some forty years ago,
+    and an additional dock is reported to be in contemplation.]
+
+In following _The Anecdotal History_ it may be well to mention here, as
+showing the steady progress of Singapore, that a census was again taken
+in 1849, which gave the total population at 59,043--Europeans being
+given at 198, Eurasians at 304, Chinese at 24,790; and the remainder was
+made up of Malays and other nationalities of the Indian Archipelago, and
+from the Coromandel Coast. This was recorded as only a trifling increase
+on 1848 amongst the Chinese, and was attributed to the decrease in the
+Chinese coolies working in the interior of the island, owing to the
+exhaustion of much soil, and the low price of produce, which had caused
+many of the planters to open new plantations in Johore.
+
+As an evidence of the variety of the employments to which these Indian
+convicts were turned by the Government, it should be remarked that
+during the Chinese riots in 1851, when the Chinese Hwuys began to
+distrust their countrymen who had become converted to Christianity by a
+Roman Catholic mission in the interior of the island, these convicts
+were sent out in gangs to follow the rioters into the jungles and
+disperse them. These riots lasted for over a week, and it required the
+presence at last of the military to quell them. As it was, over 500
+Chinese were killed, and among them many of the well-to-do Christian
+converts who had become planters.
+
+Utilized as the services of these convicts from India were by the
+Government of that day, and their being wholly different in their
+habits, customs, and language from the Chinese who formed the bulk of
+the town population, it is not to be wondered at that the Chinese felt
+themselves estranged from them, and kept themselves ever aloof. There
+were, however, some Chinese of the lowest class who sought to embroil
+themselves with them, so as to bring the convicts into trouble, but the
+convicts always avoided a quarrel. They therefore sought other means,
+and in 1852 they gave out and placarded over the town that the Governor
+and all the Europeans had left worshipping in St. Andrew's Church, owing
+to the number of evil spirits there, and had gone to worship in the
+Court House, and that in order to appease the spirits the Governor
+required thirty heads, and had ordered the convicts to waylay people at
+night and kill them.
+
+These placards created quite a panic in the place, so that people were
+for some days afraid to leave their houses after dark. In order to allay
+the fears of the people the Governor issued a proclamation saying that
+St. Andrew's Church had been struck by lightning and was unsafe (which
+was the fact), and he called upon the people not to believe the reports
+of evil men. Moreover, he offered a reward of $500 for the discovery of
+any person propagating such reports. This had no effect however, so the
+leading Chinese merchants were called upon to address their countrymen,
+which they did in a long appeal, assuring them of the benevolence of the
+Christian Government, and urging them to have no fear and not believe in
+foolish reports. In two days the fears of the Chinese population were
+thus dispelled. In 1875 a similar "head scare" occurred during the
+construction of the "puddle trench" for the new impounding reservoir.
+This was a work of considerable difficulty, and some superstitious
+natives circulated a report that it could not be done without "human
+sacrifice," and that the Government were looking for "heads" to put into
+the trench, and the alarm for days was so great that people would not
+pass along Thompson's Road adjoining the reservoir after dark; and even
+the "dhobies," or washer-men, in the stream adjoining the puddle trench,
+hastened into town before dusk. Similar so called "head scares" have
+occurred in Singapore up to even the present time. It is not easy to
+define what has led to this superstition in the native mind, and it is
+made more complicated from the fact that it is shared alike by Chinese
+and natives of India. In many of the Polynesian Islands the practice of
+human sacrifices we know exists even in our own days, and that chiefs,
+when they build a house or a war-canoe, offer up a human being; and the
+Polynesians and Indonesians resemble one another very closely. But such
+a superstition has not come to us through the Malay race, and we must
+rather seek for its origin from the Aryan Hindus of India; and as the
+Chinese took most of their tradition and folk-lore from the cradle of
+the Aryan races, the belief might thus be common to both peoples.[7] The
+Rev. Mr. Ward, writing early in this century, refers to the human
+sacrifices at Bardwan, in Bengal, and says of them: "The discovery of
+murders in the name of religion was made by finding bodies with the
+heads cut off, and placed near the images of 'Durga' and 'Kali.'" Also
+at Serampur, before the temple of the goddess "Jara," a human body was
+found without a head. Whatever the origin of the superstition may be
+traced to, the municipality at Singapore were wisely advised, and we
+think very properly declined to take any notice of the recent "head
+scare" of this year, and we can only hope that these apprehensions will
+gradually cease to stir the minds of the people as they become more
+instructed and advanced in civilization.
+
+    [Footnote 7: The old mystic symbol of the Swastika of India,
+    for instance, [Illustration: A clockwise Swastika] is common
+    amongst the Mongolian races, and other signs of an early union
+    between these races might be given.]
+
+Among the many works of utility carried on by convict labour during the
+tenure of the office of Superintendent of Convicts by Captain Man was
+the widening and improving of the Bukit Timah Canal, in order to drain
+the adjacent low lands, and render them capable for cultivation by
+market gardeners. In the cutting of these artificial channels the
+convicts from India had great aptitude, and some of them had been
+employed on similar work in their own country. The largest work,
+however, commenced in Captain Man's time, was the erection of the whole
+of the permanent buildings required for the location of the then large
+number of Indian convicts. They were built within the surrounding wall
+of the jail, near the "Brass Basa" or "Wet Rice" Canal, and entirely by
+the labour of the convicts themselves. The estimate for the work made by
+the Superintending Engineer for their execution by free labour was
+100,000 rupees, but the money cost to the Government was only 12,000
+rupees, when executed by convict labour and with convict-made materials.
+To effect this, the convicts were trained to make the bricks, to dig and
+burn coral for lime, to quarry stone for foundations, and to fell the
+timber in Government forests in the island, and to dress it for roof
+timbers, door and window frames, and so forth.
+
+When Captain Man went to Malacca as Resident Councillor, Captain Ronald
+Macpherson, of the Madras Artillery, succeeded him as Superintendent of
+Convicts, Singapore, and carried on the works in progress at the time.
+This was in the year 1855. The most prominent work commenced by the
+convicts in his time, and subsequently carried to completion, was the
+erection of the new church, now the cathedral of the diocese. It must be
+acknowledged that it was a courageous act on the part of Captain
+Macpherson to have designed a church in the early English style of
+architecture, and to have pledged himself to the Government that he
+would undertake to construct it wholly by convict labour. We think it
+showed both confidence in himself and in his convict workpeople, and
+nothing could more clearly have proved to what perfection their skilled
+labour had advanced than that he felt himself able to embark on so
+elaborate a work.
+
+It was in May of this year, 1855, that the Bengal Government approved of
+the project, and sanctioned the expenditure in cash of 47,000 rupees
+upon its construction. The Bishop of Calcutta laid the foundation stone
+during next year before a large concourse of the merchants and residents
+of the place, and the inscription below the stone ran as follows:--
+
+    The first English church of Singapore, commenced A.D. 1834, and
+    consecrated A.D. 1838, having become dilapidated, this stone of
+    a new and more commodious edifice, dedicated to the worship of
+    Almighty God according to the rites and discipline of the
+    Church of England, under the name of St. Andrew, was laid by
+    the Right Reverend Daniel Wilson, D.D., Lord Bishop of Calcutta
+    and Metropolitan, on the 4th March, 1856, in the twenty-fourth
+    year of his episcopate.
+
+       The Hon'ble Edmund Augustus Blundell being the Governor
+                     of the Straits Settlements.
+
+       The Hon'ble Thomas Church being Resident Councillor of
+                             Singapore.
+
+      Lieut-Col. Charles Pooley, of the Madras Army, Commanding
+                            the Troops.
+
+         The Rev. William Topley Humphrey being Chaplain.
+
+      And Captain Ronald McPherson of the Madras Artillery being
+                           the Architect.
+
+     The Building to be erected at the charge of the Hon'ble East
+                           India Company.
+
+     Full Estimate of cost: Co.'s Rupees 120,932, or with Convict
+                        Labour Rupees 47,916.
+
+In May, 1857, Captain Man proceeded from Malacca to Penang as Resident
+Councillor of that settlement, and Captain Macpherson took his place at
+Malacca. Captain Purvis, also of the Madras Artillery, was appointed to
+succeed Captain Macpherson in the combined duties of engineer and
+Superintendent of Convicts; but, to the regret of the Government, he
+relinquished the appointment at the close of the year, and Lieutenant
+McNair, another Madras Artillery officer, succeeded him. Lieutenant (now
+Major) McNair was a passed interpreter in the Hindustani language, which
+was spoken by the bulk of the convicts in the jail, and he subsequently
+qualified as a civil engineer. He remained in charge of the convicts
+until the jail was abolished in 1873.
+
+Upon his assuming charge, the foundations of the new church had been
+laid and the masonry built up to nearly three feet above ground. The
+work was steadily carried on in accordance with the plans of Captain
+Macpherson, with the single exception that it was found necessary, owing
+to the weakness of the foundations, to abandon the heavy tower, and to
+place a light steeple instead. In the building of this church, Mr. John
+Bennett afforded most material assistance as Assistant Superintendent of
+Convicts. To his oversight and careful attention to the variety of
+details incident to such a work may be ascribed its satisfactory
+completion in January, 1862, when the edifice was consecrated by the
+then Bishop of Calcutta, Dr. George Cotton, who so unfortunately met his
+death in 1866 by being drowned in the Ganges. Further details in
+connection with this work will also be given under the heading of
+"Convict Industries and Public Works."
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VII
+
+SINGAPORE (_Continued_)
+
+
+To continue the narrative according to date, we trace that in the year
+1858, after the mutiny, the Indian Government came to the conclusion
+that at all principal centres "field redoubts" should be constructed, to
+be available as places of refuge for Europeans in the event of a native
+rising; and accordingly orders were given for the fortification of
+Singapore. Colonel Collyer, of the Madras Engineers, was therefore sent
+over from Madras to design and carry out the necessary military works,
+and he was given the appointment of Chief Engineer of the Straits
+Settlements.
+
+He selected Government Hill for the main work, and improved and enlarged
+the batteries on Mounts Palmer and Faber, being of opinion that, beyond
+the idea of a place of refuge, the island should be fortified to resist
+aggression from without. All his plans were approved, and, as Lord
+Canning had then become the first "Viceroy" of India, the main work was
+named after him, which name it bears to this day. In the execution of
+most of the earthwork, Chinese labour was employed, but the convicts
+were utilized in building the sally ports, constructing the drawbridge,
+sinking the deep wells; and the whole of the bricks, and much of the
+lime and cement required, were manufactured by the convicts at the
+Government kilns on the Serangoon Road. Colonel Collyer also designed
+other important works in the place, notably the Collyer Quay. Major
+Mayne, of the same corps, succeeded him, and in his time the waterworks
+scheme for the town was initiated, but not carried fully to completion,
+and fresh designs became necessary under his successor, in consultation
+with the late Sir Robert Rawlinson, K.C.B.
+
+During this year also the convicts were employed in the erection of a
+new court house (now the public offices), the general hospital, lunatic
+asylum, pauper hospital, and some other minor public works. They also
+built the walls of the reclamation works along the sea front, now known
+as Collyer Quay, and above referred to, and the river wall at Campong
+Malacca. Both these sea and river works had been attempted by free
+labour, but the work of the convicts for this class of rubble walling
+was found more suitable, and therefore it was carried on by them, and
+with satisfactory results in every way.
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF JAIL BUILDINGS, SINGAPORE.
+
+_Plate X._]
+
+Shortly after the transfer of the Straits Settlements to the Crown,
+which occurred on the 1st April, 1867, the Governor, then Sir Harry St.
+George Ord, called upon Major McNair, who had been appointed Colonial
+Engineer and Comptroller of the Indian Convicts, to prepare plans for a
+Government House to be erected near Mount Sophia, somewhat under two
+miles from the town. The plans were approved by the Governor, and passed
+by the Legislative Council early in 1868. The land on which it stands
+cost $43,800, and the building, furniture, and laying out of the
+grounds, $115,000, and the work, with convict labour, was finished for
+the reception of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh[8] in December, 1869.
+
+    [Footnote 8: Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.]
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE SINGAPORE CONVICT JAIL.
+
+We have already incidentally referred to the plans of Captain Man for
+the erection of a permanent jail for the Indian convicts, which he had
+agreed to construct wholly by convict labour. The enclosure wall already
+existed, within which the original temporary buildings and thatched huts
+had been run up for their shelter. Only one solid building was within
+it, part of which was used as a hospital and the remainder for the
+confinement of convicts in irons. The next permanent building to be
+erected was quarters for the chief warder, and then came the solid
+gateways and guard-rooms. After these were built the wards for the
+fourth and fifth classes, or convicts in irons, then Nos. 1 and 2 wards,
+all shown on the plan (Plate X.) attached. Then a work-yard was enclosed
+by a solid wall, and offices built near the outer entrance to it, for
+the offices of the engineer and Superintendent of Convicts. While this
+wall was under construction by one gang, other gangs were employed in
+erecting within the main enclosure a refractory ward and punishment
+cells, and other minor buildings required in the way of store rooms,
+filter rooms,[9] chain room, and a receiving room for fresh arrivals;
+and the effectual drainage of the whole prison.
+
+    [Footnote 9: These filters were of the simplest construction.
+    They consisted of three very porous earthenware pots or
+    "chatties" placed on a tripod. In the first was the water to be
+    filtered, a foot off was the pot full of charcoal and white
+    sand, and the filtered water was drawn off from the third. The
+    charcoal and sand were renewed twice a week.]
+
+It was only when all these buildings were actually completed, in the
+year 1860, that the establishment assumed the character of a prison; and
+the convicts themselves were not slow to realize the fact, for it became
+a proverb amongst them that "an open campong, or village, had become a
+closed cage."
+
+In 1857 there were altogether under the control of the convict
+authorities no fewer than 2,139 transported felons from India and about
+fifty from Hongkong. About one half of this number were localised in the
+main prison, the other half being employed upon the country roads, the
+quarries, and brickfields. These were of the third class; the second
+class men were detailed for duties as Government messengers, punkah
+pullers at the hospitals and Government offices, and others of this
+class also as "lookout men" at the flag-staff stations, helpers to light
+keepers, crews for the Government boats conveying firewood to the jail
+and brick kilns, and others digging and conveying coral for lime
+burning.
+
+In the main prison the wards were built of a uniform length of 230 feet,
+breadth 60 feet, and height of walls 20 feet. The wards were not ceiled,
+but open to the tiles, with a ridge ventilator along the whole roof.
+Beneath the side windows, which were barred, ground ventilation was
+provided, in order to ensure a current of air throughout the whole
+building. The floors were laid in concrete, and cemented over with
+"soorkee," or brick dust and cement mixed, and graded to the sides. Each
+ward was arranged to contain four hundred convicts. All the convicts
+were in association, separate confinement being restricted to the
+punishment cells. In each ward were platform sleeping benches. They were
+raised three feet at the head, and two feet nine inches at the foot,
+above the floor, and were coated with coal tar except on the actual
+sleeping place.
+
+Lime-wash was used for the inner roofing timbers and tiles, and
+generally for the walls, except for the three feet of dado, which was
+coated with coal tar. Parts of this dado were daily re-coated with hot
+fresh tar, as we found coal tar to be a valuable deodorizer. To each
+ward there were four night urinals, detached from the main building and
+provided with double spring doors. In each urinal there were utensils
+coated with coal tar, and at every corner iron crates filled with
+wood-charcoal to absorb noxious vapours. Down the centre of each ward
+spit-boxes were provided for second and third class convicts accustomed
+to betel chewing. There was always a night watch of one petty convict
+officer in each ward, and surprise visits were often paid at night by
+the Superintendent, his assistant, and the chief warder. Going down a
+ward at night, one might see four hundred or more of these convicts,
+each enveloped from head to foot in a "chadar," or native sheet,
+literally over head and ears in sleep. They were all properly worked,
+properly fed, and properly punished when they deserved it; so, with the
+benefit of the two first, and a wholesome dread of the third, no wonder
+they were soon lulled to sleep when the prison doors were closed upon
+them. Now, at the risk of being a little tedious, we propose to describe
+in some detail the "day" latrines in use in this old jail. The
+information may, we think, be of service to those who have native
+prisoners under their charge either in jails or police stations in the
+East. At this period of time, when conservancy has rightly taken a first
+place in all such establishments, it may be thought by some to be
+superfluous, but the system pursued by us worked so very well that we do
+not hesitate to give an account of it.
+
+There were many such latrines in the prison, so we will confine our
+remarks to one only. The building in use for this purpose was about
+seventy feet in length and twenty feet wide, and the tiled roof was
+supported upon brick pillars raised twelve feet from the ground. In its
+construction care was taken, above all things, to ensure a solid floor
+"impervious" to "moisture." This was made by first laying down six
+inches of well-prepared concrete, consisting of pounded granite,
+brick-dust, and gravel cemented together by hydraulic mortar, then
+overlaid with pure cement, and after this coated with an inch thick of
+asphalt. Around the whole building was an open drain, about two feet
+inside of the pillars, and built like the floor, and carefully graded to
+the outfall. The walls, pillars, and drains were coated with coal tar,
+and here and there daily renewed to ensure deodorization. Close to the
+drain, and at eighteen inches apart, were placed troughs of hard wood
+two feet in length, one foot nine inches wide, and nine inches deep,
+with stout handles at either end. These troughs were smeared over with
+pitch. Between every second trough was placed a box containing about a
+bushel of powdered red earth, perfectly dry, and in each box was a ladle
+made of half a cocoanut shell attached to a handle. Two convicts of the
+sixth, or feeble class, were placed in charge of this latrine, whose
+duty it was to see that the red earth was sprinkled by those using the
+troughs. When the troughs were full they were emptied into a
+conservancy cart with a hermetically closed screw top, and when this was
+full it was conveyed by bullocks to plantations in the country.
+
+We think we are quite warranted in saying that this was the first jail,
+if not the first establishment anywhere, in which this dry earth system
+of conservancy was used. For centuries, no doubt, in India the
+well-known habit of the cat had been followed by many of the native
+castes, but it was not until vast numbers of these convicts from India
+were aggregated in association that the application of the system to
+their dwellings was initiated, and we think that the clever invention of
+the "earth closet" for certain localities may have suggested itself to
+its inventor when a resident at Singapore.
+
+It may be as well to give here the testimony of Dr. Mouat, the
+Inspector-General of Jails, Bengal, on the efficiency of the conservancy
+of this old jail, and in no spirit of self-satisfaction we quote his own
+words "verbatim," which are as follows:--
+
+    "Singapore, _1st June, 1865_.--I have sincere pleasure in
+    recording the unmixed satisfaction which I have experienced
+    from a careful examination of the jail, and system of prison
+    management in use at Singapore.
+
+    The scrupulous cleanliness, perfect plan of conservancy,
+    excellent order, well-regulated system of labour and
+    punishments, and the high standard of health attained are not
+    surpassed in any other well-regulated institution of the same
+    kind that I am acquainted with in Europe or in Asia. My
+    personal knowledge of prisons and of all details of prison
+    management is sufficiently extended to entitle me to speak with
+    authority on this subject.
+
+    In many important points of internal economy and discipline,
+    Singapore can fairly lay claim to being _Primus in Indis_ in
+    the adoption and practical working of principles that are now
+    generally accepted as sound and correct. My own feeling on the
+    subject is that Colonels Man and Macpherson and Captain McNair,
+    to whom the chief credit appears to be due, are entitled to
+    rank in the first class of prison officers and reformers in
+    India."
+
+Perhaps the last addition to the jail buildings was the erection by the
+convict bricklayers and plasterers of a stand to hold the prison bell,
+and from whence to call the roll at general musters. It was built in the
+form of a "monopteron," a sort of structure without walls, and composed
+of columns arranged in a circle, and supporting a covered cupola.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VIII
+
+DIVISION INTO CLASSES, TRADES, FOOD, AND CLOTHING
+
+
+We now come to deal with perhaps not a very inviting part of our
+subject, viz. the division of the convicts into classes, their
+supervision, artificer trades, hours of work, food, and clothing, but it
+must be told in brief in order to make the narrative of this jail
+complete.
+
+They were divided into six classes, but since the year 1857, when Major
+McNair took charge, sec. A of the third class, and sec. A of the fifth
+class were added to the classification.
+
+    The _First Class_ consisted of trustworthy convicts allowed out
+    on ticket of leave.
+
+    _Second Class_ consisted of convict petty officers, male and
+    female, and those employed in hospitals and public offices.
+
+    _Third Class_ were convicts employed on roads and public works,
+    having passed through their probationary course.
+
+    _Fourth Class_ were convicts newly arrived, and those degraded
+    from other classes or promoted from the fifth class. They
+    worked in light irons.
+
+    _Fifth Class_ were convicts degraded from the higher classes,
+    and such as required more than ordinary vigilance to prevent
+    escape, or regarding whom special instructions had been
+    received from India. They worked in heavy irons.
+
+    _Sixth Class_ were invalids and superannuated convicts.
+
+    Youths were transferred to a special gang for "boys."
+
+[Illustration: DUFFADAR RAM SINGH, SENIOR PETTY OFFICER OF THE JAIL.
+
+_McNair._
+
+_Plate XII._]
+
+Convicts, if for life, were admitted to the first class after having
+been sixteen years in transportation; if for seventeen years, after
+twelve years; and if for seven years, after having been six years in
+transportation. Females, for whatever period, from three to five years.
+Before a ticket of leave could be granted, the convict had to provide
+personal security for his good behaviour and continued presence in the
+settlement; and any misdemeanour on his part involved a revoking of his
+ticket of leave, and his return to confinement in the prison and
+reduction to a lower class. All _First Class_ convicts, whether male or
+female, had to attend muster on the first of every month, and had to
+keep the Superintendent informed of their place of residence, and were
+bound to sleep in it every night.
+
+_Second Class_ convicts were employed as stated. They were allowed to
+go out of the jail after working hours, but had to appear at 8 p.m. roll
+call daily (except those employed at hospitals and in special duties),
+and were required to sleep in prison at night. Convicts were admitted to
+this class, on good behaviour, at the Superintendent's discretion, as
+follows:--
+
+  If transported for  7 years, after 5 years.
+         "        "  14   "      "   7   "
+         "        "  life,       "   8   "
+
+All jail petty officers, from duffadars to orderlies, were included in
+this class, and no convict was eligible for an orderly until he had been
+eight years in transportation; promotion went either by seniority or
+qualification, but he should have been an orderly for two years before
+being promoted to a peon.
+
+_Third Class_ convicts. Convicts were admitted to this class at the
+Superintendent's discretion--
+
+  If transported for 12 years, after 12 months.
+         "        "  14   "      "    2 years.
+         "        "  life,       "    3   "
+
+This was not a chain class, and one rupee a month was allowed to each
+man for the purchase of condiments, called "subsistence money." If not
+belonging to the country gangs, and of approved good conduct, this class
+was allowed, after working hours, to be outside the prison until 6 p.m.,
+if they had already completed four years in transportation; until that
+period had been discharged they were confined after work was over. This
+class was allowed to use their sectarian marks as a privilege. Degraded
+prisoners of this class were called "Sec. A, 3rd Class," and wore a ring
+on each ankle; they were strictly confined to the jail precincts.
+
+[Illustration: HEAD TINDAL MAISTRI OF CART MAKERS AND WHEELWRIGHTS.
+
+Plate XIII.]
+
+_Fourth Class._ All newly arrived convicts, except those regarding whom
+special instructions had been received from India, were placed in this
+class, and served their probation in it. They were worked in double
+light irons, and were not allowed to leave the prison except for work;
+they were not granted any money allowance, but fish, vegetables and
+condiments were supplied to them with their rations. They were, however,
+allowed the privilege to cook their own food.
+
+_Fifth Class._ This was a "punishment class" for troublesome characters
+from the upper classes, and every man degraded to it had to serve two
+years before being again promoted to the fourth class, and an additional
+six months before he could be promoted to the third class, unless the
+Superintendent saw sufficiently good cause for leniency. This class
+received clothing and rations like the fourth class, with vegetables,
+fish, and condiments; but all were cooked for them in mess under a
+convict cook. They received no money allowance, and were not allowed to
+leave the prison except for work. Refractory prisoners of this class
+were called "Sec. A, 5th Class"; they were put in the heaviest irons,
+with wrist irons if necessary, and were confined in the refractory ward
+on severe task work, as making coir from the rough husk of the
+cocoa-nuts, pounding and cleaning rice, and such like hard labour.
+
+"Flogging": If upon rare occasions this punishment had to be resorted
+to, the culprit was first inspected by the medical officer to see if he
+were capable to undergo the sentence: usually the number of lashes was
+from one dozen up to six dozen with the cat-o'-nine-tails. If passed by
+the medical officer, the punishment was inflicted in the presence of the
+convicts, and by selected convict warders, the medical officer or his
+apothecary being invariably present during the infliction. The triangles
+were of the usual pattern, and the flogging was on the buttock.
+
+No person was allowed to punish a convict but the Superintendent or the
+Assistant Superintendent acting for him. The defaulter was brought to
+the inquiry room, the case inquired into fully, and the default and
+sentence duly recorded in a book kept for the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: CONVICT OF THE SECOND CLASS AND MUNSHI.
+
+_Plate XIV._]
+
+_Sixth Class._ This class embraced all invalid and incapable men who
+were able to perform light work, as sweepers, watchmen in country
+commands, and in charge of latrines; also caretakers at Government
+bungalows, and those superannuated men who were exempt from all work. No
+convicts were admitted to this class until declared unfit for hard work
+by the medical officer and the Annual Medical Committee. Men of
+approved conduct got the indulgences of their former class. Female
+convicts belonged to this class, of which there were always a few under
+transportation. They were confined in a separate ward under a convict
+matron, and no prison male warder was allowed therein on pain of
+degradation.
+
+The supervising staff consisted of a Superintendent--who was also the
+Executive Engineer of the station--and his assistant, a chief warder and
+two assistants, an overseer of artificers and of roads. The native
+staff, being all petty officers raised from amongst the convicts,
+consisted of three duffadars, eight first tindals, twenty-two second
+tindals, ninety-four peons, and sixty-five orderlies, for the number of
+convicts then under confinement.
+
+In the year 1857 there were 2,139 convicts from different parts of
+India, Burmah, and Ceylon in this jail; but upon an average, until the
+prison was broken up, there were 1,900 always under control. The men
+from India were Seikhs, Dogras, Pallis, or a shepherd race; Thugs and
+Dacoits from different parts of the Bengal presidency, and mostly from
+round about Delhi and Agra; felons from all parts of the Madras and
+Bombay presidencies, and a few from Assam and Burmah, chiefly Dacoits,
+and a sprinkling of Cingalese.
+
+Upon arrival from India, each convict was checked with the warrants that
+accompanied the several gangs, then photographed, bathed, and supplied
+with the prison clothing, and each received a number by which, until he
+entered the third class, he was always known. Each convict was then duly
+inspected by the medical officer before admission to the wards. Any
+property with them was scheduled and put away until they were entitled
+to receive it, and the clothing in which they arrived was duly
+fumigated.
+
+The artificer body was drawn from the third and fourth classes only, and
+they were subject to the same discipline as their classes in the general
+prison. They were divided into four grades, according to the degree of
+skill they evinced, and received a monthly allowance commencing at one
+half a rupee, or 1s. a month, up to the highest sum given to the best
+workmen of 10s. a month, who were called "tindal maistris," and who
+were entrusted with the duty of teaching beginners. These tindal
+maistris were exempted from keeping watch in the wards at night.
+
+The several trades taught in the prison were as follows, and none of
+them were dangerous to health except the cement-sifting by females on
+treadles, which had to be discontinued:--
+
+  Bricklayers and plasterers.
+
+  Brick and tile makers and potters.
+
+  Blacksmiths.
+
+  Basket makers.
+
+  Coopers.
+
+  Carpenters, cement and lime burners.
+
+  Gardeners.
+
+  Painters.
+
+  Lime and charcoal burners.
+
+  Plumbers.
+
+  Quarrymen.
+
+  Sawyers, stone cutters, and blasters.
+
+  Slaters.
+
+  Shoe and sandal makers.
+
+  Tailors.
+
+  Turners and weavers.
+
+  Wheelwrights.
+
+  Woodcutters.
+
+  Boatmen.
+
+  Stone masons.
+
+[Illustration: CONVICT OF THE FIFTH CLASS, CONVICT OF THE FIFTH CLASS,
+SEC. A.
+
+_Plate XV._]
+
+Those few of the convicts who had acquired a trade in their native
+country were not admitted to the artificer gang until they had gone
+through their probationary period in irons on the public roads. The bulk
+of the convicts were trained in the prison itself; and after the year
+1857 native methods of working were abandoned, and the use of our
+carpenter's bench introduced, and English tools employed in all trades.
+
+They felled and stacked timber upon the island, which, after conveyance
+to the yard, was sawn and wrought into all that was required for roofing
+timbers, doors and window frames. They made the bricks, lime, and
+cement, and all tiles necessary for roofing or for paving. They quarried
+the stone at Pulo Obin for foundations, and for sea and river walls. The
+blacksmiths cast and forged from the raw state all the iron work for
+which there was a necessity. As a matter of fact all material and all
+labour for the execution of any public work required by the Government
+were executed by these convicts, from a small timber bridge upon a
+country road, even to the erection of a "cathedral" and "Government
+House," of which it is purposed further to give a detailed account.
+
+This is the proper place in which we may mention that in the years
+1859-60 the estimated value of this convict labour was 162,230 rupees,
+while the expenses of the whole convict department amounted to 117,578
+rupees. In 1860-61 the manufacture account showed a balance of 25,028
+rupees in favour of the State, though profit was always deemed of
+secondary importance. Material was valued at one half the market rate,
+and the labour at two-thirds the value of the same labour prevailing in
+the place.
+
+The hours of work were limited to nine, including the time taken in
+marching to and fro from the works; but to add to discipline we would
+occasionally give them some extra hours of work, answering somewhat to
+our "pipebrooms" in the Navy, or the "pipe-claying of belts" in our Army
+on the line of march on active service.
+
+[Illustration: CHETOO, AN INCORRIGIBLE CONVICT OF THE FIFTH CLASS.
+
+_Plate XVA._]
+
+The jail bell was rung at 5 a.m. (except Sunday), when every convict
+rose, rolled up his blanket with the number visible, and placed his
+"chadar" or sheet in his box, which was also numbered to correspond. He
+was marched out to the prison yard with the men of his ward, and the
+roll was called by the responsible officer. Time for light food was
+allowed, and the convicts were then detailed to the work gangs as
+arranged overnight. The work gangs left the prison punctually at 6
+a.m., and returned at 11 a.m.; were marched out again at 1 p.m.,
+returning at 5 p.m. At 6 p.m. a roll was again called for the 3rd, 4th,
+and 5th classes, who were then locked up for the night. At 8 p.m. there
+was another roll call for those who had the privilege, and then all were
+seen to their wards, and all wards and gates were locked by 9 p.m., when
+strict silence reigned throughout the prison; the European warder going
+rounds up to 10 p.m., and occasionally, with the Superintendent and his
+assistant, paying surprise night rounds. Convicts on the march out of
+prison were moved five abreast, or as they called it "panch-panch,"
+literally, by "fives."
+
+On the first of every month there was a general muster of the whole of
+the convicts, including the first class, when the roll was called, and
+each answered to his name or number. This muster was always in the
+presence of the Superintendent, who inspected each convict, and if any
+one had a grievance his name was taken down, and his complaint
+afterwards inquired into at the "Inquiry Room." This opportunity was
+taken by the Superintendent to inspect the whole prison, wards,
+latrines, drains, and bathing places.
+
+The rations required for the jail were either obtained upon indent upon
+the Government Commissariat Department, or by tender called for in the
+town. Each convict's daily allowance was as follows:--
+
+  To 2nd, 3rd,     Rice.  Dholl  Salt.   Ghee,   Vege-   Fish.  Mussalah
+  and 6th classes          or            clari-  tables.        or Curry
+  without                 Peas.          fied                   Stuff.
+  condiments.                            Butter.
+
+                    oz.    oz.    drs.    drs.    oz.     oz.     drs.
+
+  Effective men     32      5      8       8      --      --      7¼
+
+  Invalids and      24      2      8       8      --      --      7¼
+  Women
+
+To the fourth and fifth classes, being effective, with condiments, fish
+and vegetables alternating thus--
+
+                   Rice.  Dholl.  Salt.  Ghee.   Vege-   Fish.  Mussalah
+                                                 tables.        or Curry
+                                                                Stuff.
+
+                    oz.    oz.    drs.    drs.    oz.     oz.     drs.
+
+  Monday            28      5      1      10       5      --      7¼
+
+  Tuesday           28     --     --      10      --       5      7¼
+
+We found that this dietary scale was sufficient to a native under labour
+to repair waste tissue without giving fat. The "ghee," or clarified
+butter, made the rice more nutritious, and the "dholl," or peas,
+contained both albumen and starch, which would of themselves alone
+support life. For the penal class there was the usual congee diet.
+
+All convicts not being in the first class, nor employed as messengers in
+hospitals or at public offices (when they received a compensation), were
+clothed in the jail.
+
+  The 2nd, 3rd, and 6th }  half-yearly  {  Nine yards of stout grey
+  classes               }      and      {  shirting.
+                        }  duly marked  {  One suit.
+  4th and 5th classes   }               {  Two working suits and
+                                           a stout cap
+
+To all annually was given one blanket of coarse wool called a "kumblie,"
+and made by the convicts themselves from wool purchased in the place and
+prepared by them for the purpose.
+
+Belts and brass plates for them were supplied only to duffadars,
+tindals, peons, and orderlies.
+
+The European warders were dressed in a light blue serge loose coat with
+lace round the cap, and distinctive badge to indicate the grade, and in
+the case of an overseer of artificers a hammer and chisel crossed. After
+the reception in 1858-59 of a large number of mutineers they were
+supplied with a belt and revolver.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter IX
+
+PUBLIC WORKS AND INDUSTRIES
+
+
+In referring to the variety of public works undertaken by these Indian
+convicts, we have hitherto refrained from going into much detail in
+regard to them; but we think it will not be without interest to dwell
+somewhat more at length, as we have proposed, upon the construction of
+the cathedral and the Government House, which still remain as records of
+their labour, and spring into the greatest prominence. Of the jail
+itself, which, as we have said, was planned and partially carried out by
+the late General Man, nothing further need, we think, be added for it is
+now dismantled except that it was in truth the training ground for the
+artificer gang under that able officer, who saw the absolute necessity
+of having some large public work in hand in order to the convicts
+acquiring a knowledge of the various trades. This principle in the
+management of convicts was advocated by Sir Edmund Du Cane in one of his
+pamphlets, in which he judiciously says that "the best system devised
+for the employment of convicts is that of executing large public works
+by means of their labour."
+
+[Illustration: CATHEDRAL, SINGAPORE.
+
+_Koch._
+
+_Plate XVI._]
+
+As the late General Man had for this purpose the erection of the
+permanent jail, so the late Colonel Macpherson planned and laid the
+foundations for execution by their labour of St. Andrew's Church, now
+the cathedral of the diocese; while to Major McNair fell the duty of
+designing and constructing almost wholly by these convicts the house for
+the Governor of the colony.
+
+
+CATHEDRAL[10] (see Plate XVI.).
+
+In preparing the designs of this ecclesiastical edifice, Colonel
+Macpherson had to select as simple and easy a form of architecture as he
+could, and with as little ornament as possible, and therefore within the
+capacity of his workpeople; so he chose the Gothic, or rather, we should
+say, the Early English style of about the 12th century, and in so doing
+he said he had somewhat reproduced the character of old Netley
+Abbey.[11] He laid the foundations, and saw it built up to about three
+feet above the ground, and then left for Malacca to take up the
+appointment of Chief Civil Officer there, and was therefore not able
+further to see the progress of the work that he had inspired. His plans,
+however, were carefully followed by his successor, with the exception,
+as has already been said, of substituting a spire for a tower, owing to
+undue settlement at the tower end. This building is 250 feet long
+internally, by 65 feet in width, with nave and side aisles; or, with the
+north and south transepts, 95 feet, the transepts being used as
+porticoes. The simple columns, with plain mouldings only, carried
+arches, on which rested the side walls of the nave, which were run up of
+sufficient height to clear the roofs of the aisles, and were perforated
+by a range of windows to admit light to the whole building. At the
+north-east end of the nave was a great arch leading into a chancel, and
+an apse with three lancet windows in stained glass. The building was
+roofed with teak timber, with a sarking of lighter wood as a lining to
+form a contrast, and then covered with slates imported from England.
+Over the main entrance is a vaulted dome, with a neat piece of groining
+in granite, also made by the convicts. Leading to the organ loft is a
+circular well staircase, made from quarter-inch plate iron, the treads
+and risers punched with holes by the punching machine in the work yard
+to render them lighter. They were bracketed together, and secured by
+screw bolts and nuts. The risers were bent round a two-inch bar of round
+iron, which passed down through all of them at the centre from top to
+bottom of the staircase. The whole was made and fixed in its place by
+the convicts.
+
+    [Footnote 10:
+
+      Archdeacon and Chaplain, Ven. John Perham; }
+      Choirmaster, Mr. C. B. Buckley;            } 1899.
+      Organist, Mr. E. Salzmann.                 }        ]
+
+    [Footnote 11: Colonel Macpherson had seen as a young man the
+    ruins of the old church and abbey of Netley, or "Letley," as it
+    was originally called, from the Latin word "lætus," pleasant,
+    and the Saxon word "ley," a field, and had been so impressed
+    with the simple character and proportions of the Early English
+    style of church architecture, of which this was an excellent
+    example, that when called upon to plan a new church for
+    Singapore, he, as we say, chose this as his model.
+
+    We have a very good account of Netley Abbey given in 1848 by
+    George Guillaume, architect, and from his description it was
+    founded in 1239, and was occupied by monks of the Cistercian
+    order, who were brought over from a neighbouring monastery at
+    Beaulieu in the New Forest, where there was already an abbey
+    dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Netley Church was built on a
+    cruciform plan, and was proportioned according to the ancient
+    mysterious figure called the "Visica Pisces," as will be seen
+    in the sketch below from his work.
+
+        [Illustration: A Visica Pisces.]
+
+    Singapore Church, now, as we have said, the cathedral of the
+    diocese, has been much admired for its true symmetry and exact
+    proportion, as well as for the delicate simplicity of its
+    details.]
+
+As a pattern for the convicts to follow, we built two arches on the
+ground, the exact counterpart of those in the building; and, indeed, at
+any time when they wanted a guide, we had a model made; and the natives
+of India are such wonderful imitators, as we all know, that they soon
+were able to follow the copy we had given them. So the work progressed
+from day to day, until it was ultimately finished in 1862. We found that
+the skill of the convicts never failed them, and their capacity as
+builders and carpenters never seemed to slacken.
+
+In dealing with the interior walls and columns, we used what is well
+known, though little employed with us in England, "Madras chunam," made
+from shell lime without sand; but with this lime we had whites of eggs
+and coarse sugar, or "jaggery," beaten together to form a sort of paste,
+and mixed with water in which the husks of cocoanuts had been steeped.
+The walls and columns were plastered with this composition, and, after a
+certain period for drying, were rubbed with rock crystal or rounded
+stone until they took a beautiful polish, being occasionally dusted with
+fine soapstone powder, and so leaving a remarkably smooth and glossy
+surface.
+
+We have given the dimensions of this building, but we may remark that,
+owing to the simplicity of its tracery and mouldings, it really appears
+much larger than it actually is, and being built on an open space, its
+proportions at once strike the eye of every visitor to the colony.
+
+A peal of bells was added to the cathedral in 1889 by the munificence of
+Mr. W. H. Read, C.M.G., who, with the late Mr. John Crawfurd, Mr. James
+Guthrie, and others, was instrumental in bringing about the transfer
+of these settlements to the Crown, and some of their portraits are now
+in the Town Hall, including that of Mr. Thomas Scott, then M.L.C.
+
+[Illustration: MORTAR MILL, GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE.
+
+GOVERNMENT HOUSE GARDEN BEING LAID OUT BY CONVICTS.
+
+_Plate XVII._]
+
+
+GOVERNMENT HOUSE (see Plate XIX.).
+
+We have already mentioned that the transfer of the Straits Settlements
+from the direct control of India to the Crown was effected on the 1st
+April, 1867. The first Governor under the new _régime_ was Colonel Sir
+Harry St. George Ord, R.E., who, upon his arrival in Singapore, had to
+take up his abode in a hired house. He therefore lost no time in issuing
+orders to purchase land, and to erect a suitable residence for himself
+and for the future Governors of the colony. Plans were accordingly
+called for from the colonial engineer (Major McNair), and they soon took
+shape and were submitted by the Governor to the Legislative Council
+without delay; and money was voted for the erection of the building, the
+purchase of land, and the ordering of furniture from England. The work
+was actually commenced within three months of the Governor's arrival,
+the foundation-stone was laid by Lady Ord a month later, and the
+building was made ready for the reception of H.R.H. the Duke of
+Edinburgh in October, 1869.
+
+The whole of the brick work, exterior plastering, and most of the
+flooring and interior work were effected by convict labour; but it
+became necessary, towards the last, to employ free labour, to assist in
+the flooring, which was executed with battens from the steam sawmills at
+Johore, and also in the coffering of the ceilings in the drawing-room
+and some plastering in the rear block. The whole of the bricks used were
+made by the convicts, and much of the lime and cement was of their
+manufacture.
+
+The edifice stands upon a hill in the eastern suburb of the town, about
+a mile and a quarter from the cathedral, and is surrounded by nearly 100
+acres of ground, which has been tastefully laid out, and planted with
+rare plants under successive Superintendents of the Government Botanical
+Gardens. The building commands an extensive view of the harbour and
+surrounding country, and from the tower the distant islands and mainland
+of Johore are distinctly visible. It is supplied with water from the
+town water supply,[12] by the use of a hydraulic ram. It was first
+lighted with gas, but now by the electric light throughout the whole
+building.
+
+    [Footnote 12: Also a work which we initiated and brought to
+    completion on designs approved by the late Sir Robert
+    Rawlinson, K.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE, APPROACHING COMPLETION.
+
+_Plate XVIII._]
+
+The house is built somewhat in the shape of a cross. Ascending a flight
+of broad steps from the wide portico, you enter a spacious entrance hall
+floored with beautiful white marble from Java, having in your direct
+front a handsome stone staircase leading up through an arcade to a
+half-pace, from which it returns right and left to the lobby above,
+which is of the same dimensions as the entrance hall. Off this lobby, on
+the eastern wing, is the library, and beyond, the principal bed and
+dressing-rooms, and an open verandah over the portico (since regrettably
+built in). In the western wing is a double drawing-room, with disengaged
+pillars between; and below, off the entrance hall, on the east side, is
+the ball-room, and on the west the dining hall and billiard-rooms.
+Store-rooms, pantries, and all necessary accommodation were supplied as
+in any of our home mansions.
+
+The ground floor of the building is raised four feet from the plateau,
+and ample ventilation is provided underneath. The building is 230 ft. in
+frontage, and 180 ft. in depth, and the height to the tower is 80 ft.
+The style is Ionic upon Doric, with Corinthian pillars and pilasters to
+the tower. It is roofed with slates, and the lower floors and verandahs
+are paved with marble.
+
+As at the cathedral training for the convicts, so here models of the
+pillars and capitals were made on the ground for them to copy, and the
+special bricks for mouldings, copings, architraves, and capitals were
+made at the convict brick kilns.[13] The plaster work for the exterior
+walls was a subject of much consideration with us; and, after various
+experiments, we arrived at the following composition, and it has
+thoroughly withstood the weather, which, under the trying circumstances
+of a rapid succession of damp and heat, was exceptional in that
+climate:--
+
+  Portland cement        2 parts.  }
+                                   } Carefully and
+  White selected sand    1 part.   } slowly mixed
+                                   } by the
+  Granite powdered to }            } convicts.
+  dust in small       }  2 parts.  }
+  handmills, or       }            }
+  querns              }            }
+
+    [Footnote 13: All taught by ourselves to the convicts, with the
+    assistance of Overseer Callcott, now risen to be Deputy
+    Colonial Engineer.]
+
+A gift by the Chinese community of a statue of H.M. the Queen was
+unveiled with some ceremony at this Government House in the year 1889.
+
+
+INDUSTRIES (INTRA-MURAL).
+
+We have already enumerated the various trades that were taught to these
+Indian convicts, and shall therefore confine our remarks here to a brief
+description of some of those productive occupations upon which we
+employed their labour both within and without the main jail.
+
+We must, however, make known beforehand, in connection with intra-mural
+works, that, attached to the main jail, yet distinctly separated from it
+by high walls and a guarded gateway, was a "work-yard," in which were
+built shops for carpenters, blacksmiths, coopers, wheelwrights, sawyers,
+stone-cutters, and turners in wood and iron.
+
+[Illustration: GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE, COMPLETED.
+
+_McNair._
+
+_Plate XIX._]
+
+In one part of this yard was also a machine shop, in which were fitted
+lathes, punching and shearing machines, and a bolt and nut machine, also
+a band saw and a circular saw table. To drive this machinery a 12 h.p.
+engine was used, and this was placed under the charge of a convict who
+had been employed in the engine-room of a P. and O. steamer, and had
+gone through his probationary period in the jail. Added to these
+machines was one of Blake's stone-crushers to break stone of various
+gauges for metalling the roads of the town.
+
+This was the first Indian jail, and we might even go so far as to say it
+was amongst the first of any jails, where convicts were employed in
+connection with steam power. We had, it is true, an engine to be worked
+by manual power, for six or eight men abreast, to drive the circular
+saw, but it did not answer. It was intended as "crank" labour for the
+convicts.
+
+When Dr. Mouat, the Inspector-General of Jails, Bengal, wrote his annual
+report of 1864-65, he said: "I have suggested the introduction of steam
+machinery for the spinning of jute yarn, in order that all prisoners
+sentenced to rigorous imprisonment may never be without the hard labour
+which the jail is bound to provide for them. In this, as in most matters
+connected with the organization of prison industry, I have been
+anticipated by the authorities at Singapore, there being a steam
+saw-mill in use at the Singapore jail, and a pug-mill employed in the
+preparation of the clay used in the brick and tile manufactory."
+
+The carpenters made every necessary article required for the public
+buildings in progress; even the pulpit, reading-desk, and interior
+fittings for the cathedral were the work of their hands. The blacksmiths
+had four smithies, and forged, cast, and prepared all kinds of ordinary
+iron work found necessary. The coopers made buckets, tubs, and all the
+casks for storing cement, and for other jail purposes. The wheelwrights
+made all the carts, barrows (hand and wheel), and the hack-barrows
+wanted at the brick kilns. The stone-cutters turned out the mouldings,
+mullions, capitals, cills, steps, and all that was essential in our
+building operations.
+
+Within the jail proper there were shops for tailors, weavers, rattan
+workers, coir and rope makers, flag makers, a printing press, and a
+photographic studio, and a few draughtsmen for executing plans and
+working drawings. The tailors cut out, made, and repaired the clothing
+for the fourth and fifth classes, and any other such occupation required
+in the prison. The weavers, who worked with an ordinary Indian
+hand-loom, made the coarse cloth required for those classes in irons,
+and washed, dressed, combed, carded, and spun the raw wool purchased
+from the butchers in the town, from which the "kumblies" or coarse
+blankets supplied to all the convicts were made. The coir or yarn
+manufactured from the husks of cocoanuts was prepared by those employed
+at "hard labour" in the refractory ward. From this yarn we made cordage
+for the convict boats, mattresses for the hospitals, and matting of
+various kinds. The flag makers made up and repaired the flags and
+colours for the signal stations, and for the department of the master
+attendant. Upon this work female convicts, and feeble men of the sixth
+class, were usually employed.
+
+The printing press was established in 1860, and to start it the services
+of a Portuguese foreman printer were engaged for a short time to teach
+the convicts; and bookbinding was added later on. Photography was taught
+by one of us[14] to two intelligent convicts of the Calcutta Baboo class
+who wrote English. All convicts had their likeness taken, and were
+registered for identification in case of escape; also local prisoners
+and men under custody by the police. We had not, of course, the
+knowledge then of Mr. Henry's method of identity by means of
+"finger-prints," for it was only approved last year by the Government of
+India. The draughtsmen, numbering three, executed all the plans and
+working drawings for the public works. Those for the cathedral and
+Government House, and many other buildings, were drawn by these men, the
+principal draughtsman being a convict transported from Bombay of the
+name of Babajee. The rattan workers wrought chairs and baskets of all
+kinds, fenders for the Government steamers, and signal baskets for the
+flagstaff's.
+
+    [Footnote 14: Major McNair, who himself supplied both apparatus
+    and chemicals.]
+
+There were other minor industries carried on within the prison walls, so
+that it was a busy scene of task work from one end to the other, for
+every one was engaged upon something, and there was no chance for an
+idler to do nothing. Nursing a job was quite out of the question.
+
+But we must pass on to deal with the industries beyond the walls, and we
+shall limit our description to the making of bricks, lime, and cement,
+and the quarrying of stone, and well digging.
+
+
+INDUSTRIES (EXTRA-MURAL).
+
+It will be quite superfluous to give an account in detail of the method
+pursued in brick and tile making, for the process is known to every one.
+Suffice it to say that Colonel Faber, R.E., as previously noted, was the
+first to introduce the manufacture on Government account; he opened a
+place at Rochore, near the present gasworks, and employed free labour.
+The system was what is known as the "dry" and sand-moulding system, and
+the bricks were burned in clamps. All that could be said of these bricks
+was that they were better than those made by the Chinese at that time,
+but they were not a success, and the manufacture was after two or three
+years given up.
+
+In 1858 we started, on a systematic principle, under a trained European
+brick maker, an extensive brick field on the Serangoon Road, about three
+miles from the town, where there was a considerable bed of excellent
+clay for the purpose. The site, too, was well situated near the banks of
+an inlet from the sea, and affording great facility for water carriage,
+and with a palm grove close at hand, under the shade of which the
+convicts were allowed to roam without restraint when their work was
+over. Sheds, kilns, pug-mills, moulding tables, and all the necessary
+appliances for hand-made bricks were soon set on foot, and a large
+dormitory, surrounded by a stout precinct fence, was built for the
+number of convicts required for the manufacture, approximating to about
+120 of all classes, except those in irons.
+
+Our process was commonly known as "slop-moulding," each moulder turning
+out from 2,500 to 3,000 bricks in the course of the day. After the
+second year, when the convicts had become accustomed to the work, and to
+adapt themselves to each other, we were able to supply all that were
+needed for the public works, and even to export them for works at
+Malacca. In tabulating the account of the value of their labour and the
+outlay for fuel, and comparing it with the recognised value of the
+bricks, there was found to be a credit to the State in most years. (See
+Appendix No. 4.)
+
+When, in 1867, there was an Agricultural Exhibition at Agra, in the N.W.
+Provinces of India, we sent up specimens of bricks, tiles, drain pipes
+of all sizes, and stable flooring bricks, manufactured by these
+convicts, for which the Superintendent gained the silver medal; and if
+any further proof is needed of the excellent work turned out by these
+convicts, we may quote the report of the late Colonel Fraser, of the
+Bengal Engineers, which ran as follows:--
+
+    "As an Engineer Officer of the D.P.W., I have had a good deal
+    of experience as regards the management of jails in India and
+    Burmah, and have, of course, employed much convict labour, but
+    I have never been in any jail where the arrangements are so
+    perfect as in that of Singapore. While the discipline under
+    which the convicts are held is obviously most efficient, the
+    skill with which their labour is directed will be equally
+    obvious to all who will take the trouble, as I have done, to go
+    into the detail of their operations, and look at the results in
+    the many large works which have been executed at Singapore.
+
+    I went over the brick field with Captain McNair, and while I
+    found that the greatest reasonable amount of work was got out
+    of each man, I also found that the work turned out was the best
+    I have seen in India. Where there are good bricks, other work
+    is seen to be equally good, and when a proper amount of work is
+    required per convict, then the discipline must be also good; I
+    measured myself what the men were expected to do, and found it
+    to be three cubic yards in eight hours. This is the full task
+    of a European sapper in the same time."
+
+Our lime and cement were made from coral, of which there were extensive
+reefs round the Island of Singapore, and some few "atolls" (a Cingalese
+word), or special coral islands. Coral is almost a pure carbonate of
+lime, and therefore very well suited for the purpose. It was broken up
+and heated in kilns constructed for the purpose. The cement was made
+from this lime, and from selected clay, in the proportions we had by
+careful experiments established, until we obtained a good and
+quick-setting article. It was made into small balls and then dried, and
+burnt in a special kiln, and afterwards well and finely ground and
+sifted by female convicts; its tensile strength was excellent.
+
+[Illustration: CONVICTS STONE-QUARRYING, AT PULO OBIN, SINGAPORE.
+
+_Plate XX._]
+
+
+STONE QUARRYING (see Plate XX.).
+
+The stone we used for all our building operations was procured from an
+island between Singapore East and the mainland of Johore, and was named
+Pulo Obin. It is about three miles long and three-quarters of a mile
+broad. The stone was the best possible form of crystallised granite,
+fine grained, very compact and durable, grey in colour, with here and
+there black patches or nodules of hornblende. It occurs in large fluted
+boulders, and was wrought by the convicts by fire, or by blasting with
+gun-powder, or split by pointed chisels and large hammers. Its weight
+was 168 lbs. per cubic foot. The excellent quality of this granite led
+the Government of India to approve of the construction by the late
+Colonel Eraser, C.B., of several courses for the Alguada Reef
+lighthouse, which was built upon a dangerous reef off the coast of
+Burmah. Our department looked after the preparation of some of these
+courses, and forwarded them by ship to Burmah.
+
+
+WELL DIGGING.
+
+It is known to everyone how capable the Indians are in the sinking of
+wells, and that with many Orientals it is a work of great merit to build
+one. As two were required for Fort Canning, we were soon able to select
+men fitted for this special work amongst the third class convicts, who,
+many of them, begged to be allowed to take part in their construction.
+After a careful set of borings, we came upon water at a depth of 180 and
+120 feet respectively. They were eventually dug out to these depths, and
+steined to six feet in diameter by the use of sound and hard bricks from
+the convict kilns. The water rose to a height of 80 feet from the
+surface of the ground, and they were provided with lift and force pumps
+for the convenience of the troops in garrison. It was a heavy job for
+the convicts, but they performed it with eagerness and alacrity.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter X
+
+STORIES ABOUT INDIAN CONVICTS AND EUROPEAN LOCAL PRISONERS
+
+
+No. 1
+
+Most of the convicts sentenced to the Straits Settlements for short
+periods of transportation were, as we have said, usually retained in the
+convict jail at Malacca. Amongst these, in the sixties, was a very
+remarkable man, and known to both of us, of the name of "Tickery Banda,"
+who was a native of Ceylon, and had received a sentence of seven years
+in transportation for a crime committed in that island, though of which
+he declared, like many of his congeners, he was perfectly innocent.
+
+A story in connection with this man is given in Cameron's _Tropical
+Possessions in Malayan India_, which is quite worthy of repetition here.
+
+When the English took possession of Kandy, Tickery Banda and two or
+three brothers, children of the first minister of the King of the
+Kandians, were taken and educated in English by the then Governor of the
+island. Tickery afterwards became manager of some coffee plantations,
+and was so employed on the arrival of a Siamese mission of priests in
+1845, who came to see Buddha's tooth. It seems that he met the mission
+returning disconsolate, having spent some 5,000 rupees in presents and
+bribes in a vain endeavour to obtain a sight of the relic. Tickery
+learned their whole story, and at once ordered them to unload their
+carts and wait for three days longer, and that he would in due time
+obtain for them the desired view of the holy tooth. He had a cheque on a
+bank for £200 in his hands at the time, and this he offered to leave
+with the priests as a guarantee that he would fulfil his promise. He did
+not say whether the cheque was his own or his master's, or whether it
+was handed over or not; perhaps it was this cheque for the
+misappropriation of which he found his way to the convict lines of
+Malacca. The Siamese priests accepted his undertaking and unloaded their
+baggage, agreeing to wait for the three days. Tickery immediately placed
+himself in communication with the then Governor, and represented, as he
+says, forcibly, the impositions that must have been practised upon the
+King of Siam's holy mission, when they had expended all their gifts and
+had not yet obtained the desired view of the tooth. The Governor, who,
+Tickery says, was a great friend of his, appreciated the hardships of
+the priests, and agreed that the relic should be shown to them with as
+little delay as possible. It happened, however, that the keys of the
+temple where the relic was preserved were in the keeping of the then
+Resident Councillor, who was away some eight miles elephant shooting.
+But this difficulty was not long allowed to remain in the way, for
+Tickery immediately suggested that it was very improbable that the
+Resident Councillor would have included these keys in his hunting kit,
+and insisted that they must be in the Councillor's house. He therefore
+asked the Governor's leave to call upon Mrs. ----, the Resident
+Councillor's wife, and, presenting the Governor's compliments, to
+request that a search be made for the keys. Tickery was deputed
+accordingly, and by dint of his characteristic tact and force of
+language, carried the keys triumphantly to the Governor.
+
+The Kandy priests were immediately notified that their presence was
+desired, as it was intended to exhibit the great relic, and that their
+guardian officer would be necessary. Accordingly, on the third day, the
+temple was opened, and in the building the Siamese priests and
+worshippers were assembled, with Tickery on the one side, and the Kandy
+or guardian priests on the other side, with the Governor and the
+Recorder in the centre.
+
+After making all due offerings to the tooth of the great Buddha, the
+Siamese head priest, who had brought a golden jar filled with otto of
+roses, desired to have a small piece of cotton with some of the otto
+rubbed on the tooth, and then passed into the golden jar, thereby to
+consecrate the whole of the contents. To this process the Kandy priests
+objected, as being a liberty too great to be extended to foreigners. The
+Siamese priests, however, persisted in their request; and the Governor
+and Recorder, not knowing the cause of the altercation, asked Tickery to
+explain. Tickery, who had fairly espoused the cause of the Siamese,
+though knowing that in their request they had exceeded all precedent,
+resolved quietly to gratify their wish; so, in answer to the Governor's
+interrogatory, he took from the hands of the Siamese head priest a small
+piece of cotton and the golden jar of the volatile oil. "This is what
+they want, your Honour: they want to take this small piece of cotton,
+so--; and having dipped it in this oil, so--, they wish to rub it on the
+sacred tooth, so--; and having done this, to return it to the golden
+jar, so; thereby, your Honour, to consecrate the whole of the contents
+of the golden jar."
+
+All the words of Tickery were accompanied by the corresponding action,
+and of course the desired ceremony had been performed in affording
+explanation. The whole thing was the work of a moment, and the Governor
+and Recorder did not know how to interfere in time, though they knew
+also that such a proceeding was against all precedent. The Kandy priests
+were quite taken aback, while the Siamese priests, having obtained their
+desired object, took from Tickery Banda's hands the now consecrated
+golden jar with every demonstration of fervent gratitude. The Kandy
+priests were, however, loud in their indignation, and subsequently the
+Governor, patting Tickery on the back, said, "You have indeed settled
+the question, and it is a pity you were not born in the precincts of St.
+James', for you would have made a splendid political agent."
+
+The next morning Tickery received a douceur of 1,000 rupees from the
+Siamese priests, and has ever since been held in the highest esteem and
+respect by the King of Siam and his Buddhist priests, being considered
+quite a holy man, while periodically the King of Siam sends him
+substantial tokens of the Royal favour.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 2
+
+It was remarkable what a wide difference there was between the accounts
+given by the convicts themselves, of the circumstances which were the
+cause of their transportation, and the summary of them given in the
+warrants sent with them. Although many of them did not deny having
+committed what the law looked upon as a crime, they, under the
+circumstances, either considered that the act was justifiable, or
+perhaps that it was the result of accident. Here is the case of a
+convict who was sentenced to transportation for life for murder, given
+as related by himself.
+
+               *       *       *
+
+"In my Madras native village, I 'Rudrapah' was a planter (ryot). I was
+possessed of several large paddy fields; some were near my house and
+others were far off. At a little distance from my house a friend of mine
+lived, 'Allagappen' by name. He also was a ryot, and possessed of paddy
+fields. He often came to eat rice with me, and I often went to his
+house; we were like brothers. At a village about six miles away, there
+lived a man who was a breeder of cattle. He and his wife were very
+partial to me, and it was arranged between us that I should marry their
+daughter when she was old enough--she was then eleven years of age. All
+went well for two years, and then I was married to the girl and took her
+to my house. My friend, 'Allagappen,' used to come and visit us and eat
+rice as before. Things went on very well for five or six years: my wife
+and I were very happy together, and never quarrelled; we had only one
+child. Having saved some money, I bought a bandy (a country vehicle) and
+a pair of bulls, and used to hire them to any one travelling. Sometimes
+my bandy would be engaged for a long journey, and I would be away from
+my house for two or three days together, leaving my wife and child
+alone. But now my trouble began. About six months after I bought my
+bulls, one of them got sick and died. I had not then enough money to buy
+another, and was on the point of selling the bandy and remaining bull,
+when my wife proposed that we should ask her father to help us, as he
+had plenty of bulls. I had not thought of this, and I said, 'Very
+good.' We went and saw my father-in-law, and he agreed to let me have a
+bull and pay for it as I earned money. Soon after that I hired my bandy
+to a man to go to a town thirty miles away, expecting to be away some
+days. I left my wife and child under the charge of a neighbour and his
+wife, who promised to look after them. I and the man who hired my bandy
+set out early in the morning, and reached the town about mid-day next
+day. In the evening the man told me he was going to stay many days in
+the town, and I could return to my house. He paid me, and I bought some
+things I wanted. Early next morning, at daybreak, I set out on my
+journey back to my village, and arrived there about 3 o'clock the next
+morning; and after seeing to my bulls I went to my house and to my
+surprise found the door unfastened. I entered without making any noise,
+not knowing what could be the reason the door was not fastened. I went
+quickly into my sleeping place, and there I saw my wife laying asleep,
+and beside her was a man also asleep. On going close up to him that I
+might see who it was, to my great sorrow I found that it was my friend,
+'Allagappen.' It was my great misfortune that I had in my hands a
+granite stone, or sort of muller, for grinding massalah (curry stuff)
+which I had bought, and being so angered with my friend, and so overcome
+with grief at finding my wife to be false, it made me tremble so much
+that I let the stone fall from my hands, and quite unintentionally it
+dropped on 'Allagappen's' head, and the stone being heavy it broke his
+skull and killed him on the spot. My wife woke up, and seeing me, she
+screamed and ran away from the house. She went to the neighbours' house
+in whose charge I had left her. I followed her, and told them what I had
+done: that morning I was taken by the police and locked up, and after
+that I saw my house no more. I was tried by an English judge, and was
+sentenced to be sent away from my country for as long as I lived: such
+was my misfortune."
+
+               *       *       *
+
+Here the tears came into the old criminal's eyes, and it was very
+evident that there was still a soft place in his heart, showing a sign
+of reclamation in spite of his convict life. This convict was pardoned
+after serving twenty-five years.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 3
+
+As late as the year 1863 piracy had not been wholly suppressed in the
+Straits of Malacca, and cases were by no means rare of native trading
+craft being attacked by them. During this year a number of piratical
+boats infested the mouths of the rivers Prye, Juroo, and Junjong on the
+Malay Peninsula, and the South Channel between Penang Island and the
+mainland of Province Wellesley; and many a tongkong belonging to Chinese
+traders between Penang and Laroot was attacked by them and plundered,
+and sometimes the crews were murdered.
+
+Some of these pirates were in the habit of going about in Penang and
+quietly ascertaining what tongkongs were about to sail, and all
+particulars in regard to their cargo, crew, and so forth. Two of them
+having discovered that a tongkong owned and manned by Chinese was about
+to leave Penang for Laroot with some valuable cargo and $2,000 of specie
+on board, disguised themselves as "hadjis," or Mohammedan pilgrims, and
+engaged a passage in her. They arranged with some of their confederates
+to have a prahu, or fast sailing boat, at a certain place off the Juroo
+River, and when the tongkong in which they were passengers reached this
+spot a signal was to be given, and the prahu was to run alongside the
+tongkong; and after plundering her and gagging the crew, the pirates
+intended sinking the tongkong and making off in the prahu. They carried
+their villainous scheme into execution, but meeting with stouter
+resistance from the crew of the tongkong than they had anticipated, they
+killed, as they thought, every man on board, and were preparing to
+scuttle the tong-kong, when a boat containing Indian convicts, and
+employed in carrying coral for the Government lime kilns, and which,
+unperceived by the pirates, had been rapidly approaching, came alongside
+the tongkong, having been attracted by the yells and cries of the
+victims. The pirates, recognizing that they were convicts, immediately
+got into their prahu, and made sail as fast as they could; and she,
+being a very fast sailer, was soon out of sight. The convict tindal in
+charge of the boat, with one or two convict boatmen, went on board the
+tongkong and found all the crew and passengers dead; but fancying they
+heard groans they searched round the tongkong, and at last found one of
+the Chinese boatmen clinging to the rudder. They lifted him on board,
+and found that he was severely cut about, and covered with wounds. The
+convict tindal in charge of the Government boat then shaped his course,
+with the tongkong in tow, for Butterworth, in Province Wellesley, which
+they reached early in the morning. The wounded Chinaman was taken to the
+hospital, a report was made to the police of the pirates' attack, and
+the tongkong was handed over to their charge. From the description of
+the prahu given by the convict tindal, and the information gathered from
+the Chinaman when he was able to talk, the police were enabled to trace
+the prahu to Sunghie Rambay, where the pirates were arrested. The case
+was tried at the Supreme Court, Penang; some of the pirates were hanged,
+and the rest sentenced to penal servitude. The tindal of the Government
+boat and the convict boatmen were highly commended by the judge for
+their conduct, and were otherwise rewarded by the authorities.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 4
+
+We have referred elsewhere to the numerous races of India which went to
+form the convict body in the old Singapore jail. We found this admixture
+of castes and tribes a very valuable corrective against a possible
+chance of insurrection, and for the discovery of plots of escape; and,
+indeed, sometimes as a means of finding out any serious mischief that
+might be brewing in the jail.
+
+It seems to delight many a native of India to be a spy upon another; and
+though intrigues were never encouraged, nor as a rule listened to, yet
+now and again an informer would appear when the matter was of sufficient
+importance to be reported to the authorities.
+
+As an instance of this it may be recorded that on one occasion there was
+a dispute between two Sikhs, one of the "Ramdasee" and the other of the
+"Mazahbee" sect; and as they went from high words to blows they were
+placed in confinement and brought before the Superintendent[15] in the
+Inquiry room. After full investigation into the matter, the "Mazahbee"
+Sikh was proved to have been the instigator of the quarrel, and he was
+punished. The whole of his sect appear to have resented this judgment,
+and determined amongst themselves to be avenged, and to inflict some
+pain or injury upon the Superintendent. They began to plot and to scheme
+as to the best way to carry out their design; and this plotting was not
+lost on the observation of a clever Parsee convict, who, having traded
+in Northern India, knew their language. He watched them closely, and had
+decided when their plans were matured to inform the authorities.
+
+    [Footnote 15: Major McNair.]
+
+The scheme was only ripe for execution, however, on the very morning of
+the muster, so that there was no time for the Parsee convict to acquaint
+the chief warder; and as a last resource, therefore, he made up his mind
+to inform the Superintendent at the muster as to what was in store for
+him. Creeping stealthily along the rear of the standing men, he timed
+the arrival of the Superintendent going down the front on his
+inspection; and, stooping down, he thrust his head between the legs of
+the front rank men, and level with the ground, calling out only loud
+enough for the Superintendent to hear, "Khabardar sahib Sikh kepas
+tamancha hai"--"Look out, sir; a Sikh has a pistol." The Superintendent
+took no notice of the warning until he had passed to about the middle of
+that line, then he ordered the chief warder to take a dozen of the Sikhs
+who were standing at the end of the line, and move them off into their
+ward that he might inspect their boxes, and he added, "Search them
+thoroughly."
+
+As the Superintendent passed the end of the line, and was about to
+inspect another line at right angles to it, no shot had been fired; so
+he concluded that it was either a false alarm, or that the miscreant was
+amongst the dozen men in the ward. And so it proved; for shortly
+afterwards, the chief warder came to report that he had found a loaded
+pistol on the person of one of the Sikh convicts, and had placed him in
+a cell to await investigation.
+
+After the muster an inquiry accordingly took place, and it turned out
+that a fellow-tribesman had managed to pass the main gate with a pistol
+secreted about his person, and had handed it to the man to whom the lot
+had fallen to do the deed.
+
+The would-be assassin was sentenced to heavy irons, and placed in the
+refractory ward. The gang was eventually broken up, the ringleaders
+being transferred to Penang, and the remainder kept in Singapore under
+close observation. The Parsee convict, who checkmated the conspirators,
+was advanced from the third to the second class, and otherwise rewarded.
+
+The design on the life of the late Colonel Macpherson, the immediate
+predecessor of the above, was also similarly frustrated by another
+Parsee, who, on the evening before muster, observed a man burying a
+knife in the sandy ground near which he had to stand for inspection.
+Waiting his opportunity, he proceeded to the spot and withdrew the blade
+from the knife, and replaced the handle just above the ground as he had
+found it. When Colonel Macpherson passed the man on the morrow he
+quickly seized the handle from the ground to make his stab, but only to
+find that he was unexpectedly baulked in his villainous attempt to kill
+his Superintendent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 5
+
+"FUNNY JOE"
+
+His surname need not be mentioned, but he went by the name of "Funny
+Joe." He was the son of a clergyman of the Church of England, sharp
+witted, and well educated; but his moral character, from some cause or
+another, became quite disorganised, and to the grief of his parents he
+left his home and took to the sea. His education there stood him in good
+stead, and under new surroundings he improved for the time, and
+eventually rose to be chief mate of a ship. Had he persevered in this
+good course, he would in all probability have succeeded well in the
+mercantile service; but events proved otherwise, and on his second
+voyage as mate he was, he said, wrongfully charged as being both
+insolent and insubordinate to his commander, and on the arrival of the
+vessel at the Cape of Good Hope he was discharged. Left with but small
+means, and, to him, almost on foreign soil, he bethought himself of some
+expedient for making money; so, getting hold of a sailor loafing at the
+port, he talked matters over with him, and they decided upon clubbing
+their resources, hiring a hall, and circulating posters that on a
+certain night at "so much," and "so much" for entrance, a man might be
+seen "walking on the ceiling like a fly." On the night advertised the
+hall was crowded. "Funny Joe" then went to his companion, who was
+collecting the money, and took from him the amount he had received, and
+told him he might have all the rest that he could collect. He (Funny
+Joe) then decamped, and was never heard of more in Cape Town. He was
+next at Rangoon, where he got into the same plight for want of funds;
+but his mother wit came to his aid again, and this time he posed before
+the public as a naturalist who had discovered off the coast what he
+pronounced could be nothing else than a "mermaid," and for the
+exhibition of this marine creature, which he had cleverly constructed
+from the head and breast of an ape and half the body of a fish, he
+obtained a good round sum. We hear of him next at Singapore, where he
+also advertised his "mermaid" as being on exhibition at a certain
+boarding establishment. There, however, the "mermaid" did not succeed,
+and his funds being exhausted he possessed himself of a watch and some
+cash, the property of the people of the house with whom he lodged, and
+for which he was sent to jail. Here he came under some strict discipline
+and good wholesome advice, and it was in the Singapore jail that he told
+the story of his life as given above.
+
+When the term of his sentence had expired, and he was about to be
+discharged, he warmly thanked the Superintendent for his counsel, and
+declared very positively that he intended to turn over a new leaf.
+
+We believe that he did so; at all events, the last heard of him was that
+he had signed articles as mate of a ship; and he scrupulously returned
+to the Superintendent (Major McNair) the money he had advanced to him
+from his private purse to make a new start in life.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 6
+
+CONVICTS WITH A COBRA AND A CROCODILE
+
+It is well known that the Cobra di Capello is one of the most deadly of
+the snakes of India and the East. The palish yellow cobra of India is
+perhaps more dangerous and surely fatal in its bite than the black
+"cobra" or "kala samp," which is more frequently found in the Straits
+Settlements, but neither of them is very pleasant to be in close
+proximity to.
+
+_The Cobra._--As we have noticed elsewhere, some of the convicts were
+very expert in catching these reptiles and extracting their fangs. The
+following personal incident is given by a public works officer:--
+
+    "When the new cantonments were in progress at Tanglin I was
+    placed in charge of the works by Col. G. C. Collyer, R.E., the
+    then Chief Engineer of the Straits Settlements, and was
+    permitted to occupy a part of a large house on the estate. The
+    bath rooms were on the ground floor, and stairs from the
+    bedrooms above led down to them. One morning, just as I was
+    sitting down to breakfast, my convict orderly came running to
+    me and said that a large 'cobra' had crawled up the drain
+    leading from the main drain at the back of the house to the
+    bath room. We went immediately to the bath room, and, finding
+    that the snake had not made his appearance inside, I stopped up
+    the opening into the drain with a towel, and the convict
+    orderly, who had gone round to the outer end of the drain,
+    began pushing a long bamboo up it. This drove the snake to the
+    upper end. The convict, then, with a pickaxe, loosened a brick
+    from the covering of the drain close to the wall of the house,
+    while I stirred up the bamboo rod. The convict then gently and
+    by degrees removed the brick, and in an instant the snake
+    emerged fully from the drain, raising its hood and hissing at
+    us. It then retreated back to the drain, when the convict
+    dexterously seized it by the tail, and, drawing it out, held it
+    tight by the neck. The convict then teased the snake with his
+    coarse flannel 'kumblie,' or blanket, and it struck at it
+    several times with its fangs; when, with a sudden jerk, the
+    convict drew out the fangs in the blanket, and the snake became
+    perfectly harmless.
+
+    "The snake was afterwards sent on board H.M. surveying
+    schooner _Saracen_, and getting loose on board was summarily
+    destroyed, for none on board had been told that its fangs had
+    been removed."
+
+_The Crocodile._--Govindhoo, a convict employed at the Pulo Obin stone
+quarries, was admitted into hospital with a lacerated leg, the foot
+being almost severed from the body. He was visited by one of us, and
+told his story as follows:--
+
+    "I was walking along the sea beach close to the water, when I
+    was suddenly seized from behind, and I at once saw that I was
+    in the jaws of a crocodile. I had nothing in my hand but my
+    'roomal,' or handkerchief, with my keys tied in one corner. I
+    hit at his head with this, but it was of no use, and finding
+    myself being dragged into deeper water, I suddenly thought I
+    could dig out both his eyes,[16] and I did it, and very shortly
+    afterwards he let me go, and I half swam, half paddled back to
+    the shore."
+
+The convict's leg had to be amputated.
+
+    [Footnote 16: Literally gouged the animal.]
+
+    The Malays say that there are three descriptions of crocodiles,
+    or, as they call them, "buaya." The first is the "katak" or
+    frog crocodile, the second the "labu" or gourd crocodile, and
+    the third is the "tumbaga" or copper crocodile. The frog
+    crocodile is the most active, and we have often been told by
+    Malay boatmen, when going up a river, to keep our hands and
+    shoulders well within the boat, for fear of their sudden
+    attack. There are, however, known to our naturalists a dozen
+    or more different forms of the crocodile proper, and it is said
+    that they have been found up to thirty feet in length; but from
+    eighteen feet to twenty feet is the longest found in the
+    Straits of Malacca. They may often be seen in the Malay rivers,
+    and on the coast, floating in the water, with the snout well
+    above the surface, on the look out for prey.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 7
+
+The Chinese have one superstition amongst many in regard to tigers. They
+believe that when a person is killed by a tiger his "hantu," or ghost,
+becomes the slave of the beast and attends upon it; that the spirit acts
+the part of a jackal, as it were, and leads the tiger to his prey; and
+so thoroughly subservient does the ghost become to his tigerish master,
+that he not infrequently brings the tiger to the presence of his wife
+and family, and calmly sees them devoured before his ghostly face.
+
+A very ingenious tiger trap was invented by Mr. Frank Shaw, of Caledonia
+sugar estate, in Province Wellesley, which is worth describing. It was
+constructed at the foot of a small hill, about a mile away from the
+estate, where there was a considerable area of secondary jungle and
+gigantic bracken fern, a favourite resort of tigers. A trench, about
+four or five feet wide, was opened in the sloping ground for a distance
+of ten or twelve feet; stout stakes were driven in the trench close to
+the sides, projecting some three or four feet above the ground, for
+about two-thirds the length of the trench; the remaining one-third at
+the upper end was converted into a strong cage, or pen. This pen
+communicated with the other part of the trench by an opening in which a
+gate in two flaps was fitted; a heavy cover, weighing ten or twelve cwt,
+of round logs was made to fit the open part of the trench, and so
+arranged in an inclined position, and connected by triggers with the two
+flaps, that any attempt to open the latter released the upper end of the
+heavy cover and allowed it to fall down in the trench. A couple of goats
+were tied at the far end of the pen as a bait, and were kept there
+constantly, food being taken to them by a convict coolie. After the trap
+had been set for some time, the coolie who fed the goats came running to
+the house one day with the news that a tiger was caught in the trap. Of
+course every one set out immediately to secure the animal. The tiger had
+evidently tried to push in between the two flaps to get at the goats:
+this released the triggers, and the jerk and movement of the cover had
+evidently alarmed the animal, who tried to back out; but the weight and
+force of the falling cover on its back had pressed the beast down flat
+on the ground and rendered him powerless. The difficulty now was to
+dispatch the tiger. Only its hind quarters could be seen; and a revolver
+shot was fired into the body. After a while the cover was raised a
+little, and a bullet in the brain finished the work. The cover was then
+entirely removed, and the carcase taken out of the trap; the fore and
+hind feet were tied together, and it was slung on a pole in the usual
+way, eight Kling convict coolies lifted the load and started for the
+sugar mills. They, however, soon got tired. Half a dozen more convicts,
+who were at work on the road, were then called in to assist, and at last
+they reached their journey's end.
+
+On arrival at the sugar mills it was skinned, the skin becoming the
+property of the manager, and the natives disposed of the flesh. The
+animal proved to be a tigress, and evidently had young cubs, as she had
+a quantity of milk. This the Chinese coolies were very eager to secure,
+as it is by them considered to be a valuable medicine. We never heard
+whether any more tigers were caught in this trap.
+
+The ordinary method, however, adopted for catching tigers is by means of
+pits, which are dug from twelve to fifteen feet in depth, and somewhat
+pyramidal in form. Sometimes pointed stakes are fixed in the bottom of
+the pit. The mouth is covered over with light brushwood, and when
+convenient, a tree is felled and laid a few feet from it across the
+tiger's track, so that the animal in leaping off the tree adds impetus
+to his own weight in falling into the trap.
+
+The trouble of digging these pits is not so slight as might be
+supposed, as the construction of a pit in the proper manner fully
+occupies a couple of convicts a fortnight, besides the risk of being
+interrupted in their labour by the tiger happening to encounter them,
+and, naturally enough, on finding the work they were engaged upon,
+testifying his displeasure at the treachery they were meditating against
+him by making a meal of them.
+
+An Indian sportsman wrote to the _Singapore Free Press_, at the time
+when so many Chinese were being destroyed at Singapore, saying:--
+
+    "I have been accustomed to tiger hunting in India, but the same
+    mode could not be adopted here, the jungle being of a different
+    character. Indeed, the only plan which is likely to be attended
+    with success is by setting traps; and it is to be regretted
+    that the local Government did not long since take some pains to
+    prove this to the cultivators. Had this been done, many lives
+    might have been spared." The Chinese were evidently delighted
+    at the interest shown by the European gentlemen on the last
+    occasion, and it is to be hoped that they will exert themselves
+    to rid the island of tigers by this means.
+
+While the ravages of tigers were destructive of human life on land,
+crocodiles were almost equally as mischievous on the coast and in the
+rivers, and many Chinese and other natives fell a prey to their
+voracity. Sometimes bathers were attacked; at other times fishermen,
+shrimp catchers, and oyster divers were carried off or attacked by them.
+Some crocodiles, like some tigers, have a peculiar partiality to human
+flesh, and often display remarkable ingenuity in gratifying their
+appetites. Regular man-eater crocodiles existed in some of the rivers in
+the Straits Settlements, notably in the rivers in Province Wellesley;
+but many were found also in the rivers in Singapore and Malacca, as well
+as on the sea coast. Some of these man-eaters were very bold, and would
+attack natives in their canoes, sometimes getting under the canoe and
+upsetting it in order to devour the occupants. Cases have been known of
+persons being snatched out of boats. A case of this kind happened in the
+Prye River, in Province Wellesley. The supervisor in charge of the
+public works was proceeding in a ferry boat with some convicts to repair
+the boundary pillar, situated some distance up the river, when suddenly
+a splash was heard, and his convict orderly, who was squatting in the
+bow of the sampan, or boat, uttering a cry, stood up, at the same time
+pointing to the stern of the boat. Upon looking round, a Chinaman, who
+had been seated in the stern of the boat, was found to be missing. A
+crocodile had, as it were, shot up out of the water, and, seizing the
+Chinaman by the waist, had drawn him down into the river, and nothing
+more was seen of them at the time. Shortly afterwards, a canoe with a
+Malay man and his wife in it was upset near the same spot by a
+crocodile, and both of them disappeared. A little later a Kling, who had
+been in the habit of diving for mud oysters near Qualla Prye Ferry for
+many years, and had repeatedly been cautioned about his danger in doing
+so, was missed, and it was ascertained that he had been seen diving for
+oysters as usual, and had suddenly disappeared, and had not been seen to
+come up again.
+
+This sort of thing went on for some time, and the crocodiles could not
+be caught. At last the convicts stationed at Prye town convict lines
+succeeded in capturing a large crocodile, and this is how they managed
+it. They prepared a bait by tying a strong hook underneath the body of a
+pariah dog. One end of a piece of light iron chain[17] was fastened to
+this hook; the other end was fastened to a log of very light wood as a
+buoy. They then went in a boat to that part of the river where the
+greater number of casualties had occurred. Here they drifted about, at
+the same time pinching the dog's ears and otherwise tormenting him to
+make him yelp. After watching the surface of the water for some time,
+they descried the V mark on the water indicating the approach of a
+crocodile; then, throwing the dog and buoy overboard, they pulled away
+for some distance to watch the result.. They saw the crocodile rapidly
+approaching the dog, who was swimming for his life. Suddenly there was a
+howl, and the dog disappeared. Then they watched the buoy, which would
+sometimes disappear under the water and then rise again to the surface;
+and in this manner they traced the crocodile, and followed him into a
+small creek, where he crawled on shore; and there they dispatched him
+with musket balls. This crocodile measured fourteen feet from the tip of
+his nose to the end of his tail, and was said to be the largest specimen
+captured at that time, but they have been known to reach from eighteen
+to twenty feet in length. Upon opening him a human leg and a pair of
+Chinaman's trousers were discovered, and it was concluded that this was
+one of the man-eaters.
+
+    [Footnote 17: Shreds of tough rope are better.]
+
+As an illustration of the effect of shock upon the human system at the
+sight of wild beasts, we may mention a case of a Malay fisherman who was
+shrimping on the bar at the mouth of the Krian River (Province
+Wellesley), when a crocodile approached him from behind and seized him
+by the thigh. The Malay drew his parang and hacked away at the
+creature's nose until he let go. Some convicts stationed at Nebong Tubal
+and a Malay police peon saw what was happening and put off in a boat to
+his assistance. They rescued the poor fellow, and the police conveyed
+him at once by boat to the hospital at Butterworth, where his wounds,
+which were not very serious, were attended to; but the shock to the
+nervous system was so great that the man lost his reason, and would
+constantly leave his cot and walk down the hospital ward, moving his
+hands up and down, as if in the act of shrimping. He died shortly
+after. A similar case of shock, and a well-known story in the Straits
+Settlements, occurred in Province Wellesley, but this was from a tiger.
+A Roman Catholic priest was returning to his house after breakfasting
+with a planter at Alma, and when passing through some tall "lalang"
+grass a tiger suddenly sprang out into the path a few yards in front of
+him. The priest, with great presence of mind, suddenly opened his
+Chinese umbrella in the face of the tiger; the animal gave a leap round
+to one side, and the priest repeated the umbrella movement. The tiger
+then gave another leap round to the other side, and the umbrella action
+was again performed. This was renewed till the tiger, who evidently was
+not hungry, and had taken alarm, made a disappointed growl and bounded
+away into the high lalang grass, and the priest hastened on his way
+home. On reaching his house he took a cold bath, to brace up his nerves
+as he said; but the next day he was confined to his bed, and died a
+fortnight after the event, due entirely, it was said, to the shock that
+he had sustained.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 8
+
+As we have already intimated, the house of correction at Singapore was
+under the management and control of the Convict Department; and there
+were frequently from thirty to forty Europeans confined in this prison,
+chiefly seamen on short sentences for neglect of duty on board ship.
+
+When Sir Robert McClure was commanding a vessel of war[18] in Chinese
+waters about 1859, his ship was on the Singapore station for some little
+time; and upon his arrival he sent in to the house of correction a very
+incorrigible man-of-war's man named John ---- (we will not give his
+surname, for he may be yet alive). This man had been several times
+punished while the ship was in China, and had been twice sentenced to be
+flogged. We heard all about him from the officer of the ship who had
+brought him ashore.
+
+    [Footnote 18: H.M.S. Esk.]
+
+His sentence was three weeks' imprisonment: the first week in solitary
+confinement on bread and water, and congee or rice gruel diet. Upon his
+receipt into the prison, after the usual routine, he was placed in one
+of the penal cells, and bread and water set before him. Before the cell
+door was closed, he looked hard at the chief warder, saying, "Take away
+that filth; I won't eat it." The chief warder reported to the
+Superintendent that the man in the cells was a dangerous-looking
+character, and he was afraid we should have trouble with him, for he had
+never seen a man with such a hang-dog look. The morning of the second
+day he had touched neither bread nor water, though fresh had been given
+him, and in a churlish manner he said to the chief warder, who had
+remonstrated with him, "I'll eat the tail of my shirt first, before I
+eat what you bring me." The doctor visited him, and made his report to
+the Superintendent that he was a strong man, and in excellent health,
+and that he might be safely left until hunger obliged him to eat, but
+that he would see him twice a day.
+
+Upon the afternoon of the second day the Superintendent himself, upon
+his inspecting the prisoners in the penal cells, entered this prisoner's
+cell, and the following dialogue ensued: "What is your name?" "What is
+that to you?" "But I am the Superintendent of this jail, and I ask you a
+simple question, and I want a simple answer." Then looking at the
+Superintendent with a disrespectful air the prisoner said, "Look at my
+warrant if you want to know it." "But I want to hear it from yourself."
+"Well, if it is any satisfaction to you, my name is John ----" The
+Superintendent then said, "Now I want to know what part of England you
+come from." "Well, what do you want to know that for? but I say again,
+if it is any satisfaction to you, I come from Saltash." "So you are a
+Cornishman, are you?" replied the Superintendent. "I know Saltash very
+well. It is a fine old place. And I know the Viaduct, and the cottages
+over against it. I wonder if you were born there in one of those
+cottages? Perhaps you were, and have a mother now living there; and if
+you have, and she knew that her son was now in an Indian jail, you
+would break that old woman's heart, that you would." This ended the
+conversation, and the cell door was shut.
+
+Late in the evening the chief warder sent a special messenger to the
+Superintendent's quarters, asking him to visit the prison before
+nightfall, for the prisoner in the cells from the man-of-war in the
+harbour had something to communicate. So before it was yet very dark the
+Superintendent went down, and the cell door being opened, and the
+bull's-eye lantern turned upon the man, the Superintendent at once
+noticed a change in the countenance of his prisoner, for the reckless,
+devil-may-care expression had shifted, and as if by some good influence
+within. "Well, you sent for me, and I have come; what do you want?" said
+the Superintendent. Then in a faltering voice, and with tears in his
+eyes, the prisoner said, "I only want to say, sir, before I go to sleep,
+that you are the first man that has ever overcome me, for you spoke to
+me of my 'mother'; and now, sir, you can do anything you like with me,
+and I'll carry out my sentence properly, and go back aboard my ship and
+do my duty as a British sailor ought to do."
+
+And he did; and after his release went in the ship on to Bombay, from
+whence the Superintendent heard from Sir Robert McClure that John ----
+was as well behaved a man as he had on board, and that the treatment
+he had received in the Singapore jail had quite altered his nature, and
+he would like to know the prescription for it.
+
+Very often, when a long course of positive punishment has ceased to have
+its effect, a contrary treatment may lead to quite a change in the
+character, and if anything will touch the heart of a vicious Briton, it
+is to bring him to think upon the early counsels of a godly mother.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XI
+
+ABOLITION OF THE CONVICT DEPARTMENT AND DISPOSAL OF THE CONVICTS
+
+
+On the separation of the Straits Settlements from British India in 1867,
+it was arranged that the Indian life convicts at Singapore should be
+transferred to Port Blair in the Andaman Islands. In the course of
+correspondence which took place on the subject, His Excellency the
+Governor of the Straits Settlements proposed, in respect of those
+convicts who were to continue in the Straits, that a liberal use of the
+power of pardon should be made in the case of such convicts, the nature
+of whose crimes and whose subsequent character warranted it.
+
+The Government of India agreed to this proposal, with the proviso that
+pardon should be conditional on convicts not returning to India, or in
+the case of Burmese to Burmah, without the special sanction in each case
+of the Government of India; and that this sanction would not be given in
+any cases in which the crime was "Thuggee" or "Dacoity," or robbery by
+administering poisonous drugs, or other form of organized crime, or in
+the case of mutiny or rebellion accompanied with murder.
+
+Accordingly, the Straits Government authorities submitted lists of
+convicts whom they recommended for pardon. After consulting the local
+governments concerned, the Government of India issued orders in each
+case, authorizing the release and return to India of some of the
+convicts, granting conditional pardon to others, and refusing release on
+any account to the remainder.
+
+This decision did not commend itself to the Straits Government, and His
+Excellency the Governor suggested the deputation of a special officer
+from India to inquire into the matter.
+
+Mr. Brodhurst, of the Bengal Civil Service, was accordingly deputed.
+This officer extended his inquiries to the cases of other convicts
+brought specially to his notice by the Straits Government; and on
+receipt of his report, the Government of India granted unconditional
+releases in certain cases, while in others the convicts were pardoned
+conditionally on their not leaving the Straits.
+
+On this representation by the Straits Government, His Excellency the
+Governor-General in Council, having reconsidered the subject, decided
+that any Indian or Burmese, who had completed twenty-five years'
+imprisonment and bore a good character, should be released, with
+permission to return to India or Burmah, provided he, or she, as the
+case might be, was not convicted of one of the offences enumerated
+below, viz.:--
+
+  1. Thuggee.
+
+  2. Dacoity.
+
+  3. Professional poisoning.
+
+  4. Belonging to a gang of Dacoits.
+
+  5. Belonging to a gang of Thugs.
+
+  6. Mutiny or rebellion with murder.
+
+Of those who did not come under this category, some were pardoned
+unconditionally; others were released after they had completed
+twenty-five years' imprisonment, on condition that their conduct
+continued satisfactory. Of those who were pardoned unconditionally many
+returned to their own country; but when they arrived there they found
+things so uncongenial that they returned to the Straits and settled down
+as shopkeepers, cowkeepers, cartmen, etc., and most of them sought and
+obtained employment either with private individuals or in the Public
+Works Department. Several of the skilled artificers, who had been petty
+officers, were employed as sub-assistant overseers and gangers on public
+works, where their services proved to be of great utility, their prison
+training having rendered them much more to be relied upon than free men,
+and, as far as we have been able to ascertain, none of them have been
+reconvicted.
+
+Of the total number of convicts in the Straits at the time when the
+convict establishment was broken up in 1873--
+
+    256 had been transported for Thuggee.
+
+    581  "    "       "       "  Dacoity.
+
+     21  "    "       "       "  Professional poisoning.
+
+    269  "    "       "       "  Robbery with murder, including
+                                 highway robbery and gang robbery.
+   -----
+  1,127
+
+The remainder were nearly all for murder, for being accomplices in
+murder, or for robbery with violence, and for felony.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XII
+
+DISEASES AND MALINGERING
+
+
+Perhaps a few observations on the principal diseases to which these
+Indian convicts were liable may be found useful; and we take for the
+purpose the statistics of the year 1863-64 as given in Appendix No. 2,
+when nostalgia did not occur. In alluding to these diseases, we shall at
+the same time notice the locality of the Singapore jail, and the
+composition of the soil on which it was built. It is now universally
+recognised that the soil on which communities reside continuously does
+in a measure influence their health.
+
+So many works on hygiene have, however, been written, and so much has
+been said by medical experts on this subject, that we may almost say
+that it has been exhaustively treated. What we wish to show is simply
+that soil and locality do not influence all communities alike.
+
+The site of the Singapore jail in Brass Basa Road was originally a piece
+of low ground saturated with brackish water; and the convicts themselves
+were, as we have elsewhere stated, employed in conveying red earth from
+the side of Government Hill to reclaim most of this marsh, in order to
+erect thereon the necessary buildings for their occupation. The site had
+to be raised from two to four feet, and the red earth was what might be
+called disintegrated laterite or clay ironstone. When the finished level
+was completed, it was about two feet above high water mark S.T. The
+surface of the enclosure had been so thoroughly trodden down, rolled,
+and graded to the drains and into the adjoining canal, that, with the
+periodical coatings of pure white sand from the Serangoon sand pits that
+had been laid over it, it had become almost impervious to water; and
+this we would notice particularly, for it had much to do with the
+sanitary condition of the jail and its inmates.
+
+The dormitories were further raised slightly over two feet above the
+general surface, and their floors were carefully laid, so as literally
+to be as dry as a bone.
+
+From Appendix No. 2 it will be seen that the principal disease from
+which these Indian convicts suffered was "fever," but not of a dangerous
+type; for, upon comparing the admissions to hospital with the deaths
+from this disease in all three settlements during the year referred to,
+we find that in Singapore and Penang they were _nil_, and but seven in
+Malacca. The next ailment which presented numerous cases were abscesses
+and ulcers, and the deaths from this cause amounted only to one in
+Singapore. Many of these ulcers were on the legs, and were caused by
+grit getting between the skin and the leather band worn under the fetter
+rings of convicts in the fourth and fifth classes. Stomach and bowel
+complaints rank next on the list, but we find that the deaths here only
+amounted to units. Rheumatic affections were numerous, caused perhaps in
+that damp climate from working on extra-mural duties and returning to
+jail in wet clothes with the wind blowing on them. A few cases of dropsy
+appear on the list, the largest number occurring in Penang, three only
+at Singapore. There were ordinary cases of oedema.
+
+The death-rate to strength per cent, from ordinary diseases for the year
+given was 2.20 for Singapore, 3.82 for Penang, and 3.17 for Malacca.
+Perhaps the special attention to sanitation in Singapore may account for
+the death-rate being lower here than at the sister settlements.
+
+After the convict jail had been broken up, and the convicts had all left
+it, the jail was handed over to the prison authorities to be converted
+into a criminal prison for the whole settlements. Not long after this
+change had taken place a very peculiar disease broke out amongst the
+inmates. It was known as Beri-beri, or, as some call it, the "Bad
+sickness of Ceylon." It is a very serious disease, and some think it
+arises from extreme exertion without sufficient sustenance to the body.
+In 1878 the ratio of mortality in the prison had risen to 16.20 per
+cent.; in 1879 it was further augmented to 20.63 per cent. The Local
+Government deemed it necessary without delay to appoint a Committee of
+Inquiry into the possible causes which had given rise to the spread of
+this disease. The conclusion at which they arrived was that it was due
+to the want of proper drainage of the site, so that the soil had got
+water-logged, and had generated malaria; also, that the prisoners needed
+a more nitrogenous diet. They advised the erection of an entirely new
+prison on a better and more elevated locality. These suggestions were
+all adopted, and the Committee in their judgment were greatly aided by
+Dr. Irvine Rowell, C.M.G., the Principal Civil Medical Officer, who
+formed one of the Committee.
+
+There was no time lost by the Government with the Colonial Engineer
+(Major McNair) in preparing plans and erecting on the west side of
+Pearl's Hill, near the old civil jail, a prison on the cellular system,
+and after the most approved English model; but the change of site did
+not effectually remove the disease, for as late as the year 1884 "there
+were 262 cases under treatment. In the first nine months of that year
+the deaths were comparatively small, but during the latter three months
+they increased, constituting nearly one half of the total deaths during
+that period." Dr. Kerr attributed this increase to exacerbation in the
+type, and epidemicity of the disease.
+
+It is not necessary, nor is it within our province, to attempt a
+description in detail of this disease; and happily it is mostly confined
+to Ceylon and the Malay Archipelago, though it occurs occasionally in
+China and Japan, where in the former country it is known as "Tseng," and
+in the latter as "Kak-ki." It is referred to in a book we have quoted in
+the body of this work, viz., that written by "Godinho de Eredia" in
+1613, reproduced by M. Leon Janssen in 1882. It is called there
+bere-bere, which in the Malay language signifies a "sheep," or a "bird
+which buries its eggs in the sand," and is not now known by the Malays
+under that name, as far as we can gather, as a "disease." Godinho de
+Eredia says that the Malays cured it by the use of a wine made from the
+nipa palm, from whence we know a saccharine fermentable juice exudes
+from the cut spadices of this and other species. They call this juice
+"tuaca." Marco Polo alludes to the same wine in his second book, chapter
+xxv.
+
+Some authorities say it arises from malarious exhalations, favoured by
+damp, or over-crowding in buildings improperly ventilated. To this
+latter cause we are inclined to attribute the outbreak in the Singapore
+prison; for when the prison was occupied by the Indian convicts, the
+area of open space round the different wards and buildings was well
+exposed to the action of sun and wind, but after its conversion into a
+criminal prison, this open space was divided off by high division walls,
+and for the purpose of shot drill and work sheds the enclosure was
+still further crowded. Perhaps the disturbance also of the soil may have
+had something to do with it, for we have known instances in the town
+where the excavation of subsoils had liberated noxious gases.
+
+It was, however, very remarkable that during the period of over
+twenty-five years when this jail was occupied by the Indian convicts,
+not a single case of beri-beri was known to have occurred. The medical
+officers were quite unable to account for this, and of its
+non-occurrence in other parts of the town.
+
+The Rev. Wallace Taylor, M.D., of Osaka in Japan, attributed the disease
+to a microscopic spore found largely developed in rice, and which he had
+also detected in the earth of certain alluvial and damp localities.
+
+
+FEIGNED DISEASES
+
+The question of feigned diseases should find a place in a work treating
+upon convicts, for amongst a number of natives in confinement--and
+indeed also amongst European prisoners where--regular work is insisted
+upon, and idleness in any is severely punished, it is but natural that
+some should be found to resort to expedients to escape work, or, in
+other words, to malinger.
+
+Perhaps the most frequent cases of convicts in irons was the
+encouraging of sores round the ankles, where the iron rings of their
+fetters were placed; and this was done, notwithstanding the precaution
+always taken to guard the ankles with leathern bands for the rings to
+rest upon. When suspicion was attached to a convict in irons that he was
+tampering with his leg sores, he was at once detailed to work with the
+gang beating out coir from cocoanut husks: it involved no use of the
+legs, but it was the hardest of labours. The result was that the convict
+soon gave up the trick, and begged to return to outdoor work with his
+own gang. Of course there were cases where convicts working on roads or
+at sand pits may get grit below their leathers, which, without knowing
+it at the time, would cause a sore; but such cases were readily
+distinguished from those sores wilfully caused and designedly kept open.
+
+We had no cases of feigned insanity or any species of mania, but cases
+of imitated "moon blindness," or dim-sightedness, did occur now and
+again for the purpose of shirking night watch.
+
+Upon one occasion we had a remarkable instance of shamming blind, which
+is worth giving in detail. The case was that of a life convict
+transported from Madras, who complained that lime had suddenly got into
+both of his eyes while employed at the lime kilns. It was deemed by the
+medical authorities as not unnatural that he should become blind from
+caustic quick-lime, and he was admitted into the convalescent gang,
+where he had only the simple and easy task of picking oakum. The deceit
+was as cleverly kept up for years as it was cleverly commenced at the
+outset, and was only detected by Dr. Cowpar, a hard-headed Scotchman and
+skilful surgeon, who, during the absence of the permanent incumbent, had
+been appointed by the Government to officiate as medical officer of the
+jail. After his inspection of the invalids in the convalescent gang, he
+looked at the eyes of the "blind man"; and, having some suspicion in his
+mind, he decided that he should be put aside for closer examination.
+When the inspection was over, the "blind man" was taken, and carefully
+led by the peon in charge of the gang to one of the long wards, when he
+was told to walk up and down in the presence of the doctor. After he had
+made two or three trips, the doctor directed two men to hold a long pole
+about a foot off the ground on the track he had to pass. When he came to
+the pole he fell over it flat on his face, and to the bystanders it
+seemed rather an inhuman proceeding on the part of the doctor, but he
+had observed an ominous pause before the convict had struck the pole
+with his legs.
+
+He sent for his case of instruments, and, withdrawing a probe, he with
+little difficulty removed the film off both of the man's eyes, which
+proved to be nothing more nor less than the thin membrane found inside
+an egg, which the convict had artfully introduced, and renewed from time
+to time. Of course he was reduced to the fifth class, and to the
+hardest labour.
+
+We have often thought it strange that none of his fellow-convicts
+appeared to suspect him, or if they did, they kept it back from the jail
+authorities; and certainly to any casual observer the deception was
+complete, and it was the best case of feigned blindness we have ever
+known or heard of.
+
+Upon the whole, however, cases of malingering were few and far between,
+as most of the convicts became after a time interested in the works upon
+which they were engaged, and those in irons were ever on the look-out
+for promotion to a higher class. Sometimes there was a case of feigned
+rheumatism or paralysis, but the application of the galvanic battery
+invariably cured them of that after a few powerful shocks.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIII
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+We have now given a full, and, as far as we could, a succinct account of
+the system pursued in the old Singapore jail. We have traced the history
+of the convict establishments in all the penal settlements in those
+seas, and have shown the progressive improvements in the convict prisons
+up to the time when, as was acknowledged by many competent authorities,
+a system of organization and discipline had been satisfactorily attained
+to, especially at the headquarter jail at Singapore. We have also shown
+the number and variety of industries that were from time to time
+introduced, and the utilization of trained artificers in the
+construction of important public works in the Straits Settlements.
+
+Perhaps we may say that the conduct of these prisons from the year 1825,
+down to 1845, was in a measure experimental; but at any time we do not
+assert that the system was free from defects. But on the whole, in the
+treatment of these trans-marine convicts, it worked with remarkable
+success, and was well adapted to their condition and circumstances; for
+it must not be forgotten that we had to deal with convicts who in great
+part had expiated their crimes by a sentence of banishment to a foreign
+country, which we have already explained was more severely felt by a
+native of India than could possibly be by any European. As a matter of
+fact, owing to caste prejudices, transportation across the seas was to
+many of the Indian convicts worse than death itself, for it carried with
+it not only expulsion from caste, but, owing to their wrong conception
+of fate, or "nusseeb" as they call it, a dread of pain and anguish in
+another existence.
+
+In the later management of this jail, to all fresh arrivals for life
+there was a period of probation of three years, during which time they
+were fettered and worked in gangs upon the public roads. This was
+thoroughly punitive, and with no liberty whatever. They were, in point
+of fact, full of fears and practically without hope. After a time, they
+began to find that the only chance of any amelioration from this hard
+labour was by a course of good conduct; and they saw before them their
+own countrymen, who had once been similarly circumstanced, occupying
+better positions and employed on less distasteful work. They also heard
+from their fellows that several had attained to a ticket of leave, and
+were earning for themselves an honest livelihood in the place of their
+banishment. This, then, was their encouragement; but not a few at first,
+however, though carefully treated in hospital, died from "nostalgia," or
+"love of country," before they could complete their term of probation.
+
+The late General, then Captain Man, who, as we have already said, did a
+great deal in the consolidation of the convict system of Singapore, went
+from the Straits Settlements to the Andamans, and inaugurated there the
+same system; but we learn that since his time convicts upon first
+arrival from India are placed for a certain period in separate cells,
+and no doubt the authorities had good and weighty reasons for the
+change. We have no report as to the advantage or otherwise of this
+probationary alteration, but from what we have said, it will be seen
+that we incline to the belief that for this class of native convicts
+work in irons upon the public roads is a better "first trial" than to
+place them under what is known to us as the "cellular system."
+
+For local prisoners, who after their sentences have expired are returned
+to the town, we do advocate the "cellular system," and have ourselves
+designed and built for term convicts several wards upon this system. The
+advantage gained is complete isolation from one another for a fixed
+period, and the indiscriminate admixture of classes thus avoided, and so
+possibly by this means a recrudescence of crime in the place prevented;
+but with convicts under banishment, and mostly for a life term, we think
+the conditions are very different, and we prefer the plan adopted in the
+old Singapore convict jail.
+
+The punishments in force by our laws are of course designed to deal out
+retributive justice to the prisoner for his offence against society, and
+so to prevent, if possible, a repetition of the offence by others, and
+by this means to protect society against evil-doers. There is no wish to
+punish with any vindictive feeling, but rather, if it can be done, to
+bring about the reform of the prisoner, and to take away from him the
+desire to offend again; and as "Beccaria," the Italian philanthropist,
+well said, "those penalties are least likely to be productive of good
+effect which are more severe than is necessary to deter others."
+
+In the later days of our Singapore convict jail, of which time only are
+we in a position to express an opinion, the treatment of the convicts
+was one of discipline from beginning to end. There was first the
+probationary period under fetters, in gangs upon the public roads, or
+upon the severest hard labour; next the period of freedom from this
+restraint and a time of test, and if they stood this test well, then
+advancement to a position of trust, either on the lower rung of the
+prison warder-staff, with a belt of authority across the shoulder, or,
+if an aptitude for any trade was evinced, to the position of a novice in
+the workyard, at whatever branch of industry the convict was thought to
+be best suited. There was then open to the prison warder a rise in grade
+to that of peon, with a distinctive badge, and eventually to the highest
+grade of a tindal or duffadar, if duly qualified. In the case of the
+industrial class there was also open a promotion to a higher grade, and
+eventually to that of a foreman of artificers. All were fully occupied
+and employed, and the jail was in point of fact a busy hive of industry,
+the pervading idea of the convict authorities being to teach the convict
+to love labour, and to take a personal interest in it.
+
+We know that there are still some who think that no prisoner, while
+undergoing his sentence, should be allowed to feel any pleasure in the
+occupation in which he may be engaged; and hence they advocate the
+crank, shot drill, and other aimless tasks, which serve but to irritate,
+and do not the least good to the heart, from whence all our actions
+spring. For a short term of probation, no doubt, the task should be
+irksome; but when this is over and it should not be prolonged work
+should be given which would tend to call out the best feelings, restore
+self-respect, and act as a sort of cordial to remove lowering and
+depression. To explain by a homely instance what we mean, we will
+mention an incident that occurred to one of us when building the Woking
+prison in 1866. A convict undergoing sentence there, of the labouring
+class, was found to be of an exceptionally dogged and dull nature.
+Nothing pleased him; he was disgusted with the world, and wished he was
+out of it. After a time he was tried at plain brick-laying in a
+foundation, and gradually began to handle a brick rather well. He
+seemed to grow step by step more reconciled to his lot, and was advanced
+to work upon a chimney-piece. A day or two later he was asked how he was
+getting on. He then replied, with a bright smile upon his face, "Oh,
+very well, sir, now! I likes my chimbley-piece, and dreams of her at
+nights in my lonely cell."
+
+Hence we see how the implacable temper of this convict gave way over a
+congenial bit of work, and the first step was thus taken towards his
+reformation of character, and he continued to improve until his release
+from prison.
+
+Herbert Spencer says with truth, "that experience and experiments have
+shown all over the world that the most successful criminal discipline is
+a discipline of decreased restraints and increased self dependence"; and
+to a degree of this "self dependence" the convict we refer to had been
+encouraged to aspire.
+
+Of course, in all criminal prisons we must expect a certain percentage
+of incorrigible characters, who under the best training cannot be
+brought under control; but the bulk of those in the old Singapore jail,
+and we had often as many as two thousand at a time, were well behaved,
+and gave evidence of the good influence of a course of discipline upon
+them; for when they were advanced to a ticket-of-leave, and thrown again
+on their own resources, they very rarely a second time came under the
+cognisance of the police, but peaceably merged into the population, and
+earned their livelihood by honest means.
+
+We have one word to say in reference to the employment of these convicts
+as warders over their fellow-prisoners; a system, so far as we are
+aware, then unattempted either in Europe or America, even in a modified
+form. We do not, however, see why, in the case of well-behaved and
+suitable European convicts sentenced to long periods of penal servitude,
+some might not be placed in certain such positions of trust under free
+warders; and as the new prison rules for our jails may possibly involve
+a large increase in the warder staff, it has occurred to us that the
+system might have a trial to a limited extent; but we are, of course,
+not in a position to speak with any authority upon the subject as
+affecting our own prisons. In our case, with the exception of two or
+three European warders, the whole warder staff were convicts; and at
+first, certainly, there was the fear that so large a number of convict
+warders might side with the convicts, when a rule they might have
+thought repugnant to all, was introduced by the governing body. There
+also appeared the danger that discipline might be undermined by a system
+of favouritism, especially amongst men of the same caste, or that they
+would shut their eyes to breaches of the rules.
+
+None of these apprehensions were, however, experienced; but, on the
+contrary, these convict warders were always the first to apprise the
+authorities of any contemplated attempt at escape, or of any ill-feeling
+that might be brewing amongst any particular class, or breach of prison
+rules; so that, in a great measure, they acted in the double capacity of
+both detectives and police. It was only upon very rare occasions that a
+convict warder had to be disrated; and the punishment amongst them
+consisted for the most part in fines for want of vigilance and attention
+to detail, and such like petty offences. They all manifested the highest
+appreciation of the trust reposed in them, and lived in a perpetual fear
+that they might forfeit their position, and have to begin anew the whole
+course of jail punishment.
+
+It need scarcely be said that great care was exercised to single out men
+of the best character, and to the highest posts those who could take
+upon themselves responsibility as men of purpose and discretion.
+Promotion in the different grades was made only by the Superintendent,
+who in our case was an officer who had served in India, knew natives of
+most sects and races, and was acquainted with their habits and customs,
+and spoke one or two of their languages.
+
+The prison system in all its branches worked in perfect harmony, and all
+the parts of it seemed to be adapted to each other. Discipline was
+maintained throughout, and the artificer gang, as we have shown,
+developed a high skill in their various trades; so that important public
+works could be executed without difficulty or embarrassment. Those also
+who had passed through its course, and were admitted back to society
+upon a ticket of leave, as a rule behaved themselves as good citizens.
+
+In the extraction of labour from the convicts, there was no desire on
+the part of the Government to work the establishment with a view to show
+any pecuniary profit in the returns; though, as it proved, the actual
+cost to the State was often more than reimbursed by their labour,
+estimated as it was at two-thirds of that prevailing in the place, and
+the material at half the market price. However, in regard to this part
+of the question we might here quote "Jeremy Bentham," who once wisely
+said of prison labour, "It is not the less reforming for being
+profitable."
+
+We would now take leave of our old Singapore jail, as indeed, owing to
+the result of the earnest entreaty of the community to the Government,
+it finally took leave of us in 1873, though in our judgment perhaps a
+little too prematurely in the best interests of the colony.
+
+We can only hope that in the record we have now given, we have furnished
+some suggestions for general application to those who, like ourselves,
+are concerned not merely with the punishment of the criminal, but also
+with his reformation, both as a question of social science, and to the
+prisoner's own ulterior benefit.
+
+This reformation could, we think, be best brought about by a course of
+severe probationary discipline at the outset, to be followed up by
+continuous employment upon productive occupations and trades, so as to
+encourage within the criminal a lively diligence and a persevering
+industry; ourselves meanwhile also encouraged in the task by the words
+of Shakespeare, that
+
+    "There is some soul of goodness in things evil,
+    Would men observingly distil it out."
+
+                           _King Henry V._, Act. iv., Scene i.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX I
+
+
+Statement of the expenses of the convict jail in Singapore for the years
+1862-63 and 1863-64, showing the average cost per prisoner:--
+
+  Heads of Expenditure.       1,964 Prisoners in 1862-63.
+                              1,995 Prisoners in 1863-64.
+
+                                1862-63.          1863-64.
+                                --------          --------
+                                 Rs.               Rs.
+  Rations                     67,803  9 10      62,901  0 10
+  Money Allowance             20,938 13  8      19,369 14  3
+                             --------------    --------------
+  Total                       88,742  7  6      82,270 15  1
+  Cost per Prisoner               45  2 11          41  3 10
+
+
+  Fixed Establishment         16,094  1  0      11,173  1  5
+  Cost per Prisoner                8  3  1           5  9  7
+  Extra Establishment           _nil._       _nil._
+  Cost per Prisoner                "                 "
+                             --------------    --------------
+  Total                       16,094  1  0      11,173  1  5
+  Cost per Prisoner                8  3  1           5  9  7
+
+
+  Hospital Charges
+    European Medicines }
+    Bazaar ditto       }         472 13  0         454 10  4
+    Sick Diet          }
+                             --------------    --------------
+  Total                          472 13  0         454 10  4
+  Cost per Prisoner                0  3 10           0  3  7½
+
+
+  Clothing, including
+    Blankets and Bedding       8,699 14  6       8,250 14  4
+  Cost per Prisoner                4  6 11           4  2  2
+  Contingencies                3,235  3  1       4,407  5  3
+  Cost per Prisoner                1 10  4           2  3  4½
+  Additions, Alterations,
+    and Repairs                  100 12  2          51  8  8
+  Cost per Prisoner                0  0 10           0  0  5
+                             --------------    --------------
+  Gross Cost of Maintenance    17,345 3  3     106,608  7  1
+  Gross Cost per Prisoner         59 11 11          53  7  0
+
+The above table gives a fair average of the annual cost of maintenance
+of each prisoner as taken from the records of the jail.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX II
+
+
+Return of the Hospital Department of prisoners in jails in Singapore,
+Penang and Province Wellesley, and Malacca, from 1st May, 1863, to 30th
+April, 1864, exhibiting the average strength, number of admissions of
+sick, number of deaths, etc., in each jail during the year, and the rate
+per cent.:--
+
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Stations                   Singapore.   Penang and   Malacca.   Total.
+                                           Province
+                                          Wellesley.
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Average strength
+  during the Year              2,400        1,150        661      4,211
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Admissions during
+  the Year
+
+    Fevers                       222          260        292        774
+    Eruptive Fevers               25            2         26         53
+
+    Diseases of the
+      Lungs                       30           55         63        148
+      Liver                        9           --          1         10
+      Stomach and Bowels          81          216         93        390
+      Brain                       12           19         41         72
+      Generative and
+        Urinary Organs            51           23         24         98
+      Eyes                        50           27          9         86
+      Skin                        50           20         37        107
+
+    Cholera                        3           --         --          3
+    Dropsies                      13           27          6         46
+    Rheumatic Affections          58          107         31        196
+    Abscesses and Ulcers         204          198         84        486
+    Wounds and Injuries           58           93         42        193
+    Other Diseases               181           47         32        260
+
+    Total                      1,047        1,094        781      2,922
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Deaths during
+  the Year
+
+    Fevers                        --           --          7          7
+    Eruptive Fevers                7            1          3         11
+
+    Diseases of the
+      Lungs                        4            2          2          8
+      Liver                        1           --         --          1
+      Stomach and Bowels           6            9          4         19
+      Brain                       --            2         --          2
+      Generative and
+        Urinary Organs            --           --         --         --
+      Eyes                        --           --         --         --
+      Skin                         3           --         --          3
+
+    Cholera                        2           --         --          2
+    Dropsies                       3            8          1         12
+    Rheumatic Affections           1           --          1          2
+    Abscesses and Ulcers           1           --         --          1
+    Wounds and Injuries            2            1         --          3
+    Other Diseases                25           21          3         49
+
+    Total                         55           44         21        120
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Discharged during the Year     943        1,012        742      2,697
+  Transfer during the Year        --           --         --         --
+  Liberated during the Year       --           --         --         --
+  Remaining                       49           38         18        105
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Rate per cent.
+
+    Sick to Strength           43.62         95.1     118.45      69.43
+
+    Death by ordinary
+      diseases to strength      2.20          3.82      3.17       2.802
+
+    Death by Cholera
+      to strength              00.8           --        --       004.74
+
+    Total Deaths to Strength    2.29          3.82      3.17       2.84
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The rate per cent. of the total deaths to strength at the three
+settlements may appear high, but it is accounted for by the number of
+old convicts dying off.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX III
+
+
+The following table gives the value of materials manufactured by convict
+labour; the money expenditure in addition to the convict labour on each
+item, and the difference in favour of the State for the years 1862-63
+and 1863-64:--
+
+  -------------------------------------------------
+            Value of Materials.
+  -------------------------------------------------
+    1862-63.                    Rs.          Rs.
+
+  To value of Bricks          25,149 10
+
+  To value of Lime               600  9
+
+  To value of Cement           3,844 12
+
+  To value of Granite          2,058 10
+
+  To value of Weaver's Work    1,432 11
+
+  To value of Rattan Work        862  0
+                              ---------   33,988  4
+  Deduct Expenditure                      29,908 10
+                                          ---------
+  Difference in favour of the State   Rs.  4,074 10
+  -------------------------------------------------
+            Cost of Production.
+  -------------------------------------------------
+    1862-63.                    Rs.          Rs.
+
+  Bricks
+    By Convict Labour         14,293  9
+    Money Expenditure          5,882 10
+                              ---------   20,176  3
+  Lime
+    By Convict Labour            242 14
+    Money Expenditure            535 14
+                              ---------      778 12
+  Cement
+    By Convict Labour            952 13
+    Money Expenditure            138  9
+                              ---------    1,091  6
+  Granite
+    By Convict Labour          5,859  9
+    Money Expenditure         _nil._
+                              ---------    5,859  9
+  Weaver's Work
+    By Convict Labour            594  6
+    Money Expenditure            546  6
+                              ---------    1,140 12
+  Rattan Work
+    By Convict Labour            862  0
+    Money Expenditure         _nil._
+                              ---------      862  0
+                                          ---------
+  Total                               Rs. 29,908 10
+  -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+  -------------------------------------------------
+            Value of Materials.
+  -------------------------------------------------
+    1863-64.                    Rs.          Rs.
+
+  To value of Bricks          26,683 12
+
+  To value of Lime and Cement  3,720  0
+
+  To value of Granite          6,574  0
+
+  To value of Weaver's Work    1,872  5
+
+  To value of Rattan Work        915 13
+                              ---------   36,765 14
+  Deduct Expenditure                      25,344  8
+                                          ---------
+  Difference in favour of the State   Rs. 11,421  6
+  -------------------------------------------------
+            Cost of Production.
+  -------------------------------------------------
+    1863-64.                    Rs.          Rs.
+
+  Bricks
+    By Convict Labour          8,122 14
+    Money Expenditure          9,667  4
+                              ---------   17,790  2
+  Lime and Cement
+    By Convict Labour            785  6
+    Money Expenditure            552  6
+                              ---------    1,337 12
+  Granite
+    By Convict Labour          3,327  9
+    Money Expenditure         _nil._
+                              ---------    3,327  9
+  Weaver's Work
+    By Convict Labour          1,368 14
+    Money Expenditure            604  7
+                              ---------    1,973  5
+  Rattan Work
+    By Convict Labour            915 13
+    Money Expenditure         _nil._
+                              ---------      915 12
+                                          ---------
+  Total                               Rs. 25,344  8
+  -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX IV
+
+
+The following is a tabulated account of the cost of the brick kilns to
+the State, and the value of these convict-made bricks in the local
+market.
+
+The output of bricks per month when four tables were at work was
+230,000, and their value at $45.00 per 10,000 would be $1,035. The cost
+of manufacture was as follows:--
+
+                                 $
+  Overseer's Salary             45.00
+
+  Labour of 125 Convicts,
+    at 25cts. per diem for
+    artizans and 9cts. for
+    labourers                  306.00
+
+  Cost of Fuel                 200.00
+
+  Wear and Tear                 17.10
+
+  Food for Cattle               24.30
+
+  Contingencies                 16.20
+                              -------
+  Total                       $608.60
+                              =======
+
+
+                                 $
+  Value of 230,000 of
+    Bricks at $45 per
+    laksa, that being the
+    market price for
+    Government Bricks        1,035.00
+
+  Deduct cost of
+    manufacture                608.60
+                             --------
+  Difference to credit of
+  the State                   $426.40
+                             ========
+
+Bricks were debited to Government Works at $20 per laksa. The size of a
+Government brick mould was 10¼ x 5¼ x 3 ins. The bricks when burnt
+measured 9 x 4½ x 2¾ ins., and weighed about 7 lbs. when dry, and about
+7 lbs. 3 or 4 ozs. after soaking in fresh water. These were ordinary
+bricks, but those manufactured for hydraulic work were impervious to
+water.
+
+NOTE.--The size of a Chinese-made brick when burnt is 10 x 5 x 1½ ins.
+It requires 22 Chinese-made bricks to build one cubic foot of brickwork,
+but of convict-made Government bricks a cubic foot of brickwork requires
+13 only.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX V
+
+
+Number and nature of defaults committed by Indian convicts:--
+
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+  Nature of Defaults.                     For the year
+                                     1846.   1856.   1866.
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+  Stealing                            11      11      11
+
+  Disobedience of Orders               4       1      10
+
+  Drunkenness                          2      15       6
+
+  Assault                              1      --      --
+
+  Neglect of Duty                      4      22      12
+
+  Smuggling Articles into Jail         4      --       4
+
+  Disturbing Women at Night            1      --      --
+
+  Sleeping while on Duty               1       3       7
+
+  Cutting and Wounding                 1       1      --
+
+  Breaking open a Convict's Box        1      --      --
+
+  Allowing Local Prisoners to
+    speak to Outside Men              --       1      --
+
+  Receiving Money for Safe
+    Keeping and Denying the Same      --       3      --
+
+  Quarrelling and Abusing             --       5       9
+
+  Telling Falsehood                   --       3       2
+
+  Allowing Local Prisoners to
+    Abscond                           --       3      19
+
+  Idleness at Work                    --       1       3
+
+  Gambling                            --       6       4
+
+  Absent from Roll Call               --       4      17
+
+  Impertinence to Warder              --       1      --
+
+  Selling his own Cloths              --       2      --
+
+  Confined by the Police              --       5      --
+
+  Striking a Fellow-Convict           --       5       3
+
+  Refusing to Work                    --       3       6
+
+  Unlawfully Detaining a
+    Man's Sampan                      --       1      --
+
+  Creating a Disturbance              --       2       2
+
+  Bringing a False Charge             --       1       1
+
+  Writing a Threatening Petition      --       2      --
+
+  Having Stolen Property in
+    Possession                        --       1      --
+
+  Wilfully Destroying Tools           --       1      --
+
+  Carelessness at Work                --       7       6
+
+  Leaving Work without Orders         --       4       4
+
+  Intending to Abscond                --      11      --
+
+  Bringing a Woman into the
+    Hospital at Night                 --       1      --
+
+  Selling Rations                     --       2      --
+
+  Begging in the Streets              --       1       3
+
+  Committing a Nuisance               --       1      --
+
+  Mixed up in Street Rows             --       1      --
+
+  Counterfeiting Coin                 --       1      --
+
+  Buying Rations from a
+    Fellow-Convict                    --      --       1
+
+  Pawning                             --      --       1
+
+  Suspected of Thieving               --      --       2
+
+  Losing Cloths                       --      --       4
+
+  Leaving his Watch                   --      --       6
+
+  Committed by the Police             --      --       9
+
+  Attempting to Commit Suicide        --      --       1
+
+  Marrying without Permission         --      --       1
+
+  Carrying Letters for Local
+    Prisoners                         --      --       3
+
+  Disrespect to Superiors             --      --       2
+
+  Obtaining Money under False
+    Pretences                         --      --       1
+
+  Receiving Bribes                    --      --       1
+
+  Impertinence                        --      --       2
+
+  Malingering                         --      --       2
+
+  Suspected of being Concerned
+    in a Murder                       --      --       2
+
+  Assaulting a Free Man               --      --       4
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+      Total                           30     132     172
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+
+This table gives the number and nature of the defaults committed by the
+Indian convicts for the years 1846, 1856 and 1866, but it is doubtful
+whether the list for 1846 is complete, as the prison records do not
+appear to have been fully kept up; anyhow they are not to be found, and
+at that time the inquiry room had not been established. The number of
+convicts under discipline and on ticket of leave during the twenty years
+was between 1,900 and 2,500, which shows a small percentage of
+defaulters, and they are all, with few exceptions, of a petty nature.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX VI
+
+
+Extracts from letters from T. Church, Esq., Resident Councillor,
+Singapore, addressed to the Honourable the Governor of the Straits.
+
+    15th September, 1849. Transmits copy of letter from Captain
+    Man, dated August, 1849, forwarding account of value of labour
+    of the convicts for the year ending 30th April last.
+
+        In my last report I adverted to the efficient state of this
+        department, and the importance of the work performed by
+        convicts under the zealous and active supervision of the
+        Superintendent. The accompanying papers will, I think,
+        satisfy your Honour, and distant authorities likewise, that
+        the value of the labour of the convicts, particularly the
+        artificers, is annually becoming developed; and even now
+        the skill of the men is quite equal, if not superior, to
+        the free labourers generally employed by the Superintending
+        Engineer; in fact, Major Faber has on more than one
+        occasion expressed his professional opinion on the
+        superiority of the masonry and other works executed by the
+        convict body. I trust the period is not far distant when
+        the Government will allow all repairs and minor works to be
+        done by the Superintendent of Convicts, a measure much to
+        be desired, and vastly more economical than the present
+        system.
+
+        The annexed statement has no pretensions to accuracy, and
+        I am rather disposed to place on record Captain Man's
+        estimate than my own; but whichever is adopted, the result
+        is most satisfactory, as showing that the labour of the
+        convicts is equivalent to all expenses incurred in their
+        maintenance at this station.
+
+    August, 1850. A cursory view of the papers submitted by Captain
+    Man will show how much the community are indebted to the
+    convict body for the cleanliness of the streets in town, and
+    the extensive and admirable roads in the country, which elicit
+    the praise and even the astonishment of sojourners from the
+    continent of India, and the Colonies.
+
+    10th August, 1852. Captain Man's report is exceedingly
+    gratifying, and demonstrates how admirably adapted the existing
+    rules and regulations are to preserve order and discipline
+    among a large body of probably the most vicious and demoralized
+    characters from the presidencies, and at the same time render
+    their labour of considerable importance to the place of
+    transportation.
+
+Extracts from the letters of the Governor of the Straits Settlements to
+the Resident Councillor, Singapore:--
+
+    29th August, 1850. The management of the convict body at
+    Singapore reflects great credit on Captain Man, whose energy
+    and zeal in the execution of his duties have always been very
+    conspicuous; and I notice with extreme satisfaction the
+    eulogium passed on that officer in the concluding paragraphs of
+    your communication.
+
+    The observations of the Superintendent of Convicts and Roads at
+    this station, as well as at Penang, on the aforesaid rules and
+    regulations, coupled with your notice of the same, have
+    afforded me unqualified gratification, seeing that they were
+    drawn up by me so far back as 1845 in the face of much
+    opposition to the entire abolition of free men as petty
+    officers, in which, however, as in all matters connected with
+    the welfare of this station, I acknowledge your cordial support
+    and assistance.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX VII
+
+
+The head of the Madras Medical Department Dr. Edward Balfour, visited
+this jail in August, 1863, and thus recorded his opinion:--
+
+    The point that most struck me in the management of this jail
+    were the diversified occupations and evident industry of its
+    inmates, and their complete employment. The mass were actively
+    working, and the few were superintending those engaged in
+    labour. I have not before seen the various labouring industries
+    of artizans so largely introduced in any jail, nor have I seen
+    such diligence in their labour. Blacksmiths' and tinsmiths'
+    work, carpentry and sawmills, carving and coopering,
+    stonemasons, manufacture of coir and woollen yarn for blankets,
+    weaving door-mats, and printing too, all in active operation
+    inside the jail, with wood-cutting, brick and tile works, and
+    vegetable gardens without. Daily task work, and its allotment
+    and registration as to quantities performed in the jail, may be
+    operating to produce the application to the work before them
+    which the prisoners were everywhere giving. The hospital and
+    its arrangements were very perfect. The well-kept floor, the
+    clean cots, and the very small number of about twenty inmates
+    out of a strength of 2,000, may be taken as indicative of the
+    care in all other sanitary arrangements. Both the sickness and
+    mortality seems very small. I have been much gratified with
+    what I have seen, and have learned some points of interest and
+    value.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX VIII
+
+
+Extract from the _Singapore Free Press_, October, 1884:--
+
+    To this day many of the released convicts are living in
+    Singapore, cart owners, milk sellers, road contractors, and so
+    on. Many of them are comfortably off, but are growing fewer
+    year by year, and their places will never be filled by that
+    class again. The name of Major McNair is a password to their
+    good feelings, and all their disputes used to go to him as a
+    matter of course. When the Major wrote the _Sarong and Kris,
+    Perak and the Malays_, it was remarked by one of the reviewers
+    that he hoped the Major would some day give an account of the
+    old jail to the world. It was one of the most remarkable sights
+    of the place, and no one came from India on a visit in those
+    days without going over it before he returned. For all sorts of
+    things, from coir matting and rattan chairs down to waste paper
+    baskets, every one went to the jail; and the rattan chairs the
+    Chinese now sell here so largely, were invented in the jail,
+    beginning with a cumbrous heavy chair, which was the first
+    pattern, down to the shape we see now.
+
+    No doubt the system had its defects, and there was a wide
+    difference between the jail as it is now, filled with offenders
+    sentenced in Singapore, and a jail which contained criminals
+    who came from distant places and did not know the local
+    language, and had no friends outside the walls to help them to
+    escape from the island if they succeeded in getting clear of
+    the jail; but, notwithstanding, it was often a wonder to many
+    to find so large an establishment of the worst characters of
+    India kept in check by what was, practically, almost personal
+    influence alone.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX IX
+
+
+From the _Singapore Free Press_, February 2nd, 1899. Given to show how
+very lately this "head scare" superstition is entertained:--
+
+    THE "HEAD-CUTTING" SCARE.
+
+    To the Editor of the _Free Press Pao_.
+
+    MOST POWERFUL SIR,--Permit thy humble servant to approach thee
+    by the way of my friend Tan Tan Tiam, who knoweth the Ang Moh's
+    speech, and kindly consenteth to write to him who moveth the
+    Government to influence the Tye Jin to have compassion upon the
+    exiled sons of China.
+
+    Thy servant is a humble puller of the man-power-carriage by
+    night, and is suffering grievously because he is unable to
+    carry on his lawful occupation of plying by hire, by reason of
+    the dire fear that besetteth him. It hath come to the ears of
+    thy servant and of his fellows, that the Ang Moh's engineers do
+    seek a sacrifice to appease the offended gods of earth and
+    water, whom they have outraged by disturbing his habitation on
+    the hill that standeth behind the office of the Tye Jin, which
+    they of India call Ko-mis-a-yat. The said engineers, perchance
+    from ignorance, have neglected to consult the wise ones of
+    earth-lore as to the means to be taken to please the said
+    spirits, who have consequently so tormented the Ang Moh that
+    they seek a sacrifice. Not of the rich and family-blessed, who
+    would make a complaint to the Government, if they were
+    sacrificed; but of us poor and friendless man-power-carriage
+    coolies, who in the exercise of our nightly avocation are
+    called to distant parts of the town, where the knife that is
+    invisible will speedily sever the head from the body, and the
+    cloth that is impenetrable will stifle the last cry of him that
+    hath none to avenge, and our heads go to make the water run
+    within the pipe, and make firm the foundations of this new
+    water hole.
+
+    Let the engineers make the necessary sacrifices, that we may go
+    without fear and trembling to those who call us, with mighty
+    voice and thick, to go to Si Poi Poh. Then shall we receive the
+    reward of the Ang Moh's gratitude, far exceeding that of they
+    who aforetime dwelt in the land, or of our brothers of the
+    Celestial Empire.
+
+    HAK-CHEW.
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+Alquada Reef lighthouse, 112.
+
+Andaman Islands, 21, 143.
+
+_Anecdotal History_, on Singapore, etc., convicts, 47, 67.
+
+
+Balfour, Dr. Edward: opinion of Singapore jail, 182.
+
+"Bastiani," exporter of pine-apples to Europe, 60.
+
+Begbie, Captain, 43.
+
+Belcher, Sir Edward, R.N., 61.
+
+Bencoolen, First penal settlement at, 1-3.
+  Sir Stamford Raffles' letters on treatment of convicts at, 4-8.
+  Transfer of convicts from, to Penang, 8.
+  Transfer of convicts from, to Singapore, 39.
+
+"Bencoolen Rules" in force at Singapore, 43.
+
+Bennett, Mr. John, 61, 74.
+
+Beri-beri disease, 149.
+
+Blundell, Hon. Edmund Augustus, 73.
+
+Branding, 12.
+
+Bricks, Dearth of, at Singapore in 1844, 58.
+
+Bricks made by convicts, 110, 174.
+
+Brodhurst, Mr., 144.
+
+Budoo road, 44.
+
+Bukit Timah Canal, 71.
+
+Butterworth, Colonel, 20, 61, 62.
+
+"Butterworth Rules," 21, 62, 63.
+
+
+Campbell, Major, 42.
+
+Canning, Lord, 75.
+
+Cape Rachado, 29.
+
+Carrimon Islands, 33.
+
+Cathedral, Singapore, 97-101.
+
+Cavenagh, General Sir Orfeur, 52.
+
+"Cellular system," 158.
+
+Chains, Convicts in, 40, 87.
+
+Chester, Lieutenant, 40.
+
+Chinese rioters dispersed by Indian convicts, 67-68.
+
+Church, Hon. Thomas, 73.
+  Extracts from letters on value of convict labour, 179-181.
+
+Clarke, Sir Andrew, 3, 14.
+
+Clothing of convicts at Singapore jail, 94.
+
+Cobra, 128.
+
+Coleman, G. D., Work performed by, at Singapore, 43-46.
+
+Collyer, Colonel, 75.
+
+Collyer Quay, 76.
+
+Convicts, Treatment of, at Penang, 16-20.
+  Ticket-of-leave, at Penang, 24.
+  at Malacca, 27-30.
+  Transfer of, from Bencoolen to Singapore, 39.
+  First trial of, as warders at Singapore, 40.
+  Lenient treatment of, 41.
+  used for suppressing fires at Singapore, 42.
+  employed as orderlies and servants, 42.
+  at Singapore, Malacca, Penang, and Maulmein, Extract from
+      _Anecdotal History_ on, 47.
+  used for destroying tigers, 52.
+  used for surveying, 56. employed for road-constructing, 19, 28, 59.
+  build lighthouses at Singapore, 60, 62.
+  Indian, disperse Chinese rioters, 68.
+  Bukit Timah Canal improved by, 71.
+  A new St. Andrew's Church constructed by, 72, 97.
+  assist in building fortifications of Singapore, 76.
+  Government House built by, 77, 101.
+  Classification of, at Singapore jail, 84-89.
+  Average number of, at Singapore, 89. Trades of, 90-92.
+  hours of work at Singapore, 92.
+  Clothing of, at Singapore jail, 94.
+  Industries of (intramural) 104-108.
+  Industries of (extramural) 108-112.
+  Stories about Indian, 113-142.
+  Indian, fondness for spying, 123.
+  Indian, Transfer of, to Port Blair from Singapore, 143.
+  Pardoning, 143-145. Analysis of crimes of, in 1873, 145.
+  Diseases of, at Singapore, 147-152.
+  Death-rate of, at Singapore, 149.
+  Disciplinary treatment of, at Singapore, 159.
+  Incorrigible, 161.
+  Materials made by, 172-175.
+  Bricks made by, 172-175.
+  Defaults committed by Indian, 176.
+
+Cotton, Dr. George, 74.
+
+Cowpar, Dr., 154.
+
+Crawfurd, Mr. John, 36, 101.
+
+Crocodiles, 130, 134-138.
+
+
+"Dacoity," 12.
+
+Davidson, M. F., 61, 62.
+
+Death-rate of convicts at Singapore, 149, 170.
+
+De Barros on Malacca, 26.
+
+Dindings, 14.
+
+Diseases of convicts at Singapore, 147-152.
+  Feigned, 152-155.
+
+Du Cane, Sir Edmund, 96.
+
+
+Edinburgh, H.R.H. The Duke of, 77.
+
+
+Faber, Captain, 58.
+  lays foundation stone of Pearl's Hill jail, 64.
+
+Farquhar, Major, 33.
+
+Fires, Convicts used for suppressing, 42.
+
+Flogging, 88.
+
+Forlong, General, 21, 63.
+  appreciation of Singapore convict system, 63.
+
+Fraser, Colonel, report on management of Singapore jail, 110.
+
+"Funny Joe," 126.
+
+
+Godinho de Eredia, 25, 151.
+
+Government House at Singapore, 101-104.
+
+Guillaume, architect, 97.
+
+Guthrie, Mr. Alexander, 35.
+
+Guthrie, Mr. James, 101.
+
+
+Hamadryads, Convicts bitten by, 16.
+
+Hay, Mr. Andrew, 35.
+
+"Head Scare," 69-70.
+
+Hilliard, Captain, 20.
+
+Hospital erected at Singapore, 57.
+
+Humphrey, Rev. William Topley, 73.
+
+
+Industries, Convict, 104-112.
+
+
+Jail erected near Brass Basa Canal, 54.
+  New Civil, at Pearl's Hill, 64.
+  Singapore, Description of, 77-83.
+  Singapore, Classification of convicts at, 84-89.
+  Singapore, Rations for, 93.
+  Industries at Singapore, 104-112.
+  Convict Probation at Singapore, 157.
+  Expenses of Singapore, 169.
+  Statistics of Hospital Department, 170-171.
+
+Janssen, M. Leon, 151.
+
+Johnstone, Mr. A. L., 35.
+
+Johore, Sultan of, 36.
+
+
+Kerr, Dr., 150.
+
+
+Labour, Value of convict, 92.
+  Statistics of convict, 172-175.
+
+Latrines, 80-82.
+
+"Licuala acutifida," 24.
+
+Light, Captain, 15.
+
+Lighthouses at Singapore, 60-62.
+  erected at eastern entrance to Straits of Malacca, 62.
+
+
+McClure, Sir Robert, 139.
+
+MacKenzie, Mr. E., 35.
+
+McNair, Lieut., 73.
+
+McNair, Major, 52.
+  Rules introduced by, 1858-59, 63.
+  prepares plans for Government House at Singapore, 77, 97, 101.
+
+Macpherson, Captain Ronald, 71, 73.
+
+Macpherson, Colonel, 97.
+  Attempt to kill, 125.
+
+Magaelhaens, Mr., 61.
+
+Mahomed Shah, 26.
+
+Malacca, Origin of name of, 25.
+  Size of, 26. Trade of, 26.
+  The Portuguese at, 26.
+  Appearance of, 27.
+  First convicts at, 27.
+  Industrial training of convicts at, 29.
+  Transfer of convicts to Singapore from, 30.
+  trade, 1845-46, 65.
+
+Man, Captain, 158.
+
+Man, General, 20, 21.
+
+Man, General, Initiation of carpenter's work at Singapore, 64.
+
+Marco Polo, 151.
+
+Maxwell, Mr. D. A., 35.
+
+Mayne, Major, 76.
+
+Montgomery, Mr. W., 35.
+
+Moor's _Notices of the Indian Archipelago_, 45.
+
+Morgan, Mr. A. F., 35.
+
+Morgan, Mr. John, 35.
+
+Mouat, Dr., Paper on ticket-of-leave system at Singapore, 10.
+  Testimony as to conservancy of Singapore jail, 82.
+  Report on Singapore jail, 1864-65, 105.
+
+
+Napier, Mr. D. F., 35.
+
+Netley Abbey, 97.
+
+New Harbour Dock, 67.
+
+
+Ord, Lady, 101.
+
+Ord, Sir Harry St. George, 76, 101.
+
+Oxley, Dr., House of, attacked by burglars, 43.
+
+
+Pangkor, 14.
+
+Penang, Convicts transferred to, from Bencoolen, 8, 14.
+  Increase in population of, 15.
+  Trade of, 16, 65.
+  Treatment of convicts at, 16-20.
+  Ticket-of-leave at, 24.
+  Seat of government fixed at, 41.
+  "Penang lawyers," 24.
+  "Penang Rules," 8, 18.
+  in force at Singapore, 43.
+
+Pine-apples at Singapore, 59.
+
+Piracy in the Straits of Malacca, 120-122.
+
+Pooley, Lieut.-Col. Charles, 73.
+
+Port Blair, Transfer of Indian life-convicts to, 143.
+
+"Prince of Wales Island" (see also Penang), 14.
+
+Prisoners (see Convicts).
+
+Province Wellesley, Acquisition of, 14.
+
+Pulo Ubin, British flag planted at, 38.
+
+Purvis, Captain, 73.
+
+Purvis, Mr. John, 35.
+
+
+Queen, H.M. The, Statue of, 104.
+
+
+Raffles', Sir Stamford, letters to Government on treatment of
+    convicts at Bencoolen, 4-8.
+  Views of, on necessity of trading centre in Straits of Malacca, 33.
+  Address from merchants at Singapore to, 36.
+  reply to address from merchants at Singapore, 37.
+  "The Coney" lighthouse named after, 62.
+
+Raffles Institution, 45.
+
+Rations for Singapore jail, 93.
+
+Rawlinson, Sir Robert, K.C.B., 76.
+
+Read, Mr. C. R., 35.
+
+Read, Mr. W. H., C.M.G., 100.
+
+Rhio, 33.
+
+Roads opened between Bukit Timah and Krangi, 59.
+  to summit of Telok Blangah Hill, 59.
+
+Rock-blasting by Indian convicts, 66.
+
+Rowell, Dr. Irvine, C.M.G., 150.
+
+
+St. Andrew's Church, 68.
+  Construction of a new, 72.
+  consecrated by Dr. George Cotton, Bishop of Calcutta, 74.
+
+Scott, Mr. Charles, 35.
+
+Scott, Mr. Thomas, 101.
+
+Serangoon road, 44.
+
+Shaw, Mr. Frank, 131.
+
+Singapore, Foundation of settlement, 34.
+  Origin of name of, 31.
+  Size of, 32.
+  ceded to Great Britain, 34.
+  Population of, 34.
+  First settlers at, 34, 35.
+  Early prison at, 35.
+  Address from merchants at, to Sir Stamford Raffles, 36.
+  Extracts from reply to address from merchants to Sir S. Raffles, 37.
+  First census, 38.
+  Transfer of convicts from Bencoolen to, 39.
+  First church for, 45.
+  jail erected, 1841, 54.
+  Tigers at, 49-53.
+  Extract from _The Free Press_ on progress of town, 55.
+  hospital erected, 57.
+  bricks, 58.
+  pine-apples, 59.
+  trade, 1845-46, 65.
+  census, 1849, 67.
+  new church, 72.
+  Fortification of, 75.
+  waterworks, 76.
+  jail, Description of, 77-83.
+  cathedral, 97-101.
+  Government House, 101-104.
+  Expenses of, jail, 169.
+
+_Singapore Free Press_: Extract on capture of a tiger, 50.
+  Extract on ravages of tigers, 51.
+  Extract on progress of Singapore town, 1842, 55.
+  Extract on Singapore lighthouse, 61.
+  Extract on tiger-hunting, 134.
+  on released convicts, 183-184.
+  on "head-cutting" scare, 185-186.
+
+Sleeman, Colonel, 12.
+
+Stevenson, Captain, 48.
+
+Stone Quarrying at Singapore, 111.
+
+Surveying, Convicts used for, 56.
+
+
+Tanjong Tatti, 33.
+
+Tan-Tock-Seng, 57.
+
+Taylor, Rev. Wallace, M.D., 152.
+
+Temple, Col. R.C., 21.
+
+Thompson, J. T., 56.
+  designs hospital for Singapore, 57.
+  designs Singapore lighthouse, 60.
+
+"Thuggee," 11.
+
+"Tickery Banda," 113.
+
+Ticket-of-leave system, 10, 24.
+  employed in pine culture, 60.
+
+Tigers at Singapore, 49-53.
+  trap, 131.
+
+Trade for year 1845-46 of Penang, Singapore, and Malacca, 65.
+
+Trades of Singapore convicts, 90-92.
+
+Transportation, 8.
+  Effect of, on the native of India, 9, 117, 157.
+
+
+_Tropical Possessions in Malayan India_,
+    Story about "Tickery Banda" in, 113.
+
+Warders, Singapore convicts as, 40, 48, 162.
+
+Well-digging at Singapore, 112.
+
+White, Rev. Edmund, 45.
+
+Wilson, Rt. Rev. Daniel, D.D., 73.
+
+
+Xavier, St. Francis, 27.
+
+
+
+
+Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+
+Inconsistencies in the hyphenation of words preserved. (cocoanuts,
+cocoa-nuts; extramural, extra-mural; intramural, intra-mural; lookout,
+look-out; tongkong, tong-kong; transmarine, trans-marine; workyard,
+work-yard)
+
+Pg. 37, inserted missing period. (extracts from it. After acknowledging)
+
+Pg. 167-8, these were blank pages in the original text and anchors have
+not been inserted for them.
+
+Pg. 187, index entry "Alquada". Is spelled "Alguada" in main text.
+Original spellings of both preserved as it is unclear which the author
+intended.
+
+Pg. 188, index entry "Crawfurd, Mr. John". Pg. 36 which index refers to
+spells the name as "Crawford" while Pg. 101 spells it as "Crawfurd".
+Original spellings retained in all cases as it is unclear which spelling
+the author intended.
+
+Pg. 189, index entry "Malacca". Inserted period after page number.
+(First convicts at, 27.)
+
+Pg. 189, index entry "Moor's _Notices of the Indian Archipelago_".
+In the original text, both both the author's name and the title of the
+book were italicized.
+
+Pg. 191, index entry "Tanjong Tatti". Is spelled "Tanjong Jatti" in main
+text. Original spellings of both preserved as it is unclear which the
+author intended.
+
+Pg. 191, index entry "Thompson, J. T.". Inserted comma before page
+number. (Singapore lighthouse, 60)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Prisoners Their Own Warders, by 
+J. F. A. McNair and W. D. Bayliss
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Prisoners Their Own Warders, by 
+J. F. A. McNair and W. D. Bayliss
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Prisoners Their Own Warders
+       A Record of the Convict Prison at Singapore in the Straits
+              Settlements Established 1825
+
+Author: J. F. A. McNair
+        W. D. Bayliss
+
+Release Date: October 20, 2008 [EBook #26974]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRISONERS THEIR OWN WARDERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ronald Lee
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<p class="center">PRISONERS THEIR OWN WARDERS</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="frontis" id="frontis"></a>
+<img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="600" height="348" alt="Muster of Convicts" />
+<div class="cap">
+<p class="caption">GENERAL MONTHLY MUSTER OF THE CONVICTS, SINGAPORE JAIL.</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Frontispiece</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h1>PRISONERS THEIR OWN<br />
+WARDERS</h1>
+
+<p class="title"><b><small>A RECORD OF THE CONVICT PRISON AT SINGAPORE<br />
+IN THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS ESTABLISHED 1825,<br />
+DISCONTINUED 1873, TOGETHER WITH A<br />
+CURSORY HISTORY OF THE CONVICT<br />
+ESTABLISHMENTS AT BENCOOLEN,<br />
+PENANG AND MALACCA FROM<br />
+THE YEAR 1797</small></b></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>BY MAJOR J. R A. McNAIR</b><br />
+<small><i>Late Royal Artillery, C.M.G., A.M.I.C.E., F.L.S., and F.R.G.S<br />
+Late Colonial Engineer and Surveyor General and Comptroller of Indian Convicts<br />
+Straits Settlements from 1857 to 1877 Author of "Perak<br />
+and the Malays" (Sarong and Kris)</i></small></p>
+
+
+<p class="center" style="margin-top: 1.5em;"><b><span class="smcap">Assisted by</span> W. D. BAYLISS</b><br />
+<small><i>Mem. Soc. Engineers Lond., Late Superintendent of Works and<br />
+Surveys and Superintendent of Convicts, Singapore</i></small></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS</b></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">"A willing bondman."<br />
+<span class="smcap left25">&mdash;Shakespeare</span><br />
+<span class="left45">(<i>Julius Caesar</i>, Act I., Sc. 3)</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">WESTMINSTER<br />
+ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND CO<br />
+2 WHITEHALL GARDENS<br />
+1899<br />
+<span class="tiny">ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>
+<span class="smcap">Butler &amp; Tanner,<br />
+The Selwood Printing Works,<br />
+Frome, and London.</span></small></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="prefaceillo" id="prefaceillo"></a>
+<img src="images/preface.jpg" width="363" height="500" alt="Portrait of Indian Petty Officer" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 363px;">
+<p class="capright">[<i>Mcnair.</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p style="margin-top: 0em;" class="caption">DUFFADAR ARJOON, SENIOR PETTY OFFICER<br />
+OF ARTIFICERS.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="hr1" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Preface</h2>
+
+
+<p>Some explanation appears to be due from us for writing this account
+of the Singapore Convict Jail so long after the date of its final
+abolition.</p>
+
+<p>The truth is, that for several years it has been our opinion that
+it ought to be written by some one, and the same suggestion had
+often been made to one of us by the late Doctor Mouat, Inspector
+General of Jails, Bengal, and others who were well acquainted with
+its administration.</p>
+
+<p>An opportunity lately occurred to bring us into communication on
+the subject, and when we came to compare the voluminous notes that
+each of us had collected during the time that the jail was in full
+vigour, we arrived at the conclusion that there was abundant
+material for a work upon it. It also appeared to us that there were
+some exceptional features in the training and discipline of these
+native convicts, that might even at this day prove of service to
+other Superintendents of native jails in different parts of India
+and the Colonies; while, at the same time, such a work would not be
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>
+devoid of some interest to those who make a study of the
+punishment and reformation of the criminal class of all countries,
+a subject in regard to which, in spite of the great progress we
+have made, the last word has certainly not yet been said.</p>
+
+<p>This, then, is our apology for the attempt we have made, and we
+trust that our joint labours may be received with indulgence.</p>
+
+<p>When this old Singapore jail was put an end to in 1873, some six
+years after the transfer of the Straits Settlements to the Crown,
+the convicts then under confinement were removed to the Andaman
+Islands, at that time not long established as a penal settlement
+for India; while those on a ticket-of-leave were permitted to merge
+into the population, continuing to earn their livelihood as
+artizans, cow keepers, cart drivers, and the like. Those who were
+old and infirm were retained at Singapore at the expense of the
+Indian Government, and a certain number of convicts from Hongkong
+were returned to that colony to complete their sentences. There
+remained, therefore, only the local prisoners to be dealt with, and
+for these, under the subsequent orders of the Colonial Government,
+was planned and constructed by our Department, and under our
+supervision, a spacious prison on the cellular system, and situated
+on a more healthy site than the old convict jail, which had become
+surrounded by the buildings of the town.</p>
+
+<p>We should much like to have given a consecutive history of this old
+jail from the date of its <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span>first construction until it was finally
+abolished, but unfortunately the jail registers have not been
+carefully kept from the beginning, or are not forthcoming; but we
+have had access to some old scattered letters and papers, and to
+statistics from the year 1844, since which time the records have
+been regularly kept from year to year.</p>
+
+<p>A good deal of useful information has also come within our reach
+from works written upon Singapore and the Straits Settlements, and
+especially are we indebted to an <i>Anecdotal History of Singapore</i>,
+published by the <i>Free Press</i>, and extending from the year 1822 to
+1856, which gives an interesting account of our early occupation of
+that island, and of the use to which the labour of these convicts
+was turned.</p>
+
+<p>From the Memoirs of <i>Sir Stamford Raffles</i>, written by his widow in
+1830, and from his <i>Life</i> by Demetrius Charles Boulger, in 1897, we
+have been able to trace that, so far back as the year 1823, there
+were between 800 and 900 of these Indian convicts at our settlement
+of Bencoolen, on the south-west coast of Sumatra; and that, when
+this place was conceded to the Dutch by the London treaty of 1825,
+these convicts were removed to Penang, and were subsequently
+distributed amongst the three settlements of Penang, Malacca, and
+Singapore. This distribution would in all probability have taken
+place about the year 1825, when Singapore was incorporated with
+Penang and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
+Malacca, under the Governor and Council of the
+Incorporated Settlements.</p>
+
+<p>We think the account which we are about to give of the various
+employments of these Indian convicts at Singapore, will abundantly
+show how considerably this important settlement has benefited by
+their early introduction. They made most of the roads in the
+settlement, including timber bridges, viaducts and tunnels, and
+executed for the Government many important public buildings.
+Moreover, when released from imprisonment upon a ticket-of-leave,
+they were absorbed innoxiously into the native community, and again
+contributed to the advantage of the place in the various
+occupations they had recourse to, in order to obtain an honest
+livelihood. By a judicious system of rewards, and a graduated scale
+of promotion, a very remarkable spirit of industry was infused into
+the bulk of these convicts during their incarceration, and it may
+be honestly said that this was effected without the sacrifice of
+that wholesome discipline always essential in the control
+especially of the criminal class.</p>
+
+<p>We could not, of course, interfere with their religion, but by a
+well-judged scale of punishments and rewards, and by instruction
+given to them in their own vernacular, we endeavoured to raise
+their character by helping them to good conduct, and to a better
+way of living. To encourage and foster that industry to which we
+have referred, we <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span>taught them the trades to which each of them
+appeared to be best adapted, and held out to them the hope that
+they might again become good citizens, and earn for themselves a
+creditable subsistence; and, as it was our practice to deal with
+each of them "individually," we were often made aware that there
+was many an honest heart immured within those prison walls.</p>
+
+<p>In the narrative we have given of the Settlements, it may seem that
+we have dwelt at too great length upon their early history, but we
+thought it would add to the interest of the work, if we gave what
+is really only a limited sketch of the various places to which
+those Indian convicts were first banished beyond the seas.</p>
+
+<p>In the initiation of the system of industrial training among these
+convicts, special credit is due to the late General (then Captain)
+Man, who in his early years had been trained at Chatham as a
+sapper. The late Colonel Macpherson, who succeeded him, carried on
+and improved the system, and both these officers were well seconded
+in their efforts by the late Mr. J. Bennett, C.E., who practically
+was their clerk of the works. Mr. Bennett subsequently rose to a
+high position in the Department.</p>
+
+<p>It would be impossible to mention the names of all the subordinate
+staff, but Burnett, Stuart, and Lamb are prominent in our
+recollection as having done good service as warders and
+instructors.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span>In 1864, the Resident of Rhio, Java, Mr. E. Netscher, was appointed
+by the Dutch Government to study and report upon the convict system
+in force in Singapore, and both the Siam and Japan Governments sent
+special missions for the like purpose, the mission from Japan being
+accompanied by Mr. Hall, of the British Consulate. Many others,
+also, recorded their opinions in its favour, and some among them
+were authorities upon prison systems pursued in some parts of both
+Europe and America.</p>
+
+<p>The local government, we should add, in their direction of this
+convict establishment, fully recognised that the distinctive
+feature in the native mind was to look to one rather than to many
+masters, to one European executive officer rather than to a
+collective body of magistrates, and, therefore, beyond that general
+supervision which the Government must ever assume over its
+Departments, it committed the whole of the management, discipline,
+and control of this large body of convicts entirely to their
+Superintendent, under the approved rules and regulations for his
+guidance, and for the administration of the whole establishment.</p>
+
+<div class="sigblock">
+<p>J. F. A. McNAIR, R.A., C.M.G.</p>
+
+<p>W. D. BAYLISS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p style="clear: right;"><small><span class="smcap">Scotia, Preston Park,<br />
+Brighton, Sussex.</span></small></p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>Contents</h2>
+
+
+<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_1">Chapter I</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="tocpg"><span class="tiny">PAGE</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="padding-top: 0em;" class="toc">EARLY RECORDS OF BENCOOLEN AND OBSERVATIONS ABOUT CONVICTS</td>
+<td style="padding-top: 0em;" class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_14">Chapter II</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">A SLIGHT SKETCH OF PENANG AND THE TREATMENT OF THE CONVICTS THERE</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_25">Chapter III</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">OLD MALACCA, AND THE FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CONVICTS THERE</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_31">Chapter IV</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">A RUNNING HISTORY OF SINGAPORE: ITS JAIL SYSTEM AND ADMINISTRATION</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2">
+<span style="font-size: 67%;" class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span>
+<a href="#Page_47">Chapter V</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">SINGAPORE <small>(CONTINUED)</small></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_59">Chapter VI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">SINGAPORE <small>(CONTINUED)</small></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_75">Chapter VII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">SINGAPORE <small>(CONTINUED)</small></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_84">Chapter VIII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">DIVISION INTO CLASSES, TRADERS, FOOD AND CLOTHING</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_96">Chapter IX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">PUBLIC WORKS AND INDUSTRIES</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_113">Chapter X</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">STORIES ABOUT INDIAN CONVICTS AND EUROPEAN LOCAL PRISONERS</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2">
+<span style="font-size: 67%;" class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span>
+<a href="#Page_143">Chapter XI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">ABOLITION OF THE CONVICT DEPARTMENT AND DISPOSAL OF THE CONVICTS</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_147">Chapter XII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">DISEASES AND MALINGERING</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_156">Chapter XIII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">CONCLUSION</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="padding-top: 2.25em;" class="toc">APPENDICES</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#APPENDICES">169</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span></p>
+<h2>List of Illustrations and Plates</h2>
+
+
+<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="List of illustrations">
+
+<tr><td class="toc">GENERAL MONTHLY MUSTER OF THE CONVICTS, SINGAPORE JAIL</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#frontis"><small><i>Frontispiece</i></small></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td>
+<td style="padding-top: 1.5em;" class="tdr"><span class="tiny">TO FACE PAGE</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">DUFFADAR ARJOON</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#prefaceillo">v</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_I">Plate I</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">OLD MAP SHOWING PENAL SETTLEMENTS</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_I">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_II">Plate II</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">FORT CORNWALLIS, PENANG</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_II">14</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_III">Plate III</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">BOUNDARIES OF MALACCA, PORTUGUESE PERIOD</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_III">25</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_IV">Plate IV</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">OLD MALACCA</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_IV">26</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_V">Plate V</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">ALBUQUERQUE</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_V">26</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_VI">Plate VI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">MALACCA RIVER</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_VI">28</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2">
+<span style="font-size: 67%;" class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span>
+<a href="#plate_VII">Plate VII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">ST. FRANCIS XAVIER</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_VII">28</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">TOWN AND ENVIRONS OF SINGAPORE</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_VIII">31</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_IX">Plate IX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">ORIGINAL HUTS FOR CONVICTS, SINGAPORE</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_IX">39</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_X">Plate X</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">DISTRIBUTION OF JAIL BUILDINGS, SINGAPORE</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_X">77</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_XI">Plate XI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">MAIN GATE OF SINGAPORE JAIL</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_XI">78</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_XII">Plate XII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">DUFFADAR RAM SINGH</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_XII">84</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_XIII">Plate XIII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">HEAD TINDAL MAISTRI</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_XIII">86</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_XIV">Plate XIV</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">CONVICT OF SECOND CLASS AND MUNSHI</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_XIV">88</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_XV">Plate XV</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">CONVICTS OF FIFTH CLASS, AND FIFTH CLASS SECTION&nbsp;A</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_XV">90</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_XVA">Plate XV<small>A</small></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">CHETOO&mdash;CONVICT OF FIFTH CLASS</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_XVA">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><span style="font-size: 67%;" class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span>
+<a href="#plate_XVI">Plate XVI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">CATHEDRAL, SINGAPORE</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_XVI">97</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_XVII">Plate XVII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">GOVERNMENT HOUSE, GARDEN, AND MORTAR MILL</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_XVII">101</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_XVIII">Plate XVIII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE, APPROACHING COMPLETION</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_XVIII">102</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_XIX">Plate XIX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE, COMPLETED</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_XIX">104</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#plate_XX">Plate XX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc">CONVICTS STONE-QUARRYING</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#plate_XX">111</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<p class="center"><small><a href="images/pl1-big.jpg">View larger image</a></small></p>
+<a name="plate_I" id="plate_I"></a>
+<img src="images/pl1-th.jpg" width="370" height="500" alt="Map of Malayan Peninsula and Sumatra" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 370px;">
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;" class="plate"><i>Plate I.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="hr1" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Chapter I<br />
+<br />
+<small>EARLY RECORDS OF BENCOOLEN AND<br />
+OBSERVATIONS ABOUT CONVICTS</small></h2>
+
+
+<p>In opening this account of the old convict jail at Singapore, it
+will be necessary to refer, as we have said, in some little detail
+to the history of the settlements of Bencoolen, Penang, and
+Malacca, to which convicts from India were first sent, prior to
+their reception into the Singapore prison.</p>
+
+<p>The first penal settlement was Bencoolen, the Banka-Ulu<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> of the
+Malays, to which they were transported from India about the year
+1787, much about the same time that transportation to Australia for
+English convicts was sanctioned by our laws.</p>
+
+<p>Bencoolen was singularly adapted as a receptacle for convict
+labour; it was not a populous place when we took it in 1685, nor,
+as far as we can gather, had the population much increased up to
+the year 1787, and the few Sumatrans and Malays that were its
+inhabitants were an indolent race, and preferred a life of ease to
+any <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>kind of labour. They were content to get their livelihood from
+fishing, and they had no artificial wants. They would occasionally
+work upon pepper plantations, and would bring the berries to
+Bencoolen for sale to British merchants. Labour was therefore
+wanted here, and the East India Company thought that by its
+introduction they would make of Bencoolen a thriving settlement;
+but as it turned out they were greatly disappointed, for both
+pepper and camphor, which were the only commodities there for
+trade, greatly declined; and commerce, which was all-important to
+the East India Company, almost entirely disappeared after its
+establishment for some few years. It was a miserable place from all
+accounts, and was described by Captain James Lowe, in 1836, "as an
+expensive port, and of no use to any nation that might possess it,"
+and he only echoed what was previously said of it by William
+Dampier, who had once been there in the humble position of a
+gunner, that it was "a sorry place, sorrily governed, and very
+unhealthy." So unhealthy was it, that it became necessary as early
+as 1714 to remove the Residency and offices to a point of land
+about two miles further off the coast, which was called Fort
+Marlborough; but even this locality was found not to be beyond the
+reach of malaria, and the place continued, as Crawfurd says, to be
+more or less unhealthy down to the cession of the settlement in
+1825. But it had, however, done its work in providing for us a firm
+footing in those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> seas, and was a help to the next step in our
+progress towards a wider empire.</p>
+
+<p>It is important to relate here that its last Lieut.-Governor was
+the founder of our now important settlement of Singapore. He took
+up the appointment at Bencoolen on the 20th March, 1818, founded
+Singapore in 1819, returned to Bencoolen in 1820, and finally left
+for England in 1824.</p>
+
+<p>It is not our present purpose to dwell upon the intellectual and
+moral greatness of this remarkable man, for full justice has been
+done to his memory in the recent account of his life by Demetrius
+Boulger, and by an impressive tribute to his worth by General Sir
+Andrew Clarke, R.E., G.C.M.G., in a paper read by him in May last
+at the Royal Institution.</p>
+
+<p>It is of course impossible at this late date to trace what was done
+in connection with the convicts on their first arrival at this
+settlement, though we gather from old letters that they were
+employed principally upon road-making, and on clearing estates
+which, "owing to their owners having died intestate, had reverted
+to the State." They were also let out to planters on a guarantee as
+to their not quitting the settlement.</p>
+
+<p>The first authentic information we have in regard to the management
+and treatment of these convicts is from a letter to the Government
+by Sir Stamford Raffles, written from Bencoolen in 1818; which we
+give bodily from his Life, written by his widow in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> 1830. It is a
+paper which gives evidence of the soundness of his views upon this
+subject, and indeed it may be truly said, that with every question
+with which he had to deal he always displayed the greatest judgment
+and keenness of insight.</p>
+
+<p>It is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"But there is another class of people that call for immediate
+consideration. Since 1787 a number of persons have been transported
+to this place from Bengal for various crimes of which they have
+been found guilty.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the punishment as far as it affects the parties must
+be the reclaiming them from their bad habits, but I much question
+whether the practice hitherto pursued has been productive of that
+effect. This I apprehend to be, in a great measure, in consequence
+of sufficient discrimination and encouragement not having been
+shown in favour of those most inclined to amendment, and perhaps to
+the want of a discretionary power in the chief authority to remit a
+portion of the punishment and disgrace which is at present the
+common lot of all. It frequently happens that men of notoriously
+bad conduct are liberated at the expiration of a limited period of
+transportation, whilst others, whose general conduct is perhaps
+unexceptional, are doomed to servitude till the end of their lives.</p>
+
+<p>As coercive measures are not likely to be attended with success, I
+conceive that some advan<span class='pagenumbq'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>tage would arise from affording
+inducements to good conduct by holding out the prospect of again
+becoming useful members of society, and freeing themselves from the
+disabilities under which they labour. There are at present about
+500 of these unfortunate people. However just the original sentence
+may have been, the crimes and characters of so numerous a body must
+necessarily be very unequal, and it is desirable that some
+discrimination should be exerted in favour of those who show the
+disposition to redeem their character. I would suggest the
+propriety of the chief authority being vested with a discretionary
+power of freeing such men as conduct themselves well from the
+obligation of service, and permitting them to settle in the place
+and resume the privileges of citizenship. The prospect of
+recovering their characters, of freeing themselves from their
+present disabilities, and the privileges of employing their
+industry for their own advantage would become an object of
+ambition, and supply a stimulus to exertion and good conduct which
+is at present wanting.</p>
+
+<p>It rarely happens that any of those transported have any desire to
+leave the country; they form connections in the place, and find so
+many inducements to remain, that to be sent away is considered by
+most a severe punishment.</p>
+
+<p>While a convict remains unmarried and kept to daily labour very
+little confidence can be placed in him, and his services are
+rendered with so much<span class='pagenumbq'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> tardiness and dissatisfaction that they are
+of little or no value; but he no sooner marries and forms a small
+settlement than he becomes a kind of colonist, and if allowed to
+follow his inclinations he seldom feels inclined to return to his
+native country.</p>
+
+<p>I propose to divide them into three classes. The first class to be
+allowed to give evidence in court, and permitted to settle on land
+secured to them and their children; but no one to be admitted to
+this class until he has been resident in Bencoolen three years. The
+second class to be employed in ordinary labour. The third class, or
+men of abandoned and profligate character, to be kept to the harder
+kinds of labour, and confined at night.</p>
+
+<p>In cases of particular good conduct a prospect may be held out of
+emancipating deserving convicts from further obligation of services
+on condition of their supporting themselves and not quitting the
+settlement.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the abstract question of the advantage of this arrangement I
+believe there will be little difference of opinion. The advantage
+of holding out an adequate motive of exertion is sufficiently
+obvious, and here it would have the double tendency of diminishing
+the bad characters and of increasing that of useful and industrious
+settlers, thereby facilitating the general police of the country
+and diminishing the expenses of the Company."</p></div>
+
+<p>These intentions were acted upon afterwards,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> and the good effects of
+the regulations were soon apparent; a large body of people who had been
+living in the lowest state of degradation soon became useful labourers
+and happy members of society. So grateful were they for the change, that
+when they were sent round to Penang on the transfer of Bencoolen to the
+Dutch in 1825, as we have stated, they entreated to be placed on the
+same footing as they had been placed at Fort Marlborough, and not
+reduced to the state of the convicts in Prince of Wales Island, who were
+kept as a Government gang to be employed wherever their services might
+be thought most desirable.</p>
+
+<p>Upon December 20th, 1823, Sir Stamford Raffles wrote a further letter to
+Government in regard to these convicts, of which we can only give an
+extract, which runs thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"As the management of convicts ought to be a subject of
+consideration, I send you a copy of the regulations established for
+those of this place. The convicts now at Bencoolen amount to 800 or
+900, and the number is gradually increasing. They are natives of
+Bengal and Madras; that is to say, of those presidencies. The
+arrangement has been brought about gradually, but the system now
+appears complete, and, as far as we have yet gone, has been
+attended with the best effects. I have entrusted Mr. John Hull with
+the superintending of the department, and he feels great pleasure
+and<span class='pagenumbq'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> satisfaction in the general improvement of this class of
+people."</p></div>
+
+<p>It is greatly to be regretted that we have been unable to obtain a copy
+of the regulations to which Sir Stamford Raffles refers, but we have no
+doubt they formed the basis of what were hereafter called the "Penang
+rules."</p>
+
+<p>It was, as we have said, in the year 1825 that the whole of the
+Bencoolen convicts were transferred to Penang, and thence, as
+opportunities offered later on, to Malacca and Singapore. One point we
+trace in regard to those convicts is that, greatly to their
+disappointment, they missed the freedom they had possessed at Bencoolen,
+for they were sent to work in gangs upon the roads, and in levelling
+ground near the town of Penang. At first they were tried at jungle
+cutting and burning, but had no aptitude for it. This work was therefore
+entrusted to Malays, who we all know have a natural bent for cutting
+down trees and underwood, and are possessed of implements wonderfully
+suited for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>We may remark here that transportation in those early times had its
+terrors both to the European from our shores to Australia, and to the
+native of India to these settlements, and more especially to the latter.</p>
+
+<p>Though, by a system of "assignment" or "compulsory" servitude to
+masters, or by a ticket of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> leave which made it open to the European
+criminal to work for whom and where he pleased, expatriation became in
+time to be less severely felt; still, for a long period it continued to
+act as a deterrent to others, though to the convict himself it was
+"greater in idea perhaps than in reality." To the native of India it
+meant even a severer punishment than to the European, for to be sent
+across the "kala pani," or "black water," in a convict ship or "jeta
+junaza," or "living tomb" as they called it, meant, especially to a man
+of high caste, whether of the right or left hand section, the total loss
+to him of all that was worth living for. He could never be received in
+intercourse again with his own people, and so strong are the caste ideas
+of ceremonial uncleanness that it would be defilement to his friends and
+relations even to offer to him sustenance of any kind, and he was in
+point of fact excommunicated and avoided. Happily this dread of caste
+defilement has now, by railway communication over the country and
+equalization of classes under our rule, greatly diminished, but it is
+still, as Balfour says, "a prominent feature in every-day Hindu life."
+Sir Stamford Raffles' views as to the treatment of those transported
+convicts have in the main been recognised by all authorities in the
+Straits Settlements since his time; and his suggestion as to the
+privileges to be granted to men of the first class, though not defined
+by him as a "ticket of leave," has been all along kept in view, and was
+in regular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> force in the jail of which we treat. He divided his convicts
+into three classes only, but as time went on they were separated into
+six classes, and later on in the narrative will be given the reasons for
+this enlargement of the number. Dr. Mouat, Inspector General of Jails,
+Bengal, in a paper read before the Statistical Society some few years
+ago, spoke of this jail and the ticket-of-leave system as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I visited the Straits Settlements in 1861 when under the rule of
+my friend, Sir Orfeur Cavenagh, and found in existence a system of
+industrial training of convicts superior to anything we had at that
+time on the continent of India. It was said to have been
+inaugurated by the celebrated Sir Stamford Raffles in 1825, when
+Singapore was first selected for the transportation of convicts
+from India, and to have been subsequently organised and
+successfully worked by General H. Man, Colonel MacPherson, and
+Major McNair. The ticket-of-leave system was in full and effective
+operation, and very important public works have been constructed by
+means of convict labour, chief amongst them St. Andrew's Cathedral,
+a palace for the Governor, and most of the roads. The
+ticket-of-leave convicts were said to be a well-conducted,
+industrious lot of men, who very rarely committed fresh crimes, who
+all earned an honest livelihood, and were regarded as respectable
+members of the<span class='pagenumbq'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> community amongst whom they dwelt. The public works
+were creditable examples of prison industry and skill St. Andrew's
+Cathedral, built under Major McNair from plans prepared by Colonel
+MacPherson entirely by convict labour, struck me as one of the
+finest specimens of ecclesiastical architecture which I had seen in
+the East, and I believe there exists in no other country a more
+remarkable example of the successful industrial training of
+convicts."</p></div>
+
+<p>We are not of course greatly concerned in this treatise with the
+original crimes committed by those Indian convicts, and for which they
+had received a sentence of transportation. Suffice it to say that their
+warrants showed generally that, in the case of convicts for life, the
+crimes were for the most part those of Murder, Thuggee, and Dacoity;
+while those sentenced to a term of years had been tried and convicted of
+frauds and forgeries, robbery with violence, and such like
+misdemeanours. "Thuggee," we all know, though it will bear repetition
+here, was in full operation all over India from very early times, but at
+the beginning of this century it engaged the serious attention of the
+Indian Government; and it was found to be an hereditary pursuit of
+certain families who worked in gangs&mdash;the Hindus to satisfy their
+goddess Bhawani, and other sects the goddess Devi&mdash;and they committed a
+countless number of murders<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> all over the country. Thugs were a bold,
+resolute set of men, and as a rule divided themselves into groups
+consisting of a leader, a persuader, a strangler, a scout, and a
+gravedigger, but all the gangs, happily for India, were finally broken
+up under Colonel Sleeman about 1860. Some of the men were hanged, and
+many transported to our penal settlements in the Straits of Malacca.
+Dacoity was in some parts of India akin to Thuggee, for the leaders
+carried with them in the same way a sacred implement, which was devoted
+to Bhawani. In the case of the Thugs this was a pickaxe, but with the
+Dacoits it was an axe with a highly-tempered edge.</p>
+
+<p>In the early days we talk of, it was the common practice of the
+authorities to brand these life convicts with a hot iron to indicate the
+character of their crime, and this was in some cases done upon the
+forehead both in the English language and in the vernacular of the
+district where the crime was committed. This was very properly put a
+stop to shortly after the custom became known. We have seen some of
+those in our jail who, by good conduct, have risen to a ticket of leave,
+using their utmost endeavours to get rid of the marks, but without
+effect; and finally as a last resource they were obliged to be content
+to hide the "stigma" by wearing their turbans, or head-dresses,
+inconveniently low down over their brows.</p>
+
+<p>It is worthy of remark here, in reference to those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> native criminals who
+are in the habit of working in gangs, more especially among the Thugs,
+how signally they often fail when they attempt to act alone. Amongst our
+Thugs we had one (a strangler) who, coveting a pair of gold bangles on
+the wrist of a fellow-convict employed at the General Hospital, one
+night tried the handkerchief upon him, but missed his mark, and got away
+without being detected. Later on, the convict authorities examined the
+warrants of all the men at the hospital, and this gave them a clue,
+which they followed up successfully and caught the "Thug." He was
+punished, and then confessed, saying, "Bhawani was unkind, and I could
+not do it by myself; I missed my companions," or "saubutwal&eacute;" as he
+called them, literally meaning those "I kept company with."</p>
+
+<p>It will not be inappropriate to mention here the callous and brutalized
+nature of those gang-robbers, of whom it is recorded that, when one of
+their gang was suddenly arrested, they at once decapitated him, and
+carried off the head, lest the whole gang should be betrayed.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="center"><b>Footnotes:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+Literally, swollen at the source.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Chapter II<br />
+<br />
+<small>A SLIGHT SKETCH OF PENANG AND THE<br />
+TREATMENT OF THE CONVICTS THERE</small></h2>
+
+
+<p>Penang, also named "Prince of Wales" Island as a compliment to the then
+Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. This name for the island has
+become almost obsolete, and the Malay name Pi'nang, for the "Areka
+Palm," which flourishes there, is that by which it is now always known.
+It is situated at the northern extremity of the Malacca Straits, and was
+ceded to us by the Rajah of Kedah in 1785, when we gave up, but only for
+a time, our British settlement on the North Andaman, which we had
+acquired in 1789 and abandoned in 1796. Province Wellesley, opposite to
+Penang, upon the Malay Peninsula, was thirteen years later taken by us
+for the purpose of suppressing piracy, and forms part of this British
+settlement. The island has an area of 107 square miles, and the province
+of 270 square miles. Another dependency of the settlement since 1889 is
+the Dindings with the Island of Pangkor, where the treaty of 1874 was
+made by Sir Andrew<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> Clarke, and which eventually led to our protectorate
+of several of the native states of the Malay Peninsula, and their
+complete federation in 1896.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_II" id="plate_II"></a>
+<img src="images/pl2.jpg" width="550" height="409" alt="Fort Cornwallis" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 550px;">
+<p class="caption">FORT CORNWALLIS, PENANG.</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate II.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When Penang was first occupied it was almost uninhabited, and the whole
+island was covered with the densest jungle, but it was not long before
+Captain Light, who was appointed the first Superintendent of Trade, made
+a road to the highest point of the island, then called "Bel retiro" but
+now Penang Hill.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> A great part of the island was soon cleared and
+roads made, so that in 1792, seven years after it came into our hands,
+Captain Light was able to report that the population had increased to
+10,000 souls; this increase of population has been steadily going on
+from year to year, until, with its dependencies, Penang, after a little
+more than a century, now numbers no less than 240,000.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1825, when the Indian convicts from Bencoolen were added to those
+already on the island, their labour was almost wholly turned to account
+in the construction of roads both on the island and in the province; but
+about 1850 some <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>intramural work was also undertaken. The gangs in the
+province were at last taught to cut and burn the jungle as well as to
+construct the roads, and the records say at some risk from tigers which
+infested the province in those days, and occasionally carried off a
+straggler from the gangs at work. They were also bitten in large numbers
+by the venomous hamadryads which used to abound there, and from the
+poison of which some died.</p>
+
+<p>About the time our treatise commences, Penang had acquired the monopoly
+of the trade of the Malayan Peninsula and Sumatra. It also had a large
+traffic with China, Siam, Borneo, the Celebes, and other places in the
+Eastern Archipelago; but after the establishment later on of Singapore
+it had begun to decline, and the settlement then became second only in
+commercial importance. But within the last quarter of a century the
+trade has considerably revived, owing largely to the planting of tobacco
+in Sumatra by European planters, and the annexation of the native states
+of the Malayan Peninsula, both of which have constituted Penang the
+chief shipping centre for their produce.</p>
+
+<p>Before we pass on to treat of the Singapore jail, it will be well
+briefly to describe the method pursued in dealing with the Indian
+convicts on their first arrival in Penang, as far back as we can trace
+any definite notice in regard to them. They were confined at the outset
+in the then existing prison known as "Chowrusta Lines," situated on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+Penang road; but this proving to be too small to accommodate all the
+convicts from India, a larger and more commodious prison was built on
+the opposite side of the road. It consisted of an enclosure, surrounded
+by a high brick wall, subdivided into yards, in each of which were
+erected the wards or dormitories. These were simply long rooms open to
+the high roof, having windows on either side secured by iron bars. Iron
+gates closed the doorways to each ward, which were locked at night. A
+gangway seven to eight feet wide ran the whole length of the ward, and
+sleeping platforms about seven feet wide extended to the full length of
+the ward on either side of this gangway. The hospital ward was similar
+to the others, except that it was a two-storied building, and cots were
+provided instead of the continuous sleeping platforms. The hospital and
+women's ward were all within the enclosure in a separate yard. Warders'
+and apothecary's quarters were provided at the main entrance to the
+prison. Cooking places for the different castes and latrines were
+constructed in each yard; a military guard room, food and clothing
+stores were also supplied. Little can be said in favour of this prison,
+as the wards were ill-ventilated, and the sanitary arrangements were
+very imperfect. All the prisoners were in a somewhat lax system of
+association, except those undergoing punishment in cells. Prior to the
+receipt of the convicts from Bencoolen, Penang itself, as a penal
+settlement,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> had already been supplied from India with a number of
+transported criminals of all tribes and castes, who were working in
+gangs under free warders; but from vacancies and dismissals, and the
+consequent inability to supply the place of these warders, where free
+labour of the kind required was not obtainable, an attempt was then made
+to enlist the services of well-behaved convicts to oversee their
+fellow-prisoners. But it does not appear to have at all succeeded at
+that time, and we have it on record that the Governor in Council at
+Penang, in the year 1827, deemed it necessary to revise the regulations
+under which these Indian convicts were controlled; and accordingly we
+learn that a committee was appointed to assemble at Penang in November,
+1827, when a code of revised rules was drawn up, and the following
+comment was made by the committee as to the employment of convicts as
+warders: "With regard to the present system of employing convicts as
+tindals and sirdars, the committee think it very objectionable, as it is
+impossible that men so intimately connected with those over whom they
+are placed can exercise that authority and control which is so essential
+in the management of such a body of men as the convicts. The duties at
+present performed by these servants are provided for in the proposed
+increase to the establishment."</p>
+
+<p>These rules, subsequently known as the "Penang Rules," received the
+sanction of the Governor in Council, and were sent for guidance to the
+Resident<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> Councillor at Singapore, to which settlement some few convicts
+had already been sent. This remark of the Penang committee, which in all
+fairness we have quoted, was doubtless quite true at the time when it
+was penned, and when the system of employing prisoners as warders was in
+its infancy, and, moreover, when the whole prison discipline was
+acknowledged to be in more or less an indifferent state; but, as will
+hereafter be shown, it did not hold good when the system was well
+established, and the choice of warders was made from those classes best
+suited for the control of their fellow-prisoners, especially in the
+outstations, or "commands" as they were called, where gangs of convicts
+were placed under their control in the construction and repairs of roads
+or in stone-quarrying.</p>
+
+<p>In these early days, no organised system of industrial employment
+appears to have been carried on in this Penang jail, and no intramural
+workshops of any kind were provided, the convicts being employed almost
+exclusively on extramural works, such as opening up roads on the Penang
+Hill and throughout the island, and in Province Wellesley; also in
+brick-making, felling timber, burning lime, and reclaiming mangrove
+swamps. The ground on which some portion of the present town is built
+was filled up by convict labour. Much later on, however, in the Fifties,
+rattan work was introduced into the prison, and easy chairs, lounging
+chairs, baskets, and other articles of a very substantial quality were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+manufactured and sold to the public at a higher price than that for
+which the same articles could be purchased in the town, but they were
+far superior both in the quality of rattan and in their make. About the
+year 1860, blacksmiths' and carpenters' shops were established in the
+prison, and on the different "commands" in the country districts.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary discipline of the jail was carried out in accordance with
+the "Penang Rules" referred to, and any breach of these rules was
+punished according to the nature of the offence, at the discretion of
+the Superintendent. There was then no formal investigation or inquiry
+into convict complaints or misdemeanours, and no records of them were
+kept with any show of regularity. It was only after the appointment of
+the late General Man as Resident Councillor of Penang, Captain Hilliard
+being Superintendent, that a manifest improvement in the management and
+control of the convicts took place, and especially in their industrial
+training. He brought with him the system in force in Singapore, and the
+new rules and regulations formed with the sanction of the Governor, then
+Colonel Butterworth, and which were an improvement on the old Penang
+rules, but were only at this time being tentatively carried out in
+Penang. By these rules the entire abolition of free warders was
+approved, and petty officers raised from amongst the convicts themselves
+fully established, though as the Governor himself said in his letter to
+the Resident<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> Councillor of Singapore in August, 1854, "I had drawn up
+these rules as long ago as 1845 in the face of much opposition."</p>
+
+<p>The late General Man held the appointment at Penang from 1860 until
+1867, when the Straits Settlements were transferred to the Crown, and
+from Penang he went to the Andaman Islands to introduce there the system
+of convict management in force in the Straits Settlements;<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and with
+the view to uniformity of practice, the Government of India had
+previously deputed Major, now General, Forlong to prepare a code of
+rules based on those in force in the Singapore jail.</p>
+
+<p>When the transfer was fully effected, the new office of Comptroller of
+Indian Convicts was created, and the whole of those Indian convicts in
+the three settlements were placed under his charge. The "Butterworth
+Rules" remained in force, with certain alterations and improvements,
+until the disestablishment of the whole department in 1873.</p>
+
+<p>As many of the convicts were continued to be employed at Penang and
+Province Wellesley on roads and works at a distance from the main jail,
+it was necessary to provide accommodation for them in convict lines, or
+"commands," as we have said, pronounced "kumman" by the convicts.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> It
+will be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>interesting to give some particulars about them: They consisted
+of a stockaded fence, constructed of rough poles of wood from four to
+six inches in diameter, and from ten to twelve feet long, set
+perpendicularly in a trench about two feet deep, and placed close
+together, being secured longitudinally by adze-dressed poles nailed
+securely on the outside and along the top of them. The stockade enclosed
+an area sufficient for the erection of the dormitory, cooking place, and
+sheds for the bullocks employed in carts to convey road material, and
+for protection also against the possible attacks of wild animals. The
+walls of the dormitory were constructed in what is well known as "wattle
+and daub." They were made with stout stakes driven firmly into the
+ground at about one foot apart, twigs of trees were then interwoven, and
+the whole then thickly plastered with a mixture of clay and cowdung, and
+when this had become thoroughly dry it was coated with whitewash. This
+formed both a substantial, and at the same time a sanitary walling,
+which was frequently treated with a further coating of limewash made
+thin. The dormitories were ten feet high, with a continuous open grating
+of wooden bars at the top, under the eaves of the roof, for the purpose
+of complete ventilation. The sleeping platforms were raised three feet
+off the ground floor, which was covered with the same composition as
+that of the walls, and the building was roofed with thatch. In the
+centre of the dormitory an earthenware brazier of burning <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>charcoal was
+always maintained day and night, and occasionally crude fragrant gum
+Benjamin was thrown upon it. The natives believe that an aromatic
+perfume exhaled by fire keeps off all noxious effluvia; and we certainly
+found that they were in better health from the use of this incense, and
+from the fresh plastering of the floor every morning with cowdung
+diluted with water, which is a common practice in most of the native
+huts in India. This was regularly kept up by two convicts of the invalid
+class, who also acted as caretakers. The entrance to the enclosure was
+secured by a stout gate, which, after the roll was called, was locked
+every night at nine o'clock. The number of convicts stationed on one
+"command" averaged about thirty, and they were under the charge of a
+responsible convict warder of the grade of a tindal, with a peon and two
+orderlies and a native "moonshi," or timekeeper, to keep account of work
+done, and to forward reports to the main jail. By a system of surprise
+visits both day and night occasionally, we rarely found that any
+irregularities occurred.</p>
+
+<p>It has not been already mentioned that the local jails, or houses of
+correction, though according to law they were kept distinct from the
+convict jails at the several settlements, nevertheless were in their
+superintendence placed under the Superintendent of Convicts and convict
+petty officers. A good proportion of these local prisoners were employed
+upon extramural works, under the guard of these convict <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>petty officers,
+who, being natives of India, had nothing in common with the Chinese and
+Malays who formed the bulk of these prisoners, and they kept them well
+under control, and allowed but few escapes, and, moreover, they were
+never found open to the taking of bribes from the prisoners' relations
+and friends, who now and again would attempt to offer them forbidden
+articles.</p>
+
+<p>At Penang there were a considerable number of these Indian convicts upon
+ticket of leave, who gained their livelihood in a variety of ways. Some
+of them were the first to discover the palm known by the Malays as "Plas
+tikoos," and by botanists as the "Licuala acutifida," a small palm,
+ordinarily not higher than from five to six feet. From this palm, which
+grew mostly upon the Penang Hill, were constructed walking-sticks called
+"Penang lawyers," and the process of preparing them was very simple: the
+epidermis, or exterior coating, was scraped off with glass, and then the
+stick was straightened with fire, as is done by the Malays in preparing
+the Malacca canes. Several of these Penang lawyers were sold by the
+convicts on the spot, and many more were exported to Europe and
+America.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="center"><b>Footnotes:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> There is an old legend in the island that Captain Light, in
+order to encourage the Malays in the work of cutting down the jungle,
+pointed a cannon in the direction in which he required it to be cleared,
+then he loaded it with powder, and instead of a shot he put in several
+dollars, and firing it off he called out to the Malays, "Now you may
+have all you can find."
+</p>
+
+<p>It is said that the eager contest which ensued, of one endeavouring to
+get the money before another, led to a regular scramble, which
+considerably helped forward the work.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Now under the able management of Col. R. C. Temple, C.I.E.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Simpson, in his <i>Side Lights on Siberia</i>, uses "command" as
+denoting a jail outside of the prison walls.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_III" id="plate_III"></a>
+<p class="center"><small><a href="images/pl3-big.png">View larger image</a></small></p>
+<img src="images/pl3-th.png" width="500" height="360" alt="Old Map of Malacca showing boundaries" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 500px;">
+<p class="caption">BOUNDARIES OF MALACCA, PORTUGUESE PERIOD<br />
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate III.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="hr1" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Chapter III<br />
+<br />
+<small>OLD MALACCA AND THE FIRST INTRODUCTION<br />
+OF CONVICTS THERE</small></h2>
+
+
+<p>Authorities differ very considerably as to the origin of the name of
+this place. Some attribute it to the Malay name for a shrub which
+largely abounded near the shore, a sort of "Phyllanthus emblica" of the
+spurge order; others, again, ascribe it to a plant called the "Jumbosa
+Malaccensis," or "Malay apple tree" of the myrtle bloom order; others,
+again, say that the Javanese were the first to colonize the place about
+the year 1160 of our time, and that they gave it the name "Malaka,"
+which in that language means "an exile," in memory of one "Paramisura"
+who came there as a fugitive from the kingdom of Palembang.</p>
+
+<p>In the original manuscript of Godinho de Eredia, of date 1613,
+reproduced by Janssen in 1882, he says that "Paramisura," the first king
+of the Malays, settled on the coast near to the Bukit China River, which
+is close to the present town, and called it "Malaka," after the fruit of
+a tree which grew there. (See sketch from that old work, <a href="#plate_IV">Plate IV</a>.)
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>Anyway, like all Malay history, it is full of obscurity, and it really
+does not concern us very much just now as to what it is really derived
+from, though it would be no doubt interesting to Malay scholars to
+pursue the inquiry.</p>
+
+<p>We know, however, on the best authority, that it was the first
+settlement formed by a European power in those seas. The Portuguese, in
+their palmy days under Albuquerque, took it from a Malay Sultan, named
+Mahomed Shah, in 1511. They kept quiet possession of it for 134 years,
+when it fell into the hands of the Dutch, who held it for seventy-four
+years; then the British took possession in 1795, restored it to the
+Dutch in 1818, who gave it back in 1824, and we have held it ever since.
+In size it is forty-two miles long and from eight to twenty-five miles
+broad, and contains 659 square miles.</p>
+
+<p>In the old Portuguese days it was a very important place of trade, so
+much so that De Barros, their famous historian, wrote of it that, "the
+native town was a good league in length along the shore, and that there
+were many merchant vessels there from Calicut, Aden, Mecca, Java, and
+Pegu, and other places." This splendid trade, however, began to decline
+in the time of the Dutch, and shortly after we had opened Penang in 1785
+it had almost entirely vanished.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_IV" id="plate_IV"></a>
+<p class="center"><small><a href="images/pl4-big.png">View larger image</a></small></p>
+<img src="images/pl4-th.png" width="396" height="550" alt="Map of Malacca" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 396px;">
+<p class="caption">OLD MALACCA<br />
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate IV.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_V" id="plate_V"></a>
+<img src="images/pl5.jpg" width="183" height="351" alt="Albuquerque" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 200px;">
+<p class="caption">ALBUQUERQUE<br />
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+</p>
+<p class="plate">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Plate V.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>The Portuguese must have attached great value to this their first
+settlement in what was then known as the "Golden Chersonese," for they
+spent vast sums of money in fortifying it, and enclosed a considerable
+enceinte by a wall of great height and thickness, and crowned the small
+hill of St. Paul's within by the erection of a fine cathedral dedicated
+to our Lady Del-Monte, with a monastery annexed to it. These
+fortifications were afterwards razed to the ground, and some of the old
+foundations may still be seen; but we left the buildings standing and
+the greater part of the cathedral to go to ruins. Some of the tombstones
+in the old nave bear the date 1515, and there is a tomb to the two
+Bishops of Japan, but there is nothing to indicate that the saintly St.
+Francis Xavier laboured here beyond a small tablet; but the memory of
+his deeds is yet fresh amongst the traditions of the Portuguese
+descendants still resident there.</p>
+
+<p>Seen from the sea in these days, Malacca looks an antiquated old place,
+with all the signs of desertion about it. The old ruins on the hill form
+the most prominent feature in the landscape, and the once busy river
+(see <a href="#plate_VI">Plate VI</a>.) is now almost closed even to boat traffic by the silt
+which has been brought down from the interior. It is difficult indeed to
+realize that this strange, dim old place was once the centre of a
+thriving trade from so many distant countries, though it still carries
+on its cultivation of rice and other grain, and this is yearly being
+more developed.</p>
+
+<p>As far as we can gather, the first batch of convicts were sent to this
+place from Penang shortly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> after we took possession, and that they were
+employed in filling up the moat to suit it and the glacis for a parade
+ground. These convicts were confined first of all in the town jail,
+which was situated on the steep or eastern side of St. Paul's Hill, and
+was in point of fact the old Portuguese soldiers' barrack, and was
+constructed on a terrace excavated from the hillside; and, together with
+a hospital, warders' quarters, store rooms and other necessary
+buildings, was surrounded by a high wall built from the stone from the
+old fort ramparts. The few local prisoners were put into the old Dutch
+prison, and both these prisoners and the convicts were placed under the
+charge of half-blood Portuguese warders. For some years few convicts
+were sent into the interior, their labour being required for the public
+works in and near the town; but about the year 1840, as fresh arrivals
+came from Penang, which is about 250 miles north of it, gangs were made
+up to keep in repair about 100 miles of the public roads that were left
+to us, and to open up new communications near the frontier; so that we
+now have nearly 300 miles to keep in order. They were located in
+temporary huts surrounded by a palisading, and warders were raised from
+amongst the best behaved to be responsible for their work and general
+supervision. This practice was continued with satisfactory results, and
+gradually was introduced into the town jail, and the half-bred
+Portuguese warders were dismissed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_VI" id="plate_VI"></a>
+<img src="images/pl6.jpg" width="550" height="401" alt="Malacca River" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 550px;">
+<p class="caption">MALACCA RIVER IN 1870.</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate VI.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_VII" id="plate_VII"></a>
+<img src="images/pl7.jpg" width="295" height="360" alt="St Francis Xavier" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 295px;">
+<p class="caption">ST. FRANCIS XAVIER<br />
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate VII.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>Prior to the appointment to Malacca of Captain Man as Resident
+Councillor, but little had been done in the way of training the convicts
+in industrial occupation, but he established a few workshops and started
+them in various trades. It was not, however, until 1860 that anything
+approaching to really skilled labour could be got out of them. They were
+then supplied with good tools and an instructor, also a convict, was
+sent down from Singapore. After this, carts for the roads, iron and wood
+work for bridges, roofing timbers for public works, and other necessary
+requirements for the erection of minor works were satisfactorily
+accomplished. For some classes of work the convicts were superior to the
+Chinese workmen in the town, especially in metal turning and fitting.
+One Cingalese convict became so expert at this trade that upon his
+release from confinement he established himself in Ceylon, and has been
+doing a very profitable business, and occupies now a respectable
+position in life.</p>
+
+<p>As far as can be gathered from the records, the convicts were, as a
+rule, well behaved, though in the early Sixties, owing to their
+maltreatment by an overseer who had the supervision of a gang for
+clearing the jungle and making roads upon Cape Rachado for the erection
+of a lighthouse, an <i>emeute</i> took place, and some life was lost, and
+many escaped inland, but were subsequently returned by the native Malay
+chiefs.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>Some of the Indian convicts here on ticket of leave were expert
+shikarries, and frequently with their trained dogs would hunt the deer
+and wild boar, and dispose of the flesh to Chinese in the town at some
+profit to themselves.</p>
+
+<p>In 1873, when the convict establishments in the Straits Settlements were
+finally broken up, those convicts still wanting time to complete their
+sentences were transferred to Singapore for transmission to the
+Andamans, those upon ticket of leave being permitted to merge into the
+population.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_VIII" id="plate_VIII"></a>
+<p class="center"><small><a href="images/pl8-big.png">View larger image</a></small></p>
+<img src="images/pl8-th.png" width="550" height="344" alt="Map of Singapore" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 550px;">
+<p class="caption">TOWN AND ENVIRONS OF SINGAPORE IN 1878.</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate VIII.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="hr1" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Chapter IV<br />
+<br />
+<small>A RUNNING HISTORY OF SINGAPORE: ITS<br />
+JAIL SYSTEM AND ADMINISTRATION</small></h2>
+
+
+<p>The origin of the name of this island it is difficult to trace, but the
+generally accepted derivation is from the Sanscrit words, "Singh," a
+lion, and "Pura," a city or town; and if so, it would not have been
+given by the Malays, but more probably by the Indians, who, according to
+native history, came over with one, Rajah Suran, and conquered Johore
+and this island in about the year <small>A.D.</small> 1160. "Singh" is a title adopted
+by the Hindus, and by several military castes of Northern India, and the
+word "Singhpur" is often used by them to mean the grand entrance gate to
+a palace.</p>
+
+<p>If, on the other hand, we assume that the Malays conferred the name to
+the island, they would in all probability have given it from their word
+"Singgah," which means "a place to stop at," or "to bait by the way,"
+and as the embouchure of the Singapore river formed a commodious and
+sheltered retreat for their rowing and sailing prahus, this view is not
+inappropriate, the more especially as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> affix "pura," meaning a city,
+had been known to them from the earliest times, and of which we have one
+instance at least from their original home of Sumatra, in the naming of
+their kingdom of Indrapura, which was, as Marsden says, "for a long
+time, from 1400 <small>A.D.</small>, the seat of a monarchy of some consideration and
+extent."</p>
+
+<p>The island is about twenty-seven miles long by fourteen broad, and
+contains an area of 206 square miles, and therefore is somewhat larger
+than the Isle of Wight. It is separated from the mainland of Johore by
+what is known as "The Old Straits," from its having been the only
+channel used in the early days by vessels bound eastward. The island was
+first settled upon, according to Balfour, "in <small>A.D.</small> 1160, by one Sri Sura
+Bawana," and from an inscription on a sandstone rock at the mouth of the
+Singapore River, now unfortunately destroyed, it would appear that Rajah
+Suran, of Amdan Nagara, after conquering the state of Johore with
+certain natives of India (Klings), proceeded in 1201 to a country then
+called "Tamask," and afterwards returned to "Kling," leaving the stone
+inscription in memory of his visit and victory. To have conquered
+Johore, the Rajah's vessels must have sailed by the Old Straits; but we
+have no record as to where "Tamask" was situated, and it is not given
+in the oldest Atlases we have been able to consult, viz. by D'Anville
+and others, though it may be in the charts of the 14th and 15th
+centuries. It seems<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> more probable that the expedition set out from Java
+or Sumatra, to which places Hindus had, as we know, in very remote times
+proceeded from India, as the old ruins they have left there of their
+temples, supposed to be of the 7th century, plainly prove.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Stamford Raffles, as we have already stated when treating of
+Bencoolen, took up the appointment of Lieutenant-Governor of that
+settlement on the 22nd March, 1818, and he had not been there long
+before he recognized the fact that British interests needed a trading
+centre somewhere in the Straits of Malacca. It was, he said, "not that
+any extension of territory was necessary, but the aim of Government
+should be to acquire somewhere in the Straits a commercial station with
+a military guard, and that, when once formed, it was his belief that it
+would soon maintain a successful rivalry with a neighbouring Power, who
+would be obliged either to adopt a liberal system of free trade, or see
+the trade of these seas collected under the British flag."</p>
+
+<p>It is well known how the port of Rhio, on the west coast of the island
+of Bintang, which is separated from the island of Battam by the Rhio
+Strait, was first thought of; but we were too late in occupying it. Then
+the Carrimon Islands were suggested by the Resident Councillor of
+Malacca, at that time Major Farquhar; but the harbour was too exposed to
+the prevailing monsoon. Subsequently Tanjong Jatti, on the island of
+Bengkalis, was deemed to be a suitable site, but this had its objection
+as to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> situation; and after coasting about these seas for some little
+time, Sir Stamford Raffles finally fixed upon the island of Singapore
+for an entrepot for trade, and the wisdom and sagacity displayed by him
+in this selection has been abundantly proved.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Stamford Raffles concluded the treaty with the native chiefs for the
+cession of the island to Great Britain, and the British flag was planted
+on the island on the same day that the treaty was signed, viz., the 19th
+February, 1819, but it has since been found to have been actually signed
+on the 6th of that month.</p>
+
+<p>Our new possession, some 600 miles from Batavia, then contained in round
+numbers about 120 Malays and 30 Chinese. Some of these lived wholly in
+their boats at the mouth of the river, and the remainder in huts at
+Teloh Blangah, on the south side of the island. In the course of a year
+the population had risen to 5,000, and in little more than five years to
+19,000 or 20,000 of all nations actively engaged in commerce, "offering
+to each and all a handsome livelihood and abundant profit." When the
+census was taken in 1881 the population had risen to 139,208, and in
+1891 there was an increase of 45,346, making a total of 184,554,
+representing nearly every nationality and tribe in the Indian
+Archipelago, China, and India, and about 1,500 Europeans.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1822, the first settlers to dwell on the island were traders
+in the Archipelago, and they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> lived in raft houses, so called, or more
+probably in huts, erected on poles in the Malay style, and these were
+located on the site of the present "Commercial Square," which was then
+little more than a mud flat covered by the sea at high water. One of the
+first steps taken by the Government was to fill up this low-lying sea
+marsh, which was executed by free labour, but was subsequently largely
+assisted by some local prisoners who were confined in a temporary jail
+near by, on the site where the present Court-house now stands. The first
+magistrates to be appointed in the settlement, and who tried and
+sentenced these prisoners, were men whose names will ever be preserved
+unforgotten by the colony, and we make no excuse in giving them in full
+as obtained from <i>The Anecdotal History</i>, viz., Messrs. A. L. Johnstone,
+D. A. Maxwell, D. F. Napier, A. F. Morgan, John Purvis, Alexander
+Guthrie, E. Mackenzie, W. Montgomery, Charles Scott, John Morgan, C. R.
+Read, and Andrew Hay. Two magistrates sat in court with the Resident
+Councillor, to decide cases both civil and criminal, and juries were
+formed of five Europeans, or four Europeans and three leading natives.
+This court sat once a week, but a court of two magistrates sat twice a
+week to try cases, their office being open daily to hear complaints.</p>
+
+<p>The insecurity of the temporary prison mentioned above, and the defects
+in its control, led to changes in its structure and general management.
+The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> Resident, then Mr. J. Crawford, expended $900 towards the
+construction of a more substantial building for the local prisoners, the
+transmarine convicts from Bencoolen and India having not yet arrived in
+the settlement. In April, 1823, as there was a great difficulty in
+obtaining free labour, the local prisoners were ordered to work upon the
+public roads.</p>
+
+<p>When finally leaving the settlement, Sir Stamford Raffles entered into a
+new agreement with the Sultan and Tummongong of Johore, by which the
+whole of the island of Singapore and the adjacent islands were to be
+considered as entirely British territory. He considered this fresh
+agreement necessary on account of some peculiar ideas that were held at
+the time by certain dissentients.</p>
+
+<p>On his final departure from Singapore, Sir Stamford Raffles received an
+address from the European and native merchants of Singapore, from which
+we quote the following significant extract:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"To your unwearied zeal, your vigilance, and your comprehensive
+views, we owe at once the foundation and maintenance of a
+settlement, unparalleled for the liberality of the principles on
+which it has been established&mdash;principles, the operation of which
+has converted in a period short beyond all example a haunt of
+pirates into the abode of enterprise, security, and opulence."</p></div>
+
+<p>Sir Stamford replied with his characteristic modesty in a letter dated
+Singapore, June 9th, 1823.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> The letter is too long to quote <i>in
+extenso</i>, but we give the following extracts from it. After
+acknowledging the receipt of their address, and remarking upon the
+impossibility of his being indifferent to any of the interests,
+especially the commercial interests, of Singapore, under the peculiar
+circumstances of his connection with the establishment of the
+settlement, he says, "It has happily been consistent with the policy of
+Great Britain, and accordant with the principles of the East India
+Company, that Singapore should be established as a 'free port,' and that
+Singapore will long, and always remain a free port, and that no taxes on
+trade or industry will be established to check its future rise and
+prosperity, I can have no doubt." "I am justified in saying thus much on
+the authority of the Supreme Government of India, and on the authority
+of those who are most likely to have weight in the councils of our
+nation at home."</p>
+
+<p>Referring to difficulties which had to be encountered on the
+establishment of the freedom of the port, he says, "In the commanding
+station in which my public duty has placed me, I have had an opportunity
+of, in a great measure, investigating and determining the merits of the
+case, and the result renders it a duty on my part, and which I perform
+with much satisfaction, to express my most unqualified approbation of
+the honourable principles which actuated the merchants of Singapore on
+that occasion."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>We give the above extracts to show the rapid advance that had been made
+in the first five years of the settlement's existence, owing mainly to
+the sagacity, forethought, and wisdom of its eminent founder, and we
+have added the population up to this period to show its steady rise and
+progress.</p>
+
+<p>It was, however, in January, 1824, that the first regular census was
+taken. The population then consisted of 74 Europeans, 16 Armenians, 15
+Arabs, 4,580 Malays, 3,317 Chinese, 756 natives of India, and 1,925
+Bugis, making a total of 10,683. It was in this year that Singapore was
+first mentioned in the House of Commons, in a remark made by Mr.
+Canning, who had been nominated Governor-General of India in 1822, but
+did not go out to that country, that "Singapore in six years would
+produce spices sufficient for the consumption of Great Britain and her
+colonies"&mdash;a prophecy not yet fulfilled.</p>
+
+<p>In May of the same year the Resident made a voyage round the island in
+the ship <i>Malabar</i>, 380 tons burden, to view the boundary of the island
+and to take formal possession; and it was while on this voyage that the
+British flag was planted on the island of "Pulo Obin," an island which
+has since largely supplied the town of Singapore with granite for making
+roads and also for building purposes. The Government quarries situated
+upon it were subsequently worked almost entirely by transmarine
+convicts, of which more will be said hereafter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_IX" id="plate_IX"></a>
+<img src="images/pl9.jpg" width="600" height="369" alt="Convict Huts" />
+<div class="cap">
+<p class="caption">ORIGINAL HUTS FOR CONVICTS, SINGAPORE<br />
+(From <i>Life of Sir Stamford Raffles</i>).
+</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate IX.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the 18th of April, 1825, the first batch of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>convicts transported
+from India to Bencoolen were transferred from there to Singapore. They
+arrived in the brig <i>Horatio</i>, and consisted of 80 convicts transported
+from Madras, of whom 73 males and 1 female were for life, and 6 male
+convicts on short sentences. On the 25th of the same month another batch
+was received, also convicts from Bencoolen. These consisted of 122
+convicts transported from Bengal, of whom 88 males and 1 female were for
+life, and 33 for short terms. When these Indian convicts were landed at
+Singapore they were placed at first in an open shed, or godown (from the
+Malay word "godong," a shed), which stood on the site where the present
+public offices stand, with only four free petty officers, or "peons,"
+natives of Chittagong in the Bengal presidency, in charge of them.
+Subsequently temporary buildings, to contain 1,200 to 2,000 convicts,
+were erected near the Hindu temple, then situated near the Brass Basa
+Canal, and at a considerable cost it is given as &pound;13,199 (see
+<a href="#plate_IX">Plate IX</a>.). They were all located in these sheds, and there was little or no
+prison control over them; only, occasionally, an officer of the police
+came and called the roll in order to report to Government that all were
+present. These convicts were afterwards detailed to the work of filling
+up the mud flat before referred to as the site of the present
+"Commercial Square." For this purpose they carried the soil from near the
+Hindu temple and from Pearls Hill. Mr. Bonham, the Resident,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> finding
+that the convicts worked willingly, and were well behaved, discharged
+the free "peons," or warders, and selected five Madrasees and five
+Bengalees from their number to supervise their fellow-convicts. This
+was, as far as we gather, the first trial of the system of convict
+warders at Singapore, possibly the first venture of the kind made in any
+penal establishment. As convicts continued to arrive from India, many of
+those from Bencoolen were constituted warders over their fellows, in the
+proportion of one warder to every twenty convicts. Each warder was
+granted a monthly wage of $3.00 in addition to his rations and clothing,
+with the usual blanket given to each convict once a year. In addition to
+his ordinary rations, clothing, and annual blanket, each convict
+received a monthly allowance of 50 cents (say 2<i>s.</i>) a month, to
+purchase condiments and salt. A European overseer was placed in
+immediate charge of the convicts, and a Superintendent over the whole
+convict establishment, this responsible duty first falling upon
+Lieutenant Chester, of the Bengal Native Infantry.</p>
+
+<p>The convicts from Bencoolen were not sent over to the Straits of Malacca
+in chains, but those received from India in the earliest times were
+manacled with light leg fetters, in which they had to work for a
+probationary period of three months. As, however, they were granted,
+equally with the others, the privilege of going about the town to make
+their purchases, it is said they ceased to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>consider their fetters a
+mark of degradation, being so completely overwhelmed with the thought of
+banishment from their country and kindred; and to many men of caste it
+must be remembered that transportation alone was a severe punishment.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1826 there was a change of government in the settlements.
+Hitherto the settlements of Penang, Malacca, and Singapore had not been
+incorporated under one government. In this year it was decided by the
+Supreme Government to do so, and the seat of government was fixed at
+Penang, that being our oldest settlement in these seas. On this change
+taking place, many more of the Indian convicts from Penang were sent
+down to Singapore, the ship <i>Esperanza</i> bringing down a further batch of
+23 Bengal life convicts (males), and 26 Madras convicts (males), and 1
+female; 31 Bombay (males), and 2 female convicts.</p>
+
+<p>From the accounts given in the newspapers of that day, the convicts were
+at this time treated with great indulgence if of proved good behaviour,
+being permitted, after their work was over, to engage themselves as
+servants to the residents, who, in the scarcity of labour at that time,
+and the fitness of the convicts for such service, were content to give
+them a very liberal wage. In the early days of penal colonies this has
+not infrequently occurred, and some of these old convicts have been
+known to amass considerable sums of money, and, indeed, to become
+possessed of landed property in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> town. The Government, however,
+under Major Campbell, who succeeded Lieutenant Chester, took care to
+exact from them a large amount of useful work in the filling up of
+swampy ground near the town, and laying out plots of land for building
+purposes. They also blasted the rocks at the mouth of the Singapore
+river, on the site of which was afterwards constructed a fort, named
+after the first Resident, Mr. Fullerton, and much of the rock was also
+used in the construction of the sea and river walls adjoining. Their
+services were also turned to account on any occasion when the presence
+of a body of men under discipline was required, such as the suppression
+of fires. An instance is given in the journal already quoted of a
+serious outbreak of fire in Market Street, in the year 1830, which
+threatened to consume the houses in several streets adjoining. There
+were no fire engines in those days, and the only supply of water was
+carried in buckets by the convicts, which materially helped to subdue
+it. The houses in the square at the back of Market Street were not
+burnt; they, and also the houses on the side of Market Street next the
+square, were partly built of brick, but those on the opposite side were
+wholly of wood, and were quickly destroyed. The middle of the square was
+covered with goods carried from the burning houses.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally, even in those days, convicts were employed as orderlies
+and servants to public officers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> and when Dr. Oxley's house was
+attacked by burglars in 1821, his Indian convict servant, though wounded
+by a "kris," succeeded in capturing the burglar, who turned out to be a
+Malay pirate from Bencoolen. Robbery on land was not common amongst
+Malays in those days, but piracy was one of their pastimes, and their
+romances always glorify their ancestors in this pursuit.</p>
+
+<p>The rules at that time in force amongst the convicts were what were
+known as the "Penang Rules," already mentioned, and published in 1827;
+but there were also a few scattered rules known as the "Bencoolen
+Rules," probably some of those drawn up by Sir Stamford Raffles, and
+referred to in his letter of the 20th September, 1823, and incorporated
+with the former.</p>
+
+<p>In 1832 an alteration in the seat of government took place. Penang had
+hitherto been the seat of government, but in this year it was
+transferred to Singapore, which had by this time become the most
+important of the three Settlements.</p>
+
+<p>When later on, in the year 1833, Mr. G. D. Coleman was placed in charge
+of the convicts as "Surveyor and Executive Officer of Government," a
+great improvement was set on foot in the regular and systematic
+employment of these convicts. He, by their means, reclaimed large plots
+of land as intakes from the sea and river marshes, and largely extended
+the town lots, so that Captain Begbie,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> who in that year wrote a book
+upon the Straits Settlements, stated that "200 of these convicts, in
+eight months, at a small money outlay of $500 for covered drains, had
+reclaimed 28 acres of marsh, and intersected it with roads. This land
+was shortly afterwards sold at a handsome price, and was very quickly
+covered with good, substantial upper-story houses, which were readily
+let."</p>
+
+<p>Under Mr. Coleman the public roads on the sea front were marked out and
+constructed, and also the main road from the town to Campong Glam, now
+known as North and South Bridge Roads. He surveyed and marked out the
+first country road towards Bukit Timah, and he afterwards laid out the
+Serangoon, the New Harbour, Budoo, and Thompson's Roads, and employed
+Indian convicts principally in their construction. When the convicts
+could not be marched out to and from their daily work to the prison,
+owing to the long distance they had to traverse, Mr. Coleman constructed
+for them temporary buildings, surrounded by a fence, similar to those
+already described when treating of Province Wellesley and Malacca. In
+these "commands" they were located until the work on which they were
+employed was completed; and in many cases these "commands," as they were
+always called, became permanent stations for the convicts employed in
+maintaining the roads. At first their rations were sent out to them from
+town once a month, but subsequently it was found desirable for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> them to
+attend the general muster at the main prison on the first of every
+month, and to receive their rations then, and to be inspected at the
+same time by the Superintendent.</p>
+
+<p>The records of the jail at this time, and until the year 1844, have not
+been kept, as we have said, with any precision, and, indeed, most of
+them are missing; but the excellent work performed by Mr. Coleman (in
+the execution of which he, as far as possible, employed convict labour)
+is, fortunately, to be seen in the map of the town and its environs
+surveyed by him in 1836, and lithographed in Calcutta the same year, a
+copy of which is given in Moor's <i>Notices of the Indian Archipelago</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Coleman was no mean architect. It was he who designed the first
+church for Singapore. It was erected on the site where the present
+cathedral stands. It was completed in 1837, and consecrated in
+September, 1838, but was opened for service on the 18th June, 1837, by
+the first chaplain appointed from Bengal, the Rev. Edmund White. Indian
+convicts were employed in the erection of this church, chiefly as
+labourers, as they were also at the public buildings which were erected
+about this time, notably the first extension of the Raffles Institution
+and its museum.</p>
+
+<p>To Mr. Coleman, however, the colony is chiefly indebted for the many
+excellent roads on the island, and the carrying out of the disposition
+of town allotments, projected in the first instance by Sir<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> Stamford
+Raffles himself, in his instructions to the Committee appointed for the
+purpose shortly after the settlement was founded.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. G. D. Coleman died on the 27th March, 1885, and the newspapers of
+the day, in regretting his death, brought about by hard work and
+exposure in the public service, spoke in the highest terms of his
+ability as an architect and surveyor, and Superintendent of Convicts.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Chapter V<br />
+<br />
+<small>SINGAPORE (<i>Continued</i>)</small></h2>
+
+
+<p>There were then about 1,100 or 1,200 Indian convicts in Singapore,
+divided into six classes, and employed in various ways as already
+narrated, but the following extract from <i>The Anecdotal History</i> is
+worth quoting verbatim:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"Singapore, Malacca, Penang, and Maulmein were the Sydneys of
+India. There are upon an average about 1,100 to 1,200 native
+convicts from India constantly at Singapore. These are employed
+making roads and digging canals; and, undoubtedly, without them the
+town, as far as locomotion is concerned, would have been now but a
+sorry residence. They are secured within high walls, and although a
+few now and then escape, they meet with such rough treatment from
+the Malays on the Peninsula, that they find it commonly the most
+prudent course to return, or allow themselves to be brought back.
+The native of India accommodates himself more easily to banishment
+than a European does, because his ideas lead to predestination, and
+his habits are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> simple. In former days, when convict discipline was
+not so well understood as it is now, the convicts transported from
+India used to traffic and amass money; banishment was in some
+cases, perhaps, sought for, and crimes were, it is feared,
+sometimes committed by natives to obtain it; but the felon must now
+expect to be kept in his place and hard at work. Still, the convict
+whose period is short, contrives to save something out of his
+allowance, and on the expiration of his term he generally sets up
+as a keeper of cattle, or a letter-out of carriages and horses; and
+undoubtedly some of these men are as well, if not better behaved
+than many of their native neighbours of higher pretensions. There
+are regulations by which the convict is encouraged by certain
+rewards, or remission short of emancipation, to orderly conduct."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When Mr. Coleman resigned, the duties of Superintendent were taken up by
+Captain Stevenson of the 12th Madras Native Infantry, who carried out
+the system then in force, and somewhat added to the strength of the
+convict warders; for we find in his annual report for 1845 the following
+remarks: "Convict peons are selected from the second class for general
+good conduct and intelligence, and they continue to receive $3 each per
+mensem, in addition to provisions and clothing. Free peons were, I hear,
+formerly tried, but found not to be so well suited for the peculiar
+duties<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> required of them; besides, the prospect of gaining a belt&mdash;a
+mark of authority&mdash;is a strong inducement to good conduct on the part of
+the convict, and conduces much towards lightening, in the well disposed,
+the feeling of hopelessness that ever accompanies a sense of
+imprisonment and slavery for life."</p>
+
+<p>At this time (1840 to 1845), Singapore was more than ever before
+infested with tigers&mdash;it is supposed that they swam across the narrow
+part of the Old Straits, from Johore to Kranji. The number of natives,
+principally Chinese, employed on gambier and pepper farms, that were
+carried off or destroyed by them annually was considerable, and it was
+said at the time that not a day passed without one man being killed by
+wild animals. Whether it was actually so or not, there are no police
+statistics to prove, but as many as five in eight days were reported at
+that time, and in later years, about 1860, as many as 200 deaths were
+notified to the police in one year, and probably a great number never
+were brought to notice, because the difficulty of obtaining coolies to
+work in the thick jungle, as it then was, was a great inducement to the
+"Towkays," or Head Chinese, to keep the number of deaths as much as
+possible from being known. In those days a reward of one hundred dollars
+was offered by Government for every tiger brought to the police station,
+whether alive or dead; and this sum, owing to their continued ravages,
+was subsequently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> increased to one hundred and fifty dollars.</p>
+
+<p>One seizure of a man-eater is worth recording here; it is taken from
+<i>The Singapore Free Press</i> of the year 1840, and runs as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The news of the capture and death of a tiger last Saturday night
+on a Chinaman's plantation, close to that of Mr. Balustier, the
+American Consul, gave general satisfaction, being the first of
+these destructive animals which the Chinese had succeeded in
+catching alive. A pit was dug where his track had been observed,
+the mouth of which was covered lightly over, and two or three dogs
+tied as bait. The ruse luckily took effect, and, when advancing to
+his imagined prey, he was himself precipitated into the pit head
+foremost, where he was very soon despatched by the natives, who
+pounded him to death with stones. He was a large animal for the
+Malay type, measuring 9 ft. 3 in. from the nose to the tip of the
+tail, which was 35 inches long, the circumference round the forearm
+being 21 inches. The captors have claimed and obtained from the
+local authorities the promised reward of one hundred dollars,
+besides having sold the flesh of the animal itself to the Chinese,
+Klings, and others for six fanams a catty (a fanam is about three
+halfpence), by which they realized about seventy dollars more."</p></div>
+
+<p>It is singular how all natives believe that by eating the flesh of the
+tiger they absorb the essence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> or distinctive features of the animal.
+Balfour says that "the clavicle or collar-bone of the tiger is
+considered of great virtue by many natives of India. The whiskers are
+supposed by some to endow their possessor with unlimited power over the
+opposite sex." Tiger bones are often sold in China to form an ingredient
+in certain invigorating jellies, made of hartshorn, and the plastron of
+the terrapin or tortoise. Burmese and Malays eat the flesh of the tiger,
+because they believe that by eating it they acquire the courage and
+sagacity of the animal. Tigers' claws are used as charms, and the most
+solemn oath of one of the aboriginal tribes of India, the "Santals," is
+sworn when touching a tiger's skin; handsome brooches and earrings are
+also made from tigers' claws mounted in gold. In 1854 no less than six
+persons were killed within the space of a few days not far from the
+town, and in April of that year the Government, alarmed for the safety
+of the people, sanctioned a considerable expenditure for the
+construction of tiger pits over many parts of the island. In August of
+the same year the following article appeared in <i>The Singapore Free
+Press</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The attention of His Honour the Governor having been directed to
+the continued deplorable ravages committed by tigers on the island,
+he has expressed himself ready to adopt any measures which may tend
+to remove the evil. It has been<span class='pagenumbq'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> suggested that persons are to be
+found in the vicinity of Calcutta trained for the purpose of
+destroying tigers; and His Honour has written to the Bengal
+Government requesting that half a dozen of these 'shikarries'
+should be sent to the Straits for a limited period, to be employed
+in the destruction of these animals. The Governor has also directed
+that in the meantime, should it be deemed expedient, a certain
+number of volunteers from convicts of the third class should be
+permitted to beat the jungle once every month with tom-toms (native
+drums), horns, etc., which, if they do not lead to the destruction
+of the tigers, may frighten them away from the island, to which
+they come from the neighbouring state of Johore."</p></div>
+
+<p>Later, in 1859, finding that the number of tigers on the island, and the
+number of people killed by them, were still increasing, the Governor,
+General Sir Orfeur Cavenagh, discussed the matter with the then
+Superintendent of Convicts (Major McNair), who informed him that he had
+good shikarries amongst the Indian convicts, and it was arranged to
+organize parties of convicts for their destruction. Three parties, of
+three men in each party, were selected, and armed with the old
+muzzle-loading muskets and ball ammunition. One party was sent to the
+Bukit Timah or Central district, another to the Serangoon and Changi or
+Eastern district, and the third to the Choo Choo Kang or Western
+district. These<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> parties were generally successful in killing half a
+dozen or so in the course of the year, chiefly in the Central or garden
+district. Recourse was also had to trapping them in cleverly-constructed
+deep pits, built cone-wise, and by heavy beams of timber suspended from
+tree to tree over their tracks, connected on the ground with springes;
+but only upon rare occasions were they successful in this way. We had in
+our possession several skins and skulls from those destroyed by
+convicts. Some castes amongst these convicts from India, when employed
+on this duty, were also very expert in catching such venomous snakes as
+cobras and craits. They appeared not to possess the slightest dread of
+them, and would stealthily follow them to their burrows, then grasp the
+tail, and by a rapid movement of the other hand along the body to just
+below the head, grip the snake firmly at the neck and allow it to coil
+round their arm. During the construction of Fort Canning, later on, many
+were so caught and brought down to the jail for the reward. They were
+then destroyed, the convicts at the time always asking pardon of the
+snake for so betraying it to their masters. It is worth mentioning here
+that in the jail there were so many different races of India, and men of
+so many occupations and artifices, that what a man of one caste did not
+know, another would be sure to volunteer to perform. This collection of
+such a variety of races in a jail under the association system had
+another and more important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> advantage, for it was at once a safeguard
+and protection against any possible combined revolt against the
+authorities, for one caste would invariably "split" against another.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the year 1841 that it was decided to erect a jail for the
+Indian convicts on a site near the Brass Basa Canal on the east of the
+town, and immediately below Government Hill, now known as Fort Canning.
+The boundary wall was first built, and then a brick building within,
+which was subsequently used as a convict hospital. This is shown in the
+plan of the whole prison made in 1872, a copy of which is given later.
+In this brick building the defaulters and those in irons were placed on
+one side, and the local prisoners on the other. The remainder of the
+convicts were lodged in temporary structures inside the enclosure wall;
+and those employed in positions of trust were allowed to erect small
+huts for themselves in the style of a native village just outside the
+wall, in which they were allowed to have their wives and families. There
+was but one entrance to this enclosure, where convict warders were at
+all times stationed as a gate guard. It will be readily understood that
+discipline could not well be maintained under such circumstances, while
+no records appear to have been kept of any kind, relating to their daily
+employment or occupation, so there is nothing to show whether the
+convicts were employed in the erection of this boundary wall; but it is
+more probable that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> were only used as labourers, and not as
+artisans, for it was not until a later date that they were organized and
+trained as skilled workmen.</p>
+
+<p>It may be well for us to indicate here the progress made in the
+Singapore town up to 1842, as given by <i>The Free Press</i> newspaper in
+that year. It runs thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A stranger visiting Singapore cannot fail to be struck by the
+signs everywhere exhibited of the settlement being in a high state
+of prosperity and progressive improvement. If he lands on the side
+next the town he beholds the pathway in front of the merchants'
+'godowns' or warehouses cumbered with packages, and if he glances
+inside one of the 'godowns' he will see it filled with packages and
+bales of goods from all parts of the world. If he goes among the
+native shops he finds them filled with clamorous Klings (natives of
+the Coromandel Coast of India) and Chinese, all busily engaged in
+driving bargains. Passing on, he comes to where, near the jail, the
+swamp is being filled up and covered with shops, which are seen in
+every stage of progress, some with the foundations newly laid, and
+others nearly completed. If he wishes to leave the town he crosses
+the Singapore River by a new bridge, which was built two years ago.
+The scene now undergoes a change: in place of the narrow and
+crooked streets the stranger finds himself amongst rows of neat
+villas, each standing in its<span class='pagenumbq'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> own enclosure. The Governor's
+residence is to the left upon a small hill commanding a fine view
+of the town and harbour. The flag-staff is also placed there, and
+at all hours of the day may be seen covered with flags, announcing
+the approach of ships from every quarter of the globe. If he should
+go into the country, the many thriving plantations of spices and
+other tropical productions (amongst which are to be noted one or
+two sugar estates) present an equally pleasing sight, and give
+promise of a long continuance to the well-being of the settlement."</p></div>
+
+<p>In this year, 1842, or it may perhaps have been in the previous year,
+Mr. J. T. Thompson came to Singapore in the capacity of Government
+Surveyor; whereupon the Government called upon all holders and occupiers
+of land to point out to him their boundaries, preparatory to the issue
+of proper leases. Under his direction there was a systematic survey made
+of all allotments upon the island; and intelligent Indian convicts were
+provided him to act as his survey party, being preferred for that duty
+over freemen to be obtained in the town. These convicts formed the
+nucleus of a regular native staff for this department of the Government;
+and, indeed, up to the time of the abolition of the jail they continued
+to be employed as chainmen and survey assistants.</p>
+
+<p>When Mr. Thompson visited Malacca, to inquire<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> into the system pursued
+there, he found it to be of the most primitive type. For the linear
+measurements the surveyor had for a chain, rattans jointed together, and
+this, with a ten-foot rod and a common compass, formed their whole
+equipment. When he tested however the measurements of the fields and the
+town lots, he was surprised to find to what approach to accuracy they
+had arrived with their rude implements. Indian convicts were also there
+employed as land measurers and assistants.</p>
+
+<p>Upon his return to Singapore, Mr. Thompson designed a European hospital,
+and adjoining it a pauper hospital, erected mostly at the cost of a
+benevolent Chinese gentleman of the name of Tan-Tock-Seng. They were
+built on a plateau of Pearls Hill facing the town. Some years later
+these buildings were required for military purposes, and were adapted
+for the purposes of a Commissariat and Ordnance Department respectively.
+A new building, in which was incorporated a general hospital, was
+subsequently erected facing the Bukit Timah Road, and the Tan-Tock-Seng
+hospital for paupers was built further outside the town on the Serangoon
+Road. In the erection of these buildings convict labour was very largely
+utilised, and in the front elevation of Tan-Tock-Seng's hospital they
+had some rather difficult mouldings to execute.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1844, owing to the amount of building that was then going on
+in the town, there was a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> great dearth of bricks; so much so, that the
+Chinese brick-kilns could not supply the immense demand, and the price
+per laksa of 10,000 rose more than fifty per cent. This led to the
+determination on the part of the Government to make their own bricks,
+and an order was issued to the Public Works Department to arrange for
+their manufacture by the convicts. This was subsequently done; and a
+suitable site having been found upon the Serangoon Road, a large
+establishment was started, an account of which will be given in detail
+when we come to deal with the industrial occupations of the Indian
+convicts. The first Government brick-field, however, was started at
+Rochore, under Captain Faber, but was given up after only a short trial.
+He employed free labour.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Chapter VI<br />
+<br />
+<small>SINGAPORE (<i>Continued</i>)</small></h2>
+
+
+<p>During the year 1845 the Bukit Timah Road was opened up by convict
+labour between Bukit Timah and Kranji, so that the produce hitherto
+carried by water to Singapore from the neighbouring country of Johore
+could now be brought into town by road, while at the same time land was
+thus opened up for cultivation. The convicts were also employed in this
+year in constructing a road to the summit of Telok Blangah Hill, now
+called Mount Faber, for the purpose of building there a signal station,
+that upon the island of Blakan Mati having proved unhealthy, due, as it
+was said at the time, to malaria from the enclosed marsh at the back of
+the island, and to the tainted air from decaying pine-apple leaves,
+which were left by the Malays, who cultivated the fruit upon all the
+available soil. Pine-apple growing has been largely extended in this
+island, as is now generally known at home; and as it is a source of some
+wealth to the colony, it may be incidentally mentioned in this running
+history of the place, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> more particularly in reference to the fact
+that the Indian convicts upon ticket of leave have been often employed
+in its culture in order to earn a daily wage. The plant that produces
+the pine-apple known as the "ananas," or by the Malays as "nanas," grows
+literally wild upon the hills on Blakan Mati Island, and other islands
+round about Singapore. It delights in a moist climate, and here it has
+it to perfection, with just enough heat to help its growth. There is
+little or no trouble in its propagation, for after the apple is
+sufficiently ripe and cut, the crown that surmounts the fruit is
+planted, and a new plantation soon springs up. There is, however, some
+difference in the sweetness and flavour of the fruit, according to the
+exposure to which it is subjected, those having the benefit of the sun
+being preferred.</p>
+
+<p>The first to export the tinned fruit to Europe was a Frenchman named
+Bastiani,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> who succeeded far beyond his expectations, and the industry
+has since been taken up largely by the Chinese in Singapore and Johore.</p>
+
+<p>Yet another of the important public works of the colony, upon which the
+labour of Indian convicts was employed some five years earlier, was at
+the construction of the lighthouse on "Pedro Branca," called the
+"Horsburgh," after the celebrated hydrographer of that name. The design
+was by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>Thompson, and the selection of the site by Sir Edward Belcher,
+R.N., and most of the detail work was under the direct supervision of
+Mr. J. Bennett, a civil and mechanical engineer, who afterwards, as we
+have said, played a prominent part in the direction and control of the
+labour and industrial training of the Indian convicts in the Singapore
+jail. He had, as an assistant, Mr. Magaelhaens of the Convict
+Department, and both the officers and the convicts lived on board of a
+"Tonkong," or a large boat, which was anchored close to the rock. The
+convicts were chiefly employed in the capacity of blasters and dressers
+of stone. The foundation stone was laid with masonic honours by the
+Worshipful Master Brother M. F. Davidson, on the 24th May, 1850, in the
+presence of the Governor, Colonel Butterworth, and a large party from
+Singapore; and the work was completed and the lamps lighted on the 27th
+September, 1851.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Free Press</i> spoke of it as an edifice of which Singapore might well
+be proud. "The granite blocks which form the walls were quarried and
+shaped at Pulo Ubin, the timber used in the building was the growth of
+our island, the brass rails of the staircases were moulded and turned in
+this settlement, and last, not least, the architect and engineer
+acquired the skill and experience which enabled him to erect so rapidly
+the chaste and stately building during a long and useful career as
+Government Surveyor at Singapore." Both the quarrying of the stone at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+Pulo Ubin, and the felling of the timber required in the erection of
+this lighthouse, were by the work of Indian convicts.</p>
+
+<p>In 1845 the foundation stone of a second lighthouse was laid on a reef
+near a small island at the eastern entrance to the Straits of Malacca
+called "The Coney." It was also laid with masonic honours by the
+Worshipful Master and Brethren of the Lodge Zetland in the East, No.
+748, in the presence of the Governor, Colonel Butterworth, and many of
+the British and foreign residents at Singapore. This lighthouse was
+named after the eminent founder of the settlement, Sir T. Stamford
+Raffles, and was completed in 1856. It was built by free labour, but
+many convicts were employed, as at the "Horsburgh," as stone cutters,
+blasters, and as labourers, under the charge of an officer of the
+Convict Department.</p>
+
+<p>We have referred elsewhere to the rules that had from time to time been
+framed for the control of these Indian convicts, but now we are able to
+state that in 1845-46 what may be called the most complete code of rules
+was permanently established. Colonel Butterworth, who was then Governor
+of the Straits Settlements, in consultation with the Superintendent of
+the Convicts, collected all that had been previously issued, together
+with those that subsequent experience had shown to be necessary, and
+working on the principles laid down by Sir Stamford Raffles, the new set
+of "Rules and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>Regulations for the Management of the Indian Convicts"
+was formally sanctioned, and put in force under the title of the
+"Butterworth Rules."</p>
+
+<p>These rules practically recognised the total abolition of free warders
+in the control of the convicts, and the substitution entirely of petty
+officers, raised from amongst the convicts themselves, together with the
+division of the convicts into six distinct classes, according to their
+date of arrival in the prison, and their general subsequent behaviour;
+holding out to one and to all by exemplary conduct during their
+probationary period a certain progressive reward and promotion.</p>
+
+<p>Added to these "Butterworth Rules" were several others of importance,
+introduced by Major McNair in 1858-59, and sanctioned by the Government
+from time to time as additions to this code. Later, Captain, now
+General, J. G. Forlong came to Singapore, as we have stated, to study
+the convict system in force; and from the rules in use and the numerous
+standing orders that had been issued at various times, he prepared a
+valuable digest of the whole, which he duly submitted to the Government
+of India, in which he said, "I have but lately visited most of the
+convict prisons of England, living for some time with the Governor of
+the Dartmoor jail, and I have seen many Indian prisons, and can state
+for the Singapore system and establishment, that it is not inferior to
+those of England, and quite unequalled by any I have seen in India."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>It is to Captain, the late General, Man that the initiation of several
+handicrafts is due, and he commenced by starting all kinds of carpenter
+work. The old Guthrie's timber bridge across the Singapore River, for
+instance, was entirely their work. They were also then taught
+brick-laying and blacksmith work; and so valuable was this trained
+labour to the State, even at that time, that the Superintending Engineer
+of the station wrote to Government in 1849 as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I can most confidently, and without fear of refutation, assert it
+to be simply impracticable to induce and obtain from Chinese
+carpenters that accurate, close, substantial, and lasting
+workmanship which not only can be, but is derived from the convict
+artificers under the absolute control of the present able and
+zealous Superintendent, Captain Man."</p></div>
+
+<p>We must here not forget to refer to another public building, in the
+erection of which the Indian convicts took their part, viz. the New
+Civil Jail at Pearls Hill, the foundation stone of which was laid by
+Captain Faber, the Superintending Engineer of the Straits Settlements.
+Below the stone a brass plate was deposited with the following
+inscription, which we give in full as of some peculiar interest, and
+evidence of the progress of the settlement up to 1847.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center" style="margin-top: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 1.5em;">
+This Foundation Stone<br />
+of<br />
+H. M. Gaol, at Singapore,<br />
+was laid by Captain Faber, Madras Engineers,<br />
+Superintending Engineer, Straits Settlements,<br />
+on the 6th February, 1847,<br />
+the 27th Anniversary of the Foundation<br />
+of a British Settlement<br />
+on this Island.<br />
+The Hon'ble Colonel W. J. Butterworth, C.B.,<br />
+being Governor of Prince of Wales Island,<br />
+Singapore, and Malacca,<br />
+and<br />
+the Hon'ble T. Church,<br />
+Resident Councillor at Singapore.<br />
+VICTORIA,<br />
+Queen of Great Britain and Ireland,<br />
+the Right Hon'ble Lord Hardinge, G.C.B.,<br />
+Governor-General of British India.<br />
+God save the Queen.</p>
+
+
+<p>In a bottle, likewise placed below the stone, the following statistical
+information relative to the Straits Settlements, written on parchment,
+was enclosed.</p>
+
+<p>The trade for the year 1845-46 of Prince of Wales Island, Singapore, and
+Malacca aggregated the sum of Company's Rs. 52,190,685 in merchandise,
+and Company's Rs. 9,606,061 in bullion and treasure, making a grand
+total of Rs. 61,796,746 (exclusive of the trade between the three
+settlements) as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="8" cellspacing="0" summary="Imports and exports, 1847">
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tdc">Imports.</td><td class="tdc">Exports.</td><td></td><td class="tdc">Total.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl padr">P.W. Island</td><td class="tdr">Rs.</td><td class="tdr">6,614,794</td><td class="tdr">6,528,452</td><td class="tdc padl">=</td><td class="tdr">13,143,246</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl padr">Singapore</td><td class="tdr">"&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">26,616,448</td><td class="tdr">21,162,987</td><td class="tdc padl">=</td><td class="tdr">47,779,435</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl padr">Malacca</td><td class="tdr">"&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">509,872</td><td class="tdr">364,193</td><td class="tdc padl">=</td><td class="tdr">874,065</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="5" class="tdr">Grand total, Company's Rs.</td><td class="tdr"><span style="text-decoration: overline; border-bottom: double 3px">61,796,746</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="5" class="tdr padr" style="padding-top: 1.5em;"><span class="smcap">W. J. Butterworth, Governor.</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="5" class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Singapore</span>, <i>6th February, 1847</i>.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The revenue and charges for the year 1845-46 of Prince of Wales Island,
+Singapore, and Malacca, including Civil, Military, Marine, Judicial,
+Convicts, etc., were as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="8" cellspacing="0" summary="Charges and Revenue, 1847">
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="5" class="tdc"><i>Charges.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl padr">P.W. Island</td><td class="tdr">Co.'s&nbsp;Rs.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">402,783&nbsp;&nbsp;15&nbsp;&nbsp;11</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl padr">Singapore</td><td class="tdr">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">497,186&nbsp;&nbsp;14&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;5</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl padr">Malacca</td><td class="tdr">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">231,158&nbsp;&nbsp;12&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;5</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td>
+  <td style="padding-top: 0em;" class="tdl">Rs.</td><td style="padding-top: 0em;" class="tdr">1,131,129
+  &nbsp;&nbsp;10&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;5</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="5" style="padding-top: 1.5em;" class="tdc"><i>Revenue.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl padr">P.W. Island</td><td class="tdr">Co.'s&nbsp;Rs.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">185,443&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl padr">Singapore</td><td class="tdr">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">530,040&nbsp;&nbsp;15&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl padr">Malacca</td><td class="tdr">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;64,408&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9&nbsp;&nbsp;11</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td>
+  <td style="padding-top: 0em;" class="tdl">Rs.</td><td style="padding-top: 0em;" class="tdr">&nbsp;&nbsp;779,893
+  &nbsp;&nbsp;12&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl">Total deficit at three settlements</td>
+  <td style="padding-top: 0em;" class="tdl">Rs.</td><td style="padding-top: 0em;" class="tdr"><span style="text-decoration: overline; border-bottom: double 3px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;351,236
+  &nbsp;&nbsp;14&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="5" class="tdr padr" style="padding-top: 1.5em;"><span class="smcap">W. J. Butterworth, Governor.</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="5" class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Singapore</span>, <i>6th February, 1847</i>.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+<p>In the year 1848 we find that the Indian convicts were employed in
+blasting some considerable part of a mass of rock known to the Malays as
+Batu Belayer, or "Stone to sail to," and by Europeans as "Lot's wife."
+It was a dangerous obstruction to navigation, being situated on the
+Singapore side<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> of the western entrance to the New Harbour.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> It is
+reported as known to the old navigators of those seas, and was shown on
+old charts over two hundred years ago.</p>
+
+<p>In following <i>The Anecdotal History</i> it may be well to mention here, as
+showing the steady progress of Singapore, that a census was again taken
+in 1849, which gave the total population at 59,043&mdash;Europeans being
+given at 198, Eurasians at 304, Chinese at 24,790; and the remainder was
+made up of Malays and other nationalities of the Indian Archipelago, and
+from the Coromandel Coast. This was recorded as only a trifling increase
+on 1848 amongst the Chinese, and was attributed to the decrease in the
+Chinese coolies working in the interior of the island, owing to the
+exhaustion of much soil, and the low price of produce, which had caused
+many of the planters to open new plantations in Johore.</p>
+
+<p>As an evidence of the variety of the employments to which these Indian
+convicts were turned by the Government, it should be remarked that
+during the Chinese riots in 1851, when the Chinese Hwuys began to
+distrust their countrymen who had become converted to Christianity by a
+Roman Catholic mission in the interior of the island, these <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>convicts
+were sent out in gangs to follow the rioters into the jungles and
+disperse them. These riots lasted for over a week, and it required the
+presence at last of the military to quell them. As it was, over 500
+Chinese were killed, and among them many of the well-to-do Christian
+converts who had become planters.</p>
+
+<p>Utilized as the services of these convicts from India were by the
+Government of that day, and their being wholly different in their
+habits, customs, and language from the Chinese who formed the bulk of
+the town population, it is not to be wondered at that the Chinese felt
+themselves estranged from them, and kept themselves ever aloof. There
+were, however, some Chinese of the lowest class who sought to embroil
+themselves with them, so as to bring the convicts into trouble, but the
+convicts always avoided a quarrel. They therefore sought other means,
+and in 1852 they gave out and placarded over the town that the Governor
+and all the Europeans had left worshipping in St. Andrew's Church, owing
+to the number of evil spirits there, and had gone to worship in the
+Court House, and that in order to appease the spirits the Governor
+required thirty heads, and had ordered the convicts to waylay people at
+night and kill them.</p>
+
+<p>These placards created quite a panic in the place, so that people were
+for some days afraid to leave their houses after dark. In order to allay
+the fears of the people the Governor issued a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>proclamation saying that
+St. Andrew's Church had been struck by lightning and was unsafe (which
+was the fact), and he called upon the people not to believe the reports
+of evil men. Moreover, he offered a reward of $500 for the discovery of
+any person propagating such reports. This had no effect however, so the
+leading Chinese merchants were called upon to address their countrymen,
+which they did in a long appeal, assuring them of the benevolence of the
+Christian Government, and urging them to have no fear and not believe in
+foolish reports. In two days the fears of the Chinese population were
+thus dispelled. In 1875 a similar "head scare" occurred during the
+construction of the "puddle trench" for the new impounding reservoir.
+This was a work of considerable difficulty, and some superstitious
+natives circulated a report that it could not be done without "human
+sacrifice," and that the Government were looking for "heads" to put into
+the trench, and the alarm for days was so great that people would not
+pass along Thompson's Road adjoining the reservoir after dark; and even
+the "dhobies," or washer-men, in the stream adjoining the puddle trench,
+hastened into town before dusk. Similar so called "head scares" have
+occurred in Singapore up to even the present time. It is not easy to
+define what has led to this superstition in the native mind, and it is
+made more complicated from the fact that it is shared alike by Chinese
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> natives of India. In many of the Polynesian Islands the practice of
+human sacrifices we know exists even in our own days, and that chiefs,
+when they build a house or a war-canoe, offer up a human being; and the
+Polynesians and Indonesians resemble one another very closely. But such
+a superstition has not come to us through the Malay race, and we must
+rather seek for its origin from the Aryan Hindus of India; and as the
+Chinese took most of their tradition and folk-lore from the cradle of
+the Aryan races, the belief might thus be common to both peoples.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> The
+Rev. Mr. Ward, writing early in this century, refers to the human
+sacrifices at Bardwan, in Bengal, and says of them: "The discovery of
+murders in the name of religion was made by finding bodies with the
+heads cut off, and placed near the images of 'Durga' and 'Kali.'" Also
+at Serampur, before the temple of the goddess "Jara," a human body was
+found without a head. Whatever the origin of the superstition may be
+traced to, the municipality at Singapore were wisely advised, and we
+think very properly declined to take any notice of the recent "head
+scare" of this year, and we can only hope that these apprehensions will
+gradually cease to stir the minds of the people as they become more
+instructed and advanced in civilization.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>Among the many works of utility carried on by convict labour during the
+tenure of the office of Superintendent of Convicts by Captain Man was
+the widening and improving of the Bukit Timah Canal, in order to drain
+the adjacent low lands, and render them capable for cultivation by
+market gardeners. In the cutting of these artificial channels the
+convicts from India had great aptitude, and some of them had been
+employed on similar work in their own country. The largest work,
+however, commenced in Captain Man's time, was the erection of the whole
+of the permanent buildings required for the location of the then large
+number of Indian convicts. They were built within the surrounding wall
+of the jail, near the "Brass Basa" or "Wet Rice" Canal, and entirely by
+the labour of the convicts themselves. The estimate for the work made by
+the Superintending Engineer for their execution by free labour was
+100,000 rupees, but the money cost to the Government was only 12,000
+rupees, when executed by convict labour and with convict-made materials.
+To effect this, the convicts were trained to make the bricks, to dig and
+burn coral for lime, to quarry stone for foundations, and to fell the
+timber in Government forests in the island, and to dress it for roof
+timbers, door and window frames, and so forth.</p>
+
+<p>When Captain Man went to Malacca as Resident Councillor, Captain Ronald
+Macpherson, of the Madras Artillery, succeeded him as Superintendent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> of
+Convicts, Singapore, and carried on the works in progress at the time.
+This was in the year 1855. The most prominent work commenced by the
+convicts in his time, and subsequently carried to completion, was the
+erection of the new church, now the cathedral of the diocese. It must be
+acknowledged that it was a courageous act on the part of Captain
+Macpherson to have designed a church in the early English style of
+architecture, and to have pledged himself to the Government that he
+would undertake to construct it wholly by convict labour. We think it
+showed both confidence in himself and in his convict workpeople, and
+nothing could more clearly have proved to what perfection their skilled
+labour had advanced than that he felt himself able to embark on so
+elaborate a work.</p>
+
+<p>It was in May of this year, 1855, that the Bengal Government approved of
+the project, and sanctioned the expenditure in cash of 47,000 rupees
+upon its construction. The Bishop of Calcutta laid the foundation stone
+during next year before a large concourse of the merchants and residents
+of the place, and the inscription below the stone ran as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The first English church of Singapore, commenced <small>A.D.</small> 1834, and
+consecrated <small>A.D.</small> 1838, having become dilapidated, this stone of a
+new and more commodious edifice, dedicated to the worship of
+Almighty God according to the rites and discipline of the Church of
+England, under the name of St. <span class='pagenumbq'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>Andrew, was laid by the Right
+Reverend Daniel Wilson, D.D., Lord Bishop of Calcutta and
+Metropolitan, on the 4th March, 1856, in the twenty-fourth year of
+his episcopate.</p>
+
+<p class="center">The Hon'ble Edmund Augustus Blundell being the Governor
+of the Straits Settlements.</p>
+
+<p class="center">The Hon'ble Thomas Church being Resident Councillor of
+Singapore.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Lieut-Col. Charles Pooley, of the Madras Army, Commanding
+the Troops.</p>
+
+<p class="center">The Rev. William Topley Humphrey being Chaplain.</p>
+
+<p class="center">And Captain Ronald McPherson of the Madras Artillery being
+the Architect.</p>
+
+<p class="center">The Building to be erected at the charge of the Hon'ble East India
+Company.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Full Estimate of cost: Co.'s Rupees 120,932, or with Convict Labour
+Rupees 47,916.</p></div>
+
+<p>In May, 1857, Captain Man proceeded from Malacca to Penang as Resident
+Councillor of that settlement, and Captain Macpherson took his place at
+Malacca. Captain Purvis, also of the Madras Artillery, was appointed to
+succeed Captain Macpherson in the combined duties of engineer and
+Superintendent of Convicts; but, to the regret of the Government, he
+relinquished the appointment at the close of the year, and Lieutenant
+McNair, another Madras Artillery officer, succeeded him. Lieutenant (now
+Major) McNair was a passed interpreter in the Hindustani language, which
+was spoken by the bulk of the convicts in the jail, and he subsequently
+qualified as a civil engineer. He remained in charge of the convicts
+until the jail was abolished in 1873.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>Upon his assuming charge, the foundations of the new church had been
+laid and the masonry built up to nearly three feet above ground. The
+work was steadily carried on in accordance with the plans of Captain
+Macpherson, with the single exception that it was found necessary, owing
+to the weakness of the foundations, to abandon the heavy tower, and to
+place a light steeple instead. In the building of this church, Mr. John
+Bennett afforded most material assistance as Assistant Superintendent of
+Convicts. To his oversight and careful attention to the variety of
+details incident to such a work may be ascribed its satisfactory
+completion in January, 1862, when the edifice was consecrated by the
+then Bishop of Calcutta, Dr. George Cotton, who so unfortunately met his
+death in 1866 by being drowned in the Ganges. Further details in
+connection with this work will also be given under the heading of
+"<a href="#Page_96">Convict Industries and Public Works</a>."</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="center"><b>Footnotes:</b></p>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>He was known to both of us when he commenced the
+undertaking.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>This entrance to Singapore was called New Harbour after the
+construction there of Cloughton's Dock, now the much improved New
+Harbour Dock. Singapore can now boast of another fine dock at Tanjong
+Pagar, constructed some forty years ago, and an additional dock is
+reported to be in contemplation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/fn7.jpg" width="40" height="41" alt="A clockwise swastika" /></div>
+<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span>
+</a>The old mystic symbol of the Swastika of India, for instance, is common amongst
+the Mongolian races, and other signs of an early union between these
+races might be given.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Chapter VII<br />
+<br />
+<small>SINGAPORE (<i>Continued</i>)</small></h2>
+
+<p>To continue the narrative according to date, we trace that in the year
+1858, after the mutiny, the Indian Government came to the conclusion
+that at all principal centres "field redoubts" should be constructed, to
+be available as places of refuge for Europeans in the event of a native
+rising; and accordingly orders were given for the fortification of
+Singapore. Colonel Collyer, of the Madras Engineers, was therefore sent
+over from Madras to design and carry out the necessary military works,
+and he was given the appointment of Chief Engineer of the Straits
+Settlements.</p>
+
+<p>He selected Government Hill for the main work, and improved and enlarged
+the batteries on Mounts Palmer and Faber, being of opinion that, beyond
+the idea of a place of refuge, the island should be fortified to resist
+aggression from without. All his plans were approved, and, as Lord
+Canning had then become the first "Viceroy" of India, the main work was
+named after him, which name it bears to this day. In the execution of
+most of the earthwork,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> Chinese labour was employed, but the convicts
+were utilized in building the sally ports, constructing the drawbridge,
+sinking the deep wells; and the whole of the bricks, and much of the
+lime and cement required, were manufactured by the convicts at the
+Government kilns on the Serangoon Road. Colonel Collyer also designed
+other important works in the place, notably the Collyer Quay. Major
+Mayne, of the same corps, succeeded him, and in his time the waterworks
+scheme for the town was initiated, but not carried fully to completion,
+and fresh designs became necessary under his successor, in consultation
+with the late Sir Robert Rawlinson, K.C.B.</p>
+
+<p>During this year also the convicts were employed in the erection of a
+new court house (now the public offices), the general hospital, lunatic
+asylum, pauper hospital, and some other minor public works. They also
+built the walls of the reclamation works along the sea front, now known
+as Collyer Quay, and above referred to, and the river wall at Campong
+Malacca. Both these sea and river works had been attempted by free
+labour, but the work of the convicts for this class of rubble walling
+was found more suitable, and therefore it was carried on by them, and
+with satisfactory results in every way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_X" id="plate_X"></a>
+<p class="center"><small><a href="images/pl10-big.png">View larger image</a></small></p>
+<img src="images/pl10-th.png" width="600" height="431" alt="Map of Jail Buildings" />
+<div class="cap">
+<p class="caption">DISTRIBUTION OF JAIL BUILDINGS, SINGAPORE.</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate X.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Shortly after the transfer of the Straits Settlements to the Crown,
+which occurred on the 1st April, 1867, the Governor, then Sir Harry St.
+George Ord, called upon Major McNair, who had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> been appointed Colonial
+Engineer and Comptroller of the Indian Convicts, to prepare plans for a
+Government House to be erected near Mount Sophia, somewhat under two
+miles from the town. The plans were approved by the Governor, and passed
+by the Legislative Council early in 1868. The land on which it stands
+cost $43,800, and the building, furniture, and laying out of the
+grounds, $115,000, and the work, with convict labour, was finished for
+the reception of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> in December, 1869.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Description of the Singapore Convict Jail.</span></h3>
+
+<p>We have already incidentally referred to the plans of Captain Man for
+the erection of a permanent jail for the Indian convicts, which he had
+agreed to construct wholly by convict labour. The enclosure wall already
+existed, within which the original temporary buildings and thatched huts
+had been run up for their shelter. Only one solid building was within
+it, part of which was used as a hospital and the remainder for the
+confinement of convicts in irons. The next permanent building to be
+erected was quarters for the chief warder, and then came the solid
+gateways and guard-rooms. After these were built the wards for the
+fourth and fifth classes, or convicts in irons, then Nos. 1 and 2 wards,
+all shown on the plan (<a href="#plate_X">Plate X</a>.) attached. Then a work-yard was enclosed
+by a solid wall,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> and offices built near the outer entrance to it, for
+the offices of the engineer and Superintendent of Convicts. While this
+wall was under construction by one gang, other gangs were employed in
+erecting within the main enclosure a refractory ward and punishment
+cells, and other minor buildings required in the way of store rooms,
+filter rooms,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> chain room, and a receiving room for fresh arrivals;
+and the effectual drainage of the whole prison.</p>
+
+<p>It was only when all these buildings were actually completed, in the
+year 1860, that the establishment assumed the character of a prison; and
+the convicts themselves were not slow to realize the fact, for it became
+a proverb amongst them that "an open campong, or village, had become a
+closed cage."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_XI" id="plate_XI"></a>
+<img src="images/pl11.jpg" width="600" height="429" alt="Gatehouse of Jail" />
+<div class="cap">
+<p class="caption">MAIN GATE OF SINGAPORE JAIL.</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate XI.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1857 there were altogether under the control of the convict
+authorities no fewer than 2,139 transported felons from India and about
+fifty from Hongkong. About one half of this number were localised in the
+main prison, the other half being employed upon the country roads, the
+quarries, and brickfields. These were of the third class; the second
+class men were detailed for duties as Government messengers, punkah
+pullers at the hospitals <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>and Government offices, and others of this
+class also as "lookout men" at the flag-staff stations, helpers to light
+keepers, crews for the Government boats conveying firewood to the jail
+and brick kilns, and others digging and conveying coral for lime
+burning.</p>
+
+<p>In the main prison the wards were built of a uniform length of 230 feet,
+breadth 60 feet, and height of walls 20 feet. The wards were not ceiled,
+but open to the tiles, with a ridge ventilator along the whole roof.
+Beneath the side windows, which were barred, ground ventilation was
+provided, in order to ensure a current of air throughout the whole
+building. The floors were laid in concrete, and cemented over with
+"soorkee," or brick dust and cement mixed, and graded to the sides. Each
+ward was arranged to contain four hundred convicts. All the convicts
+were in association, separate confinement being restricted to the
+punishment cells. In each ward were platform sleeping benches. They were
+raised three feet at the head, and two feet nine inches at the foot,
+above the floor, and were coated with coal tar except on the actual
+sleeping place.</p>
+
+<p>Lime-wash was used for the inner roofing timbers and tiles, and
+generally for the walls, except for the three feet of dado, which was
+coated with coal tar. Parts of this dado were daily re-coated with hot
+fresh tar, as we found coal tar to be a valuable deodorizer. To each
+ward there were four night urinals,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> detached from the main building and
+provided with double spring doors. In each urinal there were utensils
+coated with coal tar, and at every corner iron crates filled with
+wood-charcoal to absorb noxious vapours. Down the centre of each ward
+spit-boxes were provided for second and third class convicts accustomed
+to betel chewing. There was always a night watch of one petty convict
+officer in each ward, and surprise visits were often paid at night by
+the Superintendent, his assistant, and the chief warder. Going down a
+ward at night, one might see four hundred or more of these convicts,
+each enveloped from head to foot in a "chadar," or native sheet,
+literally over head and ears in sleep. They were all properly worked,
+properly fed, and properly punished when they deserved it; so, with the
+benefit of the two first, and a wholesome dread of the third, no wonder
+they were soon lulled to sleep when the prison doors were closed upon
+them. Now, at the risk of being a little tedious, we propose to describe
+in some detail the "day" latrines in use in this old jail. The
+information may, we think, be of service to those who have native
+prisoners under their charge either in jails or police stations in the
+East. At this period of time, when conservancy has rightly taken a first
+place in all such establishments, it may be thought by some to be
+superfluous, but the system pursued by us worked so very well that we do
+not hesitate to give an account of it.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>There were many such latrines in the prison, so we will confine our
+remarks to one only. The building in use for this purpose was about
+seventy feet in length and twenty feet wide, and the tiled roof was
+supported upon brick pillars raised twelve feet from the ground. In its
+construction care was taken, above all things, to ensure a solid floor
+"impervious" to "moisture." This was made by first laying down six
+inches of well-prepared concrete, consisting of pounded granite,
+brick-dust, and gravel cemented together by hydraulic mortar, then
+overlaid with pure cement, and after this coated with an inch thick of
+asphalt. Around the whole building was an open drain, about two feet
+inside of the pillars, and built like the floor, and carefully graded to
+the outfall. The walls, pillars, and drains were coated with coal tar,
+and here and there daily renewed to ensure deodorization. Close to the
+drain, and at eighteen inches apart, were placed troughs of hard wood
+two feet in length, one foot nine inches wide, and nine inches deep,
+with stout handles at either end. These troughs were smeared over with
+pitch. Between every second trough was placed a box containing about a
+bushel of powdered red earth, perfectly dry, and in each box was a ladle
+made of half a cocoanut shell attached to a handle. Two convicts of the
+sixth, or feeble class, were placed in charge of this latrine, whose
+duty it was to see that the red earth was sprinkled by those using the
+troughs. When<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> the troughs were full they were emptied into a
+conservancy cart with a hermetically closed screw top, and when this was
+full it was conveyed by bullocks to plantations in the country.</p>
+
+<p>We think we are quite warranted in saying that this was the first jail,
+if not the first establishment anywhere, in which this dry earth system
+of conservancy was used. For centuries, no doubt, in India the
+well-known habit of the cat had been followed by many of the native
+castes, but it was not until vast numbers of these convicts from India
+were aggregated in association that the application of the system to
+their dwellings was initiated, and we think that the clever invention of
+the "earth closet" for certain localities may have suggested itself to
+its inventor when a resident at Singapore.</p>
+
+<p>It may be as well to give here the testimony of Dr. Mouat, the
+Inspector-General of Jails, Bengal, on the efficiency of the conservancy
+of this old jail, and in no spirit of self-satisfaction we quote his own
+words "verbatim," which are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Singapore, <i>1st June, 1865</i>.&mdash;I have sincere pleasure in recording
+the unmixed satisfaction which I have experienced from a careful
+examination of the jail, and system of prison management in use at
+Singapore.</p>
+
+<p>The scrupulous cleanliness, perfect plan of conservancy, excellent
+order, well-regulated system of labour and punishments, and the
+high standard of<span class='pagenumbq'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> health attained are not surpassed in any other
+well-regulated institution of the same kind that I am acquainted
+with in Europe or in Asia. My personal knowledge of prisons and of
+all details of prison management is sufficiently extended to
+entitle me to speak with authority on this subject.</p>
+
+<p>In many important points of internal economy and discipline,
+Singapore can fairly lay claim to being <i>Primus in Indis</i> in the
+adoption and practical working of principles that are now generally
+accepted as sound and correct. My own feeling on the subject is
+that Colonels Man and Macpherson and Captain McNair, to whom the
+chief credit appears to be due, are entitled to rank in the first
+class of prison officers and reformers in India."</p></div>
+
+<p>Perhaps the last addition to the jail buildings was the erection by the
+convict bricklayers and plasterers of a stand to hold the prison bell,
+and from whence to call the roll at general musters. It was built in the
+form of a "monopteron," a sort of structure without walls, and composed
+of columns arranged in a circle, and supporting a covered cupola.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="center"><b>Footnotes:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> These filters were of the simplest construction. They
+consisted of three very porous earthenware pots or "chatties" placed on
+a tripod. In the first was the water to be filtered, a foot off was the
+pot full of charcoal and white sand, and the filtered water was drawn
+off from the third. The charcoal and sand were renewed twice a week.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Chapter VIII<br />
+<br />
+<small>DIVISION INTO CLASSES, TRADES, FOOD, AND CLOTHING</small></h2>
+
+
+<p>We now come to deal with perhaps not a very inviting part of our
+subject, viz. the division of the convicts into classes, their
+supervision, artificer trades, hours of work, food, and clothing, but it
+must be told in brief in order to make the narrative of this jail
+complete.</p>
+
+<p>They were divided into six classes, but since the year 1857, when Major
+McNair took charge, sec. A of the third class, and sec. A of the fifth
+class were added to the classification.</p>
+
+<div class="indent">
+<p>The <i>First Class</i> consisted of trustworthy convicts allowed out on
+ticket of leave.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second Class</i> consisted of convict petty officers, male and
+female, and those employed in hospitals and public offices.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third Class</i> were convicts employed on roads and public works,
+having passed through their probationary course.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth Class</i> were convicts newly arrived, and those degraded from
+other classes or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>promoted from the fifth class. They worked in
+light irons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifth Class</i> were convicts degraded from the higher classes, and
+such as required more than ordinary vigilance to prevent escape, or
+regarding whom special instructions had been received from India.
+They worked in heavy irons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sixth Class</i> were invalids and superannuated convicts.</p>
+
+<p>Youths were transferred to a special gang for "boys."</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_XII" id="plate_XII"></a>
+<img src="images/pl12.jpg" width="377" height="500" alt="Portrait of Indian Petty Officer Ram Singh" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 377px;">
+<p class="capright">[<i>Mcnair.</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p style="margin-top: 0em;" class="caption">DUFFADAR RAM SINGH, SENIOR PETTY OFFICER<br />
+OF THE JAIL.</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate XII.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Convicts, if for life, were admitted to the first class after having
+been sixteen years in transportation; if for seventeen years, after
+twelve years; and if for seven years, after having been six years in
+transportation. Females, for whatever period, from three to five years.
+Before a ticket of leave could be granted, the convict had to provide
+personal security for his good behaviour and continued presence in the
+settlement; and any misdemeanour on his part involved a revoking of his
+ticket of leave, and his return to confinement in the prison and
+reduction to a lower class. All <i>First Class</i> convicts, whether male or
+female, had to attend muster on the first of every month, and had to
+keep the Superintendent informed of their place of residence, and were
+bound to sleep in it every night.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second Class</i> convicts were employed as stated. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>They were allowed to
+go out of the jail after working hours, but had to appear at 8 p.m. roll
+call daily (except those employed at hospitals and in special duties),
+and were required to sleep in prison at night. Convicts were admitted to
+this class, on good behaviour, at the Superintendent's discretion, as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+If transported for  7 years, after 5 years.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; " &nbsp; &nbsp; 14 &nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; 7&nbsp; &nbsp; "</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.1em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; " &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; life, &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; 8&nbsp; &nbsp; "</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>All jail petty officers, from duffadars to orderlies, were included in
+this class, and no convict was eligible for an orderly until he had been
+eight years in transportation; promotion went either by seniority or
+qualification, but he should have been an orderly for two years before
+being promoted to a peon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third Class</i> convicts. Convicts were admitted to this class at the
+Superintendent's discretion&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+If transported for 12 years, after 12 months.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0em;"> &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; " &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 14 &nbsp;  "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  2 years.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; " &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; life, &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 3&nbsp; &nbsp; " &nbsp;</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>This was not a chain class, and one rupee a month was allowed to each
+man for the purchase of condiments, called "subsistence money." If not
+belonging to the country gangs, and of approved good conduct, this class
+was allowed, after working hours, to be outside the prison until 6 p.m.,
+if they had already completed four years in transportation; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>until that
+period had been discharged they were confined after work was over. This
+class was allowed to use their sectarian marks as a privilege. Degraded
+prisoners of this class were called "Sec. A, 3rd Class," and wore a ring
+on each ankle; they were strictly confined to the jail precincts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_XIII" id="plate_XIII"></a>
+<img src="images/pl13.jpg" width="309" height="500" alt="Portrait of Indian Head Tindal" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 309px;">
+<p class="caption">HEAD TINDAL MAISTRI OF CART MAKERS<br />
+AND WHEELWRIGHTS.</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate XIII.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Fourth Class.</i> All newly arrived convicts, except those regarding whom
+special instructions had been received from India, were placed in this
+class, and served their probation in it. They were worked in double
+light irons, and were not allowed to leave the prison except for work;
+they were not granted any money allowance, but fish, vegetables and
+condiments were supplied to them with their rations. They were, however,
+allowed the privilege to cook their own food.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifth Class.</i> This was a "punishment class" for troublesome characters
+from the upper classes, and every man degraded to it had to serve two
+years before being again promoted to the fourth class, and an additional
+six months before he could be promoted to the third class, unless the
+Superintendent saw sufficiently good cause for leniency. This class
+received clothing and rations like the fourth class, with vegetables,
+fish, and condiments; but all were cooked for them in mess under a
+convict cook. They received no money allowance, and were not allowed to
+leave the prison except for work. Refractory prisoners of this class
+were called "Sec. A, 5th Class"; they were put in the heaviest irons,
+with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> wrist irons if necessary, and were confined in the refractory ward
+on severe task work, as making coir from the rough husk of the
+cocoa-nuts, pounding and cleaning rice, and such like hard labour.</p>
+
+<p>"Flogging": If upon rare occasions this punishment had to be resorted
+to, the culprit was first inspected by the medical officer to see if he
+were capable to undergo the sentence: usually the number of lashes was
+from one dozen up to six dozen with the cat-o'-nine-tails. If passed by
+the medical officer, the punishment was inflicted in the presence of the
+convicts, and by selected convict warders, the medical officer or his
+apothecary being invariably present during the infliction. The triangles
+were of the usual pattern, and the flogging was on the buttock.</p>
+
+<p>No person was allowed to punish a convict but the Superintendent or the
+Assistant Superintendent acting for him. The defaulter was brought to
+the inquiry room, the case inquired into fully, and the default and
+sentence duly recorded in a book kept for the purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_XIV" id="plate_XIV"></a>
+<img src="images/pl14.jpg" width="286" height="500" alt="Portrait of Indian Convict 2nd class" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 286px;" >
+<p class="caption">CONVICT OF THE SECOND CLASS AND MUNSHI.</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate XIV.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Sixth Class.</i> This class embraced all invalid and incapable men who
+were able to perform light work, as sweepers, watchmen in country
+commands, and in charge of latrines; also caretakers at Government
+bungalows, and those superannuated men who were exempt from all work. No
+convicts were admitted to this class until declared unfit for hard work
+by the medical officer and the Annual Medical <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>Committee. Men of
+approved conduct got the indulgences of their former class. Female
+convicts belonged to this class, of which there were always a few under
+transportation. They were confined in a separate ward under a convict
+matron, and no prison male warder was allowed therein on pain of
+degradation.</p>
+
+<p>The supervising staff consisted of a Superintendent&mdash;who was also the
+Executive Engineer of the station&mdash;and his assistant, a chief warder and
+two assistants, an overseer of artificers and of roads. The native
+staff, being all petty officers raised from amongst the convicts,
+consisted of three duffadars, eight first tindals, twenty-two second
+tindals, ninety-four peons, and sixty-five orderlies, for the number of
+convicts then under confinement.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1857 there were 2,139 convicts from different parts of
+India, Burmah, and Ceylon in this jail; but upon an average, until the
+prison was broken up, there were 1,900 always under control. The men
+from India were Seikhs, Dogras, Pallis, or a shepherd race; Thugs and
+Dacoits from different parts of the Bengal presidency, and mostly from
+round about Delhi and Agra; felons from all parts of the Madras and
+Bombay presidencies, and a few from Assam and Burmah, chiefly Dacoits,
+and a sprinkling of Cingalese.</p>
+
+<p>Upon arrival from India, each convict was checked with the warrants that
+accompanied the several gangs, then photographed, bathed, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> supplied
+with the prison clothing, and each received a number by which, until he
+entered the third class, he was always known. Each convict was then duly
+inspected by the medical officer before admission to the wards. Any
+property with them was scheduled and put away until they were entitled
+to receive it, and the clothing in which they arrived was duly
+fumigated.</p>
+
+<p>The artificer body was drawn from the third and fourth classes only, and
+they were subject to the same discipline as their classes in the general
+prison. They were divided into four grades, according to the degree of
+skill they evinced, and received a monthly allowance commencing at one
+half a rupee, or 1<i>s.</i> a month, up to the highest sum given to the best
+workmen of 10<i>s.</i> a month, who were called "tindal maistris," and who
+were entrusted with the duty of teaching beginners. These tindal
+maistris were exempted from keeping watch in the wards at night.</p>
+
+<p>The several trades taught in the prison were as follows, and none of
+them were dangerous to health except the cement-sifting by females on
+treadles, which had to be discontinued:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table width="80%" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="List of trades.">
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh padr verttop">Bricklayers and plasterers.</td><td class="tdlh verttop">Quarrymen.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh padr verttop">Brick and tile makers and potters.</td><td class="tdlh verttop">Sawyers, stone cutters, and blasters.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh padr verttop">Blacksmiths.</td><td class="tdlh verttop">Slaters.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh padr verttop">Basket makers.</td><td class="tdlh verttop">Shoe and sandal makers.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh padr verttop">Coopers.</td><td class="tdlh verttop">Tailors.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh padr verttop">Carpenters, cement and lime burners.</td><td class="tdlh verttop">Turners and weavers.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh padr verttop">Gardeners.</td><td class="tdlh verttop">Wheelwrights.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh padr verttop">Painters.</td><td class="tdlh verttop">Woodcutters.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh padr">Lime and charcoal burners.</td><td class="tdlh">Boatmen.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh padr">Plumbers.</td><td class="tdlh">Stone masons.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><a name="plate_XV" id="plate_XV"></a></p>
+<table style="margin-top: 2em;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations belonging to Plate XV.">
+<tr>
+<td class="padr"><img src="images/pl15-1.jpg" width="296" height="500" alt="Portrait of Indian Convict 5th class" /></td>
+<td class="padl"><img src="images/pl15-2.jpg" width="374" height="500" alt="Portrait of Indian Convict 5th class Section A" /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc"><p style="margin-top: 0.5em;" class="caption">CONVICT OF THE FIFTH CLASS.</p></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><p style="margin-top: 0.5em;" class="caption">CONVICT OF THE FIFTH CLASS, SEC. A.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="tdl"><p class="plate"><i>Plate XV.</i></p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p>
+<!--Part of the table of trades above was also on page 91 in original text-->
+
+<p>Those few of the convicts who had acquired a trade in their native
+country were not admitted to the artificer gang until they had gone
+through their probationary period in irons on the public roads. The bulk
+of the convicts were trained in the prison itself; and after the year
+1857 native methods of working were abandoned, and the use of our
+carpenter's bench introduced, and English tools employed in all trades.</p>
+
+<p>They felled and stacked timber upon the island, which, after conveyance
+to the yard, was sawn and wrought into all that was required for roofing
+timbers, doors and window frames. They made the bricks, lime, and
+cement, and all tiles necessary for roofing or for paving. They quarried
+the stone at Pulo Obin for foundations, and for sea and river walls. The
+blacksmiths cast and forged from the raw state all the iron work for
+which there was a necessity. As a matter of fact all material and all
+labour for the execution of any public work required by the Government
+were executed by these convicts, from a small timber bridge upon a
+country road,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> even to the erection of a "cathedral" and "Government
+House," of which it is purposed further to give a detailed account.</p>
+
+<p>This is the proper place in which we may mention that in the years
+1859-60 the estimated value of this convict labour was 162,230 rupees,
+while the expenses of the whole convict department amounted to 117,578
+rupees. In 1860-61 the manufacture account showed a balance of 25,028
+rupees in favour of the State, though profit was always deemed of
+secondary importance. Material was valued at one half the market rate,
+and the labour at two-thirds the value of the same labour prevailing in
+the place.</p>
+
+<p>The hours of work were limited to nine, including the time taken in
+marching to and fro from the works; but to add to discipline we would
+occasionally give them some extra hours of work, answering somewhat to
+our "pipebrooms" in the Navy, or the "pipe-claying of belts" in our Army
+on the line of march on active service.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_XVA" id="plate_XVA"></a>
+<img src="images/pl15a.jpg" width="341" height="500" alt="Portrait of Indian Convict 5th class" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 341px;" >
+<p class="caption">CHETOO, AN INCORRIGIBLE CONVICT OF THE
+FIFTH CLASS.
+</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate XV<small>A</small>.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The jail bell was rung at 5 a.m. (except Sunday), when every convict
+rose, rolled up his blanket with the number visible, and placed his
+"chadar" or sheet in his box, which was also numbered to correspond. He
+was marched out to the prison yard with the men of his ward, and the
+roll was called by the responsible officer. Time for light food was
+allowed, and the convicts were then detailed to the work gangs as
+arranged overnight. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>The work gangs left the prison punctually at 6
+a.m., and returned at 11 a.m.; were marched out again at 1 p.m.,
+returning at 5 p.m. At 6 p.m. a roll was again called for the 3rd, 4th,
+and 5th classes, who were then locked up for the night. At 8 p.m. there
+was another roll call for those who had the privilege, and then all were
+seen to their wards, and all wards and gates were locked by 9 p.m., when
+strict silence reigned throughout the prison; the European warder going
+rounds up to 10 p.m., and occasionally, with the Superintendent and his
+assistant, paying surprise night rounds. Convicts on the march out of
+prison were moved five abreast, or as they called it "p&#257;nch-p&#257;nch,"
+literally, by "fives."</p>
+
+<p>On the first of every month there was a general muster of the whole of
+the convicts, including the first class, when the roll was called, and
+each answered to his name or number. This muster was always in the
+presence of the Superintendent, who inspected each convict, and if any
+one had a grievance his name was taken down, and his complaint
+afterwards inquired into at the "Inquiry Room." This opportunity was
+taken by the Superintendent to inspect the whole prison, wards,
+latrines, drains, and bathing places.</p>
+
+<p>The rations required for the jail were either obtained upon indent upon
+the Government Commissariat Department, or by tender called for in the
+town. Each convict's daily allowance was as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="8" cellspacing="0" summary="Rations.">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl bt bb">To 2nd, 3rd, and 6th classes without condiments.</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Rice.</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Dholl or Peas.</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Salt.</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Ghee, clarified Butter.</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Vegetables.</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Fish.</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Mussalah or Curry Stuff.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="tdc bl">oz.</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">oz.</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">drs.</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">drs.</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">oz.</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">oz.</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">drs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Effective men</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">32</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">5</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">8</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">8</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">7&frac14;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl bb">Invalids and Women</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">24</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">2</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">8</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">8</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">7&frac14;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+<p>To the fourth and fifth classes, being effective, with condiments, fish
+and vegetables alternating thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="8" cellspacing="0" summary="Rations for 4th and 5th classes.">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl bt bb">&nbsp;</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Rice.</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Dholl.</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Salt.</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Ghee.</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Vegetables.</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Fish.</td>
+
+<td class="tdc bt bb bl">Mussalah or Curry Stuff.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="tdc bl">oz.</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">oz.</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">drs.</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">drs.</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">oz.</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">oz.</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">drs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Monday</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">28</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">5</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">1</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">10</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">5</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdc bl">7&frac14;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl bb">Tuesday</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">28</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">10</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">5</td>
+<td class="tdc bl bb">7&frac14;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>We found that this dietary scale was sufficient to a native under labour
+to repair waste tissue without giving fat. The "ghee," or clarified
+butter, made the rice more nutritious, and the "dholl," or peas,
+contained both albumen and starch, which would of themselves alone
+support life. For the penal class there was the usual congee diet.</p>
+
+<p>All convicts not being in the first class, nor employed as messengers in
+hospitals or at public offices (when they received a compensation), were
+clothed in the jail.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Clothing allowance.">
+
+<tr><td class="tdl vertcen">The 2nd, 3rd, and 6th classes</td>
+      <td rowspan="2" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td rowspan="2" class="vertcen">&ndash;</td>
+      <td rowspan="2" class="tdl vertcen padl padr">half-yearly and duly marked</td>
+      <td rowspan="2" class="vertcen">&ndash;</td>
+      <td rowspan="2" class="bt bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td style="padding-top: 0em; padding-left: 2em;" rowspan="2" class="tdlh vertcen"><p>Nine yards of stout grey shirting.</p>
+                                          <p>One jail suit.</p>
+                                          <p>Two working suits and a stout cap.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl vertcen">4th and 5th classes</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>To all annually was given one blanket of coarse wool called a "kumblie,"
+and made by the convicts themselves from wool purchased in the place and
+prepared by them for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Belts and brass plates for them were supplied only to duffadars,
+tindals, peons, and orderlies.</p>
+
+<p>The European warders were dressed in a light blue serge loose coat with
+lace round the cap, and distinctive badge to indicate the grade, and in
+the case of an overseer of artificers a hammer and chisel crossed. After
+the reception in 1858-59 of a large number of mutineers they were
+supplied with a belt and revolver.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Chapter IX<br />
+<br />
+<small>PUBLIC WORKS AND INDUSTRIES</small></h2>
+
+
+<p>In referring to the variety of public works undertaken by these Indian
+convicts, we have hitherto refrained from going into much detail in
+regard to them; but we think it will not be without interest to dwell
+somewhat more at length, as we have proposed, upon the construction of
+the cathedral and the Government House, which still remain as records of
+their labour, and spring into the greatest prominence. Of the jail
+itself, which, as we have said, was planned and partially carried out by
+the late General Man, nothing further need, we think, be added for it is
+now dismantled except that it was in truth the training ground for the
+artificer gang under that able officer, who saw the absolute necessity
+of having some large public work in hand in order to the convicts
+acquiring a knowledge of the various trades. This principle in the
+management of convicts was advocated by Sir Edmund Du Cane in one of his
+pamphlets, in which he judiciously says that "the best system devised
+for the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>employment of convicts is that of executing large public works
+by means of their labour."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_XVI" id="plate_XVI"></a>
+<img src="images/pl16.jpg" width="360" height="521" alt="Cathedral of St Andrews" />
+<div class="cap" style="width: 360px;">
+<p class="capright">[<i>Koch.</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p style="margin-top: 0em;" class="caption">CATHEDRAL, SINGAPORE.</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate XVI.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the late General Man had for this purpose the erection of the
+permanent jail, so the late Colonel Macpherson planned and laid the
+foundations for execution by their labour of St. Andrew's Church, now
+the cathedral of the diocese; while to Major McNair fell the duty of
+designing and constructing almost wholly by these convicts the house for
+the Governor of the colony.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Cathedral</span><small><a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> (see <a href="#plate_XVI">Plate XVI</a>.)</small>.</h3>
+
+<p>In preparing the designs of this ecclesiastical edifice, Colonel
+Macpherson had to select as simple and easy a form of architecture as he
+could, and with as little ornament as possible, and therefore within the
+capacity of his workpeople; so he chose the Gothic, or rather, we should
+say, the Early English style of about the 12th century, and in so doing
+he said he had somewhat reproduced the character of old Netley
+Abbey.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+He laid the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>foundations, and saw it built up to about three
+feet above the ground, and then left for Malacca to take up the
+appointment of Chief Civil Officer there, and was therefore not able
+further to see the progress of the work that he had inspired. His plans,
+however, were carefully followed by his successor, with the exception,
+as has already been said, of substituting a spire for a tower, owing to
+undue settlement at the tower end. This building is 250 feet long
+internally,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> by 65 feet in width, with nave and side aisles; or, with the
+north and south transepts, 95 feet, the transepts being used as
+porticoes. The simple columns, with plain mouldings only, carried
+arches, on which rested the side walls of the nave, which were run up of
+sufficient height to clear the roofs of the aisles, and were perforated
+by a range of windows to admit light to the whole building. At the
+north-east end of the nave was a great arch leading into a chancel, and
+an apse with three lancet windows in stained glass. The building was
+roofed with teak timber, with a sarking of lighter wood as a lining to
+form a contrast, and then covered with slates imported from England.
+Over the main entrance is a vaulted dome, with a neat piece of groining
+in granite, also made by the convicts. Leading to the organ loft is a
+circular well staircase, made from quarter-inch plate iron, the treads
+and risers punched with holes by the punching machine in the work yard
+to render them lighter. They were bracketed together, and secured by
+screw bolts and nuts. The risers were bent round a two-inch bar of round
+iron, which passed down through all of them at the centre from top to
+bottom of the staircase. The whole was made and fixed in its place by
+the convicts.</p>
+
+<p>As a pattern for the convicts to follow, we built two arches on the
+ground, the exact counterpart of those in the building; and, indeed, at
+any time when they wanted a guide, we had a model made; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>and the natives
+of India are such wonderful imitators, as we all know, that they soon
+were able to follow the copy we had given them. So the work progressed
+from day to day, until it was ultimately finished in 1862. We found that
+the skill of the convicts never failed them, and their capacity as
+builders and carpenters never seemed to slacken.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with the interior walls and columns, we used what is well
+known, though little employed with us in England, "Madras chunam," made
+from shell lime without sand; but with this lime we had whites of eggs
+and coarse sugar, or "jaggery," beaten together to form a sort of paste,
+and mixed with water in which the husks of cocoanuts had been steeped.
+The walls and columns were plastered with this composition, and, after a
+certain period for drying, were rubbed with rock crystal or rounded
+stone until they took a beautiful polish, being occasionally dusted with
+fine soapstone powder, and so leaving a remarkably smooth and glossy
+surface.</p>
+
+<p>We have given the dimensions of this building, but we may remark that,
+owing to the simplicity of its tracery and mouldings, it really appears
+much larger than it actually is, and being built on an open space, its
+proportions at once strike the eye of every visitor to the colony.</p>
+
+<p>A peal of bells was added to the cathedral in 1889 by the munificence of
+Mr. W. H. Read, C.M.G., who, with the late Mr. John Crawfurd, Mr. James
+Guthrie, and others, was instrumental <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>in bringing about the transfer
+of these settlements to the Crown, and some of their portraits are now
+in the Town Hall, including that of Mr. Thomas Scott, then M.L.C.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate_XVII" id="plate_XVII"></a></p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations belonging to Plate XVII.">
+<tr>
+<td><img src="images/pl17-1.jpg" width="550" height="370" alt="A mortar mill" /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc"><p style="margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 1.5em;" class="caption">MORTAR MILL, GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><img src="images/pl17-2.jpg" width="550" height="364" alt="Government House under construction" /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc"><p style="margin-top: 0.5em;" class="caption">GOVERNMENT HOUSE GARDEN BEING LAID OUT BY CONVICTS.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="tdl"><p class="plate"><i>Plate XVII.</i></p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h3 style="margin-top: 0em;"><span class="smcap">Government House</span> <small>(see <a href="#plate_XIX">Plate XIX</a>.)</small>.</h3>
+
+<p>We have already mentioned that the transfer of the Straits Settlements
+from the direct control of India to the Crown was effected on the 1st
+April, 1867. The first Governor under the new <i>r&eacute;gime</i> was Colonel Sir
+Harry St. George Ord, R.E., who, upon his arrival in Singapore, had to
+take up his abode in a hired house. He therefore lost no time in issuing
+orders to purchase land, and to erect a suitable residence for himself
+and for the future Governors of the colony. Plans were accordingly
+called for from the colonial engineer (Major McNair), and they soon took
+shape and were submitted by the Governor to the Legislative Council
+without delay; and money was voted for the erection of the building, the
+purchase of land, and the ordering of furniture from England. The work
+was actually commenced within three months of the Governor's arrival,
+the foundation-stone was laid by Lady Ord a month later, and the
+building was made ready for the reception of H.R.H. the Duke of
+Edinburgh in October, 1869.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of the brick work, exterior plastering, and most of the
+flooring and interior work were effected by convict labour; but it
+became necessary, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>towards the last, to employ free labour, to assist in
+the flooring, which was executed with battens from the steam sawmills at
+Johore, and also in the coffering of the ceilings in the drawing-room
+and some plastering in the rear block. The whole of the bricks used were
+made by the convicts, and much of the lime and cement was of their
+manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>The edifice stands upon a hill in the eastern suburb of the town, about
+a mile and a quarter from the cathedral, and is surrounded by nearly 100
+acres of ground, which has been tastefully laid out, and planted with
+rare plants under successive Superintendents of the Government Botanical
+Gardens. The building commands an extensive view of the harbour and
+surrounding country, and from the tower the distant islands and mainland
+of Johore are distinctly visible. It is supplied with water from the
+town water supply,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> by the use of a hydraulic ram. It was first
+lighted with gas, but now by the electric light throughout the whole
+building.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_XVIII" id="plate_XVIII"></a>
+<img src="images/pl18.jpg" width="600" height="372" alt="Government House under construction" />
+<div class="cap">
+<p class="caption">GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE, APPROACHING COMPLETION.</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate XVIII.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The house is built somewhat in the shape of a cross. Ascending a flight
+of broad steps from the wide portico, you enter a spacious entrance hall
+floored with beautiful white marble from Java, having in your direct
+front a handsome stone staircase leading up through an arcade to a
+half-pace, from which it returns right and left to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>lobby above,
+which is of the same dimensions as the entrance hall. Off this lobby, on
+the eastern wing, is the library, and beyond, the principal bed and
+dressing-rooms, and an open verandah over the portico (since regrettably
+built in). In the western wing is a double drawing-room, with disengaged
+pillars between; and below, off the entrance hall, on the east side, is
+the ball-room, and on the west the dining hall and billiard-rooms.
+Store-rooms, pantries, and all necessary accommodation were supplied as
+in any of our home mansions.</p>
+
+<p>The ground floor of the building is raised four feet from the plateau,
+and ample ventilation is provided underneath. The building is 230 ft. in
+frontage, and 180 ft. in depth, and the height to the tower is 80 ft.
+The style is Ionic upon Doric, with Corinthian pillars and pilasters to
+the tower. It is roofed with slates, and the lower floors and verandahs
+are paved with marble.</p>
+
+<p>As at the cathedral training for the convicts, so here models of the
+pillars and capitals were made on the ground for them to copy, and the
+special bricks for mouldings, copings, architraves, and capitals were
+made at the convict brick kilns.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> The plaster work for the exterior
+walls was a subject of much consideration with us; and, after various
+experiments, we arrived at the following composition, and it has
+thoroughly withstood the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>weather, which, under the trying circumstances
+of a rapid succession of damp and heat, was exceptional in that
+climate:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Formula for plaster.">
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Portland cement</td><td></td><td></td><td class="tdlh">2&nbsp;parts.</td>
+      <td rowspan="3" class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 0em;" class="vertcen">&ndash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+      <td rowspan="3" class="tdlh vertcen">Carefully and slowly mixed by the convicts.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">White selected sand</td><td></td><td></td><td class="tdlh">1&nbsp;part.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh padr">Granite powdered to dust in small handmills, or querns</td>
+      <td  class="bt br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td  style="padding-left: 0em;" class="vertcen">&ndash;&nbsp;</td>
+      <td  class="vertcen">2&nbsp;parts.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>A gift by the Chinese community of a statue of H.M. the Queen was
+unveiled with some ceremony at this Government House in the year 1889.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Industries (Intra-mural).</span></h3>
+
+<p>We have already enumerated the various trades that were taught to these
+Indian convicts, and shall therefore confine our remarks here to a brief
+description of some of those productive occupations upon which we
+employed their labour both within and without the main jail.</p>
+
+<p>We must, however, make known beforehand, in connection with intra-mural
+works, that, attached to the main jail, yet distinctly separated from it
+by high walls and a guarded gateway, was a "work-yard," in which were
+built shops for carpenters, blacksmiths, coopers, wheelwrights, sawyers,
+stone-cutters, and turners in wood and iron.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_XIX" id="plate_XIX"></a>
+<img src="images/pl19.jpg" width="600" height="359" alt="Government House" />
+<div class="cap">
+<p class="capright">[<i>McNair.</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p style="margin-top: 0em;" class="caption">GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE, COMPLETED.</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate XIX.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In one part of this yard was also a machine shop, in which were fitted
+lathes, punching and shearing machines, and a bolt and nut machine, also
+a band <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>saw and a circular saw table. To drive this machinery a 12 h.p.
+engine was used, and this was placed under the charge of a convict who
+had been employed in the engine-room of a P. and O. steamer, and had
+gone through his probationary period in the jail. Added to these
+machines was one of Blake's stone-crushers to break stone of various
+gauges for metalling the roads of the town.</p>
+
+<p>This was the first Indian jail, and we might even go so far as to say it
+was amongst the first of any jails, where convicts were employed in
+connection with steam power. We had, it is true, an engine to be worked
+by manual power, for six or eight men abreast, to drive the circular
+saw, but it did not answer. It was intended as "crank" labour for the
+convicts.</p>
+
+<p>When Dr. Mouat, the Inspector-General of Jails, Bengal, wrote his annual
+report of 1864-65, he said: "I have suggested the introduction of steam
+machinery for the spinning of jute yarn, in order that all prisoners
+sentenced to rigorous imprisonment may never be without the hard labour
+which the jail is bound to provide for them. In this, as in most matters
+connected with the organization of prison industry, I have been
+anticipated by the authorities at Singapore, there being a steam
+saw-mill in use at the Singapore jail, and a pug-mill employed in the
+preparation of the clay used in the brick and tile manufactory."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>The carpenters made every necessary article required for the public
+buildings in progress; even the pulpit, reading-desk, and interior
+fittings for the cathedral were the work of their hands. The blacksmiths
+had four smithies, and forged, cast, and prepared all kinds of ordinary
+iron work found necessary. The coopers made buckets, tubs, and all the
+casks for storing cement, and for other jail purposes. The wheelwrights
+made all the carts, barrows (hand and wheel), and the hack-barrows
+wanted at the brick kilns. The stone-cutters turned out the mouldings,
+mullions, capitals, cills, steps, and all that was essential in our
+building operations.</p>
+
+<p>Within the jail proper there were shops for tailors, weavers, rattan
+workers, coir and rope makers, flag makers, a printing press, and a
+photographic studio, and a few draughtsmen for executing plans and
+working drawings. The tailors cut out, made, and repaired the clothing
+for the fourth and fifth classes, and any other such occupation required
+in the prison. The weavers, who worked with an ordinary Indian
+hand-loom, made the coarse cloth required for those classes in irons,
+and washed, dressed, combed, carded, and spun the raw wool purchased
+from the butchers in the town, from which the "kumblies" or coarse
+blankets supplied to all the convicts were made. The coir or yarn
+manufactured from the husks of cocoanuts was prepared by those employed
+at "hard labour" in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> the refractory ward. From this yarn we made cordage
+for the convict boats, mattresses for the hospitals, and matting of
+various kinds. The flag makers made up and repaired the flags and
+colours for the signal stations, and for the department of the master
+attendant. Upon this work female convicts, and feeble men of the sixth
+class, were usually employed.</p>
+
+<p>The printing press was established in 1860, and to start it the services
+of a Portuguese foreman printer were engaged for a short time to teach
+the convicts; and bookbinding was added later on. Photography was taught
+by one of us<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> to two intelligent convicts of the Calcutta Baboo class
+who wrote English. All convicts had their likeness taken, and were
+registered for identification in case of escape; also local prisoners
+and men under custody by the police. We had not, of course, the
+knowledge then of Mr. Henry's method of identity by means of
+"finger-prints," for it was only approved last year by the Government of
+India. The draughtsmen, numbering three, executed all the plans and
+working drawings for the public works. Those for the cathedral and
+Government House, and many other buildings, were drawn by these men, the
+principal draughtsman being a convict transported from Bombay of the
+name of Babajee. The rattan workers wrought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> chairs and baskets of all
+kinds, fenders for the Government steamers, and signal baskets for the
+flagstaff's.</p>
+
+<p>There were other minor industries carried on within the prison walls, so
+that it was a busy scene of task work from one end to the other, for
+every one was engaged upon something, and there was no chance for an
+idler to do nothing. Nursing a job was quite out of the question.</p>
+
+<p>But we must pass on to deal with the industries beyond the walls, and we
+shall limit our description to the making of bricks, lime, and cement,
+and the quarrying of stone, and well digging.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Industries (Extra-mural).</span></h3>
+
+<p>It will be quite superfluous to give an account in detail of the method
+pursued in brick and tile making, for the process is known to every one.
+Suffice it to say that Colonel Faber, R.E., as previously noted, was the
+first to introduce the manufacture on Government account; he opened a
+place at Rochore, near the present gasworks, and employed free labour.
+The system was what is known as the "dry" and sand-moulding system, and
+the bricks were burned in clamps. All that could be said of these bricks
+was that they were better than those made by the Chinese at that time,
+but they were not a success, and the manufacture was after two or three
+years given up.</p>
+
+<p>In 1858 we started, on a systematic principle, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>under a trained European
+brick maker, an extensive brick field on the Serangoon Road, about three
+miles from the town, where there was a considerable bed of excellent
+clay for the purpose. The site, too, was well situated near the banks of
+an inlet from the sea, and affording great facility for water carriage,
+and with a palm grove close at hand, under the shade of which the
+convicts were allowed to roam without restraint when their work was
+over. Sheds, kilns, pug-mills, moulding tables, and all the necessary
+appliances for hand-made bricks were soon set on foot, and a large
+dormitory, surrounded by a stout precinct fence, was built for the
+number of convicts required for the manufacture, approximating to about
+120 of all classes, except those in irons.</p>
+
+<p>Our process was commonly known as "slop-moulding," each moulder turning
+out from 2,500 to 3,000 bricks in the course of the day. After the
+second year, when the convicts had become accustomed to the work, and to
+adapt themselves to each other, we were able to supply all that were
+needed for the public works, and even to export them for works at
+Malacca. In tabulating the account of the value of their labour and the
+outlay for fuel, and comparing it with the recognised value of the
+bricks, there was found to be a credit to the State in most years. (See
+<a href="#Page_174">Appendix No. 4</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>When, in 1867, there was an Agricultural Exhibition at Agra, in the N.W.
+Provinces of India,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> we sent up specimens of bricks, tiles, drain pipes
+of all sizes, and stable flooring bricks, manufactured by these
+convicts, for which the Superintendent gained the silver medal; and if
+any further proof is needed of the excellent work turned out by these
+convicts, we may quote the report of the late Colonel Fraser, of the
+Bengal Engineers, which ran as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"As an Engineer Officer of the D.P.W., I have had a good deal of
+experience as regards the management of jails in India and Burmah,
+and have, of course, employed much convict labour, but I have never
+been in any jail where the arrangements are so perfect as in that
+of Singapore. While the discipline under which the convicts are
+held is obviously most efficient, the skill with which their labour
+is directed will be equally obvious to all who will take the
+trouble, as I have done, to go into the detail of their operations,
+and look at the results in the many large works which have been
+executed at Singapore.</p>
+
+<p>I went over the brick field with Captain McNair, and while I found
+that the greatest reasonable amount of work was got out of each
+man, I also found that the work turned out was the best I have seen
+in India. Where there are good bricks, other work is seen to be
+equally good, and when a proper amount of work is required per
+convict, then the discipline must be also good; I measured myself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+what the men were expected to do, and found it to be three cubic
+yards in eight hours. This is the full task of a European sapper in
+the same time."</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="plate_XX" id="plate_XX"></a>
+<img src="images/pl20.jpg" width="600" height="450" alt="A Stone Quarry" />
+<div class="cap">
+<p class="caption">CONVICTS STONE-QUARRYING, AT PULO OBIN, SINGAPORE.</p>
+<p class="plate"><i>Plate XX.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our lime and cement were made from coral, of which there were extensive
+reefs round the Island of Singapore, and some few "atolls" (a Cingalese
+word), or special coral islands. Coral is almost a pure carbonate of
+lime, and therefore very well suited for the purpose. It was broken up
+and heated in kilns constructed for the purpose. The cement was made
+from this lime, and from selected clay, in the proportions we had by
+careful experiments established, until we obtained a good and
+quick-setting article. It was made into small balls and then dried, and
+burnt in a special kiln, and afterwards well and finely ground and
+sifted by female convicts; its tensile strength was excellent.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Stone Quarrying</span> <small>(see <a href="#plate_XX">Plate XX</a>.)</small>.</h3>
+
+<p>The stone we used for all our building operations was procured from an
+island between Singapore East and the mainland of Johore, and was named
+Pulo Obin. It is about three miles long and three-quarters of a mile
+broad. The stone was the best possible form of crystallised granite,
+fine grained, very compact and durable, grey in colour, with here and
+there black patches or nodules of hornblende. It occurs in large fluted
+boulders, and was wrought by the convicts by fire, or by blasting with
+gun-powder,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> or split by pointed chisels and large hammers. Its weight
+was 168 lbs. per cubic foot. The excellent quality of this granite led
+the Government of India to approve of the construction by the late
+Colonel Eraser, C.B., of several courses for the Alguada Reef
+lighthouse, which was built upon a dangerous reef off the coast of
+Burmah. Our department looked after the preparation of some of these
+courses, and forwarded them by ship to Burmah.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Well Digging.</span></h3>
+
+<p>It is known to everyone how capable the Indians are in the sinking of
+wells, and that with many Orientals it is a work of great merit to build
+one. As two were required for Fort Canning, we were soon able to select
+men fitted for this special work amongst the third class convicts, who,
+many of them, begged to be allowed to take part in their construction.
+After a careful set of borings, we came upon water at a depth of 180 and
+120 feet respectively. They were eventually dug out to these depths, and
+steined to six feet in diameter by the use of sound and hard bricks from
+the convict kilns. The water rose to a height of 80 feet from the
+surface of the ground, and they were provided with lift and force pumps
+for the convenience of the troops in garrison. It was a heavy job for
+the convicts, but they performed it with eagerness and alacrity.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="center"><b>Footnotes:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Cathedral officers.">
+
+<tr><td class="tdl">Archdeacon and Chaplain, Ven. John Perham;</td><td class="bt br">&nbsp;</td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl">Choirmaster, Mr. C. B. Buckley;</td><td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="vertcen">&ndash;&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">1899.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl">Organist, Mr. E. Salzmann.</td><td class="bb br">&nbsp;</td><td></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Colonel Macpherson had seen as a young man the ruins of
+the old church and abbey of Netley, or "Letley," as it was originally
+called, from the Latin word "l&aelig;tus," pleasant, and the Saxon word "ley,"
+a field, and had been so impressed with the simple character and
+proportions of the Early English style of church architecture, of which
+this was an excellent example, that when called upon to plan a new
+church for Singapore, he, as we say, chose this as his model.
+</p><p>
+We have a very good account of Netley Abbey given in 1848 by George
+Guillaume, architect, and from his description it was founded in 1239,
+and was occupied by monks of the Cistercian order, who were brought over
+from a neighbouring monastery at Beaulieu in the New Forest, where there
+was already an abbey dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Netley Church was
+built on a cruciform plan, and was proportioned according to the ancient
+mysterious figure called the "Visica Pisces," as will be seen in the
+sketch below from his work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fn11.jpg" width="300" height="177" alt="A Visica Pisces" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Singapore Church, now, as we have said, the cathedral of the diocese,
+has been much admired for its true symmetry and exact proportion, as
+well as for the delicate simplicity of its details.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>Also a work which we initiated and brought to completion
+on designs approved by the late Sir Robert Rawlinson, K.C.B.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>All taught by ourselves to the convicts, with the
+assistance of Overseer Callcott, now risen to be Deputy Colonial
+Engineer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>Major McNair, who himself supplied both apparatus and
+chemicals.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Chapter X<br />
+<br />
+<small>STORIES ABOUT INDIAN CONVICTS AND EUROPEAN LOCAL PRISONERS</small></h2>
+
+
+<h3>No. 1</h3>
+
+<p>Most of the convicts sentenced to the Straits Settlements for short
+periods of transportation were, as we have said, usually retained in the
+convict jail at Malacca. Amongst these, in the sixties, was a very
+remarkable man, and known to both of us, of the name of "Tickery Banda,"
+who was a native of Ceylon, and had received a sentence of seven years
+in transportation for a crime committed in that island, though of which
+he declared, like many of his congeners, he was perfectly innocent.</p>
+
+<p>A story in connection with this man is given in Cameron's <i>Tropical
+Possessions in Malayan India</i>, which is quite worthy of repetition here.</p>
+
+<p>When the English took possession of Kandy, Tickery Banda and two or
+three brothers, children of the first minister of the King of the
+Kandians, were taken and educated in English by the then Governor of the
+island. Tickery afterwards became manager of some coffee plantations,
+and was so employed on the arrival of a Siamese mission of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> priests in
+1845, who came to see Buddha's tooth. It seems that he met the mission
+returning disconsolate, having spent some 5,000 rupees in presents and
+bribes in a vain endeavour to obtain a sight of the relic. Tickery
+learned their whole story, and at once ordered them to unload their
+carts and wait for three days longer, and that he would in due time
+obtain for them the desired view of the holy tooth. He had a cheque on a
+bank for &pound;200 in his hands at the time, and this he offered to leave
+with the priests as a guarantee that he would fulfil his promise. He did
+not say whether the cheque was his own or his master's, or whether it
+was handed over or not; perhaps it was this cheque for the
+misappropriation of which he found his way to the convict lines of
+Malacca. The Siamese priests accepted his undertaking and unloaded their
+baggage, agreeing to wait for the three days. Tickery immediately placed
+himself in communication with the then Governor, and represented, as he
+says, forcibly, the impositions that must have been practised upon the
+King of Siam's holy mission, when they had expended all their gifts and
+had not yet obtained the desired view of the tooth. The Governor, who,
+Tickery says, was a great friend of his, appreciated the hardships of
+the priests, and agreed that the relic should be shown to them with as
+little delay as possible. It happened, however, that the keys of the
+temple where the relic was preserved were in the keeping of the then
+Resident<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> Councillor, who was away some eight miles elephant shooting.
+But this difficulty was not long allowed to remain in the way, for
+Tickery immediately suggested that it was very improbable that the
+Resident Councillor would have included these keys in his hunting kit,
+and insisted that they must be in the Councillor's house. He therefore
+asked the Governor's leave to call upon Mrs. &mdash;&mdash;, the Resident
+Councillor's wife, and, presenting the Governor's compliments, to
+request that a search be made for the keys. Tickery was deputed
+accordingly, and by dint of his characteristic tact and force of
+language, carried the keys triumphantly to the Governor.</p>
+
+<p>The Kandy priests were immediately notified that their presence was
+desired, as it was intended to exhibit the great relic, and that their
+guardian officer would be necessary. Accordingly, on the third day, the
+temple was opened, and in the building the Siamese priests and
+worshippers were assembled, with Tickery on the one side, and the Kandy
+or guardian priests on the other side, with the Governor and the
+Recorder in the centre.</p>
+
+<p>After making all due offerings to the tooth of the great Buddha, the
+Siamese head priest, who had brought a golden jar filled with otto of
+roses, desired to have a small piece of cotton with some of the otto
+rubbed on the tooth, and then passed into the golden jar, thereby to
+consecrate the whole of the contents. To this process the Kandy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> priests
+objected, as being a liberty too great to be extended to foreigners. The
+Siamese priests, however, persisted in their request; and the Governor
+and Recorder, not knowing the cause of the altercation, asked Tickery to
+explain. Tickery, who had fairly espoused the cause of the Siamese,
+though knowing that in their request they had exceeded all precedent,
+resolved quietly to gratify their wish; so, in answer to the Governor's
+interrogatory, he took from the hands of the Siamese head priest a small
+piece of cotton and the golden jar of the volatile oil. "This is what
+they want, your Honour: they want to take this small piece of cotton,
+so&mdash;; and having dipped it in this oil, so&mdash;, they wish to rub it on the
+sacred tooth, so&mdash;; and having done this, to return it to the golden
+jar, so; thereby, your Honour, to consecrate the whole of the contents
+of the golden jar."</p>
+
+<p>All the words of Tickery were accompanied by the corresponding action,
+and of course the desired ceremony had been performed in affording
+explanation. The whole thing was the work of a moment, and the Governor
+and Recorder did not know how to interfere in time, though they knew
+also that such a proceeding was against all precedent. The Kandy priests
+were quite taken aback, while the Siamese priests, having obtained their
+desired object, took from Tickery Banda's hands the now consecrated
+golden jar with every demonstration of fervent gratitude. The Kandy
+priests<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> were, however, loud in their indignation, and subsequently the
+Governor, patting Tickery on the back, said, "You have indeed settled
+the question, and it is a pity you were not born in the precincts of St.
+James', for you would have made a splendid political agent."</p>
+
+<p>The next morning Tickery received a douceur of 1,000 rupees from the
+Siamese priests, and has ever since been held in the highest esteem and
+respect by the King of Siam and his Buddhist priests, being considered
+quite a holy man, while periodically the King of Siam sends him
+substantial tokens of the Royal favour.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*</p>
+
+<h3>No. 2</h3>
+
+<p>It was remarkable what a wide difference there was between the accounts
+given by the convicts themselves, of the circumstances which were the
+cause of their transportation, and the summary of them given in the
+warrants sent with them. Although many of them did not deny having
+committed what the law looked upon as a crime, they, under the
+circumstances, either considered that the act was justifiable, or
+perhaps that it was the result of accident. Here is the case of a
+convict who was sentenced to transportation for life for murder, given
+as related by himself.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">"In my Madras native village, I 'Rudrapah' was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> a planter (ryot). I was
+possessed of several large paddy fields; some were near my house and
+others were far off. At a little distance from my house a friend of mine
+lived, 'Allagappen' by name. He also was a ryot, and possessed of paddy
+fields. He often came to eat rice with me, and I often went to his
+house; we were like brothers. At a village about six miles away, there
+lived a man who was a breeder of cattle. He and his wife were very
+partial to me, and it was arranged between us that I should marry their
+daughter when she was old enough&mdash;she was then eleven years of age. All
+went well for two years, and then I was married to the girl and took her
+to my house. My friend, 'Allagappen,' used to come and visit us and eat
+rice as before. Things went on very well for five or six years: my wife
+and I were very happy together, and never quarrelled; we had only one
+child. Having saved some money, I bought a bandy (a country vehicle) and
+a pair of bulls, and used to hire them to any one travelling. Sometimes
+my bandy would be engaged for a long journey, and I would be away from
+my house for two or three days together, leaving my wife and child
+alone. But now my trouble began. About six months after I bought my
+bulls, one of them got sick and died. I had not then enough money to buy
+another, and was on the point of selling the bandy and remaining bull,
+when my wife proposed that we should ask her father to help us, as he
+had plenty of bulls. I had not thought of this,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> and I said, 'Very
+good.' We went and saw my father-in-law, and he agreed to let me have a
+bull and pay for it as I earned money. Soon after that I hired my bandy
+to a man to go to a town thirty miles away, expecting to be away some
+days. I left my wife and child under the charge of a neighbour and his
+wife, who promised to look after them. I and the man who hired my bandy
+set out early in the morning, and reached the town about mid-day next
+day. In the evening the man told me he was going to stay many days in
+the town, and I could return to my house. He paid me, and I bought some
+things I wanted. Early next morning, at daybreak, I set out on my
+journey back to my village, and arrived there about 3 o'clock the next
+morning; and after seeing to my bulls I went to my house and to my
+surprise found the door unfastened. I entered without making any noise,
+not knowing what could be the reason the door was not fastened. I went
+quickly into my sleeping place, and there I saw my wife laying asleep,
+and beside her was a man also asleep. On going close up to him that I
+might see who it was, to my great sorrow I found that it was my friend,
+'Allagappen.' It was my great misfortune that I had in my hands a
+granite stone, or sort of muller, for grinding massalah (curry stuff)
+which I had bought, and being so angered with my friend, and so overcome
+with grief at finding my wife to be false, it made me tremble so much
+that I let the stone fall from my hands, and quite unintentionally <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>it
+dropped on 'Allagappen's' head, and the stone being heavy it broke his
+skull and killed him on the spot. My wife woke up, and seeing me, she
+screamed and ran away from the house. She went to the neighbours' house
+in whose charge I had left her. I followed her, and told them what I had
+done: that morning I was taken by the police and locked up, and after
+that I saw my house no more. I was tried by an English judge, and was
+sentenced to be sent away from my country for as long as I lived: such
+was my misfortune."</p>
+
+<p class="p2">Here the tears came into the old criminal's eyes, and it was very
+evident that there was still a soft place in his heart, showing a sign
+of reclamation in spite of his convict life. This convict was pardoned
+after serving twenty-five years.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*</p>
+
+<h3>No. 3</h3>
+
+<p>As late as the year 1863 piracy had not been wholly suppressed in the
+Straits of Malacca, and cases were by no means rare of native trading
+craft being attacked by them. During this year a number of piratical
+boats infested the mouths of the rivers Prye, Juroo, and Junjong on the
+Malay Peninsula, and the South Channel between Penang Island and the
+mainland of Province Wellesley; and many a tongkong belonging to Chinese
+traders between Penang and Laroot was attacked by them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> and plundered,
+and sometimes the crews were murdered.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these pirates were in the habit of going about in Penang and
+quietly ascertaining what tongkongs were about to sail, and all
+particulars in regard to their cargo, crew, and so forth. Two of them
+having discovered that a tongkong owned and manned by Chinese was about
+to leave Penang for Laroot with some valuable cargo and $2,000 of specie
+on board, disguised themselves as "hadjis," or Mohammedan pilgrims, and
+engaged a passage in her. They arranged with some of their confederates
+to have a prahu, or fast sailing boat, at a certain place off the Juroo
+River, and when the tongkong in which they were passengers reached this
+spot a signal was to be given, and the prahu was to run alongside the
+tongkong; and after plundering her and gagging the crew, the pirates
+intended sinking the tongkong and making off in the prahu. They carried
+their villainous scheme into execution, but meeting with stouter
+resistance from the crew of the tongkong than they had anticipated, they
+killed, as they thought, every man on board, and were preparing to
+scuttle the tong-kong, when a boat containing Indian convicts, and
+employed in carrying coral for the Government lime kilns, and which,
+unperceived by the pirates, had been rapidly approaching, came alongside
+the tongkong, having been attracted by the yells and cries of the
+victims. The pirates, recognizing that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> they were convicts, immediately
+got into their prahu, and made sail as fast as they could; and she,
+being a very fast sailer, was soon out of sight. The convict tindal in
+charge of the boat, with one or two convict boatmen, went on board the
+tongkong and found all the crew and passengers dead; but fancying they
+heard groans they searched round the tongkong, and at last found one of
+the Chinese boatmen clinging to the rudder. They lifted him on board,
+and found that he was severely cut about, and covered with wounds. The
+convict tindal in charge of the Government boat then shaped his course,
+with the tongkong in tow, for Butterworth, in Province Wellesley, which
+they reached early in the morning. The wounded Chinaman was taken to the
+hospital, a report was made to the police of the pirates' attack, and
+the tongkong was handed over to their charge. From the description of
+the prahu given by the convict tindal, and the information gathered from
+the Chinaman when he was able to talk, the police were enabled to trace
+the prahu to Sunghie Rambay, where the pirates were arrested. The case
+was tried at the Supreme Court, Penang; some of the pirates were hanged,
+and the rest sentenced to penal servitude. The tindal of the Government
+boat and the convict boatmen were highly commended by the judge for
+their conduct, and were otherwise rewarded by the authorities.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="tb">&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*</p>
+
+<h3>No. 4</h3>
+
+<p>We have referred elsewhere to the numerous races of India which went to
+form the convict body in the old Singapore jail. We found this admixture
+of castes and tribes a very valuable corrective against a possible
+chance of insurrection, and for the discovery of plots of escape; and,
+indeed, sometimes as a means of finding out any serious mischief that
+might be brewing in the jail.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to delight many a native of India to be a spy upon another; and
+though intrigues were never encouraged, nor as a rule listened to, yet
+now and again an informer would appear when the matter was of sufficient
+importance to be reported to the authorities.</p>
+
+<p>As an instance of this it may be recorded that on one occasion there was
+a dispute between two Sikhs, one of the "Ramdasee" and the other of the
+"Mazahbee" sect; and as they went from high words to blows they were
+placed in confinement and brought before the Superintendent<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> in the
+Inquiry room. After full investigation into the matter, the "Mazahbee"
+Sikh was proved to have been the instigator of the quarrel, and he was
+punished. The whole of his sect appear to have resented this judgment,
+and determined amongst themselves to be avenged, and to inflict some
+pain or injury upon the Superintendent. They began to plot and to scheme
+as to the best way to carry out their design; and this plotting was not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+lost on the observation of a clever Parsee convict, who, having traded
+in Northern India, knew their language. He watched them closely, and had
+decided when their plans were matured to inform the authorities.</p>
+
+<p>The scheme was only ripe for execution, however, on the very morning of
+the muster, so that there was no time for the Parsee convict to acquaint
+the chief warder; and as a last resource, therefore, he made up his mind
+to inform the Superintendent at the muster as to what was in store for
+him. Creeping stealthily along the rear of the standing men, he timed
+the arrival of the Superintendent going down the front on his
+inspection; and, stooping down, he thrust his head between the legs of
+the front rank men, and level with the ground, calling out only loud
+enough for the Superintendent to hear, "Khabardar sahib Sikh kepas
+tamancha hai"&mdash;"Look out, sir; a Sikh has a pistol." The Superintendent
+took no notice of the warning until he had passed to about the middle of
+that line, then he ordered the chief warder to take a dozen of the Sikhs
+who were standing at the end of the line, and move them off into their
+ward that he might inspect their boxes, and he added, "Search them
+thoroughly."</p>
+
+<p>As the Superintendent passed the end of the line, and was about to
+inspect another line at right angles to it, no shot had been fired; so
+he concluded that it was either a false alarm, or that the miscreant was
+amongst the dozen men in the ward. And so it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> proved; for shortly
+afterwards, the chief warder came to report that he had found a loaded
+pistol on the person of one of the Sikh convicts, and had placed him in
+a cell to await investigation.</p>
+
+<p>After the muster an inquiry accordingly took place, and it turned out
+that a fellow-tribesman had managed to pass the main gate with a pistol
+secreted about his person, and had handed it to the man to whom the lot
+had fallen to do the deed.</p>
+
+<p>The would-be assassin was sentenced to heavy irons, and placed in the
+refractory ward. The gang was eventually broken up, the ringleaders
+being transferred to Penang, and the remainder kept in Singapore under
+close observation. The Parsee convict, who checkmated the conspirators,
+was advanced from the third to the second class, and otherwise rewarded.</p>
+
+<p>The design on the life of the late Colonel Macpherson, the immediate
+predecessor of the above, was also similarly frustrated by another
+Parsee, who, on the evening before muster, observed a man burying a
+knife in the sandy ground near which he had to stand for inspection.
+Waiting his opportunity, he proceeded to the spot and withdrew the blade
+from the knife, and replaced the handle just above the ground as he had
+found it. When Colonel Macpherson passed the man on the morrow he
+quickly seized the handle from the ground to make his stab, but only to
+find that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> he was unexpectedly baulked in his villainous attempt to kill
+his Superintendent.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*</p>
+
+<h3>No. 5<br />
+<br />
+"FUNNY JOE"</h3>
+
+<p>His surname need not be mentioned, but he went by the name of "Funny
+Joe." He was the son of a clergyman of the Church of England, sharp
+witted, and well educated; but his moral character, from some cause or
+another, became quite disorganised, and to the grief of his parents he
+left his home and took to the sea. His education there stood him in good
+stead, and under new surroundings he improved for the time, and
+eventually rose to be chief mate of a ship. Had he persevered in this
+good course, he would in all probability have succeeded well in the
+mercantile service; but events proved otherwise, and on his second
+voyage as mate he was, he said, wrongfully charged as being both
+insolent and insubordinate to his commander, and on the arrival of the
+vessel at the Cape of Good Hope he was discharged. Left with but small
+means, and, to him, almost on foreign soil, he bethought himself of some
+expedient for making money; so, getting hold of a sailor loafing at the
+port, he talked matters over with him, and they decided upon clubbing
+their resources, hiring a hall, and circulating posters that on a
+certain night at "so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> much," and "so much" for entrance, a man might be
+seen "walking on the ceiling like a fly." On the night advertised the
+hall was crowded. "Funny Joe" then went to his companion, who was
+collecting the money, and took from him the amount he had received, and
+told him he might have all the rest that he could collect. He (Funny
+Joe) then decamped, and was never heard of more in Cape Town. He was
+next at Rangoon, where he got into the same plight for want of funds;
+but his mother wit came to his aid again, and this time he posed before
+the public as a naturalist who had discovered off the coast what he
+pronounced could be nothing else than a "mermaid," and for the
+exhibition of this marine creature, which he had cleverly constructed
+from the head and breast of an ape and half the body of a fish, he
+obtained a good round sum. We hear of him next at Singapore, where he
+also advertised his "mermaid" as being on exhibition at a certain
+boarding establishment. There, however, the "mermaid" did not succeed,
+and his funds being exhausted he possessed himself of a watch and some
+cash, the property of the people of the house with whom he lodged, and
+for which he was sent to jail. Here he came under some strict discipline
+and good wholesome advice, and it was in the Singapore jail that he told
+the story of his life as given above.</p>
+
+<p>When the term of his sentence had expired, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> he was about to be
+discharged, he warmly thanked the Superintendent for his counsel, and
+declared very positively that he intended to turn over a new leaf.</p>
+
+<p>We believe that he did so; at all events, the last heard of him was that
+he had signed articles as mate of a ship; and he scrupulously returned
+to the Superintendent (Major McNair) the money he had advanced to him
+from his private purse to make a new start in life.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*</p>
+
+<h3>No. 6<br />
+<br />
+CONVICTS WITH A COBRA AND A CROCODILE</h3>
+
+<p>It is well known that the Cobra di Capello is one of the most deadly of
+the snakes of India and the East. The palish yellow cobra of India is
+perhaps more dangerous and surely fatal in its bite than the black
+"cobra" or "kala samp," which is more frequently found in the Straits
+Settlements, but neither of them is very pleasant to be in close
+proximity to.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Cobra.</i>&mdash;As we have noticed elsewhere, some of the convicts were
+very expert in catching these reptiles and extracting their fangs. The
+following personal incident is given by a public works officer:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"When the new cantonments were in progress at Tanglin I was placed
+in charge of the works by Col. G. C. Collyer, R.E., the then Chief<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+Engineer of the Straits Settlements, and was permitted to occupy a
+part of a large house on the estate. The bath rooms were on the
+ground floor, and stairs from the bedrooms above led down to them.
+One morning, just as I was sitting down to breakfast, my convict
+orderly came running to me and said that a large 'cobra' had
+crawled up the drain leading from the main drain at the back of the
+house to the bath room. We went immediately to the bath room, and,
+finding that the snake had not made his appearance inside, I
+stopped up the opening into the drain with a towel, and the convict
+orderly, who had gone round to the outer end of the drain, began
+pushing a long bamboo up it. This drove the snake to the upper end.
+The convict, then, with a pickaxe, loosened a brick from the
+covering of the drain close to the wall of the house, while I
+stirred up the bamboo rod. The convict then gently and by degrees
+removed the brick, and in an instant the snake emerged fully from
+the drain, raising its hood and hissing at us. It then retreated
+back to the drain, when the convict dexterously seized it by the
+tail, and, drawing it out, held it tight by the neck. The convict
+then teased the snake with his coarse flannel 'kumblie,' or
+blanket, and it struck at it several times with its fangs; when,
+with a sudden jerk, the convict drew out the fangs in the blanket,
+and the snake became perfectly harmless.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p><p>"The snake was afterwards sent on board H.M. surveying schooner
+<i>Saracen</i>, and getting loose on board was summarily destroyed, for
+none on board had been told that its fangs had been removed."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Crocodile.</i>&mdash;Govindhoo, a convict employed at the Pulo Obin
+stone quarries, was admitted into hospital with a lacerated leg,
+the foot being almost severed from the body. He was visited by one
+of us, and told his story as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I was walking along the sea beach close to the water, when I was
+suddenly seized from behind, and I at once saw that I was in the
+jaws of a crocodile. I had nothing in my hand but my 'room&#257;l,' or
+handkerchief, with my keys tied in one corner. I hit at his head
+with this, but it was of no use, and finding myself being dragged
+into deeper water, I suddenly thought I could dig out both his
+eyes,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> and I did it, and very shortly afterwards he let me go,
+and I half swam, half paddled back to the shore."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The convict's leg had to be amputated.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Malays say that there are three descriptions of crocodiles, or,
+as they call them, "buaya." The first is the "katak" or frog
+crocodile, the second the "labu" or gourd crocodile, and the third
+is the "tumbaga" or copper crocodile. The frog crocodile is the
+most active, and we have often been told by Malay boatmen, when
+going up a river, to keep our hands and shoulders well within the
+boat, for fear of their sudden attack. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>There are, however, known
+to our naturalists a dozen or more different forms of the crocodile
+proper, and it is said that they have been found up to thirty feet
+in length; but from eighteen feet to twenty feet is the longest
+found in the Straits of Malacca. They may often be seen in the
+Malay rivers, and on the coast, floating in the water, with the
+snout well above the surface, on the look out for prey.</p></div>
+
+<p class="tb">&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*</p>
+
+<h3>No. 7</h3>
+
+<p>The Chinese have one superstition amongst many in regard to tigers. They
+believe that when a person is killed by a tiger his "hantu," or ghost,
+becomes the slave of the beast and attends upon it; that the spirit acts
+the part of a jackal, as it were, and leads the tiger to his prey; and
+so thoroughly subservient does the ghost become to his tigerish master,
+that he not infrequently brings the tiger to the presence of his wife
+and family, and calmly sees them devoured before his ghostly face.</p>
+
+<p>A very ingenious tiger trap was invented by Mr. Frank Shaw, of Caledonia
+sugar estate, in Province Wellesley, which is worth describing. It was
+constructed at the foot of a small hill, about a mile away from the
+estate, where there was a considerable area of secondary jungle and
+gigantic bracken fern, a favourite resort of tigers. A trench, about
+four or five feet wide, was opened in the sloping ground for a distance
+of ten or twelve feet; stout stakes were driven in the trench close to
+the sides,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> projecting some three or four feet above the ground, for
+about two-thirds the length of the trench; the remaining one-third at
+the upper end was converted into a strong cage, or pen. This pen
+communicated with the other part of the trench by an opening in which a
+gate in two flaps was fitted; a heavy cover, weighing ten or twelve cwt,
+of round logs was made to fit the open part of the trench, and so
+arranged in an inclined position, and connected by triggers with the two
+flaps, that any attempt to open the latter released the upper end of the
+heavy cover and allowed it to fall down in the trench. A couple of goats
+were tied at the far end of the pen as a bait, and were kept there
+constantly, food being taken to them by a convict coolie. After the trap
+had been set for some time, the coolie who fed the goats came running to
+the house one day with the news that a tiger was caught in the trap. Of
+course every one set out immediately to secure the animal. The tiger had
+evidently tried to push in between the two flaps to get at the goats:
+this released the triggers, and the jerk and movement of the cover had
+evidently alarmed the animal, who tried to back out; but the weight and
+force of the falling cover on its back had pressed the beast down flat
+on the ground and rendered him powerless. The difficulty now was to
+dispatch the tiger. Only its hind quarters could be seen; and a revolver
+shot was fired into the body. After a while the cover was raised a
+little,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> and a bullet in the brain finished the work. The cover was then
+entirely removed, and the carcase taken out of the trap; the fore and
+hind feet were tied together, and it was slung on a pole in the usual
+way, eight Kling convict coolies lifted the load and started for the
+sugar mills. They, however, soon got tired. Half a dozen more convicts,
+who were at work on the road, were then called in to assist, and at last
+they reached their journey's end.</p>
+
+<p>On arrival at the sugar mills it was skinned, the skin becoming the
+property of the manager, and the natives disposed of the flesh. The
+animal proved to be a tigress, and evidently had young cubs, as she had
+a quantity of milk. This the Chinese coolies were very eager to secure,
+as it is by them considered to be a valuable medicine. We never heard
+whether any more tigers were caught in this trap.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary method, however, adopted for catching tigers is by means of
+pits, which are dug from twelve to fifteen feet in depth, and somewhat
+pyramidal in form. Sometimes pointed stakes are fixed in the bottom of
+the pit. The mouth is covered over with light brushwood, and when
+convenient, a tree is felled and laid a few feet from it across the
+tiger's track, so that the animal in leaping off the tree adds impetus
+to his own weight in falling into the trap.</p>
+
+<p>The trouble of digging these pits is not so slight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> as might be
+supposed, as the construction of a pit in the proper manner fully
+occupies a couple of convicts a fortnight, besides the risk of being
+interrupted in their labour by the tiger happening to encounter them,
+and, naturally enough, on finding the work they were engaged upon,
+testifying his displeasure at the treachery they were meditating against
+him by making a meal of them.</p>
+
+<p>An Indian sportsman wrote to the <i>Singapore Free Press</i>, at the time
+when so many Chinese were being destroyed at Singapore, saying:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I have been accustomed to tiger hunting in India, but the same
+mode could not be adopted here, the jungle being of a different
+character. Indeed, the only plan which is likely to be attended
+with success is by setting traps; and it is to be regretted that
+the local Government did not long since take some pains to prove
+this to the cultivators. Had this been done, many lives might have
+been spared." The Chinese were evidently delighted at the interest
+shown by the European gentlemen on the last occasion, and it is to
+be hoped that they will exert themselves to rid the island of
+tigers by this means.</p></div>
+
+<p>While the ravages of tigers were destructive of human life on land,
+crocodiles were almost equally as mischievous on the coast and in the
+rivers, and many Chinese and other natives fell a prey to their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+voracity. Sometimes bathers were attacked; at other times fishermen,
+shrimp catchers, and oyster divers were carried off or attacked by them.
+Some crocodiles, like some tigers, have a peculiar partiality to human
+flesh, and often display remarkable ingenuity in gratifying their
+appetites. Regular man-eater crocodiles existed in some of the rivers in
+the Straits Settlements, notably in the rivers in Province Wellesley;
+but many were found also in the rivers in Singapore and Malacca, as well
+as on the sea coast. Some of these man-eaters were very bold, and would
+attack natives in their canoes, sometimes getting under the canoe and
+upsetting it in order to devour the occupants. Cases have been known of
+persons being snatched out of boats. A case of this kind happened in the
+Prye River, in Province Wellesley. The supervisor in charge of the
+public works was proceeding in a ferry boat with some convicts to repair
+the boundary pillar, situated some distance up the river, when suddenly
+a splash was heard, and his convict orderly, who was squatting in the
+bow of the sampan, or boat, uttering a cry, stood up, at the same time
+pointing to the stern of the boat. Upon looking round, a Chinaman, who
+had been seated in the stern of the boat, was found to be missing. A
+crocodile had, as it were, shot up out of the water, and, seizing the
+Chinaman by the waist, had drawn him down into the river, and nothing
+more was seen of them at the time. Shortly afterwards, a canoe with a
+Malay<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> man and his wife in it was upset near the same spot by a
+crocodile, and both of them disappeared. A little later a Kling, who had
+been in the habit of diving for mud oysters near Qualla Prye Ferry for
+many years, and had repeatedly been cautioned about his danger in doing
+so, was missed, and it was ascertained that he had been seen diving for
+oysters as usual, and had suddenly disappeared, and had not been seen to
+come up again.</p>
+
+<p>This sort of thing went on for some time, and the crocodiles could not
+be caught. At last the convicts stationed at Prye town convict lines
+succeeded in capturing a large crocodile, and this is how they managed
+it. They prepared a bait by tying a strong hook underneath the body of a
+pariah dog. One end of a piece of light iron chain<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> was fastened to
+this hook; the other end was fastened to a log of very light wood as a
+buoy. They then went in a boat to that part of the river where the
+greater number of casualties had occurred. Here they drifted about, at
+the same time pinching the dog's ears and otherwise tormenting him to
+make him yelp. After watching the surface of the water for some time,
+they descried the V mark on the water indicating the approach of a
+crocodile; then, throwing the dog and buoy overboard, they pulled away
+for some distance to watch the result.. They saw the crocodile rapidly
+approaching the dog, who was swimming for his life. Suddenly there was a
+howl, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>the dog disappeared. Then they watched the buoy, which would
+sometimes disappear under the water and then rise again to the surface;
+and in this manner they traced the crocodile, and followed him into a
+small creek, where he crawled on shore; and there they dispatched him
+with musket balls. This crocodile measured fourteen feet from the tip of
+his nose to the end of his tail, and was said to be the largest specimen
+captured at that time, but they have been known to reach from eighteen
+to twenty feet in length. Upon opening him a human leg and a pair of
+Chinaman's trousers were discovered, and it was concluded that this was
+one of the man-eaters.</p>
+
+<p>As an illustration of the effect of shock upon the human system at the
+sight of wild beasts, we may mention a case of a Malay fisherman who was
+shrimping on the bar at the mouth of the Krian River (Province
+Wellesley), when a crocodile approached him from behind and seized him
+by the thigh. The Malay drew his parang and hacked away at the
+creature's nose until he let go. Some convicts stationed at Nebong Tubal
+and a Malay police peon saw what was happening and put off in a boat to
+his assistance. They rescued the poor fellow, and the police conveyed
+him at once by boat to the hospital at Butterworth, where his wounds,
+which were not very serious, were attended to; but the shock to the
+nervous system was so great that the man lost his reason, and would
+constantly leave his cot and walk down the hospital ward, moving his
+hands up and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>down, as if in the act of shrimping. He died shortly
+after. A similar case of shock, and a well-known story in the Straits
+Settlements, occurred in Province Wellesley, but this was from a tiger.
+A Roman Catholic priest was returning to his house after breakfasting
+with a planter at Alma, and when passing through some tall "lalang"
+grass a tiger suddenly sprang out into the path a few yards in front of
+him. The priest, with great presence of mind, suddenly opened his
+Chinese umbrella in the face of the tiger; the animal gave a leap round
+to one side, and the priest repeated the umbrella movement. The tiger
+then gave another leap round to the other side, and the umbrella action
+was again performed. This was renewed till the tiger, who evidently was
+not hungry, and had taken alarm, made a disappointed growl and bounded
+away into the high lalang grass, and the priest hastened on his way
+home. On reaching his house he took a cold bath, to brace up his nerves
+as he said; but the next day he was confined to his bed, and died a
+fortnight after the event, due entirely, it was said, to the shock that
+he had sustained.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*&nbsp;*</p>
+
+<h3>No. 8</h3>
+
+<p>As we have already intimated, the house of correction at Singapore was
+under the management and control of the Convict Department; and there
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>were frequently from thirty to forty Europeans confined in this prison,
+chiefly seamen on short sentences for neglect of duty on board ship.</p>
+
+<p>When Sir Robert McClure was commanding a vessel of war<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> in Chinese
+waters about 1859, his ship was on the Singapore station for some little
+time; and upon his arrival he sent in to the house of correction a very
+incorrigible man-of-war's man named John &mdash;&mdash; (we will not give his
+surname, for he may be yet alive). This man had been several times
+punished while the ship was in China, and had been twice sentenced to be
+flogged. We heard all about him from the officer of the ship who had
+brought him ashore.</p>
+
+<p>His sentence was three weeks' imprisonment: the first week in solitary
+confinement on bread and water, and congee or rice gruel diet. Upon his
+receipt into the prison, after the usual routine, he was placed in one
+of the penal cells, and bread and water set before him. Before the cell
+door was closed, he looked hard at the chief warder, saying, "Take away
+that filth; I won't eat it." The chief warder reported to the
+Superintendent that the man in the cells was a dangerous-looking
+character, and he was afraid we should have trouble with him, for he had
+never seen a man with such a hang-dog look. The morning of the second
+day he had touched neither bread nor water, though fresh had been given
+him, and in a churlish manner he said to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>the chief warder, who had
+remonstrated with him, "I'll eat the tail of my shirt first, before I
+eat what you bring me." The doctor visited him, and made his report to
+the Superintendent that he was a strong man, and in excellent health,
+and that he might be safely left until hunger obliged him to eat, but
+that he would see him twice a day.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the afternoon of the second day the Superintendent himself, upon
+his inspecting the prisoners in the penal cells, entered this prisoner's
+cell, and the following dialogue ensued: "What is your name?" "What is
+that to you?" "But I am the Superintendent of this jail, and I ask you a
+simple question, and I want a simple answer." Then looking at the
+Superintendent with a disrespectful air the prisoner said, "Look at my
+warrant if you want to know it." "But I want to hear it from yourself."
+"Well, if it is any satisfaction to you, my name is John &mdash;&mdash;" The
+Superintendent then said, "Now I want to know what part of England you
+come from." "Well, what do you want to know that for? but I say again,
+if it is any satisfaction to you, I come from Saltash." "So you are a
+Cornishman, are you?" replied the Superintendent. "I know Saltash very
+well. It is a fine old place. And I know the Viaduct, and the cottages
+over against it. I wonder if you were born there in one of those
+cottages? Perhaps you were, and have a mother now living there; and if
+you have, and she <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>knew that her son was now in an Indian jail, you
+would break that old woman's heart, that you would." This ended the
+conversation, and the cell door was shut.</p>
+
+<p>Late in the evening the chief warder sent a special messenger to the
+Superintendent's quarters, asking him to visit the prison before
+nightfall, for the prisoner in the cells from the man-of-war in the
+harbour had something to communicate. So before it was yet very dark the
+Superintendent went down, and the cell door being opened, and the
+bull's-eye lantern turned upon the man, the Superintendent at once
+noticed a change in the countenance of his prisoner, for the reckless,
+devil-may-care expression had shifted, and as if by some good influence
+within. "Well, you sent for me, and I have come; what do you want?" said
+the Superintendent. Then in a faltering voice, and with tears in his
+eyes, the prisoner said, "I only want to say, sir, before I go to sleep,
+that you are the first man that has ever overcome me, for you spoke to
+me of my 'mother'; and now, sir, you can do anything you like with me,
+and I'll carry out my sentence properly, and go back aboard my ship and
+do my duty as a British sailor ought to do."</p>
+
+<p>And he did; and after his release went in the ship on to Bombay, from
+whence the Superintendent heard from Sir Robert McClure that John
+&mdash;&mdash; was as well behaved a man as he had on board, and that the treatment
+he had received in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>the Singapore jail had quite altered his nature, and
+he would like to know the prescription for it.</p>
+
+<p>Very often, when a long course of positive punishment has ceased to have
+its effect, a contrary treatment may lead to quite a change in the
+character, and if anything will touch the heart of a vicious Briton, it
+is to bring him to think upon the early counsels of a godly mother.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="center"><b>Footnotes:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Major McNair.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Literally gouged the animal.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Shreds of tough rope are better.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> H.M.S. Esk.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Chapter XI<br />
+<br />
+<small>ABOLITION OF THE CONVICT DEPARTMENT AND DISPOSAL OF THE CONVICTS</small></h2>
+
+
+<p>On the separation of the Straits Settlements from British India in 1867,
+it was arranged that the Indian life convicts at Singapore should be
+transferred to Port Blair in the Andaman Islands. In the course of
+correspondence which took place on the subject, His Excellency the
+Governor of the Straits Settlements proposed, in respect of those
+convicts who were to continue in the Straits, that a liberal use of the
+power of pardon should be made in the case of such convicts, the nature
+of whose crimes and whose subsequent character warranted it.</p>
+
+<p>The Government of India agreed to this proposal, with the proviso that
+pardon should be conditional on convicts not returning to India, or in
+the case of Burmese to Burmah, without the special sanction in each case
+of the Government of India; and that this sanction would not be given in
+any cases in which the crime was "Thuggee" or "Dacoity," or robbery by
+administering poisonous <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>drugs, or other form of organized crime, or in
+the case of mutiny or rebellion accompanied with murder.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, the Straits Government authorities submitted lists of
+convicts whom they recommended for pardon. After consulting the local
+governments concerned, the Government of India issued orders in each
+case, authorizing the release and return to India of some of the
+convicts, granting conditional pardon to others, and refusing release on
+any account to the remainder.</p>
+
+<p>This decision did not commend itself to the Straits Government, and His
+Excellency the Governor suggested the deputation of a special officer
+from India to inquire into the matter.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Brodhurst, of the Bengal Civil Service, was accordingly deputed.
+This officer extended his inquiries to the cases of other convicts
+brought specially to his notice by the Straits Government; and on
+receipt of his report, the Government of India granted unconditional
+releases in certain cases, while in others the convicts were pardoned
+conditionally on their not leaving the Straits.</p>
+
+<p>On this representation by the Straits Government, His Excellency the
+Governor-General in Council, having reconsidered the subject, decided
+that any Indian or Burmese, who had completed twenty-five years'
+imprisonment and bore a good character, should be released, with
+permission to return to India or Burmah, provided he, or she, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> the
+case might be, was not convicted of one of the offences enumerated
+below, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="indent">
+<p>1. Thuggee.</p>
+
+<p>2. Dacoity.</p>
+
+<p>3. Professional poisoning.</p>
+
+<p>4. Belonging to a gang of Dacoits.</p>
+
+<p>5. Belonging to a gang of Thugs.</p>
+
+<p>6. Mutiny or rebellion with murder.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of those who did not come under this category, some were pardoned
+unconditionally; others were released after they had completed
+twenty-five years' imprisonment, on condition that their conduct
+continued satisfactory. Of those who were pardoned unconditionally many
+returned to their own country; but when they arrived there they found
+things so uncongenial that they returned to the Straits and settled down
+as shopkeepers, cowkeepers, cartmen, etc., and most of them sought and
+obtained employment either with private individuals or in the Public
+Works Department. Several of the skilled artificers, who had been petty
+officers, were employed as sub-assistant overseers and gangers on public
+works, where their services proved to be of great utility, their prison
+training having rendered them much more to be relied upon than free men,
+and, as far as we have been able to ascertain, none of them have been
+reconvicted.</p>
+
+<p>Of the total number of convicts in the Straits at the time when the
+convict establishment was broken up in 1873&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p>
+
+<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Convicts in 1873.">
+
+<tr><td class="tdr">256</td><td>had been transported for</td><td class="tdlh">Thuggee.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdr">581</td><td><span class="spread">&nbsp;"&nbsp;"&nbsp;"&nbsp;"</span></td><td class="tdlh">Dacoity.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdr">21</td><td><span class="spread">&nbsp;"&nbsp;"&nbsp;"&nbsp;"</span></td><td class="tdlh">Professional poisoning.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdr verttop">269</td><td class="tdc verttop"><span class="spread">&nbsp;"&nbsp;"&nbsp;"&nbsp;"</span></td><td class="tdlh verttop">Robbery with murder, including
+highway robbery and gang robbery.
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="padding-top: 0em;" class="tdr"><span style="text-decoration: overline;">1,127</span></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The remainder were nearly all for murder, for being accomplices in
+murder, or for robbery with violence, and for felony.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Chapter XII<br />
+<br />
+<small>DISEASES AND MALINGERING</small></h2>
+
+
+<p>Perhaps a few observations on the principal diseases to which these
+Indian convicts were liable may be found useful; and we take for the
+purpose the statistics of the year 1863-64 as given in <a href="#Page_170">Appendix No. 2</a>,
+when nostalgia did not occur. In alluding to these diseases, we shall at
+the same time notice the locality of the Singapore jail, and the
+composition of the soil on which it was built. It is now universally
+recognised that the soil on which communities reside continuously does
+in a measure influence their health.</p>
+
+<p>So many works on hygiene have, however, been written, and so much has
+been said by medical experts on this subject, that we may almost say
+that it has been exhaustively treated. What we wish to show is simply
+that soil and locality do not influence all communities alike.</p>
+
+<p>The site of the Singapore jail in Brass Basa Road was originally a piece
+of low ground saturated with brackish water; and the convicts themselves
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>were, as we have elsewhere stated, employed in conveying red earth from
+the side of Government Hill to reclaim most of this marsh, in order to
+erect thereon the necessary buildings for their occupation. The site had
+to be raised from two to four feet, and the red earth was what might be
+called disintegrated laterite or clay ironstone. When the finished level
+was completed, it was about two feet above high water mark S.T. The
+surface of the enclosure had been so thoroughly trodden down, rolled,
+and graded to the drains and into the adjoining canal, that, with the
+periodical coatings of pure white sand from the Serangoon sand pits that
+had been laid over it, it had become almost impervious to water; and
+this we would notice particularly, for it had much to do with the
+sanitary condition of the jail and its inmates.</p>
+
+<p>The dormitories were further raised slightly over two feet above the
+general surface, and their floors were carefully laid, so as literally
+to be as dry as a bone.</p>
+
+<p>From <a href="#Page_170">Appendix No. 2</a> it will be seen that the principal disease from
+which these Indian convicts suffered was "fever," but not of a dangerous
+type; for, upon comparing the admissions to hospital with the deaths
+from this disease in all three settlements during the year referred to,
+we find that in Singapore and Penang they were <i>nil</i>, and but seven in
+Malacca. The next ailment which presented numerous cases were abscesses
+and ulcers, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> deaths from this cause amounted only to one in
+Singapore. Many of these ulcers were on the legs, and were caused by
+grit getting between the skin and the leather band worn under the fetter
+rings of convicts in the fourth and fifth classes. Stomach and bowel
+complaints rank next on the list, but we find that the deaths here only
+amounted to units. Rheumatic affections were numerous, caused perhaps in
+that damp climate from working on extra-mural duties and returning to
+jail in wet clothes with the wind blowing on them. A few cases of dropsy
+appear on the list, the largest number occurring in Penang, three only
+at Singapore. There were ordinary cases of &oelig;dema.</p>
+
+<p>The death-rate to strength per cent, from ordinary diseases for the year
+given was 2.20 for Singapore, 3.82 for Penang, and 3.17 for Malacca.
+Perhaps the special attention to sanitation in Singapore may account for
+the death-rate being lower here than at the sister settlements.</p>
+
+<p>After the convict jail had been broken up, and the convicts had all left
+it, the jail was handed over to the prison authorities to be converted
+into a criminal prison for the whole settlements. Not long after this
+change had taken place a very peculiar disease broke out amongst the
+inmates. It was known as Beri-beri, or, as some call it, the "Bad
+sickness of Ceylon." It is a very serious disease, and some think it
+arises from extreme exertion without sufficient sustenance to the body.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>In 1878 the ratio of mortality in the prison had risen to 16.20 per
+cent.; in 1879 it was further augmented to 20.63 per cent. The Local
+Government deemed it necessary without delay to appoint a Committee of
+Inquiry into the possible causes which had given rise to the spread of
+this disease. The conclusion at which they arrived was that it was due
+to the want of proper drainage of the site, so that the soil had got
+water-logged, and had generated malaria; also, that the prisoners needed
+a more nitrogenous diet. They advised the erection of an entirely new
+prison on a better and more elevated locality. These suggestions were
+all adopted, and the Committee in their judgment were greatly aided by
+Dr. Irvine Rowell, C.M.G., the Principal Civil Medical Officer, who
+formed one of the Committee.</p>
+
+<p>There was no time lost by the Government with the Colonial Engineer
+(Major McNair) in preparing plans and erecting on the west side of
+Pearl's Hill, near the old civil jail, a prison on the cellular system,
+and after the most approved English model; but the change of site did
+not effectually remove the disease, for as late as the year 1884 "there
+were 262 cases under treatment. In the first nine months of that year
+the deaths were comparatively small, but during the latter three months
+they increased, constituting nearly one half of the total deaths during
+that period." Dr. Kerr attributed this increase to exacerbation in the
+type, and epidemicity of the disease.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>It is not necessary, nor is it within our province, to attempt a
+description in detail of this disease; and happily it is mostly confined
+to Ceylon and the Malay Archipelago, though it occurs occasionally in
+China and Japan, where in the former country it is known as "Tseng," and
+in the latter as "Kak-ki." It is referred to in a book we have quoted in
+the body of this work, viz., that written by "Godinho de Eredia" in
+1613, reproduced by M. Leon Janssen in 1882. It is called there
+bere-bere, which in the Malay language signifies a "sheep," or a "bird
+which buries its eggs in the sand," and is not now known by the Malays
+under that name, as far as we can gather, as a "disease." Godinho de
+Eredia says that the Malays cured it by the use of a wine made from the
+nipa palm, from whence we know a saccharine fermentable juice exudes
+from the cut spadices of this and other species. They call this juice
+"tuaca." Marco Polo alludes to the same wine in his second book, chapter
+xxv.</p>
+
+<p>Some authorities say it arises from malarious exhalations, favoured by
+damp, or over-crowding in buildings improperly ventilated. To this
+latter cause we are inclined to attribute the outbreak in the Singapore
+prison; for when the prison was occupied by the Indian convicts, the
+area of open space round the different wards and buildings was well
+exposed to the action of sun and wind, but after its conversion into a
+criminal prison, this open space was divided off by high division walls,
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> for the purpose of shot drill and work sheds the enclosure was
+still further crowded. Perhaps the disturbance also of the soil may have
+had something to do with it, for we have known instances in the town
+where the excavation of subsoils had liberated noxious gases.</p>
+
+<p>It was, however, very remarkable that during the period of over
+twenty-five years when this jail was occupied by the Indian convicts,
+not a single case of beri-beri was known to have occurred. The medical
+officers were quite unable to account for this, and of its
+non-occurrence in other parts of the town.</p>
+
+<p>The Rev. Wallace Taylor, M.D., of Osaka in Japan, attributed the disease
+to a microscopic spore found largely developed in rice, and which he had
+also detected in the earth of certain alluvial and damp localities.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Feigned Diseases</span></h3>
+
+<p>The question of feigned diseases should find a place in a work treating
+upon convicts, for amongst a number of natives in confinement&mdash;and
+indeed also amongst European prisoners where&mdash;regular work is insisted
+upon, and idleness in any is severely punished, it is but natural that
+some should be found to resort to expedients to escape work, or, in
+other words, to malinger.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most frequent cases of convicts in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> irons was the
+encouraging of sores round the ankles, where the iron rings of their
+fetters were placed; and this was done, notwithstanding the precaution
+always taken to guard the ankles with leathern bands for the rings to
+rest upon. When suspicion was attached to a convict in irons that he was
+tampering with his leg sores, he was at once detailed to work with the
+gang beating out coir from cocoanut husks: it involved no use of the
+legs, but it was the hardest of labours. The result was that the convict
+soon gave up the trick, and begged to return to outdoor work with his
+own gang. Of course there were cases where convicts working on roads or
+at sand pits may get grit below their leathers, which, without knowing
+it at the time, would cause a sore; but such cases were readily
+distinguished from those sores wilfully caused and designedly kept open.</p>
+
+<p>We had no cases of feigned insanity or any species of mania, but cases
+of imitated "moon blindness," or dim-sightedness, did occur now and
+again for the purpose of shirking night watch.</p>
+
+<p>Upon one occasion we had a remarkable instance of shamming blind, which
+is worth giving in detail. The case was that of a life convict
+transported from Madras, who complained that lime had suddenly got into
+both of his eyes while employed at the lime kilns. It was deemed by the
+medical authorities as not unnatural that he should become blind from
+caustic quick-lime, and he was admitted into the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> convalescent gang,
+where he had only the simple and easy task of picking oakum. The deceit
+was as cleverly kept up for years as it was cleverly commenced at the
+outset, and was only detected by Dr. Cowpar, a hard-headed Scotchman and
+skilful surgeon, who, during the absence of the permanent incumbent, had
+been appointed by the Government to officiate as medical officer of the
+jail. After his inspection of the invalids in the convalescent gang, he
+looked at the eyes of the "blind man"; and, having some suspicion in his
+mind, he decided that he should be put aside for closer examination.
+When the inspection was over, the "blind man" was taken, and carefully
+led by the peon in charge of the gang to one of the long wards, when he
+was told to walk up and down in the presence of the doctor. After he had
+made two or three trips, the doctor directed two men to hold a long pole
+about a foot off the ground on the track he had to pass. When he came to
+the pole he fell over it flat on his face, and to the bystanders it
+seemed rather an inhuman proceeding on the part of the doctor, but he
+had observed an ominous pause before the convict had struck the pole
+with his legs.</p>
+
+<p>He sent for his case of instruments, and, withdrawing a probe, he with
+little difficulty removed the film off both of the man's eyes, which
+proved to be nothing more nor less than the thin membrane found inside
+an egg, which the convict had artfully introduced, and renewed from time
+to time. Of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> course he was reduced to the fifth class, and to the
+hardest labour.</p>
+
+<p>We have often thought it strange that none of his fellow-convicts
+appeared to suspect him, or if they did, they kept it back from the jail
+authorities; and certainly to any casual observer the deception was
+complete, and it was the best case of feigned blindness we have ever
+known or heard of.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the whole, however, cases of malingering were few and far between,
+as most of the convicts became after a time interested in the works upon
+which they were engaged, and those in irons were ever on the look-out
+for promotion to a higher class. Sometimes there was a case of feigned
+rheumatism or paralysis, but the application of the galvanic battery
+invariably cured them of that after a few powerful shocks.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Chapter XIII<br />
+<br />
+<small>CONCLUSION</small></h2>
+
+
+<p>We have now given a full, and, as far as we could, a succinct account of
+the system pursued in the old Singapore jail. We have traced the history
+of the convict establishments in all the penal settlements in those
+seas, and have shown the progressive improvements in the convict prisons
+up to the time when, as was acknowledged by many competent authorities,
+a system of organization and discipline had been satisfactorily attained
+to, especially at the headquarter jail at Singapore. We have also shown
+the number and variety of industries that were from time to time
+introduced, and the utilization of trained artificers in the
+construction of important public works in the Straits Settlements.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps we may say that the conduct of these prisons from the year 1825,
+down to 1845, was in a measure experimental; but at any time we do not
+assert that the system was free from defects. But on the whole, in the
+treatment of these trans-marine convicts, it worked with remarkable
+success, and was well adapted to their condition and circumstances; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>for
+it must not be forgotten that we had to deal with convicts who in great
+part had expiated their crimes by a sentence of banishment to a foreign
+country, which we have already explained was more severely felt by a
+native of India than could possibly be by any European. As a matter of
+fact, owing to caste prejudices, transportation across the seas was to
+many of the Indian convicts worse than death itself, for it carried with
+it not only expulsion from caste, but, owing to their wrong conception
+of fate, or "nusseeb" as they call it, a dread of pain and anguish in
+another existence.</p>
+
+<p>In the later management of this jail, to all fresh arrivals for life
+there was a period of probation of three years, during which time they
+were fettered and worked in gangs upon the public roads. This was
+thoroughly punitive, and with no liberty whatever. They were, in point
+of fact, full of fears and practically without hope. After a time, they
+began to find that the only chance of any amelioration from this hard
+labour was by a course of good conduct; and they saw before them their
+own countrymen, who had once been similarly circumstanced, occupying
+better positions and employed on less distasteful work. They also heard
+from their fellows that several had attained to a ticket of leave, and
+were earning for themselves an honest livelihood in the place of their
+banishment. This, then, was their encouragement; but not a few at first,
+however, though carefully treated in hospital, died from "nostalgia," or
+"love<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+of country," before they could complete their term of probation.</p>
+
+<p>The late General, then Captain Man, who, as we have already said, did a
+great deal in the consolidation of the convict system of Singapore, went
+from the Straits Settlements to the Andamans, and inaugurated there the
+same system; but we learn that since his time convicts upon first
+arrival from India are placed for a certain period in separate cells,
+and no doubt the authorities had good and weighty reasons for the
+change. We have no report as to the advantage or otherwise of this
+probationary alteration, but from what we have said, it will be seen
+that we incline to the belief that for this class of native convicts
+work in irons upon the public roads is a better "first trial" than to
+place them under what is known to us as the "cellular system."</p>
+
+<p>For local prisoners, who after their sentences have expired are returned
+to the town, we do advocate the "cellular system," and have ourselves
+designed and built for term convicts several wards upon this system. The
+advantage gained is complete isolation from one another for a fixed
+period, and the indiscriminate admixture of classes thus avoided, and so
+possibly by this means a recrudescence of crime in the place prevented;
+but with convicts under banishment, and mostly for a life term, we think
+the conditions are very different, and we prefer the plan adopted in the
+old Singapore convict jail.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>The punishments in force by our laws are of course designed to deal out
+retributive justice to the prisoner for his offence against society, and
+so to prevent, if possible, a repetition of the offence by others, and
+by this means to protect society against evil-doers. There is no wish to
+punish with any vindictive feeling, but rather, if it can be done, to
+bring about the reform of the prisoner, and to take away from him the
+desire to offend again; and as "Beccaria," the Italian philanthropist,
+well said, "those penalties are least likely to be productive of good
+effect which are more severe than is necessary to deter others."</p>
+
+<p>In the later days of our Singapore convict jail, of which time only are
+we in a position to express an opinion, the treatment of the convicts
+was one of discipline from beginning to end. There was first the
+probationary period under fetters, in gangs upon the public roads, or
+upon the severest hard labour; next the period of freedom from this
+restraint and a time of test, and if they stood this test well, then
+advancement to a position of trust, either on the lower rung of the
+prison warder-staff, with a belt of authority across the shoulder, or,
+if an aptitude for any trade was evinced, to the position of a novice in
+the workyard, at whatever branch of industry the convict was thought to
+be best suited. There was then open to the prison warder a rise in grade
+to that of peon, with a distinctive badge, and eventually to the highest
+grade of a tindal or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> duffadar, if duly qualified. In the case of the
+industrial class there was also open a promotion to a higher grade, and
+eventually to that of a foreman of artificers. All were fully occupied
+and employed, and the jail was in point of fact a busy hive of industry,
+the pervading idea of the convict authorities being to teach the convict
+to love labour, and to take a personal interest in it.</p>
+
+<p>We know that there are still some who think that no prisoner, while
+undergoing his sentence, should be allowed to feel any pleasure in the
+occupation in which he may be engaged; and hence they advocate the
+crank, shot drill, and other aimless tasks, which serve but to irritate,
+and do not the least good to the heart, from whence all our actions
+spring. For a short term of probation, no doubt, the task should be
+irksome; but when this is over and it should not be prolonged work
+should be given which would tend to call out the best feelings, restore
+self-respect, and act as a sort of cordial to remove lowering and
+depression. To explain by a homely instance what we mean, we will
+mention an incident that occurred to one of us when building the Woking
+prison in 1866. A convict undergoing sentence there, of the labouring
+class, was found to be of an exceptionally dogged and dull nature.
+Nothing pleased him; he was disgusted with the world, and wished he was
+out of it. After a time he was tried at plain brick-laying in a
+foundation, and gradually began to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> handle a brick rather well. He
+seemed to grow step by step more reconciled to his lot, and was advanced
+to work upon a chimney-piece. A day or two later he was asked how he was
+getting on. He then replied, with a bright smile upon his face, "Oh,
+very well, sir, now! I likes my chimbley-piece, and dreams of her at
+nights in my lonely cell."</p>
+
+<p>Hence we see how the implacable temper of this convict gave way over a
+congenial bit of work, and the first step was thus taken towards his
+reformation of character, and he continued to improve until his release
+from prison.</p>
+
+<p>Herbert Spencer says with truth, "that experience and experiments have
+shown all over the world that the most successful criminal discipline is
+a discipline of decreased restraints and increased self dependence"; and
+to a degree of this "self dependence" the convict we refer to had been
+encouraged to aspire.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, in all criminal prisons we must expect a certain percentage
+of incorrigible characters, who under the best training cannot be
+brought under control; but the bulk of those in the old Singapore jail,
+and we had often as many as two thousand at a time, were well behaved,
+and gave evidence of the good influence of a course of discipline upon
+them; for when they were advanced to a ticket-of-leave, and thrown again
+on their own resources, they very rarely a second time came under the
+cognisance of the police, but peaceably merged into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> the population, and
+earned their livelihood by honest means.</p>
+
+<p>We have one word to say in reference to the employment of these convicts
+as warders over their fellow-prisoners; a system, so far as we are
+aware, then unattempted either in Europe or America, even in a modified
+form. We do not, however, see why, in the case of well-behaved and
+suitable European convicts sentenced to long periods of penal servitude,
+some might not be placed in certain such positions of trust under free
+warders; and as the new prison rules for our jails may possibly involve
+a large increase in the warder staff, it has occurred to us that the
+system might have a trial to a limited extent; but we are, of course,
+not in a position to speak with any authority upon the subject as
+affecting our own prisons. In our case, with the exception of two or
+three European warders, the whole warder staff were convicts; and at
+first, certainly, there was the fear that so large a number of convict
+warders might side with the convicts, when a rule they might have
+thought repugnant to all, was introduced by the governing body. There
+also appeared the danger that discipline might be undermined by a system
+of favouritism, especially amongst men of the same caste, or that they
+would shut their eyes to breaches of the rules.</p>
+
+<p>None of these apprehensions were, however, experienced; but, on the
+contrary, these convict warders were always the first to apprise the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+authorities of any contemplated attempt at escape, or of any ill-feeling
+that might be brewing amongst any particular class, or breach of prison
+rules; so that, in a great measure, they acted in the double capacity of
+both detectives and police. It was only upon very rare occasions that a
+convict warder had to be disrated; and the punishment amongst them
+consisted for the most part in fines for want of vigilance and attention
+to detail, and such like petty offences. They all manifested the highest
+appreciation of the trust reposed in them, and lived in a perpetual fear
+that they might forfeit their position, and have to begin anew the whole
+course of jail punishment.</p>
+
+<p>It need scarcely be said that great care was exercised to single out men
+of the best character, and to the highest posts those who could take
+upon themselves responsibility as men of purpose and discretion.
+Promotion in the different grades was made only by the Superintendent,
+who in our case was an officer who had served in India, knew natives of
+most sects and races, and was acquainted with their habits and customs,
+and spoke one or two of their languages.</p>
+
+<p>The prison system in all its branches worked in perfect harmony, and all
+the parts of it seemed to be adapted to each other. Discipline was
+maintained throughout, and the artificer gang, as we have shown,
+developed a high skill in their various trades; so that important public
+works could be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> executed without difficulty or embarrassment. Those also
+who had passed through its course, and were admitted back to society
+upon a ticket of leave, as a rule behaved themselves as good citizens.</p>
+
+<p>In the extraction of labour from the convicts, there was no desire on
+the part of the Government to work the establishment with a view to show
+any pecuniary profit in the returns; though, as it proved, the actual
+cost to the State was often more than reimbursed by their labour,
+estimated as it was at two-thirds of that prevailing in the place, and
+the material at half the market price. However, in regard to this part
+of the question we might here quote "Jeremy Bentham," who once wisely
+said of prison labour, "It is not the less reforming for being
+profitable."</p>
+
+<p>We would now take leave of our old Singapore jail, as indeed, owing to
+the result of the earnest entreaty of the community to the Government,
+it finally took leave of us in 1873, though in our judgment perhaps a
+little too prematurely in the best interests of the colony.</p>
+
+<p>We can only hope that in the record we have now given, we have furnished
+some suggestions for general application to those who, like ourselves,
+are concerned not merely with the punishment of the criminal, but also
+with his reformation, both as a question of social science, and to the
+prisoner's own ulterior benefit.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>This reformation could, we think, be best brought about by a course of
+severe probationary discipline at the outset, to be followed up by
+continuous employment upon productive occupations and trades, so as to
+encourage within the criminal a lively diligence and a persevering
+industry; ourselves meanwhile also encouraged in the task by the words
+of Shakespeare, that</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"There is some soul of goodness in things evil,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Would men observingly distil it out."<br /></span>
+<span class="i10"><i>King Henry V.</i>, Act. iv., Scene i.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDICES" id="APPENDICES"></a>APPENDICES</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX I</h2>
+
+
+<p>Statement of the expenses of the convict jail in Singapore for the years
+1862-63 and 1863-64, showing the average cost per prisoner:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<table summary="Appendix I" cellspacing="0" border="0" cellpadding="8">
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" rowspan="3" class="bt br bb tdc">Heads of Expenditure.</td>
+    <td colspan="6" class="bt tdc">1,964 Prisoners in 1862-63.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td colspan="6" class="tdc">1,995 Prisoners in 1863-64.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td colspan="3" class="bt bb br tdc">1862-63.</td> <td colspan="3" class="bt bb tdc">1863-64.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Rations</td>
+  <td class="tdr">67,803</td><td class="tdr">9</td><td class="tdr2 br">10</td>
+  <td class="tdr">62,901</td><td class="tdr">0</td><td class="tdr2">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Money Allowance</td>
+
+  <td class="tdr bb">20,938</td><td class="tdr bb">13</td><td class="tdr2 bb br">8</td>
+  <td class="tdr bb">19,369</td><td class="tdr bb">14</td><td class="tdr2 bb">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Total</td>
+  <td class="tdr">88,742</td><td class="tdr">7</td><td class="tdr2 br">6</td>
+  <td class="tdr">82,270</td><td class="tdr">15</td><td class="tdr2">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Cost per Prisoner</td>
+  <td class="tdr bb">45</td><td class="tdr bb">2</td><td class="tdr2 bb br">11</td>
+  <td class="tdr bb">41</td><td class="tdr bb">3</td><td class="tdr2 bb">10</td>
+
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Fixed Establishment</td>
+  <td class="tdr">16,094</td><td class="tdr">1</td><td class="tdr2 br">0</td>
+  <td class="tdr">11,173</td><td class="tdr">1</td><td class="tdr2">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Cost per Prisoner</td>
+  <td class="tdr">8</td><td class="tdr">3</td><td class="tdr2 br">1</td>
+  <td class="tdr">5</td><td class="tdr">9</td><td class="tdr2">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Extra Establishment</td>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdc br"><i>nil.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdc"><i>nil.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Cost per Prisoner</td>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdc br bb">"</td>
+  <td colspan="3" class="tdc bb">"</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Total</td>
+
+  <td class="tdr">16,094</td><td class="tdr">1</td><td class="tdr2 br">0</td>
+  <td class="tdr">11,173</td><td class="tdr">1</td><td class="tdr2">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Cost per Prisoner</td>
+  <td class="tdr bb">8</td><td class="tdr bb">3</td><td class="tdr2 bb br">1</td>
+  <td class="tdr bb">5</td><td class="tdr bb">9</td><td class="tdr2 bb">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Hospital Charges</td>
+  <td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlsub ">European Medicines</td> <td style="padding-left: 0em; padding-right: 0em;" class="bt br">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="br"></td><td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td> </tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub ">Bazaar&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ditto</td>
+  <td style="padding-left: 0em; padding-right: 0em;" class="br">&nbsp;</td> <td style="padding-left: 0em;" class="tdl br">&ndash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">472</td><td class="tdr">13</td><td class="tdr2 br">0</td>
+  <td class="tdr">454</td><td class="tdr">10</td><td class="tdr2">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub ">Sick Diet</td><td style="padding-left: 0em; padding-right: 0em;" class="bb br">&nbsp;</td> <td class="br"></td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="bb br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Total</td>
+  <td class="tdr">472</td><td class="tdr">13</td><td class="tdr2 br">0</td>
+  <td class="tdr">454</td><td class="tdr">10</td><td class="tdr2">4</td>
+
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Cost per Prisoner</td>
+  <td class="tdr bb">0</td><td class="tdr bb">3</td><td class="tdr2 bb br">10</td>
+  <td class="tdr bb">0</td><td class="tdr bb">3</td><td class="tdr bb">7½</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Clothing, including Blankets
+and Bedding</td>
+  <td class="tdr">8,699</td><td class="tdr">14</td><td class="tdr2 br">6</td>
+  <td class="tdr">8,250</td><td class="tdr">14</td><td class="tdr2">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Cost per Prisoner</td>
+  <td class="tdr">4</td><td class="tdr">6</td><td class="tdr2 br">11</td>
+
+  <td class="tdr">4</td><td class="tdr">2</td><td class="tdr2">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Contingencies</td>
+  <td class="tdr">3,235</td><td class="tdr">3</td><td class="tdr2 br">1</td>
+  <td class="tdr">4,407</td><td class="tdr">5</td><td class="tdr2">3</td>
+
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Cost per Prisoner</td>
+  <td class="tdr">1</td><td class="tdr">10</td><td class="tdr2 br">4</td>
+  <td class="tdr">2</td><td class="tdr">3</td><td class="tdr">4½</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Additions, Alterations, and
+Repairs</td>
+  <td class="tdr">100</td><td class="tdr">12</td><td class="tdr2 br">2</td>
+  <td class="tdr">51</td><td class="tdr">8</td><td class="tdr2">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Cost per Prisoner</td>
+  <td class="tdr bb">0</td><td class="tdr bb">0</td><td class="tdr2 bb br">10</td>
+
+  <td class="tdr bb">0</td><td class="tdr bb">0</td><td class="tdr2 bb">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl br">Gross Cost of Maintenance</td>
+  <td class="tdr padl">117,345</td><td class="tdr">3</td><td class="tdr2 br">3</td>
+  <td class="tdr padl">106,608</td><td class="tdr">7</td><td class="tdr2">1</td>
+
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdl  bb br">Gross Cost per Prisoner</td>
+  <td class="tdr bb">59</td><td class="tdr bb">11</td><td class="tdr2 bb br">11</td>
+  <td class="tdr bb">53</td><td class="tdr bb">7</td><td class="tdr2 bb">0</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The above table gives a fair average of the annual cost of maintenance
+of each prisoner as taken from the records of the jail.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX II</h2>
+
+
+<p>Return of the Hospital Department of prisoners in jails in Singapore,
+Penang and Province Wellesley, and Malacca, from 1st May, 1863, to 30th
+April, 1864, exhibiting the average strength, number of admissions of
+sick, number of deaths, etc., in each jail during the year, and the rate
+per cent.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="Appendix II" cellspacing="0" border="0" cellpadding="8">
+
+<tr><td class="tdc bt bb">Stations</td>
+    <td class="tdc bt bb bl">Singapore.</td>
+    <td class="tdc bt bb bl">Penang and<br />Province<br />Wellesley.</td>
+    <td class="tdc bt bb bl">Malacca.</td><td class="tdc bt bb bl">Total.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh bb">Average strength during the Year</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bb bl">2,400</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bb bl">1,150</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bb bl">661</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bb bl">4,211</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh"><span style="padding-bottom: 0.25em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">Admissions during the Year</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Fevers</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">222</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">260</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">292</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">774</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Eruptive Fevers</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">25</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">2</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">26</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">53</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub"><span style="padding-bottom: 0.25em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">Diseases of the</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Lungs</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">30</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">55</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">63</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">148</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Liver</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">9</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">1</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Stomach and Bowels</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">81</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">216</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">93</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">390</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Brain</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">12</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">19</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">41</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">72</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Generative and
+Urinary Organs</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">51</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">23</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">24</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">98</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Eyes</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">50</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">27</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">9</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">86</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Skin</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">50</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">20</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">37</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">107</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Cholera</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">3</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Dropsies</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">13</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">27</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">6</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">46</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Rheumatic Affections</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">58</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">107</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">31</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">196</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Abscesses and Ulcers</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">204</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">198</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">84</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">486</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Wounds and Injuries</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">58</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">93</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">42</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">193</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Other Diseases</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">181</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">47</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">32</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">260</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc bb">Total</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bt bb bl">1,047</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bt bb bl">1,094</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bt bb bl">781</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bt bb bl">2,922</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span><span style="padding-bottom: 0.25em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">Deaths during the Year</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Fevers</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">7</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Eruptive Fevers</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">7</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">1</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">3</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub"><span style="padding-bottom: 0.25em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">Diseases of the</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Lungs</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">4</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">2</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">2</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Liver</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">1</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Stomach and Bowels</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">6</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">9</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">4</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Brain</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">2</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Generative and
+Urinary Organs</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Eyes</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub2">Skin</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">3</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Cholera</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">2</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Dropsies</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">3</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">8</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">1</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Rheumatic Affections</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">1</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">1</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Abscesses and Ulcers</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">1</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Wounds and Injuries</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">2</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">1</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Other Diseases</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">25</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">21</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">3</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">49</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc bb">Total</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bt bb bl">55</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bt bb bl">44</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bt bb bl">21</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bt bb bl">120</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Discharged during the Year</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">943</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">1,012</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">742</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">2,697</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Transfer during the Year</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Liberated during the Year</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlh bb">Remaining</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bb bl">49</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bb bl">38</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bb bl">18</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bb bl">105</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh"><span style="padding-bottom: 0.25em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">Rate per cent.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Sick to Strength</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">43.62</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">95.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">118.45</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">69.43&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Death by ordinary diseases to strength</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">2.20</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">3.82</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">3.17</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">2.802</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub">Death by Cholera to strength</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">00.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bl">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">004.74&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlsub bb">Total Deaths to Strength</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bb bl">2.29</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bb bl">3.82</td>
+<td class="tdr2 bb bl">3.17</td>
+<td class="tdr bb bl">2.84&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The rate per cent. of the total deaths to strength at the three
+settlements may appear high, but it is accounted for by the number of
+old convicts dying off.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX III</h2>
+
+
+<p>The following table gives the value of materials manufactured by convict
+labour; the money expenditure in addition to the convict labour on each
+item, and the difference in favour of the State for the years 1862-63
+and 1863-64:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="Appendix III table 1" cellspacing="0" border="0" cellpadding="8">
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdc bt bb">Value of Materials.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc">1862-63.</td><td class="tdc">Rs.</td><td class="tdc">Rs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">To value of Bricks</td><td class="tdr">25,149&nbsp;&nbsp;10</td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">To value of Lime</td><td class="tdr">600&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9</td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">To value of Cement</td><td class="tdr">3,844&nbsp;&nbsp;12</td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">To value of Granite</td><td class="tdr">2,058&nbsp;&nbsp;10</td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">To value of Weaver's Work</td><td class="tdr">1,432&nbsp;&nbsp;11</td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0em;" class="tdlh">To value of Rattan Work</td><td style="padding-bottom: 0em;" class="tdr"><span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;862&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0</span></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td>
+<td class="tdr0">33,988&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Deduct Expenditure</td><td></td>
+<td class="tdr">29,908&nbsp;&nbsp;10</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Difference in favour of the State</td><td class="tdr">Rs.</td>
+<td class="tdr"><span style="padding-top: 0.4em; border-top: solid 1px; border-bottom: double 3px;">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;4,074&nbsp;&nbsp;10</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdc bt bb">Cost of Production.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc">1862-63.</td><td class="tdc">Rs.</td><td class="tdc">Rs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Bricks</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">By Convict Labour</td><td class="tdr0">14,293&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">Money Expenditure</td><td class="tdr0">
+<span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;5,882&nbsp;&nbsp;10</span></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td>
+<td class="tdr0">20,176&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Lime</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">By Convict Labour</td><td class="tdr0">242&nbsp;&nbsp;14</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">Money Expenditure</td><td class="tdr0">
+<span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;535&nbsp;&nbsp;14</span></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td>
+<td class="tdr0">778&nbsp;&nbsp;12</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Cement</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">By Convict Labour</td><td class="tdr0">952&nbsp;&nbsp;13</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">Money Expenditure</td><td class="tdr0">
+<span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;138&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9</span></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td>
+<td class="tdr0">1,091&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Granite</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">By Convict Labour</td><td class="tdr0">5,859&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">Money Expenditure</td><td class="tdr0">
+<span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>nil.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td>
+<td class="tdr0">5,859&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Weaver's Work</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">By Convict Labour</td><td class="tdr0">594&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">Money Expenditure</td><td class="tdr0">
+<span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;546&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6</span></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td>
+<td class="tdr0">1,140&nbsp;&nbsp;12</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Rattan Work</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">By Convict Labour</td><td class="tdr0">862&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">Money Expenditure</td><td class="tdr0">
+<span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>nil.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td>
+<td class="tdr0">862&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Total</td><td class="tdr">Rs.</td>
+<td class="tdr"><span style="padding-top: 0.4em; border-top: solid 1px; border-bottom: double 3px;">
+29,908&nbsp;&nbsp;10</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="bb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p>
+
+<table summary="Appendix III table 2" cellspacing="0" border="0" cellpadding="8">
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdc bt bb">Value of Materials.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc">1863-64.</td><td class="tdc">Rs.</td><td class="tdc">Rs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">To value of Bricks</td><td class="tdr">26,683&nbsp;&nbsp;12</td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">To value of Lime and Cement</td><td class="tdr">3,720&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">To value of Granite</td><td class="tdr">6,574&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">To value of Weaver's Work</td><td class="tdr">1,872&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;5</td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0em;" class="tdlh">To value of Rattan Work</td><td style="padding-bottom: 0em;" class="tdr"><span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;915&nbsp;&nbsp;13</span></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td>
+<td style="padding-top: 0em;" class="tdr">36,765&nbsp;&nbsp;14</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Deduct Expenditure</td><td></td><td class="tdr">25,344&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Difference in favour of the State</td><td class="tdr">Rs.</td>
+<td class="tdr"><span style="padding-top: 0.4em; border-top: solid 1px; border-bottom: double 3px;">
+11,421&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tdc bt bb">Cost of Production.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc">1863-64.</td><td class="tdc">Rs.</td><td class="tdc">Rs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Bricks</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">By Convict Labour</td><td class="tdr0">8,122&nbsp;&nbsp;14</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">Money Expenditure</td><td class="tdr0">
+<span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;9,667&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4</span></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td>
+  <td class="tdr0">17,790&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Lime and Cement</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">By Convict Labour</td><td class="tdr0">785&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">Money Expenditure</td><td class="tdr0">
+<span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;552&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6</span></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td>
+  <td class="tdr0">1,337&nbsp;&nbsp;12</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Granite</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">By Convict Labour</td><td class="tdr0">3,327&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">Money Expenditure</td><td class="tdr0">
+<span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>nil.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td>
+  <td class="tdr0">3,327&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Weaver's Work</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">By Convict Labour</td><td class="tdr0">1,386&nbsp;&nbsp;14</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">Money Expenditure</td><td class="tdr0">
+<span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;604&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;7</span></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td>
+  <td class="tdr0">1,973&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;5</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Rattan Work</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">By Convict Labour</td><td class="tdr0">915&nbsp;&nbsp;13</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl0sub">Money Expenditure</td><td class="tdr0">
+<span style="padding-bottom: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid 1px;">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>nil.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td></td>
+  <td class="tdr0">915&nbsp;&nbsp;12</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Total</td><td class="tdr">Rs.</td>
+<td class="tdr"><span style="padding-top: 0.4em; border-top: solid 1px; border-bottom: double 3px;">
+25,344&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;8</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="bb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX IV</h2>
+
+
+<p>The following is a tabulated account of the cost of the brick kilns to
+the State, and the value of these convict-made bricks in the local
+market.</p>
+
+<p>The output of bricks per month when four tables were at work was
+230,000, and their value at $45.00 per 10,000 would be $1,035. The cost
+of manufacture was as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="Appendix IV table 1" cellspacing="0" border="0" cellpadding="8">
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="tdc">$</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Overseer's Salary</td><td class="tdr">45.00</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Labour of 125 Convicts,<br />
+at 25cts. per diem for artizans<br />
+and 9cts. for
+labourers</td>
+<td class="tdr">306.00</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Cost of Fuel</td><td class="tdr">200.00</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Wear and Tear</td><td class="tdr">17.10</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Food for Cattle</td><td class="tdr">24.30</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Contingencies</td><td class="tdr">16.20</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc">Total</td><td class="tdr"><span style="padding-top: 0.4em; border-top: solid 1px; border-bottom: double 3px;">$608.60</span></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<table summary="Appendix IV table 2" cellspacing="0" border="0" cellpadding="8">
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="tdc">$</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">
+Value of 230,000 of
+Bricks at $45 per laksa,<br />
+that being the
+market price for
+Government Bricks</td>
+<td class="tdr">1,035.00</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Deduct cost of manufacture</td>
+<td class="tdr">608.60</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Difference to credit of the State</td>
+<td class="tdr"><span style="padding-top: 0.4em; border-top: solid 1px; border-bottom: double 3px;">$426.40</span></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Bricks were debited to Government Works at $20 per laksa. The size of a
+Government brick mould was 10&frac14; x 5&frac14; x 3 ins. The bricks when burnt
+measured 9 x 4&frac12; x 2&frac34; ins., and weighed about 7 lbs. when dry, and about
+7 lbs. 3 or 4 ozs. after soaking <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>in fresh water. These were ordinary
+bricks, but those manufactured for hydraulic work were impervious to
+water.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;The size of a Chinese-made brick when burnt is 10 x 5 x 1&frac12; ins.
+It requires 22 Chinese-made bricks to build one cubic foot of brickwork,
+but of convict-made Government bricks a cubic foot of brickwork requires
+13 only.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX V</h2>
+
+
+<p>Number and nature of defaults committed by Indian convicts:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="Appendix V table 1" cellspacing="0" border="0" cellpadding="8">
+
+<tr><td rowspan="2" class="bt bb tdc">Nature of Defaults.</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bt tdc bl">For the year</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc bb bl">1846.</td><td class="tdc bb bl">1856.</td><td class="tdc bb bl">1866.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Stealing</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">11</td><td class="tdr bl">11</td><td class="tdr bl">11</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Disobedience of Orders</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">4</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">10</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Drunkenness</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">2</td><td class="tdr bl">15</td><td class="tdr bl">6</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Assault</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Neglect of Duty</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">4</td><td class="tdr bl">22</td><td class="tdr bl">12</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Smuggling Articles into Jail</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">4</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">4</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Disturbing Women at Night</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Sleeping while on Duty</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">3</td><td class="tdr bl">7</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Cutting and Wounding</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Breaking open a Convict's Box</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Allowing Local Prisoners to
+speak to Outside Men</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Receiving Money for Safe
+Keeping and Denying the Same</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">3</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Quarrelling and Abusing</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">5</td><td class="tdr bl">9</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Telling Falsehood</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">3</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Allowing Local Prisoners to
+Abscond</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">3</td><td class="tdr bl">19</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Idleness at Work</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">3</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Gambling</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">6</td><td class="tdr bl">4</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Absent from Roll Call</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">4</td><td class="tdr bl">17</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Impertinence to Warder</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Selling his own Cloths</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Confined by the Police</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">5</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Striking a Fellow-Convict</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">5</td><td class="tdr bl">3</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Refusing to Work</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">3</td><td class="tdr bl">6</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Unlawfully Detaining a
+Man's Sampan</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Creating a Disturbance</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>Bringing a False Charge</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Writing a Threatening Petition</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Having Stolen Property in
+Possession</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Wilfully Destroying Tools</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Carelessness at Work</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">7</td><td class="tdr bl">6</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Leaving Work without Orders</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">4</td><td class="tdr bl">4</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Intending to Abscond</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">11</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Bringing a Woman into the
+Hospital at Night</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Selling Rations</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Begging in the Streets</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">3</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Committing a Nuisance</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Mixed up in Street Rows</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Counterfeiting Coin</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Buying Rations from a
+Fellow-Convict</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Pawning</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Suspected of Thieving</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Losing Cloths</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">4</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Leaving his Watch</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">6</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Committed by the Police</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">9</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Attempting to Commit Suicide</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Marrying without Permission</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Carrying Letters for Local
+Prisoners</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">3</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Disrespect to Superiors</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Obtaining Money under False
+Pretences</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Receiving Bribes</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">1</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Impertinence</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Malingering</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Suspected of being Concerned
+in a Murder</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">2</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdlh">Assaulting a Free Man</td>
+<td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">&mdash;</td><td class="tdr bl">4</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc bt bb">Total</td><td class="tdr bt bb bl">30</td><td class="tdr bt bb bl">132</td><td class="tdr bt bb bl">172</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>This table gives the number and nature of the defaults committed by the
+Indian convicts for the years 1846, 1856 and 1866, but it is doubtful
+whether the list for 1846 is complete, as the prison records do not
+appear to have been fully kept up; anyhow they are not to be found, and
+at that time the inquiry room had not been established. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>number of
+convicts under discipline and on ticket of leave during the twenty years
+was between 1,900 and 2,500, which shows a small percentage of
+defaulters, and they are all, with few exceptions, of a petty nature.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX VI</h2>
+
+
+<p>Extracts from letters from T. Church, Esq., Resident Councillor,
+Singapore, addressed to the Honourable the Governor of the Straits.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>15th September, 1849. Transmits copy of letter from Captain Man,
+dated August, 1849, forwarding account of value of labour of the
+convicts for the year ending 30th April last.</p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot2">
+<p>In my last report I adverted to the efficient state of this
+department, and the importance of the work performed by convicts
+under the zealous and active supervision of the Superintendent. The
+accompanying papers will, I think, satisfy your Honour, and distant
+authorities likewise, that the value of the labour of the convicts,
+particularly the artificers, is annually becoming developed; and
+even now the skill of the men is quite equal, if not superior, to
+the free labourers generally employed by the Superintending
+Engineer; in fact, Major Faber has on more than one occasion
+expressed his professional opinion on the superiority of the
+masonry and other works executed by the convict body. I trust the
+period is not far distant when the Government will allow all
+repairs and minor works to be done by the Superintendent of
+Convicts, a measure much to be desired, and vastly more economical
+than the present system.</p>
+
+<p>The annexed statement has no pretensions to <span class='pagenumbq'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>accuracy, and I am
+rather disposed to place on record Captain Man's estimate than my
+own; but whichever is adopted, the result is most satisfactory, as
+showing that the labour of the convicts is equivalent to all
+expenses incurred in their maintenance at this station.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>August, 1850. A cursory view of the papers submitted by Captain Man
+will show how much the community are indebted to the convict body
+for the cleanliness of the streets in town, and the extensive and
+admirable roads in the country, which elicit the praise and even
+the astonishment of sojourners from the continent of India, and the
+Colonies.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>10th August, 1852. Captain Man's report is exceedingly gratifying,
+and demonstrates how admirably adapted the existing rules and
+regulations are to preserve order and discipline among a large body
+of probably the most vicious and demoralized characters from the
+presidencies, and at the same time render their labour of
+considerable importance to the place of transportation.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Extracts from the letters of the Governor of the Straits Settlements to
+the Resident Councillor, Singapore:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>29th August, 1850. The management of the convict body at Singapore
+reflects great credit on Captain Man, whose energy and zeal in the
+execution of his duties have always been very conspicuous; and I
+notice with extreme satisfaction the eulogium passed on that
+officer in the concluding paragraphs of your communication.</p>
+
+<p>The observations of the Superintendent of Convicts and Roads at
+this station, as well as at Penang, on the aforesaid rules and
+regulations, coupled with your notice of the same, have afforded me
+unqualified gratification, seeing <span class='pagenumbq'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>that they were drawn up by me so
+far back as 1845 in the face of much opposition to the entire
+abolition of free men as petty officers, in which, however, as in
+all matters connected with the welfare of this station, I
+acknowledge your cordial support and assistance.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX VII</h2>
+
+<p>The head of the Madras Medical Department Dr. Edward Balfour, visited
+this jail in August, 1863, and thus recorded his opinion:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The point that most struck me in the management of this jail were
+the diversified occupations and evident industry of its inmates,
+and their complete employment. The mass were actively working, and
+the few were superintending those engaged in labour. I have not
+before seen the various labouring industries of artizans so largely
+introduced in any jail, nor have I seen such diligence in their
+labour. Blacksmiths' and tinsmiths' work, carpentry and sawmills,
+carving and coopering, stonemasons, manufacture of coir and woollen
+yarn for blankets, weaving door-mats, and printing too, all in
+active operation inside the jail, with wood-cutting, brick and tile
+works, and vegetable gardens without. Daily task work, and its
+allotment and registration as to quantities performed in the jail,
+may be operating to produce the application to the work before them
+which the prisoners were everywhere giving. The hospital and its
+arrangements were very perfect. The well-kept floor, the clean
+cots, and the very small number of about twenty inmates out of a
+strength of 2,000, may be taken as indicative of the care in all
+other sanitary arrangements. Both the sickness and mortality seems
+very small. I have been much gratified with what I have seen, and
+have learned some points of interest and value.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX VIII</h2>
+
+
+<p>Extract from the <i>Singapore Free Press</i>, October, 1884:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>To this day many of the released convicts are living in Singapore,
+cart owners, milk sellers, road contractors, and so on. Many of
+them are comfortably off, but are growing fewer year by year, and
+their places will never be filled by that class again. The name of
+Major McNair is a password to their good feelings, and all their
+disputes used to go to him as a matter of course. When the Major
+wrote the <i>Sarong and Kris, Perak and the Malays</i>, it was remarked
+by one of the reviewers that he hoped the Major would some day give
+an account of the old jail to the world. It was one of the most
+remarkable sights of the place, and no one came from India on a
+visit in those days without going over it before he returned. For
+all sorts of things, from coir matting and rattan chairs down to
+waste paper baskets, every one went to the jail; and the rattan
+chairs the Chinese now sell here so largely, were invented in the
+jail, beginning with a cumbrous heavy chair, which was the first
+pattern, down to the shape we see now.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt the system had its defects, and there was a wide
+difference between the jail as it is now, filled with offenders
+sentenced in Singapore, and a jail which contained criminals who
+came from distant places and did not know the local language, and
+had no friends outside <span class='pagenumbq'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>the walls to help them to escape from the
+island if they succeeded in getting clear of the jail; but,
+notwithstanding, it was often a wonder to many to find so large an
+establishment of the worst characters of India kept in check by
+what was, practically, almost personal influence alone.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX IX</h2>
+
+
+<p>From the <i>Singapore Free Press</i>, February 2nd, 1899. Given to show how
+very lately this "head scare" superstition is entertained:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">The "Head-Cutting" Scare.</span></p>
+
+<p>To the Editor of the <i>Free Press Pao</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Most Powerful Sir</span>,&mdash;Permit thy humble servant to approach thee by
+the way of my friend Tan Tan Tiam, who knoweth the Ang Moh's
+speech, and kindly consenteth to write to him who moveth the
+Government to influence the Tye Jin to have compassion upon the
+exiled sons of China.</p>
+
+<p>Thy servant is a humble puller of the man-power-carriage by night,
+and is suffering grievously because he is unable to carry on his
+lawful occupation of plying by hire, by reason of the dire fear
+that besetteth him. It hath come to the ears of thy servant and of
+his fellows, that the Ang Moh's engineers do seek a sacrifice to
+appease the offended gods of earth and water, whom they have
+outraged by disturbing his habitation on the hill that standeth
+behind the office of the Tye Jin, which they of India call
+Ko-mis-a-yat. The said engineers, perchance from ignorance, have
+neglected to consult the wise ones of earth-lore as to the means to
+be taken to please the said spirits, who have consequently so
+tormented the Ang Moh that they seek a sacrifice. Not of the rich
+and family-blessed, who <span class='pagenumbq'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>would make a complaint to the Government,
+if they were sacrificed; but of us poor and friendless
+man-power-carriage coolies, who in the exercise of our nightly
+avocation are called to distant parts of the town, where the knife
+that is invisible will speedily sever the head from the body, and
+the cloth that is impenetrable will stifle the last cry of him that
+hath none to avenge, and our heads go to make the water run within
+the pipe, and make firm the foundations of this new water hole.</p>
+
+<p>Let the engineers make the necessary sacrifices, that we may go
+without fear and trembling to those who call us, with mighty voice
+and thick, to go to Si Poi Poh. Then shall we receive the reward of
+the Ang Moh's gratitude, far exceeding that of they who aforetime
+dwelt in the land, or of our brothers of the Celestial Empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sigblock">
+<p><span class="smcap">Hak-Chew.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>Index</h2>
+
+
+<p class="index">Alquada Reef lighthouse, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_112">[112]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Andaman Islands, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_21">[21]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_143">[143]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Anecdotal History</i>, on Singapore, etc., convicts, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_47">[47]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_67">[67]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index p3">Balfour, Dr. Edward: opinion of Singapore jail, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_182">[182]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">"Bastiani," exporter of pine-apples to Europe, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_60">[60]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Begbie, Captain, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_43">[43]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Belcher, Sir Edward, R.N., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_61">[61]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Bencoolen, First penal settlement at, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_1">[1-3]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">ir Stamford Raffles' letters on treatment of convicts at, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_4">[4-8]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Transfer of convicts from, to Penang, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_8">[8]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Transfer of convicts from, to Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_39">[39]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">"Bencoolen Rules" in force at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_43">[43]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Bennett, Mr. John, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_61">[61]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_74">[74]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Beri-beri disease, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_149">[149]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Blundell, Hon. Edmund Augustus, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_73">[73]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Branding, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_12">[12]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Bricks, Dearth of, at Singapore in 1844, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_58">[58]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Bricks made by convicts, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_110">[110]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_174">[174]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Brodhurst, Mr., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_144">[144]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Budoo road, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_44">[44]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Bukit Timah Canal, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_71">[71]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Butterworth, Colonel, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_20">[20]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_61">[61]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_62">[62]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">"Butterworth Rules," <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_21">[21]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_62">[62]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_63">[63]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Campbell, Major, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_42">[42]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Canning, Lord, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_75">[75]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Cape Rachado, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_29">[29]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Carrimon Islands, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_33">[33]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Cathedral, Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_97">[97-101]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Cavenagh, General Sir Orfeur, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_52">[52]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">"Cellular system," <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_158">[158]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Chains, Convicts in, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_40">[40]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_87">[87]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Chester, Lieutenant, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_40">[40]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Chinese rioters dispersed by Indian convicts, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_67">[67-68]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Church, Hon. Thomas, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_73">[73]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Extracts from letters on value of convict labour, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_179">[179-181]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Clarke, Sir Andrew, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_3">[3]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_14">[14]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Clothing of convicts at Singapore jail, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_94">[94]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Cobra, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_128">[128]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Coleman, G. D., Work performed by, at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_43">[43-46]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Collyer, Colonel, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_75">[75]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Collyer Quay, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_76">[76]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><a name="cons" id="cons"></a>Convicts, Treatment of, at Penang, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_16">[16-20]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Ticket-of-leave, at Penang, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_24">[24]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">at Malacca, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_27">[27-30]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Transfer of, from Bencoolen to Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_39">[39]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">First trial of, as warders at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_40">[40]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Lenient treatment of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_41">[41]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">used for suppressing fires at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_42">[42]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">employed as orderlies and servants, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_42">[42]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">at Singapore, Malacca, Penang, and Maulmein, Extract from <i>Anecdotal History</i> on, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_47">[47]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">used for destroying tigers, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_52">[52]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">used for surveying, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_56">[56]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">employed for road-constructing, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_19">[19]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_28">[28]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_59">[59]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">build lighthouses at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_60">[60]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_62">[62]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Indian, disperse Chinese rioters, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_68">[68]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Bukit Timah Canal improved by, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_71">[71]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">A new St. Andrew's Church constructed by, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_72">[72]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_97">[97]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">assist in building fortifications of Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_76">[76]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Government House built by, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_77">[77]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_101">[101]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Classification of, at Singapore jail, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_84">[84-89]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Average number of, at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_89">[89]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Trades of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_90">[90-92]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">hours of work at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_92">[92]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Clothing of, at Singapore jail, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_94">[94]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Industries of (intramural) <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_104">[104-108]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Industries of (extramural) <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_108">[108-112]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Stories about Indian, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_113">[113-142]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Indian, fondness for spying, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_123">[123]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Indian, Transfer of, to Port Blair from Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_143">[143]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Pardoning, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_143">[143-145]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Analysis of crimes of, in 1873, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_145">[145]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Diseases of, at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_147">[147-152]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Death-rate of, at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_149">[149]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Disciplinary treatment of, at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_159">[159]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Incorrigible, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_161">[161]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Materials made by, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_172">[172-175]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Bricks made by, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_172">[172-175]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Defaults committed by Indian, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_176">[176]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Cotton, Dr. George, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_74">[74]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Cowpar, Dr., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_154">[154]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Crawfurd, Mr. John, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_36">[36]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_101">[101]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Crocodiles, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_130">[130]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_134">[134-138]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">"Dacoity," <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_12">[12]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Davidson, M. F., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_61">[61]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_62">[62]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Death-rate of convicts at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_149">[149]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_170">[170]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">De Barros on Malacca, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_26">[26]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Dindings, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_14">[14]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Diseases of convicts at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_147">[147-152]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Feigned, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_152">[152-155]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Du Cane, Sir Edmund, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_96">[96]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Edinburgh, H.R.H. The Duke of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_77">[77]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Faber, Captain, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_58">[58]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">lays foundation stone of Pearl's Hill jail, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_64">[64]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Farquhar, Major, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_33">[33]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Fires, Convicts used for suppressing, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_42">[42]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Flogging, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_88">[88]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Forlong, General, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_21">[21]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_63">[63]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">appreciation of Singapore convict system, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_63">[63]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Fraser, Colonel, report on management of Singapore jail, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_110">[110]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">"Funny Joe," <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_126">[126]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Godinho de Eredia, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_25">[25]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_151">[151]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Government House at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_101">[101-104]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Guillaume, architect, <a class="indexlink" href="#Footnote_11_11">[97]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Guthrie, Mr. Alexander, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Guthrie, Mr. James, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_101">[101]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Hamadryads, Convicts bitten by, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_16">[16]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Hay, Mr. Andrew, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">"Head Scare," <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_69">[69-70]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Hilliard, Captain, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_20">[20]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Hospital erected at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_57">[57]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Humphrey, Rev. William Topley, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_73">[73]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Industries, Convict, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_104">[104-112]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Jail erected near Brass Basa Canal, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_54">[54]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">New Civil, at Pearl's Hill, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_64">[64]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Singapore, Description of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_77">[77-83]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Singapore, Classification of convicts at, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_84">[84-89]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Singapore, Rations for, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_93">[93]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Industries at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_104">[104-112]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Convict Probation at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_157">[157]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Expenses of Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_169">[169]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Statistics of Hospital Department, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_170">[170-171]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Janssen, M. Leon, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_151">[151]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Johnstone, Mr. A. L., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Johore, Sultan of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_36">[36]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Kerr, Dr., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_150">[150]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Labour, Value of convict, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_92">[92]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Statistics of convict, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_172">[172-175]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Latrines, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_80">[80-82]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">"Licuala acutifida," <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_24">[24]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Light, Captain, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_15">[15]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Lighthouses at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_60">[60-62]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">erected at eastern entrance to Straits of Malacca, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_62">[62]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">McClure, Sir Robert, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_139">[139]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">MacKenzie, Mr. E., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">McNair, Lieut., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_73">[73]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">McNair, Major, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_52">[52]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Rules introduced by, 1858-59, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_63">[63]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">prepares plans for Government House at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_77">[77]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_97">[97]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_101">[101]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Macpherson, Captain Ronald, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_71">[71]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_73">[73]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Macpherson, Colonel, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_97">[97]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Attempt to kill, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_125">[125]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Magaelhaens, Mr., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_61">[61]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Mahomed Shah, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_26">[26]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Malacca, Origin of name of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_25">[25]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Size of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_26">[26]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Trade of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_26">[26]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">The Portuguese at, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_26">[26]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Appearance of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_27">[27]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">First convicts at, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_27">[27]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Industrial training of convicts at, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_29">[29]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Transfer of convicts to Singapore from, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_30">[30]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">trade, 1845-46, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_65">[65]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Man, Captain, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_158">[158]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Man, General, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_20">[20]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_21">[21]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Man, General, Initiation of carpenter's work at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_64">[64]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Marco Polo, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_151">[151]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Maxwell, Mr. D. A., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Mayne, Major, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_76">[76]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Montgomery, Mr. W., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Moor's <i>Notices of the Indian Archipelago</i>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_45">[45]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Morgan, Mr. A. F., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Morgan, Mr. John, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Mouat, Dr., Paper on ticket-of-leave system at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_10">[10]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Testimony as to conservancy of Singapore jail, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_82">[82]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Report on Singapore jail, 1864-65, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_105">[105]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Napier, Mr. D. F., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Netley Abbey, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_97">[97]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">New Harbour Dock, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_67">[67]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Ord, Lady, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_101">[101]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Ord, Sir Harry St. George, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_76">[76]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_101">[101]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Oxley, Dr., House of, attacked by burglars, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_43">[43]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Pangkor, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_14">[14]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><a name="penang" id="penang"></a>Penang, Convicts transferred to, from Bencoolen, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_8">[8]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_14">[14]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Increase in population of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_15">[15]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Trade of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_16">[16]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_65">[65]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Treatment of convicts at, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_16">[16-20]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Ticket-of-leave at, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_24">[24]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Seat of government fixed at, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_41">[41]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">"Penang lawyers," <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_24">[24]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">"Penang Rules," <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_8">[8]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_18">[18]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">in force at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_43">[43]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Pine-apples at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_59">[59]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Piracy in the Straits of Malacca, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_120">[120-122]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Pooley, Lieut.-Col. Charles, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_73">[73]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Port Blair, Transfer of Indian life-convicts to, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_143">[143]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">"Prince of Wales Island" (see also <a href="#penang">Penang</a>), <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_14">[14]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Prisoners (see <a href="#cons">Convicts</a>).</p>
+
+<p class="index">Province Wellesley, Acquisition of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_14">[14]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Pulo Ubin, British flag planted at, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_38">[38]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Purvis, Captain, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_73">[73]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Purvis, Mr. John, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Queen, H.M. The, Statue of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_104">[104]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Raffles', Sir Stamford, letters to Government on treatment of convicts at Bencoolen, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_4">[4-8]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Views of, on necessity of trading centre in Straits of Malacca, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_33">[33]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Address from merchants at Singapore to, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_36">[36]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">reply to address from merchants at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_37">[37]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">"The Coney" lighthouse named after, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_62">[62]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Raffles Institution, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_45">[45]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Rations for Singapore jail, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_93">[93]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Rawlinson, Sir Robert, K.C.B., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_76">[76]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Read, Mr. C. R., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Read, Mr. W. H., C.M.G., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_100">[100]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Rhio, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_33">[33]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Roads opened between Bukit Timah and Krangi, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_59">[59]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">to summit of Telok Blangah Hill, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_59">[59]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Rock-blasting by Indian convicts, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_66">[66]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Rowell, Dr. Irvine, C.M.G., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_150">[150]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">St. Andrew's Church, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_68">[68]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Construction of a new, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_72">[72]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">consecrated by Dr. George Cotton, Bishop of Calcutta, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_74">[74]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Scott, Mr. Charles, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Scott, Mr. Thomas, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_101">[101]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Serangoon road, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_44">[44]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Shaw, Mr. Frank, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_131">[131]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Singapore, Foundation of settlement, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_34">[34]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Origin of name of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_31">[31]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Size of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_32">[32]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">ceded to Great Britain, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_34">[34]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Population of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_34">[34]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">First settlers at, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_34">[34]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Early prison at, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_35">[35]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Address from merchants at, to Sir Stamford Raffles, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_36">[36]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Extracts from reply to address from merchants to Sir S. Raffles, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_37">[37]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">First census, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_38">[38]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Transfer of convicts from Bencoolen to, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_39">[39]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">First church for, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_45">[45]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">jail erected, 1841, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_54">[54]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Tigers at, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_49">[49-53]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Extract from <i>The Free Press</i> on progress of town, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_55">[55]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">hospital erected, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_57">[57]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">bricks, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_58">[58]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">pine-apples, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_59">[59]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">trade, 1845-46, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_65">[65]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">census, 1849, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_67">[67]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">new church, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_72">[72]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Fortification of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_75">[75]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">waterworks, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_76">[76]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">jail, Description of, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_77">[77-83]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">cathedral, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_97">[97-101]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Government House, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_101">[101-104]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Expenses of, jail, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_169">[169]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index"><i>Singapore Free Press</i>: Extract on capture of a tiger, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_50">[50]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Extract on ravages of tigers, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_51">[51]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Extract on progress of Singapore town, 1842, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_55">[55]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Extract on Singapore lighthouse, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_61">[61]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Extract on tiger-hunting, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_134">[134]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">on released convicts, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_183">[183-184]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">on "head-cutting" scare, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_185">[185-186]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Sleeman, Colonel, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_12">[12]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Stevenson, Captain, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_48">[48]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Stone Quarrying at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_111">[111]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Surveying, Convicts used for, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_56">[56]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Tanjong Tatti, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_33">[33]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Tan-Tock-Seng, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_57">[57]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Taylor, Rev. Wallace, M.D., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_152">[152]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Temple, Col. R.C., <a class="indexlink" href="#Footnote_3_3">[21]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Thompson, J. T., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_56">[56]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">designs hospital for Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_57">[57]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">designs Singapore lighthouse, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_60">[60]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">"Thuggee," <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_11">[11]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">"Tickery Banda," <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_113">[113]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Ticket-of-leave system, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_10">[10]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_24">[24]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">employed in pine culture, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_60">[60]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Tigers at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_49">[49-53]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">trap, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_131">[131]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Trade for year 1845-46 of Penang, Singapore, and Malacca, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_65">[65]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Trades of Singapore convicts, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_90">[90-92]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Transportation, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_8">[8]</a>.</p>
+<p class="index2">Effect of, on the native of India, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_9">[9]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_117">[117]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_157">[157]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><i>Tropical Possessions in Malayan India</i>, Story about "Tickery Banda" in, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_113">[113]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Warders, Singapore convicts as, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_40">[40]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_48">[48]</a>, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_162">[162]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Well-digging at Singapore, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_112">[112]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">White, Rev. Edmund, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_45">[45]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="index">Wilson, Rt. Rev. Daniel, D.D., <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_73">[73]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index p3">Xavier, St. Francis, <a class="indexlink" href="#Page_27">[27]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr class="hr1" />
+<p class="center">Butler &amp; Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr />
+<div class="tnote">
+<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Notes"</b></p>
+
+<p>Inconsistencies in the hyphenation of words preserved. (cocoanuts,
+cocoa-nuts; extramural, extra-mural; intramural, intra-mural; lookout,
+look-out; tongkong, tong-kong; transmarine, trans-marine; workyard,
+work-yard)</p>
+
+<p>Pg. 37, inserted missing period. (extracts from it. After acknowledging)</p>
+
+<p>Pg. 167-8, these were blank pages in the original text and anchors have
+not been inserted for them.</p>
+
+<p>Pg. 187, index entry "Alquada". Is spelled "Alguada" in main text.
+Original spellings of both preserved as it is unclear which the author
+intended.</p>
+
+<p>Pg. 188, index entry "Crawfurd, Mr. John". Pg. 36 which index refers to
+spells the name as "Crawford" while Pg. 101 spells it as "Crawfurd".
+Original spellings retained in all cases as it is unclear which spelling
+the author intended.</p>
+
+<p>Pg. 189, index entry "Malacca". Inserted period after page number.
+(First convicts at, 27.)</p>
+
+<p>Pg. 189, index entry "Moor's <i>Notices of the Indian Archipelago</i>".
+In the original text, both the author's name and the title of the book
+were italicized.</p>
+
+<p>Pg. 191, index entry "Tanjong Tatti". Is spelled "Tanjong Jatti" in main
+text. Original spellings of both preserved as it is unclear which the
+author intended.</p>
+
+<p>Pg. 191, index entry "Thompson, J. T.". Inserted comma before page
+number. (Singapore lighthouse, 60)</p>
+
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Prisoners Their Own Warders, by 
+J. F. A. McNair and W. D. Bayliss
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Prisoners Their Own Warders, by
+J. F. A. McNair and W. D. Bayliss
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Prisoners Their Own Warders
+       A Record of the Convict Prison at Singapore in the Straits
+       Settlements Established 1825
+
+Author: J. F. A. McNair
+        W. D. Bayliss
+
+Release Date: October 20, 2008 [EBook #26974]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRISONERS THEIR OWN WARDERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ronald Lee
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PRISONERS THEIR OWN WARDERS
+
+[Illustration: _Frontispiece_
+
+GENERAL MONTHLY MUSTER OF THE CONVICTS, SINGAPORE JAIL.]
+
+
+
+
+  PRISONERS THEIR OWN
+  WARDERS
+
+  A RECORD OF THE CONVICT PRISON AT SINGAPORE
+  IN THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS ESTABLISHED 1825,
+  DISCONTINUED 1873, TOGETHER WITH A
+  CURSORY HISTORY OF THE CONVICT
+  ESTABLISHMENTS AT BENCOOLEN,
+  PENANG AND MALACCA FROM
+  THE YEAR 1797
+
+
+  BY MAJOR J. R A. McNAIR
+
+  _Late Royal Artillery, C.M.G., A.M.I.C.E., F.L.S., and F.R.G.S
+  Late Colonial Engineer and Surveyor General and
+  Comptroller of Indian Convicts
+  Straits Settlements from 1857 to 1877
+  Author of "Perak and the Malays"
+  (Sarong and Kris)_
+
+
+  ASSISTED BY W. D. BAYLISS
+
+  _Mem. Soc. Engineers Lond., Late Superintendent of Works and
+  Surveys and Superintendent of Convicts, Singapore_
+
+
+  WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  "A willing bondman."
+              --SHAKESPEARE
+                (_Julius Caesar_, Act I., Sc. 3)
+
+
+  WESTMINSTER
+  ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND CO
+  2 WHITEHALL GARDENS
+  1899
+
+
+  ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
+
+
+
+
+  BUTLER & TANNER,
+  THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS,
+  FROME, AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: DUFFADAR ARJOON, SENIOR PETTY OFFICER
+OF ARTIFICERS.
+
+_McNair._]
+
+
+Preface
+
+
+Some explanation appears to be due from us for writing this account of
+the Singapore Convict Jail so long after the date of its final
+abolition.
+
+The truth is, that for several years it has been our opinion that it
+ought to be written by some one, and the same suggestion had often been
+made to one of us by the late Doctor Mouat, Inspector General of Jails,
+Bengal, and others who were well acquainted with its administration.
+
+An opportunity lately occurred to bring us into communication on the
+subject, and when we came to compare the voluminous notes that each of
+us had collected during the time that the jail was in full vigour, we
+arrived at the conclusion that there was abundant material for a work
+upon it. It also appeared to us that there were some exceptional
+features in the training and discipline of these native convicts, that
+might even at this day prove of service to other Superintendents of
+native jails in different parts of India and the Colonies; while, at the
+same time, such a work would not be devoid of some interest to those who
+make a study of the punishment and reformation of the criminal class of
+all countries, a subject in regard to which, in spite of the great
+progress we have made, the last word has certainly not yet been said.
+
+This, then, is our apology for the attempt we have made, and we trust
+that our joint labours may be received with indulgence.
+
+When this old Singapore jail was put an end to in 1873, some six years
+after the transfer of the Straits Settlements to the Crown, the convicts
+then under confinement were removed to the Andaman Islands, at that time
+not long established as a penal settlement for India; while those on a
+ticket-of-leave were permitted to merge into the population, continuing
+to earn their livelihood as artizans, cow keepers, cart drivers, and the
+like. Those who were old and infirm were retained at Singapore at the
+expense of the Indian Government, and a certain number of convicts from
+Hongkong were returned to that colony to complete their sentences. There
+remained, therefore, only the local prisoners to be dealt with, and for
+these, under the subsequent orders of the Colonial Government, was
+planned and constructed by our Department, and under our supervision, a
+spacious prison on the cellular system, and situated on a more healthy
+site than the old convict jail, which had become surrounded by the
+buildings of the town.
+
+We should much like to have given a consecutive history of this old jail
+from the date of its first construction until it was finally abolished,
+but unfortunately the jail registers have not been carefully kept from
+the beginning, or are not forthcoming; but we have had access to some
+old scattered letters and papers, and to statistics from the year 1844,
+since which time the records have been regularly kept from year to year.
+
+A good deal of useful information has also come within our reach from
+works written upon Singapore and the Straits Settlements, and especially
+are we indebted to an _Anecdotal History of Singapore_, published by the
+_Free Press_, and extending from the year 1822 to 1856, which gives an
+interesting account of our early occupation of that island, and of the
+use to which the labour of these convicts was turned.
+
+From the Memoirs of _Sir Stamford Raffles_, written by his widow in
+1830, and from his _Life_ by Demetrius Charles Boulger, in 1897, we have
+been able to trace that, so far back as the year 1823, there were
+between 800 and 900 of these Indian convicts at our settlement of
+Bencoolen, on the south-west coast of Sumatra; and that, when this place
+was conceded to the Dutch by the London treaty of 1825, these convicts
+were removed to Penang, and were subsequently distributed amongst the
+three settlements of Penang, Malacca, and Singapore. This distribution
+would in all probability have taken place about the year 1825, when
+Singapore was incorporated with Penang and Malacca, under the Governor
+and Council of the Incorporated Settlements.
+
+We think the account which we are about to give of the various
+employments of these Indian convicts at Singapore, will abundantly show
+how considerably this important settlement has benefited by their early
+introduction. They made most of the roads in the settlement, including
+timber bridges, viaducts and tunnels, and executed for the Government
+many important public buildings. Moreover, when released from
+imprisonment upon a ticket-of-leave, they were absorbed innoxiously into
+the native community, and again contributed to the advantage of the
+place in the various occupations they had recourse to, in order to
+obtain an honest livelihood. By a judicious system of rewards, and a
+graduated scale of promotion, a very remarkable spirit of industry was
+infused into the bulk of these convicts during their incarceration, and
+it may be honestly said that this was effected without the sacrifice of
+that wholesome discipline always essential in the control especially of
+the criminal class.
+
+We could not, of course, interfere with their religion, but by a
+well-judged scale of punishments and rewards, and by instruction given
+to them in their own vernacular, we endeavoured to raise their character
+by helping them to good conduct, and to a better way of living. To
+encourage and foster that industry to which we have referred, we taught
+them the trades to which each of them appeared to be best adapted, and
+held out to them the hope that they might again become good citizens,
+and earn for themselves a creditable subsistence; and, as it was our
+practice to deal with each of them "individually," we were often made
+aware that there was many an honest heart immured within those prison
+walls.
+
+In the narrative we have given of the Settlements, it may seem that we
+have dwelt at too great length upon their early history, but we thought
+it would add to the interest of the work, if we gave what is really only
+a limited sketch of the various places to which those Indian convicts
+were first banished beyond the seas.
+
+In the initiation of the system of industrial training among these
+convicts, special credit is due to the late General (then Captain) Man,
+who in his early years had been trained at Chatham as a sapper. The late
+Colonel Macpherson, who succeeded him, carried on and improved the
+system, and both these officers were well seconded in their efforts by
+the late Mr. J. Bennett, C.E., who practically was their clerk of the
+works. Mr. Bennett subsequently rose to a high position in the
+Department.
+
+It would be impossible to mention the names of all the subordinate
+staff, but Burnett, Stuart, and Lamb are prominent in our recollection
+as having done good service as warders and instructors.
+
+In 1864, the Resident of Rhio, Java, Mr. E. Netscher, was appointed by
+the Dutch Government to study and report upon the convict system in
+force in Singapore, and both the Siam and Japan Governments sent special
+missions for the like purpose, the mission from Japan being accompanied
+by Mr. Hall, of the British Consulate. Many others, also, recorded their
+opinions in its favour, and some among them were authorities upon prison
+systems pursued in some parts of both Europe and America.
+
+The local government, we should add, in their direction of this convict
+establishment, fully recognised that the distinctive feature in the
+native mind was to look to one rather than to many masters, to one
+European executive officer rather than to a collective body of
+magistrates, and, therefore, beyond that general supervision which the
+Government must ever assume over its Departments, it committed the whole
+of the management, discipline, and control of this large body of
+convicts entirely to their Superintendent, under the approved rules and
+regulations for his guidance, and for the administration of the whole
+establishment.
+
+
+  J. F. A. McNAIR, R.A., C.M.G.
+  W. D. BAYLISS.
+
+
+  SCOTIA, PRESTON PARK,
+  BRIGHTON, SUSSEX.
+
+
+
+
+  Contents
+
+
+  Chapter I
+
+  EARLY RECORDS OF BENCOOLEN AND
+  OBSERVATIONS ABOUT CONVICTS                  1
+
+
+  Chapter II
+
+  A SLIGHT SKETCH OF PENANG AND THE
+  TREATMENT OF THE CONVICTS THERE             14
+
+
+  Chapter III
+
+  OLD MALACCA, AND THE FIRST INTRODUCTION
+  OF CONVICTS THERE                           25
+
+
+  Chapter IV
+
+  A RUNNING HISTORY OF SINGAPORE: ITS JAIL
+  SYSTEM AND ADMINISTRATION                   31
+
+
+  Chapter V
+
+  SINGAPORE (CONTINUED)                       47
+
+
+  Chapter VI
+
+  SINGAPORE (CONTINUED)                       59
+
+
+  Chapter VII
+
+  SINGAPORE (CONTINUED)                       75
+
+
+  Chapter VIII
+
+  DIVISION INTO CLASSES, TRADERS,
+  FOOD AND CLOTHING                           84
+
+
+  Chapter IX
+
+  PUBLIC WORKS AND INDUSTRIES                 96
+
+
+  Chapter X
+
+  STORIES ABOUT INDIAN CONVICTS AND
+  EUROPEAN LOCAL PRISONERS                   113
+
+
+  Chapter XI
+
+  ABOLITION OF THE CONVICT DEPARTMENT
+  AND DISPOSAL OF THE CONVICTS               143
+
+
+  Chapter XII
+
+  DISEASES AND MALINGERING                   147
+
+
+  Chapter XIII
+
+  CONCLUSION                                 156
+
+
+  APPENDICES                                 169
+
+
+
+
+  List of Illustrations and Plates
+
+
+  GENERAL MONTHLY MUSTER OF THE CONVICTS,
+  SINGAPORE JAIL                                   _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                     TO FACE PAGE
+
+  DUFFADAR ARJOON                                               v
+
+
+  Plate I
+
+  OLD MAP SHOWING PENAL SETTLEMENTS                             1
+
+
+  Plate II
+
+  FORT CORNWALLIS, PENANG                                      14
+
+
+  Plate III
+
+  BOUNDARIES OF MALACCA, PORTUGUESE PERIOD                     25
+
+
+  Plate IV
+
+  OLD MALACCA                                                  26
+
+
+  Plate V
+
+  ALBUQUERQUE                                                  26
+
+
+  Plate VI
+
+  MALACCA RIVER                                                28
+
+
+  Plate VII
+
+  ST. FRANCIS XAVIER                                           28
+
+
+  Plate VIII
+
+  TOWN AND ENVIRONS OF SINGAPORE                               31
+
+
+  Plate IX
+
+  ORIGINAL HUTS FOR CONVICTS, SINGAPORE                        39
+
+
+  Plate X
+
+  DISTRIBUTION OF JAIL BUILDINGS, SINGAPORE                    77
+
+
+  Plate XI
+
+  MAIN GATE OF SINGAPORE JAIL                                  78
+
+
+  Plate XII
+
+  DUFFADAR RAM SINGH                                           84
+
+
+  Plate XIII
+
+  HEAD TINDAL MAISTRI                                          86
+
+
+  Plate XIV
+
+  CONVICT OF SECOND CLASS AND MUNSHI                           88
+
+
+  Plate XV
+
+  CONVICTS OF FIFTH CLASS, AND FIFTH CLASS SECTION A           90
+
+
+  Plate XVA
+
+  CHETOO--CONVICT OF FIFTH CLASS                               92
+
+
+  Plate XVI
+
+  CATHEDRAL, SINGAPORE                                         97
+
+
+  Plate XVII
+
+  GOVERNMENT HOUSE, GARDEN, AND MORTAR MILL                   101
+
+
+  Plate XVIII
+
+  GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE, APPROACHING COMPLETION         102
+
+
+  Plate XIX
+
+  GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE, COMPLETED                      104
+
+
+  Plate XX
+
+  CONVICTS STONE-QUARRYING                                    111
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Plate I.]
+
+
+Chapter I
+
+EARLY RECORDS OF BENCOOLEN AND OBSERVATIONS ABOUT CONVICTS
+
+
+In opening this account of the old convict jail at Singapore, it will be
+necessary to refer, as we have said, in some little detail to the
+history of the settlements of Bencoolen, Penang, and Malacca, to which
+convicts from India were first sent, prior to their reception into the
+Singapore prison.
+
+The first penal settlement was Bencoolen, the Banka-Ulu[1] of the
+Malays, to which they were transported from India about the year 1787,
+much about the same time that transportation to Australia for English
+convicts was sanctioned by our laws.
+
+    [Footnote 1: Literally, swollen at the source.]
+
+Bencoolen was singularly adapted as a receptacle for convict labour; it
+was not a populous place when we took it in 1685, nor, as far as we can
+gather, had the population much increased up to the year 1787, and the
+few Sumatrans and Malays that were its inhabitants were an indolent
+race, and preferred a life of ease to any kind of labour. They were
+content to get their livelihood from fishing, and they had no artificial
+wants. They would occasionally work upon pepper plantations, and would
+bring the berries to Bencoolen for sale to British merchants. Labour was
+therefore wanted here, and the East India Company thought that by its
+introduction they would make of Bencoolen a thriving settlement; but as
+it turned out they were greatly disappointed, for both pepper and
+camphor, which were the only commodities there for trade, greatly
+declined; and commerce, which was all-important to the East India
+Company, almost entirely disappeared after its establishment for some
+few years. It was a miserable place from all accounts, and was described
+by Captain James Lowe, in 1836, "as an expensive port, and of no use to
+any nation that might possess it," and he only echoed what was
+previously said of it by William Dampier, who had once been there in the
+humble position of a gunner, that it was "a sorry place, sorrily
+governed, and very unhealthy." So unhealthy was it, that it became
+necessary as early as 1714 to remove the Residency and offices to a
+point of land about two miles further off the coast, which was called
+Fort Marlborough; but even this locality was found not to be beyond the
+reach of malaria, and the place continued, as Crawfurd says, to be more
+or less unhealthy down to the cession of the settlement in 1825. But it
+had, however, done its work in providing for us a firm footing in those
+seas, and was a help to the next step in our progress towards a wider
+empire.
+
+It is important to relate here that its last Lieut.-Governor was the
+founder of our now important settlement of Singapore. He took up the
+appointment at Bencoolen on the 20th March, 1818, founded Singapore in
+1819, returned to Bencoolen in 1820, and finally left for England in
+1824.
+
+It is not our present purpose to dwell upon the intellectual and moral
+greatness of this remarkable man, for full justice has been done to his
+memory in the recent account of his life by Demetrius Boulger, and by an
+impressive tribute to his worth by General Sir Andrew Clarke, R.E.,
+G.C.M.G., in a paper read by him in May last at the Royal Institution.
+
+It is of course impossible at this late date to trace what was done in
+connection with the convicts on their first arrival at this settlement,
+though we gather from old letters that they were employed principally
+upon road-making, and on clearing estates which, "owing to their owners
+having died intestate, had reverted to the State." They were also let
+out to planters on a guarantee as to their not quitting the settlement.
+
+The first authentic information we have in regard to the management and
+treatment of these convicts is from a letter to the Government by Sir
+Stamford Raffles, written from Bencoolen in 1818; which we give bodily
+from his Life, written by his widow in 1830. It is a paper which gives
+evidence of the soundness of his views upon this subject, and indeed it
+may be truly said, that with every question with which he had to deal he
+always displayed the greatest judgment and keenness of insight.
+
+It is as follows:--
+
+    "But there is another class of people that call for immediate
+    consideration. Since 1787 a number of persons have been
+    transported to this place from Bengal for various crimes of
+    which they have been found guilty.
+
+    The object of the punishment as far as it affects the parties
+    must be the reclaiming them from their bad habits, but I much
+    question whether the practice hitherto pursued has been
+    productive of that effect. This I apprehend to be, in a great
+    measure, in consequence of sufficient discrimination and
+    encouragement not having been shown in favour of those most
+    inclined to amendment, and perhaps to the want of a
+    discretionary power in the chief authority to remit a portion
+    of the punishment and disgrace which is at present the common
+    lot of all. It frequently happens that men of notoriously bad
+    conduct are liberated at the expiration of a limited period of
+    transportation, whilst others, whose general conduct is perhaps
+    unexceptional, are doomed to servitude till the end of their
+    lives.
+
+    As coercive measures are not likely to be attended with
+    success, I conceive that some advantage would arise from
+    affording inducements to good conduct by holding out the
+    prospect of again becoming useful members of society, and
+    freeing themselves from the disabilities under which they
+    labour. There are at present about 500 of these unfortunate
+    people. However just the original sentence may have been, the
+    crimes and characters of so numerous a body must necessarily be
+    very unequal, and it is desirable that some discrimination
+    should be exerted in favour of those who show the disposition
+    to redeem their character. I would suggest the propriety of the
+    chief authority being vested with a discretionary power of
+    freeing such men as conduct themselves well from the obligation
+    of service, and permitting them to settle in the place and
+    resume the privileges of citizenship. The prospect of
+    recovering their characters, of freeing themselves from their
+    present disabilities, and the privileges of employing their
+    industry for their own advantage would become an object of
+    ambition, and supply a stimulus to exertion and good conduct
+    which is at present wanting.
+
+    It rarely happens that any of those transported have any desire
+    to leave the country; they form connections in the place, and
+    find so many inducements to remain, that to be sent away is
+    considered by most a severe punishment.
+
+    While a convict remains unmarried and kept to daily labour very
+    little confidence can be placed in him, and his services are
+    rendered with so much tardiness and dissatisfaction that they
+    are of little or no value; but he no sooner marries and forms a
+    small settlement than he becomes a kind of colonist, and if
+    allowed to follow his inclinations he seldom feels inclined to
+    return to his native country.
+
+    I propose to divide them into three classes. The first class to
+    be allowed to give evidence in court, and permitted to settle
+    on land secured to them and their children; but no one to be
+    admitted to this class until he has been resident in Bencoolen
+    three years. The second class to be employed in ordinary
+    labour. The third class, or men of abandoned and profligate
+    character, to be kept to the harder kinds of labour, and
+    confined at night.
+
+    In cases of particular good conduct a prospect may be held out
+    of emancipating deserving convicts from further obligation of
+    services on condition of their supporting themselves and not
+    quitting the settlement.
+
+    Upon the abstract question of the advantage of this arrangement
+    I believe there will be little difference of opinion. The
+    advantage of holding out an adequate motive of exertion is
+    sufficiently obvious, and here it would have the double
+    tendency of diminishing the bad characters and of increasing
+    that of useful and industrious settlers, thereby facilitating
+    the general police of the country and diminishing the expenses
+    of the Company."
+
+These intentions were acted upon afterwards, and the good effects of
+the regulations were soon apparent; a large body of people who had been
+living in the lowest state of degradation soon became useful labourers
+and happy members of society. So grateful were they for the change, that
+when they were sent round to Penang on the transfer of Bencoolen to the
+Dutch in 1825, as we have stated, they entreated to be placed on the
+same footing as they had been placed at Fort Marlborough, and not
+reduced to the state of the convicts in Prince of Wales Island, who were
+kept as a Government gang to be employed wherever their services might
+be thought most desirable.
+
+Upon December 20th, 1823, Sir Stamford Raffles wrote a further letter to
+Government in regard to these convicts, of which we can only give an
+extract, which runs thus--
+
+    "As the management of convicts ought to be a subject of
+    consideration, I send you a copy of the regulations established
+    for those of this place. The convicts now at Bencoolen amount
+    to 800 or 900, and the number is gradually increasing. They are
+    natives of Bengal and Madras; that is to say, of those
+    presidencies. The arrangement has been brought about gradually,
+    but the system now appears complete, and, as far as we have yet
+    gone, has been attended with the best effects. I have entrusted
+    Mr. John Hull with the superintending of the department, and he
+    feels great pleasure and satisfaction in the general
+    improvement of this class of people."
+
+It is greatly to be regretted that we have been unable to obtain a copy
+of the regulations to which Sir Stamford Raffles refers, but we have no
+doubt they formed the basis of what were hereafter called the "Penang
+rules."
+
+It was, as we have said, in the year 1825 that the whole of the
+Bencoolen convicts were transferred to Penang, and thence, as
+opportunities offered later on, to Malacca and Singapore. One point we
+trace in regard to those convicts is that, greatly to their
+disappointment, they missed the freedom they had possessed at Bencoolen,
+for they were sent to work in gangs upon the roads, and in levelling
+ground near the town of Penang. At first they were tried at jungle
+cutting and burning, but had no aptitude for it. This work was therefore
+entrusted to Malays, who we all know have a natural bent for cutting
+down trees and underwood, and are possessed of implements wonderfully
+suited for the purpose.
+
+We may remark here that transportation in those early times had its
+terrors both to the European from our shores to Australia, and to the
+native of India to these settlements, and more especially to the latter.
+
+Though, by a system of "assignment" or "compulsory" servitude to
+masters, or by a ticket of leave which made it open to the European
+criminal to work for whom and where he pleased, expatriation became in
+time to be less severely felt; still, for a long period it continued to
+act as a deterrent to others, though to the convict himself it was
+"greater in idea perhaps than in reality." To the native of India it
+meant even a severer punishment than to the European, for to be sent
+across the "kala pani," or "black water," in a convict ship or "jeta
+junaza," or "living tomb" as they called it, meant, especially to a man
+of high caste, whether of the right or left hand section, the total loss
+to him of all that was worth living for. He could never be received in
+intercourse again with his own people, and so strong are the caste ideas
+of ceremonial uncleanness that it would be defilement to his friends and
+relations even to offer to him sustenance of any kind, and he was in
+point of fact excommunicated and avoided. Happily this dread of caste
+defilement has now, by railway communication over the country and
+equalization of classes under our rule, greatly diminished, but it is
+still, as Balfour says, "a prominent feature in every-day Hindu life."
+Sir Stamford Raffles' views as to the treatment of those transported
+convicts have in the main been recognised by all authorities in the
+Straits Settlements since his time; and his suggestion as to the
+privileges to be granted to men of the first class, though not defined
+by him as a "ticket of leave," has been all along kept in view, and was
+in regular force in the jail of which we treat. He divided his convicts
+into three classes only, but as time went on they were separated into
+six classes, and later on in the narrative will be given the reasons for
+this enlargement of the number. Dr. Mouat, Inspector General of Jails,
+Bengal, in a paper read before the Statistical Society some few years
+ago, spoke of this jail and the ticket-of-leave system as follows:--
+
+    "I visited the Straits Settlements in 1861 when under the rule
+    of my friend, Sir Orfeur Cavenagh, and found in existence a
+    system of industrial training of convicts superior to anything
+    we had at that time on the continent of India. It was said to
+    have been inaugurated by the celebrated Sir Stamford Raffles in
+    1825, when Singapore was first selected for the transportation
+    of convicts from India, and to have been subsequently organised
+    and successfully worked by General H. Man, Colonel MacPherson,
+    and Major McNair. The ticket-of-leave system was in full and
+    effective operation, and very important public works have been
+    constructed by means of convict labour, chief amongst them St.
+    Andrew's Cathedral, a palace for the Governor, and most of the
+    roads. The ticket-of-leave convicts were said to be a
+    well-conducted, industrious lot of men, who very rarely
+    committed fresh crimes, who all earned an honest livelihood,
+    and were regarded as respectable members of the community
+    amongst whom they dwelt. The public works were creditable
+    examples of prison industry and skill St. Andrew's Cathedral,
+    built under Major McNair from plans prepared by Colonel
+    MacPherson entirely by convict labour, struck me as one of the
+    finest specimens of ecclesiastical architecture which I had
+    seen in the East, and I believe there exists in no other
+    country a more remarkable example of the successful industrial
+    training of convicts."
+
+We are not of course greatly concerned in this treatise with the
+original crimes committed by those Indian convicts, and for which they
+had received a sentence of transportation. Suffice it to say that their
+warrants showed generally that, in the case of convicts for life, the
+crimes were for the most part those of Murder, Thuggee, and Dacoity;
+while those sentenced to a term of years had been tried and convicted of
+frauds and forgeries, robbery with violence, and such like
+misdemeanours. "Thuggee," we all know, though it will bear repetition
+here, was in full operation all over India from very early times, but at
+the beginning of this century it engaged the serious attention of the
+Indian Government; and it was found to be an hereditary pursuit of
+certain families who worked in gangs--the Hindus to satisfy their
+goddess Bhawani, and other sects the goddess Devi--and they committed a
+countless number of murders all over the country. Thugs were a bold,
+resolute set of men, and as a rule divided themselves into groups
+consisting of a leader, a persuader, a strangler, a scout, and a
+gravedigger, but all the gangs, happily for India, were finally broken
+up under Colonel Sleeman about 1860. Some of the men were hanged, and
+many transported to our penal settlements in the Straits of Malacca.
+Dacoity was in some parts of India akin to Thuggee, for the leaders
+carried with them in the same way a sacred implement, which was devoted
+to Bhawani. In the case of the Thugs this was a pickaxe, but with the
+Dacoits it was an axe with a highly-tempered edge.
+
+In the early days we talk of, it was the common practice of the
+authorities to brand these life convicts with a hot iron to indicate the
+character of their crime, and this was in some cases done upon the
+forehead both in the English language and in the vernacular of the
+district where the crime was committed. This was very properly put a
+stop to shortly after the custom became known. We have seen some of
+those in our jail who, by good conduct, have risen to a ticket of leave,
+using their utmost endeavours to get rid of the marks, but without
+effect; and finally as a last resource they were obliged to be content
+to hide the "stigma" by wearing their turbans, or head-dresses,
+inconveniently low down over their brows.
+
+It is worthy of remark here, in reference to those native criminals who
+are in the habit of working in gangs, more especially among the Thugs,
+how signally they often fail when they attempt to act alone. Amongst our
+Thugs we had one (a strangler) who, coveting a pair of gold bangles on
+the wrist of a fellow-convict employed at the General Hospital, one
+night tried the handkerchief upon him, but missed his mark, and got away
+without being detected. Later on, the convict authorities examined the
+warrants of all the men at the hospital, and this gave them a clue,
+which they followed up successfully and caught the "Thug." He was
+punished, and then confessed, saying, "Bhawani was unkind, and I could
+not do it by myself; I missed my companions," or "saubutwale" as he
+called them, literally meaning those "I kept company with."
+
+It will not be inappropriate to mention here the callous and brutalized
+nature of those gang-robbers, of whom it is recorded that, when one of
+their gang was suddenly arrested, they at once decapitated him, and
+carried off the head, lest the whole gang should be betrayed.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter II
+
+A SLIGHT SKETCH OF PENANG AND THE TREATMENT OF THE CONVICTS THERE
+
+
+Penang, also named "Prince of Wales" Island as a compliment to the then
+Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. This name for the island has
+become almost obsolete, and the Malay name Pi'nang, for the "Areka
+Palm," which flourishes there, is that by which it is now always known.
+It is situated at the northern extremity of the Malacca Straits, and was
+ceded to us by the Rajah of Kedah in 1785, when we gave up, but only for
+a time, our British settlement on the North Andaman, which we had
+acquired in 1789 and abandoned in 1796. Province Wellesley, opposite to
+Penang, upon the Malay Peninsula, was thirteen years later taken by us
+for the purpose of suppressing piracy, and forms part of this British
+settlement. The island has an area of 107 square miles, and the province
+of 270 square miles. Another dependency of the settlement since 1889 is
+the Dindings with the Island of Pangkor, where the treaty of 1874 was
+made by Sir Andrew Clarke, and which eventually led to our protectorate
+of several of the native states of the Malay Peninsula, and their
+complete federation in 1896.
+
+[Illustration: FORT CORNWALLIS, PENANG.
+
+_Plate II._]
+
+When Penang was first occupied it was almost uninhabited, and the whole
+island was covered with the densest jungle, but it was not long before
+Captain Light, who was appointed the first Superintendent of Trade, made
+a road to the highest point of the island, then called "Bel retiro" but
+now Penang Hill.[2] A great part of the island was soon cleared and
+roads made, so that in 1792, seven years after it came into our hands,
+Captain Light was able to report that the population had increased to
+10,000 souls; this increase of population has been steadily going on
+from year to year, until, with its dependencies, Penang, after a little
+more than a century, now numbers no less than 240,000.
+
+    [Footnote 2: There is an old legend in the island that Captain
+    Light, in order to encourage the Malays in the work of cutting
+    down the jungle, pointed a cannon in the direction in which he
+    required it to be cleared, then he loaded it with powder, and
+    instead of a shot he put in several dollars, and firing it off
+    he called out to the Malays, "Now you may have all you can
+    find."
+
+    It is said that the eager contest which ensued, of one
+    endeavouring to get the money before another, led to a regular
+    scramble, which considerably helped forward the work.]
+
+Since 1825, when the Indian convicts from Bencoolen were added to those
+already on the island, their labour was almost wholly turned to account
+in the construction of roads both on the island and in the province; but
+about 1850 some intramural work was also undertaken. The gangs in the
+province were at last taught to cut and burn the jungle as well as to
+construct the roads, and the records say at some risk from tigers which
+infested the province in those days, and occasionally carried off a
+straggler from the gangs at work. They were also bitten in large numbers
+by the venomous hamadryads which used to abound there, and from the
+poison of which some died.
+
+About the time our treatise commences, Penang had acquired the monopoly
+of the trade of the Malayan Peninsula and Sumatra. It also had a large
+traffic with China, Siam, Borneo, the Celebes, and other places in the
+Eastern Archipelago; but after the establishment later on of Singapore
+it had begun to decline, and the settlement then became second only in
+commercial importance. But within the last quarter of a century the
+trade has considerably revived, owing largely to the planting of tobacco
+in Sumatra by European planters, and the annexation of the native states
+of the Malayan Peninsula, both of which have constituted Penang the
+chief shipping centre for their produce.
+
+Before we pass on to treat of the Singapore jail, it will be well
+briefly to describe the method pursued in dealing with the Indian
+convicts on their first arrival in Penang, as far back as we can trace
+any definite notice in regard to them. They were confined at the outset
+in the then existing prison known as "Chowrusta Lines," situated on the
+Penang road; but this proving to be too small to accommodate all the
+convicts from India, a larger and more commodious prison was built on
+the opposite side of the road. It consisted of an enclosure, surrounded
+by a high brick wall, subdivided into yards, in each of which were
+erected the wards or dormitories. These were simply long rooms open to
+the high roof, having windows on either side secured by iron bars. Iron
+gates closed the doorways to each ward, which were locked at night. A
+gangway seven to eight feet wide ran the whole length of the ward, and
+sleeping platforms about seven feet wide extended to the full length of
+the ward on either side of this gangway. The hospital ward was similar
+to the others, except that it was a two-storied building, and cots were
+provided instead of the continuous sleeping platforms. The hospital and
+women's ward were all within the enclosure in a separate yard. Warders'
+and apothecary's quarters were provided at the main entrance to the
+prison. Cooking places for the different castes and latrines were
+constructed in each yard; a military guard room, food and clothing
+stores were also supplied. Little can be said in favour of this prison,
+as the wards were ill-ventilated, and the sanitary arrangements were
+very imperfect. All the prisoners were in a somewhat lax system of
+association, except those undergoing punishment in cells. Prior to the
+receipt of the convicts from Bencoolen, Penang itself, as a penal
+settlement, had already been supplied from India with a number of
+transported criminals of all tribes and castes, who were working in
+gangs under free warders; but from vacancies and dismissals, and the
+consequent inability to supply the place of these warders, where free
+labour of the kind required was not obtainable, an attempt was then made
+to enlist the services of well-behaved convicts to oversee their
+fellow-prisoners. But it does not appear to have at all succeeded at
+that time, and we have it on record that the Governor in Council at
+Penang, in the year 1827, deemed it necessary to revise the regulations
+under which these Indian convicts were controlled; and accordingly we
+learn that a committee was appointed to assemble at Penang in November,
+1827, when a code of revised rules was drawn up, and the following
+comment was made by the committee as to the employment of convicts as
+warders: "With regard to the present system of employing convicts as
+tindals and sirdars, the committee think it very objectionable, as it is
+impossible that men so intimately connected with those over whom they
+are placed can exercise that authority and control which is so essential
+in the management of such a body of men as the convicts. The duties at
+present performed by these servants are provided for in the proposed
+increase to the establishment."
+
+These rules, subsequently known as the "Penang Rules," received the
+sanction of the Governor in Council, and were sent for guidance to the
+Resident Councillor at Singapore, to which settlement some few convicts
+had already been sent. This remark of the Penang committee, which in all
+fairness we have quoted, was doubtless quite true at the time when it
+was penned, and when the system of employing prisoners as warders was in
+its infancy, and, moreover, when the whole prison discipline was
+acknowledged to be in more or less an indifferent state; but, as will
+hereafter be shown, it did not hold good when the system was well
+established, and the choice of warders was made from those classes best
+suited for the control of their fellow-prisoners, especially in the
+outstations, or "commands" as they were called, where gangs of convicts
+were placed under their control in the construction and repairs of roads
+or in stone-quarrying.
+
+In these early days, no organised system of industrial employment
+appears to have been carried on in this Penang jail, and no intramural
+workshops of any kind were provided, the convicts being employed almost
+exclusively on extramural works, such as opening up roads on the Penang
+Hill and throughout the island, and in Province Wellesley; also in
+brick-making, felling timber, burning lime, and reclaiming mangrove
+swamps. The ground on which some portion of the present town is built
+was filled up by convict labour. Much later on, however, in the Fifties,
+rattan work was introduced into the prison, and easy chairs, lounging
+chairs, baskets, and other articles of a very substantial quality were
+manufactured and sold to the public at a higher price than that for
+which the same articles could be purchased in the town, but they were
+far superior both in the quality of rattan and in their make. About the
+year 1860, blacksmiths' and carpenters' shops were established in the
+prison, and on the different "commands" in the country districts.
+
+The ordinary discipline of the jail was carried out in accordance with
+the "Penang Rules" referred to, and any breach of these rules was
+punished according to the nature of the offence, at the discretion of
+the Superintendent. There was then no formal investigation or inquiry
+into convict complaints or misdemeanours, and no records of them were
+kept with any show of regularity. It was only after the appointment of
+the late General Man as Resident Councillor of Penang, Captain Hilliard
+being Superintendent, that a manifest improvement in the management and
+control of the convicts took place, and especially in their industrial
+training. He brought with him the system in force in Singapore, and the
+new rules and regulations formed with the sanction of the Governor, then
+Colonel Butterworth, and which were an improvement on the old Penang
+rules, but were only at this time being tentatively carried out in
+Penang. By these rules the entire abolition of free warders was
+approved, and petty officers raised from amongst the convicts themselves
+fully established, though as the Governor himself said in his letter to
+the Resident Councillor of Singapore in August, 1854, "I had drawn up
+these rules as long ago as 1845 in the face of much opposition."
+
+The late General Man held the appointment at Penang from 1860 until
+1867, when the Straits Settlements were transferred to the Crown, and
+from Penang he went to the Andaman Islands to introduce there the system
+of convict management in force in the Straits Settlements;[3] and with
+the view to uniformity of practice, the Government of India had
+previously deputed Major, now General, Forlong to prepare a code of
+rules based on those in force in the Singapore jail.
+
+    [Footnote 3: Now under the able management of Col. R. C.
+    Temple, C.I.E.]
+
+When the transfer was fully effected, the new office of Comptroller of
+Indian Convicts was created, and the whole of those Indian convicts in
+the three settlements were placed under his charge. The "Butterworth
+Rules" remained in force, with certain alterations and improvements,
+until the disestablishment of the whole department in 1873.
+
+As many of the convicts were continued to be employed at Penang and
+Province Wellesley on roads and works at a distance from the main jail,
+it was necessary to provide accommodation for them in convict lines, or
+"commands," as we have said, pronounced "kumman" by the convicts.[4] It
+will be interesting to give some particulars about them: They consisted
+of a stockaded fence, constructed of rough poles of wood from four to
+six inches in diameter, and from ten to twelve feet long, set
+perpendicularly in a trench about two feet deep, and placed close
+together, being secured longitudinally by adze-dressed poles nailed
+securely on the outside and along the top of them. The stockade enclosed
+an area sufficient for the erection of the dormitory, cooking place, and
+sheds for the bullocks employed in carts to convey road material, and
+for protection also against the possible attacks of wild animals. The
+walls of the dormitory were constructed in what is well known as "wattle
+and daub." They were made with stout stakes driven firmly into the
+ground at about one foot apart, twigs of trees were then interwoven, and
+the whole then thickly plastered with a mixture of clay and cowdung, and
+when this had become thoroughly dry it was coated with whitewash. This
+formed both a substantial, and at the same time a sanitary walling,
+which was frequently treated with a further coating of limewash made
+thin. The dormitories were ten feet high, with a continuous open grating
+of wooden bars at the top, under the eaves of the roof, for the purpose
+of complete ventilation. The sleeping platforms were raised three feet
+off the ground floor, which was covered with the same composition as
+that of the walls, and the building was roofed with thatch. In the
+centre of the dormitory an earthenware brazier of burning charcoal was
+always maintained day and night, and occasionally crude fragrant gum
+Benjamin was thrown upon it. The natives believe that an aromatic
+perfume exhaled by fire keeps off all noxious effluvia; and we certainly
+found that they were in better health from the use of this incense, and
+from the fresh plastering of the floor every morning with cowdung
+diluted with water, which is a common practice in most of the native
+huts in India. This was regularly kept up by two convicts of the invalid
+class, who also acted as caretakers. The entrance to the enclosure was
+secured by a stout gate, which, after the roll was called, was locked
+every night at nine o'clock. The number of convicts stationed on one
+"command" averaged about thirty, and they were under the charge of a
+responsible convict warder of the grade of a tindal, with a peon and two
+orderlies and a native "moonshi," or timekeeper, to keep account of work
+done, and to forward reports to the main jail. By a system of surprise
+visits both day and night occasionally, we rarely found that any
+irregularities occurred.
+
+    [Footnote 4: Simpson, in his _Side Lights on Siberia_, uses
+    "command" as denoting a jail outside of the prison walls.]
+
+It has not been already mentioned that the local jails, or houses of
+correction, though according to law they were kept distinct from the
+convict jails at the several settlements, nevertheless were in their
+superintendence placed under the Superintendent of Convicts and convict
+petty officers. A good proportion of these local prisoners were employed
+upon extramural works, under the guard of these convict petty officers,
+who, being natives of India, had nothing in common with the Chinese and
+Malays who formed the bulk of these prisoners, and they kept them well
+under control, and allowed but few escapes, and, moreover, they were
+never found open to the taking of bribes from the prisoners' relations
+and friends, who now and again would attempt to offer them forbidden
+articles.
+
+At Penang there were a considerable number of these Indian convicts upon
+ticket of leave, who gained their livelihood in a variety of ways. Some
+of them were the first to discover the palm known by the Malays as "Plas
+tikoos," and by botanists as the "Licuala acutifida," a small palm,
+ordinarily not higher than from five to six feet. From this palm, which
+grew mostly upon the Penang Hill, were constructed walking-sticks called
+"Penang lawyers," and the process of preparing them was very simple: the
+epidermis, or exterior coating, was scraped off with glass, and then the
+stick was straightened with fire, as is done by the Malays in preparing
+the Malacca canes. Several of these Penang lawyers were sold by the
+convicts on the spot, and many more were exported to Europe and
+America.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: BOUNDARIES OF MALACCA, PORTUGUESE PERIOD
+
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+
+_Plate III._]
+
+
+Chapter III
+
+OLD MALACCA AND THE FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CONVICTS THERE
+
+
+Authorities differ very considerably as to the origin of the name of
+this place. Some attribute it to the Malay name for a shrub which
+largely abounded near the shore, a sort of "Phyllanthus emblica" of the
+spurge order; others, again, ascribe it to a plant called the "Jumbosa
+Malaccensis," or "Malay apple tree" of the myrtle bloom order; others,
+again, say that the Javanese were the first to colonize the place about
+the year 1160 of our time, and that they gave it the name "Malaka,"
+which in that language means "an exile," in memory of one "Paramisura"
+who came there as a fugitive from the kingdom of Palembang.
+
+In the original manuscript of Godinho de Eredia, of date 1613,
+reproduced by Janssen in 1882, he says that "Paramisura," the first king
+of the Malays, settled on the coast near to the Bukit China River, which
+is close to the present town, and called it "Malaka," after the fruit of
+a tree which grew there. (See sketch from that old work, Plate IV.)
+Anyway, like all Malay history, it is full of obscurity, and it really
+does not concern us very much just now as to what it is really derived
+from, though it would be no doubt interesting to Malay scholars to
+pursue the inquiry.
+
+We know, however, on the best authority, that it was the first
+settlement formed by a European power in those seas. The Portuguese, in
+their palmy days under Albuquerque, took it from a Malay Sultan, named
+Mahomed Shah, in 1511. They kept quiet possession of it for 134 years,
+when it fell into the hands of the Dutch, who held it for seventy-four
+years; then the British took possession in 1795, restored it to the
+Dutch in 1818, who gave it back in 1824, and we have held it ever since.
+In size it is forty-two miles long and from eight to twenty-five miles
+broad, and contains 659 square miles.
+
+In the old Portuguese days it was a very important place of trade, so
+much so that De Barros, their famous historian, wrote of it that, "the
+native town was a good league in length along the shore, and that there
+were many merchant vessels there from Calicut, Aden, Mecca, Java, and
+Pegu, and other places." This splendid trade, however, began to decline
+in the time of the Dutch, and shortly after we had opened Penang in 1785
+it had almost entirely vanished.
+
+[Illustration: OLD MALACCA
+
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+
+_Plate IV._]
+
+[Illustration: ALBUQUERQUE
+
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+
+_Plate V._]
+
+The Portuguese must have attached great value to this their first
+settlement in what was then known as the "Golden Chersonese," for they
+spent vast sums of money in fortifying it, and enclosed a considerable
+enceinte by a wall of great height and thickness, and crowned the small
+hill of St. Paul's within by the erection of a fine cathedral dedicated
+to our Lady Del-Monte, with a monastery annexed to it. These
+fortifications were afterwards razed to the ground, and some of the old
+foundations may still be seen; but we left the buildings standing and
+the greater part of the cathedral to go to ruins. Some of the tombstones
+in the old nave bear the date 1515, and there is a tomb to the two
+Bishops of Japan, but there is nothing to indicate that the saintly St.
+Francis Xavier laboured here beyond a small tablet; but the memory of
+his deeds is yet fresh amongst the traditions of the Portuguese
+descendants still resident there.
+
+Seen from the sea in these days, Malacca looks an antiquated old place,
+with all the signs of desertion about it. The old ruins on the hill form
+the most prominent feature in the landscape, and the once busy river
+(see Plate VI.) is now almost closed even to boat traffic by the silt
+which has been brought down from the interior. It is difficult indeed to
+realize that this strange, dim old place was once the centre of a
+thriving trade from so many distant countries, though it still carries
+on its cultivation of rice and other grain, and this is yearly being
+more developed.
+
+As far as we can gather, the first batch of convicts were sent to this
+place from Penang shortly after we took possession, and that they were
+employed in filling up the moat to suit it and the glacis for a parade
+ground. These convicts were confined first of all in the town jail,
+which was situated on the steep or eastern side of St. Paul's Hill, and
+was in point of fact the old Portuguese soldiers' barrack, and was
+constructed on a terrace excavated from the hillside; and, together with
+a hospital, warders' quarters, store rooms and other necessary
+buildings, was surrounded by a high wall built from the stone from the
+old fort ramparts. The few local prisoners were put into the old Dutch
+prison, and both these prisoners and the convicts were placed under the
+charge of half-blood Portuguese warders. For some years few convicts
+were sent into the interior, their labour being required for the public
+works in and near the town; but about the year 1840, as fresh arrivals
+came from Penang, which is about 250 miles north of it, gangs were made
+up to keep in repair about 100 miles of the public roads that were left
+to us, and to open up new communications near the frontier; so that we
+now have nearly 300 miles to keep in order. They were located in
+temporary huts surrounded by a palisading, and warders were raised from
+amongst the best behaved to be responsible for their work and general
+supervision. This practice was continued with satisfactory results, and
+gradually was introduced into the town jail, and the half-bred
+Portuguese warders were dismissed.
+
+[Illustration: MALACCA RIVER IN 1870.
+
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+
+_Plate VI._]
+
+[Illustration: ST. FRANCIS XAVIER
+
+(From Godinho de Eredia's Work).
+
+_Plate VII._]
+
+Prior to the appointment to Malacca of Captain Man as Resident
+Councillor, but little had been done in the way of training the convicts
+in industrial occupation, but he established a few workshops and started
+them in various trades. It was not, however, until 1860 that anything
+approaching to really skilled labour could be got out of them. They were
+then supplied with good tools and an instructor, also a convict, was
+sent down from Singapore. After this, carts for the roads, iron and wood
+work for bridges, roofing timbers for public works, and other necessary
+requirements for the erection of minor works were satisfactorily
+accomplished. For some classes of work the convicts were superior to the
+Chinese workmen in the town, especially in metal turning and fitting.
+One Cingalese convict became so expert at this trade that upon his
+release from confinement he established himself in Ceylon, and has been
+doing a very profitable business, and occupies now a respectable
+position in life.
+
+As far as can be gathered from the records, the convicts were, as a
+rule, well behaved, though in the early Sixties, owing to their
+maltreatment by an overseer who had the supervision of a gang for
+clearing the jungle and making roads upon Cape Rachado for the erection
+of a lighthouse, an _emeute_ took place, and some life was lost, and
+many escaped inland, but were subsequently returned by the native Malay
+chiefs.
+
+Some of the Indian convicts here on ticket of leave were expert
+shikarries, and frequently with their trained dogs would hunt the deer
+and wild boar, and dispose of the flesh to Chinese in the town at some
+profit to themselves.
+
+In 1873, when the convict establishments in the Straits Settlements were
+finally broken up, those convicts still wanting time to complete their
+sentences were transferred to Singapore for transmission to the
+Andamans, those upon ticket of leave being permitted to merge into the
+population.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: TOWN AND ENVIRONS OF SINGAPORE IN 1878.
+
+_Plate VIII._]
+
+
+Chapter IV
+
+A RUNNING HISTORY OF SINGAPORE: ITS JAIL SYSTEM AND ADMINISTRATION
+
+
+The origin of the name of this island it is difficult to trace, but the
+generally accepted derivation is from the Sanscrit words, "Singh," a
+lion, and "Pura," a city or town; and if so, it would not have been
+given by the Malays, but more probably by the Indians, who, according to
+native history, came over with one, Rajah Suran, and conquered Johore
+and this island in about the year A.D. 1160. "Singh" is a title adopted
+by the Hindus, and by several military castes of Northern India, and the
+word "Singhpur" is often used by them to mean the grand entrance gate to
+a palace.
+
+If, on the other hand, we assume that the Malays conferred the name to
+the island, they would in all probability have given it from their word
+"Singgah," which means "a place to stop at," or "to bait by the way,"
+and as the embouchure of the Singapore river formed a commodious and
+sheltered retreat for their rowing and sailing prahus, this view is not
+inappropriate, the more especially as the affix "pura," meaning a city,
+had been known to them from the earliest times, and of which we have one
+instance at least from their original home of Sumatra, in the naming of
+their kingdom of Indrapura, which was, as Marsden says, "for a long
+time, from 1400 A.D., the seat of a monarchy of some consideration and
+extent."
+
+The island is about twenty-seven miles long by fourteen broad, and
+contains an area of 206 square miles, and therefore is somewhat larger
+than the Isle of Wight. It is separated from the mainland of Johore by
+what is known as "The Old Straits," from its having been the only
+channel used in the early days by vessels bound eastward. The island was
+first settled upon, according to Balfour, "in A.D. 1160, by one Sri Sura
+Bawana," and from an inscription on a sandstone rock at the mouth of the
+Singapore River, now unfortunately destroyed, it would appear that Rajah
+Suran, of Amdan Nagara, after conquering the state of Johore with
+certain natives of India (Klings), proceeded in 1201 to a country then
+called "Tamask," and afterwards returned to "Kling," leaving the stone
+inscription in memory of his visit and victory. To have conquered
+Johore, the Rajah's vessels must have sailed by the Old Straits; but we
+have no record as to where "Tamask" was situated, and it is not given
+in the oldest Atlases we have been able to consult, viz. by D'Anville
+and others, though it may be in the charts of the 14th and 15th
+centuries. It seems more probable that the expedition set out from Java
+or Sumatra, to which places Hindus had, as we know, in very remote times
+proceeded from India, as the old ruins they have left there of their
+temples, supposed to be of the 7th century, plainly prove.
+
+Sir Stamford Raffles, as we have already stated when treating of
+Bencoolen, took up the appointment of Lieutenant-Governor of that
+settlement on the 22nd March, 1818, and he had not been there long
+before he recognized the fact that British interests needed a trading
+centre somewhere in the Straits of Malacca. It was, he said, "not that
+any extension of territory was necessary, but the aim of Government
+should be to acquire somewhere in the Straits a commercial station with
+a military guard, and that, when once formed, it was his belief that it
+would soon maintain a successful rivalry with a neighbouring Power, who
+would be obliged either to adopt a liberal system of free trade, or see
+the trade of these seas collected under the British flag."
+
+It is well known how the port of Rhio, on the west coast of the island
+of Bintang, which is separated from the island of Battam by the Rhio
+Strait, was first thought of; but we were too late in occupying it. Then
+the Carrimon Islands were suggested by the Resident Councillor of
+Malacca, at that time Major Farquhar; but the harbour was too exposed to
+the prevailing monsoon. Subsequently Tanjong Jatti, on the island of
+Bengkalis, was deemed to be a suitable site, but this had its objection
+as to situation; and after coasting about these seas for some little
+time, Sir Stamford Raffles finally fixed upon the island of Singapore
+for an entrepot for trade, and the wisdom and sagacity displayed by him
+in this selection has been abundantly proved.
+
+Sir Stamford Raffles concluded the treaty with the native chiefs for the
+cession of the island to Great Britain, and the British flag was planted
+on the island on the same day that the treaty was signed, viz., the 19th
+February, 1819, but it has since been found to have been actually signed
+on the 6th of that month.
+
+Our new possession, some 600 miles from Batavia, then contained in round
+numbers about 120 Malays and 30 Chinese. Some of these lived wholly in
+their boats at the mouth of the river, and the remainder in huts at
+Teloh Blangah, on the south side of the island. In the course of a year
+the population had risen to 5,000, and in little more than five years to
+19,000 or 20,000 of all nations actively engaged in commerce, "offering
+to each and all a handsome livelihood and abundant profit." When the
+census was taken in 1881 the population had risen to 139,208, and in
+1891 there was an increase of 45,346, making a total of 184,554,
+representing nearly every nationality and tribe in the Indian
+Archipelago, China, and India, and about 1,500 Europeans.
+
+In the year 1822, the first settlers to dwell on the island were traders
+in the Archipelago, and they lived in raft houses, so called, or more
+probably in huts, erected on poles in the Malay style, and these were
+located on the site of the present "Commercial Square," which was then
+little more than a mud flat covered by the sea at high water. One of the
+first steps taken by the Government was to fill up this low-lying sea
+marsh, which was executed by free labour, but was subsequently largely
+assisted by some local prisoners who were confined in a temporary jail
+near by, on the site where the present Court-house now stands. The first
+magistrates to be appointed in the settlement, and who tried and
+sentenced these prisoners, were men whose names will ever be preserved
+unforgotten by the colony, and we make no excuse in giving them in full
+as obtained from _The Anecdotal History_, viz., Messrs. A. L. Johnstone,
+D. A. Maxwell, D. F. Napier, A. F. Morgan, John Purvis, Alexander
+Guthrie, E. Mackenzie, W. Montgomery, Charles Scott, John Morgan, C. R.
+Read, and Andrew Hay. Two magistrates sat in court with the Resident
+Councillor, to decide cases both civil and criminal, and juries were
+formed of five Europeans, or four Europeans and three leading natives.
+This court sat once a week, but a court of two magistrates sat twice a
+week to try cases, their office being open daily to hear complaints.
+
+The insecurity of the temporary prison mentioned above, and the defects
+in its control, led to changes in its structure and general management.
+The Resident, then Mr. J. Crawford, expended $900 towards the
+construction of a more substantial building for the local prisoners, the
+transmarine convicts from Bencoolen and India having not yet arrived in
+the settlement. In April, 1823, as there was a great difficulty in
+obtaining free labour, the local prisoners were ordered to work upon the
+public roads.
+
+When finally leaving the settlement, Sir Stamford Raffles entered into a
+new agreement with the Sultan and Tummongong of Johore, by which the
+whole of the island of Singapore and the adjacent islands were to be
+considered as entirely British territory. He considered this fresh
+agreement necessary on account of some peculiar ideas that were held at
+the time by certain dissentients.
+
+On his final departure from Singapore, Sir Stamford Raffles received an
+address from the European and native merchants of Singapore, from which
+we quote the following significant extract:
+
+    "To your unwearied zeal, your vigilance, and your comprehensive
+    views, we owe at once the foundation and maintenance of a
+    settlement, unparalleled for the liberality of the principles
+    on which it has been established--principles, the operation of
+    which has converted in a period short beyond all example a
+    haunt of pirates into the abode of enterprise, security, and
+    opulence."
+
+Sir Stamford replied with his characteristic modesty in a letter dated
+Singapore, June 9th, 1823. The letter is too long to quote _in
+extenso_, but we give the following extracts from it. After
+acknowledging the receipt of their address, and remarking upon the
+impossibility of his being indifferent to any of the interests,
+especially the commercial interests, of Singapore, under the peculiar
+circumstances of his connection with the establishment of the
+settlement, he says, "It has happily been consistent with the policy of
+Great Britain, and accordant with the principles of the East India
+Company, that Singapore should be established as a 'free port,' and that
+Singapore will long, and always remain a free port, and that no taxes on
+trade or industry will be established to check its future rise and
+prosperity, I can have no doubt." "I am justified in saying thus much on
+the authority of the Supreme Government of India, and on the authority
+of those who are most likely to have weight in the councils of our
+nation at home."
+
+Referring to difficulties which had to be encountered on the
+establishment of the freedom of the port, he says, "In the commanding
+station in which my public duty has placed me, I have had an opportunity
+of, in a great measure, investigating and determining the merits of the
+case, and the result renders it a duty on my part, and which I perform
+with much satisfaction, to express my most unqualified approbation of
+the honourable principles which actuated the merchants of Singapore on
+that occasion."
+
+We give the above extracts to show the rapid advance that had been made
+in the first five years of the settlement's existence, owing mainly to
+the sagacity, forethought, and wisdom of its eminent founder, and we
+have added the population up to this period to show its steady rise and
+progress.
+
+It was, however, in January, 1824, that the first regular census was
+taken. The population then consisted of 74 Europeans, 16 Armenians, 15
+Arabs, 4,580 Malays, 3,317 Chinese, 756 natives of India, and 1,925
+Bugis, making a total of 10,683. It was in this year that Singapore was
+first mentioned in the House of Commons, in a remark made by Mr.
+Canning, who had been nominated Governor-General of India in 1822, but
+did not go out to that country, that "Singapore in six years would
+produce spices sufficient for the consumption of Great Britain and her
+colonies"--a prophecy not yet fulfilled.
+
+In May of the same year the Resident made a voyage round the island in
+the ship _Malabar_, 380 tons burden, to view the boundary of the island
+and to take formal possession; and it was while on this voyage that the
+British flag was planted on the island of "Pulo Obin," an island which
+has since largely supplied the town of Singapore with granite for making
+roads and also for building purposes. The Government quarries situated
+upon it were subsequently worked almost entirely by transmarine
+convicts, of which more will be said hereafter.
+
+[Illustration: ORIGINAL HUTS FOR CONVICTS, SINGAPORE
+
+(From _Life of Sir Stamford Raffles_).
+
+_Plate IX._]
+
+On the 18th of April, 1825, the first batch of convicts transported
+from India to Bencoolen were transferred from there to Singapore. They
+arrived in the brig _Horatio_, and consisted of 80 convicts transported
+from Madras, of whom 73 males and 1 female were for life, and 6 male
+convicts on short sentences. On the 25th of the same month another batch
+was received, also convicts from Bencoolen. These consisted of 122
+convicts transported from Bengal, of whom 88 males and 1 female were for
+life, and 33 for short terms. When these Indian convicts were landed at
+Singapore they were placed at first in an open shed, or godown (from the
+Malay word "godong," a shed), which stood on the site where the present
+public offices stand, with only four free petty officers, or "peons,"
+natives of Chittagong in the Bengal presidency, in charge of them.
+Subsequently temporary buildings, to contain 1,200 to 2,000 convicts,
+were erected near the Hindu temple, then situated near the Brass Basa
+Canal, and at a considerable cost it is given as L13,199 (see Plate
+IX.). They were all located in these sheds, and there was little or no
+prison control over them; only, occasionally, an officer of the police
+came and called the roll in order to report to Government that all were
+present. These convicts were afterwards detailed to the work of filling
+up the mud flat before referred to as the site of the present
+"Commercial Square." For this purpose they carried the soil from near the
+Hindu temple and from Pearls Hill. Mr. Bonham, the Resident, finding
+that the convicts worked willingly, and were well behaved, discharged
+the free "peons," or warders, and selected five Madrasees and five
+Bengalees from their number to supervise their fellow-convicts. This
+was, as far as we gather, the first trial of the system of convict
+warders at Singapore, possibly the first venture of the kind made in any
+penal establishment. As convicts continued to arrive from India, many of
+those from Bencoolen were constituted warders over their fellows, in the
+proportion of one warder to every twenty convicts. Each warder was
+granted a monthly wage of $3.00 in addition to his rations and clothing,
+with the usual blanket given to each convict once a year. In addition to
+his ordinary rations, clothing, and annual blanket, each convict
+received a monthly allowance of 50 cents (say 2s.) a month, to
+purchase condiments and salt. A European overseer was placed in
+immediate charge of the convicts, and a Superintendent over the whole
+convict establishment, this responsible duty first falling upon
+Lieutenant Chester, of the Bengal Native Infantry.
+
+The convicts from Bencoolen were not sent over to the Straits of Malacca
+in chains, but those received from India in the earliest times were
+manacled with light leg fetters, in which they had to work for a
+probationary period of three months. As, however, they were granted,
+equally with the others, the privilege of going about the town to make
+their purchases, it is said they ceased to consider their fetters a
+mark of degradation, being so completely overwhelmed with the thought of
+banishment from their country and kindred; and to many men of caste it
+must be remembered that transportation alone was a severe punishment.
+
+In the year 1826 there was a change of government in the settlements.
+Hitherto the settlements of Penang, Malacca, and Singapore had not been
+incorporated under one government. In this year it was decided by the
+Supreme Government to do so, and the seat of government was fixed at
+Penang, that being our oldest settlement in these seas. On this change
+taking place, many more of the Indian convicts from Penang were sent
+down to Singapore, the ship _Esperanza_ bringing down a further batch of
+23 Bengal life convicts (males), and 26 Madras convicts (males), and 1
+female; 31 Bombay (males), and 2 female convicts.
+
+From the accounts given in the newspapers of that day, the convicts were
+at this time treated with great indulgence if of proved good behaviour,
+being permitted, after their work was over, to engage themselves as
+servants to the residents, who, in the scarcity of labour at that time,
+and the fitness of the convicts for such service, were content to give
+them a very liberal wage. In the early days of penal colonies this has
+not infrequently occurred, and some of these old convicts have been
+known to amass considerable sums of money, and, indeed, to become
+possessed of landed property in the town. The Government, however,
+under Major Campbell, who succeeded Lieutenant Chester, took care to
+exact from them a large amount of useful work in the filling up of
+swampy ground near the town, and laying out plots of land for building
+purposes. They also blasted the rocks at the mouth of the Singapore
+river, on the site of which was afterwards constructed a fort, named
+after the first Resident, Mr. Fullerton, and much of the rock was also
+used in the construction of the sea and river walls adjoining. Their
+services were also turned to account on any occasion when the presence
+of a body of men under discipline was required, such as the suppression
+of fires. An instance is given in the journal already quoted of a
+serious outbreak of fire in Market Street, in the year 1830, which
+threatened to consume the houses in several streets adjoining. There
+were no fire engines in those days, and the only supply of water was
+carried in buckets by the convicts, which materially helped to subdue
+it. The houses in the square at the back of Market Street were not
+burnt; they, and also the houses on the side of Market Street next the
+square, were partly built of brick, but those on the opposite side were
+wholly of wood, and were quickly destroyed. The middle of the square was
+covered with goods carried from the burning houses.
+
+Occasionally, even in those days, convicts were employed as orderlies
+and servants to public officers, and when Dr. Oxley's house was
+attacked by burglars in 1821, his Indian convict servant, though wounded
+by a "kris," succeeded in capturing the burglar, who turned out to be a
+Malay pirate from Bencoolen. Robbery on land was not common amongst
+Malays in those days, but piracy was one of their pastimes, and their
+romances always glorify their ancestors in this pursuit.
+
+The rules at that time in force amongst the convicts were what were
+known as the "Penang Rules," already mentioned, and published in 1827;
+but there were also a few scattered rules known as the "Bencoolen
+Rules," probably some of those drawn up by Sir Stamford Raffles, and
+referred to in his letter of the 20th September, 1823, and incorporated
+with the former.
+
+In 1832 an alteration in the seat of government took place. Penang had
+hitherto been the seat of government, but in this year it was
+transferred to Singapore, which had by this time become the most
+important of the three Settlements.
+
+When later on, in the year 1833, Mr. G. D. Coleman was placed in charge
+of the convicts as "Surveyor and Executive Officer of Government," a
+great improvement was set on foot in the regular and systematic
+employment of these convicts. He, by their means, reclaimed large plots
+of land as intakes from the sea and river marshes, and largely extended
+the town lots, so that Captain Begbie, who in that year wrote a book
+upon the Straits Settlements, stated that "200 of these convicts, in
+eight months, at a small money outlay of $500 for covered drains, had
+reclaimed 28 acres of marsh, and intersected it with roads. This land
+was shortly afterwards sold at a handsome price, and was very quickly
+covered with good, substantial upper-story houses, which were readily
+let."
+
+Under Mr. Coleman the public roads on the sea front were marked out and
+constructed, and also the main road from the town to Campong Glam, now
+known as North and South Bridge Roads. He surveyed and marked out the
+first country road towards Bukit Timah, and he afterwards laid out the
+Serangoon, the New Harbour, Budoo, and Thompson's Roads, and employed
+Indian convicts principally in their construction. When the convicts
+could not be marched out to and from their daily work to the prison,
+owing to the long distance they had to traverse, Mr. Coleman constructed
+for them temporary buildings, surrounded by a fence, similar to those
+already described when treating of Province Wellesley and Malacca. In
+these "commands" they were located until the work on which they were
+employed was completed; and in many cases these "commands," as they were
+always called, became permanent stations for the convicts employed in
+maintaining the roads. At first their rations were sent out to them from
+town once a month, but subsequently it was found desirable for them to
+attend the general muster at the main prison on the first of every
+month, and to receive their rations then, and to be inspected at the
+same time by the Superintendent.
+
+The records of the jail at this time, and until the year 1844, have not
+been kept, as we have said, with any precision, and, indeed, most of
+them are missing; but the excellent work performed by Mr. Coleman (in
+the execution of which he, as far as possible, employed convict labour)
+is, fortunately, to be seen in the map of the town and its environs
+surveyed by him in 1836, and lithographed in Calcutta the same year, a
+copy of which is given in Moor's _Notices of the Indian Archipelago_.
+
+Mr. Coleman was no mean architect. It was he who designed the first
+church for Singapore. It was erected on the site where the present
+cathedral stands. It was completed in 1837, and consecrated in
+September, 1838, but was opened for service on the 18th June, 1837, by
+the first chaplain appointed from Bengal, the Rev. Edmund White. Indian
+convicts were employed in the erection of this church, chiefly as
+labourers, as they were also at the public buildings which were erected
+about this time, notably the first extension of the Raffles Institution
+and its museum.
+
+To Mr. Coleman, however, the colony is chiefly indebted for the many
+excellent roads on the island, and the carrying out of the disposition
+of town allotments, projected in the first instance by Sir Stamford
+Raffles himself, in his instructions to the Committee appointed for the
+purpose shortly after the settlement was founded.
+
+Mr. G. D. Coleman died on the 27th March, 1885, and the newspapers of
+the day, in regretting his death, brought about by hard work and
+exposure in the public service, spoke in the highest terms of his
+ability as an architect and surveyor, and Superintendent of Convicts.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter V
+
+SINGAPORE (_Continued_)
+
+
+There were then about 1,100 or 1,200 Indian convicts in Singapore,
+divided into six classes, and employed in various ways as already
+narrated, but the following extract from _The Anecdotal History_ is
+worth quoting verbatim:
+
+    "Singapore, Malacca, Penang, and Maulmein were the Sydneys of
+    India. There are upon an average about 1,100 to 1,200 native
+    convicts from India constantly at Singapore. These are employed
+    making roads and digging canals; and, undoubtedly, without them
+    the town, as far as locomotion is concerned, would have been
+    now but a sorry residence. They are secured within high walls,
+    and although a few now and then escape, they meet with such
+    rough treatment from the Malays on the Peninsula, that they
+    find it commonly the most prudent course to return, or allow
+    themselves to be brought back. The native of India accommodates
+    himself more easily to banishment than a European does, because
+    his ideas lead to predestination, and his habits are simple.
+    In former days, when convict discipline was not so well
+    understood as it is now, the convicts transported from India
+    used to traffic and amass money; banishment was in some cases,
+    perhaps, sought for, and crimes were, it is feared, sometimes
+    committed by natives to obtain it; but the felon must now
+    expect to be kept in his place and hard at work. Still, the
+    convict whose period is short, contrives to save something out
+    of his allowance, and on the expiration of his term he
+    generally sets up as a keeper of cattle, or a letter-out of
+    carriages and horses; and undoubtedly some of these men are as
+    well, if not better behaved than many of their native
+    neighbours of higher pretensions. There are regulations by
+    which the convict is encouraged by certain rewards, or
+    remission short of emancipation, to orderly conduct."
+
+When Mr. Coleman resigned, the duties of Superintendent were taken up by
+Captain Stevenson of the 12th Madras Native Infantry, who carried out
+the system then in force, and somewhat added to the strength of the
+convict warders; for we find in his annual report for 1845 the following
+remarks: "Convict peons are selected from the second class for general
+good conduct and intelligence, and they continue to receive $3 each per
+mensem, in addition to provisions and clothing. Free peons were, I hear,
+formerly tried, but found not to be so well suited for the peculiar
+duties required of them; besides, the prospect of gaining a belt--a
+mark of authority--is a strong inducement to good conduct on the part of
+the convict, and conduces much towards lightening, in the well disposed,
+the feeling of hopelessness that ever accompanies a sense of
+imprisonment and slavery for life."
+
+At this time (1840 to 1845), Singapore was more than ever before
+infested with tigers--it is supposed that they swam across the narrow
+part of the Old Straits, from Johore to Kranji. The number of natives,
+principally Chinese, employed on gambier and pepper farms, that were
+carried off or destroyed by them annually was considerable, and it was
+said at the time that not a day passed without one man being killed by
+wild animals. Whether it was actually so or not, there are no police
+statistics to prove, but as many as five in eight days were reported at
+that time, and in later years, about 1860, as many as 200 deaths were
+notified to the police in one year, and probably a great number never
+were brought to notice, because the difficulty of obtaining coolies to
+work in the thick jungle, as it then was, was a great inducement to the
+"Towkays," or Head Chinese, to keep the number of deaths as much as
+possible from being known. In those days a reward of one hundred dollars
+was offered by Government for every tiger brought to the police station,
+whether alive or dead; and this sum, owing to their continued ravages,
+was subsequently increased to one hundred and fifty dollars.
+
+One seizure of a man-eater is worth recording here; it is taken from
+_The Singapore Free Press_ of the year 1840, and runs as follows:--
+
+    "The news of the capture and death of a tiger last Saturday
+    night on a Chinaman's plantation, close to that of Mr.
+    Balustier, the American Consul, gave general satisfaction,
+    being the first of these destructive animals which the Chinese
+    had succeeded in catching alive. A pit was dug where his track
+    had been observed, the mouth of which was covered lightly over,
+    and two or three dogs tied as bait. The ruse luckily took
+    effect, and, when advancing to his imagined prey, he was
+    himself precipitated into the pit head foremost, where he was
+    very soon despatched by the natives, who pounded him to death
+    with stones. He was a large animal for the Malay type,
+    measuring 9 ft. 3 in. from the nose to the tip of the tail,
+    which was 35 inches long, the circumference round the forearm
+    being 21 inches. The captors have claimed and obtained from the
+    local authorities the promised reward of one hundred dollars,
+    besides having sold the flesh of the animal itself to the
+    Chinese, Klings, and others for six fanams a catty (a fanam is
+    about three halfpence), by which they realized about seventy
+    dollars more."
+
+It is singular how all natives believe that by eating the flesh of the
+tiger they absorb the essence or distinctive features of the animal.
+Balfour says that "the clavicle or collar-bone of the tiger is
+considered of great virtue by many natives of India. The whiskers are
+supposed by some to endow their possessor with unlimited power over the
+opposite sex." Tiger bones are often sold in China to form an ingredient
+in certain invigorating jellies, made of hartshorn, and the plastron of
+the terrapin or tortoise. Burmese and Malays eat the flesh of the tiger,
+because they believe that by eating it they acquire the courage and
+sagacity of the animal. Tigers' claws are used as charms, and the most
+solemn oath of one of the aboriginal tribes of India, the "Santals," is
+sworn when touching a tiger's skin; handsome brooches and earrings are
+also made from tigers' claws mounted in gold. In 1854 no less than six
+persons were killed within the space of a few days not far from the
+town, and in April of that year the Government, alarmed for the safety
+of the people, sanctioned a considerable expenditure for the
+construction of tiger pits over many parts of the island. In August of
+the same year the following article appeared in _The Singapore Free
+Press_:--
+
+    "The attention of His Honour the Governor having been directed
+    to the continued deplorable ravages committed by tigers on the
+    island, he has expressed himself ready to adopt any measures
+    which may tend to remove the evil. It has been suggested that
+    persons are to be found in the vicinity of Calcutta trained for
+    the purpose of destroying tigers; and His Honour has written to
+    the Bengal Government requesting that half a dozen of these
+    'shikarries' should be sent to the Straits for a limited
+    period, to be employed in the destruction of these animals. The
+    Governor has also directed that in the meantime, should it be
+    deemed expedient, a certain number of volunteers from convicts
+    of the third class should be permitted to beat the jungle once
+    every month with tom-toms (native drums), horns, etc., which,
+    if they do not lead to the destruction of the tigers, may
+    frighten them away from the island, to which they come from the
+    neighbouring state of Johore."
+
+Later, in 1859, finding that the number of tigers on the island, and the
+number of people killed by them, were still increasing, the Governor,
+General Sir Orfeur Cavenagh, discussed the matter with the then
+Superintendent of Convicts (Major McNair), who informed him that he had
+good shikarries amongst the Indian convicts, and it was arranged to
+organize parties of convicts for their destruction. Three parties, of
+three men in each party, were selected, and armed with the old
+muzzle-loading muskets and ball ammunition. One party was sent to the
+Bukit Timah or Central district, another to the Serangoon and Changi or
+Eastern district, and the third to the Choo Choo Kang or Western
+district. These parties were generally successful in killing half a
+dozen or so in the course of the year, chiefly in the Central or garden
+district. Recourse was also had to trapping them in cleverly-constructed
+deep pits, built cone-wise, and by heavy beams of timber suspended from
+tree to tree over their tracks, connected on the ground with springes;
+but only upon rare occasions were they successful in this way. We had in
+our possession several skins and skulls from those destroyed by
+convicts. Some castes amongst these convicts from India, when employed
+on this duty, were also very expert in catching such venomous snakes as
+cobras and craits. They appeared not to possess the slightest dread of
+them, and would stealthily follow them to their burrows, then grasp the
+tail, and by a rapid movement of the other hand along the body to just
+below the head, grip the snake firmly at the neck and allow it to coil
+round their arm. During the construction of Fort Canning, later on, many
+were so caught and brought down to the jail for the reward. They were
+then destroyed, the convicts at the time always asking pardon of the
+snake for so betraying it to their masters. It is worth mentioning here
+that in the jail there were so many different races of India, and men of
+so many occupations and artifices, that what a man of one caste did not
+know, another would be sure to volunteer to perform. This collection of
+such a variety of races in a jail under the association system had
+another and more important advantage, for it was at once a safeguard
+and protection against any possible combined revolt against the
+authorities, for one caste would invariably "split" against another.
+
+It was in the year 1841 that it was decided to erect a jail for the
+Indian convicts on a site near the Brass Basa Canal on the east of the
+town, and immediately below Government Hill, now known as Fort Canning.
+The boundary wall was first built, and then a brick building within,
+which was subsequently used as a convict hospital. This is shown in the
+plan of the whole prison made in 1872, a copy of which is given later.
+In this brick building the defaulters and those in irons were placed on
+one side, and the local prisoners on the other. The remainder of the
+convicts were lodged in temporary structures inside the enclosure wall;
+and those employed in positions of trust were allowed to erect small
+huts for themselves in the style of a native village just outside the
+wall, in which they were allowed to have their wives and families. There
+was but one entrance to this enclosure, where convict warders were at
+all times stationed as a gate guard. It will be readily understood that
+discipline could not well be maintained under such circumstances, while
+no records appear to have been kept of any kind, relating to their daily
+employment or occupation, so there is nothing to show whether the
+convicts were employed in the erection of this boundary wall; but it is
+more probable that they were only used as labourers, and not as
+artisans, for it was not until a later date that they were organized and
+trained as skilled workmen.
+
+It may be well for us to indicate here the progress made in the
+Singapore town up to 1842, as given by _The Free Press_ newspaper in
+that year. It runs thus:--
+
+    "A stranger visiting Singapore cannot fail to be struck by the
+    signs everywhere exhibited of the settlement being in a high
+    state of prosperity and progressive improvement. If he lands on
+    the side next the town he beholds the pathway in front of the
+    merchants' 'godowns' or warehouses cumbered with packages, and
+    if he glances inside one of the 'godowns' he will see it filled
+    with packages and bales of goods from all parts of the world.
+    If he goes among the native shops he finds them filled with
+    clamorous Klings (natives of the Coromandel Coast of India) and
+    Chinese, all busily engaged in driving bargains. Passing on, he
+    comes to where, near the jail, the swamp is being filled up and
+    covered with shops, which are seen in every stage of progress,
+    some with the foundations newly laid, and others nearly
+    completed. If he wishes to leave the town he crosses the
+    Singapore River by a new bridge, which was built two years ago.
+    The scene now undergoes a change: in place of the narrow and
+    crooked streets the stranger finds himself amongst rows of neat
+    villas, each standing in its own enclosure. The Governor's
+    residence is to the left upon a small hill commanding a fine
+    view of the town and harbour. The flag-staff is also placed
+    there, and at all hours of the day may be seen covered with
+    flags, announcing the approach of ships from every quarter of
+    the globe. If he should go into the country, the many thriving
+    plantations of spices and other tropical productions (amongst
+    which are to be noted one or two sugar estates) present an
+    equally pleasing sight, and give promise of a long continuance
+    to the well-being of the settlement."
+
+In this year, 1842, or it may perhaps have been in the previous year,
+Mr. J. T. Thompson came to Singapore in the capacity of Government
+Surveyor; whereupon the Government called upon all holders and occupiers
+of land to point out to him their boundaries, preparatory to the issue
+of proper leases. Under his direction there was a systematic survey made
+of all allotments upon the island; and intelligent Indian convicts were
+provided him to act as his survey party, being preferred for that duty
+over freemen to be obtained in the town. These convicts formed the
+nucleus of a regular native staff for this department of the Government;
+and, indeed, up to the time of the abolition of the jail they continued
+to be employed as chainmen and survey assistants.
+
+When Mr. Thompson visited Malacca, to inquire into the system pursued
+there, he found it to be of the most primitive type. For the linear
+measurements the surveyor had for a chain, rattans jointed together, and
+this, with a ten-foot rod and a common compass, formed their whole
+equipment. When he tested however the measurements of the fields and the
+town lots, he was surprised to find to what approach to accuracy they
+had arrived with their rude implements. Indian convicts were also there
+employed as land measurers and assistants.
+
+Upon his return to Singapore, Mr. Thompson designed a European hospital,
+and adjoining it a pauper hospital, erected mostly at the cost of a
+benevolent Chinese gentleman of the name of Tan-Tock-Seng. They were
+built on a plateau of Pearls Hill facing the town. Some years later
+these buildings were required for military purposes, and were adapted
+for the purposes of a Commissariat and Ordnance Department respectively.
+A new building, in which was incorporated a general hospital, was
+subsequently erected facing the Bukit Timah Road, and the Tan-Tock-Seng
+hospital for paupers was built further outside the town on the Serangoon
+Road. In the erection of these buildings convict labour was very largely
+utilised, and in the front elevation of Tan-Tock-Seng's hospital they
+had some rather difficult mouldings to execute.
+
+In the year 1844, owing to the amount of building that was then going on
+in the town, there was a great dearth of bricks; so much so, that the
+Chinese brick-kilns could not supply the immense demand, and the price
+per laksa of 10,000 rose more than fifty per cent. This led to the
+determination on the part of the Government to make their own bricks,
+and an order was issued to the Public Works Department to arrange for
+their manufacture by the convicts. This was subsequently done; and a
+suitable site having been found upon the Serangoon Road, a large
+establishment was started, an account of which will be given in detail
+when we come to deal with the industrial occupations of the Indian
+convicts. The first Government brick-field, however, was started at
+Rochore, under Captain Faber, but was given up after only a short trial.
+He employed free labour.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VI
+
+SINGAPORE (_Continued_)
+
+
+During the year 1845 the Bukit Timah Road was opened up by convict
+labour between Bukit Timah and Kranji, so that the produce hitherto
+carried by water to Singapore from the neighbouring country of Johore
+could now be brought into town by road, while at the same time land was
+thus opened up for cultivation. The convicts were also employed in this
+year in constructing a road to the summit of Telok Blangah Hill, now
+called Mount Faber, for the purpose of building there a signal station,
+that upon the island of Blakan Mati having proved unhealthy, due, as it
+was said at the time, to malaria from the enclosed marsh at the back of
+the island, and to the tainted air from decaying pine-apple leaves,
+which were left by the Malays, who cultivated the fruit upon all the
+available soil. Pine-apple growing has been largely extended in this
+island, as is now generally known at home; and as it is a source of some
+wealth to the colony, it may be incidentally mentioned in this running
+history of the place, and more particularly in reference to the fact
+that the Indian convicts upon ticket of leave have been often employed
+in its culture in order to earn a daily wage. The plant that produces
+the pine-apple known as the "ananas," or by the Malays as "nanas," grows
+literally wild upon the hills on Blakan Mati Island, and other islands
+round about Singapore. It delights in a moist climate, and here it has
+it to perfection, with just enough heat to help its growth. There is
+little or no trouble in its propagation, for after the apple is
+sufficiently ripe and cut, the crown that surmounts the fruit is
+planted, and a new plantation soon springs up. There is, however, some
+difference in the sweetness and flavour of the fruit, according to the
+exposure to which it is subjected, those having the benefit of the sun
+being preferred.
+
+The first to export the tinned fruit to Europe was a Frenchman named
+Bastiani,[5] who succeeded far beyond his expectations, and the industry
+has since been taken up largely by the Chinese in Singapore and Johore.
+
+    [Footnote 5: He was known to both of us when he commenced the
+    undertaking.]
+
+Yet another of the important public works of the colony, upon which the
+labour of Indian convicts was employed some five years earlier, was at
+the construction of the lighthouse on "Pedro Branca," called the
+"Horsburgh," after the celebrated hydrographer of that name. The design
+was by Thompson, and the selection of the site by Sir Edward Belcher,
+R.N., and most of the detail work was under the direct supervision of
+Mr. J. Bennett, a civil and mechanical engineer, who afterwards, as we
+have said, played a prominent part in the direction and control of the
+labour and industrial training of the Indian convicts in the Singapore
+jail. He had, as an assistant, Mr. Magaelhaens of the Convict
+Department, and both the officers and the convicts lived on board of a
+"Tonkong," or a large boat, which was anchored close to the rock. The
+convicts were chiefly employed in the capacity of blasters and dressers
+of stone. The foundation stone was laid with masonic honours by the
+Worshipful Master Brother M. F. Davidson, on the 24th May, 1850, in the
+presence of the Governor, Colonel Butterworth, and a large party from
+Singapore; and the work was completed and the lamps lighted on the 27th
+September, 1851.
+
+The _Free Press_ spoke of it as an edifice of which Singapore might well
+be proud. "The granite blocks which form the walls were quarried and
+shaped at Pulo Ubin, the timber used in the building was the growth of
+our island, the brass rails of the staircases were moulded and turned in
+this settlement, and last, not least, the architect and engineer
+acquired the skill and experience which enabled him to erect so rapidly
+the chaste and stately building during a long and useful career as
+Government Surveyor at Singapore." Both the quarrying of the stone at
+Pulo Ubin, and the felling of the timber required in the erection of
+this lighthouse, were by the work of Indian convicts.
+
+In 1845 the foundation stone of a second lighthouse was laid on a reef
+near a small island at the eastern entrance to the Straits of Malacca
+called "The Coney." It was also laid with masonic honours by the
+Worshipful Master and Brethren of the Lodge Zetland in the East, No.
+748, in the presence of the Governor, Colonel Butterworth, and many of
+the British and foreign residents at Singapore. This lighthouse was
+named after the eminent founder of the settlement, Sir T. Stamford
+Raffles, and was completed in 1856. It was built by free labour, but
+many convicts were employed, as at the "Horsburgh," as stone cutters,
+blasters, and as labourers, under the charge of an officer of the
+Convict Department.
+
+We have referred elsewhere to the rules that had from time to time been
+framed for the control of these Indian convicts, but now we are able to
+state that in 1845-46 what may be called the most complete code of rules
+was permanently established. Colonel Butterworth, who was then Governor
+of the Straits Settlements, in consultation with the Superintendent of
+the Convicts, collected all that had been previously issued, together
+with those that subsequent experience had shown to be necessary, and
+working on the principles laid down by Sir Stamford Raffles, the new set
+of "Rules and Regulations for the Management of the Indian Convicts"
+was formally sanctioned, and put in force under the title of the
+"Butterworth Rules."
+
+These rules practically recognised the total abolition of free warders
+in the control of the convicts, and the substitution entirely of petty
+officers, raised from amongst the convicts themselves, together with the
+division of the convicts into six distinct classes, according to their
+date of arrival in the prison, and their general subsequent behaviour;
+holding out to one and to all by exemplary conduct during their
+probationary period a certain progressive reward and promotion.
+
+Added to these "Butterworth Rules" were several others of importance,
+introduced by Major McNair in 1858-59, and sanctioned by the Government
+from time to time as additions to this code. Later, Captain, now
+General, J. G. Forlong came to Singapore, as we have stated, to study
+the convict system in force; and from the rules in use and the numerous
+standing orders that had been issued at various times, he prepared a
+valuable digest of the whole, which he duly submitted to the Government
+of India, in which he said, "I have but lately visited most of the
+convict prisons of England, living for some time with the Governor of
+the Dartmoor jail, and I have seen many Indian prisons, and can state
+for the Singapore system and establishment, that it is not inferior to
+those of England, and quite unequalled by any I have seen in India."
+
+It is to Captain, the late General, Man that the initiation of several
+handicrafts is due, and he commenced by starting all kinds of carpenter
+work. The old Guthrie's timber bridge across the Singapore River, for
+instance, was entirely their work. They were also then taught
+brick-laying and blacksmith work; and so valuable was this trained
+labour to the State, even at that time, that the Superintending Engineer
+of the station wrote to Government in 1849 as follows:--
+
+    "I can most confidently, and without fear of refutation, assert
+    it to be simply impracticable to induce and obtain from Chinese
+    carpenters that accurate, close, substantial, and lasting
+    workmanship which not only can be, but is derived from the
+    convict artificers under the absolute control of the present
+    able and zealous Superintendent, Captain Man."
+
+We must here not forget to refer to another public building, in the
+erection of which the Indian convicts took their part, viz. the New
+Civil Jail at Pearls Hill, the foundation stone of which was laid by
+Captain Faber, the Superintending Engineer of the Straits Settlements.
+Below the stone a brass plate was deposited with the following
+inscription, which we give in full as of some peculiar interest, and
+evidence of the progress of the settlement up to 1847.
+
+                This Foundation Stone
+                         of
+              H. M. Gaol, at Singapore,
+    was laid by Captain Faber, Madras Engineers,
+    Superintending Engineer, Straits Settlements,
+              on the 6th February, 1847,
+       the 27th Anniversary of the Foundation
+               of a British Settlement
+                   on this Island.
+    The Hon'ble Colonel W. J. Butterworth, C.B.,
+      being Governor of Prince of Wales Island,
+               Singapore, and Malacca,
+                        and
+               the Hon'ble T. Church,
+          Resident Councillor at Singapore.
+                     VICTORIA,
+         Queen of Great Britain and Ireland,
+       the Right Hon'ble Lord Hardinge, G.C.B.,
+         Governor-General of British India.
+                God save the Queen.
+
+In a bottle, likewise placed below the stone, the following statistical
+information relative to the Straits Settlements, written on parchment,
+was enclosed.
+
+The trade for the year 1845-46 of Prince of Wales Island, Singapore, and
+Malacca aggregated the sum of Company's Rs. 52,190,685 in merchandise,
+and Company's Rs. 9,606,061 in bullion and treasure, making a grand
+total of Rs. 61,796,746 (exclusive of the trade between the three
+settlements) as follows:--
+
+                      Imports.     Exports.       Total.
+
+  P.W. Island    Rs.  6,614,794   6,528,452  =  13,143,246
+
+  Singapore      "   26,616,448  21,162,987  =  47,779,435
+
+  Malacca        "      509,872     364,193  =     874,065
+                                                __________
+                   Grand total, Company's Rs.   61,796,746
+                                                ----------
+
+                          W. J. BUTTERWORTH, Governor.
+
+    SINGAPORE, _6th February, 1847_.
+
+The revenue and charges for the year 1845-46 of Prince of Wales Island,
+Singapore, and Malacca, including Civil, Military, Marine, Judicial,
+Convicts, etc., were as follows:--
+
+                             _Charges._
+
+  P.W. Island     Co.'s Rs.  402,783 15 11
+
+  Singapore        "     "   497,186 14  5
+
+  Malacca          "     "   231,158 12  5
+                             -------------Rs. 1,131,129 10  5
+
+                             _Revenue._
+
+  P.W. Island     Co.'s Rs.  185,443  2  9
+
+  Singapore                  530,040 15  7
+
+  Malacca                     64,408  9 11
+                             -------------Rs.   779,893 12  3
+                                              ---------------
+  Total deficit at three settlements      Rs.   351,236 14  6
+                                              ===============
+
+                          W. J. BUTTERWORTH, Governor.
+
+    SINGAPORE, _6th February, 1847_.
+
+In the year 1848 we find that the Indian convicts were employed in
+blasting some considerable part of a mass of rock known to the Malays as
+Batu Belayer, or "Stone to sail to," and by Europeans as "Lot's wife."
+It was a dangerous obstruction to navigation, being situated on the
+Singapore side of the western entrance to the New Harbour.[6] It is
+reported as known to the old navigators of those seas, and was shown on
+old charts over two hundred years ago.
+
+    [Footnote 6: This entrance to Singapore was called New Harbour
+    after the construction there of Cloughton's Dock, now the much
+    improved New Harbour Dock. Singapore can now boast of another
+    fine dock at Tanjong Pagar, constructed some forty years ago,
+    and an additional dock is reported to be in contemplation.]
+
+In following _The Anecdotal History_ it may be well to mention here, as
+showing the steady progress of Singapore, that a census was again taken
+in 1849, which gave the total population at 59,043--Europeans being
+given at 198, Eurasians at 304, Chinese at 24,790; and the remainder was
+made up of Malays and other nationalities of the Indian Archipelago, and
+from the Coromandel Coast. This was recorded as only a trifling increase
+on 1848 amongst the Chinese, and was attributed to the decrease in the
+Chinese coolies working in the interior of the island, owing to the
+exhaustion of much soil, and the low price of produce, which had caused
+many of the planters to open new plantations in Johore.
+
+As an evidence of the variety of the employments to which these Indian
+convicts were turned by the Government, it should be remarked that
+during the Chinese riots in 1851, when the Chinese Hwuys began to
+distrust their countrymen who had become converted to Christianity by a
+Roman Catholic mission in the interior of the island, these convicts
+were sent out in gangs to follow the rioters into the jungles and
+disperse them. These riots lasted for over a week, and it required the
+presence at last of the military to quell them. As it was, over 500
+Chinese were killed, and among them many of the well-to-do Christian
+converts who had become planters.
+
+Utilized as the services of these convicts from India were by the
+Government of that day, and their being wholly different in their
+habits, customs, and language from the Chinese who formed the bulk of
+the town population, it is not to be wondered at that the Chinese felt
+themselves estranged from them, and kept themselves ever aloof. There
+were, however, some Chinese of the lowest class who sought to embroil
+themselves with them, so as to bring the convicts into trouble, but the
+convicts always avoided a quarrel. They therefore sought other means,
+and in 1852 they gave out and placarded over the town that the Governor
+and all the Europeans had left worshipping in St. Andrew's Church, owing
+to the number of evil spirits there, and had gone to worship in the
+Court House, and that in order to appease the spirits the Governor
+required thirty heads, and had ordered the convicts to waylay people at
+night and kill them.
+
+These placards created quite a panic in the place, so that people were
+for some days afraid to leave their houses after dark. In order to allay
+the fears of the people the Governor issued a proclamation saying that
+St. Andrew's Church had been struck by lightning and was unsafe (which
+was the fact), and he called upon the people not to believe the reports
+of evil men. Moreover, he offered a reward of $500 for the discovery of
+any person propagating such reports. This had no effect however, so the
+leading Chinese merchants were called upon to address their countrymen,
+which they did in a long appeal, assuring them of the benevolence of the
+Christian Government, and urging them to have no fear and not believe in
+foolish reports. In two days the fears of the Chinese population were
+thus dispelled. In 1875 a similar "head scare" occurred during the
+construction of the "puddle trench" for the new impounding reservoir.
+This was a work of considerable difficulty, and some superstitious
+natives circulated a report that it could not be done without "human
+sacrifice," and that the Government were looking for "heads" to put into
+the trench, and the alarm for days was so great that people would not
+pass along Thompson's Road adjoining the reservoir after dark; and even
+the "dhobies," or washer-men, in the stream adjoining the puddle trench,
+hastened into town before dusk. Similar so called "head scares" have
+occurred in Singapore up to even the present time. It is not easy to
+define what has led to this superstition in the native mind, and it is
+made more complicated from the fact that it is shared alike by Chinese
+and natives of India. In many of the Polynesian Islands the practice of
+human sacrifices we know exists even in our own days, and that chiefs,
+when they build a house or a war-canoe, offer up a human being; and the
+Polynesians and Indonesians resemble one another very closely. But such
+a superstition has not come to us through the Malay race, and we must
+rather seek for its origin from the Aryan Hindus of India; and as the
+Chinese took most of their tradition and folk-lore from the cradle of
+the Aryan races, the belief might thus be common to both peoples.[7] The
+Rev. Mr. Ward, writing early in this century, refers to the human
+sacrifices at Bardwan, in Bengal, and says of them: "The discovery of
+murders in the name of religion was made by finding bodies with the
+heads cut off, and placed near the images of 'Durga' and 'Kali.'" Also
+at Serampur, before the temple of the goddess "Jara," a human body was
+found without a head. Whatever the origin of the superstition may be
+traced to, the municipality at Singapore were wisely advised, and we
+think very properly declined to take any notice of the recent "head
+scare" of this year, and we can only hope that these apprehensions will
+gradually cease to stir the minds of the people as they become more
+instructed and advanced in civilization.
+
+    [Footnote 7: The old mystic symbol of the Swastika of India,
+    for instance, [Illustration: A clockwise Swastika] is common
+    amongst the Mongolian races, and other signs of an early union
+    between these races might be given.]
+
+Among the many works of utility carried on by convict labour during the
+tenure of the office of Superintendent of Convicts by Captain Man was
+the widening and improving of the Bukit Timah Canal, in order to drain
+the adjacent low lands, and render them capable for cultivation by
+market gardeners. In the cutting of these artificial channels the
+convicts from India had great aptitude, and some of them had been
+employed on similar work in their own country. The largest work,
+however, commenced in Captain Man's time, was the erection of the whole
+of the permanent buildings required for the location of the then large
+number of Indian convicts. They were built within the surrounding wall
+of the jail, near the "Brass Basa" or "Wet Rice" Canal, and entirely by
+the labour of the convicts themselves. The estimate for the work made by
+the Superintending Engineer for their execution by free labour was
+100,000 rupees, but the money cost to the Government was only 12,000
+rupees, when executed by convict labour and with convict-made materials.
+To effect this, the convicts were trained to make the bricks, to dig and
+burn coral for lime, to quarry stone for foundations, and to fell the
+timber in Government forests in the island, and to dress it for roof
+timbers, door and window frames, and so forth.
+
+When Captain Man went to Malacca as Resident Councillor, Captain Ronald
+Macpherson, of the Madras Artillery, succeeded him as Superintendent of
+Convicts, Singapore, and carried on the works in progress at the time.
+This was in the year 1855. The most prominent work commenced by the
+convicts in his time, and subsequently carried to completion, was the
+erection of the new church, now the cathedral of the diocese. It must be
+acknowledged that it was a courageous act on the part of Captain
+Macpherson to have designed a church in the early English style of
+architecture, and to have pledged himself to the Government that he
+would undertake to construct it wholly by convict labour. We think it
+showed both confidence in himself and in his convict workpeople, and
+nothing could more clearly have proved to what perfection their skilled
+labour had advanced than that he felt himself able to embark on so
+elaborate a work.
+
+It was in May of this year, 1855, that the Bengal Government approved of
+the project, and sanctioned the expenditure in cash of 47,000 rupees
+upon its construction. The Bishop of Calcutta laid the foundation stone
+during next year before a large concourse of the merchants and residents
+of the place, and the inscription below the stone ran as follows:--
+
+    The first English church of Singapore, commenced A.D. 1834, and
+    consecrated A.D. 1838, having become dilapidated, this stone of
+    a new and more commodious edifice, dedicated to the worship of
+    Almighty God according to the rites and discipline of the
+    Church of England, under the name of St. Andrew, was laid by
+    the Right Reverend Daniel Wilson, D.D., Lord Bishop of Calcutta
+    and Metropolitan, on the 4th March, 1856, in the twenty-fourth
+    year of his episcopate.
+
+       The Hon'ble Edmund Augustus Blundell being the Governor
+                     of the Straits Settlements.
+
+       The Hon'ble Thomas Church being Resident Councillor of
+                             Singapore.
+
+      Lieut-Col. Charles Pooley, of the Madras Army, Commanding
+                            the Troops.
+
+         The Rev. William Topley Humphrey being Chaplain.
+
+      And Captain Ronald McPherson of the Madras Artillery being
+                           the Architect.
+
+     The Building to be erected at the charge of the Hon'ble East
+                           India Company.
+
+     Full Estimate of cost: Co.'s Rupees 120,932, or with Convict
+                        Labour Rupees 47,916.
+
+In May, 1857, Captain Man proceeded from Malacca to Penang as Resident
+Councillor of that settlement, and Captain Macpherson took his place at
+Malacca. Captain Purvis, also of the Madras Artillery, was appointed to
+succeed Captain Macpherson in the combined duties of engineer and
+Superintendent of Convicts; but, to the regret of the Government, he
+relinquished the appointment at the close of the year, and Lieutenant
+McNair, another Madras Artillery officer, succeeded him. Lieutenant (now
+Major) McNair was a passed interpreter in the Hindustani language, which
+was spoken by the bulk of the convicts in the jail, and he subsequently
+qualified as a civil engineer. He remained in charge of the convicts
+until the jail was abolished in 1873.
+
+Upon his assuming charge, the foundations of the new church had been
+laid and the masonry built up to nearly three feet above ground. The
+work was steadily carried on in accordance with the plans of Captain
+Macpherson, with the single exception that it was found necessary, owing
+to the weakness of the foundations, to abandon the heavy tower, and to
+place a light steeple instead. In the building of this church, Mr. John
+Bennett afforded most material assistance as Assistant Superintendent of
+Convicts. To his oversight and careful attention to the variety of
+details incident to such a work may be ascribed its satisfactory
+completion in January, 1862, when the edifice was consecrated by the
+then Bishop of Calcutta, Dr. George Cotton, who so unfortunately met his
+death in 1866 by being drowned in the Ganges. Further details in
+connection with this work will also be given under the heading of
+"Convict Industries and Public Works."
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VII
+
+SINGAPORE (_Continued_)
+
+
+To continue the narrative according to date, we trace that in the year
+1858, after the mutiny, the Indian Government came to the conclusion
+that at all principal centres "field redoubts" should be constructed, to
+be available as places of refuge for Europeans in the event of a native
+rising; and accordingly orders were given for the fortification of
+Singapore. Colonel Collyer, of the Madras Engineers, was therefore sent
+over from Madras to design and carry out the necessary military works,
+and he was given the appointment of Chief Engineer of the Straits
+Settlements.
+
+He selected Government Hill for the main work, and improved and enlarged
+the batteries on Mounts Palmer and Faber, being of opinion that, beyond
+the idea of a place of refuge, the island should be fortified to resist
+aggression from without. All his plans were approved, and, as Lord
+Canning had then become the first "Viceroy" of India, the main work was
+named after him, which name it bears to this day. In the execution of
+most of the earthwork, Chinese labour was employed, but the convicts
+were utilized in building the sally ports, constructing the drawbridge,
+sinking the deep wells; and the whole of the bricks, and much of the
+lime and cement required, were manufactured by the convicts at the
+Government kilns on the Serangoon Road. Colonel Collyer also designed
+other important works in the place, notably the Collyer Quay. Major
+Mayne, of the same corps, succeeded him, and in his time the waterworks
+scheme for the town was initiated, but not carried fully to completion,
+and fresh designs became necessary under his successor, in consultation
+with the late Sir Robert Rawlinson, K.C.B.
+
+During this year also the convicts were employed in the erection of a
+new court house (now the public offices), the general hospital, lunatic
+asylum, pauper hospital, and some other minor public works. They also
+built the walls of the reclamation works along the sea front, now known
+as Collyer Quay, and above referred to, and the river wall at Campong
+Malacca. Both these sea and river works had been attempted by free
+labour, but the work of the convicts for this class of rubble walling
+was found more suitable, and therefore it was carried on by them, and
+with satisfactory results in every way.
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF JAIL BUILDINGS, SINGAPORE.
+
+_Plate X._]
+
+Shortly after the transfer of the Straits Settlements to the Crown,
+which occurred on the 1st April, 1867, the Governor, then Sir Harry St.
+George Ord, called upon Major McNair, who had been appointed Colonial
+Engineer and Comptroller of the Indian Convicts, to prepare plans for a
+Government House to be erected near Mount Sophia, somewhat under two
+miles from the town. The plans were approved by the Governor, and passed
+by the Legislative Council early in 1868. The land on which it stands
+cost $43,800, and the building, furniture, and laying out of the
+grounds, $115,000, and the work, with convict labour, was finished for
+the reception of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh[8] in December, 1869.
+
+    [Footnote 8: Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.]
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE SINGAPORE CONVICT JAIL.
+
+We have already incidentally referred to the plans of Captain Man for
+the erection of a permanent jail for the Indian convicts, which he had
+agreed to construct wholly by convict labour. The enclosure wall already
+existed, within which the original temporary buildings and thatched huts
+had been run up for their shelter. Only one solid building was within
+it, part of which was used as a hospital and the remainder for the
+confinement of convicts in irons. The next permanent building to be
+erected was quarters for the chief warder, and then came the solid
+gateways and guard-rooms. After these were built the wards for the
+fourth and fifth classes, or convicts in irons, then Nos. 1 and 2 wards,
+all shown on the plan (Plate X.) attached. Then a work-yard was enclosed
+by a solid wall, and offices built near the outer entrance to it, for
+the offices of the engineer and Superintendent of Convicts. While this
+wall was under construction by one gang, other gangs were employed in
+erecting within the main enclosure a refractory ward and punishment
+cells, and other minor buildings required in the way of store rooms,
+filter rooms,[9] chain room, and a receiving room for fresh arrivals;
+and the effectual drainage of the whole prison.
+
+    [Footnote 9: These filters were of the simplest construction.
+    They consisted of three very porous earthenware pots or
+    "chatties" placed on a tripod. In the first was the water to be
+    filtered, a foot off was the pot full of charcoal and white
+    sand, and the filtered water was drawn off from the third. The
+    charcoal and sand were renewed twice a week.]
+
+It was only when all these buildings were actually completed, in the
+year 1860, that the establishment assumed the character of a prison; and
+the convicts themselves were not slow to realize the fact, for it became
+a proverb amongst them that "an open campong, or village, had become a
+closed cage."
+
+In 1857 there were altogether under the control of the convict
+authorities no fewer than 2,139 transported felons from India and about
+fifty from Hongkong. About one half of this number were localised in the
+main prison, the other half being employed upon the country roads, the
+quarries, and brickfields. These were of the third class; the second
+class men were detailed for duties as Government messengers, punkah
+pullers at the hospitals and Government offices, and others of this
+class also as "lookout men" at the flag-staff stations, helpers to light
+keepers, crews for the Government boats conveying firewood to the jail
+and brick kilns, and others digging and conveying coral for lime
+burning.
+
+In the main prison the wards were built of a uniform length of 230 feet,
+breadth 60 feet, and height of walls 20 feet. The wards were not ceiled,
+but open to the tiles, with a ridge ventilator along the whole roof.
+Beneath the side windows, which were barred, ground ventilation was
+provided, in order to ensure a current of air throughout the whole
+building. The floors were laid in concrete, and cemented over with
+"soorkee," or brick dust and cement mixed, and graded to the sides. Each
+ward was arranged to contain four hundred convicts. All the convicts
+were in association, separate confinement being restricted to the
+punishment cells. In each ward were platform sleeping benches. They were
+raised three feet at the head, and two feet nine inches at the foot,
+above the floor, and were coated with coal tar except on the actual
+sleeping place.
+
+Lime-wash was used for the inner roofing timbers and tiles, and
+generally for the walls, except for the three feet of dado, which was
+coated with coal tar. Parts of this dado were daily re-coated with hot
+fresh tar, as we found coal tar to be a valuable deodorizer. To each
+ward there were four night urinals, detached from the main building and
+provided with double spring doors. In each urinal there were utensils
+coated with coal tar, and at every corner iron crates filled with
+wood-charcoal to absorb noxious vapours. Down the centre of each ward
+spit-boxes were provided for second and third class convicts accustomed
+to betel chewing. There was always a night watch of one petty convict
+officer in each ward, and surprise visits were often paid at night by
+the Superintendent, his assistant, and the chief warder. Going down a
+ward at night, one might see four hundred or more of these convicts,
+each enveloped from head to foot in a "chadar," or native sheet,
+literally over head and ears in sleep. They were all properly worked,
+properly fed, and properly punished when they deserved it; so, with the
+benefit of the two first, and a wholesome dread of the third, no wonder
+they were soon lulled to sleep when the prison doors were closed upon
+them. Now, at the risk of being a little tedious, we propose to describe
+in some detail the "day" latrines in use in this old jail. The
+information may, we think, be of service to those who have native
+prisoners under their charge either in jails or police stations in the
+East. At this period of time, when conservancy has rightly taken a first
+place in all such establishments, it may be thought by some to be
+superfluous, but the system pursued by us worked so very well that we do
+not hesitate to give an account of it.
+
+There were many such latrines in the prison, so we will confine our
+remarks to one only. The building in use for this purpose was about
+seventy feet in length and twenty feet wide, and the tiled roof was
+supported upon brick pillars raised twelve feet from the ground. In its
+construction care was taken, above all things, to ensure a solid floor
+"impervious" to "moisture." This was made by first laying down six
+inches of well-prepared concrete, consisting of pounded granite,
+brick-dust, and gravel cemented together by hydraulic mortar, then
+overlaid with pure cement, and after this coated with an inch thick of
+asphalt. Around the whole building was an open drain, about two feet
+inside of the pillars, and built like the floor, and carefully graded to
+the outfall. The walls, pillars, and drains were coated with coal tar,
+and here and there daily renewed to ensure deodorization. Close to the
+drain, and at eighteen inches apart, were placed troughs of hard wood
+two feet in length, one foot nine inches wide, and nine inches deep,
+with stout handles at either end. These troughs were smeared over with
+pitch. Between every second trough was placed a box containing about a
+bushel of powdered red earth, perfectly dry, and in each box was a ladle
+made of half a cocoanut shell attached to a handle. Two convicts of the
+sixth, or feeble class, were placed in charge of this latrine, whose
+duty it was to see that the red earth was sprinkled by those using the
+troughs. When the troughs were full they were emptied into a
+conservancy cart with a hermetically closed screw top, and when this was
+full it was conveyed by bullocks to plantations in the country.
+
+We think we are quite warranted in saying that this was the first jail,
+if not the first establishment anywhere, in which this dry earth system
+of conservancy was used. For centuries, no doubt, in India the
+well-known habit of the cat had been followed by many of the native
+castes, but it was not until vast numbers of these convicts from India
+were aggregated in association that the application of the system to
+their dwellings was initiated, and we think that the clever invention of
+the "earth closet" for certain localities may have suggested itself to
+its inventor when a resident at Singapore.
+
+It may be as well to give here the testimony of Dr. Mouat, the
+Inspector-General of Jails, Bengal, on the efficiency of the conservancy
+of this old jail, and in no spirit of self-satisfaction we quote his own
+words "verbatim," which are as follows:--
+
+    "Singapore, _1st June, 1865_.--I have sincere pleasure in
+    recording the unmixed satisfaction which I have experienced
+    from a careful examination of the jail, and system of prison
+    management in use at Singapore.
+
+    The scrupulous cleanliness, perfect plan of conservancy,
+    excellent order, well-regulated system of labour and
+    punishments, and the high standard of health attained are not
+    surpassed in any other well-regulated institution of the same
+    kind that I am acquainted with in Europe or in Asia. My
+    personal knowledge of prisons and of all details of prison
+    management is sufficiently extended to entitle me to speak with
+    authority on this subject.
+
+    In many important points of internal economy and discipline,
+    Singapore can fairly lay claim to being _Primus in Indis_ in
+    the adoption and practical working of principles that are now
+    generally accepted as sound and correct. My own feeling on the
+    subject is that Colonels Man and Macpherson and Captain McNair,
+    to whom the chief credit appears to be due, are entitled to
+    rank in the first class of prison officers and reformers in
+    India."
+
+Perhaps the last addition to the jail buildings was the erection by the
+convict bricklayers and plasterers of a stand to hold the prison bell,
+and from whence to call the roll at general musters. It was built in the
+form of a "monopteron," a sort of structure without walls, and composed
+of columns arranged in a circle, and supporting a covered cupola.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter VIII
+
+DIVISION INTO CLASSES, TRADES, FOOD, AND CLOTHING
+
+
+We now come to deal with perhaps not a very inviting part of our
+subject, viz. the division of the convicts into classes, their
+supervision, artificer trades, hours of work, food, and clothing, but it
+must be told in brief in order to make the narrative of this jail
+complete.
+
+They were divided into six classes, but since the year 1857, when Major
+McNair took charge, sec. A of the third class, and sec. A of the fifth
+class were added to the classification.
+
+    The _First Class_ consisted of trustworthy convicts allowed out
+    on ticket of leave.
+
+    _Second Class_ consisted of convict petty officers, male and
+    female, and those employed in hospitals and public offices.
+
+    _Third Class_ were convicts employed on roads and public works,
+    having passed through their probationary course.
+
+    _Fourth Class_ were convicts newly arrived, and those degraded
+    from other classes or promoted from the fifth class. They
+    worked in light irons.
+
+    _Fifth Class_ were convicts degraded from the higher classes,
+    and such as required more than ordinary vigilance to prevent
+    escape, or regarding whom special instructions had been
+    received from India. They worked in heavy irons.
+
+    _Sixth Class_ were invalids and superannuated convicts.
+
+    Youths were transferred to a special gang for "boys."
+
+[Illustration: DUFFADAR RAM SINGH, SENIOR PETTY OFFICER OF THE JAIL.
+
+_McNair._
+
+_Plate XII._]
+
+Convicts, if for life, were admitted to the first class after having
+been sixteen years in transportation; if for seventeen years, after
+twelve years; and if for seven years, after having been six years in
+transportation. Females, for whatever period, from three to five years.
+Before a ticket of leave could be granted, the convict had to provide
+personal security for his good behaviour and continued presence in the
+settlement; and any misdemeanour on his part involved a revoking of his
+ticket of leave, and his return to confinement in the prison and
+reduction to a lower class. All _First Class_ convicts, whether male or
+female, had to attend muster on the first of every month, and had to
+keep the Superintendent informed of their place of residence, and were
+bound to sleep in it every night.
+
+_Second Class_ convicts were employed as stated. They were allowed to
+go out of the jail after working hours, but had to appear at 8 p.m. roll
+call daily (except those employed at hospitals and in special duties),
+and were required to sleep in prison at night. Convicts were admitted to
+this class, on good behaviour, at the Superintendent's discretion, as
+follows:--
+
+  If transported for  7 years, after 5 years.
+         "        "  14   "      "   7   "
+         "        "  life,       "   8   "
+
+All jail petty officers, from duffadars to orderlies, were included in
+this class, and no convict was eligible for an orderly until he had been
+eight years in transportation; promotion went either by seniority or
+qualification, but he should have been an orderly for two years before
+being promoted to a peon.
+
+_Third Class_ convicts. Convicts were admitted to this class at the
+Superintendent's discretion--
+
+  If transported for 12 years, after 12 months.
+         "        "  14   "      "    2 years.
+         "        "  life,       "    3   "
+
+This was not a chain class, and one rupee a month was allowed to each
+man for the purchase of condiments, called "subsistence money." If not
+belonging to the country gangs, and of approved good conduct, this class
+was allowed, after working hours, to be outside the prison until 6 p.m.,
+if they had already completed four years in transportation; until that
+period had been discharged they were confined after work was over. This
+class was allowed to use their sectarian marks as a privilege. Degraded
+prisoners of this class were called "Sec. A, 3rd Class," and wore a ring
+on each ankle; they were strictly confined to the jail precincts.
+
+[Illustration: HEAD TINDAL MAISTRI OF CART MAKERS AND WHEELWRIGHTS.
+
+Plate XIII.]
+
+_Fourth Class._ All newly arrived convicts, except those regarding whom
+special instructions had been received from India, were placed in this
+class, and served their probation in it. They were worked in double
+light irons, and were not allowed to leave the prison except for work;
+they were not granted any money allowance, but fish, vegetables and
+condiments were supplied to them with their rations. They were, however,
+allowed the privilege to cook their own food.
+
+_Fifth Class._ This was a "punishment class" for troublesome characters
+from the upper classes, and every man degraded to it had to serve two
+years before being again promoted to the fourth class, and an additional
+six months before he could be promoted to the third class, unless the
+Superintendent saw sufficiently good cause for leniency. This class
+received clothing and rations like the fourth class, with vegetables,
+fish, and condiments; but all were cooked for them in mess under a
+convict cook. They received no money allowance, and were not allowed to
+leave the prison except for work. Refractory prisoners of this class
+were called "Sec. A, 5th Class"; they were put in the heaviest irons,
+with wrist irons if necessary, and were confined in the refractory ward
+on severe task work, as making coir from the rough husk of the
+cocoa-nuts, pounding and cleaning rice, and such like hard labour.
+
+"Flogging": If upon rare occasions this punishment had to be resorted
+to, the culprit was first inspected by the medical officer to see if he
+were capable to undergo the sentence: usually the number of lashes was
+from one dozen up to six dozen with the cat-o'-nine-tails. If passed by
+the medical officer, the punishment was inflicted in the presence of the
+convicts, and by selected convict warders, the medical officer or his
+apothecary being invariably present during the infliction. The triangles
+were of the usual pattern, and the flogging was on the buttock.
+
+No person was allowed to punish a convict but the Superintendent or the
+Assistant Superintendent acting for him. The defaulter was brought to
+the inquiry room, the case inquired into fully, and the default and
+sentence duly recorded in a book kept for the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: CONVICT OF THE SECOND CLASS AND MUNSHI.
+
+_Plate XIV._]
+
+_Sixth Class._ This class embraced all invalid and incapable men who
+were able to perform light work, as sweepers, watchmen in country
+commands, and in charge of latrines; also caretakers at Government
+bungalows, and those superannuated men who were exempt from all work. No
+convicts were admitted to this class until declared unfit for hard work
+by the medical officer and the Annual Medical Committee. Men of
+approved conduct got the indulgences of their former class. Female
+convicts belonged to this class, of which there were always a few under
+transportation. They were confined in a separate ward under a convict
+matron, and no prison male warder was allowed therein on pain of
+degradation.
+
+The supervising staff consisted of a Superintendent--who was also the
+Executive Engineer of the station--and his assistant, a chief warder and
+two assistants, an overseer of artificers and of roads. The native
+staff, being all petty officers raised from amongst the convicts,
+consisted of three duffadars, eight first tindals, twenty-two second
+tindals, ninety-four peons, and sixty-five orderlies, for the number of
+convicts then under confinement.
+
+In the year 1857 there were 2,139 convicts from different parts of
+India, Burmah, and Ceylon in this jail; but upon an average, until the
+prison was broken up, there were 1,900 always under control. The men
+from India were Seikhs, Dogras, Pallis, or a shepherd race; Thugs and
+Dacoits from different parts of the Bengal presidency, and mostly from
+round about Delhi and Agra; felons from all parts of the Madras and
+Bombay presidencies, and a few from Assam and Burmah, chiefly Dacoits,
+and a sprinkling of Cingalese.
+
+Upon arrival from India, each convict was checked with the warrants that
+accompanied the several gangs, then photographed, bathed, and supplied
+with the prison clothing, and each received a number by which, until he
+entered the third class, he was always known. Each convict was then duly
+inspected by the medical officer before admission to the wards. Any
+property with them was scheduled and put away until they were entitled
+to receive it, and the clothing in which they arrived was duly
+fumigated.
+
+The artificer body was drawn from the third and fourth classes only, and
+they were subject to the same discipline as their classes in the general
+prison. They were divided into four grades, according to the degree of
+skill they evinced, and received a monthly allowance commencing at one
+half a rupee, or 1s. a month, up to the highest sum given to the best
+workmen of 10s. a month, who were called "tindal maistris," and who
+were entrusted with the duty of teaching beginners. These tindal
+maistris were exempted from keeping watch in the wards at night.
+
+The several trades taught in the prison were as follows, and none of
+them were dangerous to health except the cement-sifting by females on
+treadles, which had to be discontinued:--
+
+  Bricklayers and plasterers.
+
+  Brick and tile makers and potters.
+
+  Blacksmiths.
+
+  Basket makers.
+
+  Coopers.
+
+  Carpenters, cement and lime burners.
+
+  Gardeners.
+
+  Painters.
+
+  Lime and charcoal burners.
+
+  Plumbers.
+
+  Quarrymen.
+
+  Sawyers, stone cutters, and blasters.
+
+  Slaters.
+
+  Shoe and sandal makers.
+
+  Tailors.
+
+  Turners and weavers.
+
+  Wheelwrights.
+
+  Woodcutters.
+
+  Boatmen.
+
+  Stone masons.
+
+[Illustration: CONVICT OF THE FIFTH CLASS, CONVICT OF THE FIFTH CLASS,
+SEC. A.
+
+_Plate XV._]
+
+Those few of the convicts who had acquired a trade in their native
+country were not admitted to the artificer gang until they had gone
+through their probationary period in irons on the public roads. The bulk
+of the convicts were trained in the prison itself; and after the year
+1857 native methods of working were abandoned, and the use of our
+carpenter's bench introduced, and English tools employed in all trades.
+
+They felled and stacked timber upon the island, which, after conveyance
+to the yard, was sawn and wrought into all that was required for roofing
+timbers, doors and window frames. They made the bricks, lime, and
+cement, and all tiles necessary for roofing or for paving. They quarried
+the stone at Pulo Obin for foundations, and for sea and river walls. The
+blacksmiths cast and forged from the raw state all the iron work for
+which there was a necessity. As a matter of fact all material and all
+labour for the execution of any public work required by the Government
+were executed by these convicts, from a small timber bridge upon a
+country road, even to the erection of a "cathedral" and "Government
+House," of which it is purposed further to give a detailed account.
+
+This is the proper place in which we may mention that in the years
+1859-60 the estimated value of this convict labour was 162,230 rupees,
+while the expenses of the whole convict department amounted to 117,578
+rupees. In 1860-61 the manufacture account showed a balance of 25,028
+rupees in favour of the State, though profit was always deemed of
+secondary importance. Material was valued at one half the market rate,
+and the labour at two-thirds the value of the same labour prevailing in
+the place.
+
+The hours of work were limited to nine, including the time taken in
+marching to and fro from the works; but to add to discipline we would
+occasionally give them some extra hours of work, answering somewhat to
+our "pipebrooms" in the Navy, or the "pipe-claying of belts" in our Army
+on the line of march on active service.
+
+[Illustration: CHETOO, AN INCORRIGIBLE CONVICT OF THE FIFTH CLASS.
+
+_Plate XVA._]
+
+The jail bell was rung at 5 a.m. (except Sunday), when every convict
+rose, rolled up his blanket with the number visible, and placed his
+"chadar" or sheet in his box, which was also numbered to correspond. He
+was marched out to the prison yard with the men of his ward, and the
+roll was called by the responsible officer. Time for light food was
+allowed, and the convicts were then detailed to the work gangs as
+arranged overnight. The work gangs left the prison punctually at 6
+a.m., and returned at 11 a.m.; were marched out again at 1 p.m.,
+returning at 5 p.m. At 6 p.m. a roll was again called for the 3rd, 4th,
+and 5th classes, who were then locked up for the night. At 8 p.m. there
+was another roll call for those who had the privilege, and then all were
+seen to their wards, and all wards and gates were locked by 9 p.m., when
+strict silence reigned throughout the prison; the European warder going
+rounds up to 10 p.m., and occasionally, with the Superintendent and his
+assistant, paying surprise night rounds. Convicts on the march out of
+prison were moved five abreast, or as they called it "panch-panch,"
+literally, by "fives."
+
+On the first of every month there was a general muster of the whole of
+the convicts, including the first class, when the roll was called, and
+each answered to his name or number. This muster was always in the
+presence of the Superintendent, who inspected each convict, and if any
+one had a grievance his name was taken down, and his complaint
+afterwards inquired into at the "Inquiry Room." This opportunity was
+taken by the Superintendent to inspect the whole prison, wards,
+latrines, drains, and bathing places.
+
+The rations required for the jail were either obtained upon indent upon
+the Government Commissariat Department, or by tender called for in the
+town. Each convict's daily allowance was as follows:--
+
+  To 2nd, 3rd,     Rice.  Dholl  Salt.   Ghee,   Vege-   Fish.  Mussalah
+  and 6th classes          or            clari-  tables.        or Curry
+  without                 Peas.          fied                   Stuff.
+  condiments.                            Butter.
+
+                    oz.    oz.    drs.    drs.    oz.     oz.     drs.
+
+  Effective men     32      5      8       8      --      --      7 1/4
+
+  Invalids and      24      2      8       8      --      --      7 1/4
+  Women
+
+To the fourth and fifth classes, being effective, with condiments, fish
+and vegetables alternating thus--
+
+                   Rice.  Dholl.  Salt.  Ghee.   Vege-   Fish.  Mussalah
+                                                 tables.        or Curry
+                                                                Stuff.
+
+                    oz.    oz.    drs.    drs.    oz.     oz.     drs.
+
+  Monday            28      5      1      10       5      --      7 1/4
+
+  Tuesday           28     --     --      10      --       5      7 1/4
+
+We found that this dietary scale was sufficient to a native under labour
+to repair waste tissue without giving fat. The "ghee," or clarified
+butter, made the rice more nutritious, and the "dholl," or peas,
+contained both albumen and starch, which would of themselves alone
+support life. For the penal class there was the usual congee diet.
+
+All convicts not being in the first class, nor employed as messengers in
+hospitals or at public offices (when they received a compensation), were
+clothed in the jail.
+
+  The 2nd, 3rd, and 6th }  half-yearly  {  Nine yards of stout grey
+  classes               }      and      {  shirting.
+                        }  duly marked  {  One suit.
+  4th and 5th classes   }               {  Two working suits and
+                                           a stout cap
+
+To all annually was given one blanket of coarse wool called a "kumblie,"
+and made by the convicts themselves from wool purchased in the place and
+prepared by them for the purpose.
+
+Belts and brass plates for them were supplied only to duffadars,
+tindals, peons, and orderlies.
+
+The European warders were dressed in a light blue serge loose coat with
+lace round the cap, and distinctive badge to indicate the grade, and in
+the case of an overseer of artificers a hammer and chisel crossed. After
+the reception in 1858-59 of a large number of mutineers they were
+supplied with a belt and revolver.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter IX
+
+PUBLIC WORKS AND INDUSTRIES
+
+
+In referring to the variety of public works undertaken by these Indian
+convicts, we have hitherto refrained from going into much detail in
+regard to them; but we think it will not be without interest to dwell
+somewhat more at length, as we have proposed, upon the construction of
+the cathedral and the Government House, which still remain as records of
+their labour, and spring into the greatest prominence. Of the jail
+itself, which, as we have said, was planned and partially carried out by
+the late General Man, nothing further need, we think, be added for it is
+now dismantled except that it was in truth the training ground for the
+artificer gang under that able officer, who saw the absolute necessity
+of having some large public work in hand in order to the convicts
+acquiring a knowledge of the various trades. This principle in the
+management of convicts was advocated by Sir Edmund Du Cane in one of his
+pamphlets, in which he judiciously says that "the best system devised
+for the employment of convicts is that of executing large public works
+by means of their labour."
+
+[Illustration: CATHEDRAL, SINGAPORE.
+
+_Koch._
+
+_Plate XVI._]
+
+As the late General Man had for this purpose the erection of the
+permanent jail, so the late Colonel Macpherson planned and laid the
+foundations for execution by their labour of St. Andrew's Church, now
+the cathedral of the diocese; while to Major McNair fell the duty of
+designing and constructing almost wholly by these convicts the house for
+the Governor of the colony.
+
+
+CATHEDRAL[10] (see Plate XVI.).
+
+In preparing the designs of this ecclesiastical edifice, Colonel
+Macpherson had to select as simple and easy a form of architecture as he
+could, and with as little ornament as possible, and therefore within the
+capacity of his workpeople; so he chose the Gothic, or rather, we should
+say, the Early English style of about the 12th century, and in so doing
+he said he had somewhat reproduced the character of old Netley
+Abbey.[11] He laid the foundations, and saw it built up to about three
+feet above the ground, and then left for Malacca to take up the
+appointment of Chief Civil Officer there, and was therefore not able
+further to see the progress of the work that he had inspired. His plans,
+however, were carefully followed by his successor, with the exception,
+as has already been said, of substituting a spire for a tower, owing to
+undue settlement at the tower end. This building is 250 feet long
+internally, by 65 feet in width, with nave and side aisles; or, with the
+north and south transepts, 95 feet, the transepts being used as
+porticoes. The simple columns, with plain mouldings only, carried
+arches, on which rested the side walls of the nave, which were run up of
+sufficient height to clear the roofs of the aisles, and were perforated
+by a range of windows to admit light to the whole building. At the
+north-east end of the nave was a great arch leading into a chancel, and
+an apse with three lancet windows in stained glass. The building was
+roofed with teak timber, with a sarking of lighter wood as a lining to
+form a contrast, and then covered with slates imported from England.
+Over the main entrance is a vaulted dome, with a neat piece of groining
+in granite, also made by the convicts. Leading to the organ loft is a
+circular well staircase, made from quarter-inch plate iron, the treads
+and risers punched with holes by the punching machine in the work yard
+to render them lighter. They were bracketed together, and secured by
+screw bolts and nuts. The risers were bent round a two-inch bar of round
+iron, which passed down through all of them at the centre from top to
+bottom of the staircase. The whole was made and fixed in its place by
+the convicts.
+
+    [Footnote 10:
+
+      Archdeacon and Chaplain, Ven. John Perham; }
+      Choirmaster, Mr. C. B. Buckley;            } 1899.
+      Organist, Mr. E. Salzmann.                 }        ]
+
+    [Footnote 11: Colonel Macpherson had seen as a young man the
+    ruins of the old church and abbey of Netley, or "Letley," as it
+    was originally called, from the Latin word "laetus," pleasant,
+    and the Saxon word "ley," a field, and had been so impressed
+    with the simple character and proportions of the Early English
+    style of church architecture, of which this was an excellent
+    example, that when called upon to plan a new church for
+    Singapore, he, as we say, chose this as his model.
+
+    We have a very good account of Netley Abbey given in 1848 by
+    George Guillaume, architect, and from his description it was
+    founded in 1239, and was occupied by monks of the Cistercian
+    order, who were brought over from a neighbouring monastery at
+    Beaulieu in the New Forest, where there was already an abbey
+    dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Netley Church was built on a
+    cruciform plan, and was proportioned according to the ancient
+    mysterious figure called the "Visica Pisces," as will be seen
+    in the sketch below from his work.
+
+        [Illustration: A Visica Pisces.]
+
+    Singapore Church, now, as we have said, the cathedral of the
+    diocese, has been much admired for its true symmetry and exact
+    proportion, as well as for the delicate simplicity of its
+    details.]
+
+As a pattern for the convicts to follow, we built two arches on the
+ground, the exact counterpart of those in the building; and, indeed, at
+any time when they wanted a guide, we had a model made; and the natives
+of India are such wonderful imitators, as we all know, that they soon
+were able to follow the copy we had given them. So the work progressed
+from day to day, until it was ultimately finished in 1862. We found that
+the skill of the convicts never failed them, and their capacity as
+builders and carpenters never seemed to slacken.
+
+In dealing with the interior walls and columns, we used what is well
+known, though little employed with us in England, "Madras chunam," made
+from shell lime without sand; but with this lime we had whites of eggs
+and coarse sugar, or "jaggery," beaten together to form a sort of paste,
+and mixed with water in which the husks of cocoanuts had been steeped.
+The walls and columns were plastered with this composition, and, after a
+certain period for drying, were rubbed with rock crystal or rounded
+stone until they took a beautiful polish, being occasionally dusted with
+fine soapstone powder, and so leaving a remarkably smooth and glossy
+surface.
+
+We have given the dimensions of this building, but we may remark that,
+owing to the simplicity of its tracery and mouldings, it really appears
+much larger than it actually is, and being built on an open space, its
+proportions at once strike the eye of every visitor to the colony.
+
+A peal of bells was added to the cathedral in 1889 by the munificence of
+Mr. W. H. Read, C.M.G., who, with the late Mr. John Crawfurd, Mr. James
+Guthrie, and others, was instrumental in bringing about the transfer
+of these settlements to the Crown, and some of their portraits are now
+in the Town Hall, including that of Mr. Thomas Scott, then M.L.C.
+
+[Illustration: MORTAR MILL, GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE.
+
+GOVERNMENT HOUSE GARDEN BEING LAID OUT BY CONVICTS.
+
+_Plate XVII._]
+
+
+GOVERNMENT HOUSE (see Plate XIX.).
+
+We have already mentioned that the transfer of the Straits Settlements
+from the direct control of India to the Crown was effected on the 1st
+April, 1867. The first Governor under the new _regime_ was Colonel Sir
+Harry St. George Ord, R.E., who, upon his arrival in Singapore, had to
+take up his abode in a hired house. He therefore lost no time in issuing
+orders to purchase land, and to erect a suitable residence for himself
+and for the future Governors of the colony. Plans were accordingly
+called for from the colonial engineer (Major McNair), and they soon took
+shape and were submitted by the Governor to the Legislative Council
+without delay; and money was voted for the erection of the building, the
+purchase of land, and the ordering of furniture from England. The work
+was actually commenced within three months of the Governor's arrival,
+the foundation-stone was laid by Lady Ord a month later, and the
+building was made ready for the reception of H.R.H. the Duke of
+Edinburgh in October, 1869.
+
+The whole of the brick work, exterior plastering, and most of the
+flooring and interior work were effected by convict labour; but it
+became necessary, towards the last, to employ free labour, to assist in
+the flooring, which was executed with battens from the steam sawmills at
+Johore, and also in the coffering of the ceilings in the drawing-room
+and some plastering in the rear block. The whole of the bricks used were
+made by the convicts, and much of the lime and cement was of their
+manufacture.
+
+The edifice stands upon a hill in the eastern suburb of the town, about
+a mile and a quarter from the cathedral, and is surrounded by nearly 100
+acres of ground, which has been tastefully laid out, and planted with
+rare plants under successive Superintendents of the Government Botanical
+Gardens. The building commands an extensive view of the harbour and
+surrounding country, and from the tower the distant islands and mainland
+of Johore are distinctly visible. It is supplied with water from the
+town water supply,[12] by the use of a hydraulic ram. It was first
+lighted with gas, but now by the electric light throughout the whole
+building.
+
+    [Footnote 12: Also a work which we initiated and brought to
+    completion on designs approved by the late Sir Robert
+    Rawlinson, K.C.B.]
+
+[Illustration: GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE, APPROACHING COMPLETION.
+
+_Plate XVIII._]
+
+The house is built somewhat in the shape of a cross. Ascending a flight
+of broad steps from the wide portico, you enter a spacious entrance hall
+floored with beautiful white marble from Java, having in your direct
+front a handsome stone staircase leading up through an arcade to a
+half-pace, from which it returns right and left to the lobby above,
+which is of the same dimensions as the entrance hall. Off this lobby, on
+the eastern wing, is the library, and beyond, the principal bed and
+dressing-rooms, and an open verandah over the portico (since regrettably
+built in). In the western wing is a double drawing-room, with disengaged
+pillars between; and below, off the entrance hall, on the east side, is
+the ball-room, and on the west the dining hall and billiard-rooms.
+Store-rooms, pantries, and all necessary accommodation were supplied as
+in any of our home mansions.
+
+The ground floor of the building is raised four feet from the plateau,
+and ample ventilation is provided underneath. The building is 230 ft. in
+frontage, and 180 ft. in depth, and the height to the tower is 80 ft.
+The style is Ionic upon Doric, with Corinthian pillars and pilasters to
+the tower. It is roofed with slates, and the lower floors and verandahs
+are paved with marble.
+
+As at the cathedral training for the convicts, so here models of the
+pillars and capitals were made on the ground for them to copy, and the
+special bricks for mouldings, copings, architraves, and capitals were
+made at the convict brick kilns.[13] The plaster work for the exterior
+walls was a subject of much consideration with us; and, after various
+experiments, we arrived at the following composition, and it has
+thoroughly withstood the weather, which, under the trying circumstances
+of a rapid succession of damp and heat, was exceptional in that
+climate:--
+
+  Portland cement        2 parts.  }
+                                   } Carefully and
+  White selected sand    1 part.   } slowly mixed
+                                   } by the
+  Granite powdered to }            } convicts.
+  dust in small       }  2 parts.  }
+  handmills, or       }            }
+  querns              }            }
+
+    [Footnote 13: All taught by ourselves to the convicts, with the
+    assistance of Overseer Callcott, now risen to be Deputy
+    Colonial Engineer.]
+
+A gift by the Chinese community of a statue of H.M. the Queen was
+unveiled with some ceremony at this Government House in the year 1889.
+
+
+INDUSTRIES (INTRA-MURAL).
+
+We have already enumerated the various trades that were taught to these
+Indian convicts, and shall therefore confine our remarks here to a brief
+description of some of those productive occupations upon which we
+employed their labour both within and without the main jail.
+
+We must, however, make known beforehand, in connection with intra-mural
+works, that, attached to the main jail, yet distinctly separated from it
+by high walls and a guarded gateway, was a "work-yard," in which were
+built shops for carpenters, blacksmiths, coopers, wheelwrights, sawyers,
+stone-cutters, and turners in wood and iron.
+
+[Illustration: GOVERNMENT HOUSE, SINGAPORE, COMPLETED.
+
+_McNair._
+
+_Plate XIX._]
+
+In one part of this yard was also a machine shop, in which were fitted
+lathes, punching and shearing machines, and a bolt and nut machine, also
+a band saw and a circular saw table. To drive this machinery a 12 h.p.
+engine was used, and this was placed under the charge of a convict who
+had been employed in the engine-room of a P. and O. steamer, and had
+gone through his probationary period in the jail. Added to these
+machines was one of Blake's stone-crushers to break stone of various
+gauges for metalling the roads of the town.
+
+This was the first Indian jail, and we might even go so far as to say it
+was amongst the first of any jails, where convicts were employed in
+connection with steam power. We had, it is true, an engine to be worked
+by manual power, for six or eight men abreast, to drive the circular
+saw, but it did not answer. It was intended as "crank" labour for the
+convicts.
+
+When Dr. Mouat, the Inspector-General of Jails, Bengal, wrote his annual
+report of 1864-65, he said: "I have suggested the introduction of steam
+machinery for the spinning of jute yarn, in order that all prisoners
+sentenced to rigorous imprisonment may never be without the hard labour
+which the jail is bound to provide for them. In this, as in most matters
+connected with the organization of prison industry, I have been
+anticipated by the authorities at Singapore, there being a steam
+saw-mill in use at the Singapore jail, and a pug-mill employed in the
+preparation of the clay used in the brick and tile manufactory."
+
+The carpenters made every necessary article required for the public
+buildings in progress; even the pulpit, reading-desk, and interior
+fittings for the cathedral were the work of their hands. The blacksmiths
+had four smithies, and forged, cast, and prepared all kinds of ordinary
+iron work found necessary. The coopers made buckets, tubs, and all the
+casks for storing cement, and for other jail purposes. The wheelwrights
+made all the carts, barrows (hand and wheel), and the hack-barrows
+wanted at the brick kilns. The stone-cutters turned out the mouldings,
+mullions, capitals, cills, steps, and all that was essential in our
+building operations.
+
+Within the jail proper there were shops for tailors, weavers, rattan
+workers, coir and rope makers, flag makers, a printing press, and a
+photographic studio, and a few draughtsmen for executing plans and
+working drawings. The tailors cut out, made, and repaired the clothing
+for the fourth and fifth classes, and any other such occupation required
+in the prison. The weavers, who worked with an ordinary Indian
+hand-loom, made the coarse cloth required for those classes in irons,
+and washed, dressed, combed, carded, and spun the raw wool purchased
+from the butchers in the town, from which the "kumblies" or coarse
+blankets supplied to all the convicts were made. The coir or yarn
+manufactured from the husks of cocoanuts was prepared by those employed
+at "hard labour" in the refractory ward. From this yarn we made cordage
+for the convict boats, mattresses for the hospitals, and matting of
+various kinds. The flag makers made up and repaired the flags and
+colours for the signal stations, and for the department of the master
+attendant. Upon this work female convicts, and feeble men of the sixth
+class, were usually employed.
+
+The printing press was established in 1860, and to start it the services
+of a Portuguese foreman printer were engaged for a short time to teach
+the convicts; and bookbinding was added later on. Photography was taught
+by one of us[14] to two intelligent convicts of the Calcutta Baboo class
+who wrote English. All convicts had their likeness taken, and were
+registered for identification in case of escape; also local prisoners
+and men under custody by the police. We had not, of course, the
+knowledge then of Mr. Henry's method of identity by means of
+"finger-prints," for it was only approved last year by the Government of
+India. The draughtsmen, numbering three, executed all the plans and
+working drawings for the public works. Those for the cathedral and
+Government House, and many other buildings, were drawn by these men, the
+principal draughtsman being a convict transported from Bombay of the
+name of Babajee. The rattan workers wrought chairs and baskets of all
+kinds, fenders for the Government steamers, and signal baskets for the
+flagstaff's.
+
+    [Footnote 14: Major McNair, who himself supplied both apparatus
+    and chemicals.]
+
+There were other minor industries carried on within the prison walls, so
+that it was a busy scene of task work from one end to the other, for
+every one was engaged upon something, and there was no chance for an
+idler to do nothing. Nursing a job was quite out of the question.
+
+But we must pass on to deal with the industries beyond the walls, and we
+shall limit our description to the making of bricks, lime, and cement,
+and the quarrying of stone, and well digging.
+
+
+INDUSTRIES (EXTRA-MURAL).
+
+It will be quite superfluous to give an account in detail of the method
+pursued in brick and tile making, for the process is known to every one.
+Suffice it to say that Colonel Faber, R.E., as previously noted, was the
+first to introduce the manufacture on Government account; he opened a
+place at Rochore, near the present gasworks, and employed free labour.
+The system was what is known as the "dry" and sand-moulding system, and
+the bricks were burned in clamps. All that could be said of these bricks
+was that they were better than those made by the Chinese at that time,
+but they were not a success, and the manufacture was after two or three
+years given up.
+
+In 1858 we started, on a systematic principle, under a trained European
+brick maker, an extensive brick field on the Serangoon Road, about three
+miles from the town, where there was a considerable bed of excellent
+clay for the purpose. The site, too, was well situated near the banks of
+an inlet from the sea, and affording great facility for water carriage,
+and with a palm grove close at hand, under the shade of which the
+convicts were allowed to roam without restraint when their work was
+over. Sheds, kilns, pug-mills, moulding tables, and all the necessary
+appliances for hand-made bricks were soon set on foot, and a large
+dormitory, surrounded by a stout precinct fence, was built for the
+number of convicts required for the manufacture, approximating to about
+120 of all classes, except those in irons.
+
+Our process was commonly known as "slop-moulding," each moulder turning
+out from 2,500 to 3,000 bricks in the course of the day. After the
+second year, when the convicts had become accustomed to the work, and to
+adapt themselves to each other, we were able to supply all that were
+needed for the public works, and even to export them for works at
+Malacca. In tabulating the account of the value of their labour and the
+outlay for fuel, and comparing it with the recognised value of the
+bricks, there was found to be a credit to the State in most years. (See
+Appendix No. 4.)
+
+When, in 1867, there was an Agricultural Exhibition at Agra, in the N.W.
+Provinces of India, we sent up specimens of bricks, tiles, drain pipes
+of all sizes, and stable flooring bricks, manufactured by these
+convicts, for which the Superintendent gained the silver medal; and if
+any further proof is needed of the excellent work turned out by these
+convicts, we may quote the report of the late Colonel Fraser, of the
+Bengal Engineers, which ran as follows:--
+
+    "As an Engineer Officer of the D.P.W., I have had a good deal
+    of experience as regards the management of jails in India and
+    Burmah, and have, of course, employed much convict labour, but
+    I have never been in any jail where the arrangements are so
+    perfect as in that of Singapore. While the discipline under
+    which the convicts are held is obviously most efficient, the
+    skill with which their labour is directed will be equally
+    obvious to all who will take the trouble, as I have done, to go
+    into the detail of their operations, and look at the results in
+    the many large works which have been executed at Singapore.
+
+    I went over the brick field with Captain McNair, and while I
+    found that the greatest reasonable amount of work was got out
+    of each man, I also found that the work turned out was the best
+    I have seen in India. Where there are good bricks, other work
+    is seen to be equally good, and when a proper amount of work is
+    required per convict, then the discipline must be also good; I
+    measured myself what the men were expected to do, and found it
+    to be three cubic yards in eight hours. This is the full task
+    of a European sapper in the same time."
+
+Our lime and cement were made from coral, of which there were extensive
+reefs round the Island of Singapore, and some few "atolls" (a Cingalese
+word), or special coral islands. Coral is almost a pure carbonate of
+lime, and therefore very well suited for the purpose. It was broken up
+and heated in kilns constructed for the purpose. The cement was made
+from this lime, and from selected clay, in the proportions we had by
+careful experiments established, until we obtained a good and
+quick-setting article. It was made into small balls and then dried, and
+burnt in a special kiln, and afterwards well and finely ground and
+sifted by female convicts; its tensile strength was excellent.
+
+[Illustration: CONVICTS STONE-QUARRYING, AT PULO OBIN, SINGAPORE.
+
+_Plate XX._]
+
+
+STONE QUARRYING (see Plate XX.).
+
+The stone we used for all our building operations was procured from an
+island between Singapore East and the mainland of Johore, and was named
+Pulo Obin. It is about three miles long and three-quarters of a mile
+broad. The stone was the best possible form of crystallised granite,
+fine grained, very compact and durable, grey in colour, with here and
+there black patches or nodules of hornblende. It occurs in large fluted
+boulders, and was wrought by the convicts by fire, or by blasting with
+gun-powder, or split by pointed chisels and large hammers. Its weight
+was 168 lbs. per cubic foot. The excellent quality of this granite led
+the Government of India to approve of the construction by the late
+Colonel Eraser, C.B., of several courses for the Alguada Reef
+lighthouse, which was built upon a dangerous reef off the coast of
+Burmah. Our department looked after the preparation of some of these
+courses, and forwarded them by ship to Burmah.
+
+
+WELL DIGGING.
+
+It is known to everyone how capable the Indians are in the sinking of
+wells, and that with many Orientals it is a work of great merit to build
+one. As two were required for Fort Canning, we were soon able to select
+men fitted for this special work amongst the third class convicts, who,
+many of them, begged to be allowed to take part in their construction.
+After a careful set of borings, we came upon water at a depth of 180 and
+120 feet respectively. They were eventually dug out to these depths, and
+steined to six feet in diameter by the use of sound and hard bricks from
+the convict kilns. The water rose to a height of 80 feet from the
+surface of the ground, and they were provided with lift and force pumps
+for the convenience of the troops in garrison. It was a heavy job for
+the convicts, but they performed it with eagerness and alacrity.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter X
+
+STORIES ABOUT INDIAN CONVICTS AND EUROPEAN LOCAL PRISONERS
+
+
+No. 1
+
+Most of the convicts sentenced to the Straits Settlements for short
+periods of transportation were, as we have said, usually retained in the
+convict jail at Malacca. Amongst these, in the sixties, was a very
+remarkable man, and known to both of us, of the name of "Tickery Banda,"
+who was a native of Ceylon, and had received a sentence of seven years
+in transportation for a crime committed in that island, though of which
+he declared, like many of his congeners, he was perfectly innocent.
+
+A story in connection with this man is given in Cameron's _Tropical
+Possessions in Malayan India_, which is quite worthy of repetition here.
+
+When the English took possession of Kandy, Tickery Banda and two or
+three brothers, children of the first minister of the King of the
+Kandians, were taken and educated in English by the then Governor of the
+island. Tickery afterwards became manager of some coffee plantations,
+and was so employed on the arrival of a Siamese mission of priests in
+1845, who came to see Buddha's tooth. It seems that he met the mission
+returning disconsolate, having spent some 5,000 rupees in presents and
+bribes in a vain endeavour to obtain a sight of the relic. Tickery
+learned their whole story, and at once ordered them to unload their
+carts and wait for three days longer, and that he would in due time
+obtain for them the desired view of the holy tooth. He had a cheque on a
+bank for L200 in his hands at the time, and this he offered to leave
+with the priests as a guarantee that he would fulfil his promise. He did
+not say whether the cheque was his own or his master's, or whether it
+was handed over or not; perhaps it was this cheque for the
+misappropriation of which he found his way to the convict lines of
+Malacca. The Siamese priests accepted his undertaking and unloaded their
+baggage, agreeing to wait for the three days. Tickery immediately placed
+himself in communication with the then Governor, and represented, as he
+says, forcibly, the impositions that must have been practised upon the
+King of Siam's holy mission, when they had expended all their gifts and
+had not yet obtained the desired view of the tooth. The Governor, who,
+Tickery says, was a great friend of his, appreciated the hardships of
+the priests, and agreed that the relic should be shown to them with as
+little delay as possible. It happened, however, that the keys of the
+temple where the relic was preserved were in the keeping of the then
+Resident Councillor, who was away some eight miles elephant shooting.
+But this difficulty was not long allowed to remain in the way, for
+Tickery immediately suggested that it was very improbable that the
+Resident Councillor would have included these keys in his hunting kit,
+and insisted that they must be in the Councillor's house. He therefore
+asked the Governor's leave to call upon Mrs. ----, the Resident
+Councillor's wife, and, presenting the Governor's compliments, to
+request that a search be made for the keys. Tickery was deputed
+accordingly, and by dint of his characteristic tact and force of
+language, carried the keys triumphantly to the Governor.
+
+The Kandy priests were immediately notified that their presence was
+desired, as it was intended to exhibit the great relic, and that their
+guardian officer would be necessary. Accordingly, on the third day, the
+temple was opened, and in the building the Siamese priests and
+worshippers were assembled, with Tickery on the one side, and the Kandy
+or guardian priests on the other side, with the Governor and the
+Recorder in the centre.
+
+After making all due offerings to the tooth of the great Buddha, the
+Siamese head priest, who had brought a golden jar filled with otto of
+roses, desired to have a small piece of cotton with some of the otto
+rubbed on the tooth, and then passed into the golden jar, thereby to
+consecrate the whole of the contents. To this process the Kandy priests
+objected, as being a liberty too great to be extended to foreigners. The
+Siamese priests, however, persisted in their request; and the Governor
+and Recorder, not knowing the cause of the altercation, asked Tickery to
+explain. Tickery, who had fairly espoused the cause of the Siamese,
+though knowing that in their request they had exceeded all precedent,
+resolved quietly to gratify their wish; so, in answer to the Governor's
+interrogatory, he took from the hands of the Siamese head priest a small
+piece of cotton and the golden jar of the volatile oil. "This is what
+they want, your Honour: they want to take this small piece of cotton,
+so--; and having dipped it in this oil, so--, they wish to rub it on the
+sacred tooth, so--; and having done this, to return it to the golden
+jar, so; thereby, your Honour, to consecrate the whole of the contents
+of the golden jar."
+
+All the words of Tickery were accompanied by the corresponding action,
+and of course the desired ceremony had been performed in affording
+explanation. The whole thing was the work of a moment, and the Governor
+and Recorder did not know how to interfere in time, though they knew
+also that such a proceeding was against all precedent. The Kandy priests
+were quite taken aback, while the Siamese priests, having obtained their
+desired object, took from Tickery Banda's hands the now consecrated
+golden jar with every demonstration of fervent gratitude. The Kandy
+priests were, however, loud in their indignation, and subsequently the
+Governor, patting Tickery on the back, said, "You have indeed settled
+the question, and it is a pity you were not born in the precincts of St.
+James', for you would have made a splendid political agent."
+
+The next morning Tickery received a douceur of 1,000 rupees from the
+Siamese priests, and has ever since been held in the highest esteem and
+respect by the King of Siam and his Buddhist priests, being considered
+quite a holy man, while periodically the King of Siam sends him
+substantial tokens of the Royal favour.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 2
+
+It was remarkable what a wide difference there was between the accounts
+given by the convicts themselves, of the circumstances which were the
+cause of their transportation, and the summary of them given in the
+warrants sent with them. Although many of them did not deny having
+committed what the law looked upon as a crime, they, under the
+circumstances, either considered that the act was justifiable, or
+perhaps that it was the result of accident. Here is the case of a
+convict who was sentenced to transportation for life for murder, given
+as related by himself.
+
+               *       *       *
+
+"In my Madras native village, I 'Rudrapah' was a planter (ryot). I was
+possessed of several large paddy fields; some were near my house and
+others were far off. At a little distance from my house a friend of mine
+lived, 'Allagappen' by name. He also was a ryot, and possessed of paddy
+fields. He often came to eat rice with me, and I often went to his
+house; we were like brothers. At a village about six miles away, there
+lived a man who was a breeder of cattle. He and his wife were very
+partial to me, and it was arranged between us that I should marry their
+daughter when she was old enough--she was then eleven years of age. All
+went well for two years, and then I was married to the girl and took her
+to my house. My friend, 'Allagappen,' used to come and visit us and eat
+rice as before. Things went on very well for five or six years: my wife
+and I were very happy together, and never quarrelled; we had only one
+child. Having saved some money, I bought a bandy (a country vehicle) and
+a pair of bulls, and used to hire them to any one travelling. Sometimes
+my bandy would be engaged for a long journey, and I would be away from
+my house for two or three days together, leaving my wife and child
+alone. But now my trouble began. About six months after I bought my
+bulls, one of them got sick and died. I had not then enough money to buy
+another, and was on the point of selling the bandy and remaining bull,
+when my wife proposed that we should ask her father to help us, as he
+had plenty of bulls. I had not thought of this, and I said, 'Very
+good.' We went and saw my father-in-law, and he agreed to let me have a
+bull and pay for it as I earned money. Soon after that I hired my bandy
+to a man to go to a town thirty miles away, expecting to be away some
+days. I left my wife and child under the charge of a neighbour and his
+wife, who promised to look after them. I and the man who hired my bandy
+set out early in the morning, and reached the town about mid-day next
+day. In the evening the man told me he was going to stay many days in
+the town, and I could return to my house. He paid me, and I bought some
+things I wanted. Early next morning, at daybreak, I set out on my
+journey back to my village, and arrived there about 3 o'clock the next
+morning; and after seeing to my bulls I went to my house and to my
+surprise found the door unfastened. I entered without making any noise,
+not knowing what could be the reason the door was not fastened. I went
+quickly into my sleeping place, and there I saw my wife laying asleep,
+and beside her was a man also asleep. On going close up to him that I
+might see who it was, to my great sorrow I found that it was my friend,
+'Allagappen.' It was my great misfortune that I had in my hands a
+granite stone, or sort of muller, for grinding massalah (curry stuff)
+which I had bought, and being so angered with my friend, and so overcome
+with grief at finding my wife to be false, it made me tremble so much
+that I let the stone fall from my hands, and quite unintentionally it
+dropped on 'Allagappen's' head, and the stone being heavy it broke his
+skull and killed him on the spot. My wife woke up, and seeing me, she
+screamed and ran away from the house. She went to the neighbours' house
+in whose charge I had left her. I followed her, and told them what I had
+done: that morning I was taken by the police and locked up, and after
+that I saw my house no more. I was tried by an English judge, and was
+sentenced to be sent away from my country for as long as I lived: such
+was my misfortune."
+
+               *       *       *
+
+Here the tears came into the old criminal's eyes, and it was very
+evident that there was still a soft place in his heart, showing a sign
+of reclamation in spite of his convict life. This convict was pardoned
+after serving twenty-five years.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 3
+
+As late as the year 1863 piracy had not been wholly suppressed in the
+Straits of Malacca, and cases were by no means rare of native trading
+craft being attacked by them. During this year a number of piratical
+boats infested the mouths of the rivers Prye, Juroo, and Junjong on the
+Malay Peninsula, and the South Channel between Penang Island and the
+mainland of Province Wellesley; and many a tongkong belonging to Chinese
+traders between Penang and Laroot was attacked by them and plundered,
+and sometimes the crews were murdered.
+
+Some of these pirates were in the habit of going about in Penang and
+quietly ascertaining what tongkongs were about to sail, and all
+particulars in regard to their cargo, crew, and so forth. Two of them
+having discovered that a tongkong owned and manned by Chinese was about
+to leave Penang for Laroot with some valuable cargo and $2,000 of specie
+on board, disguised themselves as "hadjis," or Mohammedan pilgrims, and
+engaged a passage in her. They arranged with some of their confederates
+to have a prahu, or fast sailing boat, at a certain place off the Juroo
+River, and when the tongkong in which they were passengers reached this
+spot a signal was to be given, and the prahu was to run alongside the
+tongkong; and after plundering her and gagging the crew, the pirates
+intended sinking the tongkong and making off in the prahu. They carried
+their villainous scheme into execution, but meeting with stouter
+resistance from the crew of the tongkong than they had anticipated, they
+killed, as they thought, every man on board, and were preparing to
+scuttle the tong-kong, when a boat containing Indian convicts, and
+employed in carrying coral for the Government lime kilns, and which,
+unperceived by the pirates, had been rapidly approaching, came alongside
+the tongkong, having been attracted by the yells and cries of the
+victims. The pirates, recognizing that they were convicts, immediately
+got into their prahu, and made sail as fast as they could; and she,
+being a very fast sailer, was soon out of sight. The convict tindal in
+charge of the boat, with one or two convict boatmen, went on board the
+tongkong and found all the crew and passengers dead; but fancying they
+heard groans they searched round the tongkong, and at last found one of
+the Chinese boatmen clinging to the rudder. They lifted him on board,
+and found that he was severely cut about, and covered with wounds. The
+convict tindal in charge of the Government boat then shaped his course,
+with the tongkong in tow, for Butterworth, in Province Wellesley, which
+they reached early in the morning. The wounded Chinaman was taken to the
+hospital, a report was made to the police of the pirates' attack, and
+the tongkong was handed over to their charge. From the description of
+the prahu given by the convict tindal, and the information gathered from
+the Chinaman when he was able to talk, the police were enabled to trace
+the prahu to Sunghie Rambay, where the pirates were arrested. The case
+was tried at the Supreme Court, Penang; some of the pirates were hanged,
+and the rest sentenced to penal servitude. The tindal of the Government
+boat and the convict boatmen were highly commended by the judge for
+their conduct, and were otherwise rewarded by the authorities.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 4
+
+We have referred elsewhere to the numerous races of India which went to
+form the convict body in the old Singapore jail. We found this admixture
+of castes and tribes a very valuable corrective against a possible
+chance of insurrection, and for the discovery of plots of escape; and,
+indeed, sometimes as a means of finding out any serious mischief that
+might be brewing in the jail.
+
+It seems to delight many a native of India to be a spy upon another; and
+though intrigues were never encouraged, nor as a rule listened to, yet
+now and again an informer would appear when the matter was of sufficient
+importance to be reported to the authorities.
+
+As an instance of this it may be recorded that on one occasion there was
+a dispute between two Sikhs, one of the "Ramdasee" and the other of the
+"Mazahbee" sect; and as they went from high words to blows they were
+placed in confinement and brought before the Superintendent[15] in the
+Inquiry room. After full investigation into the matter, the "Mazahbee"
+Sikh was proved to have been the instigator of the quarrel, and he was
+punished. The whole of his sect appear to have resented this judgment,
+and determined amongst themselves to be avenged, and to inflict some
+pain or injury upon the Superintendent. They began to plot and to scheme
+as to the best way to carry out their design; and this plotting was not
+lost on the observation of a clever Parsee convict, who, having traded
+in Northern India, knew their language. He watched them closely, and had
+decided when their plans were matured to inform the authorities.
+
+    [Footnote 15: Major McNair.]
+
+The scheme was only ripe for execution, however, on the very morning of
+the muster, so that there was no time for the Parsee convict to acquaint
+the chief warder; and as a last resource, therefore, he made up his mind
+to inform the Superintendent at the muster as to what was in store for
+him. Creeping stealthily along the rear of the standing men, he timed
+the arrival of the Superintendent going down the front on his
+inspection; and, stooping down, he thrust his head between the legs of
+the front rank men, and level with the ground, calling out only loud
+enough for the Superintendent to hear, "Khabardar sahib Sikh kepas
+tamancha hai"--"Look out, sir; a Sikh has a pistol." The Superintendent
+took no notice of the warning until he had passed to about the middle of
+that line, then he ordered the chief warder to take a dozen of the Sikhs
+who were standing at the end of the line, and move them off into their
+ward that he might inspect their boxes, and he added, "Search them
+thoroughly."
+
+As the Superintendent passed the end of the line, and was about to
+inspect another line at right angles to it, no shot had been fired; so
+he concluded that it was either a false alarm, or that the miscreant was
+amongst the dozen men in the ward. And so it proved; for shortly
+afterwards, the chief warder came to report that he had found a loaded
+pistol on the person of one of the Sikh convicts, and had placed him in
+a cell to await investigation.
+
+After the muster an inquiry accordingly took place, and it turned out
+that a fellow-tribesman had managed to pass the main gate with a pistol
+secreted about his person, and had handed it to the man to whom the lot
+had fallen to do the deed.
+
+The would-be assassin was sentenced to heavy irons, and placed in the
+refractory ward. The gang was eventually broken up, the ringleaders
+being transferred to Penang, and the remainder kept in Singapore under
+close observation. The Parsee convict, who checkmated the conspirators,
+was advanced from the third to the second class, and otherwise rewarded.
+
+The design on the life of the late Colonel Macpherson, the immediate
+predecessor of the above, was also similarly frustrated by another
+Parsee, who, on the evening before muster, observed a man burying a
+knife in the sandy ground near which he had to stand for inspection.
+Waiting his opportunity, he proceeded to the spot and withdrew the blade
+from the knife, and replaced the handle just above the ground as he had
+found it. When Colonel Macpherson passed the man on the morrow he
+quickly seized the handle from the ground to make his stab, but only to
+find that he was unexpectedly baulked in his villainous attempt to kill
+his Superintendent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 5
+
+"FUNNY JOE"
+
+His surname need not be mentioned, but he went by the name of "Funny
+Joe." He was the son of a clergyman of the Church of England, sharp
+witted, and well educated; but his moral character, from some cause or
+another, became quite disorganised, and to the grief of his parents he
+left his home and took to the sea. His education there stood him in good
+stead, and under new surroundings he improved for the time, and
+eventually rose to be chief mate of a ship. Had he persevered in this
+good course, he would in all probability have succeeded well in the
+mercantile service; but events proved otherwise, and on his second
+voyage as mate he was, he said, wrongfully charged as being both
+insolent and insubordinate to his commander, and on the arrival of the
+vessel at the Cape of Good Hope he was discharged. Left with but small
+means, and, to him, almost on foreign soil, he bethought himself of some
+expedient for making money; so, getting hold of a sailor loafing at the
+port, he talked matters over with him, and they decided upon clubbing
+their resources, hiring a hall, and circulating posters that on a
+certain night at "so much," and "so much" for entrance, a man might be
+seen "walking on the ceiling like a fly." On the night advertised the
+hall was crowded. "Funny Joe" then went to his companion, who was
+collecting the money, and took from him the amount he had received, and
+told him he might have all the rest that he could collect. He (Funny
+Joe) then decamped, and was never heard of more in Cape Town. He was
+next at Rangoon, where he got into the same plight for want of funds;
+but his mother wit came to his aid again, and this time he posed before
+the public as a naturalist who had discovered off the coast what he
+pronounced could be nothing else than a "mermaid," and for the
+exhibition of this marine creature, which he had cleverly constructed
+from the head and breast of an ape and half the body of a fish, he
+obtained a good round sum. We hear of him next at Singapore, where he
+also advertised his "mermaid" as being on exhibition at a certain
+boarding establishment. There, however, the "mermaid" did not succeed,
+and his funds being exhausted he possessed himself of a watch and some
+cash, the property of the people of the house with whom he lodged, and
+for which he was sent to jail. Here he came under some strict discipline
+and good wholesome advice, and it was in the Singapore jail that he told
+the story of his life as given above.
+
+When the term of his sentence had expired, and he was about to be
+discharged, he warmly thanked the Superintendent for his counsel, and
+declared very positively that he intended to turn over a new leaf.
+
+We believe that he did so; at all events, the last heard of him was that
+he had signed articles as mate of a ship; and he scrupulously returned
+to the Superintendent (Major McNair) the money he had advanced to him
+from his private purse to make a new start in life.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 6
+
+CONVICTS WITH A COBRA AND A CROCODILE
+
+It is well known that the Cobra di Capello is one of the most deadly of
+the snakes of India and the East. The palish yellow cobra of India is
+perhaps more dangerous and surely fatal in its bite than the black
+"cobra" or "kala samp," which is more frequently found in the Straits
+Settlements, but neither of them is very pleasant to be in close
+proximity to.
+
+_The Cobra._--As we have noticed elsewhere, some of the convicts were
+very expert in catching these reptiles and extracting their fangs. The
+following personal incident is given by a public works officer:--
+
+    "When the new cantonments were in progress at Tanglin I was
+    placed in charge of the works by Col. G. C. Collyer, R.E., the
+    then Chief Engineer of the Straits Settlements, and was
+    permitted to occupy a part of a large house on the estate. The
+    bath rooms were on the ground floor, and stairs from the
+    bedrooms above led down to them. One morning, just as I was
+    sitting down to breakfast, my convict orderly came running to
+    me and said that a large 'cobra' had crawled up the drain
+    leading from the main drain at the back of the house to the
+    bath room. We went immediately to the bath room, and, finding
+    that the snake had not made his appearance inside, I stopped up
+    the opening into the drain with a towel, and the convict
+    orderly, who had gone round to the outer end of the drain,
+    began pushing a long bamboo up it. This drove the snake to the
+    upper end. The convict, then, with a pickaxe, loosened a brick
+    from the covering of the drain close to the wall of the house,
+    while I stirred up the bamboo rod. The convict then gently and
+    by degrees removed the brick, and in an instant the snake
+    emerged fully from the drain, raising its hood and hissing at
+    us. It then retreated back to the drain, when the convict
+    dexterously seized it by the tail, and, drawing it out, held it
+    tight by the neck. The convict then teased the snake with his
+    coarse flannel 'kumblie,' or blanket, and it struck at it
+    several times with its fangs; when, with a sudden jerk, the
+    convict drew out the fangs in the blanket, and the snake became
+    perfectly harmless.
+
+    "The snake was afterwards sent on board H.M. surveying
+    schooner _Saracen_, and getting loose on board was summarily
+    destroyed, for none on board had been told that its fangs had
+    been removed."
+
+_The Crocodile._--Govindhoo, a convict employed at the Pulo Obin stone
+quarries, was admitted into hospital with a lacerated leg, the foot
+being almost severed from the body. He was visited by one of us, and
+told his story as follows:--
+
+    "I was walking along the sea beach close to the water, when I
+    was suddenly seized from behind, and I at once saw that I was
+    in the jaws of a crocodile. I had nothing in my hand but my
+    'roomal,' or handkerchief, with my keys tied in one corner. I
+    hit at his head with this, but it was of no use, and finding
+    myself being dragged into deeper water, I suddenly thought I
+    could dig out both his eyes,[16] and I did it, and very shortly
+    afterwards he let me go, and I half swam, half paddled back to
+    the shore."
+
+The convict's leg had to be amputated.
+
+    [Footnote 16: Literally gouged the animal.]
+
+    The Malays say that there are three descriptions of crocodiles,
+    or, as they call them, "buaya." The first is the "katak" or
+    frog crocodile, the second the "labu" or gourd crocodile, and
+    the third is the "tumbaga" or copper crocodile. The frog
+    crocodile is the most active, and we have often been told by
+    Malay boatmen, when going up a river, to keep our hands and
+    shoulders well within the boat, for fear of their sudden
+    attack. There are, however, known to our naturalists a dozen
+    or more different forms of the crocodile proper, and it is said
+    that they have been found up to thirty feet in length; but from
+    eighteen feet to twenty feet is the longest found in the
+    Straits of Malacca. They may often be seen in the Malay rivers,
+    and on the coast, floating in the water, with the snout well
+    above the surface, on the look out for prey.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 7
+
+The Chinese have one superstition amongst many in regard to tigers. They
+believe that when a person is killed by a tiger his "hantu," or ghost,
+becomes the slave of the beast and attends upon it; that the spirit acts
+the part of a jackal, as it were, and leads the tiger to his prey; and
+so thoroughly subservient does the ghost become to his tigerish master,
+that he not infrequently brings the tiger to the presence of his wife
+and family, and calmly sees them devoured before his ghostly face.
+
+A very ingenious tiger trap was invented by Mr. Frank Shaw, of Caledonia
+sugar estate, in Province Wellesley, which is worth describing. It was
+constructed at the foot of a small hill, about a mile away from the
+estate, where there was a considerable area of secondary jungle and
+gigantic bracken fern, a favourite resort of tigers. A trench, about
+four or five feet wide, was opened in the sloping ground for a distance
+of ten or twelve feet; stout stakes were driven in the trench close to
+the sides, projecting some three or four feet above the ground, for
+about two-thirds the length of the trench; the remaining one-third at
+the upper end was converted into a strong cage, or pen. This pen
+communicated with the other part of the trench by an opening in which a
+gate in two flaps was fitted; a heavy cover, weighing ten or twelve cwt,
+of round logs was made to fit the open part of the trench, and so
+arranged in an inclined position, and connected by triggers with the two
+flaps, that any attempt to open the latter released the upper end of the
+heavy cover and allowed it to fall down in the trench. A couple of goats
+were tied at the far end of the pen as a bait, and were kept there
+constantly, food being taken to them by a convict coolie. After the trap
+had been set for some time, the coolie who fed the goats came running to
+the house one day with the news that a tiger was caught in the trap. Of
+course every one set out immediately to secure the animal. The tiger had
+evidently tried to push in between the two flaps to get at the goats:
+this released the triggers, and the jerk and movement of the cover had
+evidently alarmed the animal, who tried to back out; but the weight and
+force of the falling cover on its back had pressed the beast down flat
+on the ground and rendered him powerless. The difficulty now was to
+dispatch the tiger. Only its hind quarters could be seen; and a revolver
+shot was fired into the body. After a while the cover was raised a
+little, and a bullet in the brain finished the work. The cover was then
+entirely removed, and the carcase taken out of the trap; the fore and
+hind feet were tied together, and it was slung on a pole in the usual
+way, eight Kling convict coolies lifted the load and started for the
+sugar mills. They, however, soon got tired. Half a dozen more convicts,
+who were at work on the road, were then called in to assist, and at last
+they reached their journey's end.
+
+On arrival at the sugar mills it was skinned, the skin becoming the
+property of the manager, and the natives disposed of the flesh. The
+animal proved to be a tigress, and evidently had young cubs, as she had
+a quantity of milk. This the Chinese coolies were very eager to secure,
+as it is by them considered to be a valuable medicine. We never heard
+whether any more tigers were caught in this trap.
+
+The ordinary method, however, adopted for catching tigers is by means of
+pits, which are dug from twelve to fifteen feet in depth, and somewhat
+pyramidal in form. Sometimes pointed stakes are fixed in the bottom of
+the pit. The mouth is covered over with light brushwood, and when
+convenient, a tree is felled and laid a few feet from it across the
+tiger's track, so that the animal in leaping off the tree adds impetus
+to his own weight in falling into the trap.
+
+The trouble of digging these pits is not so slight as might be
+supposed, as the construction of a pit in the proper manner fully
+occupies a couple of convicts a fortnight, besides the risk of being
+interrupted in their labour by the tiger happening to encounter them,
+and, naturally enough, on finding the work they were engaged upon,
+testifying his displeasure at the treachery they were meditating against
+him by making a meal of them.
+
+An Indian sportsman wrote to the _Singapore Free Press_, at the time
+when so many Chinese were being destroyed at Singapore, saying:--
+
+    "I have been accustomed to tiger hunting in India, but the same
+    mode could not be adopted here, the jungle being of a different
+    character. Indeed, the only plan which is likely to be attended
+    with success is by setting traps; and it is to be regretted
+    that the local Government did not long since take some pains to
+    prove this to the cultivators. Had this been done, many lives
+    might have been spared." The Chinese were evidently delighted
+    at the interest shown by the European gentlemen on the last
+    occasion, and it is to be hoped that they will exert themselves
+    to rid the island of tigers by this means.
+
+While the ravages of tigers were destructive of human life on land,
+crocodiles were almost equally as mischievous on the coast and in the
+rivers, and many Chinese and other natives fell a prey to their
+voracity. Sometimes bathers were attacked; at other times fishermen,
+shrimp catchers, and oyster divers were carried off or attacked by them.
+Some crocodiles, like some tigers, have a peculiar partiality to human
+flesh, and often display remarkable ingenuity in gratifying their
+appetites. Regular man-eater crocodiles existed in some of the rivers in
+the Straits Settlements, notably in the rivers in Province Wellesley;
+but many were found also in the rivers in Singapore and Malacca, as well
+as on the sea coast. Some of these man-eaters were very bold, and would
+attack natives in their canoes, sometimes getting under the canoe and
+upsetting it in order to devour the occupants. Cases have been known of
+persons being snatched out of boats. A case of this kind happened in the
+Prye River, in Province Wellesley. The supervisor in charge of the
+public works was proceeding in a ferry boat with some convicts to repair
+the boundary pillar, situated some distance up the river, when suddenly
+a splash was heard, and his convict orderly, who was squatting in the
+bow of the sampan, or boat, uttering a cry, stood up, at the same time
+pointing to the stern of the boat. Upon looking round, a Chinaman, who
+had been seated in the stern of the boat, was found to be missing. A
+crocodile had, as it were, shot up out of the water, and, seizing the
+Chinaman by the waist, had drawn him down into the river, and nothing
+more was seen of them at the time. Shortly afterwards, a canoe with a
+Malay man and his wife in it was upset near the same spot by a
+crocodile, and both of them disappeared. A little later a Kling, who had
+been in the habit of diving for mud oysters near Qualla Prye Ferry for
+many years, and had repeatedly been cautioned about his danger in doing
+so, was missed, and it was ascertained that he had been seen diving for
+oysters as usual, and had suddenly disappeared, and had not been seen to
+come up again.
+
+This sort of thing went on for some time, and the crocodiles could not
+be caught. At last the convicts stationed at Prye town convict lines
+succeeded in capturing a large crocodile, and this is how they managed
+it. They prepared a bait by tying a strong hook underneath the body of a
+pariah dog. One end of a piece of light iron chain[17] was fastened to
+this hook; the other end was fastened to a log of very light wood as a
+buoy. They then went in a boat to that part of the river where the
+greater number of casualties had occurred. Here they drifted about, at
+the same time pinching the dog's ears and otherwise tormenting him to
+make him yelp. After watching the surface of the water for some time,
+they descried the V mark on the water indicating the approach of a
+crocodile; then, throwing the dog and buoy overboard, they pulled away
+for some distance to watch the result.. They saw the crocodile rapidly
+approaching the dog, who was swimming for his life. Suddenly there was a
+howl, and the dog disappeared. Then they watched the buoy, which would
+sometimes disappear under the water and then rise again to the surface;
+and in this manner they traced the crocodile, and followed him into a
+small creek, where he crawled on shore; and there they dispatched him
+with musket balls. This crocodile measured fourteen feet from the tip of
+his nose to the end of his tail, and was said to be the largest specimen
+captured at that time, but they have been known to reach from eighteen
+to twenty feet in length. Upon opening him a human leg and a pair of
+Chinaman's trousers were discovered, and it was concluded that this was
+one of the man-eaters.
+
+    [Footnote 17: Shreds of tough rope are better.]
+
+As an illustration of the effect of shock upon the human system at the
+sight of wild beasts, we may mention a case of a Malay fisherman who was
+shrimping on the bar at the mouth of the Krian River (Province
+Wellesley), when a crocodile approached him from behind and seized him
+by the thigh. The Malay drew his parang and hacked away at the
+creature's nose until he let go. Some convicts stationed at Nebong Tubal
+and a Malay police peon saw what was happening and put off in a boat to
+his assistance. They rescued the poor fellow, and the police conveyed
+him at once by boat to the hospital at Butterworth, where his wounds,
+which were not very serious, were attended to; but the shock to the
+nervous system was so great that the man lost his reason, and would
+constantly leave his cot and walk down the hospital ward, moving his
+hands up and down, as if in the act of shrimping. He died shortly
+after. A similar case of shock, and a well-known story in the Straits
+Settlements, occurred in Province Wellesley, but this was from a tiger.
+A Roman Catholic priest was returning to his house after breakfasting
+with a planter at Alma, and when passing through some tall "lalang"
+grass a tiger suddenly sprang out into the path a few yards in front of
+him. The priest, with great presence of mind, suddenly opened his
+Chinese umbrella in the face of the tiger; the animal gave a leap round
+to one side, and the priest repeated the umbrella movement. The tiger
+then gave another leap round to the other side, and the umbrella action
+was again performed. This was renewed till the tiger, who evidently was
+not hungry, and had taken alarm, made a disappointed growl and bounded
+away into the high lalang grass, and the priest hastened on his way
+home. On reaching his house he took a cold bath, to brace up his nerves
+as he said; but the next day he was confined to his bed, and died a
+fortnight after the event, due entirely, it was said, to the shock that
+he had sustained.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+No. 8
+
+As we have already intimated, the house of correction at Singapore was
+under the management and control of the Convict Department; and there
+were frequently from thirty to forty Europeans confined in this prison,
+chiefly seamen on short sentences for neglect of duty on board ship.
+
+When Sir Robert McClure was commanding a vessel of war[18] in Chinese
+waters about 1859, his ship was on the Singapore station for some little
+time; and upon his arrival he sent in to the house of correction a very
+incorrigible man-of-war's man named John ---- (we will not give his
+surname, for he may be yet alive). This man had been several times
+punished while the ship was in China, and had been twice sentenced to be
+flogged. We heard all about him from the officer of the ship who had
+brought him ashore.
+
+    [Footnote 18: H.M.S. Esk.]
+
+His sentence was three weeks' imprisonment: the first week in solitary
+confinement on bread and water, and congee or rice gruel diet. Upon his
+receipt into the prison, after the usual routine, he was placed in one
+of the penal cells, and bread and water set before him. Before the cell
+door was closed, he looked hard at the chief warder, saying, "Take away
+that filth; I won't eat it." The chief warder reported to the
+Superintendent that the man in the cells was a dangerous-looking
+character, and he was afraid we should have trouble with him, for he had
+never seen a man with such a hang-dog look. The morning of the second
+day he had touched neither bread nor water, though fresh had been given
+him, and in a churlish manner he said to the chief warder, who had
+remonstrated with him, "I'll eat the tail of my shirt first, before I
+eat what you bring me." The doctor visited him, and made his report to
+the Superintendent that he was a strong man, and in excellent health,
+and that he might be safely left until hunger obliged him to eat, but
+that he would see him twice a day.
+
+Upon the afternoon of the second day the Superintendent himself, upon
+his inspecting the prisoners in the penal cells, entered this prisoner's
+cell, and the following dialogue ensued: "What is your name?" "What is
+that to you?" "But I am the Superintendent of this jail, and I ask you a
+simple question, and I want a simple answer." Then looking at the
+Superintendent with a disrespectful air the prisoner said, "Look at my
+warrant if you want to know it." "But I want to hear it from yourself."
+"Well, if it is any satisfaction to you, my name is John ----" The
+Superintendent then said, "Now I want to know what part of England you
+come from." "Well, what do you want to know that for? but I say again,
+if it is any satisfaction to you, I come from Saltash." "So you are a
+Cornishman, are you?" replied the Superintendent. "I know Saltash very
+well. It is a fine old place. And I know the Viaduct, and the cottages
+over against it. I wonder if you were born there in one of those
+cottages? Perhaps you were, and have a mother now living there; and if
+you have, and she knew that her son was now in an Indian jail, you
+would break that old woman's heart, that you would." This ended the
+conversation, and the cell door was shut.
+
+Late in the evening the chief warder sent a special messenger to the
+Superintendent's quarters, asking him to visit the prison before
+nightfall, for the prisoner in the cells from the man-of-war in the
+harbour had something to communicate. So before it was yet very dark the
+Superintendent went down, and the cell door being opened, and the
+bull's-eye lantern turned upon the man, the Superintendent at once
+noticed a change in the countenance of his prisoner, for the reckless,
+devil-may-care expression had shifted, and as if by some good influence
+within. "Well, you sent for me, and I have come; what do you want?" said
+the Superintendent. Then in a faltering voice, and with tears in his
+eyes, the prisoner said, "I only want to say, sir, before I go to sleep,
+that you are the first man that has ever overcome me, for you spoke to
+me of my 'mother'; and now, sir, you can do anything you like with me,
+and I'll carry out my sentence properly, and go back aboard my ship and
+do my duty as a British sailor ought to do."
+
+And he did; and after his release went in the ship on to Bombay, from
+whence the Superintendent heard from Sir Robert McClure that John ----
+was as well behaved a man as he had on board, and that the treatment
+he had received in the Singapore jail had quite altered his nature, and
+he would like to know the prescription for it.
+
+Very often, when a long course of positive punishment has ceased to have
+its effect, a contrary treatment may lead to quite a change in the
+character, and if anything will touch the heart of a vicious Briton, it
+is to bring him to think upon the early counsels of a godly mother.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XI
+
+ABOLITION OF THE CONVICT DEPARTMENT AND DISPOSAL OF THE CONVICTS
+
+
+On the separation of the Straits Settlements from British India in 1867,
+it was arranged that the Indian life convicts at Singapore should be
+transferred to Port Blair in the Andaman Islands. In the course of
+correspondence which took place on the subject, His Excellency the
+Governor of the Straits Settlements proposed, in respect of those
+convicts who were to continue in the Straits, that a liberal use of the
+power of pardon should be made in the case of such convicts, the nature
+of whose crimes and whose subsequent character warranted it.
+
+The Government of India agreed to this proposal, with the proviso that
+pardon should be conditional on convicts not returning to India, or in
+the case of Burmese to Burmah, without the special sanction in each case
+of the Government of India; and that this sanction would not be given in
+any cases in which the crime was "Thuggee" or "Dacoity," or robbery by
+administering poisonous drugs, or other form of organized crime, or in
+the case of mutiny or rebellion accompanied with murder.
+
+Accordingly, the Straits Government authorities submitted lists of
+convicts whom they recommended for pardon. After consulting the local
+governments concerned, the Government of India issued orders in each
+case, authorizing the release and return to India of some of the
+convicts, granting conditional pardon to others, and refusing release on
+any account to the remainder.
+
+This decision did not commend itself to the Straits Government, and His
+Excellency the Governor suggested the deputation of a special officer
+from India to inquire into the matter.
+
+Mr. Brodhurst, of the Bengal Civil Service, was accordingly deputed.
+This officer extended his inquiries to the cases of other convicts
+brought specially to his notice by the Straits Government; and on
+receipt of his report, the Government of India granted unconditional
+releases in certain cases, while in others the convicts were pardoned
+conditionally on their not leaving the Straits.
+
+On this representation by the Straits Government, His Excellency the
+Governor-General in Council, having reconsidered the subject, decided
+that any Indian or Burmese, who had completed twenty-five years'
+imprisonment and bore a good character, should be released, with
+permission to return to India or Burmah, provided he, or she, as the
+case might be, was not convicted of one of the offences enumerated
+below, viz.:--
+
+  1. Thuggee.
+
+  2. Dacoity.
+
+  3. Professional poisoning.
+
+  4. Belonging to a gang of Dacoits.
+
+  5. Belonging to a gang of Thugs.
+
+  6. Mutiny or rebellion with murder.
+
+Of those who did not come under this category, some were pardoned
+unconditionally; others were released after they had completed
+twenty-five years' imprisonment, on condition that their conduct
+continued satisfactory. Of those who were pardoned unconditionally many
+returned to their own country; but when they arrived there they found
+things so uncongenial that they returned to the Straits and settled down
+as shopkeepers, cowkeepers, cartmen, etc., and most of them sought and
+obtained employment either with private individuals or in the Public
+Works Department. Several of the skilled artificers, who had been petty
+officers, were employed as sub-assistant overseers and gangers on public
+works, where their services proved to be of great utility, their prison
+training having rendered them much more to be relied upon than free men,
+and, as far as we have been able to ascertain, none of them have been
+reconvicted.
+
+Of the total number of convicts in the Straits at the time when the
+convict establishment was broken up in 1873--
+
+    256 had been transported for Thuggee.
+
+    581  "    "       "       "  Dacoity.
+
+     21  "    "       "       "  Professional poisoning.
+
+    269  "    "       "       "  Robbery with murder, including
+                                 highway robbery and gang robbery.
+   -----
+  1,127
+
+The remainder were nearly all for murder, for being accomplices in
+murder, or for robbery with violence, and for felony.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XII
+
+DISEASES AND MALINGERING
+
+
+Perhaps a few observations on the principal diseases to which these
+Indian convicts were liable may be found useful; and we take for the
+purpose the statistics of the year 1863-64 as given in Appendix No. 2,
+when nostalgia did not occur. In alluding to these diseases, we shall at
+the same time notice the locality of the Singapore jail, and the
+composition of the soil on which it was built. It is now universally
+recognised that the soil on which communities reside continuously does
+in a measure influence their health.
+
+So many works on hygiene have, however, been written, and so much has
+been said by medical experts on this subject, that we may almost say
+that it has been exhaustively treated. What we wish to show is simply
+that soil and locality do not influence all communities alike.
+
+The site of the Singapore jail in Brass Basa Road was originally a piece
+of low ground saturated with brackish water; and the convicts themselves
+were, as we have elsewhere stated, employed in conveying red earth from
+the side of Government Hill to reclaim most of this marsh, in order to
+erect thereon the necessary buildings for their occupation. The site had
+to be raised from two to four feet, and the red earth was what might be
+called disintegrated laterite or clay ironstone. When the finished level
+was completed, it was about two feet above high water mark S.T. The
+surface of the enclosure had been so thoroughly trodden down, rolled,
+and graded to the drains and into the adjoining canal, that, with the
+periodical coatings of pure white sand from the Serangoon sand pits that
+had been laid over it, it had become almost impervious to water; and
+this we would notice particularly, for it had much to do with the
+sanitary condition of the jail and its inmates.
+
+The dormitories were further raised slightly over two feet above the
+general surface, and their floors were carefully laid, so as literally
+to be as dry as a bone.
+
+From Appendix No. 2 it will be seen that the principal disease from
+which these Indian convicts suffered was "fever," but not of a dangerous
+type; for, upon comparing the admissions to hospital with the deaths
+from this disease in all three settlements during the year referred to,
+we find that in Singapore and Penang they were _nil_, and but seven in
+Malacca. The next ailment which presented numerous cases were abscesses
+and ulcers, and the deaths from this cause amounted only to one in
+Singapore. Many of these ulcers were on the legs, and were caused by
+grit getting between the skin and the leather band worn under the fetter
+rings of convicts in the fourth and fifth classes. Stomach and bowel
+complaints rank next on the list, but we find that the deaths here only
+amounted to units. Rheumatic affections were numerous, caused perhaps in
+that damp climate from working on extra-mural duties and returning to
+jail in wet clothes with the wind blowing on them. A few cases of dropsy
+appear on the list, the largest number occurring in Penang, three only
+at Singapore. There were ordinary cases of oedema.
+
+The death-rate to strength per cent, from ordinary diseases for the year
+given was 2.20 for Singapore, 3.82 for Penang, and 3.17 for Malacca.
+Perhaps the special attention to sanitation in Singapore may account for
+the death-rate being lower here than at the sister settlements.
+
+After the convict jail had been broken up, and the convicts had all left
+it, the jail was handed over to the prison authorities to be converted
+into a criminal prison for the whole settlements. Not long after this
+change had taken place a very peculiar disease broke out amongst the
+inmates. It was known as Beri-beri, or, as some call it, the "Bad
+sickness of Ceylon." It is a very serious disease, and some think it
+arises from extreme exertion without sufficient sustenance to the body.
+In 1878 the ratio of mortality in the prison had risen to 16.20 per
+cent.; in 1879 it was further augmented to 20.63 per cent. The Local
+Government deemed it necessary without delay to appoint a Committee of
+Inquiry into the possible causes which had given rise to the spread of
+this disease. The conclusion at which they arrived was that it was due
+to the want of proper drainage of the site, so that the soil had got
+water-logged, and had generated malaria; also, that the prisoners needed
+a more nitrogenous diet. They advised the erection of an entirely new
+prison on a better and more elevated locality. These suggestions were
+all adopted, and the Committee in their judgment were greatly aided by
+Dr. Irvine Rowell, C.M.G., the Principal Civil Medical Officer, who
+formed one of the Committee.
+
+There was no time lost by the Government with the Colonial Engineer
+(Major McNair) in preparing plans and erecting on the west side of
+Pearl's Hill, near the old civil jail, a prison on the cellular system,
+and after the most approved English model; but the change of site did
+not effectually remove the disease, for as late as the year 1884 "there
+were 262 cases under treatment. In the first nine months of that year
+the deaths were comparatively small, but during the latter three months
+they increased, constituting nearly one half of the total deaths during
+that period." Dr. Kerr attributed this increase to exacerbation in the
+type, and epidemicity of the disease.
+
+It is not necessary, nor is it within our province, to attempt a
+description in detail of this disease; and happily it is mostly confined
+to Ceylon and the Malay Archipelago, though it occurs occasionally in
+China and Japan, where in the former country it is known as "Tseng," and
+in the latter as "Kak-ki." It is referred to in a book we have quoted in
+the body of this work, viz., that written by "Godinho de Eredia" in
+1613, reproduced by M. Leon Janssen in 1882. It is called there
+bere-bere, which in the Malay language signifies a "sheep," or a "bird
+which buries its eggs in the sand," and is not now known by the Malays
+under that name, as far as we can gather, as a "disease." Godinho de
+Eredia says that the Malays cured it by the use of a wine made from the
+nipa palm, from whence we know a saccharine fermentable juice exudes
+from the cut spadices of this and other species. They call this juice
+"tuaca." Marco Polo alludes to the same wine in his second book, chapter
+xxv.
+
+Some authorities say it arises from malarious exhalations, favoured by
+damp, or over-crowding in buildings improperly ventilated. To this
+latter cause we are inclined to attribute the outbreak in the Singapore
+prison; for when the prison was occupied by the Indian convicts, the
+area of open space round the different wards and buildings was well
+exposed to the action of sun and wind, but after its conversion into a
+criminal prison, this open space was divided off by high division walls,
+and for the purpose of shot drill and work sheds the enclosure was
+still further crowded. Perhaps the disturbance also of the soil may have
+had something to do with it, for we have known instances in the town
+where the excavation of subsoils had liberated noxious gases.
+
+It was, however, very remarkable that during the period of over
+twenty-five years when this jail was occupied by the Indian convicts,
+not a single case of beri-beri was known to have occurred. The medical
+officers were quite unable to account for this, and of its
+non-occurrence in other parts of the town.
+
+The Rev. Wallace Taylor, M.D., of Osaka in Japan, attributed the disease
+to a microscopic spore found largely developed in rice, and which he had
+also detected in the earth of certain alluvial and damp localities.
+
+
+FEIGNED DISEASES
+
+The question of feigned diseases should find a place in a work treating
+upon convicts, for amongst a number of natives in confinement--and
+indeed also amongst European prisoners where--regular work is insisted
+upon, and idleness in any is severely punished, it is but natural that
+some should be found to resort to expedients to escape work, or, in
+other words, to malinger.
+
+Perhaps the most frequent cases of convicts in irons was the
+encouraging of sores round the ankles, where the iron rings of their
+fetters were placed; and this was done, notwithstanding the precaution
+always taken to guard the ankles with leathern bands for the rings to
+rest upon. When suspicion was attached to a convict in irons that he was
+tampering with his leg sores, he was at once detailed to work with the
+gang beating out coir from cocoanut husks: it involved no use of the
+legs, but it was the hardest of labours. The result was that the convict
+soon gave up the trick, and begged to return to outdoor work with his
+own gang. Of course there were cases where convicts working on roads or
+at sand pits may get grit below their leathers, which, without knowing
+it at the time, would cause a sore; but such cases were readily
+distinguished from those sores wilfully caused and designedly kept open.
+
+We had no cases of feigned insanity or any species of mania, but cases
+of imitated "moon blindness," or dim-sightedness, did occur now and
+again for the purpose of shirking night watch.
+
+Upon one occasion we had a remarkable instance of shamming blind, which
+is worth giving in detail. The case was that of a life convict
+transported from Madras, who complained that lime had suddenly got into
+both of his eyes while employed at the lime kilns. It was deemed by the
+medical authorities as not unnatural that he should become blind from
+caustic quick-lime, and he was admitted into the convalescent gang,
+where he had only the simple and easy task of picking oakum. The deceit
+was as cleverly kept up for years as it was cleverly commenced at the
+outset, and was only detected by Dr. Cowpar, a hard-headed Scotchman and
+skilful surgeon, who, during the absence of the permanent incumbent, had
+been appointed by the Government to officiate as medical officer of the
+jail. After his inspection of the invalids in the convalescent gang, he
+looked at the eyes of the "blind man"; and, having some suspicion in his
+mind, he decided that he should be put aside for closer examination.
+When the inspection was over, the "blind man" was taken, and carefully
+led by the peon in charge of the gang to one of the long wards, when he
+was told to walk up and down in the presence of the doctor. After he had
+made two or three trips, the doctor directed two men to hold a long pole
+about a foot off the ground on the track he had to pass. When he came to
+the pole he fell over it flat on his face, and to the bystanders it
+seemed rather an inhuman proceeding on the part of the doctor, but he
+had observed an ominous pause before the convict had struck the pole
+with his legs.
+
+He sent for his case of instruments, and, withdrawing a probe, he with
+little difficulty removed the film off both of the man's eyes, which
+proved to be nothing more nor less than the thin membrane found inside
+an egg, which the convict had artfully introduced, and renewed from time
+to time. Of course he was reduced to the fifth class, and to the
+hardest labour.
+
+We have often thought it strange that none of his fellow-convicts
+appeared to suspect him, or if they did, they kept it back from the jail
+authorities; and certainly to any casual observer the deception was
+complete, and it was the best case of feigned blindness we have ever
+known or heard of.
+
+Upon the whole, however, cases of malingering were few and far between,
+as most of the convicts became after a time interested in the works upon
+which they were engaged, and those in irons were ever on the look-out
+for promotion to a higher class. Sometimes there was a case of feigned
+rheumatism or paralysis, but the application of the galvanic battery
+invariably cured them of that after a few powerful shocks.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XIII
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+We have now given a full, and, as far as we could, a succinct account of
+the system pursued in the old Singapore jail. We have traced the history
+of the convict establishments in all the penal settlements in those
+seas, and have shown the progressive improvements in the convict prisons
+up to the time when, as was acknowledged by many competent authorities,
+a system of organization and discipline had been satisfactorily attained
+to, especially at the headquarter jail at Singapore. We have also shown
+the number and variety of industries that were from time to time
+introduced, and the utilization of trained artificers in the
+construction of important public works in the Straits Settlements.
+
+Perhaps we may say that the conduct of these prisons from the year 1825,
+down to 1845, was in a measure experimental; but at any time we do not
+assert that the system was free from defects. But on the whole, in the
+treatment of these trans-marine convicts, it worked with remarkable
+success, and was well adapted to their condition and circumstances; for
+it must not be forgotten that we had to deal with convicts who in great
+part had expiated their crimes by a sentence of banishment to a foreign
+country, which we have already explained was more severely felt by a
+native of India than could possibly be by any European. As a matter of
+fact, owing to caste prejudices, transportation across the seas was to
+many of the Indian convicts worse than death itself, for it carried with
+it not only expulsion from caste, but, owing to their wrong conception
+of fate, or "nusseeb" as they call it, a dread of pain and anguish in
+another existence.
+
+In the later management of this jail, to all fresh arrivals for life
+there was a period of probation of three years, during which time they
+were fettered and worked in gangs upon the public roads. This was
+thoroughly punitive, and with no liberty whatever. They were, in point
+of fact, full of fears and practically without hope. After a time, they
+began to find that the only chance of any amelioration from this hard
+labour was by a course of good conduct; and they saw before them their
+own countrymen, who had once been similarly circumstanced, occupying
+better positions and employed on less distasteful work. They also heard
+from their fellows that several had attained to a ticket of leave, and
+were earning for themselves an honest livelihood in the place of their
+banishment. This, then, was their encouragement; but not a few at first,
+however, though carefully treated in hospital, died from "nostalgia," or
+"love of country," before they could complete their term of probation.
+
+The late General, then Captain Man, who, as we have already said, did a
+great deal in the consolidation of the convict system of Singapore, went
+from the Straits Settlements to the Andamans, and inaugurated there the
+same system; but we learn that since his time convicts upon first
+arrival from India are placed for a certain period in separate cells,
+and no doubt the authorities had good and weighty reasons for the
+change. We have no report as to the advantage or otherwise of this
+probationary alteration, but from what we have said, it will be seen
+that we incline to the belief that for this class of native convicts
+work in irons upon the public roads is a better "first trial" than to
+place them under what is known to us as the "cellular system."
+
+For local prisoners, who after their sentences have expired are returned
+to the town, we do advocate the "cellular system," and have ourselves
+designed and built for term convicts several wards upon this system. The
+advantage gained is complete isolation from one another for a fixed
+period, and the indiscriminate admixture of classes thus avoided, and so
+possibly by this means a recrudescence of crime in the place prevented;
+but with convicts under banishment, and mostly for a life term, we think
+the conditions are very different, and we prefer the plan adopted in the
+old Singapore convict jail.
+
+The punishments in force by our laws are of course designed to deal out
+retributive justice to the prisoner for his offence against society, and
+so to prevent, if possible, a repetition of the offence by others, and
+by this means to protect society against evil-doers. There is no wish to
+punish with any vindictive feeling, but rather, if it can be done, to
+bring about the reform of the prisoner, and to take away from him the
+desire to offend again; and as "Beccaria," the Italian philanthropist,
+well said, "those penalties are least likely to be productive of good
+effect which are more severe than is necessary to deter others."
+
+In the later days of our Singapore convict jail, of which time only are
+we in a position to express an opinion, the treatment of the convicts
+was one of discipline from beginning to end. There was first the
+probationary period under fetters, in gangs upon the public roads, or
+upon the severest hard labour; next the period of freedom from this
+restraint and a time of test, and if they stood this test well, then
+advancement to a position of trust, either on the lower rung of the
+prison warder-staff, with a belt of authority across the shoulder, or,
+if an aptitude for any trade was evinced, to the position of a novice in
+the workyard, at whatever branch of industry the convict was thought to
+be best suited. There was then open to the prison warder a rise in grade
+to that of peon, with a distinctive badge, and eventually to the highest
+grade of a tindal or duffadar, if duly qualified. In the case of the
+industrial class there was also open a promotion to a higher grade, and
+eventually to that of a foreman of artificers. All were fully occupied
+and employed, and the jail was in point of fact a busy hive of industry,
+the pervading idea of the convict authorities being to teach the convict
+to love labour, and to take a personal interest in it.
+
+We know that there are still some who think that no prisoner, while
+undergoing his sentence, should be allowed to feel any pleasure in the
+occupation in which he may be engaged; and hence they advocate the
+crank, shot drill, and other aimless tasks, which serve but to irritate,
+and do not the least good to the heart, from whence all our actions
+spring. For a short term of probation, no doubt, the task should be
+irksome; but when this is over and it should not be prolonged work
+should be given which would tend to call out the best feelings, restore
+self-respect, and act as a sort of cordial to remove lowering and
+depression. To explain by a homely instance what we mean, we will
+mention an incident that occurred to one of us when building the Woking
+prison in 1866. A convict undergoing sentence there, of the labouring
+class, was found to be of an exceptionally dogged and dull nature.
+Nothing pleased him; he was disgusted with the world, and wished he was
+out of it. After a time he was tried at plain brick-laying in a
+foundation, and gradually began to handle a brick rather well. He
+seemed to grow step by step more reconciled to his lot, and was advanced
+to work upon a chimney-piece. A day or two later he was asked how he was
+getting on. He then replied, with a bright smile upon his face, "Oh,
+very well, sir, now! I likes my chimbley-piece, and dreams of her at
+nights in my lonely cell."
+
+Hence we see how the implacable temper of this convict gave way over a
+congenial bit of work, and the first step was thus taken towards his
+reformation of character, and he continued to improve until his release
+from prison.
+
+Herbert Spencer says with truth, "that experience and experiments have
+shown all over the world that the most successful criminal discipline is
+a discipline of decreased restraints and increased self dependence"; and
+to a degree of this "self dependence" the convict we refer to had been
+encouraged to aspire.
+
+Of course, in all criminal prisons we must expect a certain percentage
+of incorrigible characters, who under the best training cannot be
+brought under control; but the bulk of those in the old Singapore jail,
+and we had often as many as two thousand at a time, were well behaved,
+and gave evidence of the good influence of a course of discipline upon
+them; for when they were advanced to a ticket-of-leave, and thrown again
+on their own resources, they very rarely a second time came under the
+cognisance of the police, but peaceably merged into the population, and
+earned their livelihood by honest means.
+
+We have one word to say in reference to the employment of these convicts
+as warders over their fellow-prisoners; a system, so far as we are
+aware, then unattempted either in Europe or America, even in a modified
+form. We do not, however, see why, in the case of well-behaved and
+suitable European convicts sentenced to long periods of penal servitude,
+some might not be placed in certain such positions of trust under free
+warders; and as the new prison rules for our jails may possibly involve
+a large increase in the warder staff, it has occurred to us that the
+system might have a trial to a limited extent; but we are, of course,
+not in a position to speak with any authority upon the subject as
+affecting our own prisons. In our case, with the exception of two or
+three European warders, the whole warder staff were convicts; and at
+first, certainly, there was the fear that so large a number of convict
+warders might side with the convicts, when a rule they might have
+thought repugnant to all, was introduced by the governing body. There
+also appeared the danger that discipline might be undermined by a system
+of favouritism, especially amongst men of the same caste, or that they
+would shut their eyes to breaches of the rules.
+
+None of these apprehensions were, however, experienced; but, on the
+contrary, these convict warders were always the first to apprise the
+authorities of any contemplated attempt at escape, or of any ill-feeling
+that might be brewing amongst any particular class, or breach of prison
+rules; so that, in a great measure, they acted in the double capacity of
+both detectives and police. It was only upon very rare occasions that a
+convict warder had to be disrated; and the punishment amongst them
+consisted for the most part in fines for want of vigilance and attention
+to detail, and such like petty offences. They all manifested the highest
+appreciation of the trust reposed in them, and lived in a perpetual fear
+that they might forfeit their position, and have to begin anew the whole
+course of jail punishment.
+
+It need scarcely be said that great care was exercised to single out men
+of the best character, and to the highest posts those who could take
+upon themselves responsibility as men of purpose and discretion.
+Promotion in the different grades was made only by the Superintendent,
+who in our case was an officer who had served in India, knew natives of
+most sects and races, and was acquainted with their habits and customs,
+and spoke one or two of their languages.
+
+The prison system in all its branches worked in perfect harmony, and all
+the parts of it seemed to be adapted to each other. Discipline was
+maintained throughout, and the artificer gang, as we have shown,
+developed a high skill in their various trades; so that important public
+works could be executed without difficulty or embarrassment. Those also
+who had passed through its course, and were admitted back to society
+upon a ticket of leave, as a rule behaved themselves as good citizens.
+
+In the extraction of labour from the convicts, there was no desire on
+the part of the Government to work the establishment with a view to show
+any pecuniary profit in the returns; though, as it proved, the actual
+cost to the State was often more than reimbursed by their labour,
+estimated as it was at two-thirds of that prevailing in the place, and
+the material at half the market price. However, in regard to this part
+of the question we might here quote "Jeremy Bentham," who once wisely
+said of prison labour, "It is not the less reforming for being
+profitable."
+
+We would now take leave of our old Singapore jail, as indeed, owing to
+the result of the earnest entreaty of the community to the Government,
+it finally took leave of us in 1873, though in our judgment perhaps a
+little too prematurely in the best interests of the colony.
+
+We can only hope that in the record we have now given, we have furnished
+some suggestions for general application to those who, like ourselves,
+are concerned not merely with the punishment of the criminal, but also
+with his reformation, both as a question of social science, and to the
+prisoner's own ulterior benefit.
+
+This reformation could, we think, be best brought about by a course of
+severe probationary discipline at the outset, to be followed up by
+continuous employment upon productive occupations and trades, so as to
+encourage within the criminal a lively diligence and a persevering
+industry; ourselves meanwhile also encouraged in the task by the words
+of Shakespeare, that
+
+    "There is some soul of goodness in things evil,
+    Would men observingly distil it out."
+
+                           _King Henry V._, Act. iv., Scene i.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX I
+
+
+Statement of the expenses of the convict jail in Singapore for the years
+1862-63 and 1863-64, showing the average cost per prisoner:--
+
+  Heads of Expenditure.       1,964 Prisoners in 1862-63.
+                              1,995 Prisoners in 1863-64.
+
+                                1862-63.          1863-64.
+                                --------          --------
+                                 Rs.               Rs.
+  Rations                     67,803  9 10      62,901  0 10
+  Money Allowance             20,938 13  8      19,369 14  3
+                             --------------    --------------
+  Total                       88,742  7  6      82,270 15  1
+  Cost per Prisoner               45  2 11          41  3 10
+
+
+  Fixed Establishment         16,094  1  0      11,173  1  5
+  Cost per Prisoner                8  3  1           5  9  7
+  Extra Establishment           _nil._       _nil._
+  Cost per Prisoner                "                 "
+                             --------------    --------------
+  Total                       16,094  1  0      11,173  1  5
+  Cost per Prisoner                8  3  1           5  9  7
+
+
+  Hospital Charges
+    European Medicines }
+    Bazaar ditto       }         472 13  0         454 10  4
+    Sick Diet          }
+                             --------------    --------------
+  Total                          472 13  0         454 10  4
+  Cost per Prisoner                0  3 10           0  3  7 1/2
+
+
+  Clothing, including
+    Blankets and Bedding       8,699 14  6       8,250 14  4
+  Cost per Prisoner                4  6 11           4  2  2
+  Contingencies                3,235  3  1       4,407  5  3
+  Cost per Prisoner                1 10  4           2  3  4 1/2
+  Additions, Alterations,
+    and Repairs                  100 12  2          51  8  8
+  Cost per Prisoner                0  0 10           0  0  5
+                             --------------    --------------
+  Gross Cost of Maintenance    17,345 3  3     106,608  7  1
+  Gross Cost per Prisoner         59 11 11          53  7  0
+
+The above table gives a fair average of the annual cost of maintenance
+of each prisoner as taken from the records of the jail.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX II
+
+
+Return of the Hospital Department of prisoners in jails in Singapore,
+Penang and Province Wellesley, and Malacca, from 1st May, 1863, to 30th
+April, 1864, exhibiting the average strength, number of admissions of
+sick, number of deaths, etc., in each jail during the year, and the rate
+per cent.:--
+
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Stations                   Singapore.   Penang and   Malacca.   Total.
+                                           Province
+                                          Wellesley.
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Average strength
+  during the Year              2,400        1,150        661      4,211
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Admissions during
+  the Year
+
+    Fevers                       222          260        292        774
+    Eruptive Fevers               25            2         26         53
+
+    Diseases of the
+      Lungs                       30           55         63        148
+      Liver                        9           --          1         10
+      Stomach and Bowels          81          216         93        390
+      Brain                       12           19         41         72
+      Generative and
+        Urinary Organs            51           23         24         98
+      Eyes                        50           27          9         86
+      Skin                        50           20         37        107
+
+    Cholera                        3           --         --          3
+    Dropsies                      13           27          6         46
+    Rheumatic Affections          58          107         31        196
+    Abscesses and Ulcers         204          198         84        486
+    Wounds and Injuries           58           93         42        193
+    Other Diseases               181           47         32        260
+
+    Total                      1,047        1,094        781      2,922
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Deaths during
+  the Year
+
+    Fevers                        --           --          7          7
+    Eruptive Fevers                7            1          3         11
+
+    Diseases of the
+      Lungs                        4            2          2          8
+      Liver                        1           --         --          1
+      Stomach and Bowels           6            9          4         19
+      Brain                       --            2         --          2
+      Generative and
+        Urinary Organs            --           --         --         --
+      Eyes                        --           --         --         --
+      Skin                         3           --         --          3
+
+    Cholera                        2           --         --          2
+    Dropsies                       3            8          1         12
+    Rheumatic Affections           1           --          1          2
+    Abscesses and Ulcers           1           --         --          1
+    Wounds and Injuries            2            1         --          3
+    Other Diseases                25           21          3         49
+
+    Total                         55           44         21        120
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Discharged during the Year     943        1,012        742      2,697
+  Transfer during the Year        --           --         --         --
+  Liberated during the Year       --           --         --         --
+  Remaining                       49           38         18        105
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Rate per cent.
+
+    Sick to Strength           43.62         95.1     118.45      69.43
+
+    Death by ordinary
+      diseases to strength      2.20          3.82      3.17       2.802
+
+    Death by Cholera
+      to strength              00.8           --        --       004.74
+
+    Total Deaths to Strength    2.29          3.82      3.17       2.84
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The rate per cent. of the total deaths to strength at the three
+settlements may appear high, but it is accounted for by the number of
+old convicts dying off.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX III
+
+
+The following table gives the value of materials manufactured by convict
+labour; the money expenditure in addition to the convict labour on each
+item, and the difference in favour of the State for the years 1862-63
+and 1863-64:--
+
+  -------------------------------------------------
+            Value of Materials.
+  -------------------------------------------------
+    1862-63.                    Rs.          Rs.
+
+  To value of Bricks          25,149 10
+
+  To value of Lime               600  9
+
+  To value of Cement           3,844 12
+
+  To value of Granite          2,058 10
+
+  To value of Weaver's Work    1,432 11
+
+  To value of Rattan Work        862  0
+                              ---------   33,988  4
+  Deduct Expenditure                      29,908 10
+                                          ---------
+  Difference in favour of the State   Rs.  4,074 10
+  -------------------------------------------------
+            Cost of Production.
+  -------------------------------------------------
+    1862-63.                    Rs.          Rs.
+
+  Bricks
+    By Convict Labour         14,293  9
+    Money Expenditure          5,882 10
+                              ---------   20,176  3
+  Lime
+    By Convict Labour            242 14
+    Money Expenditure            535 14
+                              ---------      778 12
+  Cement
+    By Convict Labour            952 13
+    Money Expenditure            138  9
+                              ---------    1,091  6
+  Granite
+    By Convict Labour          5,859  9
+    Money Expenditure         _nil._
+                              ---------    5,859  9
+  Weaver's Work
+    By Convict Labour            594  6
+    Money Expenditure            546  6
+                              ---------    1,140 12
+  Rattan Work
+    By Convict Labour            862  0
+    Money Expenditure         _nil._
+                              ---------      862  0
+                                          ---------
+  Total                               Rs. 29,908 10
+  -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+  -------------------------------------------------
+            Value of Materials.
+  -------------------------------------------------
+    1863-64.                    Rs.          Rs.
+
+  To value of Bricks          26,683 12
+
+  To value of Lime and Cement  3,720  0
+
+  To value of Granite          6,574  0
+
+  To value of Weaver's Work    1,872  5
+
+  To value of Rattan Work        915 13
+                              ---------   36,765 14
+  Deduct Expenditure                      25,344  8
+                                          ---------
+  Difference in favour of the State   Rs. 11,421  6
+  -------------------------------------------------
+            Cost of Production.
+  -------------------------------------------------
+    1863-64.                    Rs.          Rs.
+
+  Bricks
+    By Convict Labour          8,122 14
+    Money Expenditure          9,667  4
+                              ---------   17,790  2
+  Lime and Cement
+    By Convict Labour            785  6
+    Money Expenditure            552  6
+                              ---------    1,337 12
+  Granite
+    By Convict Labour          3,327  9
+    Money Expenditure         _nil._
+                              ---------    3,327  9
+  Weaver's Work
+    By Convict Labour          1,368 14
+    Money Expenditure            604  7
+                              ---------    1,973  5
+  Rattan Work
+    By Convict Labour            915 13
+    Money Expenditure         _nil._
+                              ---------      915 12
+                                          ---------
+  Total                               Rs. 25,344  8
+  -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX IV
+
+
+The following is a tabulated account of the cost of the brick kilns to
+the State, and the value of these convict-made bricks in the local
+market.
+
+The output of bricks per month when four tables were at work was
+230,000, and their value at $45.00 per 10,000 would be $1,035. The cost
+of manufacture was as follows:--
+
+                                 $
+  Overseer's Salary             45.00
+
+  Labour of 125 Convicts,
+    at 25cts. per diem for
+    artizans and 9cts. for
+    labourers                  306.00
+
+  Cost of Fuel                 200.00
+
+  Wear and Tear                 17.10
+
+  Food for Cattle               24.30
+
+  Contingencies                 16.20
+                              -------
+  Total                       $608.60
+                              =======
+
+
+                                 $
+  Value of 230,000 of
+    Bricks at $45 per
+    laksa, that being the
+    market price for
+    Government Bricks        1,035.00
+
+  Deduct cost of
+    manufacture                608.60
+                             --------
+  Difference to credit of
+  the State                   $426.40
+                             ========
+
+Bricks were debited to Government Works at $20 per laksa. The size of a
+Government brick mould was 10 1/4 x 5 1/4 x 3 ins. The bricks when burnt
+measured 9 x 4 1/2 x 2 3/4 ins., and weighed about 7 lbs. when dry, and about
+7 lbs. 3 or 4 ozs. after soaking in fresh water. These were ordinary
+bricks, but those manufactured for hydraulic work were impervious to
+water.
+
+NOTE.--The size of a Chinese-made brick when burnt is 10 x 5 x 1 1/2 ins.
+It requires 22 Chinese-made bricks to build one cubic foot of brickwork,
+but of convict-made Government bricks a cubic foot of brickwork requires
+13 only.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX V
+
+
+Number and nature of defaults committed by Indian convicts:--
+
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+  Nature of Defaults.                     For the year
+                                     1846.   1856.   1866.
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+  Stealing                            11      11      11
+
+  Disobedience of Orders               4       1      10
+
+  Drunkenness                          2      15       6
+
+  Assault                              1      --      --
+
+  Neglect of Duty                      4      22      12
+
+  Smuggling Articles into Jail         4      --       4
+
+  Disturbing Women at Night            1      --      --
+
+  Sleeping while on Duty               1       3       7
+
+  Cutting and Wounding                 1       1      --
+
+  Breaking open a Convict's Box        1      --      --
+
+  Allowing Local Prisoners to
+    speak to Outside Men              --       1      --
+
+  Receiving Money for Safe
+    Keeping and Denying the Same      --       3      --
+
+  Quarrelling and Abusing             --       5       9
+
+  Telling Falsehood                   --       3       2
+
+  Allowing Local Prisoners to
+    Abscond                           --       3      19
+
+  Idleness at Work                    --       1       3
+
+  Gambling                            --       6       4
+
+  Absent from Roll Call               --       4      17
+
+  Impertinence to Warder              --       1      --
+
+  Selling his own Cloths              --       2      --
+
+  Confined by the Police              --       5      --
+
+  Striking a Fellow-Convict           --       5       3
+
+  Refusing to Work                    --       3       6
+
+  Unlawfully Detaining a
+    Man's Sampan                      --       1      --
+
+  Creating a Disturbance              --       2       2
+
+  Bringing a False Charge             --       1       1
+
+  Writing a Threatening Petition      --       2      --
+
+  Having Stolen Property in
+    Possession                        --       1      --
+
+  Wilfully Destroying Tools           --       1      --
+
+  Carelessness at Work                --       7       6
+
+  Leaving Work without Orders         --       4       4
+
+  Intending to Abscond                --      11      --
+
+  Bringing a Woman into the
+    Hospital at Night                 --       1      --
+
+  Selling Rations                     --       2      --
+
+  Begging in the Streets              --       1       3
+
+  Committing a Nuisance               --       1      --
+
+  Mixed up in Street Rows             --       1      --
+
+  Counterfeiting Coin                 --       1      --
+
+  Buying Rations from a
+    Fellow-Convict                    --      --       1
+
+  Pawning                             --      --       1
+
+  Suspected of Thieving               --      --       2
+
+  Losing Cloths                       --      --       4
+
+  Leaving his Watch                   --      --       6
+
+  Committed by the Police             --      --       9
+
+  Attempting to Commit Suicide        --      --       1
+
+  Marrying without Permission         --      --       1
+
+  Carrying Letters for Local
+    Prisoners                         --      --       3
+
+  Disrespect to Superiors             --      --       2
+
+  Obtaining Money under False
+    Pretences                         --      --       1
+
+  Receiving Bribes                    --      --       1
+
+  Impertinence                        --      --       2
+
+  Malingering                         --      --       2
+
+  Suspected of being Concerned
+    in a Murder                       --      --       2
+
+  Assaulting a Free Man               --      --       4
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+      Total                           30     132     172
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+
+This table gives the number and nature of the defaults committed by the
+Indian convicts for the years 1846, 1856 and 1866, but it is doubtful
+whether the list for 1846 is complete, as the prison records do not
+appear to have been fully kept up; anyhow they are not to be found, and
+at that time the inquiry room had not been established. The number of
+convicts under discipline and on ticket of leave during the twenty years
+was between 1,900 and 2,500, which shows a small percentage of
+defaulters, and they are all, with few exceptions, of a petty nature.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX VI
+
+
+Extracts from letters from T. Church, Esq., Resident Councillor,
+Singapore, addressed to the Honourable the Governor of the Straits.
+
+    15th September, 1849. Transmits copy of letter from Captain
+    Man, dated August, 1849, forwarding account of value of labour
+    of the convicts for the year ending 30th April last.
+
+        In my last report I adverted to the efficient state of this
+        department, and the importance of the work performed by
+        convicts under the zealous and active supervision of the
+        Superintendent. The accompanying papers will, I think,
+        satisfy your Honour, and distant authorities likewise, that
+        the value of the labour of the convicts, particularly the
+        artificers, is annually becoming developed; and even now
+        the skill of the men is quite equal, if not superior, to
+        the free labourers generally employed by the Superintending
+        Engineer; in fact, Major Faber has on more than one
+        occasion expressed his professional opinion on the
+        superiority of the masonry and other works executed by the
+        convict body. I trust the period is not far distant when
+        the Government will allow all repairs and minor works to be
+        done by the Superintendent of Convicts, a measure much to
+        be desired, and vastly more economical than the present
+        system.
+
+        The annexed statement has no pretensions to accuracy, and
+        I am rather disposed to place on record Captain Man's
+        estimate than my own; but whichever is adopted, the result
+        is most satisfactory, as showing that the labour of the
+        convicts is equivalent to all expenses incurred in their
+        maintenance at this station.
+
+    August, 1850. A cursory view of the papers submitted by Captain
+    Man will show how much the community are indebted to the
+    convict body for the cleanliness of the streets in town, and
+    the extensive and admirable roads in the country, which elicit
+    the praise and even the astonishment of sojourners from the
+    continent of India, and the Colonies.
+
+    10th August, 1852. Captain Man's report is exceedingly
+    gratifying, and demonstrates how admirably adapted the existing
+    rules and regulations are to preserve order and discipline
+    among a large body of probably the most vicious and demoralized
+    characters from the presidencies, and at the same time render
+    their labour of considerable importance to the place of
+    transportation.
+
+Extracts from the letters of the Governor of the Straits Settlements to
+the Resident Councillor, Singapore:--
+
+    29th August, 1850. The management of the convict body at
+    Singapore reflects great credit on Captain Man, whose energy
+    and zeal in the execution of his duties have always been very
+    conspicuous; and I notice with extreme satisfaction the
+    eulogium passed on that officer in the concluding paragraphs of
+    your communication.
+
+    The observations of the Superintendent of Convicts and Roads at
+    this station, as well as at Penang, on the aforesaid rules and
+    regulations, coupled with your notice of the same, have
+    afforded me unqualified gratification, seeing that they were
+    drawn up by me so far back as 1845 in the face of much
+    opposition to the entire abolition of free men as petty
+    officers, in which, however, as in all matters connected with
+    the welfare of this station, I acknowledge your cordial support
+    and assistance.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX VII
+
+
+The head of the Madras Medical Department Dr. Edward Balfour, visited
+this jail in August, 1863, and thus recorded his opinion:--
+
+    The point that most struck me in the management of this jail
+    were the diversified occupations and evident industry of its
+    inmates, and their complete employment. The mass were actively
+    working, and the few were superintending those engaged in
+    labour. I have not before seen the various labouring industries
+    of artizans so largely introduced in any jail, nor have I seen
+    such diligence in their labour. Blacksmiths' and tinsmiths'
+    work, carpentry and sawmills, carving and coopering,
+    stonemasons, manufacture of coir and woollen yarn for blankets,
+    weaving door-mats, and printing too, all in active operation
+    inside the jail, with wood-cutting, brick and tile works, and
+    vegetable gardens without. Daily task work, and its allotment
+    and registration as to quantities performed in the jail, may be
+    operating to produce the application to the work before them
+    which the prisoners were everywhere giving. The hospital and
+    its arrangements were very perfect. The well-kept floor, the
+    clean cots, and the very small number of about twenty inmates
+    out of a strength of 2,000, may be taken as indicative of the
+    care in all other sanitary arrangements. Both the sickness and
+    mortality seems very small. I have been much gratified with
+    what I have seen, and have learned some points of interest and
+    value.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX VIII
+
+
+Extract from the _Singapore Free Press_, October, 1884:--
+
+    To this day many of the released convicts are living in
+    Singapore, cart owners, milk sellers, road contractors, and so
+    on. Many of them are comfortably off, but are growing fewer
+    year by year, and their places will never be filled by that
+    class again. The name of Major McNair is a password to their
+    good feelings, and all their disputes used to go to him as a
+    matter of course. When the Major wrote the _Sarong and Kris,
+    Perak and the Malays_, it was remarked by one of the reviewers
+    that he hoped the Major would some day give an account of the
+    old jail to the world. It was one of the most remarkable sights
+    of the place, and no one came from India on a visit in those
+    days without going over it before he returned. For all sorts of
+    things, from coir matting and rattan chairs down to waste paper
+    baskets, every one went to the jail; and the rattan chairs the
+    Chinese now sell here so largely, were invented in the jail,
+    beginning with a cumbrous heavy chair, which was the first
+    pattern, down to the shape we see now.
+
+    No doubt the system had its defects, and there was a wide
+    difference between the jail as it is now, filled with offenders
+    sentenced in Singapore, and a jail which contained criminals
+    who came from distant places and did not know the local
+    language, and had no friends outside the walls to help them to
+    escape from the island if they succeeded in getting clear of
+    the jail; but, notwithstanding, it was often a wonder to many
+    to find so large an establishment of the worst characters of
+    India kept in check by what was, practically, almost personal
+    influence alone.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX IX
+
+
+From the _Singapore Free Press_, February 2nd, 1899. Given to show how
+very lately this "head scare" superstition is entertained:--
+
+    THE "HEAD-CUTTING" SCARE.
+
+    To the Editor of the _Free Press Pao_.
+
+    MOST POWERFUL SIR,--Permit thy humble servant to approach thee
+    by the way of my friend Tan Tan Tiam, who knoweth the Ang Moh's
+    speech, and kindly consenteth to write to him who moveth the
+    Government to influence the Tye Jin to have compassion upon the
+    exiled sons of China.
+
+    Thy servant is a humble puller of the man-power-carriage by
+    night, and is suffering grievously because he is unable to
+    carry on his lawful occupation of plying by hire, by reason of
+    the dire fear that besetteth him. It hath come to the ears of
+    thy servant and of his fellows, that the Ang Moh's engineers do
+    seek a sacrifice to appease the offended gods of earth and
+    water, whom they have outraged by disturbing his habitation on
+    the hill that standeth behind the office of the Tye Jin, which
+    they of India call Ko-mis-a-yat. The said engineers, perchance
+    from ignorance, have neglected to consult the wise ones of
+    earth-lore as to the means to be taken to please the said
+    spirits, who have consequently so tormented the Ang Moh that
+    they seek a sacrifice. Not of the rich and family-blessed, who
+    would make a complaint to the Government, if they were
+    sacrificed; but of us poor and friendless man-power-carriage
+    coolies, who in the exercise of our nightly avocation are
+    called to distant parts of the town, where the knife that is
+    invisible will speedily sever the head from the body, and the
+    cloth that is impenetrable will stifle the last cry of him that
+    hath none to avenge, and our heads go to make the water run
+    within the pipe, and make firm the foundations of this new
+    water hole.
+
+    Let the engineers make the necessary sacrifices, that we may go
+    without fear and trembling to those who call us, with mighty
+    voice and thick, to go to Si Poi Poh. Then shall we receive the
+    reward of the Ang Moh's gratitude, far exceeding that of they
+    who aforetime dwelt in the land, or of our brothers of the
+    Celestial Empire.
+
+    HAK-CHEW.
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+Alquada Reef lighthouse, 112.
+
+Andaman Islands, 21, 143.
+
+_Anecdotal History_, on Singapore, etc., convicts, 47, 67.
+
+
+Balfour, Dr. Edward: opinion of Singapore jail, 182.
+
+"Bastiani," exporter of pine-apples to Europe, 60.
+
+Begbie, Captain, 43.
+
+Belcher, Sir Edward, R.N., 61.
+
+Bencoolen, First penal settlement at, 1-3.
+  Sir Stamford Raffles' letters on treatment of convicts at, 4-8.
+  Transfer of convicts from, to Penang, 8.
+  Transfer of convicts from, to Singapore, 39.
+
+"Bencoolen Rules" in force at Singapore, 43.
+
+Bennett, Mr. John, 61, 74.
+
+Beri-beri disease, 149.
+
+Blundell, Hon. Edmund Augustus, 73.
+
+Branding, 12.
+
+Bricks, Dearth of, at Singapore in 1844, 58.
+
+Bricks made by convicts, 110, 174.
+
+Brodhurst, Mr., 144.
+
+Budoo road, 44.
+
+Bukit Timah Canal, 71.
+
+Butterworth, Colonel, 20, 61, 62.
+
+"Butterworth Rules," 21, 62, 63.
+
+
+Campbell, Major, 42.
+
+Canning, Lord, 75.
+
+Cape Rachado, 29.
+
+Carrimon Islands, 33.
+
+Cathedral, Singapore, 97-101.
+
+Cavenagh, General Sir Orfeur, 52.
+
+"Cellular system," 158.
+
+Chains, Convicts in, 40, 87.
+
+Chester, Lieutenant, 40.
+
+Chinese rioters dispersed by Indian convicts, 67-68.
+
+Church, Hon. Thomas, 73.
+  Extracts from letters on value of convict labour, 179-181.
+
+Clarke, Sir Andrew, 3, 14.
+
+Clothing of convicts at Singapore jail, 94.
+
+Cobra, 128.
+
+Coleman, G. D., Work performed by, at Singapore, 43-46.
+
+Collyer, Colonel, 75.
+
+Collyer Quay, 76.
+
+Convicts, Treatment of, at Penang, 16-20.
+  Ticket-of-leave, at Penang, 24.
+  at Malacca, 27-30.
+  Transfer of, from Bencoolen to Singapore, 39.
+  First trial of, as warders at Singapore, 40.
+  Lenient treatment of, 41.
+  used for suppressing fires at Singapore, 42.
+  employed as orderlies and servants, 42.
+  at Singapore, Malacca, Penang, and Maulmein, Extract from
+      _Anecdotal History_ on, 47.
+  used for destroying tigers, 52.
+  used for surveying, 56. employed for road-constructing, 19, 28, 59.
+  build lighthouses at Singapore, 60, 62.
+  Indian, disperse Chinese rioters, 68.
+  Bukit Timah Canal improved by, 71.
+  A new St. Andrew's Church constructed by, 72, 97.
+  assist in building fortifications of Singapore, 76.
+  Government House built by, 77, 101.
+  Classification of, at Singapore jail, 84-89.
+  Average number of, at Singapore, 89. Trades of, 90-92.
+  hours of work at Singapore, 92.
+  Clothing of, at Singapore jail, 94.
+  Industries of (intramural) 104-108.
+  Industries of (extramural) 108-112.
+  Stories about Indian, 113-142.
+  Indian, fondness for spying, 123.
+  Indian, Transfer of, to Port Blair from Singapore, 143.
+  Pardoning, 143-145. Analysis of crimes of, in 1873, 145.
+  Diseases of, at Singapore, 147-152.
+  Death-rate of, at Singapore, 149.
+  Disciplinary treatment of, at Singapore, 159.
+  Incorrigible, 161.
+  Materials made by, 172-175.
+  Bricks made by, 172-175.
+  Defaults committed by Indian, 176.
+
+Cotton, Dr. George, 74.
+
+Cowpar, Dr., 154.
+
+Crawfurd, Mr. John, 36, 101.
+
+Crocodiles, 130, 134-138.
+
+
+"Dacoity," 12.
+
+Davidson, M. F., 61, 62.
+
+Death-rate of convicts at Singapore, 149, 170.
+
+De Barros on Malacca, 26.
+
+Dindings, 14.
+
+Diseases of convicts at Singapore, 147-152.
+  Feigned, 152-155.
+
+Du Cane, Sir Edmund, 96.
+
+
+Edinburgh, H.R.H. The Duke of, 77.
+
+
+Faber, Captain, 58.
+  lays foundation stone of Pearl's Hill jail, 64.
+
+Farquhar, Major, 33.
+
+Fires, Convicts used for suppressing, 42.
+
+Flogging, 88.
+
+Forlong, General, 21, 63.
+  appreciation of Singapore convict system, 63.
+
+Fraser, Colonel, report on management of Singapore jail, 110.
+
+"Funny Joe," 126.
+
+
+Godinho de Eredia, 25, 151.
+
+Government House at Singapore, 101-104.
+
+Guillaume, architect, 97.
+
+Guthrie, Mr. Alexander, 35.
+
+Guthrie, Mr. James, 101.
+
+
+Hamadryads, Convicts bitten by, 16.
+
+Hay, Mr. Andrew, 35.
+
+"Head Scare," 69-70.
+
+Hilliard, Captain, 20.
+
+Hospital erected at Singapore, 57.
+
+Humphrey, Rev. William Topley, 73.
+
+
+Industries, Convict, 104-112.
+
+
+Jail erected near Brass Basa Canal, 54.
+  New Civil, at Pearl's Hill, 64.
+  Singapore, Description of, 77-83.
+  Singapore, Classification of convicts at, 84-89.
+  Singapore, Rations for, 93.
+  Industries at Singapore, 104-112.
+  Convict Probation at Singapore, 157.
+  Expenses of Singapore, 169.
+  Statistics of Hospital Department, 170-171.
+
+Janssen, M. Leon, 151.
+
+Johnstone, Mr. A. L., 35.
+
+Johore, Sultan of, 36.
+
+
+Kerr, Dr., 150.
+
+
+Labour, Value of convict, 92.
+  Statistics of convict, 172-175.
+
+Latrines, 80-82.
+
+"Licuala acutifida," 24.
+
+Light, Captain, 15.
+
+Lighthouses at Singapore, 60-62.
+  erected at eastern entrance to Straits of Malacca, 62.
+
+
+McClure, Sir Robert, 139.
+
+MacKenzie, Mr. E., 35.
+
+McNair, Lieut., 73.
+
+McNair, Major, 52.
+  Rules introduced by, 1858-59, 63.
+  prepares plans for Government House at Singapore, 77, 97, 101.
+
+Macpherson, Captain Ronald, 71, 73.
+
+Macpherson, Colonel, 97.
+  Attempt to kill, 125.
+
+Magaelhaens, Mr., 61.
+
+Mahomed Shah, 26.
+
+Malacca, Origin of name of, 25.
+  Size of, 26. Trade of, 26.
+  The Portuguese at, 26.
+  Appearance of, 27.
+  First convicts at, 27.
+  Industrial training of convicts at, 29.
+  Transfer of convicts to Singapore from, 30.
+  trade, 1845-46, 65.
+
+Man, Captain, 158.
+
+Man, General, 20, 21.
+
+Man, General, Initiation of carpenter's work at Singapore, 64.
+
+Marco Polo, 151.
+
+Maxwell, Mr. D. A., 35.
+
+Mayne, Major, 76.
+
+Montgomery, Mr. W., 35.
+
+Moor's _Notices of the Indian Archipelago_, 45.
+
+Morgan, Mr. A. F., 35.
+
+Morgan, Mr. John, 35.
+
+Mouat, Dr., Paper on ticket-of-leave system at Singapore, 10.
+  Testimony as to conservancy of Singapore jail, 82.
+  Report on Singapore jail, 1864-65, 105.
+
+
+Napier, Mr. D. F., 35.
+
+Netley Abbey, 97.
+
+New Harbour Dock, 67.
+
+
+Ord, Lady, 101.
+
+Ord, Sir Harry St. George, 76, 101.
+
+Oxley, Dr., House of, attacked by burglars, 43.
+
+
+Pangkor, 14.
+
+Penang, Convicts transferred to, from Bencoolen, 8, 14.
+  Increase in population of, 15.
+  Trade of, 16, 65.
+  Treatment of convicts at, 16-20.
+  Ticket-of-leave at, 24.
+  Seat of government fixed at, 41.
+  "Penang lawyers," 24.
+  "Penang Rules," 8, 18.
+  in force at Singapore, 43.
+
+Pine-apples at Singapore, 59.
+
+Piracy in the Straits of Malacca, 120-122.
+
+Pooley, Lieut.-Col. Charles, 73.
+
+Port Blair, Transfer of Indian life-convicts to, 143.
+
+"Prince of Wales Island" (see also Penang), 14.
+
+Prisoners (see Convicts).
+
+Province Wellesley, Acquisition of, 14.
+
+Pulo Ubin, British flag planted at, 38.
+
+Purvis, Captain, 73.
+
+Purvis, Mr. John, 35.
+
+
+Queen, H.M. The, Statue of, 104.
+
+
+Raffles', Sir Stamford, letters to Government on treatment of
+    convicts at Bencoolen, 4-8.
+  Views of, on necessity of trading centre in Straits of Malacca, 33.
+  Address from merchants at Singapore to, 36.
+  reply to address from merchants at Singapore, 37.
+  "The Coney" lighthouse named after, 62.
+
+Raffles Institution, 45.
+
+Rations for Singapore jail, 93.
+
+Rawlinson, Sir Robert, K.C.B., 76.
+
+Read, Mr. C. R., 35.
+
+Read, Mr. W. H., C.M.G., 100.
+
+Rhio, 33.
+
+Roads opened between Bukit Timah and Krangi, 59.
+  to summit of Telok Blangah Hill, 59.
+
+Rock-blasting by Indian convicts, 66.
+
+Rowell, Dr. Irvine, C.M.G., 150.
+
+
+St. Andrew's Church, 68.
+  Construction of a new, 72.
+  consecrated by Dr. George Cotton, Bishop of Calcutta, 74.
+
+Scott, Mr. Charles, 35.
+
+Scott, Mr. Thomas, 101.
+
+Serangoon road, 44.
+
+Shaw, Mr. Frank, 131.
+
+Singapore, Foundation of settlement, 34.
+  Origin of name of, 31.
+  Size of, 32.
+  ceded to Great Britain, 34.
+  Population of, 34.
+  First settlers at, 34, 35.
+  Early prison at, 35.
+  Address from merchants at, to Sir Stamford Raffles, 36.
+  Extracts from reply to address from merchants to Sir S. Raffles, 37.
+  First census, 38.
+  Transfer of convicts from Bencoolen to, 39.
+  First church for, 45.
+  jail erected, 1841, 54.
+  Tigers at, 49-53.
+  Extract from _The Free Press_ on progress of town, 55.
+  hospital erected, 57.
+  bricks, 58.
+  pine-apples, 59.
+  trade, 1845-46, 65.
+  census, 1849, 67.
+  new church, 72.
+  Fortification of, 75.
+  waterworks, 76.
+  jail, Description of, 77-83.
+  cathedral, 97-101.
+  Government House, 101-104.
+  Expenses of, jail, 169.
+
+_Singapore Free Press_: Extract on capture of a tiger, 50.
+  Extract on ravages of tigers, 51.
+  Extract on progress of Singapore town, 1842, 55.
+  Extract on Singapore lighthouse, 61.
+  Extract on tiger-hunting, 134.
+  on released convicts, 183-184.
+  on "head-cutting" scare, 185-186.
+
+Sleeman, Colonel, 12.
+
+Stevenson, Captain, 48.
+
+Stone Quarrying at Singapore, 111.
+
+Surveying, Convicts used for, 56.
+
+
+Tanjong Tatti, 33.
+
+Tan-Tock-Seng, 57.
+
+Taylor, Rev. Wallace, M.D., 152.
+
+Temple, Col. R.C., 21.
+
+Thompson, J. T., 56.
+  designs hospital for Singapore, 57.
+  designs Singapore lighthouse, 60.
+
+"Thuggee," 11.
+
+"Tickery Banda," 113.
+
+Ticket-of-leave system, 10, 24.
+  employed in pine culture, 60.
+
+Tigers at Singapore, 49-53.
+  trap, 131.
+
+Trade for year 1845-46 of Penang, Singapore, and Malacca, 65.
+
+Trades of Singapore convicts, 90-92.
+
+Transportation, 8.
+  Effect of, on the native of India, 9, 117, 157.
+
+
+_Tropical Possessions in Malayan India_,
+    Story about "Tickery Banda" in, 113.
+
+Warders, Singapore convicts as, 40, 48, 162.
+
+Well-digging at Singapore, 112.
+
+White, Rev. Edmund, 45.
+
+Wilson, Rt. Rev. Daniel, D.D., 73.
+
+
+Xavier, St. Francis, 27.
+
+
+
+
+Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+
+Inconsistencies in the hyphenation of words preserved. (cocoanuts,
+cocoa-nuts; extramural, extra-mural; intramural, intra-mural; lookout,
+look-out; tongkong, tong-kong; transmarine, trans-marine; workyard,
+work-yard)
+
+Pg. 37, inserted missing period. (extracts from it. After acknowledging)
+
+Pg. 167-8, these were blank pages in the original text and anchors have
+not been inserted for them.
+
+Pg. 187, index entry "Alquada". Is spelled "Alguada" in main text.
+Original spellings of both preserved as it is unclear which the author
+intended.
+
+Pg. 188, index entry "Crawfurd, Mr. John". Pg. 36 which index refers to
+spells the name as "Crawford" while Pg. 101 spells it as "Crawfurd".
+Original spellings retained in all cases as it is unclear which spelling
+the author intended.
+
+Pg. 189, index entry "Malacca". Inserted period after page number.
+(First convicts at, 27.)
+
+Pg. 189, index entry "Moor's _Notices of the Indian Archipelago_".
+In the original text, both both the author's name and the title of the
+book were italicized.
+
+Pg. 191, index entry "Tanjong Tatti". Is spelled "Tanjong Jatti" in main
+text. Original spellings of both preserved as it is unclear which the
+author intended.
+
+Pg. 191, index entry "Thompson, J. T.". Inserted comma before page
+number. (Singapore lighthouse, 60)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Prisoners Their Own Warders, by
+J. F. A. McNair and W. D. Bayliss
+
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