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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of the Nineteenth Century, Year
+by Year, by Edwin Emerson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A History of the Nineteenth Century, Year by Year
+       Volume Two (of Three)
+
+Author: Edwin Emerson
+
+Release Date: October 12, 2008 [EBook #26901]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NINETEENTH CENTURY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Audrey Longhurst, Paul Dring and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: THE FIRST STEAM RAILWAY
+    Painted by Edward L Henry, N.A.
+    Copyright by C. Klackner]
+
+
+
+
+  A HISTORY OF
+  THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
+  YEAR BY YEAR
+
+  BY
+
+  EDWIN EMERSON, Jr.
+
+  Member of the American Historical Association, New York
+  Historical Society, Franklin Institute of Philadelphia,
+  Honorary Member of the Royal Philo-Historical Society
+  of Bavaria, etc., etc.
+
+  WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
+  GEORG GOTTFRIED GERVINUS
+
+  ILLUSTRATED WITH SIXTEEN COLORED PLATES AND
+  THIRTY-TWO FULL-PAGE, HALF-TONE CUTS
+  AND TWO MAPS
+
+  _IN THREE VOLUMES--VOLUME TWO_
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  NEW YORK
+
+  P.F. COLLIER AND SON
+
+  MCMII
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1900
+
+  By EDWIN EMERSON, Jr.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+  LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  VOLUME TWO
+
+
+  FULL PAGES IN COLOR
+
+  THE FIRST STEAM RAILWAY. Painted by Edward L. Henry      _Frontispiece_
+
+  BALAKLAVA. Painted by Elizabeth Thompson (Lady Butler)
+
+  SOLFERINO. Painted by E. Meissonier
+
+  LAST MOMENTS OF MAXIMILIAN. Painted by J. Paul Laurens
+
+
+  FULL PAGES IN BLACK AND WHITE
+
+  AMERICAN INVENTORS. Painted by C. Schussele
+
+  THE KING OF ROME. Painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence
+
+  LORD BYRON. Painted by Maurin
+
+  BEETHOVEN AND HIS ADMIRERS. Painted by A. Grafle
+
+  QUEEN VICTORIA TAKING THE OATH. Painted by Sir George Hayter
+
+  LORD TENNYSON. Painted by Frederic Sandys
+
+  WASHINGTON IRVING AND HIS FRIENDS. Painted by Daniel Huntington
+
+  THE BATTLE OF INKERMANN. Painted by Gustave Dore
+
+  WAGNER AND LISZT. Painted by W. Beckmann
+
+  OPENING OF THE OPERA. Painted by Edouard Detaille
+
+  EXECUTION OF SEPOY REBELS. Painted by Verestchagin
+
+  THE EMPEROR OF CHINA RECEIVING THE DIPLOMATIC CORPS.
+
+
+
+
+1816
+
+
+[Sidenote: Parliamentary rule in France]
+
+[Sidenote: Revival of French letters]
+
+An era of peace and reconstruction had begun. After a generation of war and
+turmoil France was started on her new career of parliamentary government.
+The brief period of retaliation ended with the so-called amnesty act of
+January, which condemned Napoleon and all his relatives to perpetual exile.
+The Chambers now entered into a prolonged discussion of the propositions
+for a new election law. The Ministry was headed by the Duc de Richelieu,
+who had taken the place of Talleyrand and Fouche. The latter was compelled
+to leave France forever. Marshal Gouvion St. Cyr, who succeeded Davoust,
+reorganized the army on a permanent footing of military equality which
+satisfied even Napoleon's veterans. In the Chambers, the Comte d'Artois
+represented the ultra-royalist right wing, while the left was brilliantly
+led by Lafayette, Manuel, and Benjamin Constant. Guizot, during the same
+year, for the first time ascended the tribune as spokesman of the moderate
+party--the so-called Doctrinaires. Chateaubriand so offended the king by
+his book "La Monarchie selon la Charte" that his name was crossed from the
+list of the Council of State. Yet he remained the foremost man of letters
+in France.
+
+[Sidenote: Beranger]
+
+Beranger was the foremost lyric poet. A typical song by him is that
+rendered by Thackeray:
+
+  With pensive eyes the little room I view,
+    Where, in my youth, I weathered it so long;
+  With a wild mistress, a stanch friend or two,
+    And a light heart still breaking into song:
+  Making a mock of life, and all its cares,
+    Rich in the glory of my rising sun,
+  Lightly I vaulted up four pair of stairs,
+    In the brave days when I was twenty-one.
+
+  Yes; 'tis a garret--let him know't who will--
+    There was my bed--full hard it was and small;
+  My table there--and I decipher still
+    Half a lame couplet charcoaled on the wall.
+  Ye joys, that Time hath swept with him away,
+    Come to mine eyes, ye dreams of love and fun;
+  For you I pawned my watch how many a day,
+    In the brave days when I was twenty-one.
+
+  And see my little Lizette, first of all;
+    She comes with pouting lips and sparkling eyes;
+  Behold, how roguishly she pins her shawl
+    Across the narrow easement, curtain-wise;
+  Now by the bed her petticoat glides down,
+    And when did woman look the worse in none?
+  I have heard since who paid for many a gown,
+    In the brave days when I was twenty-one.
+
+  One jolly evening, when my friends and I
+    Made happy music with our songs and cheers,
+  A shout of triumph mounted up thus high,
+    And distant cannon opened on our ears:
+  We rise,--we join in the triumphant strain,--
+    Napoleon conquers--Austerlitz is won--
+  Tyrants shall never tread us down again,
+    In the brave days when I was twenty-one.
+
+  Let us be gone--the place is sad and strange--
+    How far, far off, these happy times appear;
+  All that I have to live I'd gladly change
+    For one such month as I have wasted here--
+  To draw long dreams of beauty, love, and power,
+    From founts of hope that never will outrun,
+  And drink all life's quintessence in an hour,
+    Give me the days when I was twenty-one!
+
+It was the period of a new revival for French literature.
+
+[Sidenote: Reaction in southern Europe]
+
+In the other Latin countries, Spain, Portugal and Italy, the restoration of
+the old monarchies was not attended by like beneficent results. In Spain,
+the re-establishment of the Inquisition stifled free thought and free
+speech to such a degree that some of the most progressive Spaniards
+emigrated to the revolted Spanish dependencies in America. The return of
+Bourbon rule in Naples and Sicily was made odious by a general suppression
+of Freemasons and kindred secret societies.
+
+[Sidenote: Metternich's influence]
+
+[Sidenote: German Confederation established]
+
+[Sidenote: The Frankfort Diet]
+
+In the German States, similar measures of persecution were invoked against
+the student societies at the universities. The University of Erfurt was
+suspended. The Duke of Hesse, who had gained early notoriety by renting his
+subjects to foreign armies, now revived corporal punishment together with
+the stocks and other feudal institutions. In Wurtemberg serfdom was
+re-established. Throughout Germany the reactionary suggestions of Prince
+Metternich were carried into effect. A good opportunity for Metternich to
+assert his ascendency was presented by the first session of the new German
+Diet. Late in the year the delegates from all the States of the New
+Germanic Confederation met at Frankfort, Austria holding the permanent
+presidency. Count Buol von Schauenstein opened the Diet with a solemn
+address, which fell flat. First of all, it was settled that Hesse would
+have to cede a large part of Westphalia to Prussia. Next, the title of the
+Duke of Cambridge to rule as Regent in Hanover was fully recognized. In
+all resolutions relating to fundamental laws, the organic regulations of
+the Confederation, the _jura singulorum_ and matters of religion, unanimity
+was required. All the members of the Confederation bound themselves neither
+to enter into war nor into any foreign alliance against the Confederation
+or any of its members. The thirteenth article declared, "Each of the
+confederated States will grant a constitution to the people." The sixteenth
+placed all Christian sects on an equality. The eighteenth granted freedom
+of settlement within the Confederation, and promised "uniformity of
+regulation concerning the liberty of the press." The fortresses of
+Luxemburg, Mainz and Landau were declared common property and occupied in
+common by their troops. A fourth fortress was to be raised on the Upper
+Rhine with twenty millions of the French contribution money. This was never
+done. For future sessions of the Diet the votes were so regulated that the
+eleven States of first rank alone held a full vote, the secondary States
+merely holding a half or a fourth of a vote, as, for instance, all the
+Saxon duchies collectively, one vote; Brunswick and Nassau, one; the two
+Mecklenburgs, one; Oldenburg, Anhalt, and Schwartzburg, one; the petty
+princes of Hohenzollern, Lichtenstein, Reuss, Lippe, and Waldeck, one; all
+the free towns, one; forming altogether seventeen votes. In constitutional
+questions the six States of the highest rank were to have each four votes;
+the next five States each three; Brunswick, Schwerin, and Nassau, each two;
+and all the remaining princes each, one vote. This arrangement, as it
+turned out, proved fruitful of endless trouble.
+
+[Sidenote: Unfair representation]
+
+Austria and Prussia at that time contained forty-two million inhabitants;
+the rest of Germany merely twelve million. The power of the two predominant
+States, therefore, really were in proportion to that of the rest of Germany
+as seven to two, whereas their votes in the Diet stood merely as two to
+seventeen, and in the plenary assembly as two to fifteen.
+
+[Sidenote: Prussia predominant]
+
+Though Prussia had lost Hanover and East Friesland, she had received
+sufficient compensation still--thanks to Hardenberg's diplomacy--to start
+her on her future career as the predominant German State. Incorporated with
+the Prussian provinces now were half of Saxony, the Grandduchy of Posen, a
+portion of Westphalia, nearly all of the Lower Rhine region from Mainz to
+Aix-la-Chapelle, and Swedish Pomerania, for which Prussia paid some eight
+million thalers by way of indemnity.
+
+[Sidenote: Restoration of the Netherlands]
+
+In Holland, the new Stadtholder, Prince William Frederick of Orange-Nassau,
+having incorporated Belgium as an integral part of the kingdom of the
+Netherlands, set himself to nullify the French racial traits of his Belgian
+subjects. A suggestion of future strife on this score could already be
+found in Van der Palm's memorial on "The Restoration of the Netherlands,"
+published during this year.
+
+[Sidenote: England's commanding position]
+
+[Sidenote: Industrial depression]
+
+[Sidenote: Art and Letters]
+
+The final settlement of Napoleon's great upheaval of Europe left England
+feverish and exhausted. The prolonged financial strain of twenty years of
+war had saddled Great Britain with a national debt of eight hundred million
+pounds. Of material gain there was little to show but the acquisition of
+Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch; of the former French
+colony of Mauritius, and of a few West Indian islands. The continued
+possession of the Rock of Gibraltar, and of Malta, the old stronghold of
+the Knights of Malta, together with the British protectorate over the Ionic
+Isles, assured to England her commanding position in the Mediterranean. At
+home the pressure of the heavy taxes required to meet the financial
+legacies of the war was imbittered by the general distress of the country.
+The new tax on the importation of grains resulted in famine prices.
+Corresponding tariff restrictions abroad kept British markets overstocked
+with goods. Mills and factories had to be shut down, while at the same time
+the labor market was glutted with several hundred thousand discharged
+sailors and soldiers. The starving working people grew bitter in their
+opposition to new labor-saving devices. Thus the appearance of the first
+steamship on the Thames and of the earliest ships constructed of iron,
+followed shortly by Sir Francis Reynold's invention of an electric
+clock-work telegraph and by James Watt's introduction of stereo plates in
+book-printing, heightened this feeling. The resentment of laboring men
+found expression in riotous meetings at Manchester, Littleport and
+Nottingham. The movement spread to London. A great labor meeting was held
+there on the Spa fields. The favorite newspaper of the workingmen,
+Cobbett's radical "Two Penny Register," rivalled the London "Times" in
+power. In Parliament the leaders of the radical opposition grew ever more
+importunate. Not until the end of the year did matters mend. The most
+comforting sign of better times was a partial resumption of specie payments
+by the Bank of England, followed shortly by the opening of the first
+Savings Bank in London. Other memorable events of the year were the
+acquisition of the famous Elgin marbles from the Parthenon in Athens,
+celebrated in Keats's sonnet "On Seeing the Elgin Marbles," and the
+publication of Shelley's long poem "Alastor," and Leigh Hunt's "Story of
+Rimini." A diplomatic setback pregnant with future trouble was the
+dismissal of Lord Amherst, the British Ambassador at Pekin, for refusing to
+kow-tow to the Emperor of China.
+
+[Sidenote: Depression in America]
+
+[Sidenote: Financial relief measures]
+
+[Sidenote: Tariff _vs._ Free Trade]
+
+[Sidenote: Changes in New England]
+
+In America the depression of commerce and industry resulting from the war
+with England continued unabated. To relieve the situation, the Secretary of
+the Treasury, A.J. Dallas, proposed as a measure of relief the chartering
+of a new national bank with increased capital and enlarged powers and the
+readjustment of the tariff by the imposition of higher duties. The bank was
+chartered for twenty-one years with a capital of $35,000,000, a portion of
+the stock to be owned by the government and the institution to have in its
+management five government directors in a board of twenty-five. The tariff
+policy of Madison was sustained by the Southern party and opposed by the
+Federalists, especially in New England. Thus it became more a question of
+sectional interests than of abstract political economy. The capital of New
+England was invested in shipping, so that the exclusion of articles of
+foreign production was bound to injure, by a high tariff, New England's
+carrying trade. On its part, the South sought to establish a home market
+for its cotton--almost the only staple of the Gulf States. Efforts were
+made to encourage the domestic manufacture of those coarse fabrics which
+were indispensable in a slave-holding region. The question thus grew into a
+struggle between slave labor and free trade. The free-trade party was led
+by Daniel Webster, and the tariff party by Calhoun. During the first year
+of the new tariff the value of foreign imports fell off about thirty-two
+per cent. In the adjustment of capital and trade to an enforced industrial
+policy, the American people passed through a commercial crisis which
+paralyzed the flourishing sea-ports of the New England coast. Newburyport,
+Salem, Plymouth, New London, Newport, and intermediate places sank from
+lucrative commercial centres into insignificant towns. Manchester, Lowell,
+Fall River, Pawtucket, Waterbury and other New England cities on the other
+hand became great manufacturing places.
+
+The Fourteenth American Congress, under the leadership of Clay, imposed a
+protective tariff of about twenty-five per cent on imported cotton and
+woollen goods, with specific duties on coal and iron. The average duties on
+imports amounted almost to prohibition. Late in the year Indiana was
+admitted as the nineteenth State.
+
+[Sidenote: War with Florida Indians]
+
+The tranquillity of the end of Madison's administration was broken by new
+troubles with the southern Indians. General Jackson by his impulsive
+manner of dealing with the Indians of Florida nearly forced the United
+States into a war with Spain and England. The Indians had reason to
+complain of the injustice that had marked their treatment by the whites.
+Florida had become a refuge for runaway slaves from Georgia and South
+Carolina. The treaty of 1814 was repudiated by many of the Creeks, who
+resented the new settlements of the whites. Those who were most
+dissatisfied made common cause with the Seminoles. For a year, General
+Gaines, in command at the frontier, complained to the authorities at
+Washington of the conduct of the Indians and Spaniards. General Jackson, to
+whom the matter was referred, wrote to Gaines that the forts standing in
+Spanish territory "ought to be blown off the face of the earth, regardless
+of the ground they stand on." In July, a detachment of men and gunboats
+under Colonel Church advanced upon Fort Negro. A shot from one of the boats
+blew up the powder magazine. The fort was laid in ruins. Of the 324 inmates
+270 were killed. Most of the survivors were wounded.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Gouverneur Morris]
+
+During this year, the "Washington," the first American line-of-battle ship
+put to sea with seventy-four guns on her decks. The first American rolling
+mill and plant for puddling iron-ore were built at Red Stone Bank in
+Pennsylvania. Bishop Asbury, the founder of Methodism in the United States,
+preached his last sermon at Richmond, Virginia. During the same year he
+died at the age of seventy-one. Other noted Americans who died this year
+were Gouverneur Morris of New York, and Spaulding, the reputed author of
+the book of Mormon.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Miranda]
+
+[Sidenote: Independence of Argentine]
+
+Miranda, the South American revolutionist, expired on July 14, in a dungeon
+at Cadiz. A British officer who saw him shortly before his death, described
+him as "tied to a wall with a chain about his neck like a dog." Ever since
+his defeat and detention in Venezuela, his last years had been spent in
+captivity. He passed from prison to prison--now at San Carlos, now in Porto
+Rico, and finally in Spain. Miranda's failure to obtain grants of amnesty
+for Bolivar and his fellow rebels, when he came to terms with the Spanish
+general Monteverde, left him discredited with the patriots of South
+America. In the meanwhile, Miranda's friend, San Martin, was fighting in
+Chile and Peru for South American independence, and was aided in his
+struggle by Louis Beltran, an unfrocked friar. On July 9, the independence
+of Argentine was proclaimed. Pueyrredon was made President of the new
+republic. Paraguay, Uruguay and Bolivia established independent
+governments.
+
+[Sidenote: The struggle in Venezuela]
+
+After Miranda's defeat and the fall of Porto Cabello, Bolivar had fled to
+Curacoa. He enlisted a corps of refugees in Cartagena and headed an
+expedition into New Granada. There he rallied more revolutionists about
+him, and, capturing Madalena from the Spaniards, fought his way through to
+Caracas. He was welcomed there with extravagant demonstration as the
+"Savior of Venezuela." After one more victory on the field of Araure his
+star declined. The Spanish general, Boves, defeated him at La Puerta, and
+took a terrible vengeance on the patriots. The wounded and prisoners were
+killed on the field; the homes of all reputed rebels were burned to the
+ground; and the entire population of Aragua was massacred.
+
+[Sidenote: Spanish vengeance]
+
+[Sidenote: Bolivar's adventures]
+
+Montalvo, the Spanish War Minister, reported officially: "General Boves
+does not distinguish between the guilty and innocent--soldiers or
+non-combatants. All alike are killed for the crime of being born in
+America." Bolivar retired to New Granada and thence to Jamaica. An attempt
+to assassinate him there failed; for the negro cut-throat who had
+undertaken to murder Bolivar killed the wrong person. Bolivar crossed over
+to Hayti. There he raised a new expedition. A negro leader, Petion, then
+acting-governor of Hayti, helped him in this enterprise, and strongly
+advised him to proclaim the freedom of all slaves as the first step on
+landing in his country. "For, how can you free your country," said Petion,
+"if you don't free all the people in it?" Bolivar heeded his advice. With
+six ships and one hundred and fifty men, he set out to reconquer Venezuela
+from Spain. He landed at Margerita, where he had the good fortune to
+capture several Spanish ships. With them he returned to Santo Domingo for
+more men and ammunition. Petion furnished him with funds. Thus reinforced,
+Bolivar made a dash for Barcelona in Venezuela. The end of the struggle was
+at hand.
+
+
+
+
+1817
+
+
+[Sidenote: Return of Bolivar]
+
+[Sidenote: General Piar shot]
+
+[Sidenote: O'Higgins]
+
+[Sidenote: San Martin]
+
+Bolivar landed on the north coast of Venezuela on the first day of the new
+year. His landing place, Barcelona, was a small town at the foot of the
+Maritime Andes, so unprotected against attack that he resolved to leave it
+at once. He marched his force in the direction of Santa Fe in New Granada,
+hoping to push through to Peru. Marino and Piar, two insurgent leaders
+operating in the south, joined forces with Bolivar, and brought 1,200
+additional men. By the time their joint column had penetrated well into
+Orinoco, the three leaders were at odds with each other. Piar tried to
+incite revolt among his followers. Bolivar caused Piar to be seized, and
+after a drum-head trial had him shot. In the meanwhile a Spanish force had
+swooped down on Barcelona, and massacred the inhabitants. Things were at
+this pass when the standard of revolt was once more raised in Chile by
+Bernado O'Higgins. He was a natural son of Ambrosio, and had just returned
+from school in England. At the time the supreme command of the
+revolutionary forces was given to him this famous South American leader was
+still a young man, as was his chief lieutenant, MacKenna. By his clever
+handling of the campaigns that followed he won the title of "El Primer
+Soldado del Nuevo Mundo"--the first soldier of America. It was still at the
+outset of his career, in 1817, that help came to the Chileans from Buenos
+Ayres across the Andes. The man who brought this aid was San Martin.
+
+At Mendoza, on January 17, San Martin reviewed his little army of 5,000,
+all Gaucho horsemen, as lightly clad and provisioned as the Indians of the
+Pampas. The women of Mendoza presented the force with a flag bearing the
+emblem of the Sun. San Martin held the banner aloft, declaring it "the
+first flag of independence which had been blest in South America." This
+same flag was carried through all the wars along the Pacific Coast. And
+under its tattered shreds San Martin was finally laid to rest sixty years
+later.
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Chacabuco]
+
+[Sidenote: Acuoncagua]
+
+Marching from Mendoza, San Martin made a feint of crossing the Andes by way
+of Planchon, thereby inducing a Spanish column under Captain-General Marco
+del Ponte to concentrate at Talca. During the progress of these movements,
+San Martin and his followers crossed the mountains by the steep route of
+Putaendo and Cuevas. Three hundred miles of the stiffest mountain riding
+were covered in less than a fortnight. Early in February, San Martin's
+army, now barely 4,000 strong, descended upon Villa Nueva. On February 7,
+they fought their first battle on Chilean soil with the Spanish outposts at
+Chacabuco. Driving the Spaniards before him, San Martin, advanced into the
+plain, and presently joined forces with O'Higgins' infantry. New mounts
+were provided for the cavalry. At the strong post of Acuoncagua the
+Spaniards made a stand, but they were outnumbered by the insurgents. San
+Martin delivered a frontal attack, while O'Higgins outflanked the enemy
+with an impetuous charge, with the result that the whole Spanish force was
+routed beyond recovery. The officers fled to Valparaiso. By the middle of
+February, San Martin entered Santiago de Chile. A new republican junta was
+formed and complete independence of Spain was declared. O'Higgins assumed
+the position of dictator.
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Talca]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of the Maypo]
+
+[Sidenote: Liberation of Chile]
+
+All Chile was free now except in the south. General Ordonez, commanding the
+Spanish forces there, was defeated and fell back to Talcahuano. San Martin
+prepared to invade Peru. Anticipating such an attack, Abascal, the Spanish
+Viceroy of Peru, despatched Osorio with an expedition of 3,500 veterans,
+who had just arrived from Spain, to Talcahuano. As soon as these
+reinforcements came, Ordonez set out from Talcahuano with the vanguard to
+march on Santiago de Chile, and met the patriot forces near Talca. The
+revolutionists largely outnumbered the Spaniards, but were poorly
+disciplined and ill-provisioned. While they lost time the Spanish main
+column under Osorio came up. Ordonez took advantage of the clumsy
+manoeuvres of the revolutionists to drive a sharp attack between their
+two wings, piercing their centre. The battle was won after the first
+fifteen minutes. O'Higgins was wounded and had to be carried out of the
+fight. San Martin, with his right wing, fell back on San Fernando. With
+great difficulty O'Higgins managed to reach Santiago, where he was
+presently joined by San Martin. Steadily the Spanish column advanced on
+Santiago. The two revolutionary leaders by almost superhuman efforts
+succeeded in rallying and equipping a force of 5,000 defenders. On April 5,
+the Spanish army appeared before Santiago de Chile. Near the Maypo, nine
+miles from Santiago, the revolutionists took up a strong position. Osorio
+opened the battle about noon with artillery. Soon all the troops were
+engaged, the fiercest fight raging around a hacienda where San Martin and
+O'Higgins had their headquarters. Several times the ranch was lost and
+retaken. By sundown the Spaniards advanced all along the line. The battle
+seemed lost to the patriots. At this juncture, as the famous regiment of
+Burgos on the Spanish right was drawing in its deployed lines for a final
+column attack, Colonel O'Brien, at the head of the insurgent cavalry
+reserves, charged into the opening and overthrew the Burgos battalions.
+O'Higgins immediately charged the rest of the Spanish right wing, and San
+Martin simultaneously attacked in the centre. The whole Spanish army gave
+away. More than 2,000 Spaniards were killed and wounded. Osorio with his
+staff escaped to Peru. The victory of Santiago not only freed Chile, but
+left Peru open to the revolutionists.
+
+[Sidenote: Monroe's Presidency]
+
+In the United States of North America, during this interval, a new
+President had begun his administration. James Monroe was inaugurated as
+President in his fifty-ninth year. He had been a member of the Continental
+Congress, and at thirty-six a Minister to France. Under Madison he served
+as Secretary of War. Crawford, Calhoun, Meigs, Wirt and Rush were members
+of his Cabinet, and were all of the dominant Democratic-Republican party.
+Business throughout the country began to revive almost at once when the
+re-chartered National Bank went into operation in Philadelphia on the day
+of Monroe's inauguration.
+
+[Sidenote: "Era of good feeling"]
+
+In June, President Monroe undertook a three months' personal inspection of
+the military posts of the country. Passing through New York, Boston and
+Portland, and crossing New Hampshire and Vermont to Ogdensburg, he took a
+boat to Sackett's Harbor and Niagara. From there he went to Buffalo and
+Detroit, and returned to Washington. Everywhere the people greeted him by
+thousands. Monroe on this occasion wore the three-cornered hat,
+scarlet-bordered blue coat and buff breeches of the American Revolutionary
+army. The "Boston Journal" called the times the "Era of Good Feeling," and
+the expression has passed into American history as a characteristic of
+Monroe's entire administration.
+
+[Sidenote: Western prairies settled]
+
+It was an era notable for the extraordinary growth of the Western States.
+Settlers were encouraged to buy government land on the instalment plan, and
+the States refrained from levying taxes on these lands until years after
+the settlers had received their title deeds. Endless processions of prairie
+wagons passed through New York and Pennsylvania. On one turnpike alone,
+16,000 vehicles paid toll during the year. Pittsburg at this time had a
+population of 7,000 persons. The log cabin was the house of all, with its
+rough chimney, its greased paper in a single window, its door with latch
+and string, a plank floor and single room, corn husk brooms and its Dutch
+oven. In the newly broken ground corn and wheat were planted, which, when
+harvested, were thrashed with the flail and winnowed with a sheet. Little
+settlements sprang up here and there on the rolling prairie, with
+store-taverns, blacksmith shops and mills. This a thousand times repeated
+was seen in western New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and
+Michigan.
+
+[Sidenote: Steam navigation]
+
+[Sidenote: The Erie Canal]
+
+[Sidenote: "Thanatopsis"]
+
+During the same year the newly organized territory of Mississippi, formed
+from a division of Alabama, was admitted as the twentieth State to the
+Union. The first line of steam propelled ocean packets was organized to run
+between New York and Liverpool. In the western frontier town of St. Louis
+the first steamboat made its appearance. On July 4, ground was broken for
+the Erie Canal, which was to connect the city of New York with the great
+inland waters. On the strength of this progressive achievement De Witt
+Clinton became a candidate for the governorship of New York. Among other
+notable events of this year were the foundation of the New York State
+Library, Gallaudet's foundation of the first school for the deaf and dumb
+at Hartford, and the establishment of the earliest theological seminaries
+of the Episcopal Church in America, as well as of the first Unitarian
+Divinity School at Harvard. William Cullen Bryant, barely come of age,
+published his master work, "Thanatopsis," in the "North American Review."
+
+[Sidenote: Stenography]
+
+[Sidenote: German liberalism]
+
+[Sidenote: The Wartburg festival]
+
+[Sidenote: European courts alarmed]
+
+[Sidenote: Advances in scholarship]
+
+[Sidenote: African missionary work]
+
+In other parts of the world, likewise, the return of peace was followed by
+a general advance in culture and civilization. Shortly after the
+re-establishment of the American National Bank, Canada followed suit with
+government banks at Montreal and Quebec. Hanka, in Bohemia, claimed to have
+discovered the famous medieval lyrics of Rukopis Kralodvorsky written at
+the end of the thirteenth century. Across the border in Poland the new
+University of Cracow began its career. In Munich, Franz Gabelsberger
+invented the first working system of shorthand, which, in a perfected form,
+is still in use in Germany. During this year common school education took
+an immense stride in Germany, after the establishment in Prussia of a
+distinct Ministry for Public Education. Unfortunately the government soon
+came into conflict with the bolder spirits at the universities. By reason
+of the more liberal privileges allowed to it by the Duke of Weimar, the
+University of Jena took the lead in the national Teutonic agitation
+inaugurated by Fichte. On October 18, the students of Jena, aided by
+delegates from all the student fraternities of Protestant Germany, held a
+festival at Eisenach to celebrate the three-hundredth anniversary of the
+Reformation. It was also the anniversary of the battle of Leipzig. Five
+hundred ardent young men, among them scholars who had fought at Leipzig,
+Ligny and Waterloo, assembled in the halls of Luther's Wartburg Castle.
+They sang and drank, and fraternized with the members of the militia of
+Eisenach. In the evening they had a torchlight procession and lighted a
+huge bonfire on the hill opposite the castle. In imitation of Martin
+Luther's burning of the Pope's Bull they consigned a number of their pet
+aversions to the flames. Thus they burned a soldier's straight-jacket and
+corporal's cane, as well as a recent pamphlet by one Schmalz written in
+defense of the old Prussian bureaucracy. Rash words were uttered about the
+broken faith of princes. They were aimed at King Frederick William of
+Prussia, who had promised to give his country a constitution, but had
+failed to keep his word. The Wartburg festival, childish as it was in many
+of its manifestations, created singular alarm throughout Germany and
+elsewhere. The King of Prussia sent his Prime Minister, Hardenberg, to
+Weimar to make a thorough investigation of the affair. Richelieu, the Prime
+Minister of France, wrote from Paris whether another revolution was
+breaking out; and Metternich insisted that the Duke of Weimar should
+curtail the liberties of his subjects. The heavy hand of reaction fell upon
+all German universities. German scholars were compelled to turn their
+interests from public affairs to pure science and scholarship, to the
+benefit of German learning. The study of history and archeology took an
+upward turn with Brentano's publication of old German ballads and
+Lachmann's original version of the Nibelungen songs. At this time an
+Italian archeologist, Belzoni, was adding new chapters to ancient history
+by his original researches in Egypt, which resulted in the removal of the
+Colossus of Memnon to Alexandria, and in the opening of the great Cephren
+pyramid. In distant South Africa the first English missionaries began their
+labors among the blacks. Although the Governor of Natal at first refused to
+permit Robert Moffat, the first Wesleyan missionary in those parts, to
+disturb the Kaffirs with his preachings, Moffat pressed on undismayed and
+soon established a mission beyond the Orange River.
+
+[Sidenote: Green Bag inquiry]
+
+[Sidenote: Manchester Blanketers]
+
+[Sidenote: Dissatisfaction in England]
+
+In England, industrial depression dragged on. Early in the year riots broke
+out in London on the opening of Parliament. While driving to the House of
+Lords, the Prince Regent, now grown thoroughly unpopular on account of the
+scandals with his wife, was hooted by a crowd in St. James's Park. The
+police claimed that an air gun had been discharged at the Prince and made
+an attack on the crowd. A number of persons were injured. This was followed
+in February by the great Green Bag Inquiry, when Lord Sidmouth laid before
+Parliament a green bag full of reports concerning seditions. Bills were
+introduced to suspend the habeas corpus act and to provide for the coercion
+of public meetings. Seditious publications were likewise to be suppressed.
+In March occurred the rising of the so-called Blanketers in
+Manchester--dissatisfied workingmen who started in a body for London
+carrying blanket rolls and other necessaries. Their march was stopped by
+the military. In April, seven members of the so-called society of Luddites
+were hanged at Leicester for breaking labor-saving machinery. Shortly
+afterward eighteen persons were hanged for forging notes on the Bank of
+England. It was found that since the redemption of specie payments no less
+than 17,885 forged notes had been presented. Nearly two hundred persons
+were apprehended and tried in court for this offence. Shortly afterward
+another insurrection which broke out in Derbyshire, and which was led by
+Jeremiah Brandrett, was suppressed by soldiers.
+
+[Sidenote: "The Revolt of Islam"]
+
+[Sidenote: "Lalla Rookh"]
+
+[Sidenote: John Keats]
+
+[Sidenote: "Blackwood's"]
+
+While the working classes of England and Ireland were thus struggling
+against their miseries, English literature shone forth in new splendor.
+Shelley brought out his "Revolt of Islam" and Tom Moore published his
+"Lalla Rookh." John Keats at the age of barely twenty-one published his
+first poems. The volume attracted little attention. The appearance of
+Blackwood's new magazine in Edinburgh, on the other hand, was hailed as an
+event in English letters.
+
+[Sidenote: French letters]
+
+[Sidenote: Beranger]
+
+In France, likewise, the return of peace gave a new lease of life to
+literature. The French Academy was reorganized to consist of forty members,
+who were elected for life, and who were to be regarded as "the highest
+authority on questions relating to language, grammar, rhetoric, poetry and
+the publication of the French classics." Chateaubriand was the Academy's
+foremost member. Beranger on the other hand, albeit his lyrics had reached
+the height of their popularity, fell into official disfavor by reason of
+his glorification of Napoleonic times, as exemplified in his ballads "La
+Vivandiere," "La Cocarde Blanche," or "Le Juge de Charenton." The last
+poem, with its veiled allusions to the Lavalette episode, was made the
+subject of an interpellation in the Chamber of Deputies. While this was
+still pending further offence was given by the publication of Beranger's
+satirical piece on "The Holy Alliance." Beranger had to give up his
+position as secretary at the University of France, and was soon afterward
+arrested among his boon companions at Madame Saguet's near Le Moulin Vert.
+He was placed on trial for the alleged blasphemies committed in his song
+"Le Dieu des Bonnes Gens," and condemned to spend three months in prison
+and to pay a heavy fine.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Madame de Stael]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Massena]
+
+Other literary events of the year were the publication of Beyle's "Lives of
+Mozart and Haydn"; the performance of Scribe's early plays, and the death
+of Madame de Stael, which occurred on July 14. This gifted daughter of
+Necker had not been allowed to return to France until after the fall of
+Napoleon. Her last work was a treatise of the Constitutional Government,
+entitled "Considerations sur les Principaux Evenements de la Revolution
+Francaise," and published posthumously by her long time German companion
+and adviser, Schlegel. Marshal Massena died during the same year. His
+funeral was attended with imposing military honors rendered him by his old
+followers and comrades-in-arms, who recalled the triumphs of Rivoli,
+Essling, and a score of other victories in which this famous warrior had
+borne the brunt of the fighting.
+
+[Sidenote: Wachabite rebellion]
+
+[Sidenote: Seminole war]
+
+This year would have been one of peace, the first since the outbreak of the
+French Revolution, but for another uprising of the Wachabites in Arabia
+under the standard of Tourkee and the re-occurrence of North American
+Indian troubles. A year had passed after the destruction of Fort Negro in
+Florida before the whites found a pretext for another attack. King Natchez
+was accused of receiving fugitive negroes, and he replied: "I have no
+negroes.... I shall use force to stop any armed American from passing my
+lands or my towns." The Seminoles looked with alarm on the new forts of the
+United States. At Fowltown, on Flint River, the Indians, in November, put
+up a war pole, and the chief warned Colonel Meigs in command at Fort Scott
+not to cross the Flint River. Gaines reached the place with some regular
+troops and volunteers, and Twiggs, with 250 men, moved upon the town,
+killed some of the people and burned the village. The revenge of the
+Seminoles was swift and bloody. Settlers were massacred and the property of
+the whites within reach of the Indians was destroyed. Over 2,700 Seminoles
+took the field. General Jackson assumed command on the day after Christmas.
+He declared that so long as the Spaniards held Florida the trouble would
+continue.
+
+[Sidenote: Pindaree war]
+
+[Sidenote: Treaty of Toona]
+
+About the same time the British in India were plunged into further wars
+with the natives. First the Pindarees sent out plundering bands from Malwa.
+To suppress them, Lord Hastings had to collect an army of 120,000, the
+largest force yet mustered in India. From Madras, four army divisions under
+Sir Thomas Hislop crossed the Nerbudda, and drove the Pindarees toward
+Bengal. By the great number of his remaining troops Lord Hastings overawed
+the neighboring rulers, Peishwa Sindia of the Mahratta, Ameer Khan, Holkar
+and Runjit Singh of the Punjab. Peishwa Baji Rao was compelled to sign a
+treaty of neutrality at Toona. In October, thereupon, Lord Hastings left
+Cawnpore and crossed the Jumna. The Pindarees were routed in a series of
+swift-fought engagements. One of their chieftains, Khurin, gave himself up
+with his whole household, while another, Chetu, was killed by a tiger while
+hiding in the jungle.
+
+[Sidenote: Mahratta war]
+
+The Peishwa of the Mahrattas, who was biding his time until the British
+forces should withdraw from his dominions, grew impatient and threatened
+open war. To appease him a newly arrived British regiment was withdrawn
+from Toona to Khirki, a village about four miles from the British
+Residency. This concession only encouraged the Peishwa to further
+resistance.
+
+[Sidenote: Hindu Blondin]
+
+[Sidenote: Outbreak of Poonah]
+
+[Sidenote: Flight of Baji Rao]
+
+The Mahratta war opened with a romantic incident. Trimbukji Dainglia, one
+of the favorites of the Peishwa, was held closely confined by the English
+at Thanna for his share in the murder of one of Baji Rao's enemies. Before
+the outbreak of hostilities the Mahrattas managed to get word to him of
+what was coming. A native groom in the service of one of the British
+officers passed the window of the prisoner every day leading his master's
+horses. As he did so he trolled a native song the purport of which the
+British guards neither understood nor suspected. It has thus been
+translated by Bishop Heber:
+
+  Behind the bush the bowmen hide
+    The horse beneath the tree.
+  Where shall I find a chief to ride
+    The jungle paths with me?
+
+  There are five-and-fifty horses there,
+    And four-and-fifty men;
+  When the fifty-fifth shall mount his steed,
+    The Dekhan thrives again.
+
+A few days after this Trimbukji Dainglia was missing. He had broken a bar
+from its setting, scaled the wall, and joined a party of horsemen lying in
+wait. With them he fled to the jungles of Kanderish. Just before the
+outbreak of hostilities a British officer thought he recognized him at
+Poonah. On November 5, the British Resident, Elphinstone, left Poonah to
+inspect the forces at Khirki. On that same day the Mahrattas burned
+Elphinstone's house and rich Sanskrit library. Baji Rao attacked the
+military post Khirki with 26,000 men, but was repulsed with a loss of five
+hundred. The British immediately despatched an army under General Smith for
+Poonah. On November 15, they prepared for a general attack on the morrow,
+but in the night Baji Rao fled from Poonah. Thus he surrendered his
+dominions without a blow.
+
+Appa Sahib, the Rajah of Nagpore, meanwhile had made common cause with Baji
+Rao. On the evening of November 24, he brought up his forces and attacked
+the British Residency at Nagpore. The resulting battle of Sitaboldi is
+famous in Hindu annals. As Wheeler, the historian of British India,
+describes it:
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Sitaboldi]
+
+"The English had no European regiment, as they had at Khirki; they had
+scarcely fourteen hundred Sepoys fit for duty, including three troops of
+Bengal cavalry, and only four six-pounders. Appa Sahib had an army of
+eighteen thousand men, including four thousand Arabs, the best soldiers in
+the Dekhan; he had also thirty-six guns. The battle lasted from six o'clock
+in the evening of the 26th of November until noon the next day. For many
+hours the English were in sore peril; their fate seemed to hang upon a
+thread. The Arabs were beginning to close round the Residency, when a happy
+stroke of British daring changed the fortunes of the day. Captain
+Fitzgerald, who commanded the Bengal cavalry, was posted in the Residency
+compound and was anxious to charge the Arabs; but he was forbidden. Again
+he implored permission, but was told to charge at his peril. 'On my peril
+be it!' cried Fitzgerald. Clearing the inclosures, the Bengal cavalry bore
+down upon the enemy's horse, captured two guns, and cut up a body of
+infantry. The British Sepoys hailed the exploit with loud huzzahs, and
+seeing the explosion of one of the enemy's tumbrels, rushed down the hill,
+driving the Arabs before them. The victory was won, but the English had
+lost a quarter of their number."
+
+  [Illustration: LAST MOMENTS OF MAXIMILIAN
+    Painted by J. Paul Laurens
+    From Carbon Print by Braun, Clement & Co., N.Y.]
+
+[Sidenote: Appa Sahib's escape]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Nahidpore]
+
+[Sidenote: Defence of Korygaun]
+
+[Sidenote: End of Mahratta rule]
+
+Appa Sahib surrendered himself and was placed under arrest. Presently he
+made good his escape and found a refuge with the Rajah of Jodhpur. In
+Holkar's State of Indore affairs ran in a similar groove. The Regent Mother
+showed herself inclined to come to an agreement with the British marching
+northward under Sir Thomas Hislop. But the Mahratta chiefs were bent on
+war, and murdered the Regent Mother. A battle, henceforth, was unavoidable.
+Already the British supply train had been plundered by the Mahrattas. The
+battle was fought on December 21, at Nahidpore. On each occasion Sir John
+Malcolm commanded the British troops and won a complete victory. All the
+Hindu guns and swords fell into British hands. Then came the heroic defence
+of Korygaun, still celebrated in British Indian annals. A detachment of
+Bombay Sepoys and native cavalry, under the command of Captain Staunton and
+ten English officers, in all 800 men with two guns, were caught unawares by
+the Peishwa's army of 30,000 Mahratta Gosains. Captain Staunton's force
+intrenched itself in the village of Korygaun and prepared for the worst.
+The Mahrattas completely surrounded the place and the defenders were cut
+off from all water and supplies. Then came a succession of fierce rushes by
+the Mahratta horse and foot, every one of which had to be fought off in
+desperate hand-to-hand encounters. Of the ten white officers eight were
+killed; besides them Staunton lost one-third of his Sepoys. The Mahrattas
+left 600 on the field. To the present day the exploit is celebrated in the
+songs and stories of the Dekhan. The Peishwa witnessed the long fight from
+a neighboring hill, and was beside himself when his discouraged troops
+refused to renew the battle. After this Baji Rao could no longer hold his
+army together. By the close of the year his forces were dispersed. It was
+the end of Mahratta rule in the Dekhan.
+
+
+
+
+1818
+
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Ashti]
+
+[Sidenote: Baji Rao's surrender]
+
+Peace was re-established in India shortly after New Year's day. Lord
+Hastings would stop at nothing but the absolute deposition of the Peishwa.
+He had long resolved to reduce Baji Rao to the condition of Napoleon at St.
+Helena. Accordingly, he delivered the Rajah of Satara from the thraldom of
+generations, and assigned to him sufficient territory for support. This
+done he set himself to hunt down the deposed Peishwa. For several months
+Baji Rao remained at large. He made a feeble stand at Ashti, but fled at
+the first shot, leaving his army to be defeated by General Smith. It was on
+this occasion that the Rajah of Satara fell into English hands. Later in
+the year Baji Rao was surrounded by British troops, under the command of
+Sir John Malcolm. No alternative was left him but to die or give up. The
+terms offered by Malcolm were so liberal as to excite astonishment in
+Europe. While the great Napoleon was condemned to spend his remaining days
+on a mere pittance at St. Helena, this most cowardly of Indian princes was
+allowed to live in luxury near Cawnpore, on a yearly grant of L80,000. His
+friend Trimbukji Dainglia, however, when captured, was condemned to close
+confinement in the fortress of Chunar.
+
+[Sidenote: Lord Hastings' Indian policy]
+
+The remains of the Holkar states were permitted to endure, nor would
+Hastings sanction the proposed dethronement of the family of Jaswant Rao.
+Holkar was merely required to seize certain territories, and to confirm the
+grants already made to Ameer Khan. From a sovereign principality the land
+was reduced to a subsidiary state under British guarantee. Otherwise the
+infant Mulhar, Rao Holkar, was treated as an independent prince and his
+administration was left in the hands of a native Durbar, aided by the
+British Resident. The policy of Lord Hastings, although severely criticised
+in England, must be pronounced a success in the light of later events. From
+the suppression of the Pindarees and the extinction of the Peishwa in 1818,
+down to the days of the great mutiny, no serious attempt was made to
+overthrow British suzerainty by means of an armed confederation of native
+states.
+
+In some respects the administration of Lord Hastings marks a new era in the
+history of India. Hastings was the first Governor-General who encouraged
+the education of the native population. Early in his administration he
+denounced the maxim of his predecessors, that native ignorance would insure
+the security of British rule, as an utterly unworthy and futile doctrine.
+Accordingly, he promoted the establishment of native schools and
+publications.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Warren Hastings]
+
+[Sidenote: Hastings' career]
+
+The affairs of India were kept before the British public by the renewed
+discussion that followed the death of Lord Hastings' great namesake, Warren
+Hastings. It was due to the scandals of Warren Hastings' career in India,
+and his famous impeachment toward the close of the previous century, that
+the administrative reforms and modern rule in India were inaugurated during
+the nineteenth century. This reform began with the act, known at Pitt's
+Bill, by which the British Crown assumed supreme authority over the civil
+and military administration of the affairs in India by the British East
+India Company. Henceforward, no alliances could be formed with any native
+prince without the express sanction of Parliament. This act arose directly
+out of Warren Hastings' confession that he had accepted a present of a
+hundred thousand pounds from Asof-Ud-Daula. Warren Hastings' record, though
+he was ultimately acquitted, was lastingly besmirched by his dubious
+monetary transactions, and it was for this reason that William Pitt refused
+to recommend him for the peerage, or for honorable employment under the
+British Crown. Yet he was the greatest statesman that ever ruled India. His
+overthrow of the French in India, of the first Mahratta rising, and of the
+formidable rebellion of Hyder Ali, are among the greatest achievements of
+British colonial extension. The disgrace of Warren Hastings was a great
+event in English history, but it made no impression on the people in India.
+They only knew him as one of the greatest of conquerors and their
+deliverer. Philip Francis, who brought about Hastings' downfall, so far
+from supplanting him, is remembered now only as the probable author of the
+anonymous "Letters of Junius."
+
+[Sidenote: Ross' and Franklin's Expeditions]
+
+[Sidenote: "Frankenstein"]
+
+[Sidenote: "Endymion"]
+
+[Sidenote: Macadam roads]
+
+[Sidenote: Invention of Velocipede]
+
+Besides the death of Warren Hastings, several other notable events
+preoccupied the attention of Englishmen. During this year Sir John Ross
+sailed north to discover a northwest passage. Another relief expedition
+under Lieutenant Franklin, which had sailed after him, resulted only in
+failure. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley published her curious novel
+"Frankenstein," and John Keats brought out his long poem "Endymion," for
+which he was violently assailed by the critics, notably by Jeffries, of
+"Blackwood's Magazine." Shelley, Moore, Hunt, and eventually Byron, warmly
+took his part. In the meanwhile a number of industrial reforms were
+introduced in England. Infant schools were first thrown open during this
+year, and steam was first used for heating purposes. A company in Edinburgh
+undertook to light the streets with gas. John Loudon Macadam's new system
+of road building was successfully introduced. In France similar strides
+were made in industrial progress. Joseph Nicephore Niepce invented his
+velocipede. The kindred invention of the "draisine," or dandy-horse was
+patented for Baron Drais of Sauerbron. These inventions contained the germ
+of the modern bicycle.
+
+[Sidenote: Congress of Aachen]
+
+[Sidenote: Czar Alexander aroused]
+
+The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, consisting of the sovereigns of Russia,
+Austria and Prussia, aided by ministers of Great Britain and France, signed
+a convention for the withdrawal of the army of occupation from France, and
+for the reception of France into the European concert. For other countries
+the deliberations of this Congress were not so beneficent. Since the Polish
+Diet in the spring, when Alexander had promised to give all Russia a
+constitutional government, a change of spirit had come over the Czar. This
+change has been explained by the revelation of a military conspiracy
+against his person. At all events, Alexander appeared at Aix-la-Chapelle
+with the most reactionary proposals. Up to this time Metternich, the
+inveterate foe of liberalism, had found in the Czar his most formidable
+opponent. Now the Czar distributed among his fellow sovereigns a pamphlet
+written by one Stourdza, which described Germany as on the brink of
+revolution, and blamed the universities and public press. Metternich
+instantly took his cue from the Czar. Before the end of the conference he
+delivered to the King of Prussia and to Hardenberg two papers containing
+his recommendations for the management of Prussian affairs. Frederick
+William was warned against giving his people a national parliament. After
+the example of the Czar, Metternich inveighed against the universities and
+the press.
+
+[Sidenote: Metternich's sentiments]
+
+"The revolutionists," he said, "despairing of attaining their end
+themselves, have formed the settled plan of educating the next generation
+for revolution. The high school establishment is a preparatory school for
+university disorders. The university seizes the youth as he leaves boyhood,
+and gives him a revolutionary training. This mischief is common to all
+Germany, and must be checked by joint action of the governments. Gymnasia
+(high schools), on the contrary, were first invented at Berlin. For these,
+palliative measures are no longer sufficient; it has become a duty of
+State for the King of Prussia to destroy the evil. The whole institution in
+every shape must be closed and uprooted."
+
+[Sidenote: Prussian reaction]
+
+The reactionary policy outlined in these papers became the guiding star of
+King Frederick William of Prussia. They outline the history of what
+actually was carried out in Prussia during the succeeding generation.
+
+[Sidenote: Misgovernment in Spain]
+
+It was not only in Germany that the new spirit of liberalism gave concern
+to the members of the Holy Alliance. In Spain it appeared in a more
+dangerous form, since it was espoused there by the military class.
+Ferdinand's misgovernment of Spain had soon resulted in an empty treasury,
+in consequence of which soldiers and sailors received no pay for several
+years. Military revolts were instituted by General Mina, and by Porliar and
+Lacy at this period; but they failed through the indifference of the
+soldiers themselves. The government's attempt to offset the numerous
+desertions from the army by seizing and enrolling some 60,000 beggars in
+military service, proved a complete failure. Napoleon's prediction to
+Rear-Admiral Cockburn that Spain was doomed to lose all her colonies was
+reaching fulfilment in America.
+
+[Sidenote: Defection of Spanish colonies]
+
+Amelia Island, at the mouth of the St. Mary's River in Florida, had long
+been the resort of lawless men, among whom were European adventurers
+attracted by the South American revolution, and many fugitive slaves from
+Georgia and South Carolina. A plan was formed to organize a revolution on
+that island and to add Florida to the revolting South American republics.
+The forces gathered there became too strong for the Spaniards, and
+President Monroe decided to interfere. Gaines was sent to Amelia Island;
+but before he arrived, Aury, the commander of the malcontents, had
+surrendered to Commodore Henley. General Jackson, who was operating in
+those parts against the Seminoles, declared that "the cause of the United
+States must be carried to any point within the limits of Florida where an
+enemy is permitted to be protected." All eastern Florida, he set forth to
+the President, should be seized when Amelia Island was taken, and should be
+held as an indemnity for the outrages of Spain upon American citizens. This
+plan, Jackson said, could be carried out without implicating the United
+States. "Let it be signified to me that the province of Florida would be
+desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished."
+
+[Sidenote: Andrew Jackson in Florida]
+
+[Sidenote: Summary military measures]
+
+[Sidenote: Pensacola occupied]
+
+When the order to assume command reached Jackson, he raised a volunteer
+force in Tennessee from among his old soldiers. With these and the troops
+left by Gaines he marched into Florida. On the site of the Negro fort he
+built Fort Gadsden. He then advanced to the Bay of St. Marks, defeating the
+few Seminoles whom he encountered. On April 7, he raised the American flag
+there in place of the standard of Spain. Two Seminole chiefs who had taken
+refuge on an American vessel in the bay, and who were supposed to have
+participated in the massacre of a party of Americans, were brought on shore
+and hanged. Leaving a strong garrison at St. Marks, Jackson marched a
+hundred miles to the Indian town of Suwanee, where he hoped to capture
+Billy Bowlegs and his band. But the Indians, warned of his approach,
+escaped across the river. Suwanee was destroyed. Jackson, when at St.
+Marks, had taken prisoner one Arbuthnot, a Scotchman and supposed Indian
+sympathizer, whom he ordered to be confined until his return. At Suwanee,
+Captain Ambrister, a former English officer, intending to join the Indians,
+blundered into Jackson's camp, and was held a prisoner. On his return,
+Jackson ordered the two men to be tried by court-martial, on the charge of
+warning the Indians of the approach of the American soldiers, and both were
+convicted and executed. Jackson, on reaching Fort Gadsden, received from
+the Spanish Governor of Pensacola a protest against his invasion. He turned
+back, occupied Pensacola, and took the Fort of Carrios De Barrancas, to
+which the governor had fled.
+
+[Sidenote: Jackson unrebuked]
+
+[Sidenote: An amicable settlement]
+
+When the news of Jackson's course reached Washington, Congress engaged in a
+heated debate over his occupation of the forts of a friendly power. In
+defending himself Jackson wrote that the Secretary of War had given him
+full power to conduct the campaign in the manner which seemed best. Spain,
+he claimed, had failed to fulfil that article of the treaty by which she
+was bound to restrain the Florida Indians from hostilities. Popular feeling
+proved too strong for Congress to assert its privileges as the sole
+war-making power. Jackson was not even rebuked for his course. During all
+those months, Onis, the Spanish Minister, and Adams were in negotiation
+over a treaty, which was not ratified until two years later. Florida was to
+be ceded to the United States on a payment of $5,000,000, to be applied in
+satisfying the claims of American citizens against Spain. The Sabine River,
+instead of the Rio Grande, was made the dividing line between the United
+States and Spanish territory. The line was to run from the mouth of the
+Sabine to the 32d parallel, thence north to the Red River and along it to
+the 100th meridian, thence north to the Arkansas and along that river to
+its source on the 42d parallel, and thence west to the Pacific. War with
+Spain was thus averted.
+
+[Sidenote: The slavery issue]
+
+While the Florida question was under consideration, there arose another far
+more momentous to America. Free labor in the North and slave labor in the
+South were brought squarely face to face. Slave labor was fast rising in
+value. The new lands of the lower Mississippi opened a vast field for the
+employment of slaves in the production of cotton, sugar and tobacco. It was
+believed the extension of slavery into that new territory would save it
+from gradual extinction. The interstate traffic in slaves was viewed with
+abhorrence by many leading men in the South. John Randolph, while upholding
+slavery, denounced the traffic that was carried on in the Southern
+plantations. On the other hand it was seen that compromise would be of
+little value if the North only was to be permitted to increase its power by
+the admission of new States. New slave States as well were demanded by the
+Southerners.
+
+[Sidenote: Contention over Missouri]
+
+In March, the citizens of Missouri had asked permission to form a State
+constitution and to be admitted into the Union. It was tacitly understood
+that slavery might be carried into territory east of the Mississippi
+belonging originally to the existing slave States. But Louisiana, west of
+the Mississippi, belonged to the whole of the United States rather than to
+any one of the several States. The question now arose whether Congress
+should establish slavery anew in territory of the United States. The
+alternative was presented to the people of the North whether to submit to
+the demands of the South or to consent to a dissolution of the Union.
+Though represented by a majority in Congress, the Northern States were
+defeated after a long struggle. John Quincy Adams doubted if Congress,
+under the American Constitution, had the right to prohibit slavery in a
+territory where it already existed. "If a dissolution of the Union should
+result from the slave question," he wrote, "it is obvious that it must
+shortly afterward be followed by a universal emancipation of the slaves."
+
+[Sidenote: American Pension system inaugurated]
+
+[Sidenote: Oregon in dispute]
+
+During this same year Congress first granted pensions to needy veterans of
+the Revolutionary War and soon afterward to the widows and children of dead
+soldiers. Thus began the system of American pension legislation for former
+American soldiers which was destined to grow to such gigantic proportions
+in later years. Up to that time the number of stripes in the American flag
+had been eighteen. Now a bill was approved reducing the number of stripes
+to thirteen, the number of original States comprising the Union. The
+number of stars was to be made equal to that of the States. Soon afterward,
+the new flag, with twenty stars in its quartering, was first raised over
+the halls of Congress. Shortly after this the Fifteenth Congress adjourned.
+On October 20, a convention with Great Britain was signed respecting
+fisheries and boundaries, giving to Americans the right to fish in
+Newfoundland waters and renewing the agreement of 1815, making the 49th
+parallel the boundary between the United States and British North America.
+The convention also provided for the joint occupation of Oregon for ten
+years longer.
+
+The glossy finish to leather known as "patent" leather was first patented
+in this year. Another notable invention of the time was the process of
+engraving on soft steel.
+
+[Sidenote: Illinois a State]
+
+The second session of the American Congress was not called until late in
+the year. Illinois was then admitted as the twenty-first State of the
+Union.
+
+
+
+
+1819
+
+
+[Sidenote: Florida ceded by Spain]
+
+[Sidenote: Southern Indians dispossessed]
+
+[Sidenote: Alabama a state]
+
+Early in the year Andrew Jackson was called to Washington. He was the hero
+of the day. When he visited New York he was received with public honors. On
+February 22, a treaty with Spain was adopted by which she surrendered all
+claims to Florida and ceded West Florida. The cost of the war to the United
+States had been forty million dollars. The year was marked by the enforced
+retirement of large bodies of the Cherokees from Georgia to the
+Mississippi. The Cherokees as well as the Creeks, the Choctaws and the
+Chickasaws were greatly perturbed at the prospect of their final removal
+from the land which the United States had guaranteed to them. Partly as a
+result of these changes, the Territory of Alabama was admitted to the Union
+as the twenty-second State.
+
+[Sidenote: The Missouri problem]
+
+There were now eleven free and eleven slave States; and serious opposition
+arose to the admission of Missouri. In February, the first bill was
+introduced in the House for the admission of that Territory. James
+Tallmadge, Jr., of New York, proposed that there should be no personal
+servitude in the State except by those already held as slaves, and that
+these should be manumitted within a certain period. This proposition he
+modified by moving an amendment providing that the introduction of slavery
+should be prohibited, but that those already slaves in Missouri should
+remain so, and that the children of such slaves should be liberated upon
+reaching the age of twenty-five. The proposition to hold in slavery a
+generation yet unborn was fiercely resented. The two Houses did not agree,
+and the question went over to another year. The South presented an unbroken
+and unyielding front. Caleb of Georgia said that this attempt to interfere
+with slavery was "destructive of the peace and harmony of the union"; that
+those who proposed it "were kindling a fire which all the waters of the
+ocean could not extinguish. It could be extinguished only in blood."
+
+[Sidenote: Antagonism to slavery]
+
+[Sidenote: Maine _vs._ Missouri]
+
+The Missouri question having been left for the next session, the cognate
+issue concerning a government for the Arkansas country south of parallel
+33 deg. 30' was taken up. In both Houses an amendment to prohibit slavery was
+lost. As a compromise a representative from Delaware suggested a division
+of the Western Territory between the free and slave States. The contest was
+renewed at the December session. Resolutions of Northern Legislatures
+condemning the placing of slavery under the national government were
+presented, and were treated with contempt by the Southern statesmen.
+Senator Mason of North Carolina said: "They may philosophize at town
+meetings about it as much as they please, but they know nothing about the
+question." In the House the matter was brought up in the same form as in
+the previous session. James W. Taylor of New York presented an amendment
+prohibiting slavery, but holding in bondage those who were already slaves.
+He kept this point clearly in view through the debate that followed.
+Finally the bill was passed by a vote of 91 to 82, the prohibitory
+amendment being adopted by a majority of eight. The bill for the admission
+of Missouri was attached to that for the admission of Maine. The suggestion
+of this stratagem was made on the 20th of December by Henry Clay, who
+declared that he did "not mean to give his consent to the admission of
+Maine, so long as the doctrine was upheld of annexing conditions to the
+admission of States beyond the mountains." The analogy was scarcely just.
+Under the Constitution the right was absolute; Maine was a part of the
+original thirteen States of the Republic. The problem respecting Missouri
+was radically different, and resolved itself into the question whether
+Congress, under the American Constitution, had the right to create a new
+State out of the purchased territory, and to admit it to the Union without
+a republican form of government. Clay's threat was improved upon. The
+judiciary committee reported the House bill for the admission of Maine,
+adding an amendment for the admission of Missouri. Roberts of Pennsylvania
+moved to amend the amendment by prohibiting slavery in Missouri, but his
+motion was rejected by a majority of eleven (including six Senators from
+free States). A motion to make the admission of Maine a separate question
+was also defeated. The two Houses now stood directly opposed to each other.
+The Representatives would not retreat from their decision to prohibit
+slavery in Missouri; the Senate was equally determined that Missouri should
+be admitted as a slave State. Had the House maintained its ground, the
+United States for the next half century might have had another history.
+
+[Sidenote: The Missouri compromise]
+
+Senator Thomas of Illinois, who had voted thus far with the South, now came
+forward with a compromise. He proposed to prohibit slavery in that portion
+of the Louisiana Purchase north of 36 deg. 30' excepting Missouri. This was
+accepted in the Senate by thirty-four votes against ten. But when the bill
+came up two days later for its final passage it received only a majority of
+four. After much delay the compromise measure was finally passed through
+the House by a majority of 134 to 42 votes. The measure was a Northern
+victory, having been carried by Northern votes. For the moment peace was
+gained; but the fire was only smothered. On the one side there was a gain
+of one slave State; on the other side, a mere promise to prohibit slavery
+in future States.
+
+[Sidenote: Modern progress]
+
+[Sidenote: Irving's "Sketch Book"]
+
+Notwithstanding the political agitation, general progress in America was
+pronounced and rapid during this period. Steam navigation was no longer a
+novelty. The Erie Canal was well under way. New towns were springing up
+along its course. Blanchard invented his lathe for turning irregular forms.
+The famous Danish physicist, Hans Christian Oersted, made his classical
+electrical experiments with the magnetic needle and laid the foundation of
+our modern theory of electromagnetism. The literary event of the year in
+America was the appearance of Washington Irving's "Sketch Book." The work
+found favor in England, where Sir Walter Scott befriended Irving.
+
+[Sidenote: Polar expedition]
+
+[Sidenote: Cochrane in Chilean service]
+
+In England, too, it was a period of new industrial and colonial expansion.
+Following the unsuccessful polar expeditions of the previous year,
+Lieutenant Franklin undertook his second search for the northwest passage,
+and a similar expedition, under Perry and Liddon, set out for Arctic
+waters. In India, where the Sikhs under Runjeet Singh were engaged in their
+great conquest of Cashmere, a British settlement was established in
+Singapore. British supremacy at sea received its tribute in an invitation
+from the Chileans to Sir Thomas Cochrane to command their new navy. After
+their victory on the Maypo, the patriot leaders of Chile had set to work to
+create a navy for their country. The British ship "Cumberland" was
+purchased in London, and renamed the "San Martin." Within a few months she
+captured the "Maria Isabella" from the Spanish. The prize was taken to
+Valparaiso, remounted, and renamed the "O'Higgins." To these ships were
+added the "Galvarino," "Araucano," "Interpodo," and the "Independencia."
+With the "O'Higgins" for a flagship, Cochrane took this squadron up and
+down the coast of South America, harrying the Spanish sea-ports everywhere.
+
+[Sidenote: The "Six Acts"]
+
+[Sidenote: Birth of Victoria]
+
+In England, meanwhile, there was renewed agitation for Parliamentary
+reforms. Henry Grattan in Parliament moved for a Committee of the Whole
+House to consider the laws excluding Catholics from public offices. His
+motion was defeated by a narrow vote of 243 against 241. Instead of this
+reform the British Government, falling in line with the reactionary
+measures of the Continental governments, passed through Parliament the
+so-called "Six Acts" for the prevention and punishment of sedition in
+England. To latter-day Englishmen this year is principally noted for the
+birth of Queen Victoria. The little princess, the daughter of Edward, Duke
+of Kent, son of George the Third and Maria Louisa Victoria of Saxe-Coburg,
+a sister of Leopold I. of Belgium, was born at Kensington Palace, and was
+named Alexandrina Victoria.
+
+[Sidenote: Schopenhauer]
+
+Germans of the present day remember this year for the appearance of
+Schopenhauer's great philosophic work "The World, as Will and Idea"--"Die
+Welt als Wille und Vorstellung." Schopenhauer, in this book, laid down the
+doctrine that the universe, and therefore human life as such, is governed
+by the conflicting principles of the ungoverned will and of the
+unattainable ideal. The true solution of life, he held, was to be found in
+subjecting brute will to the intellectual force of the ideal.
+
+[Sidenote: Assassination of Kotzebue]
+
+Schopenhauer's book at that time passed almost unnoticed. The educated
+classes of Germany were in too much of a ferment over the recent police
+restrictions inflicted upon the universities and public press. By this time
+it had become well known what part Czar Alexander had played at the
+Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. A vehement outcry arose at the universities
+against the interference of foreigners in German affairs. The wrath of the
+Liberals turned against August von Kotzebue, the prolific playwright, who
+held the office of Russian agent in central Germany. Kotzebue conducted a
+weekly newspaper at Mannheim in which he inveighed against the German
+national movement of the day, and ridiculed the patriotic eccentricities of
+the students. Having himself studied at Jena, Kotzebue was denounced by the
+students there as a traitor. He was believed to be responsible for the
+Czar's conversion from liberal ideas to reactionary principles. This belief
+cost Kotzebue his life. One Sand, a theological student at Jena, noted for
+piety and patriotic ardor, formed a fanatical resolution to do away with
+this enemy of the country. An extract from Sand's diary, written on the eve
+of his last New Year's day, reveals the character of the man: "I meet the
+last day of this year in an earnest festal spirit, knowing well that the
+Christmas which I have celebrated will be my last. If our strivings are to
+result in anything, if the cause of mankind is to succeed in our
+fatherland, if all is not to be forgotten, all our enthusiasm spent in
+vain, the evil doer, the traitor, the corrupter of youth must die. Until I
+have executed this, I have no peace; and what can comfort me until I know
+that I have with upright will set my life at stake? O God, I pray only for
+the right clearness and courage of soul, that in that last supreme hour I
+may not be false to myself." On March 23, Sand sought out Baron Kotzebue in
+the midst of his family and stabbed him to the heart. Then he turned the
+dagger against himself. Unfortunately Sand recovered from his wounds, and
+thus lived to die on the scaffold.
+
+[Sidenote: Retaliatory measures]
+
+[Sidenote: German liberals persecuted]
+
+The mad deed was followed by the worst possible results for Germany.
+Minister Hardenberg, when he heard of the murder of Kotzebue, declared that
+a Prussian Constitution had now been rendered impossible. Metternich, who
+was then in Rome, instantly drew up a scheme for further repressive
+measures and summoned the ministers of the various German States for a
+meeting at Carlsbad. "By the help of God," wrote Metternich, "I hope to
+defeat the German revolution, just as I vanquished the conqueror of the
+world. The revolutionists thought me far away, because I was five hundred
+leagues off. They deceived themselves; I have been in the midst of them,
+and now I am striking my blows." A number of innocent persons were arrested
+in various parts of Germany under utterly unwarrantable circumstances. The
+houses of professors were searched and private papers were seized. Jahn,
+the founder of the popular Gymnastic schools, was arrested in Berlin. De
+Wette, a professor of theology at the University of Berlin, had to flee to
+Switzerland on account of a letter of sympathy addressed by him to Sand's
+mother. With him Oken, the great naturalist, and Corres, the pamphleteer,
+became exiles in Switzerland. Professor Fries lost his chair at Jena; the
+poet Arndt was suspended at Bonn, and his private papers, in garbled form,
+were published by the government. Many of the younger professors,
+accompanied by their favorite students, emigrated to America.
+
+[Sidenote: Convention of Carlsbad]
+
+[Sidenote: Police censors appointed]
+
+[Sidenote: Binzer's poem]
+
+During August the German ministers met at Carlsbad. Their conferences, in
+the memory of the German people, are justly associated with the suppression
+of intellectual freedom for a whole generation. It was ordered that in
+every State within the German federation a strict censorship should be
+established over all publications. Within fifteen days an inquisitorial
+commission was called together at Mainz to investigate the students'
+societies at the universities. The commission was empowered to arrest any
+subject in any German State. Special police commissioners were appointed at
+the universities, whose duty it was to keep a strict eye on the drift of
+the professor's teachings. Any professor or student expelled from a
+university was not to be employed by any other German government. The
+students' societies were suppressed, at least to all outward appearance.
+The poet Binzer wrote a defiant song ending with the lines:
+
+  The Spirit liveth in us all,
+  For God is still our stronghold.
+
+[Sidenote: Resignation of Wilhelm Humboldt]
+
+[Sidenote: South German liberalism]
+
+So far was repression carried in Prussia that out of 203 students arrested
+for wearing black-red-yellow ribbons, no less than 94 were condemned to
+death. Wilhelm von Humboldt, the best and most liberal of Prussian
+Ministers during the first half of the nineteenth century, resigned his
+portfolio in disgust. The zeal with which the Prussian Government accepted
+these measures made it useless for the minor German States to offer much
+opposition. Yet they formed the only remaining bulwark against
+Metternich's restrictive policy. In spite of his strenuous opposition, the
+rulers of Bavaria and Baden granted to their subjects constitutional forms
+of government. Representative assemblies with lower and upper houses, after
+the manner of the English Parliament, were established. In Wurtemberg,
+serfdom was abolished, and a constitution was published a few days before
+the enrolment of the decrees of Carlsbad.
+
+[Sidenote: Laennec's stethoscope]
+
+In France, Dr. Laennec published his epoch-making work "Traite
+d'Auscultation Mediate," the result of his recent experiments in listening
+to human heart-beats and lung respirations through a hollow cylinder.
+Various names were given to the instrument until Laennec decided to call it
+"stethoscope," the name it has ever since retained. Laennec's contributions
+to the study of diseases of the lungs, of the heart and of the abdominal
+organs may be said to have laid the foundation of modern clinical medicine.
+
+[Sidenote: Decazes Prime Minister]
+
+[Sidenote: The Gregoire episode]
+
+[Sidenote: Troubles in Spain]
+
+Parliamentary government in France worked none too smoothly. In the
+Chambers the rise of the independent party and anti-Bourbon faction caused
+the Duc de Richelieu to resign. When the news of Kotzebue's assassination
+reached Paris, the Comte d'Artois remarked exultingly to the king: "Well,
+brother, you see what they are driving us to." Louis XVIII. intrusted to
+his favorite, Decazes, the formation of a new Cabinet. Decazes found it
+difficult to select competent men for the various portfolios. His Cabinet,
+when finally brought together, lacked internal unity and outward support.
+Its career was early imperilled by the untoward election of Bishop Gregoire
+of Grenoble, one of the regicides, to the Chamber of Deputies. This popular
+manifestation, though sufficiently explained by the sterling public
+qualities of the bishop himself, created the utmost apprehension among the
+Royalists. Decazes had to bend to the storm, and the election of Gregoire
+was declared null and void by the Ministerial majority in the Chambers. The
+French Royalists next professed to find cause for apprehension in Spain.
+Danger of war with the United States, before the cession of Florida, had
+caused King Ferdinand of Spain to assemble an army at Cadiz to embark for
+America. It was now proposed to send these troops to South America to quell
+the revolutionary movements there. The return of a number of soldiers
+stricken with yellow fever in the colonies filled the troops at Cadiz with
+consternation. The common soldiers, lying in squalor and inaction at their
+barracks, came to regard their expected order of embarkation as a sentence
+of death. Their officers plotted with the secret societies in Cadiz and
+neighboring towns. Abisbas, the commandant at Cadiz, to safeguard his own
+interests pretended to encourage these plots. Then, convinced of their
+ultimate failure, he arrested the principal leaders by a stratagem and
+hurried to Madrid to reveal all and claim credit for saving the crown. The
+ringleaders were imprisoned and the troops were distributed into
+cantonments. As it turned out this only served to foment the growing spirit
+of dissatisfaction throughout Spain.
+
+
+
+
+1820
+
+
+[Sidenote: Spanish military revolt]
+
+[Sidenote: Riego's plight]
+
+New Year's Day was fixed for the outbreak of revolt by the revolutionists
+of Spain. The chosen leaders were Riego, Cabazes and Quiroga. It was
+arranged that Quiroga, who was held in light confinement at Medina, east of
+Cadiz, should gather the battalions outside of Cadiz, throw himself into
+the city, and there await the co-operation of his fellow conspirators.
+Riego with a band of chosen men was to pounce upon the military
+headquarters at Arcos, and to arrest the general officers before they could
+interfere. Accordingly, Riego, on the first day of January, proclaimed the
+Constitution of 1812, and, falling upon headquarters, seized the general
+officers and rallied the men to his standard. Quiroga was less successful.
+After gaining possession of San Fernando at the eastern point of the
+peninsula of Leon, he failed to get into Cadiz. The commandant closed the
+gates against him, and the troops within gave no sign of defection. By the
+time Riego arrived, there were but 5,000 insurgents wherewith to overcome
+the strong garrison and fortifications of Cadiz. Leaving Quiroga before
+Cadiz, Riego set himself to raise the people of the surrounding towns. He
+was received with kindness, but the obvious weakness of his force
+discouraged others from joining him. Strong forces were sent in pursuit,
+and the insurgents were compelled to march back and forth through the
+country to escape their pursuers. At Cordova, Riego was made to realize
+that the game was lost. The soldiers of the government were upon him, and
+he had only some two hundred followers left. The little band took to the
+mountains and there dispersed.
+
+[Sidenote: Spread of the revolt]
+
+The revolt, despite its miserable end, was followed by widespread results.
+The example of a bold stroke had been given, and the weakness of the
+government had been exposed. While Riego's followers were still hunted from
+place to place, the soldiers and citizens of Corona together declared for
+the Constitution. The revolutionary movement spread to Ferrol and thence
+along the coast towns of Galicia.
+
+[Sidenote: Cochrane's exploit]
+
+[Sidenote: Abisbas' treachery]
+
+[Sidenote: King Ferdinand succumbs]
+
+In South America, Cochrane in a brilliant action took the Spanish
+stronghold of Valdivia, held to be a Gibraltar in strength. King Ferdinand
+in Madrid was terrified. From all points of Spain the commandants wrote
+that they could not answer for their garrisons. Abisbas was ordered to
+return to Cadiz with reinforcements. On leaving Madrid he boasted to the
+king that he knew how to deal with rebels. By the time he reached Ocana,
+early in March, he himself proclaimed the Constitution. The news of
+Abisbas' defection created consternation in Madrid. On the night of March
+6, the king convoked his Council of State. On the morrow he issued a
+summons for the Cortes. This was not enough. Crowds gathered in the streets
+and clamored for the Constitution. A report that the guards were on the
+point of going over to the people brought the king around. From the balcony
+of the royal palace Ferdinand announced his readiness to take the oath to
+the Constitution. The next day was spent in riotous rejoicing. The prison
+of the Inquisition was sacked and all political prisoners were liberated.
+On the following day the mob broke into the gates and gardens of the royal
+palace. The members of the old municipal council entered the royal private
+chamber and called for a fulfilment of the king's public promise. Ferdinand
+accepted the inevitable under a smiling exterior, and swore an oath of
+fidelity to the Constitution of 1812. A provisional Junta took charge of
+affairs until the new Cortes should be convened.
+
+[Sidenote: Duc de Berry assassinated]
+
+The news of the Spanish revolution astounded Europe. In France a fanatic by
+the name of Louvel deemed the moment come to strike at the reigning house
+of France. Louvel had followed Napoleon to exile in Elba. After the Hundred
+Days he dogged the footsteps of the Bourbon princes with a settled project
+of murder. The heir-presumptive to the French crown was the Duc de Berry.
+If he died without a son the elder Bourbon line was bound to become extinct
+as a reigning house. On the night of February 13, Louvel attacked the Duc
+de Berry at the entrance of the opera house and plunged a knife into his
+heart. The Duchess was covered with her husband's blood. That night Duc de
+Berry died beseeching forgiveness for the man who had killed him. King
+Louis XVIII. himself closed the eyes of his nephew.
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Decazes' Ministry]
+
+The assassination of the Duc de Berry involved the ruin of the Ministry of
+Decazes. The ultra-royalists in their frenzy of grief and indignation
+charged their chief opponent with complicity. Clausel de Coussergues, a
+member of the Court of Cassation, moved the impeachment of Minister Decazes
+in the Chambers as an accomplice in the assassination. The King himself
+felt menaced by the unwarranted accusation. "The Royalists give me the
+finishing stroke," said he; "they know that the policy of M. Decazes is
+also mine, and they accuse him of assassinating my nephew." Yet he had to
+abandon his favorite to the violent entreaties of the Comte d'Artois and
+the Duchesse de Angouleme. Decazes was permitted to retire, and set out for
+London with his new titles of Duke and Ambassador to the Court of St.
+James. Richelieu was recalled to the Ministry. The Duchesse de Berry
+retired to Sicily.
+
+[Sidenote: Rise of the Carbonari]
+
+[Sidenote: Neapolitan military revolt]
+
+[Sidenote: Revolution in Naples]
+
+[Sidenote: Bourbon duplicity]
+
+In Naples and Sicily the recent events in Spain and France exerted a
+powerful influence over the minds of the people. In southern Italy the
+secret society of the Carbonari had become a power in the land. The members
+of this society, after the manner of Freemasons, took their name and the
+symbolism of their rites from the calling of the charcoal burners. Since
+the revolt against Bourbon tyranny in 1799, the Carbonari had played their
+part as revolutionary conspirators. By the year 1820 it was believed that
+one person out of every twenty-five in Naples belonged to the society. To
+offset their hidden power, the government encouraged the foundation of a
+rival society, known as the Calderari, or Braziers. This only made matters
+worse. After the success of the revolution in Spain, the head lodge of the
+Carbonari in Salerno issued orders for a rising in June. Later the date was
+postponed. A score of Carbonari serving in the ranks of a cavalry regiment
+at Nola, persuaded one of the officers, Lieutenant Morelli, to head a
+revolt in favor of a constitutional government. On July 2, Morelli marched
+out with a squadron of 150 men, and proclaimed for the Constitution. Only
+one trooper refused to follow his standard. The others rode along the road
+to Avellino and were received with enthusiasm all along the way. The
+country was ripe for revolt. At Avellino the commandant with all his
+garrison and the Bishop with the townspeople gave them a magnificent
+reception. The news of the revolt spread like wildfire throughout the
+kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Everywhere the Carbonari declared in its
+favor. Before the government had taken a single step, the Constitution was
+generally proclaimed and joyfully accepted by the populace. From Naples the
+King sent General Carrascosa to negotiate with the insurgents. In the
+meanwhile General Pepe, himself a Carbonaro of high rank, hastened to
+Avellino and placed himself at the head of the revolution. On July 6, the
+King published an edict promising a constitution within eight days, and
+then, feigning illness, committed the royal authority to his son, the Duke
+of Calabria. The Carbonari, recalling the fact that the King, in order to
+preserve his contingent rights to the Spanish crown, had but recently
+helped to sign the Spanish Constitution of 1812, insisted that this same
+Constitution should be proclaimed for Naples. Old King Ferdinand yielded
+and signed an edict to that effect. General Pepe and Morelli, at the head
+of the garrison of Avellino, and the national guards of Naples,
+triumphantly entered the city with public honors, and were received by the
+Duke of Calabria, in his capacity as viceroy. On July 13, the King in
+person swore to support the Constitution. Standing before the altar in the
+royal chapel, he raised his eyes to the crucifix and prayed that the
+vengeance of God might fall upon him if ever he broke his oath. Immediately
+afterward he wrote to the Emperors of Austria and Russia, declaring that
+his conduct on this occasion was a mere farce and that he regarded his
+obligations as null and void.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolution in Portugal]
+
+[Sidenote: End of Lisbon regency]
+
+The contagion of Spain and Sicily proved too much for the people of
+Portugal. The continued absence of the royal family in Brazil, and the
+unwelcome prolongation of the British regency had long caused
+dissatisfaction in Portugal. The feeling of discontent was deepened by
+industrial and commercial distress which made the manifest prosperity of
+Brazil seem all the more galling. Marshal Beresford, the English
+commander-in-chief of the Portuguese army, was generally execrated for his
+barbarous treatment of military conspirators. After the outbreak of the
+Spanish revolution, the aspect of affairs became so threatening in Portugal
+that Beresford set out for Rio Janeiro to induce the Princes of Braganza to
+return to their Court in Lisbon. Before he could accomplish his purpose,
+the government that he had left behind him was overthrown by the people. On
+August 24, the city of Oporto rose against the regency. The officers of the
+army, the magistrates, the priests and townspeople united in declaring
+against the regency. They established a provisional Junta to govern in the
+name of the King until the Cortes of Portugal could be convened to frame a
+constitution. The authority of the regency in Oporto was lost without a
+blow. The Junta immediately seized the reins of government, and began its
+career by dismissing all English officers and paying the arrears of the
+soldiers. In Lisbon the regency itself tried to stem the storm by giving
+its formal approval to the measures of the Junta of Oporto. The troops of
+Lisbon, however, would no longer recognize the authority of the government.
+Within a fortnight the regency was deposed, and a Junta installed in its
+place. Beresford was forbidden to return to Portugal. He went to England,
+but found there that the British Ministry did not deem it advisable to
+interfere further in the domestic affairs of Portugal. Dom Juan VI., in Rio
+Janeiro, promised to return to Portugal and bestow on his subjects a
+liberal constitution.
+
+[Sidenote: British liberalism]
+
+[Sidenote: Sale of Russian fleet]
+
+In England, Lord Beresford's attempt to induce the government to suppress
+the revolutionists of Portugal only served to strengthen the popular
+antipathy that had grown up against the reactionary tendencies of the Holy
+Alliance. Prior to this an attempt had been made to persuade England to
+act as instrument of the Alliance by suppressing the rebellious colonies of
+Spain in South America. At the last session of the Holy Alliance, the
+envoys of Russia and France submitted a paper in which they suggested that
+Wellington, as "the man of Europe," should go to Madrid to preside over a
+negotiation between the Court of Spain and all the Ambassadors, regarding
+the terms to be offered to the transatlantic States. If the colonies
+continued rebellious, England's fleet was counted upon to reduce them to
+submission. But the force of liberalism was too strong in England for any
+British Minister to enter into such a scheme. Then it was that the Czar of
+Russia sold a large part of the Russian fleet to Spain. To Englishmen, who
+had seen these same ships in their harbors at the time they were held as
+hostages by England, this action gave but little concern. The scandal that
+followed in Spain was anticipated in England. On their arrival at Cadiz,
+the Russian ships were found to be useless rotten hulks.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of George III.]
+
+[Sidenote: Queen Caroline's trial]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of the Queen]
+
+Another more trying scandal engrossed public attention in England. On
+January 29, old King George III. had at last sunk into his grave. His son,
+George IV., became king, and began his rule with the same Ministry under
+Lord Liverpool that had served him as Prince Regent. The new king's first
+public act was to call for a bill for the divorce of his wife, Caroline of
+Brunswick. The Cabinet refused to favor such a bill. On April 23,
+Parliament met. The King sent "a green bag" to each House of Parliament,
+containing a mass of testimony and accusations concerning the queen's
+conduct with her Italian chamberlain, Pergami. On June 6, Queen Caroline
+arrived from Italy. Having been refused passage on a royal ship, she
+chartered a vessel of her own. This bold step was taken to imply innocence.
+She was received with great popular demonstrations in her favor. Before a
+secret committee of Parliament, Queen Caroline offset the King's charges
+against her by laying stress on his own well-known failings as a husband.
+On July 5, Lord Liverpool introduced a bill of "Pains and Penalties" to
+dissolve the marriage of Queen Caroline. Her trial was taken up by the
+House of Lords, where she was defended by Lord Brougham. To this day the
+proceedings of the trial are remembered as one of the most outrageous
+scandals in England. The feelings thereby engendered in the people have
+been immortalized in the trenchant writings of Thackeray. Before the trial
+was concluded, Lord Liverpool's bill was brought up for the third time in
+Parliament. It passed by a majority of a few votes. With so slender an
+indorsement, the Ministry had cause to tremble for its existence. Lord
+Liverpool prevailed upon the King to recede from his extreme position, and,
+succeeding in this, moved for the abandonment of the bill. The trial was
+quashed. Queen Caroline died shortly afterward.
+
+[Sidenote: The Missouri Compromise]
+
+[Sidenote: Cabinet in a quandary]
+
+In America, public feeling was no less excited. The occasion for this was
+the first serious clash of the Northern and Southern factions of the United
+States over what was known as the Missouri Compromise. On February 18, the
+Missouri Compromise bill passed the Senate, and on March 2 the House. It
+admitted Missouri as a slave State, and prohibited slavery north of
+parallel 36 deg. 30', the southern line of Missouri. Henry Clay declared that
+it settled the slavery question "forever." The bill went to the President.
+There was still another compromise, and that was in the Cabinet. The
+President asked advice on two points. The first point was whether Congress
+had a Constitutional right to prohibit slavery in a Territory. The Cabinet
+agreed that the right existed. Then the question arose whether the section
+prohibiting slavery "forever" referred only to the territorial condition,
+or whether it also applied when the Territory became a State. The Cabinet,
+with the exception of Adams, agreed that "forever" applied only to the
+territorial condition; Adams held that "forever" meant literally forever,
+in State as well as in Territory. In order to escape this dilemma it was
+proposed that the question of "forever," as relating to States, should be
+avoided; and that the only question should be, whether the section
+prohibiting slavery in the Territories forever was Constitutional. The
+order of proceeding was reversed; Mr. Adams was to reply in the affirmative
+without giving his reasons, while the others were to explain in writing
+that the provision was Constitutional; but "forever" meant only while the
+territorial condition existed. With this understanding the bill was signed.
+It is plain now that in the unsettled point the whole pith and meaning of
+the Missouri Compromise was contained, as the country learned fully and
+decisively thirty-five years afterward.
+
+[Sidenote: Monroe elected President]
+
+New issues then came to the front--protection, internal improvements, and
+recognition of the South American republics. Presently, in order to
+preserve the balance of power between slavery and freedom, it was enacted
+that Maine was to be admitted on March 15, making twelve free and twelve
+slave holding States. A bill was passed pronouncing the maritime slave
+trade piracy. On October 20, Spain ratified the treaty ceding Florida.
+Congress reassembled in November. James Monroe and John Quincy Adams were
+the opposing candidates for the Presidency. Monroe received 231 electoral
+votes; Adams received one from a New Hampshire elector who voted in
+sympathy with a popular sentiment that Washington should stand alone in the
+high honor of a unanimous choice.
+
+[Sidenote: Quinine]
+
+In this year the great fever drug quinine was first clearly separated and
+identified by Drs. Pelletier and Caventou, who were spurred on to their
+labors by the previous experiments with the drug by Drs. Gomez and Lambert.
+In its crude form the bark of the chinchona tree had been used for its
+medical properties since times immemorial.
+
+[Sidenote: Homeopathy]
+
+It was about this time that the German physician Hahnemann's theory of
+homeopathy caused general discussion among medical practitioners and
+laymen. Hahnemann's first thesis was that many diseases could most quickly
+be eradicated by similar effects--fever with fever, poison with
+anti-poison. This theory of "like with like"--the Greek homoia
+homoiois--was accordingly named by him homeopathy. It was most fully
+expressed in his "Dogma of Rational Healing" and in the later treatise
+"Chronic Ailments and their Homeopathic Cure." These books created such a
+widespread sensation that they were at once translated into several
+languages and ran through a great number of editions. As a matter of
+course, Hahnemann's peculiar theories were violently combated by his fellow
+practitioners.
+
+[Sidenote: Hydropathy]
+
+Almost at the same time with the rise of the new science of homeopathy came
+Vincenz Priessnitz's innovation of hydropathy or water cure. He established
+his first sanitarium at Grafenberg, his birthplace, and in the face of
+vehement medical opposition soon won government recognition for his
+sanitarium. Similar water-cure establishments were erected by many
+imitators and followers in Germany and elsewhere.
+
+[Sidenote: Convention of Troppau]
+
+[Sidenote: Intervention in Naples]
+
+Late in the year Emperor Alexander of Russia and Metternich came together
+to settle on the counter strokes to be delivered against the revolutionists
+of Spain and southern Italy. When Metternich first heard of the fall of
+absolute government in Naples he was dismayed. Gentz, who saw him at that
+time, has left this record: "Prince Metternich went to-day to inform the
+Emperor of the sad events in Naples. As long as I know him I have never
+seen him so upset by any event." Metternich had reason to feel alarmed. A
+revolution in Naples was almost sure to be followed by an Italian uprising
+in the Austrian possessions of Venice and an insurrection in the Papal
+States. Had Metternich felt free to follow his own devices, he would
+forthwith have marched an Austrian army into southern Italy to put an end
+to the troubles there. With all his exasperation he did not feel free to
+cut loose from joint action with the Czar and with the other sovereigns of
+Europe. Thus it came that the summer was spent in arranging for another
+conference of the allied monarchs. They met on October 20, at Troppau in
+Moravia. The Emperors of Austria and Russia and the King of Prussia
+received one another in state. The envoys of England and France were found
+to be in accord against armed intervention in southern Italy. The other
+powers determined to proceed on their course without them. Metternich's
+diplomatic dealings with the Czar were greatly hampered by the clever
+intrigues of Count Capodistrias, Alexander's foreign minister. For once
+Metternich found himself matched by a diplomat even more subtle than
+himself. In the end, he prevailed over Capodistrias sufficiently to
+overcome Alexander's scruples against harsh measures in Naples. It was
+determined to invite King Ferdinand to meet the sovereigns at Leibach, in
+Austria, and to address a summons to the Neapolitans commanding them to
+abandon their constitution, under threat of immediate invasion. Accordingly
+a note was issued from Troppau to all the courts of Europe, embodying the
+doctrine of federative intervention, as applied to Naples.
+
+[Sidenote: King Ferdinand's duplicity]
+
+As soon as King Ferdinand received the summons he prepared to leave Naples.
+The populace became aroused, and angry crowds surrounded the palace.
+Ferdinand was not allowed to leave Naples until he had once more sworn on
+his honor to maintain the constitution borrowed from Spain. The King took
+this oath as readily as he did the other. Then he journeyed northward. Half
+way, at Leghorn, he sent letters to each of the five principal sovereigns
+of Europe declaring his last declaration just as null and void as his
+previous perjuries. His double-dealing was rather too much even for the
+Holy Alliance. As Gentz, the secretary of the Congress, expressed himself
+in private: "The conduct of this wretched sovereign, since the beginning of
+his troubles, has been nothing but a tissue of weaknesses and lies. Happily
+they will remain secret. No Cabinet will care to draw them from the
+graveyard of its archives. Till then there is not much harm done."
+
+[Sidenote: Benjamin West]
+
+Benjamin West, the celebrated American-English artist, died at London in
+his eighty-second year. At the opening of the Eighteenth Century, West was
+in the forefront of the agitation that grew out of his contested succession
+to Sir Joshua Reynolds as president of the Royal Academy. Wearied with
+these quarrels he visited Paris, where he studied the newly pillaged
+masterpieces at the Louvre. He resigned from the Royal Academy, but was
+almost unanimously re-elected. It was then that he painted his famous
+"Christ Healing the Sick." His later works failed to attain the success of
+his earlier historical paintings. When West died, his reputation had
+declined appreciably, still a public funeral at St. Paul's Cathedral was
+accorded to him, a unique honor for an American.
+
+
+
+
+1821
+
+
+[Sidenote: Congress of Leibach]
+
+[Sidenote: Naples under duress]
+
+The Congress of Leibach met in January. It was attended by the
+representatives of Russia, Austria, Prussia, England, France, Sardinia and
+Modena. When King Ferdinand of Naples arrived he was received by the
+Emperors of Russia and Austria in person. It was predetermined that
+absolute government in Naples should be restored by Austrian arms. The only
+problem remaining to diplomacy was to put a respectable face on King
+Ferdinand's dishonor. Capodistrias offered to make up some fictitious
+correspondence in which Ferdinand was proudly to uphold the constitution
+which he had sworn to support, and to yield protestingly to the powers only
+after actual threats of war. The device was rejected as too transparent.
+Moreover, the old king scarcely cared how his conduct appeared to his
+subjects. A letter was sent in his name to his son, the acting-viceroy,
+stating that the Powers were determined not to tolerate the order of things
+sprung from revolution, and that certain securities for peace would have to
+be given. The reference to securities meant the occupation of the country
+by an Austrian army. The letter reached Naples on February 9. Three days
+before the Austrian troops had received their orders to cross the Po.
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Rieti]
+
+[Sidenote: Revolt of Piedmont]
+
+The invading army of Austria was 50,000 strong. The Neapolitan soldiers
+numbered a little more than 40,000, of whom 12,000 were in Sicily engaged
+at Palermo in suppressing a counter revolution for home rule. At the first
+encounter at Rieti in the Papal territory, the Neapolitans under General
+Pepe were utterly routed. Their forces melted away, as they did when Murat
+made his last stroke for Italy and Napoleon. Not a single strong point was
+defended. On March 24, the Austrians entered Naples. Then came a moment of
+danger. Rebellion broke out in Piedmont, and an attempt was made to unite
+the troops of Piedmont with those of Lombardy. The King of Piedmont rather
+than sign the Spanish Constitution abdicated his throne. On the refusal of
+the King's brother, Charles Felix, to recognize a constitution, his cousin
+Charles Albert of Carignano was made the regent and commander of the
+troops. He advanced so cautiously that the conspirators at Milan dared not
+follow suit with a revolution of their own. In the meanwhile the Czar had
+ordered 100,000 Russians to march in the direction of the Adriatic. The
+Austrian forces advanced westward from the Venetian strongholds, and,
+brushing aside all resistance, entered Piedmont.
+
+[Sidenote: End of Italian revolution]
+
+[Sidenote: Silvio Pellico]
+
+The victory of absolutism in Italy was complete. Courts-martial sat all
+over Italy. Morelli, the officer who had led out the so-called sacred band
+of Nola, was shot. His followers were expressly excluded from all amnesty
+acts. An attempted insurrection in Sicily cost the conspirators their
+lives. Hundreds of persons were cast into prison, or were marched off to
+distant fortresses in Austria. It was at this time that Silvio Pellico, the
+author of the famous "Prison Records," was sent to the dungeon of
+Spielberg. Then began that long stream of fugitives to England and America.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolt in Brazil]
+
+[Sidenote: Mexican independence]
+
+[Sidenote: San Martin's Campaign]
+
+The Holy Alliance, sitting at Leibach, thought the time was ripe to
+pronounce its anathema against all peoples seeking their liberties
+elsewhere than in the grace of their legitimate sovereigns. Yet the spirit
+of revolt was abroad, and its flames continued to flicker up at widely
+separated points. On February 26, the Portuguese troops in Brazil rose in
+revolt. The king, still residing at Rio Janeiro, was compelled to appoint a
+new Ministry pledged to give to both Portugal and Brazil a new
+representative system. In Mexico, General Iturbide, at the same time,
+issued a pronunciamiento, containing his so-called "Plan of Iguala," which
+proposed independence for Mexico under a Spanish Bourbon prince. Several
+rebel leaders acquiesced in this, and forced the Spanish viceroy to resign.
+Juan O'Donoju became acting-viceroy. He signed a treaty with Iturbide
+virtually accepting the plan. The people of Buenos Ayres profited by the
+military troubles in Brazil to throw in their lot with that of the
+Argentine Republic. Their popular idol, San Martin, meanwhile was leading
+his victorious troops from Chile into Peru. Lima, one of the greatest
+Spanish strongholds in South America, was threatened by the revolutionists.
+
+[Sidenote: War in Annam]
+
+[Sidenote: Taouk-Wang]
+
+At the other end of the earth, the new force of national feeling showed
+itself in popular uprisings. In distant Annam the death of Emperor
+Gia-Long, followed by a bloody struggle for the succession between his
+sons, incited the people to a national demonstration against the
+encroachments of the French in Tonquin. In China the new Emperor Taouk-Wang
+was enthroned. He was the first to throw his whole personal influence
+against the evils of the opium trade inflicted upon China by English
+merchants since 1800.
+
+[Sidenote: Philike Hetairia]
+
+[Sidenote: Ypsilanti]
+
+[Sidenote: Vladimiresco]
+
+In Greece and in the Balkans the people rose against the yoke of Turkey.
+The plan of the Philike Hetairia--_i.e._ Patriotic Association--was to
+begin their revolution on the Danube, so as to induce Russia to take a hand
+in their favor. They believed that Capodistrias, the Prime Minister of
+Russia, himself a Greek, would win the Czar to their cause. Unfortunately
+for them, Metternich's influence proved stronger than that of the Greek
+Minister. Capodistrias deemed it advisable to publish a pamphlet warning
+his countrymen against any rash step. Failing to win the open support of
+Capodistrias, the Hetairists turned to Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, a Greek
+exile serving in the Russian army. Ypsilanti agreed to raise the standard
+of revolt in Moldavia. It was arranged that Theodore Vladimiresco, a
+Roumanian who had served in the Russian army, was to call his countrymen to
+arms against the Turk. Then the Greeks were to step in, and the help of
+Russia was to be invoked.
+
+[Sidenote: Rising of Roumania]
+
+In February, Vladimiresco proclaimed the abolition of feudal servitude in
+Roumania, and marched with a horde of peasants upon Bucharest. Early in
+March, the Greek troops at Galatz, let loose by their commander, Karavias,
+massacred the Turkish population of that town.
+
+Ypsilanti, waiting on the Russian frontier, crossed the Pruth and appeared
+at Jassee with a few hundred followers. A proclamation was issued, calling
+upon all Christians to rise against the Crescent. Ypsilanti went so far as
+to declare that "a great European power," meaning Russia, was "pledged to
+support him." The Greek Hospodar of Jassee immediately surrendered the
+government, and supplied a large sum of money. Troops to the number of
+2,000 gathered around Ypsilanti. The road to the Danube lay open.
+
+[Sidenote: Ypsilanti repudiated]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Vladimiresco]
+
+[Sidenote: Georgakis]
+
+Ypsilanti wasted valuable time loitering at Jassee. A month was lost before
+he reached Bucharest. He delayed partly on account of his expectations of
+Russian help in response to a letter he had written to the Czar. The delay
+proved fatal to him. The Czar, now wholly under the influence of
+Metternich, sent a stern answer from Leibach. Ypsilanti was dismissed from
+the Russian service. The Russian consul at Jassee issued a manifesto that
+Russia repudiated and condemned Ypsilanti's enterprise. The Patriarch of
+Constantinople was made to issue a ban of excommunication against the
+rebels. In an official note of the Powers, the Congress of Leibach branded
+the Greek revolt as a token of the same spirit which had produced the
+revolution of Italy and Spain. Turkish troops crossed the Danube. The
+Roumanian peasants, seeing no help from Russia, held aloof. Vladimiresco
+plotted against the Greeks. It was in vain that brave Georgakis captured
+the traitor at his own headquarters and carried him to his death in the
+Greek camp. Ypsilanti was defeated in his first encounter with the Turks.
+He retired before them toward the Austrian frontier. In the end he fled
+across the border and was promptly made a prisoner in Austria. His
+followers dearly sold their lives. At Skuleni, 400 of them under Georgakis
+made a last stand on the Pruth. They were surrounded by ten times their
+number. Georgakis refused to surrender. Bidding his followers flee, at the
+moment when the Turks broke in the doors, he blew himself up in the
+monastery of Skuleni.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolt of Morea]
+
+[Sidenote: Gregorios hanged]
+
+At the news of Ypsilanti's uprising in Moldavia the entire Greek population
+of the Morea rose against the Turk. From the outset, the Moreotes waged a
+war of extermination. They massacred all Turks, men, women and children.
+Within a few weeks the open country was swept clear of its Mohammedan
+population. The fugitive Turks were invested within the walls of
+Tripolitza, Patras, and other strong towns. Sultan Mahmud took prompt
+vengeance. A number of innocent Greeks at Constantinople were strangled by
+his executioners. The fury of the Moslem was let loose on the Infidel. All
+Greek settlements along the Bosphorus were burned. But the crowning stroke
+came on Easter Sunday, the most sacred day of the Greek Church. The
+Patriarch of Constantinople, while he was celebrating service, was summoned
+away by the dragoman of the Porte. At the order of the Sultan he was haled
+before a hastily assembled synod and there degraded from his office as a
+traitor. The synod was commanded to elect his successor. While the
+trembling prelates did their bidding, Patriarch Gregorios was led out in
+his sacred robes and hanged at the gate of his palace. His body remained
+hanging throughout the Easter celebration, and was then given to the Jews
+to be dragged through the streets and cast into the Bosphorus. A similar
+fate befell the Greek archbishops of Salonica, Tirnovo, and Adrianople. The
+body of Gregorios floating in the sea was picked up by a Greek ship and
+carried to Odessa. This return to Christian soil of the remains of the
+Patriarch was hailed as a miracle in Russia. Gregorios was solemnly buried
+by the Russian Government as a martyr.
+
+[Sidenote: Russia aroused]
+
+[Sidenote: The Czar found wanting]
+
+If the will of the Russian people had been carried out, the Russian army
+and nation would have avenged the murder of their high-priest by an
+immediate war upon the Turks. Strogonov, the Russian Ambassador at
+Constantinople, at once proposed to his diplomatic colleagues to join him
+in calling for warships to protect the Christians there. Lord Stranford,
+the British Ambassador, refused to accede to this proposition.
+Single-handed, Strogonov presented an ultimatum to the Sultan demanding the
+restoration of Christian churches and the Porte's protection for Christian
+worship. A written answer was exacted within eight days. Encouraged by
+England's attitude, the Sultan ignored Strogonov's requests. On July 27,
+the Russian Ambassador left Constantinople. To the amazement of his
+moujiks, the Czar did not declare war. The councils of Prince Metternich
+prevailed. With the help of the representatives of England, Metternich
+persuaded the Czar to view the rebellion of Greece as a mere unfortunate
+disturbance. Any countenance of it, he argued, would imperil the peace of
+Europe.
+
+[Sidenote: Rising of the Greeks]
+
+[Sidenote: Ali Pasha]
+
+[Sidenote: Moreote campaign]
+
+[Sidenote: Petrobei]
+
+[Sidenote: Kolokotrones]
+
+[Sidenote: Maurokordatos]
+
+[Sidenote: Massacre of Navarino]
+
+[Sidenote: Sack of Tripolitza]
+
+The murder of the Greek Patriarch was followed by risings of the Greeks
+throughout continental Greece and the Archipelago. Here, as in the Morea,
+the cause of Greek freedom was disgraced by massacres, and indignities to
+Turkish women. The Sultan's troops, led by able commanders, retaliated in
+kind. Khurshid, with a large Turkish army, besieged Janina. He held firmly
+to his task, even after his whole household fell into the hands of the
+Moreotes. The Greeks in Thessaly failed to rise, and thus the border
+provinces were saved for the Ottoman Empire. The risings in remoter
+districts were soon quelled. In Epirus, Ali Pasha, the Albanian chieftain,
+was surrounded by overwhelming numbers and lost his life. On the Macedonian
+coast the Hetairist revolt, in which the monks of Mount Athos took part,
+proved abortive. Moreover, the desultory warfare on water carried on by the
+islanders of Hydra, Spetza, and Psara served only to annoy the Turks. The
+real campaign was waged in the Morea, where Tripolitza, the seat of the
+Turkish Government, was besieged by the insurgents. Demetrios Ypsilanti,
+Prince Alexander's brother, landed on the coast and was welcomed as a
+leader by the peasants in arms. Three other leaders rose to prominence.
+First, in the eyes of the people, came Petrobei, chief of the family of
+Mauromichalis. Surrounded by his nine sons, this sturdy chieftain appeared
+like one of the old Homeric kings. Second in popular favor was
+Kolokotrones, a typical modern Clepht, cunning and treacherous, but a born
+soldier. The ablest political leader was Maurokordatos, a man of some
+breadth of view and foresight, but over-cautious as a general. The early
+insurgent successes were marred by bad faith and gross savagery. On the
+surrender of Navarino, in August, a formal capitulation was signed,
+safeguarding the lives of the Turkish inhabitants. In the face of this
+compact the victorious Greeks put men, women and children to the sword. Two
+months later the Turkish garrison of Tripolitza, after sustaining a siege
+of six months, began negotiations for surrender. In the midst of the truce,
+the Greek soldiery got wind of a secret bargain of their leaders to extend
+protection for private gain. In defiance of the officers, the peasant
+soldiers stormed Tripolitza and scaled the walls. Then followed three days
+of indiscriminate looting and carnage. By thousands, the Turks, with their
+women and children, were slaughtered. Kolokotrones himself records how he
+rode from the gateway to the citadel of Tripolitza, his horse's hoofs
+touching nothing but human bodies.
+
+[Sidenote: Philhellenism]
+
+The Greek struggle for independence aroused conflicting emotions in Europe.
+The passionate sympathy of the Russians rested wholly on their religious
+bonds. The more enlightened Philhellenes of France and Germany affected to
+see in this struggle a revival of the ancient Greek spirit that blazed
+forth at Thermopylae and Marathon. For this same reason, perhaps, Metternich
+and his colleagues in the Holy Alliance looked upon the Greek revolution
+with an evil eye. Any cause espoused by the hot-headed liberals at the
+universities in those days of itself became obnoxious to the reactionary
+rulers of the German and Austrian states.
+
+[Sidenote: Lord Byron's Greek lyrics]
+
+The sympathy with the Greeks was most pronounced in England. There the
+stirring lyrics of Lord Byron had reached the height of their popularity.
+His songs of Greece and Greek freedom were justly regarded as among his
+best. It was but a short time before this that the poet, to use his own
+phrase, had awakened one morning to find himself famous. Now his Greek
+songs were hailed by the whole world as classics. Notable among them were
+the "Isles of Greece," embodied in the third canto of his "Don Juan" with
+the famous stanza:
+
+  The mountains look on Marathon--
+    And Marathon looks on the sea;
+  And musing there an hour alone
+    I dreamed that Greece might still be free.
+
+And the equally celebrated lines from "The Bride of Abydos":
+
+  Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle
+    Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime?
+  Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle,
+    Now melt into sorrow, now madden to crime!
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Keats]
+
+[Sidenote: Byron's satire]
+
+[Sidenote: Keats's work]
+
+In English literary annals this year was marked furthermore by the death of
+John Keats. He was but twenty-five, still in the first flush of his genius.
+Keats was buried in Rome, where he died. On his gravestone is the epitaph
+composed by himself: "Here lies one whose name was writ in water." It was
+generally assumed in England that the poet's death was caused by his
+anguish over the merciless criticisms of "Blackwood's Magazine" and the
+"Quarterly Review." Lord Byron was unkind enough to exploit this notion in
+his "Don Juan":
+
+  John Keats, who was killed off by one critique,
+    Just as he really promised something great
+  If not intelligible, without Greek
+    Contrived to talk about the gods of late
+  Much as they might have been supposed to speak.
+    Poor fellow! His was an untoward fate;
+      'Tis strange the mind, that very fiery particle,
+      Should let itself be snuffed out by an article.
+
+As a matter of fact Keats died of consumption. The ravages of this disease
+in his case were accelerated by his feverish passion for poetry, his love
+affair with Fanny Brawne, financial embarrassments, and only to a slight
+extent by the inevitable disappointment arising from adverse criticisms.
+What Byron did for modern Greece in England, Keats may be said to have done
+for ancient Greece. The beautiful songs of Greece, embodied in "Endymion"
+and "Hyperion," no less than the enthusiastic odes and sonnets in praise of
+Hellenic works of art, opened the eyes of many of the contemporaries of
+Keats to the enduring beauties of Greece. It was in his exquisite "Ode to
+a Grecian Urn," that Keats expressed his poetical master passion for
+beauty:
+
+  Beauty is truth, truth beauty--that is all
+  Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.
+
+  [Illustration: LORD BYRON
+    Painted by Maurin]
+
+[Sidenote: "Adonais"]
+
+Shortly after Keats's death appeared one of the most beautiful of Shelley's
+longer poems--"Adonais," written as an elegy on the death of Keats:
+
+  I weep for Adonais--he is dead.
+  Oh, weep for Adonais! though our tears
+  Thaw not the frost which binds so dear a head!
+  And thou, sad Hour, selected from all years
+  To mourn our loss, rouse thy obscure compeers,
+  And teach them thine own sorrow! Say. "With me
+  Died Adonais; till the Future dares
+  Forget the Past, his fate and fame shall be
+  An echo and a light unto eternity."
+
+[Sidenote: Wilhelm Meister]
+
+[Sidenote: Rise of romantic literature]
+
+[Sidenote: Victor Hugo]
+
+Other literary events of the year were the publication of Goethe's "Wilhelm
+Meister's Wander Jahre," and of Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin's first long
+poem, "Ruslan and Ludmilla." In this epic, written during Pushkin's early
+banishment to Bessarabia, an old Russian theme of the heroic times of Kiev
+was treated much after the manner of Byron's romantic examples. In France
+the romantic period in literature was inaugurated by young Victor Hugo,
+who, but the year before, had been crowned as "Maitre des jeux floraux" for
+a prize poem on Henri IV. Now Chateaubriand, in his journal "Le
+Conservateur," welcomed him as "Un enfant sublime." By his own romantic
+followers Hugo was hailed as chief of their poetic "Bataillon Sacre."
+During the same year the poet, then barely nineteen, married Mademoiselle
+Foucher, a girl of fifteen.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Napoleon]
+
+The most important event of the year for Frenchmen was the death of
+Napoleon Bonaparte at Longwood, in St. Helena. He died on May 5, after
+taking the holy sacrament. He left a last will with several codicils. In it
+Napoleon made the following declarations:
+
+[Sidenote: Napoleon's will]
+
+"I die in the Apostolical and Roman religion, in the bosom of which I was
+born more than fifty years ago. It is my wish that my ashes may repose on
+the banks of the Seine, in the midst of the French people whom I have loved
+so well. I have always had reason to be pleased with my dearest wife, Maria
+Louisa. I retain for her, to the last moment, the most tender sentiments. I
+beseech her to watch, in order to preserve my son from the snares which yet
+environ his infancy. I recommend to my son never to forget that he was born
+a French prince, and never to allow himself to become an instrument in the
+hands of the triumvirs who oppress the nations of Europe: he ought never to
+fight against France, or to injure her in any manner; he ought to adopt my
+motto--_Everything for the French people_. I die prematurely, assassinated
+by the English oligarchy and its tool. The English nation will not be slow
+in avenging me. The two unfortunate results of the invasions of France,
+when she had still so many resources, are to be attributed to the treason
+of Marmont, Augereau, Talleyrand, and Lafayette. I forgive them--may the
+posterity of France forgive them as I do! I pardon Louis for the libel he
+published in 1820; it is replete with false assertions and falsified
+documents. I disavow the 'Manuscript of St. Helena,' and other works, under
+the title of 'Maxims, Sayings,' etc., which persons have been pleased to
+publish for the last six years. Such are not the rules which have guided my
+life. I caused the Duc d'Enghien to be arrested and tried because that step
+was essential to the safety, interest and honor of the French people, when
+the Comte d'Artois was maintaining, by his own confession, sixty assassins
+at Paris. Under similar circumstances I should act in the same way."
+
+[Sidenote: The bequests]
+
+To his son and immediate relatives, Napoleon left most of his personal
+effects. Among his relatives and favorite followers he distributed a sum of
+6,000,000 francs, left in the hands of his bankers at the time of his
+flight from Paris; likewise the proceeds of a possible sale of his
+confiscated crown jewels. Count Lavalette and the children of Labedoyere
+were remembered with bequests of 100,000 and 50,000 francs, respectively.
+The final clauses were:
+
+"To be distributed among such proscribed persons as wander in foreign
+countries, whether they be French, Italians, Belgians, Dutch, Spanish, or
+inhabitants of the departments of the Rhine, under the directions of my
+executors, one hundred thousand francs. To be distributed among those who
+suffered amputation, or were severely wounded at Ligny or Waterloo, who may
+be still living, according to lists drawn up by my executors. The Guards
+shall be paid double, those of the Island of Elba quadruple, two hundred
+thousand francs."
+
+[Sidenote: Cantillon remembered]
+
+A curious bequest was that of 10,000 francs to Cantillon, a French
+subaltern, who was tried and acquitted for the attempted assassination of
+the Duke of Wellington in Paris on February 11, 1818. Napoleon thus
+explained this bequest:
+
+[Sidenote: Last fling at Wellington]
+
+"Cantillon had as much right to assassinate that oligarchist as the latter
+had to send me to perish upon the rock of St. Helena. Wellington, who
+proposed this outrage, attempted to justify it by pleading the interest of
+Great Britain. Cantillon, if he had really assassinated that lord, would
+have pleaded the same excuse, and been justified by the same motive--the
+interest of France--to get rid of this general, who, moreover, by violating
+the capitulation of Paris, had rendered himself responsible for the blood
+of the martyrs Ney, Labedoyere, etc., and for the crime of having pillaged
+the museums, contrary to the text of the treaties."
+
+This last legacy was not paid until 1855, when Napoleon III. discharged it.
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Richelieu's Ministry]
+
+[Sidenote: Villele Prime Minister]
+
+Late in the year the Ministry of Duc de Richelieu succumbed to the
+machinations of Comte d'Artois. Before his resignation, Richelieu
+complained to the Count, reminding him of his promises of support at the
+first formation of the Cabinet. "The fact is, my dear Duke," replied
+Monsieur, "if you allow me to say so, you have taken my words too
+literally. And then the circumstances at that time were so different." The
+Prime Minister rose abruptly and sought out the King. "Monsieur has broken
+his word of honor," he said, "he has broken his word as a gentleman." "What
+would you have me do?" said Louis XVIII. "He conspired against Louis XVI.;
+he conspires against me; he will conspire against himself." The explosion
+of a barrel of gunpowder in the royal palace raised apprehensions of
+another painful scene, like that preceding the fall of the Ministry of
+Decazes. Richelieu resigned, and Villele took his place. Chateaubriand was
+sent to London as Ambassador. While Parliamentary government in France
+labored thus under the onslaughts of the Royalist plotters in the Chambers,
+the so-called Era of Good Feeling in America was continued under the second
+administration of President Monroe.
+
+[Sidenote: Inauguration of Monroe]
+
+[Sidenote: Missouri admitted to Statehood]
+
+The 4th of March fell on a Sunday, and Monroe was the first President to be
+inaugurated on the 5th. Missouri was admitted conditionally, and, on August
+10, the President proclaimed its admission as the twenty-fourth State amid
+a tempest of political excitement. The contest over the slavery question
+was now supposed to be forever settled. In the debates of 1821, the House
+stood firmly against Missouri's admission as a slave State, and the Senate
+was equally determined that the colored citizens of other States should be
+denied citizenship in Missouri if the people so desired. At last it came to
+a conference committee. It was decided that the State should be admitted,
+as soon as its Legislature would agree that the section of the Constitution
+in question should not be construed as authorizing a law excluding any
+citizens of other States from the immunities and privileges to which they
+were entitled under the Constitution. The Legislature of Missouri gave this
+pledge, but it remained open whether free negroes and mulattoes were
+citizens in other States, and whether they were to be made citizens in
+Missouri. In the admission of Missouri there was for the first time an
+unmixed issue on the question of a free government or a slave-holding
+government in the United States. Doubtful dealings on the part of the
+Senators from Indiana and Illinois were followed by an attempt to make
+these States both slave-holding States, in face of the binding law of the
+Ordinance of 1787. A popular movement led by Governor Edward Coles of
+Illinois defeated this project.
+
+[Sidenote: Liberia]
+
+[Sidenote: Junius Brutus Booth]
+
+On May 5, the territory of Liberia was secured on the west coast of Africa,
+and a colony was founded for the repatriation of negro slaves, with
+Monrovia for a capital. During this same period Junius Brutus Booth made
+his first appearance in America, as Richard III., at Richmond. Late in the
+year the remains of Andre, the British officer who was shot as a spy during
+the American Revolution, were placed on a British ship for interment in
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+
+
+
+1822
+
+
+[Sidenote: Greek independence declared]
+
+[Sidenote: Sack of Chios]
+
+[Sidenote: Kanaris' exploit]
+
+Greek independence was declared on January 27. After the fall of Ali Pasha
+in February, the Sultan was able to turn his undivided attention to the
+Greek revolt. In March, a body of Samian revolutionists landed in Chios and
+incited the islanders to rise against the Turk. They laid siege to the
+citadel held by a Turkish garrison. Had the fleet of the Hydriotes helped
+them, they might have prevailed. As it was they rendered themselves a prey
+to the Turkish troops on the mainland. An army of nearly 10,000 Turks
+landed in Chios, and relieved the besieged garrison. Then the fanatical
+Moslems were let loose on the gentle inhabitants of the little island.
+Thousands were put to the sword. The slave markets of Northern Africa were
+glutted with Chian women and children. Within a month the once lovely
+island was a ruined waste. All Greece and Europe was filled with horror.
+Maurokordatos, now at the head of Greek affairs, was bitterly blamed for
+not sending over a fleet to save Chios. One single Greek took it into his
+hands to avenge his countrymen. The Turks were celebrating their sacred
+month of Ramazan. On the night of June 18, the festival of Biram, the
+Turkish fleet, under command of Kara Ali, was illuminated with colored
+lanterns. On that night Constantine Kanaris, a sea-captain from Psara,
+drove a fire-ship into the midst of the Turkish fleet. Sailing close up to
+the admiral's flagship he thrust his bowsprit into one of the portholes.
+Then setting fire to the pitch and resin on board his ship, he dropped into
+his small boat and pulled away. A breeze fanned the flames, and in a moment
+the big Turkish man-of-war was afire. The powder magazine blew up and the
+lifeboats went up in flames. The burning rigging fell down upon the doomed
+crew, and the admiral was struck down on his poop-deck. The ship was burned
+to the water's edge. The Turkish fleet scattered before the shower of
+blazing sparks, and was only brought together under the guns of the
+Dardanelles. This exploit made Kanaris the hero of Greece. Within the same
+year he repeated the feat.
+
+[Sidenote: Morea reinvaded]
+
+[Sidenote: End of Philhellene corps]
+
+[Sidenote: Defence of Argos]
+
+[Sidenote: Turks demoralized]
+
+The Sultan had thrown his whole land force into the Greek mainland.
+Khurshid, after his defeat of Ali Pasha, marched to Larissa, in Thessaly.
+Thence two armies, 50,000 strong, under Bramali and Homer Brionis converged
+upon the Morea. In the face of so formidable an invasion, Maurokordatos
+took the field himself. He mismanaged things badly. At Arta he sacrificed
+his choicest regiment, the famous corps of Philhellenes, composed of
+foreign officers and commanded by men who had won distinction in Napoleon's
+campaigns. They were cut down almost to a man. Maurokordatos fell back to
+Missolonghi. In the meanwhile Dramalis with 25,000 foot and 6,000 horse
+penetrated into the Morea. The Greek Government at Argos dispersed. All
+would have been lost for the Greeks had Dramalis not neglected to cover the
+mountain passes behind him. While he marched on to Nauplia, the Greek
+mountaineers rose behind him. Demetrios Ypsilanti, the acting-president of
+Greece, with a few hundred followers threw himself into Argos. There he
+held the Acropolis against the Turkish rearguard. Kolokotrones, calling out
+the last men from Tripolitza, relieved Ypsilanti at Argos. The mountain
+passage was seized. Dramalis had to give up his conquest of the Morea, and
+fight his way back to the Isthmus of Corinth. Without supplies and harassed
+by hostile peasant forces the Turkish army became badly demoralized.
+Thousands were lost on the way. Dramalis himself died from over-exposure.
+The remainder of his army melted away at Corinth under the combined effects
+of sickness and drought.
+
+[Sidenote: Capodistrias resigns]
+
+A decisive turn in the Greek war for independence was reached. Europe
+realized that the revolt had grown to the proportions of a national war.
+Popular sympathy in Russia became more clamorous. Capodistrias, the Russian
+Prime Minister, rightly measured the force of this long pent-up feeling.
+Unable to move the Czar, who still floundered in the toils of the Holy
+Alliance, Capodistrias withdrew from public affairs and retired to Geneva.
+
+[Sidenote: Suicide of Castlereagh]
+
+[Sidenote: Canning]
+
+[Sidenote: Iturbide Emperor of Mexico]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Pichincha]
+
+[Sidenote: San Martin retires]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Junin]
+
+[Sidenote: Ayacucho]
+
+[Sidenote: Independence of Brazil]
+
+In England, the suicide of Castlereagh brought Canning once more into
+prominence. Robert Peel was made Home Secretary. Canning's long retirement
+after the fiasco of his American policy, and his breach with Castlereagh,
+had served to chasten this statesman. As leader of the opposition, he had
+learned to reckon with the forces of popular feeling. When he returned to
+power in 1822, he was no longer an ultra-conservative, but a liberal. He
+now made no disguise of his sympathies with the cause of Greece, and with
+the struggle for independence in South and Central America. There the
+course of freedom had gathered so much momentum that it was plain to all
+that Spain could never prevail without help from others. In Mexico, upon
+the refusal of Ferdinand VII. to accept the separate crown of Mexico,
+General Iturbide proclaimed himself emperor. On May 19, he assumed the
+dignity. As Augustine I., he was crowned in the Cathedral of Mexico in
+July. At the same time San Martin and Bolivar met at Guayaquil to dispose
+of the destinies of South America. San Martin had just succeeded in
+liberating Peru, and had made his triumphal entry into Lima. Bolivar had
+brought aid to Ecuador, and established independence there. Jose de Sucre,
+whom Bolivar called the "soul of his army," defeated the Spaniards in the
+famous battle of Pichincha, fought at a height of 10,200 feet above the
+sea. When Bolivar and San Martin met on July 25, San Martin announced his
+determination to give a free field to Bolivar. The two men parted at a
+great public love-feast at which San Martin toasted Bolivar as the
+"liberator of Colombia." In his farewell address he said: "The presence of
+a fortunate general in the country which he has conquered is detrimental to
+the state. I have won the independence of Peru, and I now cease to be a
+public man." Speaking privately of Bolivar, he said: "He is the most
+extraordinary character of South America; one to whom difficulties but add
+strength." With his daughter Mercedes, San Martin retired to Europe, to
+dwell there in obscurity and poverty. Bolivar, with Generals Sucre, Miller
+and Cordova, assembled a great liberating army at Juarez. After a
+preliminary victory at Junin, Bolivar returned to Lima to assume the reigns
+of government, while his generals pushed on against the forces of the
+Spanish viceroy. Late in the year a decisive battle was fought at Ayacucho.
+The revolutionists charged down the mountain ridges upon the Spaniards in
+the plain, and utterly routed them. The viceroy himself was wounded, with
+700 of his men, while 1,400 Spaniards were killed outright. In these
+casualties the unusual disparity between killed and wounded reveals the
+unsparing ferocity of the fight. In Brazil a peaceful revolution was
+effected in September. After the return of Juan VI. to Portugal his son Dom
+Pedro reigned as regent. On September 7, he yielded to the demands of his
+American subjects, and proclaimed the independence of Brazil. He was
+declared constitutional emperor of Brazil on October 12, and was crowned as
+such shortly afterward at Rio Janeiro.
+
+[Sidenote: Discontent in Spain]
+
+[Sidenote: Foreign aid invoked]
+
+The South American colonies had now in great part secured independence.
+Spain was thereby robbed of her best resources. As financial distress
+became more widespread, the spirit of discontent rose. The King's plottings
+with the extreme Royalists of France lost him the confidence of his
+subjects. In the south the triumphant party of the so-called Exaltados
+refused obedience to the central administration. The municipal governments
+of Cadiz, Cartagena and Seville took the tone of independent republics. In
+the north, the Serviles, instigated by French agitators and their money,
+broke into open rebellion. After the adjournment of the Cortes, Ferdinand
+attempted to make a stroke for himself. The Royal Guards were ordered to
+march from Aranjuez to Madrid to place themselves under the King's personal
+command. The people took alarm, and several regiments of disaffected
+soldiers were induced to head off the guards. A fight ensued in the streets
+of Madrid. The guards were scattered. The King found himself a prisoner in
+his own palace. He wrote to Louis XVIII. that his crown was in peril. The
+Bourbon sympathizers in the north at once seized the town of Seo d'Urgel,
+and set up a provisional government. Civil war spread over Spain.
+Napoleon's final prophecy that Bourbon rule would end in the ruin of Spain,
+and the loss of all the best colonies was near fulfilment. It was then that
+the Continental powers of Europe proposed to interfere on behalf of the
+Spanish monarchy. The death of old Minister Hardenberg in Berlin did not
+loosen Metternich's hold on Prussia. Emperor Alexander hoped to conciliate
+his army, burning to fall upon the Turk, by treating them to a light
+campaign in Spain. In France, the Spanish war party likewise had the upper
+hand.
+
+[Sidenote: Monroe Doctrine]
+
+Nothing could save Spain; but Spanish South and Central America presented
+another issue. The new republics had developed a thriving trade with Great
+Britain and the United States of America, which made it impossible for
+these countries to ignore their flags. In America, Henry Clay on the floor
+of Congress, had already urged the recognition of South American
+independence. In his annual message to Congress in 1822 President Monroe
+took up the question. On behalf of the United States he declared that, the
+American continents were henceforth not to be considered a subject for
+further colonization by any European power. "In the war between Spain and
+her colonies," said President Monroe, "the United States will continue to
+observe the strictest neutrality.... With the existing colonies or
+dependencies of any European power we have not interfered and shall not
+interfere. But with the governments who have declared their independence
+and maintained it, and whose independence we have, on great considerations
+and on just principles, acknowledged, we could not view any interposition
+for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner
+their destiny by any European power, in any other light than as the
+manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States."
+
+[Sidenote: Jefferson's indorsement]
+
+[Sidenote: Canning's part]
+
+[Sidenote: Fyffe's comment]
+
+It was the famous Monroe Doctrine, a doctrine that in its substance, if not
+in words, had already served as the guiding star of Thomas Jefferson's and
+Madison's foreign policy. It is related that President Monroe, applying to
+Thomas Jefferson for his opinion on the matter, was surprised at the
+positive nature of the reply which he received. "Our first and fundamental
+maxim," said Jefferson, "should be never to entangle ourselves in the
+broils of Europe; our second, never to suffer Europe to intermeddle with
+cis-Atlantic affairs." At the same time that America thus flung down her
+gauntlet to Europe, Canning, on behalf of the British Ministry, proposed to
+inform the allied Cabinets of England's intention to accredit envoys to the
+South American republics. Assured of the support of the United States, and
+of Great Britain as well, South America could feel free to work out her own
+destiny. This was the master-stroke of Canning's career. When brought to
+bay afterward in Parliament, he could proudly boast: "I called the New
+World into being, in order to redress the balance of the Old." To Americans
+Canning's boast has ever seemed to rest on a flimsy foundation. As Fyffe,
+the English historian of modern Europe, has justly said, "The boast, famous
+in our Parliamentary history, has left an erroneous impression of the part
+really played by Canning at this crisis. He did not call the New World into
+existence; he did not even assist it in winning independence, as France had
+assisted the United States fifty years before; but when this independence
+had been won, he threw over it the aegis of Great Britain, declaring that no
+other European power should reimpose the yoke which Spain had not been able
+to maintain."
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Shelley]
+
+At the time that Canning made British liberalism respected abroad, literary
+England suffered another irreparable loss by the death of Percy Bysshe
+Shelley. The last few weeks had been spent by Shelley in Italy in the
+company of Trelawney, Williams and Lord Byron. Before this Maurokordatos,
+now battling in Greece, had been their constant companion. In June Leigh
+Hunt arrived. Shelley and Williams set out in a boat to meet him at
+Leghorn. The long parted friends met there. On July 8, Shelley and Williams
+set sail for the return voyage to Lerici. Their boat was last seen ten
+miles out at sea off Reggio. Then the haze of a summer storm hid it from
+view. Ten days later Shelley's body was washed ashore near Reggio. It was
+identified by a volume of Sophocles and of Keats's poems found on his
+person. In the presence of Byron, Trelawney and Leigh Hunt, Shelley's
+remains were cremated on the shore. His ashes were buried in the same
+burial ground with Keats, hard by the pyramid of Caius Cestius in Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: Lyric quality of his work]
+
+[Sidenote: Shelley's career]
+
+[Sidenote: Shelley's threnody]
+
+Shelley's poetry belongs primarily to the Revolutionary epoch in modern
+history. Though he wrote several long narrative poems and one great
+tragedy, he was above all a lyric poet--according to some the greatest
+lyric poet of England. His life, like his poetry, was almost untrammelled
+by convention. Both gave great offence to the stricter elements of English
+society. In some respects Shelley was peculiarly unfortunate. At the age of
+eighteen, after his expulsion from Oxford University, he married Harriet
+Westbrook, a girl of sixteen, and then found himself unable to support
+her. Later he abandoned her and eloped with Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin.
+Within a year his first wife committed suicide, and, three weeks later,
+Shelley married Mary Godwin. The tragedy stirred up much feeling among his
+friends. Among others the poet-laureate, Southey, remonstrated with
+Shelley. Shelley replied: "I take God to witness, if such a Being is now
+regarding both you and me, and I pledge myself, if we meet, as perhaps you
+expect, before Him after death, to repeat the same in His presence--that
+you accuse me wrongfully. I am innocent of ill, either done or intended."
+Next came Shelley's trouble with the Chancery. Lord-Chancellor Elden
+refused to give to Shelley the custody of his own children on the ground
+that Shelley's professed opinions and conduct were such as the law
+pronounced immoral. Shelley replied with his famous poetical curse "To the
+Lord Chancellor." While the poem stands as a masterpiece of lyric invective
+it did not mend matters for Shelley in England. In many of his other poems
+his detractors saw nothing but the glorification of revolution, incest, and
+atheism. When he wrote a satirical drama on so delicate a subject as the
+unhappy affairs of Queen Caroline, even his publisher turned against him.
+Yet the charm and beauty of Shelley's purely lyric pieces was such that he
+must ever stand as one of the foremost poets of England. Either his
+"Adonais" or the beautiful "Ode to the West Wind," would alone have
+perpetuated his name in English letters. One of Shelley's most exquisite
+pieces, written shortly before his death, has come to stand as the poet's
+own threnody:
+
+  "When the lamp is shattered
+    The light in the dust lies dead--
+  When the cloud is scattered
+    The rainbow's glory is shed.
+  When the lute is broken,
+    Sweet tones are remembered not;
+  When the lips have spoken,
+    Loved accents are soon forgot.
+
+  As music and splendor
+    Survive not the lamp and the lute,
+  The heart's echoes render
+    No song when the spirit is mute,
+  No song but sad dirges,
+    Like the wind through a ruined cell,
+  Or the mournful surges
+    That ring the dead seaman's knell."
+
+[Sidenote: Revival of letters]
+
+[Sidenote: Golden age of music]
+
+During this same year Thomas de Quincey published his "Confessions of an
+Opium Eater," a masterpiece of balanced prose. In other parts of the world,
+likewise, it was a golden period for literature. In France, Victor Hugo
+published his "Odes et Poesies Diverses," a collection of early poems which
+contained some of his most charming pieces. The rising Swedish poet,
+Tegner, brought out his "Children of the Last Supper." In Germany, Heinrich
+Heine, then still a student at Bonn, issued his earliest verses. For
+Germany this was no less a golden age of music. Beethoven, though quite
+deaf, was still the greatest of living composers. His great Choral
+Symphony, the ninth in D minor, was produced during this year, as was his
+Solemn Mass in D major. As a virtuoso he was rivalled by Hummel, who at
+this time gave to the world his famous Septet, accepted by himself as his
+masterwork. Two other German composers so distinguished themselves that
+they were invited to London to conduct the Philharmonic accompaniments.
+They were Carl Maria von Weber, who had just brought out his brilliant
+opera, "Der Freischuetz," and Ludwig Spohr, who performed in London his new
+Symphony in D minor. Of other composers there were Franz Schubert, whose
+melodious songs and symphonies won him the recognition of the Esterhazys
+and of Beethoven. Among those whose career was but beginning were Jacob
+Meyerbeer, a fellow pupil with Weber under Abbe Vogler at Vienna, and Felix
+Mendelssohn, the precocious pupil of the famous pianist Moscheles.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Herschel]
+
+Sir Frederick William Herschel, the greatest modern astronomer, died at
+Slough in England. Herschel was born in 1738 at Hanover. He was a musician
+of rare skill and a self-taught mathematician of great ability. In 1757, he
+deserted the band of Hanoverian Guards in which he played the oboe,
+although a mere boy, and fled to England, where he taught music and
+achieved success as a violinist and organist. His studies in sound and
+harmony led him to take up optics; and from optics to astronomy the step
+was short. Dissatisfied with the crude instruments of his time, he made his
+own telescopes; for it was his ambition to be not a mere star-gazer, but an
+earnest student of the heavens. By day, he and his brother and sister
+ground specula; by night he observed the heavens. His astronomical work
+includes a careful study of variable stars; an attempt to explain the
+relation of sun-spots to terrestrial phenomenae; the determination that the
+periods of rotation of various satellites, like the rotation of our own
+moon, are equal to the times of their revolutions about their primaries;
+and the discovery of the planet Uranus and two of its satellites, and of
+the sixth and seventh satellites of Saturn. His greatest work was his study
+of binary stars and the demonstration of his belief that the law of
+gravitation is universal in its application. His labors were invariably
+systematic, and were characterized by dogged, Teutonic perseverance. His
+discoveries were never purely accidental, but were made in accordance with
+a well-conceived plan.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Canova]
+
+Late in the autumn news came from Venice that Canova, the celebrated
+sculptor, had died. Antonio Canova was born in 1757 at Passaguo near
+Treviso. He was first an apprentice to a statuary in Bassano, from whom he
+went to the Academy of Venice, where he had a brilliant career. In 1779 he
+was sent by the Senate of Venice to Rome, and there produced his Theseus
+and the Slain Minotaur. In 1783, Canova undertook the execution of the tomb
+of Pope Clement XIV., a work similar to the tomb of Pope Clement XIII. His
+fame rapidly increased. He established a school for the benefit of young
+Venetians, and among other works produced the well-known Hebe and the
+colossal Hercules hurling Lichas into the sea. In 1797, Canova finished the
+model of the celebrated tomb of the Archduchess Christina of Austria.
+Napoleon called the rising sculptor to France, and he there executed the
+famous nude portrait of Napoleon now preserved in Milan. After his return
+to Italy he fashioned his Perseus with the Head of Medusa at Rome. When the
+Belvidere Apollo was carried off to France, this piece of statuary was
+thought not unworthy of the classic Apollo's place and pedestal in the
+Vatican. Among the later works of Canova are the colossal group of Theseus
+Killing the Minotaur, a Paris, and a Hector. After Napoleon's second fall
+in 1815, Canova was commissioned by the Pope to demand the restoration of
+the works of art carried from Rome. He went to Paris and succeeded in his
+mission. At his return to Rome in 1816, the Pope created him Marquis of
+Orchia, with a pension of 3,000 scudi, and his name was entered into the
+Golden Book at the Capitol. His closing years were spent in Venice. There
+he died October 13, 1822.
+
+[Sidenote: Congress of Verona]
+
+[Sidenote: England slighted]
+
+Upon Canning's accession to the Ministry in England, Wellington was
+appointed representative of Great Britain at the Congress of Powers
+convened at Vienna. The unsettled state of public opinion kept Wellington
+in England and later at Paris. He did not join the Congress until after its
+adjournment to Verona, to dispose of purely Italian affairs. Thus it
+happened that the supplementary meetings at Verona became the real European
+Congress of 1822. With the Neapolitan problem practically settled, and the
+Greek war with Turkey at a standstill, the situation in Spain was the most
+vital issue. The Czar of Russia and Metternich were determined not to
+tolerate the Constitution of the Spanish liberals. Alexander hoped to make
+good Russia's non-intervention in Greece by marching a victorious army into
+Spain. The extreme Royalists of France, on the other hand, were so bent on
+accomplishing this task themselves that they were resolved not to permit
+any Russian troops to pass through France. With the spectre of a general
+European war thus looming on the horizon, England endeavored to hold the
+balance for peace. Acting under the instructions of Canning, Wellington
+declared that England would rather set herself against the great alliance
+than consent to joint intervention in Spain. In his despatches to Canning,
+Wellington expressed his belief that this would result in a decision to
+leave the Spaniards to themselves. The only result was that England was
+left out of the affair altogether, as she had been in the case of Naples.
+It was partly owing to this international slight that Canning put his foot
+down so firmly in behalf of Portugal and the South American colonies.
+
+[Sidenote: French attitude toward Spain]
+
+At the Congress of Verona, Metternich once more won the day. With this
+backing, the French envoys, Montmorency and Chateaubriand, in defiance of
+their home instructions, committed France to war with Spain. An agreement
+was reached that, in default of radical changes in the Spanish
+Constitution, France and her allies would resort to intervention. On the
+part of England, Wellington rejected this proposal, but all the other
+powers consented. When the French Ambassadors returned to France, their
+Prime Minister, Villele, vented his dissatisfaction by repudiating his
+envoys. He addressed himself to the foreign Ambassadors at Paris with a
+request that the allies' demands on Spain be postponed. Montmorency at once
+resigned. No notice was taken of Villele's request except by England. The
+King himself went over to the war party and appointed Chateaubriand his
+Minister of Foreign Affairs. Great Britain's tentative offer of mediation
+was summarily rejected by France. To Villele, King Louis XVIII. thus
+explained his attitude: "Louis XIV. destroyed the Pyrenees; I shall not
+allow them to be raised again. He placed my house on the throne of Spain; I
+shall not allow it to fall."
+
+
+
+
+1823
+
+
+[Sidenote: French invasion of Spain]
+
+The Spanish Government was resolved to maintain the national independence
+of Spain. It would make no concession. The French Ambassador in Madrid was
+recalled. At the opening of the French Chambers in January, the King
+himself announced his decision: "I have ordered the recall of my Minister.
+One hundred thousand Frenchmen, commanded by a prince of my family, whom I
+fondly call my son, are ready to march with a prayer to the God of St.
+Louis that they may preserve the throne of Spain to the grandson of Henri
+IV. They shall save that fair kingdom from ruin and reconcile it to
+Europe." By the middle of March, the Duke of Angouleme and his staff left
+Paris. On April 7, the French vanguard crossed the Bidassoa, and the Duke
+entered Irun, welcomed by Spanish royalists. About the same time the Cortes
+and Constitutional Ministry left Madrid, and compelled King Ferdinand VII.
+to accompany them to Seville. The forces of the Spanish Government fell
+back without striking a blow. Bands of freebooters calling themselves
+royalists went pillaging throughout the northern provinces. The commandant
+of Madrid felt constrained to beg the French to hasten their advance lest
+the city fall a prey to the freebooters. Already the looting of the suburbs
+had begun, when the French entered the Spanish capital on the 24th of May.
+A regency was appointed under the Duke of Infantado. The Continental powers
+sent accredited representatives to Madrid. Meanwhile the Cortes withdrew to
+Cadiz. King Ferdinand refused to accompany them; so they suspended his
+powers and appointed a regency over his head. The French prepared to lay
+siege to Cadiz.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolution in Portugal]
+
+[Sidenote: Independence of Central America]
+
+[Sidenote: The South American struggle]
+
+Civil war broke out in Spain. Across the border in Portugal, Dom Miguel,
+the second son of the absent king, excited a counter revolution. This state
+of affairs in the Peninsula gave a finishing stroke to the royal cause in
+America. In Central America, the revolutionists of Costa Rica and
+Guatemala, who had made common cause with Mexico, proclaimed their
+independence. In Mexico, Santa Anna proclaimed the republic at Vera Cruz.
+Emperor Iturbide, who felt his throne tottering beneath him, retired, and
+was banished from Mexico with an annuity. His sympathizers in Costa Rica
+were overthrown in a battle at Ochomoco. On the first day of July, Costa
+Rica was united with its neighboring States in the federation of Central
+America. Nor had Peru been idle. Two royalist armies under Santa Cruz had
+entered the upper provinces. During the summer months they overran the
+country between La Paz and Oruro. But in early autumn they were forced back
+by the revolutionists under Bolivar, who entered Lima on September 1, and
+had himself proclaimed dictator of Peru. In Brazil, during this interval,
+the Constitutional Assembly had been convoked in accordance with Dom
+Pedro's promise. Under the leadership of the two Andrade brothers the
+delegates insisted on the most liberal of constitutions. Dom Pedro's first
+attempt to suppress the liberal leaders was foiled by the Assembly. Finally
+he dissolved the contentious assembly and exiled the Andrade brothers to
+France. In the provinces of Pernambuco and Ceara a republic was proclaimed.
+Rebellion broke out in Cisplatina.
+
+[Sidenote: Warring factions in Spain]
+
+[Sidenote: Siege of Cadiz]
+
+In Spain, the two opposing regencies vied with each other in retaliatory
+measures. Odious persecutions were instituted on both sides. In vain the
+Duke of Angouleme tried to restrain the reprisals of the Spanish royalists.
+In August he appeared before Cadiz. He called upon King Ferdinand to
+publish an amnesty and restore the medieval Cortes. But the Spanish
+Ministry, in the King's name, sent a defiant answer. Cadiz was thereupon
+besieged. On August 30, the French stormed the fort of the Trocadero. Three
+weeks later the city was bombarded. For the Spanish liberals, the cause had
+become hopeless. The French refused all terms but the absolute liberation
+of the King. On Ferdinand's assurance that he bore no grudge against his
+captors, the liberals agreed to release him. At last, on the 30th of
+September, Ferdinand signed a proclamation of absolute and universal
+amnesty. Next day he was taken across the bay to the French headquarters.
+The Cortes dissolved.
+
+[Sidenote: Release of Ferdinand VII.]
+
+The Duke of Angouleme received King Ferdinand with misgivings. Already he
+had written to France: "What most worries the liberals is the question of
+guarantees. They know that the King's word is utterly worthless, and that
+in spite of his promises he may very well hang every one of them."
+Angouleme's first interview confirmed his impression. In reply to his
+demand for a general pardon, Ferdinand pointed to the ragged mob shouting
+in front of his windows, and said: "You hear the will of the people."
+Angouleme wrote to Villele: "This country is about to fall back into
+absolutism. I have conscientiously done my part, and shall only express my
+settled conviction that every foolish act that can be done will be done."
+
+[Sidenote: Royalist reprisals]
+
+[Sidenote: Riego executed]
+
+Within twelve hours Ferdinand annulled all acts of the Constitutional
+Government during the preceding three years. By approving an act of the
+regency of Madrid, which declared all those who had taken part in the
+removal of the King to be traitors, Ferdinand practically signed the death
+warrant of those men whom he had just left with fair promises on his lips.
+Even before reaching Madrid, Ferdinand VII. banished for life from Madrid
+and from the country fifty miles around it every person who had served the
+government in Spain during the last three years. Don Saez, the King's
+confessor, was made Secretary of State. He revived the Inquisition, and
+ordered the prosecution of all those concerned in the pernicious and
+heretical doctrines associated with the late outbreak. Ferdinand justified
+his acts with a royal pronunciamiento containing this characteristic
+passage: "My soul is confounded with the horrible spectacle of the
+sacrilegious crimes which impiety has dared to commit against the Supreme
+Maker of the universe.... My soul shudders and will not be able to return
+to tranquillity, until, in union with my children, my faithful subjects, I
+offer to God holocausts of piety." Thousands of persons were imprisoned, or
+forced to flee the country. On November 7, Riego was hanged. Young men were
+shot for being Freemasons. Women were sent to the galleys for owning
+pictures of Riego.
+
+The Duke of Angouleme was indignant and would have nothing more to do with
+the King. In a parting letter of remonstrance he wrote: "I asked your
+Majesty to give an amnesty, and grant to your people some assurance for the
+future. You have done neither the one nor the other. Since your Majesty has
+recovered your authority, nothing has been heard of on your part but
+arrests and arbitrary edicts. Anxiety, fear, and discontent begin to spread
+everywhere." Angouleme returned to France thoroughly disenchanted with the
+cause for which he had drawn his sword.
+
+[Sidenote: The French elections]
+
+In France, as in England, the return of absolute rule in Spain was viewed
+with extreme disfavor by the Liberals. The success of the French arms, to
+be sure, gave the government an overwhelming majority at the elections. The
+voice of the Liberals was heard, however, in the first debate over the
+Spanish war. Manuel, a Liberal deputy, denounced foreign intervention in
+Spain. He said: "Can any one be ignorant that the misfortunes of the
+Stuarts in England were caused by nothing so much as the assistance granted
+them by France--an assistance foreign to the Parliament and to the people.
+The Stuarts would have avoided the fate that overtook them had they sought
+their support within the nation." For this alleged defence of regicide
+Manuel was excluded from the Chambers. On his refusal to give up his
+constitutional rights, he was forcibly ejected by the National Guards. "It
+is an insult to the National Guard," exclaimed the venerable Lafayette. In
+spite of the momentary triumph of the Royalists, Guizot's final verdict on
+French intervention in Spain expresses the true attitude of France:
+
+[Sidenote: Guizot's verdict]
+
+"The war was not popular in France; in fact, it was unjust, because
+unnecessary. The Spanish revolution, in spite of its excesses, exposed
+France and the Restoration to no serious risk; and the intervention was an
+attack upon the principle of the legitimate independence of States. It
+really produced neither to Spain nor France any good result. It restored
+Spain to the incurable and incapable despotism of Ferdinand VII., without
+putting a stop to the revolutions; it substituted the ferocities of the
+absolutist populace for that of the anarchical populace. Instead of
+confirming the influence of France beyond the Pyrenees, it threw the King
+of Spain into the arms of the absolutist powers, and delivered up the
+Spanish Liberals to the protection of England."
+
+During this year in France occurred the deaths of Dumouriez, the famous
+general of the Revolution, and of Marshal Davoust, the hero of Eckmuehl,
+Auerstaedt, and a score of other victories won during the Napoleonic
+campaigns. At Rome, Pope Pius VII., the one time prisoner of Napoleon, died
+in old age, and was succeeded by Pope Leo XII.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Jenner]
+
+[Sidenote: Vaccination]
+
+Dr. Edward J. Jenner, the great English surgeon and originator of
+vaccination, died in the same year at London. Jenner was led to his great
+discovery by the remark of an old peasant woman: "I can't catch smallpox,
+for I have had cowpox." In 1796, Jenner performed the first vaccination on
+a boy patient, James Phipps, whom he subsequently endowed with a house and
+grounds. The scientific results of this experiment and those that followed
+were embodied by Jenner in his "Inquiry into the causes and effects of the
+variolae vaccinae," published on the eve of the Nineteenth Century. Unlike so
+many other medical innovations, Jenner's epoch-making cure for the dread
+disease of smallpox won him almost instant general renown. Parliament, in
+1802, voted him a national reward of L10,000, and a few years later added
+another gift of L20,000. After his death a public monument was erected to
+Jenner's memory on Trafalgar Square.
+
+[Sidenote: Amherst Governor in India]
+
+In India, Lord Hastings retired from the governorship at Calcutta and was
+succeeded by Lord Amherst. At the time of his accession to office, Dutch
+influence had already become paramount in Borneo, whereas the British were
+firmly settled in Singapore.
+
+[Sidenote: American letters]
+
+In North America it was a year of industrial progress. On October 8, the
+first boat passed through the new Erie Canal from Rochester to New York. In
+Brooklyn the first three-story brick houses were built and the paving of
+streets was begun. The new system of numbering houses came in vogue. The
+earliest steam printing press was set up in New York and issued its first
+book. The manufacture of pins was begun, and wine in marketable quantities
+was first made in Cincinnati. American letters saw the appearance of
+Cooper's novels, "The Pioneers" and the "Pilot." Halleck published his
+famous poem, "Marco Bozarris." During this year an American squadron under
+Commodore Porter put an end to piracy and freebooting in the West Indies.
+On the first day of December the Eighteenth Congress met and Henry Clay was
+once more elected Speaker of the House.
+
+
+
+
+1824
+
+
+[Sidenote: American high tariff]
+
+[Sidenote: Southern ascendency waning]
+
+In January, a protective tariff bill was introduced in the American
+Congress. It was opposed by the South and by New England. On May 22,
+Congress, by a majority of five in the House and four in the Senate, passed
+Clay's measure. The average rate of tariff was thirty-seven per cent.
+Before the passage of the bill England had been importing goods more
+cheaply than Americans could manufacture them. American manufacturers could
+now sell their goods at a profit. Even then there were believers in free
+trade, who held that the country would naturally produce that which was
+prohibited, and that the productions which were brought into existence by
+taxation put a portion of the people into unprofitable employment,
+advantageous only to the manufacturers. But the Middle and Western States,
+with the aid of the representatives from the manufacturing districts of New
+England, were strong enough to give the tariff a small majority. From 1824
+the imposition of protective duties has been the bone of contention of the
+two great political parties in America. The economical struggle between
+protection and free trade has since gone on with varying features.
+Political leadership in the United States was passing from the South to the
+North. New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio were fast pushing to the front.
+Buffalo had 20,000 population; and other interior towns were growing
+rapidly. Millions of acres of valuable lands were put under cultivation in
+the central and western counties of New York and Pennsylvania and in Ohio;
+manufacturing industries multiplied. From a sparsely inhabited country in
+1800, Ohio had grown, in 1824, to be the fifth State in population.
+
+[Sidenote: American letters]
+
+American letters were enriched in this year by Irving's "Tales of a
+Traveller," Paulding's "John Bull," Bancroft's "Politics in Ancient
+Greece," and Verplanck's "Revealed Religion."
+
+[Sidenote: South American republics recognized]
+
+During the first session of Congress a special message from President
+Monroe recommended the establishment of intercourse with the new
+independent States of South America--Venezuela, New Granada, Buenos Ayres,
+Chile and Peru. Congress voted for recognition by an overwhelming majority,
+and the President signed the bill. The United States was the first among
+the civilized powers to welcome the new republics.
+
+The struggle for independence in South America was furthered more than ever
+by the unsatisfactory state of affairs on the Peninsula. In Spain the
+return of absolute rule was still followed by a reign of terror. The people
+there relapsed into medieval barbarism.
+
+[Sidenote: Portuguese Constitution triumphant]
+
+[Sidenote: Growth of republican sentiment]
+
+[Sidenote: Iturbide shot]
+
+[Sidenote: Santa Anna in power]
+
+In Portugal, the revolution stirred up by Dom Miguel ended with the
+expulsion of that prince from Lisbon. His father, Dom Pedro, in Brazil,
+thought it wise to recognize the liberal constitution imposed upon him by
+his people. In the other Latin-American countries the people rebelled
+against one-man rule. In Chile, General O'Higgins was forced to resign his
+dictatorship and a provisional Triumvirate assumed the government. At Lima,
+Bolivar found his powers curtailed. Mariano Prado was elected president.
+The feeling against imperialism was so strong in Central America that all
+the smaller States joined in confederation to ward off this danger
+threatening them from Mexico. The Junta of San Salvador went so far as to
+pass a resolution favoring annexation by the United States of North America
+in case the Mexican imperialists crossed its borders. Eventually San
+Salvador, together with Nicaragua and Costa Rica, joined the Central
+American Union. The first Congress in Costa Rica elected Juan Mora
+president. In Mexico, in the meantime, a strong provisional government was
+established by Santa Anna. Ex-Emperor Iturbide, who in defiance of his
+exile returned to Mexico, was arrested as he landed at Sota la Marina in
+July. He was taken to the capital, tried, condemned, and shot. As he faced
+death he said: "Mexicans, I die because I came to help you. I die gladly,
+because I die among you. I die not as a traitor, but with honor." With
+Iturbide out of the way, Santa Anna established a government strong enough
+to accomplish the annexation of California. Henceforth there was no danger
+of a return to Spanish rule. In England, Canning followed Monroe with an
+absolute recognition of the independent governments in America.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Byron]
+
+[Sidenote: Rhegas' hymn]
+
+By this time public opinion in England had been aroused in behalf of the
+Greeks still struggling for their independence from the yoke of Turkey. A
+powerful impetus was given to this feeling by the tragic death of Lord
+Byron in Greece. A few months before the poet had sailed from Genoa for
+Greece to take active part in the war for freedom. He died of fever at
+Missolonghi on April 19, at the age of thirty-six. One of his last poems
+was a spirited translation of Rhegas' famous Greek national hymn:
+
+  Sons of the Greeks, arise!
+    The glorious hour shines forth,
+  And, worthy of such ties,
+    Display who gave us worth!
+
+  Sons of Greeks! let us go
+    In arms against the foe,
+  Till their hated blood shall flow
+    In a river past our feet.
+
+  Then manfully despise
+    The Turkish tyrant's yoke,
+  Let your country see you rise,
+    Till all her chains are broke.
+
+  Brave shades of chiefs and sages,
+    Behold the coming strife!
+  Greeks of past ages,
+    Oh, start again to life!
+
+  At the sound of my trumpet,
+    Break your sleep, join with me!
+  And the seven-hill'd city seek,
+    Fight, and win, till we are free!
+
+[Sidenote: Goethe on Byron]
+
+[Sidenote: Mazzini's verdict]
+
+[Sidenote: Shelley's estimate]
+
+[Sidenote: Symonds' judgment]
+
+[Sidenote: Byron's best works]
+
+Byron's death served the Greek cause better perhaps than all he could have
+achieved had his life been prolonged. It caused a greater stir throughout
+Continental Europe than it did in England. In truth Byron's poetry was
+more appreciated by the world at large than by his countrymen--a literary
+anomaly that has prevailed even to the end of the Nineteenth Century.
+Goethe said of Byron after his death: "The English may think of Byron as
+they please; but this is certain, that they can show no poet who is to be
+compared with him. He is different from all the others, and for the most
+part greater." Mazzini, many years later, concluded his famous essay on
+Byron and Goethe with this vindication of the English poet's claim: "The
+day will come when Democracy will remember all that it owes to Byron.
+England too, will, I hope, one day remember the mission--so entirely
+English, yet hitherto overlooked by her--which Byron fulfilled on the
+Continent; the European cast given by him to English literature, and the
+appreciation and sympathy for England which he awakened among us." Shelley,
+who knew Byron intimately, has given perhaps the best expression to the
+English view of him. He said of him in 1822: "The coarse music which he
+produced touched a chord to which a million hearts responded.... Space
+wondered less at the swift and fair creations of God when he grew weary of
+vacancy, than I at this spirit of an angel in the mortal paradise of a
+decaying body." To most Englishmen of his day, Byron, like Shelley,
+appeared as a monster of impious wickedness. Unlike Shelley, he attained
+thereby the vogue of the forbidden. His earliest poems achieved what the
+French call a _succes de scandal_. His satire, "English Bards and Scotch
+Reviewers," brought to the youthful poet a notoriety amounting to fame.
+After the publication of the first two cantos of "Childe Harold," in 1812,
+according to his own phrase, he awoke to find himself famous, and became a
+spoiled child of society. Trelawney has recorded that Byron was what London
+in the days of the Prince Regent made him. One of Byron's ablest critics,
+Symonds, has put this even more strongly: "His judgment of the world was
+prematurely warped, while his naturally earnest feelings were overlaid with
+affectations and prejudices which he never succeeded in shaking off.... It
+was his misfortune to be well born, but ill bred, combining the pride of a
+peer with the self-consciousness of a parvenu." Byron's life in London
+between 1812 and 1816 certainly increased his tendency to cynicism, as did
+his divorce from his wife. While these experiences distorted his personal
+character, they supplied him, however, with much of the irony wrought into
+his masterpiece, "Don Juan." His poetic genius derived its strongest
+stimulus from his imbittered domestic life and from his travels in Spain,
+Italy and Greece. This twofold character of the poet it is that is revealed
+in his best poems, "Childe Harold" and "Don Juan." He used both works as
+receptacles for the most incongruous ideas. "If things are farcical," he
+once said to Trelawney, "they will do for 'Don Juan'; if heroical, you
+shall have another canto of 'Childe Harold.'" This means of disposing of
+his poetic ideas accounts for the great volume of Byron's verse as well as
+for its inequality. That "Don Juan" was never finished cannot therefore be
+regretted.
+
+[Sidenote: His last verses]
+
+Byron's last verses were lines written on January 22, 1824, at Missolonghi.
+To one of his English military associates in the expedition of Lepanto he
+remarked: "You were complaining that I never write any poetry now. This is
+my birthday, and I have just finished something which, I think, is better
+than what I usually write." They were the famous lines, "On this Day I
+complete my Thirty-sixth Year":
+
+  'Tis time the heart should be unmoved,
+    Since others it hath ceased to move;
+  Yet, though I cannot be beloved,
+      Still let me love!
+
+  My days are in the yellow leaf;
+    The flowers and fruits of love are gone;
+  The worm, the canker, and the grief
+      Are mine alone!
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Awake! (not Greece--she is awake!)
+    Awake my spirit! Think through whom
+  Thy life-blood tracks its parent lake,
+      And then strike home!
+
+  If thou regret'st thy youth, why live?
+    The land of honorable death
+  Is here--Up, to the field, and give
+      Away thy breath!
+
+  Seek out--less often sought than found--
+    A soldier's grave, for thee the best!
+  Then look around, and choose thy ground,
+      And take thy rest!
+
+[Sidenote: Russian suzerainty rejected by Greeks]
+
+[Sidenote: Ibrahim invades Greece]
+
+[Sidenote: Sack of Psara]
+
+When Byron died, Missolonghi had been delivered from its first siege.
+Greece was plunged in civil war. Kolokotrones, who set himself up against
+the government of Konduriottes and Kolletes, was overthrown and lodged in
+a prison on the island of Hydra. An offer of Russian intervention at the
+price of Russian suzerainty was rejected by the Greeks. Encouraged by this,
+the Sultan appealed to his vassal, Mehemet Ali of Egypt, to help him
+exterminate the Greeks. The island of Crete was held out to Mehemet Ali as
+a prize. The ambitious ruler of Egypt responded with enthusiasm. He raised
+an army of 90,000 men and a fleet, and sent them forth under the command of
+his adopted son Ibrahim. Early in the spring the Egyptian expedition landed
+in Crete and all but exterminated its Greek population. The island of
+Kossos was next captured; and its inhabitants were butchered. In July, the
+Turkish fleet took advantage of the Greek Government's weakness to make a
+descent upon Psara, one of the choicest islands of Greece. In spite of
+desperate resistance, the citadel of Psara was stormed, and the Psariotes
+were put to the sword. Thousands were slain, while the women and children
+were carried off as slaves. How little the miseries of the Greeks affected
+the rulers of Europe may be gathered from this bright side light on
+Metternich given by his secretary Gentz:
+
+[Sidenote: Metternich's comment]
+
+[Sidenote: Defeat of Turkish fleet]
+
+"Prince Metternich was taking an excursion, in which unfortunately I could
+not accompany him. I at once sent a letter after him from Ischl with the
+important news of the Psariote defeat.... The prince soon came back to me;
+and (pianissimo, in order that friends of Greece might not hear it) we
+congratulated one another on the event, which may very well prove the
+beginning of the end for the Greek insurrection." The Greeks, instead of
+desponding, were aroused to fiercer resistance than ever. A Hydriote fleet
+foiled Ibrahim Pasha's attempt on Samos. When he tried to return to Crete
+his fleet was beaten back with a signal reverse. Finally, late in the year,
+the Egyptians succeeded in eluding the vigilance of the Hydriote
+sea-captains, and regained their base of supplies in Crete.
+
+[Sidenote: Burmese war]
+
+[Sidenote: Siege of Rangoon]
+
+[Sidenote: British checked at Donabew]
+
+While Canning's Ministry was still preparing the ground for European
+intervention in Greece, the British Government in India found itself with
+another native war on its hands. In 1822, the Burmese leader Bundula had
+invaded the countries between Burma and Bengal. The Burmese conquered the
+independent principalities of Assam and Munipore, and threatened Cachar.
+Next Bundula invaded British territory and cut off a detachment of British
+sepoys. It was evident that the Burmese were bent on the conquest of
+Bengal. Lord Amherst, who had assumed charge early in 1824, sent an
+expedition against them under Sir Archibald Campbell. The resistance of the
+Burmese was despicable. The British soldiers nowhere found foes worthy of
+their steel. In May, the British expedition, having marched straight to
+Burma, occupied the capital Rangoon, which was found deserted and denuded
+of all supplies. Ill fed and far from succor, the British had to spend a
+rainy season there. Taking advantage of their precarious position, Bundula
+returned late in the year with an army of 60,000 men. The Englishmen were
+besieged. In December they made a successful sortie and stormed the
+Burmese stockades. Bundula with the remains of his army was driven up the
+banks of the river Irawaddy. They made a stand at Donabew, some forty miles
+from Rangoon, where they held the British in check.
+
+[Sidenote: German letters]
+
+The rest of the world throughout this year lay in profound peace. In
+Germany the rulers of the various principalities were allowed to continue
+their reigns undisturbed. Only in Brunswick the assumption of the
+government by Charles Frederick William met with the disapproval of the
+German Diet. Although pronounced incapable of reigning, he succeeded none
+the less in clinging to his throne. A more important event for the
+enlightened element in Germany was the appearance of the first of Leopold
+von Ranke's great histories of the Romance and Teutonic peoples. In the
+realm of poetry a stir was created by the publication of Rueckert's and
+Boerne's lyrics, and Heinrich Heine's "Alamansor" and "Ratcliffe."
+
+[Sidenote: French literature]
+
+[Sidenote: Clericals in the ascendant]
+
+[Sidenote: Chateaubriand dismissed]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Louis XVIII.]
+
+In France, Lamartine brought out his "Death of Socrates," and Louis Thiers
+published the first instalments of his great "History of the French
+Revolution." Simultaneously there appeared Francois Mignet's "History of
+the French Revolution." While these historians were expounding the lessons
+of this great regeneration of France, the Royalists in the Chambers did
+their best to undo its work. After the ejection of Manuel from the
+Chambers, and the Ministers' consequent appeal to the country, the
+elections were so manipulated by the government that only nineteen Liberal
+members were returned to the Chambers. Immediate advantage was taken of
+this to favor the Clericals and returned Emigrees, and to change the laws
+so as to elect a new House every seven years, instead of one-fifth part of
+the Chamber each year. Monseigneur Frayssinous, the leader of the
+Clericals, was made Minister of Public Instruction. The friction between
+Prime Minister Villele and Chateaubriand was ended by Villele's summary
+dismissal of Chateaubriand as Foreign Minister. Chateaubriand at once
+became the most formidable opponent of the Ministry in the "Journal des
+Debats," and in the Chamber of Peers. At this stage of public affairs Louis
+XVIII. died, on September 16, with the ancient pomp of royalty. Before he
+expired he said, pointing to his bed: "My brother will not die in that
+bed." The old King's prophecy was based on the character of the French
+people as much as on that of his brother. Indeed, Louis XVIII. was the only
+French ruler during the Nineteenth Century who died as a sovereign in his
+bed. He was duly succeeded by his brother, Count of Artois, who took the
+title "Charles X." and retained Villele as Minister of France.
+
+
+
+
+1825
+
+
+[Sidenote: Charles X.]
+
+Charles X. was crowned King of France in the Cathedral of Rheims. His first
+public measure was the appropriation of a million francs to indemnify the
+French Royalists, whose lands had been confiscated during the French
+Revolution. Next came the proposal of a law on sacrilege, and one for
+primogeniture. Both bills were strenuously opposed by the Liberals. Broglie
+exclaimed: "What you are now preparing is a social and political
+revolution, a revolution against the revolution which changed France nearly
+forty years ago." Old Lafayette was glad to leave the country to visit
+North America.
+
+[Sidenote: American election contest]
+
+[Sidenote: John Quincy Adams President]
+
+[Sidenote: Henry Clay rewarded]
+
+[Sidenote: Changes in American politics]
+
+[Sidenote: Adams's first message]
+
+In the United States the election of 1824 had to be decided by the House of
+Representatives. For the Presidency the candidates were Andrew Jackson,
+John Quincy Adams, Crawford and Clay, and for the Vice-Presidency Calhoun,
+Sanford, Macon, Jackson, Van Buren and Clay. They all belonged to the
+Democratic-Republican party. Jackson had received the highest number of
+electoral votes--99 were for him and 84 for Adams. Calhoun, as candidate
+for Vice-President, led with 182 votes. In the House of Representatives
+Clay, as leader, opposed Jackson. Adams was declared President, with
+Calhoun for Vice-President. The electoral vote of thirteen States was given
+to Adams, while Jackson received seven. John Quincy Adams was then
+fifty-eight years of age. Washington had made him Minister to The Hague,
+and then to Lisbon, and in 1797 his father, then President, sent him as
+Minister to Berlin. In 1803, he was United States Senator. Six years later
+he was Minister to Russia. During both of Monroe's terms he was Secretary
+of State. Upon his inauguration as President, Adams made Clay Secretary of
+State. Wirt, McLean and Southard were retained in the Cabinet. The
+adherents of Jackson declared that a bargain had been made between Clay and
+Adams, who then paid Clay they alleged for his support in the "scrub race"
+for the Presidency. Randolph characterized the supposed arrangement as a
+"bargain between the Puritan and the Black Leg," and in consequence was
+challenged by Clay to fight a duel. Neither was injured. The election was
+followed by an immediate reorganization of political parties, on the
+question of supporting Adams's administration. Whether the successor of
+Adams should be a Northerner or a Southerner was the question at issue. His
+opponents were slave-holders and their Northern friends; his supporters,
+the antagonists of the Democratic party, whether known as National
+Republican, Whig or Republican party, all of which terms were in use. For
+the first time the new Congress, under the reapportionment, represented the
+entire population of the country, with New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio in
+the lead. In the Senate were men of brilliant promise. Clay was still a
+leader, and so was Webster, in the rising majesty of his renown. The
+contest between the parties was narrowed down to two great issues--internal
+improvements under national auspices and tariff for the protection of
+manufactures. President Adams in his first message gave opportunity for
+concerted opposition. He took advanced ground in favor of national
+expenditure on internal improvements, and urged the multiplication of
+canals, the endowment of a national university, expenditures for scientific
+research, and the erection of a national observatory. He announced that an
+invitation had been accepted from the South American states to a conference
+at Panama, in regard to the formation of a political and commercial league
+between the two Americas. The Senate requested President Adams to give it
+information "touching the principles and practice of the Spanish-American
+states, or any of them--in regard to negro slavery." The subject was
+debated for almost the entire session. When enough had been said to show
+that slavery must not be interfered with, the delegates were nominated and
+an appropriation was made. The delegates never went.
+
+[Sidenote: Erie Canal completed]
+
+[Sidenote: Beneficial results]
+
+On November 4, the first boat travelling along the new Erie Canal reached
+New York. Through the efforts of De Witt Clinton, the State of New York
+without Congressional aid had completed the great Erie Canal. Its annual
+tolls were found to amount to half its cost. The financial and commercial
+results of the great work were immediate and manifest. The cost of
+carrying freight between Albany and New York was reduced from the 1820 rate
+of $88 per ton, to $22.50, and soon to $6.50. Travel was no less
+facilitated, so that it was possible for emigrants to reach Michigan,
+Illinois and Wisconsin cheaply. These fertile States grew accordingly in
+population. In 1825 the Capitol at Washington was nearly completed; the
+outer walls proved to be uninjured by the fire of 1814. The foundation of
+the central building had been laid in 1818, and this edifice was now
+completed on its original plan.
+
+[Sidenote: Lafayette visits America]
+
+The American visit of the old Marquis de la Fayette--to give him his French
+name--was celebrated with national rejoicings. Years ago, when he left the
+American republic after its independence was achieved, it was a poor, weak
+and struggling nation. Its prosperity and increasing power now amazed him.
+The thirteen colonies along the coast had increased to twenty-four
+independent, growing and progressive commonwealths, reaching a thousand
+miles westward from the sea. Lafayette was the nation's guest for a year.
+On June 17, 1825, just fifty years after the battle of Bunker Hill, he laid
+the cornerstone of the obelisk which commemorates that battle in Boston. On
+this same occasion Daniel Webster made one of his great speeches. Lafayette
+returned to France in the American frigate "Brandywine," named in honor of
+the first battle in which Lafayette fought and was wounded half a century
+before. Congress presented him with a gift of $200,000 in money, and with a
+township of land in recognition of the disinterested services of his
+youth.
+
+[Sidenote: Argentine Republic]
+
+Shortly before President Adams accepted the invitation to send North
+American representatives to the proposed Congress of Panama, thirteen
+independent States joined at Buenos Ayres in a powerful confederation and
+formed the Republic of Argentine. A national constitution was adopted and
+Rivadiera elected President. The new republic was soon called upon to prove
+its mettle in the war levied against it by Brazil for the possession of
+Uruguay. In the end Uruguay remained a part of Argentina. Brazil had
+previously achieved its complete independence from the mother country by
+assuming the public debt of Portugal, amounting to some ten million
+dollars. England gave its official recognition to these new changes of
+government as it had to the others.
+
+[Sidenote: Burmese reverses]
+
+[Sidenote: New British acquisitions]
+
+The British war against the Burmese was nearly over. Early in the year the
+British forces left at Rangoon advanced up the river Irawaddy toward
+Donabew. The first attempt to take this stronghold was repulsed, whereupon
+the British settled down to a regular siege. While trying to get the range
+with their mortars the gunners succeeded in killing Bundula, the chieftain
+of the Burmese. His brother flinched from the command of the army and was
+promptly beheaded. The Burmese forces went to pieces. The British proceeded
+to Prome, and inflicted another crushing defeat on the remaining
+detachments of the Burmese army. At the approach of the British column the
+Burmese rulers at Ava became frantic. All the demented women that could be
+found in and about Ava were gathered together and conducted to the front
+that they might bewitch the English. When this measure proved ineffectual,
+Prince Tharawadi tried to stem the British approach, but could not get his
+followers to face the enemy. All the country from Rangoon to Ava was under
+British control. The Burmese came to terms. As a result of the conflict the
+territories of Assam, Arrakan and Tenaserim were ceded to the British.
+
+[Sidenote: Crisis in Bhurtpore]
+
+[Sidenote: Summary British dealings]
+
+While the British were still in the midst of this campaign a crisis
+occurred in Bhurtpore. The sudden death of the Rajah there left no
+successor to the throne but an infant son of seven. He was proclaimed Rajah
+under the guardianship of his uncle. A cousin of the dead king won over the
+army of Bhurtpore, and putting the uncle to death imprisoned the little
+Rajah. Sir David Ochterlony, the aged British Resident at Delhi, interfered
+in behalf of the little prince and advanced British troops into Bhurtpore.
+His measures were repudiated by Lord Amherst. Sir David took the rebuff so
+much to heart that he resigned his appointment. Within two months after his
+retirement the old soldier died in bitterness of soul. The sequel
+vindicated his judgment. In defiance of the British Government, the usurper
+of Bhurtpore rallied around him all the dissatisfied spirits of the
+Mahrattas, Pindarees, Jats and Rajputs. Lord Amherst was forced to retreat
+to Vera. The British army under Lord Combermere crossed the border and
+pushed through to Bhurtpore. The heavy mud walls of the capital had to be
+breached with mines. The usurper was deposed and put out of harm's way in a
+British prison. With the restoration of the infant Prince in Bhurtpore, all
+danger of another great Indian rising seemed at end.
+
+  [Illustration: SOLFERINO
+    Painted by E. Meissonier
+    From Carbon Print by Braun, Clement & Co., N.Y.]
+
+[Sidenote: The first railway]
+
+At home in England it was a period of unprecedented scientific and
+industrial development. Following Faraday's recent conversion of the
+electric current into mechanical motion, Sturgeon invented the prototype of
+the electro-magnet. The first public railway for steam locomotives was
+opened between Stockton and Darlington by Edward Peese and George
+Stephenson--an innovation which caused great excitement throughout England.
+On the opening day, September 27, an immense concourse of people assembled
+along the line to see the train go by. Nearly every one prophesied that the
+"iron horse" would be a failure. The train weighed about ninety English
+tons, and consisted of six wagons loaded with coal and flour, then a
+covered coach containing directors and proprietors, with twenty-one coal
+wagons fitted up for invited passengers, nearly 600 in number. Stephenson's
+engine, named the "Locomotion," had a ten-foot boiler and weighed not quite
+1,500 pounds. As six miles an hour was supposed to be the limit of speed,
+it was arranged that a man on horseback should ride on the track ahead of
+the engine carrying a flag. The train was started without difficulty amid
+cheers. Many tried to keep up with it by running, and some gentlemen on
+horseback galloped across the fields to accompany the train. After a few
+minutes, Stephenson shouted to the horseman with the flag to get out of the
+way, for he was going to "let her go." Ordering the fireman to "keep her
+hot, lad," he opened wide the throttle-valve and the speed was quickly
+raised to twelve miles an hour and then to fifteen.
+
+[Sidenote: Stephenson's practical demonstration]
+
+The runners on foot, the gentlemen on horseback and the horseman with the
+flag were left far behind. So, with the cross-beams and side-rods trembling
+from the violent motion, the red-hot chimney ejecting clouds of black
+smoke, amid the cheers of the delighted spectators and to the astonishment
+of the passengers--the immortal George Stephenson brought his train safely
+into Darlington.
+
+As the "Newcastle Courant" (October 1, 1825) put it, "certainly the
+performance excited the astonishment of all present, and exceeded the most
+sanguine expectations of every one conversant with the subject. The engine
+arrived at Stockton in three hours and seven minutes after leaving
+Darlington, including stops, the distance being nearly twelve miles, which
+is at the rate of four miles an hour; and upon the level part of the
+railway, the number of passengers was counted about four hundred and fifty,
+and several more clung to the carriages on each side. At one time the
+passengers by the engine had the pleasure of accompanying and cheering
+their brother passengers by the stage coach, which passed alongside, and of
+observing the striking contrast exhibited by the power of the engine and of
+horses; the engine with her six hundred passengers and load, and the coach
+with four horses and only sixteen passengers."
+
+[Sidenote: Immediate railroad development]
+
+So successful was the Stockton and Darlington railway that a bill was
+brought in Parliament for the construction of a railroad between Liverpool
+and Manchester after Stephenson's plan. The scheme was violently opposed.
+Its detractors, among whom were Lords Lefton and Derby, declared that
+Stephenson's locomotive would poison the air, kill the birds as they flew
+over them, destroy the preservation of pheasants, burn up the farms and
+homesteads near the lines; that oats and hay would become unsalable because
+horses would become extinct; travelling on the highways would become
+impossible; country inns would be ruined; boilers would burst and kill
+hundreds of passengers. Indeed, there was no peril imaginable that was not
+predicted to attend the working of a railroad by steam.
+
+When Stephenson was examined by a Parliamentary committee, one of the
+members put this question: "Suppose, now, one of these engines to be going
+along a railroad at a rate of nine or ten miles an hour, and that a cow
+were to stray upon the line, and get in the way of the engine, would not
+that, think you, be a very awkward circumstance?" "Yaw," replied
+Stephenson, in his broad Northumbrian dialect, "ay, awkward--for the
+_coo_." On account of his speech Stephenson was denounced as a "foreigner,"
+and the bill was thrown out by the committee, by a vote of 37 against 36.
+After a second Parliamentary battle, the bill was passed through both
+Houses by a majority of forty-seven votes. The passage of the act cost
+L27,000.
+
+[Sidenote: Other modern inventions]
+
+[Sidenote: English financial crisis averted]
+
+[Sidenote: Canning's attempted reforms]
+
+Almost coincidentally, Faraday found that benzine was a constituent of
+petroleum, a discovery destined to affect the modern construction of
+automobile vehicles toward the close of the century. A number of other
+achievements made this an important year for science in England. John
+Crowther took out a patent for his invention of a hydraulic crane. The
+steam jet was first applied to construction work by Timothy Hackworth.
+Joseph Clement built a planing machine for iron. One of the earliest chain
+suspension bridges was erected at Menai Strait by Thomas Thelford, and at
+the same time Brunel sunk his first shaft for the Thames tunnel.
+Significant of the industrial revival of those days was the opening of
+mechanics' institutes at Exeter and Belfast. In Canada, the newly founded
+McGill College was raised to the rank of a university. A financial measure
+of far-reaching import was the Bank of England's sudden diminution of its
+circulation to the extent of L3,500,000 by the combined exertions of the
+bank and of the royal mint. A crisis in public funds was thus averted. The
+most important political measure of the year was Canning's attempt to
+repeal the political disabilities of the Catholics in England. A bill to
+this effect was passed through the Commons, but was thrown out by the House
+of Lords. Canning's friend Huskisson inaugurated a commercial policy, which
+was founded on the theory of free trade, destined to bring about the repeal
+of the corn laws.
+
+[Sidenote: Greek reverses]
+
+[Sidenote: Nauplia and Missolonghi besieged]
+
+[Sidenote: Greece devastated]
+
+The situation in Greece was calculated to stiffen the backbone of Canning's
+foreign policy. On February 22, Ibrahim's Egyptian army had crossed the sea
+unopposed and overran the Morea. The Greeks were defeated near Nodoni, and
+the garrison of Sphakteria was overwhelmed. The forts of Navarino
+capitulated. In vain was old Kolokotrones released from his prison to
+oppose the onslaught of Ibrahim's Arabs. The Greeks were driven back
+through Tripolitza, and did not succeed in making a stand until the Turks
+reached Nauplia. Here Demetrios Ypsilanti with a few hundred men repulsed
+the Turkish vanguard at Lerna. Ibrahim settled down to the siege of Nauplia
+and of Missolonghi. The country round about was laid waste and the people
+killed. Ibrahim's hordes even cut down all trees and saplings. Thus the
+fertile mountains and hillsides of Greece were changed into the barren
+rocks they are to-day. Nothing so excited the sympathy of the lovers of
+liberty in Europe as these wanton ravages on classic soil committed by the
+savages of the desert. Even Alexander of Russia was so moved by the rising
+indignation of his people that he dissolved diplomatic conferences at St.
+Petersburg in August. He issued a declaration that Russia, acting on its
+own discretion, would put a stop to the outrages of Greece. Accompanied by
+the leaders of the Russian war party, he left St. Petersburg and travelled
+to the Black Sea. All Europe waited for the long-threatened Russian advance
+on Constantinople. Suddenly news arrived that the Czar had died at
+Taganrog.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Czar Alexander]
+
+[Sidenote: Alexander's early reforms]
+
+[Sidenote: Russian letters stimulated]
+
+Alexander expired on November 19 (December 1), in the arms of Empress
+Elizabeth. His last hours were clouded by revelations of a plot to
+assassinate him. As if to recant his reactionary measures of the last few
+years, he said: "They may say what they like of me, but I have lived and
+will die republican"--a curious boast which is justified only by the
+earlier years of Alexander's reign. In the beginning of his rule the Czar
+reversed the despotic tendencies of his predecessors. Free travel was
+permitted; foreign books and papers were allowed to enter; the better
+classes of the community were exempted from corporal punishments; the
+emancipation of serfs was begun, and the collegiate organization of the
+administration was supplanted by ministries modelled after those of the
+chief European countries. As early as 1802 Alexander could boast of a
+Cabinet as good as that of any constitutional monarch. Another far-reaching
+reform was the reorganization of Russian public education, and the
+encouragement given to the publication of Bibles. A temporary relaxation of
+the censorship resulted in the foundation of societies of literature and of
+such journals as the "Russian Messenger," "The Northern Mercury," and the
+"Democrat." Writers like Pushkin and Gogol brought forth their earliest
+works. Koltsov discovered a new source of poetry in the popular songs.
+Lermontov sang the wild beauty of the Caucasus, and Ozerov wrote his
+classical drama "Dmitri Donskoi," which recalled the struggles of Russia
+against the Tartars. Modern romantic tendencies were advanced by
+Joukovsky's translation of Schiller's and Byron's poems. Ginka composed the
+scores for his earlier operas.
+
+[Sidenote: Changes for the worse]
+
+[Sidenote: Araktcheyev]
+
+[Sidenote: The Russian succession]
+
+[Sidenote: Conflicting proclamations]
+
+[Sidenote: Nicholas, Czar of Russia]
+
+[Sidenote: Moscow mutiny]
+
+[Sidenote: Miloradovitch shot]
+
+[Sidenote: End of revolt]
+
+When Alexander came under the influence of Madame de Kruedener and the more
+baneful ascendency of Metternich everything was changed for the worse. The
+publication of Bibles was stopped; the censorship was re-established in its
+full rigor; Speranski's great undertaking of a Russian code of laws was
+nipped in the bud; Galytsin, the liberal Minister of Publication, had to
+resign, and Araktcheyev, a reactionary of extreme type, was put in his
+place. Some idea of the dark days that followed may be gathered from
+Araktcheyev's first measures. The teaching of the geological theories of
+Buffon and of the systems of Copernicus and Newton were forbidden as
+contrary to Holy Writ. Medical dissection was prohibited, and the practice
+of medicine was reduced to that of faith cure. All professors who had
+studied at seats of learning abroad were dismissed. Then it was that the
+secret societies sprang up in Poland and in the north and south of Russia.
+One of the foremost conspirators was Pestel, who had undertaken to frame a
+new code of laws for Russia. When Alexander died, Russia was on the brink
+of a military revolution. It was the intention of the conspirators to
+assassinate the Czar in the presence of his troops and to proclaim a
+constitution; but his unexpected departure to the Black Sea frustrated the
+plan. Alexander's death threw the Russian court into confusion. For a while
+it was not known who was to succeed him. The supposed heir to the throne
+was Alexander's brother, Constantine. Unbeknown to the people he had
+formally renounced his right to the throne. At the time of his brother's
+death he was in Warsaw. His younger brother, Nicholas, at St. Petersburg,
+had him proclaimed emperor. When they brought him Constantine's written
+abdication, Nicholas refused to acknowledge it and caused the troops to
+take their oath of allegiance to his brother. Constantine in Warsaw
+proclaimed Nicholas emperor. Nicholas would not accept the crown unless by
+the direct command of his elder brother. At length the matter was adjusted,
+after an interregnum of three weeks. On Christmas Day, Nicholas ascended
+the imperial throne. The confusion at St. Petersburg was turned to account
+by the military conspirators who had plotted against Alexander's life. To
+the common soldiers they denounced Nicholas as a usurper who was trying to
+make them break their recent oath to Constantine. When ordered to take the
+oath to Nicholas, the Moscow regiment refused, and marched to the open
+place in front of the Senate House. There they formed a square and were
+joined by other bodies of mutineering soldiers. It is gravely asserted by
+Russian historians that the poor wretches, ignorant of the very meaning of
+the word constitution, shouted for it, believing it to be the name of
+Constantine's wife. An attack upon them by the household cavalry was
+repulsed. When General Miloradovitch, a veteran of fifty-two battles
+against Napoleon, tried to make himself heard, he was shot. The mutineers
+would not listen even to the Emperor. Not until evening could the new Czar
+be brought to use more decisive measures. Then he ordered out the artillery
+and had them fire grapeshot into the square. The effect was appalling. In a
+few minutes the square was cleared and the insurrection was over. Its
+leaders were wanting at the moment of action. A rising in the south of
+Russia was quelled by a single regiment. Before the year ended, Nicholas
+was undisputed master of Russia.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Fresnel]
+
+By the death of Augustin Jean Fresnel, France lost a brilliant scientist,
+who shares with Thomas Young the honor of discrediting the old emission
+theory of light, and of formulating the undulatory theory.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of David]
+
+Jacques Louis David, founder of the new French school of classicism in
+painting, died at the close of the year at Brussels. Many of his paintings
+were on exhibition before the fall of the old regime in France. In the days
+of the French Revolution, David was a Jacobite and friend of Robespierre,
+and suffered in prison after the latter's fall. It was not, however, until
+the time of the First Empire that David's fame spread. He then reached the
+zenith of his success. His masterpieces of this period are "Napoleon
+Crossing the Alps"--a canvas on which is founded Hauff's story of "The
+Picture of the Emperor"--"The Coronation of Napoleon," "Napoleon in His
+Imperial Robes," and the "Distribution of the Eagles." Equally famous is
+his portrait of "Madame Recamier resting on a Chaiselongue." After the fall
+of the First Empire, David was exiled from France, and retired to
+Brussels. David, unlike so many other beneficiaries of the Empire, remained
+warmly attached to Napoleon. Once when the Duke of Wellington visited his
+studio in Brussels and expressed a wish that the great artist would paint
+him, David coldly replied, "I never paint Englishmen." In his declining
+years he painted subjects taken from Grecian mythology. Among the paintings
+executed by David during his banishment were "Love and Psyche," "The Wrath
+of Achilles," and "Mars Disarmed by Venus." The number of David's pupils
+who acquired distinction was very great, among whom the best known were
+Gros, Gerard, Derdranais Girodet, Jugros, Abel de Pujel and Droming.
+
+
+
+
+1826
+
+
+[Sidenote: Czar Nicholas' measures]
+
+[Sidenote: Ryleyev and Pestel hanged]
+
+[Sidenote: Russian laws codified]
+
+Driven to assert his rights to the crown by bloodshed, Nicholas I. showed
+himself resolved to maintain the absolute principles of his throne. He
+accorded a disdainful pardon to Prince Trubetskoi, whom the conspirators of
+the capital had chosen as head of the government. The mass of misled
+soldiery was likewise treated with clemency. But against the real
+instigators of the insurrection the Czar proceeded with uncompromising
+severity. One hundred and twenty were deported to Siberia; and the five
+foremost men, among whom were Ryleyev, the head of the society in the
+north, and Pestel, were condemned to be hanged. All died courageously.
+Pestel's chief concern was for his Code: "I am certain," said he, "that one
+day Russia will find in this book a refuge against violent commotions. My
+greatest error was that I wished to gather the harvest before sowing the
+seed." In a way the teachings of these men gave an impetus to Russia that
+their death could not destroy. Even the Czar, with his passion for military
+autocracy, made it his first care to take up the work of codifying the
+Russian laws. Alexis Mikhaielovitch during the next four years turned out
+his "Complete Code of the Laws of the Russian Empire."
+
+[Sidenote: Persian war]
+
+[Sidenote: Defence of Choucha]
+
+[Sidenote: Russian victories]
+
+[Sidenote: Persia abandoned by England]
+
+[Sidenote: Russia's ultimatum to Turkey]
+
+[Sidenote: Massacre of Janizaries]
+
+The military ambitions of Nicholas found a vent in the direction of Persia.
+The encroachments of Ermolov, the Governor-General of the Caucasus, so
+exasperated the Persians that soon a holy war was preached against Russia.
+Ebbas-Mirza, the Prince Royal of Persia, collected an army of 35,000 men on
+the banks of the Araxes. A number of English officers joined his ranks.
+Nicholas at once despatched General Kasevitch with reinforcements for
+Ermolov. Ebbas-Mirza was checked on his march on Tivlas by the heroic
+defence of Choucha. In the meanwhile the Russians concentrated their
+forces. The Persian vanguard, 15,000 strong, was defeated at Elizabethpol.
+On the banks of the Djeham, Paskevitch, with a division of the Russian
+army, overthrew the main body of the Persians and forced them back over the
+Araxes. The Persians continued their resistance, relying on the terms of
+the treaty of Teheran, wherein England had promised financial and military
+subsidies in case of invasion. The English, promise was not kept. Hence
+forth the Persians were at the mercy of the Russian army of invasion.
+Almost simultaneously a rebellion against the Chinese Government broke out
+in Kashgar. Undeterred by this diversion, Nicholas took up a vigorous stand
+against the Turks. In March he presented an ultimatum insisting on the
+autonomy of Moldavia, Wallachia and Servia, and on the final cession to
+Russia of disputed Turkish territory on the Asiatic frontier. Turkey
+yielded. Nicholas then joined in an ultimatum with England and France for
+an immediate stop of the Turkish outrages in Greece. In this matter
+Nicholas, who regarded the Greeks as rebels, showed himself more lenient to
+the Turks, and negotiations with the Porte were permitted to drag. The
+Sultan profited by the lull to execute a long contemplated stroke against
+the Janizaries. The whole of this famous corps of bodyguards was massacred.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Bennigsen and Rostopchin]
+
+During this year two men died in Russia who had distinguished themselves at
+the time of Napoleon's invasion. One was General Bennigsen, a soldier of
+German extraction and training, who took a leading part in all the Russian
+campaigns against Napoleon. The other was Prince Rostopchin, who as
+Governor of Moscow consigned that city to the flames after Napoleon's
+triumphant entry.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Hastings and Heber]
+
+[Sidenote: Alfred Tennyson]
+
+[Sidenote: English letters flourishing]
+
+[Sidenote: Scientific progress]
+
+England lost two men who had distinguished themselves in India. One was the
+Marquis of Hastings, who had but lately relinquished his
+Governor-Generalship of British India, and whose rule there both from a
+military and from a political-economical point of view must be regarded as
+pre-eminently successful. The other was Reginald Heber, the Bishop of
+Calcutta, who endeared himself to Anglo-Indians by his translations of the
+folk songs and classic writings of Hindustan. In other respects this year
+is notable in English literary annals. Alfred Tennyson published his
+earliest verses in conjunction with his brother; Elizabeth Barrett also
+brought out her first poems; Macaulay had begun to captivate England by his
+essays; Thomas Hood issued his "Whims and Oddities"; Scott and Coleridge
+were then in the heyday of literary favor. Scott had just brought out his
+"Talisman" and "The Betrothed," and now published "Woodstock." Coleridge
+contributed his "Aids to Reflection." A new impetus was given to
+scholarship by the foundation of the Western and Eastern literary
+institutions of England, and the establishment of a professorship for
+political economy at Oxford. London University was chartered. Drummond's
+namesake, Lieutenant Thomas Drummond, perpetuated his name by his
+limelight, produced by heating lime to incandescence in the oxy-hydrogen
+flame.
+
+[Sidenote: English lotteries suppressed]
+
+While Herschel was working out his spectrum analysis, Fox Talbot
+contributed his share by his observation of the orange line of strontium.
+John Walker perfected his invention of friction matches. Industrially, on
+the contrary, England still suffered from the canker of the corn laws and
+the recent financial crisis resulting from the operations of ill-fated
+stock companies. In Lancashire nearly a thousand power looms were destroyed
+by the distressed operatives. Some relief was given by Canning's abolition
+of all public lotteries.
+
+[Sidenote: Louis I. of Bavaria]
+
+[Sidenote: Munich embellished]
+
+[Sidenote: German romantic literature]
+
+[Sidenote: "Die Wacht am Rhein"]
+
+[Sidenote: Froebel]
+
+In Germany, arts and literature flourished in the same degree. King Louis
+I. of Bavaria, upon his accession to the throne, gathered about him in
+Munich some of the foremost artists and writers of Germany. The capital of
+Munich was embellished with public monuments; public buildings were
+decorated with fresco paintings, and art galleries were established. The
+University of Bavaria was transferred from Landshut to Munich, and other
+institutions of learning were erected by its side. Streets were widened,
+new avenues and public squares laid out, and public lighting introduced
+throughout the city. Within a short time the quasi-medieval town of Munich
+was changed into a modern metropolis and became the Mecca of German art.
+Among the artists who gathered round Louis of Bavaria were Moritz von
+Schwind, Cornelius, Hess, Raupp, and the elder Piloti. Among the writers
+who drew upon themselves the notice of this liberal king were the Count of
+Platen, who during this year published his "Ghazels" and the comedy "The
+Fatal Fork"; and Hauff, who brought out his romantic masterpiece,
+"Lichtenstein." Of the rising writers, Heinrich Heine alone withstood the
+blandishments of Louis with verses of biting satire. Little noticed at the
+time was the appearance of Reichardt's "Wacht am Rhein," a song which was
+destined to become the battle hymn of Germany. Scant attention, likewise,
+was given to Froebel's epoch-making work, "The Education of Man." On the
+other hand much pother was made over some curious exchanges of sovereignty,
+characteristic of German politics in those days. The Dukes of
+Saxe-Coburg-Gotha-Meiningen exchanged their respective possessions.
+Saalfeld Meiningen received Gotha. Altenburg was assigned to
+Saxe-Hilburghausen, which latter principality in turn was relinquished to
+Meiningen. The settlements of the succession in those petty principalities
+called forth volumes of legal lore.
+
+Jens Baggesen, the most prolific Danish humorist, died this year,
+seventy-two years of age. After his death Baggesen's writings declined in
+popularity.
+
+[Sidenote: American semi-centennial]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Jefferson and Adams]
+
+[Sidenote: "The Father of Democracy"]
+
+In America, the people of the United States commemorated the
+semi-centennial of their independence. The Fourth of July, the date of the
+declaration of American independence, was the great day of celebration. The
+day became noted in American history by the simultaneous death of two
+patriots: Jefferson and Adams. Thomas Jefferson's greatest achievements, as
+recorded by himself on his gravestone at Monticello, were his part in the
+declaration of American independence, in the establishment of religious
+freedom and in the foundation of the University at Virginia. He was the
+most philosophic statesman of his time in America. Much of the subsequent
+history of the United States was but the development of Jefferson's
+political ideas. His public acts and declarations foreshadowed the policies
+of his most worthy successors. The essentials of the Monroe Doctrine, of
+the emancipation of slaves, as well as of the doctrine of State rights and
+of American expansion, can all be traced back to him. Thus he has come to
+be venerated by one of the two great political parties of America as "The
+Father of Democracy."
+
+[Sidenote: Jefferson's principles]
+
+[Sidenote: Third term discountenanced]
+
+Jefferson's principles were stated in his first inaugural address: "Equal
+and exact justice to all men, of whatever state or persuasion, religious or
+political; peace, commerce and honest friendship with all nations,
+entangling alliances with none; the support of the State governments and
+all their rights as the most competent of administrations for our domestic
+concerns; the preservation of the general government in its whole
+constitutional vigor, as a sheet anchor of peace at home and safety
+abroad.... The supremacy of civil over military authority; economy in
+public expense, honest payment of public debts; the diffusion of
+information; freedom of religion; freedom of the press and freedom of the
+person, under the protection of the habeas corpus and trial by jury." When
+Jefferson's second term as President came to an end he retired from the
+White House poorer than he had entered it. A third term was declined by him
+with these words: "To lay down a public charge at the proper period is as
+much a duty as to have borne it faithfully. If some termination to the
+services of a chief magistrate be not fixed by the Constitution or supplied
+by practice, this office, nominally four years, will in fact become for
+life; and history shows how easily that degenerates into an inheritance."
+Together with Washington's similar action, this established a custom which
+has since been followed in the North American Republic.
+
+[Sidenote: John Adams's career]
+
+Jefferson's predecessor, John Adams, who died on the same day, though
+likewise a model President, was less fortunate in his career. His
+administration was a struggle almost from beginning to end. The troubles
+with France, though not attaining the dignity of international warfare,
+presented all the difficulties of such a war. Adams's extreme measures
+against domestic danger, as embodied in his "alien and sedition laws," were
+unfortunate. They were in fact an infringement of the rights of free
+speech and personal liberty, and were with justice denounced as
+unconstitutional and un-American. His departure from the American Bill of
+Rights among other things effectually prevented his re-election as
+President. His wisest closing act was the appointment of John Marshall to
+the Chief Justiceship of the American Supreme Court.
+
+[Sidenote: Stars of the stage]
+
+[Sidenote: "The Last of the Mohicans"]
+
+In the annals of the American stage the season of 1826 is remembered for
+the first appearance of the three great actors Edwin Forrest, Macready and
+James H. Hackett, the American comedian. The same year saw the first
+appearance of Paulding's "Three Wise Men of Gotham," and Cooper's "Last of
+the Mohicans."
+
+[Sidenote: Philhellenic efforts]
+
+The Greek cause found friends in Switzerland, England and America. Two
+loans for $14,000,000 were raised in London by American and English
+subscriptions. Both loans were disgracefully financed. Barely one-half of
+the amount was finally accounted for. With the proceeds contracts were made
+for eight warships. The "Perseverance," a steam corvette, mounting eight
+68-pound cannon, reached Nauplia in September. The "Hope," a staunch
+frigate of 64 guns, built in New York, arrived in December. She was
+rechristened the "Hellas."
+
+[Sidenote: Dom Pedro IV.]
+
+The death of Dom Juan de Braganza in March had placed the throne of
+Portugal as well as that of Brazil at the disposal of his oldest son, Dom
+Pedro IV., at Rio. Under the terms of England's mediation of the previous
+year, Dom Pedro renounced the throne of Portugal in favor of his infant
+daughter, Maria Gloria, while at the same time he conferred upon Portugal a
+liberal constitution, the so-called Charta de Ley, similar to that conceded
+to Brazil in 1822.
+
+[Sidenote: Dom Miguel's revolt]
+
+[Sidenote: Canning's policy]
+
+Dom Pedro IV. had intrusted the throne of Portugal to the regency of his
+sister Maria Isabella, on condition that his infant daughter should marry
+her uncle, Dom Miguel. It was his intention that the infant Princess should
+be recognized as Queen, while Dom Miguel would reign as regent. Under the
+leadership of Marquis de Chaves, instigated by Dom Miguel, several
+provinces revolted and declared for Miguel as absolute king. Conquered in
+Portugal, the insurgents retired to Spain, where they were well received.
+The Portuguese constitutional government called for help from England.
+France threatened to invade Spain. Canning acted at once: "To those who
+blame the government for delay," declared Canning in Parliament, "the
+answer is very short. It was only last Friday that I received the official
+request from Portugal. On Saturday the Ministers decided what was to be
+done. On Sunday our decision received the King's sanction. On Monday it was
+communicated to both Houses. At this very moment the troops are on their
+way to Portugal." It was then that Canning delivered the great speech in
+defence of his foreign policy which he closed with Shakespeare's famous
+lines:
+
+                          Oh, it is excellent
+     To have a giant's strength. And it is tyrannous
+     To use it like a giant.
+
+
+
+
+1827
+
+
+[Sidenote: Portuguese revolt suppressed]
+
+On the first day of January an English army corps under Clinton was landed
+at Lissabon and a squadron of eleven British ships of the line came to
+anchor at the mouth of the Tagus. The news of this foreign intervention
+dismayed the revolutionists. On the banks of the Mondego the Marquis de
+Chaves, with 10,000 rebels, still commanded the approach to Coimbra. On
+January 9, a drawn battle was fought with 7,000 constitutional troops under
+Saldanha. Next morning Dom Miguel's followers, on the news of an
+approaching British column, quitted the field and dispersed. The Spanish
+troops on the frontier disarmed those that crossed into Spain.
+
+[Sidenote: Dissatisfaction in France]
+
+In France, the government of Charles X., after some violent attacks in the
+Chambers, recalled the Swiss brigade sent to protect the royal family in
+Madrid. There was trouble enough at home. The clerical reaction in France
+brought about a popular outcry against the order of the Jesuits. On the
+occasion of a royal military review on April 29, some of the companies of
+the National Guards shared in demonstrations against them. "I am here,"
+said the King, "to receive your homage, not your murmurings." The entire
+National Guard of Paris was disbanded by royal ordinance.
+
+[Sidenote: Russians invade Persia]
+
+Early in the spring the Russian forces under Paskievitch had crossed the
+Araxes and forced the defiles of the Persian frontier. By a rapid flank
+movement an army of 10,000 Persians was detached and brought to surrender.
+Erivan, the bulwark of Persia, was taken by assault. The triumphant Russian
+column entered Pauris, the second city of the kingdom. Thence an advance
+was made on Teheran.
+
+[Sidenote: Intervention in Greece favored]
+
+These easy victories in Persia left the Czar free to resume his threatening
+attitude toward Turkey. In this he received the hearty support of Canning.
+A protocol at St. Petersburg, concluded between the Duke of Wellington and
+Nesselrode, formed the basis for Anglo-Russian intervention in the East.
+The royalists of France were won over by an offer from the Greek insurgents
+to place the Duke of Nimours on the throne of Greece. Without giving actual
+support to the proposed intervention the French ambassador in
+Constantinople was instructed to act with his English and Russian
+colleagues. Under the weight of this combination even Prince Metternich
+gave way.
+
+Affairs in Germany were calculated to excite his alarm. At Dresden the
+accession of Anthony Clement to the crown of Saxony met with extreme
+disfavor on the part of the Saxon people by reason of Anthony's pronounced
+Catholicism. Soon his measures provoked a rising of the people. Anthony had
+to resign, and Frederick Augustus II. became regent.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Hauff]
+
+In Wurtemberg, where public affairs had taken a more liberal turn, the
+death of Wilhelm Hauff, the young author, was felt as a great loss. Hauff
+died in his twenty-fifth year, while still in the first promise of his
+literary activity. His stories of the Black Woods and his Oriental Tales,
+together with his medieval romance "Lichtenstein," modelled after the best
+of Walter Scott's romances, have assured him a prominent place in German
+letters.
+
+[Sidenote: Laplace]
+
+[Sidenote: The nebular hypothesis]
+
+On March 15, Marquis Pierre Simon de Laplace, one of the greatest
+mathematicians and physical astronomers of all time, died at Arcueil.
+Laplace was born in 1749, in Normandy. Although a poor farmer's son, he
+soon won the position of a teacher at the Beaumont Military School of
+Mathematics, and later at the Ecole Militaire of Paris. One of the early
+notable labors of Laplace was his investigation of planetary perturbations,
+and his demonstration that planetary mean motions are invariable--the first
+important step in the establishment of the stability of the solar system
+and one of the most brilliant achievements in celestial mechanics. In his
+"Exposition du Systeme du Monde" was formulated the theory called the
+"nebular hypothesis," the glory of which he must share with Kant. "He would
+have completed the science of the skies," says Fourier, "had the science
+been capable of completion." As a physicist he made discoveries that were
+in themselves sufficient to perpetuate his name, in specific heat,
+capillary action and sound. In mathematics he furnished the modern
+scientist with the famous Laplace co-efficients and the potential function,
+thereby laying the foundation of the mathematical sciences of heat and
+electricity. Not satisfied with scientific distinction, Laplace aspired to
+political honors and left a public record which is not altogether to his
+credit. Of his labors as Minister of the Interior, Napoleon remarked: "He
+brought into the administration the spirit of the infinitesimals." Although
+he owed his political success, small as it was, to Napoleon--the man whom
+he had once heralded as the "pacificator of Europe"--he voted for his
+dethronement.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Beethoven]
+
+Shortly after the death of Laplace, Ludwig van Beethoven died in Vienna on
+March 26. The last years of his life were so clouded by his deafness and by
+the distressing vagaries of his nephew that he was often on the verge of
+suicide. In December, 1826, he caught a violent cold, which brought on his
+ultimate death from pneumonia and dropsy. Beethoven, though he adhered to
+the sonata form of the classic school, introduced into his compositions
+such daringly original methods that he must be regarded as the first of the
+great romantic composers. Some of his latest compositions notably, were so
+very unconventional that they found no appreciation, even among musicians,
+until years after his death. Technically, his art of orchestration reached
+such a perfection of general unity and elaboration of detail that he must
+stand as the greatest instrumental composer of the nineteenth century. The
+profound subjective note that pervades his best compositions lifts his
+music above that of his greatest predecessors: Bach, Haydn and Mozart.
+
+[Sidenote: Beethoven's career]
+
+[Sidenote: Notable compositions]
+
+[Sidenote: "Fidelio"]
+
+[Sidenote: Beethoven's declining years]
+
+Beethoven came of a line of musical ancestors. His grandfather and
+namesake was an orchestral leader and composer of operas. His father was a
+professional singer, who took his son's musical education in hand at the
+age of four. At eight the boy was a fluent performer both on the violin and
+on the piano. When but ten years old Beethoven produced his first
+pianoforte sonata, and was installed as assistant organist in the Electoral
+Chapel at Bonn. When the lad visited Vienna, in 1787, his extemporizations
+on the piano made Mozart exclaim: "He will give the world something worth
+listening to." It was Haydn that persuaded Beethoven's patron to send the
+youth to Vienna; there he became Haydn's pupil and received material
+support from Prince Lichnovsky, one of his warmest admirers. From his first
+entrance into the musical circles of Vienna, Beethoven was justly regarded
+as a highly eccentric man. His generosity of soul and transcendent genius
+made all those that learned to know him condone his freaks. It was after
+the opening of the Nineteenth Century that Beethoven reached his freest
+creative period. Between 1800 and 1815 he composed the first six of his
+great symphonies, the music to "Egmont," the best of his chamber-music
+pieces, fourteen pianoforte sonatas, among them the "Pastorale" and the
+"Appassionata," and his only opera "Fidelio." This opera, which was first
+named "Leonore," with an overture that was afterward abandoned, had its
+first public performance in Vienna just before Napoleon's entry into the
+capital in 1805. After three representations it was withdrawn. Nearly ten
+years later, after complete revision by Beethoven, "Fidelio" achieved its
+first great success. The great "Heroica Symphony" composed at the same time
+was originally dedicated to Bonaparte. When Napoleon had himself proclaimed
+Emperor, Beethoven tore up the dedication in a rage. It was subsequently
+changed "to the memory of a great man." After 1815, when the composer had
+grown quite deaf, his compositions, like his moods, took a gloomy cast. The
+extravagances of his nephew, whose guardianship he had undertaken, caused
+him acute material worries. In truth he need have given himself no concern,
+for his admirers, Archduke Rudolph and Princes Lobkovitz and Kinsky,
+settled on him an annuity of 4,000 florins; but to the end of his days the
+unhappy composer believed himself on the verge of ruin. When he died, his
+funeral was attended by the princes of the imperial house and all the
+greatest magnates of Austria and Hungaria. Twenty thousand persons followed
+his coffin to the grave.
+
+  [Illustration: BEETHOVEN AND HIS ADMIRERS
+    Painted by A. Grafle]
+
+[Sidenote: English officers in Greece]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Athens]
+
+[Sidenote: Turks reject armistice]
+
+By this time a number of foreign volunteers had flocked to Greece. Lord
+Cochrane, an English naval officer of venturous disposition, was appointed
+High Admiral. Sir Richard Church was put in command of the Greek land
+forces. Early in May, Church and Cochrane sought in vain to break the line
+of Turks under Kiutahi Pasha pressing upon Athens. They were defeated with
+great loss, and on June 5 the Acropolis of Athens surrendered to the Turks.
+In July a treaty for European intervention in Greece was signed in London.
+Turkey and Greece were summoned to consent to an armistice, and to accept
+the mediation of the powers. All Turks were to leave Greece, and the Greeks
+were to come into possession of all Turkish property within their limits on
+payment of an indemnity. Greece was to be made autonomous under the
+paramount sovereignty of the Sultan. The demand for an armistice was gladly
+accepted by Greece. But the Sultan rejected it with contempt. The conduct
+of the Turkish troops in Bulgaria caused the Bulgarians to rise and call
+for Russian help.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Canning]
+
+[Sidenote: Canning's policy]
+
+It was at this crisis of European affairs that Canning died. His Ministry,
+brief as it was, marked an epoch for England. Unlike his predecessors,
+George Canning was called to the Ministry by a king who disliked him. What
+he accomplished was done amid the peculiar embarrassments and difficulties
+of such a situation. On the other hand, it freed him from certain
+concessions to the personal prejudices of his sovereign that hampered other
+Ministers. Thus he was able to introduce in Parliament his great measure
+for the removal of the political disabilities of the Catholics, a reform on
+which so great a Prime Minister as the younger Pitt came to grief. Had this
+measure passed the House of Lords it would stand as the crowning act of
+Canning's administration. By an irony of fate the same Canning that so
+bitterly opposed the French Revolution and the claims of America achieved
+highest fame by his latter day recognition of the rights of revolution in
+the New World.
+
+[Sidenote: William Blake]
+
+[Sidenote: Artist and poet]
+
+[Sidenote: Blake's mysticism]
+
+[Sidenote: Thomson's lines]
+
+William Blake, the English poet and artist, died at Fountain Court in
+London on August 12. While Blake's poems and paintings belonged to the
+Eighteenth Century, chronologically, the spirit of his works, with its
+extraordinary independence of contemporary fashions, make him a herald of
+the poetic dawn of the Nineteenth Century. An engraver by profession and
+training, Blake began while still very young to apply his technical
+knowledge to his wholly original system of literary publication. As a poet
+he was not only his own illustrator, but his own printer and publisher as
+well. Beginning with the "Poetical Sketches" and his delightful "Songs of
+Innocence," down to the fantastic "Marriage of Heaven and Hell," all of
+Blake's books, with the exception of his "Jerusalem" and "Milton," were
+issued during the Eighteenth Century. Blake's artistic faculties seemed to
+strengthen with advancing life, but his literary powers waned. He produced
+few more satisfying illustrations than those to the Book of Job, executed
+late in life. His artistic work also was left comparatively untainted by
+the morbid strain of mysticism that runs through his so-called "prophetic
+writings." The charm of Blake's poetry, as well as of his drawings, was not
+fully appreciated until late in the Nineteenth Century. Charles Lamb, to be
+sure, declared, "I must look upon him as one of the extraordinary persons
+of the age," but his full worth was not recognized until Swinburne and
+Rossetti took up his cause. In America, Charles Eliot Norton, at Harvard,
+was Blake's ablest expounder. Famous are James Thomson's lines on William
+Blake:
+
+  He came to the desert of London town,
+    Gray miles long;
+  He wandered up and he wandered down,
+    Singing a quiet song.
+
+  He came to the desert of London town,
+    Mirk miles broad;
+  He wandered up and he wandered down,
+    Ever alone with God.
+
+  There were thousands and thousands of human kind,
+    In this desert of brick and stone;
+  But some were deaf and some were blind,
+    And he was there alone.
+
+  At length the good hour came; he died
+    As he had lived, alone;
+  He was not missed from the desert wide,
+    Perhaps he was found at the Throne.
+
+[Sidenote: Richard Bright]
+
+In this year Dr. Richard Bright of London published his famous "Reports of
+medical cases with a view to illustrate the symptoms and cure of diseases
+by a reference to morbid anatomy." A special feature of the book was a full
+description of Bright's discoveries in the pathology of the peculiar
+disease of the kidneys which bears his name. Bright, in response to urgent
+demands, lectured more fully on his great discovery before the London
+College of Physicians and Surgeons.
+
+[Sidenote: Delacroix]
+
+Eugene Delacroix, the great exponent of French romantic art, and a pupil of
+Guerin, exhibited this year his "Christ in the Garden of Olives." He had
+previously exhibited "Dante and Virgil," which created a sensation by its
+rich coloring. This was followed by his "Massacre of Scio," "The Death of
+the Doge," "Marino Faliero," "Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi" and
+"Death of Sardanapalus." Not until some time after his death was he
+recognized as the greatest early master of the French art after David. The
+great majority of his works, embracing mural paintings and pictures of
+immense size, are to be found in the principal churches and galleries of
+France.
+
+[Sidenote: Wellington Prime Minister]
+
+[Sidenote: Powers intervene in Greece]
+
+[Sidenote: Greek Naval victory]
+
+[Sidenote: Turkish warships stopped]
+
+[Sidenote: The Morea ravaged]
+
+[Sidenote: An international demonstration]
+
+After the brief interregnum of Goderich's administration in England,
+Canning was succeeded by his rival, the Duke of Wellington. The good sense
+and great renown of this distinguished soldier promised strength and
+prestige to his administration. For a while the change of Ministry brought
+no avowed change in Canning's plans. Huskisson and Palmerston were retained
+in the Cabinet, and Canning's policy of active intervention in Greece was
+upheld. In consequence of the Turkish refusal of mediation, the war
+continued on both sides. The Turks got heavy reinforcements from Egypt, and
+a strong expedition was on the point of leaving Navarino to make a descent
+upon Hydra, the last stronghold of the insurrection. An Anglo-French fleet
+under Admirals Codrington and Regnier made a demonstration in Greek waters.
+The foreign admirals exacted a promise from Ibrahim that he would make no
+movement until further orders should arrive from Constantinople. An oral
+agreement to this effect was reached late in September. A few days later
+the Greeks in free continuance of hostilities won a brilliant naval victory
+in the Gulf of Corinth. The hero on this occasion was Captain Hastings, an
+English volunteer. Ibrahim was so incensed that he sailed out of Navarino
+and made for Patras. Codrington threw his British squadron across the
+track of the Egyptian ships and forced them to turn back by a threat to
+sink them. It was regretted at the time that Codrington did not compel
+Ibrahim to take his expedition out of Greek waters back to Alexandria. As
+it was, Ibrahim returned to Navarino, and there found orders from the
+Sultan to carry on the war without regard to Western intermeddling. Another
+Turkish column was forthwith despatched into the Morea and devastated that
+country with fire and sword. Clouds of smoke revealed to the European naval
+officers how the Turks had met their proposals for peace. Admiral
+Codrington sent messages to Ibrahim, calling for instant cessation of
+hostilities, for the evacuation of the Morea, and the return of his fleet
+to Constantinople and Alexandria. The answer to this message was that
+Ibrahim had marched into the Morea and could not be reached. The three
+squadrons of England, Russia and France cruising off Zante immediately came
+together. They consisted of twenty-nine vessels, ten ships of the line, ten
+frigates, four brigs and five schooners. United in one column, under
+command of Codrington as senior admiral, they sailed for Navarino.
+
+Codrington was unhampered by instructions. He could feel sure of the
+support of his government, however, for in his pocket was a confidential
+note from the Duke of Clarence, the royal commander of the navy,
+encouraging him to "find" a quarrel with the Turkish admiral.
+
+[Sidenote: Navarino]
+
+On October 20, the three squadrons sailed into Navarino harbor in battle
+array, and came to anchor within pistol shot of the Turkish fleet,
+composed of seventy warships, forty transports and four fire-ships,
+anchored under cover of the land batteries. To windward of the British
+corvette "Dartmouth" lay a Turkish brulote or fire-ship. A gig was sent to
+demand the withdrawal of this dangerous vessel. The Turks fired on the boat
+with cannon-shot and musketry. When Codrington sent a boat to the Egyptian
+flagship, Moharem Bey, the admiral, opened with his guns. One shot struck
+the "Asia," Codrington's flagship, and his pilot was killed. Codrington
+opened with all his guns. The British broadsides soon reduced the Egyptian
+flagship on one side, and a Turkish man-o'-war on the other side to mere
+wrecks. The French and Russians joined in. The Moslem ships, which had a
+superiority of 800 guns, replied with spirit. At close range they fought
+the combined fleets of their hated Christian adversaries. From the
+surrounding shores 20,000 Moslem soldiers discharged their guns into the
+land-locked harbor. The fight lasted from three in the afternoon until
+seven in the evening. All bravery was in vain when pitted against Western
+seamanship and gunnery. In the course of a short afternoon one Turkish ship
+after another was sunk or blown to pieces. By sundown little was left of
+the Turkish fleet but a mass of wreckage. Only fifteen ships escaped, to be
+scuttled by their own sailors. Four thousand Moslem seamen lost their
+lives. All night long the Turkish gunners on shore kept up their fire. On
+the morrow, when Ibrahim returned to Navarino, he found the waters of the
+harbor strewn with wreckage and the floating bodies of his sailors. One of
+the best accounts of the battle of Navarino has been given by Eugene Sue,
+the novelist, who then served as surgeon on one of the French vessels.
+
+[Sidenote: Greece saved]
+
+The island of Hydra and with it all Greece was saved. The subsequent course
+of Sultan Mahmoud was that of blind infatuation and fury. So far from
+accepting the European demands for an armistice, he put forward a
+peremptory request for an indemnity for the losses inflicted upon him. The
+Ambassadors of the Powers quitted Constantinople. It was then that the loss
+of Canning was felt in England. Instead of pursuing the vigorous policy to
+which it stood committed by the battle of Navarino, Great Britain hung
+back. Further intervention, with the profits accruing therefrom, was left
+to Russia.
+
+
+
+
+1828
+
+
+[Sidenote: Peace of Tourkmanchay]
+
+The time for undisturbed intervention in the East was most auspicious for
+Russia. Peace with Persia was concluded early in the year. By the treaty of
+Tourkmanchay, Fet Aly of Persia ceded to Russia the provinces of Erivan and
+Nakhitchevan and paid an indemnity of 20,000,000 roubles. The river Araxes
+was recognized as the frontier of both states. England's ascendency in
+Persia was effectually set at naught. Even in China Emperor Taouk-Wang felt
+encouraged to issue edicts prohibiting England's pernicious opium trade on
+the Chinese coast. Russia's armies were now let loose on Turkey.
+
+[Sidenote: Independence of Greece]
+
+[Sidenote: Capodistrias summoned]
+
+[Sidenote: Russia's double game]
+
+[Sidenote: Understanding with France]
+
+In the meanwhile, the Greeks profited by the Turkish check at Navarino to
+assert themselves as an independent people. On January 18, Capodistrias,
+the former Prime Minister of Russia, was summoned from Geneva and made
+president of the Greek republic. His term of office was to last seven
+years. This eminent statesman justified his selection by immediate
+beneficent measures. A grand council of state was established and a
+national bank opened in Athens. With the help of France, immunity from
+further incursions from the Turks was practically assured. To preserve the
+_status quo_ in Greece, Russia undertook to limit its single handed war on
+Turkey to operations on the mainland and in the Black Sea. Within the
+waters of the Mediterranean the Czar proposed to continue as an armed
+neutral in harmony with the other Powers under the treaty of London, and,
+to allay the apprehensions of Austria, the Russian forces in the Balkans
+were ordered to carry their line of operations as far as possible from
+Austria's sphere of influence. A still more effectual check on Austria was
+secured by the Czar's secret encouragement of French aspirations toward the
+Rhine. Charles X. exposed the plot when he said: "If the Czar attacks
+Austria, I will hold myself in reserve and regulate my conduct according to
+circumstances. If Austria attacks, I will instantly march against her." As
+Prince Metternich put it, "The two powers were at one: France against the
+European _status quo_; Russia against that of the Orient."
+
+[Sidenote: Holy War proclaimed in Turkey]
+
+[Sidenote: Russia declares war]
+
+[Sidenote: Early success]
+
+Although the recent Turkish concessions to Russia left to the Czar no
+ground for war, a pretext was supplied by Sultan Mahmoud himself. With true
+Turkish infatuation he chose this moment to issue a direct challenge to
+Russia. The Czar was denounced as the instigator of the Greek rebellion,
+and the arch enemy of Islam. The treaty of Akerman was declared null and
+void. A holy war was proclaimed against the Muscovites. "The Turk does not
+count his enemies. If all the unbelievers together unite against us we will
+enter on the war as a sacred duty, and trust to Allah for help." This
+proclamation was followed by the expulsion of all Christians from
+Constantinople. Unfortunately for the Sultan, his recent massacre of the
+Janizaries deprived him of the flower of his troops, and the reorganization
+of the Turkish army, which was the motive of that act, was only under way.
+For seven years the Russians had been preparing for this war. Nicholas lost
+no time in answering the Sultan's challenge. He replied with a declaration
+of war on April 26. Field Marshal Wittgenstein crossed the Pruth, while
+Paskievitch entered Asia Minor. The Russian troops overran the Roumanian
+provinces, Wallachia and Moldavia. The Danube was crossed early in June,
+under the eyes of the Czar. Unable to meet their enemy in the open field,
+the Turks withdrew into their strongholds, Ibraila and Silistria on the
+Danube, Varna and Shumla in the Balkans. The Russians besieged and stormed
+Ibraila, and thence pushed on through the Dubrudsha toward the Black Sea.
+In the meanwhile Paskievitch in Asia Minor defeated two Turkish armies and
+captured Erzeroum.
+
+[Sidenote: Brionis victorious]
+
+[Sidenote: Surrender of Varna]
+
+After these early successes the Russian operations began to lag. The Czar's
+presence at headquarters was a source of embarrassment rather than of
+strength. Wittgenstein committed the error of dividing his army into three
+slender columns. Too weak to conduct forward operations, they were held in
+check before Silistria, Varna and Shumla. The Russian transport service,
+none too good at best, collapsed under the threefold strain. The ill-fed
+soldiers wasted away by thousands. At length Homer Brionis, the commandant
+of Shumla, took advantage of the weakness of his besiegers. On September 24
+he broke out of Shumla and marched to the relief of Varna. The Czar,
+notwithstanding the evident weakness of his troops, ordered his cousin,
+Eugene of Wurtemberg, to check the Turkish advance with a frontal attack.
+The result was a severe defeat. Had Brionis marched onward Varna would have
+been relieved. He clung to Shumla, however, and the Turks at Varna were
+forced to surrender. It was late in autumn now, and cold weather put a stop
+to the campaign for the year. The display of military weakness seriously
+injured the prestige of Russia. The manifold mistakes of this campaign have
+been unsparingly laid bare in a famous monograph of Moltke. Henceforth the
+successful prosecution of the war became a _sine qua non_ for Russia.
+
+[Sidenote: Turks evacuate Morea]
+
+[Sidenote: Vacillation in France]
+
+During the progress of these events, French forces were landed in Greece.
+They occupied Navarino, Patras and Modon. The Turks gave in and consented
+to evacuate the Morea. In France, the ultra-royalist measures of Charles X.
+gave rise to an ever growing spirit of dissatisfaction. The death of
+Manuel, the outcast of the Chambers, was made the occasion of a great
+public demonstration. The coalition of Liberals with a faction of Royalists
+opposed to the Ministry had a brilliant triumph. Villele's Cabinet offered
+to resign. Instead of that, the King placed Martignac above him. "You are
+deserting M. Villele," said the Princess Royal to the King. "It is your
+first step downward from the throne." The Duc de Broglie wrote: "Should we
+succeed, after the fall of the present Ministry, in getting through the
+year tranquilly, it will be a triumphant success." By way of concession to
+the Liberals, a royal edict suppressed all the educational institutions
+maintained by the Society of Jesus. The effect of this measure was offset
+later in the year by renewed imprisonment and a heavy fine inflicted upon
+Beranger for writing political songs.
+
+[Sidenote: South American revolutions]
+
+[Sidenote: Mitre's resume]
+
+Latin attempts at parliamentary government in America were productive of
+even more discouraging results. In the Argentine Republic, the army, after
+defeating the Brazilians, was led against its own government by General
+Lavalle. The administration was overturned and President Dorrego was shot.
+General Rosas became the leader of the Federalist forces and took the field
+against the revolutionists. In Chile, the different parties contending for
+the government patched up a precarious peace which was not destined to last
+long. In Colombia, the Nueva Granada of the Spaniards, Bolivar clung to the
+dictatorship. A new proclamation of dictatorial powers was issued by him on
+February 10. Soon afterward an insurrection broke out against him led by
+Peadella. Scarcely had this uprising been quelled when an attempt was made
+to kill Bolivar at his seat of government. Henceforth the history of Latin
+America degenerated into an endless series of revolutions and
+counter-revolutions. The only real strength supplied to the various
+republican governments, so called, was that derived from strong personal
+characters, yielding one-man power. General Mitre, the great statesman and
+historian of South America, has drawn up this striking resume of the fate
+of the foremost leaders of Spanish American revolutions. Their story is the
+quintessence of the subsequent turbulent career of Latin America during the
+Nineteenth Century.
+
+[Sidenote: The gratitude of republics]
+
+"The first revolutionists of La Paz and of Quito died on the scaffold.
+Miranda, the apostle of liberty, betrayed by his own people, died, alone
+and naked, in a dungeon. Moreno, the priest of the Argentine revolution,
+and the teacher of the democratic idea, died at sea, and found a grave in
+the ocean. Hidalgo, the first popular leader of Mexico, was executed as a
+criminal. Belgrano, the first champion of Argentine independence, who saved
+the revolution, died obscurely, while civil war raged around him.
+O'Higgins, the hero of Chile, died in exile, as Carrera, his rival, had
+done before him. Iturbide, the real liberator of Mexico, died a victim to
+his own ambition. Montufar, the leader of the revolution at Quito, and his
+comrade Villavicencio, the promoter of that of Cartagena, were strangled.
+The first presidents of New Granada, Lozano and Torres, fell sacrifices to
+colonial terrorism. Piar, who found the true base for the insurrection in
+Colombia, was shot by Bolivar, to whom he had shown the way to victory.
+Rivadavia, the civil genius of South America, who gave form to her
+representative institutions, died in exile. Sucre, the conqueror of
+Ayacucho, was murdered by his own men on a lonely road. Bolivar and San
+Martin died in exile."
+
+[Sidenote: Dissension in North America]
+
+[Sidenote: New tariff]
+
+[Sidenote: North _vs._ South]
+
+In North America, likewise, the radical issues between the Northern and
+Southern States produced ever more dissensions and discord. The question of
+State sovereignty was prominent in the discussion of the tariff law of
+1828, and assumed more and more a sectional aspect. The North had grown
+rich and prosperous; when under free trade her energies were directed to
+agriculture and commerce. This was the more emphasized when, under a
+protective policy, her labor and her capital were devoted to the
+development of manufactures. The Southern States had originally desired a
+protective policy for their own supposed advantage; now they demanded free
+trade for the same reason. But the North had put much money into
+manufactures, and therefore demanded that Congress, which had placed her in
+this position, should protect her in it. So the tariff of 1828, the highest
+adopted in the United States up to that time, was a more comprehensive
+measure than any which preceded it, and was adjusted throughout to
+encourage Northern industry. New England was largely at one on this
+subject, and the Middle and Western States were practically united. Thus it
+became a question of party politics. From the tariff of 1828 dates a new
+era in American Federal legislation. The division between the North and the
+South began. Led by Daniel Webster, the New England States became advocates
+of the protective system. The question, from being a national issue, became
+distinctly sectional.
+
+[Sidenote: Injustice to Indians]
+
+[Sidenote: State rights precedent]
+
+State sovereignty was the most important problem that presented itself
+during John Quincy Adams's administration. The trouble with the Creek and
+Cherokee Indians in Georgia brought this issue to the front. These tribes
+were now partially civilized, and were tilling their lands in contentment.
+Although they held their lands under treaty with the United States, Georgia
+sought to eject them. Instead of protecting the Indians the national
+government allowed Georgia to have its way and sent them to the Indian
+Territory. Thus was an individual State permitted to act in defiance of the
+national government.
+
+[Sidenote: Industrial development]
+
+[Sidenote: Webster's Dictionary]
+
+[Sidenote: The "Book of Mormon"]
+
+In other respects, it was a year of great prosperity and progress for the
+United States. The differences with British North America in regard to
+boundaries and to the proposed joint settlement of Oregon were amicably
+settled by arbitration. The question of indemnities arising out of the
+differences with England was likewise satisfactorily adjusted. England's
+recent introduction of railroads was eagerly followed up in America. The
+rails of the first American steam road were laid at Baltimore. They were
+made of wood covered with iron bars. At Baltimore, too, the manufacture of
+fire bricks was begun. Boston harbor beheld its first steamboat. The new
+canal between Providence and Worcester was opened and produced an instant
+increase of traffic for New England. In the other Eastern States factories
+grew in number and new processes were introduced. Thus, the first varnish
+made in America was produced at New York. Damask table linen was
+manufactured at Pittsburg. The first straw paper was turned out at
+Meadville, Pennsylvania. The planing mill was introduced. The Franklin
+Institute at Philadelphia awarded to Stephen Boyden of Newark the premium
+for his malleable castings. Arts and literature likewise flourished. Among
+the new paintings exhibited during this year in America were Inman's
+portrait of Halleck, Stuart's "Jared Sparks," Greenough's "Chanting
+Cherubs," Dunlap's "Calvary" and Thomas Cole's "Garden of Eden." At Boston
+the first lithographic press was established. Noah Webster published his
+dictionary. Fenimore Cooper brought out his American romances, "The
+Prairie" and "Red Rover," while Richard H. Dana published his "Buccaneer."
+A book of singular fruition was Joseph Smith's "Book of Mormon," a
+corrupted version of Spaulding's "The Manuscript Found."
+
+[Sidenote: Heine's "Book of Songs"]
+
+About the same time Wergeland in Norway published his tragedy, "Sinclair's
+Death." In Germany the appearance of the "Book of Songs," instantly raised
+Heine to the foremost rank among German lyric poets. The early influence of
+Byron was revealed by his masterly translations from "Manfred," and of the
+opening stanzas of "Childe Harold" and the lines addressed to "Inez." Most
+felicitous was Heine's German version of Byron's famous farewell to his
+wife:
+
+  "Fare thee well, and if forever,
+  Still forever, fare thee well."
+
+Heine's own lyrical pieces, now put forth in profusion, were fully equal to
+those of his English prototype. The "Book of Songs" throughout breathed
+the spirit of the poet's sad boast:
+
+  "From my heavy sorrows
+  Made I these little songs...."
+
+Heine's love songs, alone, by their subtile fusion of exquisite simplicity
+with cynicism in a perverse form, won him immediate recognition outside of
+Germany. This in itself has never been forgiven by the Germans. Such
+prejudice did not deter German song composers from setting to music Heine's
+melodious verses. Franz Schubert, the foremost song composer, just before
+his death found inspiration in Heine's poems for his famous "Swan Song."
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Schubert]
+
+Schubert died in Vienna on the 19th of October, at the age of thirty-one.
+Notwithstanding his brief career and lack of systematic schooling, he was
+one of the most prolific as well as original of German composers. His
+earliest extant song, "Hagar's Lament," was written at the age of fourteen.
+Such early master works as "Margaret at the Spinning Wheel," and the
+"Erl-King," both written for Goethe's words, mark the swift development of
+his genius. During his eighteenth year, when he wrote the "Erl-King," he
+composed no less than 144 songs. On one day alone he wrote eight. Besides
+this he composed two operettas, three song plays, three other stage pieces,
+four masses and several cantatas. In spite of his astonishing fecundity the
+young composer suffered signally from lack of recognition. His whole life
+was a long-drawn battle for subsistence. All his efforts to obtain a steady
+income were unavailing. Though he composed scores for no less than
+seventy-two of Goethe's lyrics, that great poet was indifferent to the
+young composer. Beethoven, too, gave him but reluctant recognition. Not
+until the year of his death did Schubert succeed in giving a public concert
+that was a pecuniary success. He was wretchedly underpaid by his
+publishers, and his greatest works utterly failed of contemporary
+recognition. He died in the depths of poverty. In accordance with his last
+request, Schubert was buried in the eastern graveyard at Waehring, close to
+the grave of Beethoven. Schubert achieved immortal fame as the creator of
+the modern lyric song. No less original were his effective transfers of the
+song motive to pianoforte music, as shown in his "Moments Musicales" and
+"Impromptus." Some of his symphonies, notably that in C and the "Fragment"
+in B minor, are equal to those of Beethoven.
+
+[Sidenote: Moratin]
+
+Spain lost one of her most distinguished modern playwrights by the death of
+Nicolas Fernandez de Moratin, a pupil of Goldoni, and the author of such
+enduring Spanish comedies as "El Baron," "La Mogigata" and "El Si de Las
+Ninas." Besides his plays, Moratin also wrote an authoritative work on the
+"Origins of the Spanish Stage."
+
+Toward the end of the year the disorders in Portugal appeared to have
+subsided sufficiently to warrant the withdrawal of the British troops. Dom
+Miguel, the regent, promptly proclaimed himself King. After having grasped
+the reins of power, one of his first measures was the dissolution of the
+seven ancient estates of Portugal. In Spain King Ferdinand VII., in
+December, celebrated his wedding to Maria Christina of Naples.
+
+[Sidenote: Huskisson]
+
+[Sidenote: O'Connell]
+
+[Sidenote: Robert Peel]
+
+Domestic affairs in England at this turn furnished an all-absorbing topic.
+In the Cabinet, Huskisson's strong stand on the rotten borough question,
+with his desire to accord Parliamentary representation to the working
+people of Birmingham, had caused his expulsion from the Duke of
+Wellington's councils. His resignation was followed by that of the former
+members of the Canning Cabinet. Among those chosen to supply their place
+was Vesey Fitzgerald, member for County Clare in Ireland. His acceptance of
+office compelled him to go back to his constituents. It was then that
+Daniel O'Connell, the great leader of the Catholic Association in Ireland,
+saw his chance to strike a blow for Catholic emancipation. Though
+disqualified from sitting in the Commons as a Catholic, O'Connell ran
+against Fitzgerald. From the first Fitzgerald's cause was hopeless. The
+great landowners, to be sure, supported his cause with all their wealth and
+influence, but the small freeholders, to a man, voted against him. After a
+five days' poll, Fitzgerald withdrew from the contest. The result was that
+the hitherto irresistible influence of England's territorial aristocracy
+lay shattered. The Protestant conservatives of England were filled with
+consternation. Every debate in Parliament showed that the Catholic party
+was daily gaining strength, while the resistance of the government became
+weaker. It was clear that something must be done. At this crisis Robert
+Peel, hitherto the champion of the Protestant party in the House of
+Commons and Cabinet, became convinced of the necessity of yielding. He lost
+no time in imparting this conviction to the Duke of Wellington, his chief,
+and therewith offered his resignation. Wellington had learned a lesson from
+the events that followed Huskisson's withdrawal. He refused to let Peel go.
+Reluctantly he became a party to Peel's change of views. As late as
+December 11, Wellington wrote a letter to the Catholic primate of Ireland,
+deferring all hope of Catholic emancipation to the distant future. Before
+the year closed, however, Wellington, armed with the arguments of Peel,
+wrung from the King the Crown's consent to concede Catholic emancipation
+without delay. Peel, as the author of this radical measure, consented to
+take charge of the bill in Parliament.
+
+
+
+
+1829
+
+
+[Sidenote: Wellington's change of front]
+
+At the opening of Parliament in England, the concessions of the government
+in regard to Catholic emancipation were revealed in the royal speech,
+delivered by commission. The great Tory party, thus taken unawares, was
+furious. The Protestant clergy opposed the bill with all their influence
+and clamored for a dissolution of Parliament. In the excited state of
+public feeling, an immediate appeal to the country would undoubtedly have
+wrecked the bill. Unable to carry out such a plan, the Tory opposition
+showed itself ready to unite with any party in order to defeat the measure
+and wreak vengeance on its framers. Within the Cabinet itself, Wellington's
+change brought him bitter opposition. When the bill was brought into
+Parliament in March, the Attorney-General, Sir C. Wetherell, not content
+with refusing to draw the bill, sprang up to explain his position.
+
+[Sidenote: Wetherell's attack]
+
+"Am I, then," he exclaimed, "to blame for refusing to do that, in the
+subordinate office of Attorney-General, which a more eminent adviser of the
+Crown, only two years ago, declared he would not consent to do? I dare them
+to attack me! I have no speech to eat up. I have not to say that a thing
+is black one day and white another. I would rather remain as I am, the
+humble member for Plympton, than be guilty of such treachery, such
+contradiction, such unexplained conversion, such miserable and contemptible
+apostasy.... They might have turned me out of office, but I would not be
+made such a dirty tool as to draw _that_ bill. I have therefore declined to
+have anything to do with it." Of course, Wetherell was at once dismissed.
+
+[Sidenote: Defeat of Peel]
+
+[Sidenote: Emancipation of English Catholics]
+
+But an opportunity to avenge his dismissal was soon afforded. Robert Peel,
+since he was not suffered to withdraw from the Ministry, felt in honor
+bound to go back to his constituents at Oxford. The Protestant party that
+had sent him to Parliament now opposed him with a simple country gentleman,
+in no wise his Parliamentary equal. Peel was crushingly defeated. On the
+other hand, the Whig party almost in a body went over to the government.
+With their help the Catholic Emancipation act was passed. The Tories waited
+only for the time to strike down their former leaders.
+
+[Sidenote: Reforms in India]
+
+[Sidenote: Fanny Kemble]
+
+[Sidenote: Humphry Davy]
+
+[Sidenote: Thomas Young]
+
+The precarious position of Wellington's Ministry at home was offset by a
+firm policy abroad. In British India the new Governor-General, Lord
+Bentinck, upheld British prestige by his firm abolition of the native
+custom of burning widows and by his extermination of the roving gangs of
+Thugs. In regard to the Eastern Question and the war in the Balkans,
+England came to an agreement with Austria to frustrate Russia's plans with
+respect to Constantinople. Thanks to this _entente cordiale_ between the
+two countries, enterprising English capitalists and engineers were allowed
+to put into operation the first line of steamboats that plied the waters of
+the Danube. Among other minor events of interest to Englishmen during this
+year, may be mentioned the first public appearance of Fanny Kemble, the
+actress, and the earliest boat race between student crews from the
+Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. England lost two of her famous
+scientists during this year--Sir Humphry Davy and Thomas Young. Davy was
+born in 1778 and died in Geneva. Besides inventing the miner's safety lamp,
+with which his name will be forever associated, he made valuable
+experiments in photography; discovered that the causes of chemical and
+electrical attraction are identical; produced potassium and sodium by the
+electric current; proved the transformation of energy into heat; formulated
+a theory of the properties of particles of matter (or atoms); and made
+remarkable experiments which led to the theory of the binary composition of
+chemical compounds. Young was born in 1773. At Cambridge they called him
+"Phenomenon Young," because he was said to know everything. In truth, Young
+developed into the most profound English scientist of the century. When
+only twenty he was asked to read papers before the Royal Society. In 1801
+he delivered the Bakerian lecture, his subject being "The Theory of Light
+and Colors." That lecture marks an epoch in physical science; for it
+brought forward for the first time convincing proof of the correctness of
+the undulatory theory of light. The intangible substance which pulsates
+and undulates to produce light, Young christened the "luminiferous ether."
+And the term is still to be found in our scientific vocabulary.
+
+  [Illustration: AMERICAN INVENTORS
+    Painted by C. Schussele
+
+   1 Dr Morton, Etherization
+   2 Bogardus, Iron Architecture
+   3 Colt, Revolvers
+   4 McCormick, Reapers
+   5 Saxton, Coast Survey Machinery
+   6 Goodyear, Vulcanizing Gum Elastic
+   7 Cooper, Gelatine
+   8 Prof Henry, Electricity as a Motor
+   9 Mott, Works in Iron
+  10 Dr Nott, Management of Heat
+  11 Ericsson, Caloric Engine Monitors, etc.
+  12 Sickles, Steam Cut off, etc.
+  13 Morse, Telegraph
+  14 Burden, Horseshoe Machine
+  15 Hoe, Rotary Press
+  16 Bigelow, Carpet Loom
+  17 Jennings, Friction Matches
+  18 Blanchard, Eccentric Lathe
+  19 Howe, Sewing Machine]
+
+[Sidenote: War in the Balkans]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Kulevtcha]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Adrianople]
+
+[Sidenote: Powers save Turkey]
+
+[Sidenote: Russia's hold on Turkey]
+
+In the Balkans Russia's war with Turkey was waged with vigor. The winter
+months had been spent in bringing up reserves. The Czar withdrew from
+interference at headquarters, and Wittgenstein was superseded by General
+Diebitsch, a trained Prussian soldier. This general made preparations to
+cross the Balkans as soon as Silistria should have fallen, without waiting
+for the fall of Shumla. On the other side of the Balkans the Russian fleet
+made a diversion so as to prepare the way for joining forces on the banks
+of the Black Sea. In accordance with these plans Diebitsch sent a strong
+force against Silistria. Before anything had been effected in front of
+Silistria, Reshid Pasha, the Turkish Grand Vizier, moved eastward from
+Shumla and took the field against the weak Russian forces at Varna. He lost
+time, however, and suffered himself to be held at bay by the Russians.
+Diebitsch hurried across Bulgaria in forced marches. Coming up in Reshid's
+rear he could either fall upon Shumla or force the Turks to open battle. He
+chose the latter course. The Turks, harried in their rear, attempted to
+regain the roads to Shumla. On June 10, the two forces met in a pitched
+battle at Kulevtcha. Reshid was badly defeated, losing 5,000 men and
+forty-three guns, but made good his retreat to Shumla. Diebitsch had to lay
+siege to Shumla. Soon after this, Silistria fell into the hands of the
+Russians. Turning Varna over to the Bulgarians, and leaving a blockading
+force before Shumla, Diebitsch boldly crossed the Balkans. The resistance
+of the Turks was weak. On August 19, the Russians appeared before
+Adrianople. In the Black Sea the Russian frigate "Mercury" defeated two
+Turkish men-of-war. The Turks were seized with terror. Adrianople
+surrendered without a blow. In the Morea the Turks evacuated Tripolitza and
+Missolonghi and acknowledged the independence of Greece. The ports of the
+Black Sea, almost as far south as the Bosphorus, fell into Russian hands.
+Flying columns of the Russian army penetrated down to the AEgean coast and
+as far as the Euxine. Yet the Russians were so weak in numbers that
+anything like determined resistance could easily have checked them. As it
+was, all Turkish resistance collapsed before the Russian onward march
+toward Constantinople. The Sultan appealed to the Powers for help. England
+and Austria intervened, and peace was forced upon Russia. The treaty of
+Adrianople, signed on September 14, confirmed to Russia its protectorate
+over the Danubian principalities. No Mussulman was to be permitted to stay
+within the principalities, and all Turkish lands were to be sold within
+eighteen months. No fortified point on the left bank of the Danube was left
+to Turkey. Territory in Asia was ceded to Russia, as well as the ports of
+Poti and Anapa on the Black Sea. The waters of this sea were thrown open to
+international navigation; and the straits of Constantinople and the
+Dardanelles were declared open to the merchant ships of all powers at
+peace with the Porte. The payment of a money indemnity of 2,000,000 roubles
+to Russia was deferred, thus leaving to Russia the means for exerting
+pressure on the Yildiz Kiosk.
+
+[Sidenote: French ambitions]
+
+[Sidenote: Polignac Prime Minister]
+
+[Sidenote: Liberal opposition]
+
+Russia's acceptance of foreign mediation at Adrianople brought
+disappointment to France. Reverting to Napoleonic ambitions, King Charles's
+Ministers had proposed a partition of the Ottoman Empire on the basis of a
+general rearrangement of Europe. Russia was to have the Danubian provinces
+near the Austrian empire, Bosnia and Servia; Prussia was to have Saxony and
+Holland; Belgium and the Rhine provinces were to fall to France, and the
+King of Holland was to be installed in the Sultan's divan at
+Constantinople. It was a chimerical project which it was hoped might avert
+the impending troubles at home by dazzling acquisitions abroad. A
+formidable majority had been raised up against the government by its
+persistent encroachments upon the freedom of speech and of the press.
+Martignac's Ministry resigned and Prince Polignac, a crony of the King, was
+put in his place. In August, the "Journal des Debats" thundered against
+him: "Now again is broken that bond of love and confidence which joined the
+people to the monarch. The people pay a million of taxes to the law; they
+will not pay two millions on the orders of the Minister. What will he do
+then? Will he bring to his assistance the force of the bayonet? Bayonets in
+these days have become intelligent. They know how to defend the law.
+Unhappy France, unhappy King!" The Bertins were prosecuted for that
+article and condemned. It only made matters worse. Societies were formed
+throughout France to refuse the payment of taxes should the government
+attempt to raise them without the consent of the Chambers. In the face of
+this growing popular opposition, the King and his Minister resolved to
+prepare an expedition against Algiers. As Guizot put it, "They hope to get
+rid of their difficulties through conquest abroad and a resulting majority
+at home." The death of Paul Barras about this time served to revive
+revolutionary memories in France.
+
+[Sidenote: The Schlegels]
+
+The memory of Madame de Stael and her struggle for freedom of speech and of
+literary opinion against Napoleon were recalled by the death of her
+long-time friend and biographer, Karl Friedrich Wilhelm von Schlegel,
+brother of August Wilhelm, the German poet. Karl studied at Goettingen and
+Leipzig, devoting most of his time to the classics. It was his ideal to
+become the "Winckelmann of Greek Literature." Schlegel's first publication
+was "Greeks and Romans." In 1798 he wrote "Lucinda," an unfinished romance,
+and "Alarcos," a tragedy. In 1803 he joined the Roman Church, and several
+years later was appointed an imperial secretary at Vienna. He served as
+Consul of Legation for Austria in the German Diet at Frankfort. Besides his
+published lectures, Schlegel's chief works are: "History of the Old and New
+Literature" (1815), "Philosophies of Life" (1828), "Philosophy of History"
+(1829), and the posthumous work "Philosophy of Language." His wife, a
+daughter of Moses Mendelssohn, was the author of several works published
+under Schlegel's name. During the same year Pope Leo XII. died at Rome and
+was succeeded by Pius VIII.
+
+
+[Sidenote: Andrew Jackson inaugurated]
+
+In the United States of North America, John Quincy Adams was succeeded by
+Andrew Jackson. Calhoun was re-elected Vice-President. A motley crowd of
+backwoodsmen and mountaineers, who had supported Jackson, crushed into the
+White House shouting for "Old Hickory." For the first time the outgoing
+President absented himself from the inauguration of his successor. He had
+remained at his desk until midnight of the previous day signing
+appointments which would deprive Jackson of so much more patronage. Jackson
+took his revenge by the instant removal of 167 political opponents. His
+remark, "To the victor belong the spoils," became a byword of American
+politics. The system of rotation in office dates from his administration.
+
+
+[Sidenote: "The Kitchen Cabinet"]
+
+[Sidenote: "Pocket Vetoes"]
+
+[Sidenote: Peggy O'Neill]
+
+Jackson's first Cabinet was headed by Van Buren, with Samuel D. Ingham for
+Secretary of the Treasury. The President also encouraged a set of
+confidential advisers, among whom Kendall, Lewis and Hill were the most
+influential. They came to be known as the "Kitchen Cabinet." The regular
+members of the Cabinet were treated as mere head clerks. In one week
+Jackson vetoed more bills than any of his predecessors had done in four
+years. Other bills he held back until after the adjournment of Congress,
+and then failed to sign them. The bills remained, as it were, in the
+President's pocket. This new method of vetoing became notorious as the
+"Pocket Veto." In other respects Jackson's first administration was stormy.
+International relations were repeatedly threatened by the long-standing
+controversy over the indemnity for French spoliations. An adjustment of the
+indemnity claims with Denmark was likewise forced to an issue. At home,
+Jackson's abandonment of the principle of extreme protection and his
+hostility to the United States Bank lost him the support of the loose
+constructionists. As a Freemason, the President was likewise opposed by the
+new anti-Masonic party in politics. In a quarrel over the character of the
+wife of Secretary Eaton, the beautiful Peggy O'Neill, all Washington was
+involved. It was commonly believed that the subsequent break-up of
+Jackson's Cabinet was caused by the social bickerings among the wives of
+the members. Van Buren was the first to resign. Soon he was appointed
+Minister to England, but the Senate rejected him through the vote of
+Vice-President Calhoun. Jackson afterward took his revenge by defeating
+Calhoun's aspirations to the Presidency through Van Buren. The new Cabinet
+consisted of Livingston, McLean, Cass, Woodbury, Tracy and Berry. By reason
+of the new protective tariff, the States of Georgia and South Carolina,
+toward the close of 1829, returning to the Kentucky Resolutions of 1799,
+affirmed the right of any State to declare null and void any act of
+Congress which the State Legislature deemed unconstitutional. This was the
+doctrine of nullification which grew to secession in 1860.
+
+[Sidenote: American development]
+
+The industrial progress of the United States was little affected by the
+political dissensions during Jackson's first Presidential year. On July 4,
+the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was opened. The first trip of an American
+locomotive was made on the Carbondale and Honesdale road. Throughout the
+country many canals were opened; to wit, the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal,
+the Delaware and Hudson, and the Oswego in New York; the Farmington in
+Connecticut, and the Cumberland and Oxford Canal in Maine. Among the
+literary productions of the year were a collection of minor poems by Edgar
+Allan Poe, Parkman's earlier essays, Cooper's "Wept of the Wish-ton-Wish,"
+Sparks's "John Ledyard," and Washington Irving's "Granada."
+
+[Sidenote: Early automobile vehicles]
+
+In England the first successful experiments with steam-propelled stage
+coaches were made by Sir Goldsworth Gurney. These machines were the
+precursors of the latter-day automobile vehicle. This account of a ride in
+the Gurney stage coach was published by the "United Service Journal":
+
+[Sidenote: A contemporary description]
+
+"We numbered four in a coach attached to the steam carriage, and we had
+travelled without difficulty or mishap as far as Longford, where they were
+repairing the bridge over the Cambria. On this was a large pile of bricks,
+so high as to conceal what was happening on the other side. Precisely at
+the moment we began to cross the bridge the mail-coach from Bath arrived on
+the other end. As soon as we perceived it we shouted to the driver to take
+care; but, as he was not aware of the extraordinary vehicle he was going
+to meet, he did not slacken speed. To avoid a collision, Mr. Gurney guided
+our steam carriage into the pile of bricks. Some damage to our apparatus
+resulted, but was repaired in less than a quarter of an hour. As to the
+horses of the coach, they had taken the bit between their teeth and had to
+be cut loose.
+
+"Upon our arrival at Melksham, we found that there was a fair in progress,
+and the streets were full of people. Mr. Gurney made the carriages travel
+as slowly as possible, in order to injure no one. Unfortunately, in that
+town the lower classes are strongly opposed to the new method of
+transportation. Excited by the postilions, who imagined that the adoption
+of Mr. Gurney's steam carriage would compromise their means of livelihood,
+the multitude that encumbered the streets arose against us, heaped us with
+insults, and attacked us with stones. The chief engineer and another man
+were seriously injured. Mr. Gurney feared we could not pursue our journey,
+as two of his best mechanics had need of surgical aid. He turned the
+carriage into the court of a brewer named Ales, and during the night it was
+guarded by constables."
+
+[Sidenote: Jobard]
+
+[Sidenote: Jobard's impressions]
+
+To have assisted at the experiment of Gurney's steam carriage was, in those
+days, almost a title to glory. These carriages became speedily one of the
+curiosities of London. Foreign travellers who printed accounts of their
+journeys, did not fail to devote a chapter to the new means of locomotion.
+Jobard, the Belgian savant and economist, was of the number, and so were
+Cuchette, St. Germain Leduc and C.G. Simon, three prominent scientific
+writers of that time. Jobard's impressions noted down at the time are
+worthy of record: "My first visit in England was to the starting station of
+Sir Goldsworth Gurney's steam omnibus, running between London and Bath.
+This carriage does not differ materially from other stage-coaches, nor has
+it had any serious mishap as yet. For my benefit it manoeuvred back and
+forth over the street pavement and later on the smooth macadam of the
+highway, without any apparent difficulties of guiding. The drivers of other
+stage-coaches are agreed that the thing is a success, and that before long
+it will do them much harm."
+
+[Sidenote: Lamarck]
+
+Jean Baptiste de Lamarck, a forerunner of Charles Darwin died in this year.
+As early as 1801 Lamarck had outlined his ideas of the transmutation of
+species and attempted to explain the manner in which that transmutation had
+been brought about. There is no such thing as a "species," he held; there
+are only individuals descended from a common stock and modified in
+structure to suit their environment. Lamarck was scoffed at in his own
+time; he was respected as a naturalist, but unrecognized as a prophet.
+
+
+
+
+1830
+
+
+[Sidenote: First sewing machine]
+
+Early in the year, Bartholemy Thimonnier, a French tailor, took out a
+patent for his invention of a sewing machine. It was an invention destined
+to revolutionize the manufacture of clothing and the matter of dress in all
+civilized countries. Thimonnier's device was a chain stitch sewing machine
+worked with a treadle. It had taken the inventor, ignorant as he was of
+mechanics, four years of painful application to perfect it. The first to
+recognize the real value of the invention was M. Beunier, supervisor of
+mines at Paris. He took Thimonnier to Paris and installed him as a partner
+and manager of a large clothing firm that manufactured army uniforms. They
+set up eighty machines and did so well with them that the workmen of Paris,
+profiting by the revolutionary disturbances of the times, wreaked their
+vengeance on the new labor-saving device by wrecking the establishment. The
+inventor was compelled to flee for life. During the same year, another
+Frenchman, Charles Barbier, invented the system of raised printing for the
+blind.
+
+[Sidenote: Sir Thomas Lawrence]
+
+Sir Thomas Lawrence, the celebrated English portrait painter, died at the
+outset of the year. In his early youth at Bristol and Oxford, this artist
+showed marked talent for portraiture, and became a pupil of Sir Joshua
+Reynolds at the Royal Academy. His delicate pastel portraits obtained great
+vogue in the most aristocratic circles of London. On the death of his
+master, Lawrence was appointed painter to the King. He became the
+fashionable portrait painter of the age. As such, Lawrence was summoned to
+Aix-la-Chapelle during the International Congress of 1818 to paint the
+various dignitaries of the Holy Alliance. While at Vienna he painted the
+famous pastel of Napoleon's son, the little King of Rome--by all odds the
+most charming of all the many likenesses of that unfortunate eaglet.
+Lawrence returned to England a few days after the death of Benjamin West,
+and was immediately elected to succeed him as President of the Royal
+Academy. He held this office for ten years, until his death. Among the most
+noted works of Lawrence, executed during this time, were the portraits of
+Master Lambton and of the Duke of Wellington. Lawrence's ambitious essays
+beyond the limits of portrait painting, such as his once celebrated
+"Satan," obtained no lasting success. After the artist's death a number of
+his best known canvases were collected for permanent exhibition in the
+Waterloo Gallery of Windsor.
+
+[Sidenote: Lister's microscope]
+
+In this year Joseph Jackson Lister, an English amateur optician,
+contributed to the Royal Society the famous paper detailing his recent
+experiments with the compound microscope. Aided by Tully, a celebrated
+optician, Lister succeeded in making of the microscope a practical
+scientific implement rather than a toy. With the help of his own
+instrument Lister was able to settle the long mooted question as to the
+true form of the red corpuscles of the human blood.
+
+[Sidenote: Conquest of Algiers]
+
+[Sidenote: England's vain protest]
+
+In the face of the menacing attitude of the liberal elements of France,
+which had been rendered more acute by the King's increase of the Chamber of
+Peers to the detriment of the Deputies, the French Government launched
+forth upon the conquest of Algiers. It was believed to be an auspicious
+moment. The Sultan's reluctant acknowledgment of the independence of
+Greece, April 25, showed how powerless he was. The Dey of Algiers had
+insulted France by his discourteous treatment of a French consul. He
+refused the satisfaction demanded by France. On the failure of a blockade
+to reduce the city of Algiers, an expedition commanded by Bourmont set out
+for Africa in spring. A landing was successfully effected by the middle of
+June. Early in July, Algiers was taken. Immense spoils, valued at
+48,000,000 francs, were seized by the French. England grew apprehensive.
+George IV. had just died (June 26), and the Duke of Wellington, who was
+retained in power by the new king, William IV., demanded from the French
+Government an engagement to retain none of its new conquests. "Never," said
+Lord Alverdon to Lavel, the French Ambassador, "never did France, under the
+Republic or under the Empire, give England such serious ground of complaint
+as she has been giving us for the last year." It was in vain. The seething
+spirit of the people in France seemed to demand an outlet. The victories
+of French arms in Africa were cast before the French people as a sop. The
+permanent annexation of Algiers was announced. It was too late.
+
+[Sidenote: "Hernani"]
+
+[Sidenote: Theophile Gautier]
+
+[Sidenote: Honore de Balzac]
+
+[Sidenote: French Government outvoted]
+
+[Sidenote: Charles Xth's Coup d'Etat]
+
+The heated spirit of the rising generation had already been revealed in the
+hysterical demonstrations that occurred on the occasion of the first
+performance of Victor Hugo's "Hernani" on February 25. Conspicuous among
+the leaders of the literary tumult was Theophile Gautier, then a youth of
+eighteen, but already an author and an _Hugolatre intransigeant_, who led
+the claque on this first night resplendent in a rose-colored doublet and
+streaming long hair. With him was young Balzac, who had just won renown and
+notoriety by his "Physiologie du Mariage," and the first of his "Contes
+Drolatiques." In March, the Liberals in the Chambers declared their want of
+confidence in the government by a majority of forty votes. Charles X.,
+staking all on the success of his Algerian campaign, dissolved the
+Chambers. "No compromise, no surrender," was the motto of the Royalists as
+they appealed to the people. The result was an overwhelming majority
+against the government. No less than 202 deputies pledged to opposition
+were elected. The whole of France was now waiting for the _coup d'etat_,
+and Europe waited with France. "Your two weakest points are the electoral
+law and the liberty of the press," said Metternich to the French Ambassador
+in Vienna, "but you cannot touch them except through the Chambers. A _coup
+d'etat_ would ruin the dynasty." The Czar, in St. Petersburg, spoke in a
+like strain to the Duc de Mortemart. Charles X. could not be restrained.
+"There are only Lafayette and I who have not changed since 1789," said the
+King. On July 24, a Sunday, after attending mass, Charles X. signed the
+orders that were to rid him of his Chambers. All his Ministers signed with
+him. "For life and for death, gentlemen," said the King. "Count upon me as
+I count upon you."
+
+[Sidenote: Thiers]
+
+[Sidenote: Marmont]
+
+[Sidenote: The July revolution]
+
+The Orders in Council appeared in the "Moniteur" the next day. It was said
+that Sauvo, the editor of the "Moniteur," as he gave the order to go to
+press, exclaimed: "God protect the King." The publication of the edict
+caused an instant extraordinary fall in stocks. Thiers thundered against it
+in the "Journal des Debats." Government troops seized the printing presses
+of the leading journals. Murmuring crowds gathered on the streets. The King
+appointed Marshal Marmont commandant of Paris. It was the last stroke, for
+Marmont was popularly execrated as the betrayer of Napoleon. The National
+Guards brought forth their old tricolor cockades of the Revolution and the
+Empire. Though military patrols tramped the streets, the night passed
+quietly. Next morning all work stopped, and the people fell to building
+barricades. Whole streets were torn up. The pupils of the Polytechnic
+School broke open the gates and the tricolor flag floated on the towers of
+Notre Dame. Marshal Marmont reported to the King: "Sire, it is no longer a
+riot, but a revolution. There is urgent need for your Majesty to take means
+of pacification. Thus the honor of the Crown may yet be saved. To-morrow
+it will be too late." The King's answer was to declare Paris under a state
+of siege. The so-called "Great Week," or "three days' revolution," had
+begun. The bourgeoisie or middle class and all the students joined the
+revolt. Before nightfall 600 barricades blocked the streets of Paris. Every
+house became a fortress. "Where do the rebels get their powder?" asked the
+King in astonishment. "From the soldiers," was the curt reply of the
+Procureur-General.
+
+[Sidenote: Charles X. obstinate]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Ministry]
+
+[Sidenote: An interim republic]
+
+[Sidenote: Duke of Orleans summoned]
+
+In the evening the Hotel de Ville was captured. That evening the Ministers
+tried to enlighten the King, but he only replied: "Let the insurgents lay
+down their arms." While the discharges of artillery shook the windows of
+the palace the King played whist. Next day two line regiments openly joined
+the revolt. The Louvre was stormed. Still the King at St. Cloud would not
+yield. "They exaggerate the danger," said he. "I know what concessions
+would lead to. I have no wish to ride like my brother on a cart." Instead
+of concessions he vested the command in the Dauphin, having grown
+suspicious of Marmont. The mob sacked the Tuileries and hoisted the
+tricolor flag on the clock tower. At the Hotel de Ville a municipal
+commission was installed, composed of Lafayette, Casimir Perier, General
+Lobau and Audry de Puyraveau. At last, when it was too late, the King
+countermanded his obnoxious orders and dismissed Polignac with his
+Ministry. The people no longer paid attention to the King's acts. He was
+declared deposed. A republic was proclaimed and its presidency offered to
+Lafayette. But the old hero declined the honor. With Thiers he threw his
+influence in favor of the Duke of Orleans. The Duke of Orleans, the son of
+Philip Egalite, of Revolutionary fame, was invited to Paris to exercise the
+functions of lieutenant-general of the kingdom. The deposed King at St.
+Cloud hastened to confirm the appointment. The Duke of Orleans respectfully
+declined the royal appointment. "You cannot receive things from everybody,"
+said Dupont. General Lafayette soon came to pay his respects. "You know,"
+said he, "that I am a republican, and consider the Constitution of the
+United States as the most perfect that has been devised." "So do I,"
+replied the Duke; "but do you think that in the present condition of France
+it would be advisable for us to adopt it?" "No," answered Lafayette; "what
+the French people must now have is a popular throne, surrounded by
+republican institutions." "That is just my opinion," said Prince Louis
+Philippe.
+
+[Sidenote: Charles X. abdicates]
+
+Lafayette's conversation with the prince led to the so-called programme of
+the Hotel de Ville. "I shall not take the crown," said the Duke of Orleans,
+"I shall receive it from the people on the conditions it suits them to
+impose. A charter will henceforth be a reality." At last Charles X.
+abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux. The Duke of
+Orleans refused to recognize the claims of Henri V., and France and Europe
+were with him. Charles X. relinquished further hopes.
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Philippe, King of France]
+
+The Dauphin, formerly Duke of Angouleme, in like manner resigned his rights
+to his nephew. The act was signed on the 2d of August. Charles X. now set
+out for Normandy with his guards, commanded by Marmont, and, on August 16,
+embarked at Cherbourg in two American vessels, with the Dauphin and
+Dauphiness, the Duchess of Berry, the Duke of Bordeaux, and a numerous
+suite of attendants. The ships sailed for England, and, anchoring at
+Spithead, the royal fugitives took up their residence at Lulworth Castle,
+in Dorsetshire, but eventually removed to Holyrood Castle at Edinburgh,
+which was placed at their disposal by the British Government. On August 9,
+Louis Philippe, on the formal request of the two Chambers, accepted the
+crown of France with a solemn oath to uphold the Constitution.
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Philippe's previous career]
+
+[Sidenote: Sojourn in America]
+
+[Sidenote: "Le Roi Citoyen"]
+
+[Sidenote: A new power in France]
+
+The overthrow of the Bourbons was not a revolution in the sense of the
+great French Revolution of the previous century. It resulted chiefly in the
+transfer of government from one political faction to another. Louis
+Philippe, raised to the throne by reason of his supposed democratic
+principles, rather than for his royal lineage, was a Republican only in
+name. His early education, together with that of his brothers, was directed
+by the Countess of Genlis. On the outbreak of the Revolutionary war, the
+young Prince, then Duke of Chartres, fought with distinction by the side of
+Kellermann and Dumouriez at Valmy and Jemmapes. He accompanied the latter
+when he took refuge in the camp of the imperialists in April, 1793. After
+the death of his father, Philippe Egalite, refusing to bear arms against
+France, he joined his sister and Madame de Genlis in Switzerland, where
+they lived for some time under an assumed name. In 1795 he travelled into
+the north of Germany, Sweden and Norway, and in the following year sailed
+from Hamburg for the United States of America. Here he was joined by his
+two brothers, and after some years in America, during which they were often
+in distress, the three princes went to England in 1800. The Duke of Orleans
+now obtained a reconciliation with the heads of his family, Louis XVIII.
+and the Count of Artois. Subsequently he became a guest at the court of
+Ferdinand IV., the dispossessed King of Naples, at Palermo; and here was
+celebrated, in November, 1809, his marriage with the Princess Marie Amelie,
+daughter of that monarch. Upon the restoration of Louis XVIII. he
+re-entered France, and took his seat in the Chamber of Peers; but having
+fallen under suspicion of disaffection, he once more retired to England and
+did not reappear in France till 1817. During the remainder of the reign of
+Louis he took no part in public affairs and lived in tranquillity at his
+favorite villa of Neuilly. He was a "citizen king," only in so far as he
+sent his children to the public schools and walked about the streets of
+Paris with an umbrella under his arm. The most lasting effect in France of
+the July revolution was the obliteration of clerical influences in the
+administration and public education. The Royalist nobility likewise lost
+what political ascendency they had regained during the Restoration.
+Henceforth the party in power was that of the bourgeoisie or great middle
+class of France, of which Louis Philippe himself was the self-constituted
+representative.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolution in Belgium]
+
+[Sidenote: Bombardment of Antwerp]
+
+[Sidenote: Talleyrand's last mission]
+
+[Sidenote: Belgian Independence recognized]
+
+Outside of France, on the contrary, the effects of the short revolution
+were far-reaching. In the Netherlands ever increasing friction between the
+Dutch-speaking Protestants of Holland and the French Catholics of Belgium
+had excited the country to the point of revolution. Recent repressive
+measures on the part of the Dutch Government made matters worse. On August
+25, the performance, at the Brussels Opera House, of Auber's "La Muette di
+Portici," with its representation of a revolutionary rising in Naples, gave
+the signal for revolt. From the capital the insurrection spread throughout
+Belgium. The King summoned the States-General to The Hague and agreed to an
+administrative separation of Belgium and Holland; but the storm was not
+quelled. On the appearance of Dutch troops in Brussels, barricades were
+erected and the insurgents drove the soldiers out of the city. For several
+days fighting continued in the outskirts. A provisional government declared
+the independence of Belgium. Mediation by a conference in Holland was
+frustrated by the bombardment of Antwerp by its Dutch garrison. The French
+Liberals were burning to give assistance. Austria and Russia stood ready to
+prevent their intervention by force of arms. Louis Philippe, while holding
+the French war party in check, felt constrained to look about him for an
+ally. In this extremity Prince Talleyrand, the old-time diplomat of the
+Bourbons, the Republic, the Empire and the Restoration, now in his
+eightieth year, was sent to London. He approached Wellington and the new
+King with such consummate address that an understanding was soon reached
+with England, which set at naught all projects of European armed
+intervention on behalf of the Prince of Orange. Such intervention could not
+have failed to drag the French into war. Now it was agreed that the
+regulation of Belgian affairs should be submitted to a conference at
+London. In the interim Belgian independence was accepted in effect and
+hostilities ended.
+
+[Sidenote: Leopold of Coburg declines Greek crown]
+
+In Greece, the government of Capodistrias was beset with such difficulties
+that it was decided to invite some European prince to set up a
+constitutional monarchy. The throne was offered to Prince Leopold of
+Coburg, the husband of the late Princess Charlotte of England. Leopold
+accepted, but when he learned that the Powers would not grant complete
+independence to Greece, without restoring AEtolia, Thessaly and the fertile
+islands of Samos and Candia to the Sultan, he withdrew his acceptance.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolution in Poland]
+
+[Sidenote: War declared on Russia]
+
+Peace had scarcely been restored in the Netherlands when the spirit of
+revolt, travelling northward, seized the ardent people of Poland.
+Alexander's recognition of home rule in Poland had given the Poles a
+parliament and army of their own. After the Polish conspiracies at the
+outset of Nicholas's reign, Alexander's successor would no longer invoke
+the Polish Diet, and Russian troops and officers were sent into Poland. Of
+course this was bitterly resented. Plans for an uprising had already been
+made in 1828 during the Turkish war. The example of the successful risings
+in Paris and Brussels now brought matters to a head. On November 29, the
+revolt broke out in Warsaw. The Polish regiments of the garrison joined the
+insurgents. The Russian troops, finding the odds against them, withdrew.
+Grandduke Constantine narrowly escaped with his life. A provisional Polish
+Diet was convoked. Prince Czartoryski was elected President. The Poles, in
+remembrance of the late Czar's kindly attitude toward them, flattered
+themselves that the fruits of their revolution might be left to them.
+Lubecki, the former chief of the Imperial Council in Poland, with two
+associates, set out for St. Petersburg to voice the Polish demands for
+constitutional government before the Czar. It was even proposed that
+constitutional government should be conceded to those Russian provinces
+that had formerly belonged to Poland. On the way to St. Petersburg the eyes
+of the envoys were opened as they met the formidable columns of Russian
+troops marching to the Polish frontier. Forthwith, Lubecki forsook the
+cause of Poland. His colleagues found difficulty in obtaining a hearing
+from the Czar. When they were finally admitted to the imperial palace,
+Nicholas gave them clearly to understand that Poland had but two
+alternatives, unconditional submission or complete subjugation. When this
+answer reached Warsaw it was too late to swing the outside Polish provinces
+and Lithuania into the movement. Yet the Polish Diet, in a spirit of
+patriotic frenzy amounting to national suicide, passed a resolution
+declaring that the House of Romanoff had forfeited the Polish crown.
+Feverish preparations were made for a life and death struggle with Russia.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolt in Spain]
+
+The fall of the Bourbons in France had once more raised the hope of the
+Spanish Liberals. On the other hand, King Ferdinand's abolition of the
+Salic law of succession in Spain, so as to assure the throne to his new
+wife, raised up a party of absolutists against him. His brothers, Don
+Carlos and Francisco, became the heads of this movement and rallied their
+supporters around them, in the Basque provinces. In Portugal kindred
+dissensions rent the land in twain. Dom Miguel's claims to the crown were
+disputed on behalf of the constitutional government by the Duke of Palermo.
+Across the seas, Dom Pedro of Brazil proclaimed himself the legitimate heir
+to the throne of Braganza.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Bolivar]
+
+Like other South American States, Brazil was itself a prey to internal
+dissensions and civil strife. To put an end to the recurrent revolutions of
+South America, Simon Bolivar conceived a scheme for a Pan-American Congress
+to weld together all the quasi-republican governments of the Southern
+Hemisphere and Central America. Unfortunately for this project, Bolivar's
+own aspirations to dictatorial rule told against him. His chief opponents
+were those who were striving for a disruption of the Colombian Union. His
+own States, Peru and Bolivia, had already declared against him. The
+Congress finally voted to give Bolivar a pension of $3,000 a year on
+condition that he should leave America forever. Bolivar's pride was stung
+to the quick. He resigned all public offices and honors, and went to
+Caracas to sail for England. He died at Santa Marta, on the sea-shore, on
+December 17. His last words were: "The people send me to the tomb, but I
+forgive them."
+
+[Sidenote: Bolivar's career]
+
+In Bolivar, South America lost the most fiery of her liberators. Born at
+Caracas, in 1783, he was pre-eminently a child of the modern spirit
+engendered by the French Revolution of 1792. He saw Spain in the days of
+its quasi-medieval darkness, and was in Paris at the close of the great
+revolution. Later he was a witness of Napoleon's coronation as King of
+Italy, and saw for himself the benefits of republican institutions in North
+America. The turning-point in his career was the loss of his young wife
+after two years of domestic happiness. As he said himself: "I loved my wife
+so much that at her death I made a vow never again to marry. I have kept my
+oath. Perhaps, had I not lost her, my career would have been different. I
+might not, then, have been General of the Liberators. My second visit to
+Europe would never have been made. The ideas which I imbibed during my
+travels would not have come to me, and the experience I have had, the study
+of the world that I have made, and of men and things--all this, which has
+so well served me, would never have been. Politics would never have
+attracted me. But the death of my wife caused the love of my country to
+burn in my heart, and I have followed the chariot of Mars rather than
+Ceres' plow."
+
+[Sidenote: Van Diemen's Land]
+
+[Sidenote: Extermination of natives]
+
+In the new English penal colony of Van Diemen's Land in Australia, the
+Tasmania of latter days, the self-assertive and domineering traits of the
+Anglo-Saxon race were no less apparent among the convicts than among the
+few free settlers. A few years before this the colonists had proclaimed
+themselves independent of New South Wales and established a separate
+government. The Van Diemen's Land Company received a grant of twenty-five
+thousand acres; white population increased; religious, educational and
+commercial institutions were founded. The natives were all but
+exterminated. During this year Governor Arthur made an extraordinary
+attempt to settle the native problem. His idea was to catch all the
+aborigines of the island and pen them up on the narrow neck of land known
+as Tasman's Peninsula. Upward of three thousand five hundred white persons,
+including three hundred soldiers, turned out for the exciting operation of
+clearing Van Diemen's Land by means of a cordon across the island. All
+seemed to be going well until the line of beaters contracted, when it was
+found that the natives were in the rear, instead of in the front. The
+attempt proved a total failure; only two natives were captured. The total
+cost of the expedition amounted to L35,000. The individual measures of the
+settlers against the despised natives proved more efficacious. Within a few
+years, when the last of the Tasmanian aborigines were transferred from the
+mainland to Flinder's Island, by the instrumentality of George Augustus
+Robinson, it was found that but three hundred were left. The white
+population--largely of convict antecedents--by this time numbered more than
+15,000 persons.
+
+[Sidenote: North American dissensions]
+
+[Sidenote: Nullification debate]
+
+[Sidenote: Webster's declaration]
+
+In North America the doctrine of nullification, newly put forth, emphasized
+the growing differences between the Northern and Southern States. The great
+debate between Hayne and Webster came about casually in the course of a
+discussion of the sale of public lands. The topic of nullification was
+dragged in by Southern speakers. Webster felt called upon to uphold the
+cause of the Northern States. Smarting under some of his animadversions of
+Southern sloth, Hayne made a two-day speech in which he inveighed against
+the spirit of the New Englanders. His own State, South Carolina, and her
+sister States in the South, he declared, would defend their sovereign
+rights, or "perish in the last ditch." Webster's reply to those prophetic
+words was the grandest oratorical effort of his life. He declared for the
+continued union of all the States in all their strength: "Liberty and
+Union, now and forever, one and inseparable." Jackson's progressive foreign
+policy poured oil on the troubled waters. His repeal of the shipping acts
+of 1818 and 1823 brought about a resumption of direct trade with the West
+Indies. On October 5, Jackson was able to issue a proclamation announcing
+the opening of permanent trade with all ports of the West Indies, Bermudas,
+Bahamas, the Gulf of Mexico and South America.
+
+[Sidenote: Anglo-American treaty]
+
+[Sidenote: O'Connell's State trial]
+
+[Sidenote: Anti-reform utterances]
+
+[Sidenote: Wellington unpopular]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Ministry]
+
+[Sidenote: Earl Grey, Prime Minister]
+
+This friendly treaty with America was the last satisfactory measure passed
+by Wellington's Ministry in England. As elsewhere in Europe the success of
+the sudden revolution in Paris created a great stir, and was brought home
+to Englishmen all the more forcibly by the deposed king's flight to English
+shores. In Ireland, matters were stirred up by Daniel O'Connell, who now
+commenced an agitation for the repeal of the union with England. His
+prosecution for treason became a State trial. O'Connell's ultimate
+conviction once more alienated the powerful Catholic Association of
+Ireland. The Duke of Wellington became so prejudiced against reform that he
+declared in Parliament: "I am not only averse to bringing forward any
+measure of this nature, but I will at once declare, so far as I am
+concerned, so long as I hold any station in the government of the country,
+I shall always feel it my duty to resist such a measure when proposed by
+others." After this declaration the fall of the Ministry was assured.
+Stocks fell in London from 84 to 77 points. Abuse and obloquy were heaped
+upon the Ministers from every quarter. Caricatures of them were stamped
+even on handkerchiefs and calico aprons. The Duke was mostly represented in
+the livery of an old hackney coachman, while Sir Robert Peel figured as a
+rat catcher. The King no longer concealed his dislike of Wellington, who in
+former days had mortally offended him by his support of Admiral Cockburn,
+resulting in the resignation of the Prince as Lord High Admiral of England.
+As soon as Parliament was reopened late in the year, a significant rebuff
+was administered to the Ministry by the Crown. The King preferred to
+deliver his speech in person. In the face of the Prime Minister's
+declaration against reform, Sir Harry Parnell, even before the delivery of
+the King's speech, announced a bill for the revision of the civil list.
+Parnell's motion was carried. Brougham followed this up with a motion for a
+reform of the rotten borough system. Rather than submit to another
+inevitable defeat Wellington's Ministry resigned. Earl Grey, leader of the
+Whig opposition, was made Prime Minister. Brougham was raised to the
+peerage, and accepted the post of Lord Chancellor. Palmerston was
+reappointed Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Lord Grey's appointment of six or
+seven of his relatives to administrative posts weakened his Ministry from
+the outset.
+
+
+
+
+1831
+
+
+[Sidenote: Belgian conference]
+
+[Sidenote: Leopold, King of Belgium]
+
+[Sidenote: Luxemburg question]
+
+[Sidenote: Dutch invasion of Belgium]
+
+[Sidenote: French counter-invasion]
+
+[Sidenote: Foreign intervention]
+
+Under the leadership of Lord Palmerston, the Belgian Conference in London
+was conducted to a successful issue. Early in January the representatives
+of the Powers signed a protocol defining the limits of Belgium and Holland
+and apportioning to each country its share in the national debt. The
+problem of providing an acceptable government for Belgium still remained.
+The Belgians themselves would have welcomed incorporation into France. With
+this object in view they elected for their sovereign the Duc de Nemours,
+second son of Louis Philippe. When a proclamation to this effect was made
+on February 3, Louis Philippe, acting under Talleyrand's advice, withheld
+official sanction. Privately he had encouraged his son's candidacy, the
+more so as a Bonapartist rival, the son of Eugene Beauharnais, was in the
+field. The conference at London determined not to permit Belgium thus to
+become a dependency of France. The British Government decided that it would
+no longer discountenance armed intervention in Belgium against French
+schemes of aggrandizement. Talleyrand obtained the best terms open to his
+sovereign by insisting on the withdrawal of the Bonapartist pretender. The
+selection of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who had just been disappointed
+in his aspirations for the empty throne of Greece, was encouraged by France
+on the understanding that Leopold, if elected King of Belgium, should marry
+a daughter of Louis Philippe. Leopold was elected on June 4, and accepted
+the crown only on the condition that the London Conference should modify
+its territorial arrangements of January. This brought up the Luxemburg
+question. Since the Paris treaty of 1814, the formidable stronghold of
+Luxemburg, though under the sovereignty of the King of Holland, was
+maintained as the strongest border fortress of the German Confederation.
+Now, the Luxemburgers had made common cause with the Belgians. Leopold
+accordingly insisted that Luxemburg should be treated as an integral part
+of Belgium. The powers at London yielded to this demand sufficiently to
+annul the declarations of January, with the promise of a future settlement
+of the status of Luxemburg. On this repudiation of the recent international
+declaration in favor of the Netherlands, the King of Holland took up arms.
+A Dutch army of 50,000 advanced into Belgium. Leopold at once appealed to
+France for assistance. A French army marched into Belgium from the other
+side. The powers at London made haste to intervene. A British fleet made a
+demonstration before Antwerp. Under pressure Leopold signed an agreement to
+raze the fortifications on the Belgian frontier. Reluctantly the King of
+Holland recalled his army. Under the threat of another armed coalition
+against France, Louis Philippe withdrew his forces. Outward tranquillity
+was once more restored. No immediate settlement, however, was reached in
+regard to Luxemburg. The union of the Luxemburgers with the Belgians
+remained in effect, while on the other hand strong German garrisons
+continued to hold the fortifications. For years to come this remained a
+vexatious problem.
+
+[Sidenote: Difficulties in Greece]
+
+[Sidenote: Holocaust of Greek fleet]
+
+[Sidenote: Mavromichalis imprisoned]
+
+[Sidenote: Assassination of Capodistrias]
+
+After the restriction of the Greek frontiers by the Powers, Capodistrias'
+government was appreciably weakened. As difficulties thickened about him,
+he resorted to the restrictive measures he had become accustomed to while
+Prime Minister of Russia. He felt that the cause of Greece would be
+jeopardized unless order was maintained at any cost. When the old
+revolutionary leaders became turbulent, Capodistrias only put his
+government on a firmer basis. Mavrocordato, Konduriottes and Miaulis at
+this juncture waited upon the President as a committee from the opposition
+and demanded the withdrawal of the obnoxious measures. Capodistrias would
+not yield, and the popular leaders betook themselves to Hydra. Preparations
+for civil war were begun. The President sent out an expedition to suppress
+them. To prevent the fleet from falling into his hands at Paros, Miaulis
+set fire to the "Hellas," the American-built frigate, and that ship and
+twenty-eight others were burned to the water's edge. Among those that were
+imprisoned by Capodistrias was Petro Mavromichalis, the hero of the Morea.
+The Russian admiral sailed to Nauplia to intercede in his behalf, but in
+vain. Mavromichalis' brother and son, Constantine and George, appealed to
+the President in person, but were put under arrest themselves. On October
+9, Constantine and George Mavromichalis fell upon Capodistrias as he was
+going to church and shot him dead. One of the assassins was killed on the
+spot while the other was executed later. Capodistrias' brother, Augustine,
+assumed charge. His government was short-lived. After a few months he
+sailed away with his brother's body to Corfu.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolt in Bologna]
+
+[Sidenote: Menotti]
+
+[Sidenote: Mazzini]
+
+[Sidenote: Papal legate repudiated]
+
+In the meantime another blow for national unity was struck in Italy. On the
+death of Pius VIII., late in 1830, Gregory XVI. was elected. He had
+scarcely been installed in the chair of St. Peter, when a report reached
+him that Bologna had revolted against papal rule. On February 3, Menotti
+raised the signal of revolt at Modena. He was lured into the power of the
+Grandduke of Modena, but the insurrection spread so rapidly throughout the
+north of Italy that the Grandduke had to fly to Austria. Menotti was
+carried to Austria and there put to death. It was about this time that
+Mazzini made his first public appearance as a revolutionist and was
+imprisoned. Pope Gregory sent Cardinal Benvenuti to Bologna as a legate to
+treat with the rebels, but the legate was made a captive and the revolt
+spread southward to the papal dominions. In his extremity the Pope called
+upon Austria for help.
+
+[Sidenote: Austrian intervention invoked]
+
+[Sidenote: Attitude of France]
+
+Austria, whose own dominions in Italy were threatened, had every reason to
+grant this request. The only obstacle was the threatening attitude of
+France. Before sending out his troops, Metternich took pains to ascertain
+the immediate intentions of France. The official answer given to the
+inquiries of the Austrian Ambassador in Paris, was that Austrian
+intervention in favor of the sovereigns of Parma and Modena, who were
+related to the House of Hapsburg, might be tolerated. An extension of such
+intervention to the Papal States or to Piedmont would certainly constitute
+a _casus belli_. In token of this declaration, the French Ambassador at
+Constantinople was instructed to make overtures for an offensive and
+defensive alliance to the Sultan.
+
+[Sidenote: Metternich diplomacy]
+
+[Sidenote: Papal dominions invaded]
+
+[Sidenote: Casimir Perier's French policy]
+
+In this crisis Metternich put forth all the powers of statesmanship at his
+command. He declared that it was better for Austria, if necessary, to
+perish by war than by revolution. On the instant he assured to Russia the
+support of Austria against the Poles, while he worked upon the fears of
+Louis Philippe by pointing to the presence of young Louis Bonaparte and his
+brother with the Italian insurgents. As a last resort he could always let
+loose upon France Napoleon's son, the Duke of Reichstadt, now growing to
+manhood at Vienna. In defiance of the French declaration, Austria advanced
+a strong army through northern Italy into the papal dominion. The
+insurrection was ruthlessly stamped out. Louis Philippe did nothing.
+Lafayette resigned his Ministry in chagrin. He was succeeded by Casimir
+Perier, a constitutional statesman of modern mold. On behalf of France he
+put forward a double-edged demand that the Austrians should evacuate the
+papal dominions as soon as the papal government should reform its abuses.
+For the first time in their history, Austria and the Papacy were made to
+declare for constitutional reforms. A conference at Rome agreed upon the
+schemes of reforms to be instituted by the Pope. Further pretext for
+revolution was thus removed. In July, the last Austrian forces were
+withdrawn from the Papal States.
+
+[Sidenote: War in Poland]
+
+[Sidenote: Early successes]
+
+[Sidenote: Polish disasters]
+
+[Sidenote: Ostrolenka]
+
+[Sidenote: Ravages of cholera]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Diebitsch]
+
+[Sidenote: Civil war in Poland]
+
+[Sidenote: Paskievitch, Russian commander]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Warsaw]
+
+The Polish struggle, during the earlier part of this year, had assumed the
+proportions of a national war. In February, the Russians took the
+offensive. General Diebitsch at the head of a column of 120,000 men marched
+into Poland. In the first encounters against the Polish forces, who were
+led by officers who had served under Napoleon, the Russians sustained such
+losses at Stoczek, Grochov and Bialolenska that Diebitsch had to call for
+reinforcements. The main body of the Russian army had to abandon the bank
+of the Vistula. Three detached corps remained stationed there. The Polish
+general, Skrzynecki, who had succeeded Prince Radzivil in the command, then
+took the offensive. He defeated the Russians under Geismas at Waver, and
+General Rosen at Dembevilkie and Igknie, but then stopped short. In the
+meanwhile a Polish expedition into Volhynia failed completely. Dvernicki
+was driven back into Gallicia. Another Polish expedition sent into
+Lithuania under Vilna likewise ended in disaster. The main body of the
+Poles had to cross the Prussian frontier. Only one division under Dembinski
+recovered the road to Warsaw. In the interval, the Polish army under
+Skrzynecki fought a pitched battle on May 26 with the right wing of the
+Russian main army at Ostrolenka. After a severe fight the Poles had to fall
+back over the Narev. Cholera now broke out in both camps. General Diebitsch
+and Grandduke Constantine on the Russian side succumbed to the disease.
+During this breathing space for the Poles, a revolution against the
+provisional government broke out in Warsaw. The streets ran with blood.
+Czartoryski fled in disguise. General Krukoviecki was made dictator. He
+shot a number of the mutineers and replaced Skrzynecki by Dembinski.
+Prussia and Austria turned against the Poles. The Prussian arsenals and
+military stores at Dantzig and Koenigsberg were placed at the disposal of
+Diebitsch's successor, General Paskievitch. He crossed the Vistula at
+Warsaw and marched on the capital along the left bank. On September 6, the
+Russians attacked Warsaw from the side of Vola and Czyste. On the Polish
+side Wysocki, who had begun the revolution, and General Suvenski, who had
+lost a leg at Borodino, were killed. Krukoviecki offered to capitulate. The
+Russians demanded unconditional surrender. The Polish Diet deposed
+Krukoviecki and put Niemoievski in command. Paskievitch ordered a general
+attack on the city. The Russians stormed the ramparts and Warsaw
+capitulated. "Sire, Poland lies at your feet," wrote Paskievitch to the
+Czar. It was the truth. At Plock 20,000 Poles laid down their arms.
+Ramarino took 15,000 into Gallicia.
+
+[Sidenote: Poland's aspirations crushed]
+
+[Sidenote: Polish patriots scatter]
+
+Emperor Nicholas made an example of Poland. All those who had borne a
+prominent part in the insurrection were banished to Siberia. The
+constitution granted by Alexander was annulled. No more Polish Diets were
+tolerated. Poles in public office were superseded by Russians. The Polish
+soldiers and officers were mustered into Russian ranks and distributed over
+widely different points of the empire. The country was divided into Russian
+provinces, and Russian systems of taxation, coinage and of administration
+of justice were imposed upon Poland. In Lithuania, the Polish language was
+banished from the schools. The University of Vilna was suppressed.
+Henceforth the ancient spirit of Poland lived only in those foreign exiles
+who fomented revolutionary risings in Italy, France, Austria and Germany.
+
+[Sidenote: Spirit of revolt in Germany]
+
+[Sidenote: Liberal leaders lost]
+
+Until the subjugation of Poland, the German governments, apprehensive of
+the course that events might take, had shown moderation in meeting the
+liberal movements incited by the French and Polish revolution. Trouble
+first broke out in Brunswick and Hesse, the two worst-governed States of
+Germany. The despotic princes of Brunswick and Hesse had to resign, and
+reforms were instituted by their successors. In Hanover and Saxony, too,
+the people had to be appeased by parliamentary concessions and an extension
+of the liberty of the press. In the Bavarian Palatinate, where French
+institutions and ideas prevailed, the tricolor of France and the flag of
+Poland were saluted side by side with the red, black and gold banner of
+ancient Germany. After the fall of Warsaw the governments of Prussia and
+Austria insisted on new reactionary measures. The Diet of the German
+Confederation began a campaign against all liberal tendencies. German
+liberalism during this dark period lost some of its foremost leaders by the
+deaths of Stein the statesman, Arnim the poet, Niebuhr the historian, and
+Hegel the philosopher.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Hegel]
+
+[Sidenote: German emigration to America]
+
+Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was born in 1770 at Stuttgart. He held chairs
+successively at the Universities of Jena, Heidelberg and Berlin. His works
+reached an aggregate of eighteen volumes. As a philosopher he was one of
+the most brilliant exponents of modern rationalism. He reached this
+standpoint by pushing to their extreme logical conclusions the
+philosophical doctrines enunciated by Kant. Hegel's most lasting works
+proved to be his "Phenomenology of the Mind," "History of Philosophy," and
+"Philosophy of Religion." At the time of Hegel's death there was a general
+exodus of German liberals to Switzerland, France and America.
+
+Despite a small but influential class of Americans who copied foreign
+manners, the United States of America had gained something of a national
+character in European estimation. In the New World alone, labor was deemed
+compatible with gentility. The increasing facilities of traffic and
+manufacture gave a tremendous impulse to the development of the country.
+Thus a surprising number of railroads were opened in the States of New
+York, Pennsylvania and Ohio. Improvements connecting Philadelphia and
+Pittsburg were completed at a cost of twelve million dollars. Several
+thousand miles were covered by canals.
+
+[Sidenote: Development of the United States]
+
+[Sidenote: Chicago founded]
+
+[Sidenote: Black Hawk war]
+
+The American census of 1831 showed nearly 13,000,000 inhabitants, a
+doubling of the population since the beginning of the century. An area of
+725,406 square miles of territory was contained in thirty-four States and
+three Territories. The population spread westward, no longer in large
+groups, but in small bodies of pioneers, travelling along the chief rivers.
+West of the Missouri River all was still virgin soil. During this year
+Schoolcraft discovered the source of the Mississippi. The settlement of
+Chicago was laid out and the first sale of lots there was held. A boundary
+and commercial treaty was concluded with Mexico in the spring. Later in the
+year President Jackson obtained from the French Government a promise of
+25,000,000 francs indemnity for the spoliations on American commerce made
+under Napoleon. On April 21, the so-called Black Hawk war broke out with
+the Indian tribes of the Sacs and Foxes. Some 6,500 soldiers were
+despatched to subdue them. In this war it so happened that Abraham Lincoln
+and Jefferson Davis served as captain and lieutenant.
+
+[Sidenote: Abolitionist movement]
+
+[Sidenote: William Garrison]
+
+[Sidenote: Nat Turner's revolt]
+
+The issue of slavery was brought to the front early in the year. On the
+first day of January, Garrison's "Liberator" appeared in Boston. Garrison
+advocated immediate and unconditional emancipation of the black slaves. In
+his first issue he said: "I will not retreat a single inch, and I will be
+heard." It was not long before Garrison made himself heard, and gathered
+about him a few men and women as determined as himself. Among them was the
+young poet Whittier, Louis Tappan, and Lucretia Mott, the Quaker. A storm
+of obloquy and persecution was raised against Garrison. Social and public
+ostracism was visited upon him and his fellow abolitionists. Garrison's
+efforts to free the negroes were made especially unwelcome in the South by
+an insurrection of blacks led by Nat Turner of South Hampton. The revolt
+was speedily suppressed, and Turner with seventeen of his followers
+suffered death by hanging. Turner's attempt called forth a debate of
+several weeks in the Virginia Legislature, remarkable throughout for its
+exposure of the evils of slavery and their bad effect on national
+prosperity.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Monroe]
+
+[Sidenote: Monroe's career]
+
+One of the foremost statesman of the day was lost to America by the death
+of James Monroe. He expired on July 4, the third President to die on
+Independence Day. Monroe was born in Virginia in 1758. He was educated at
+William and Mary College, studied law under Jefferson, and became a member
+of the Continental Congress at twenty-five. He saw his first military
+service in the War of the Revolution. Appointed Minister to France in 1794
+he was recalled in 1796, and was Governor of Virginia from 1799 to 1802. He
+then returned to France as envoy extraordinary and helped to accomplish the
+purchase of Louisiana. In 1811 he was again made Governor of Virginia. He
+served as Secretary of State under Madison from 1811 to 1817 and also as
+Secretary of War from 1814 to 1815. When the War of 1812 emptied the
+national treasury he pledged his personal credit for the defence of New
+Orleans. In 1816 he was elected President of the United States. While
+serving his second term as President, Monroe sent to Congress the famous
+message against European intervention in South America, which has
+permanently linked his name with the doctrine of "America for the
+Americans." His name has been preserved likewise in Monrovia, the capital
+of Liberia, the negro free state in Africa, which was founded under his
+auspices.
+
+[Sidenote: The Reform Bill]
+
+Throughout this year in England raged the great debate over the
+government's proposed reform of the rotten borough system. A bill to this
+effect was introduced by Lord Russell on March 1, immediately after the
+opening of Parliament. In the seven days' debate that followed the best
+speakers of England took part, among them Lord Palmerston, Sir Robert Peel,
+Daniel O'Connell, and young Macaulay, who had only just entered Parliament.
+By the opponents of the bill reform was denounced as revolution. The
+government of the United States of North America was cited as a deterrent
+example. Thus Sir Robert Peel said:
+
+[Sidenote: Robert Peel's speech]
+
+[Sidenote: America a "Deterrent Example"]
+
+"Many experiments have been tried to engraft democratical on monarchical
+institutions, but how have they succeeded? In France, in Spain, in
+Portugal, in the Netherlands, in every country on the face of the earth,
+with the exception of the United States, has the experiment of forming a
+popular government, and of uniting it with monarchy, been tried; and how,
+I will again ask, has it succeeded? In America, the House has been told
+that the most beneficent effects of a representative form of government are
+plainly visible. But I beg to remind the House that there is a wide
+difference indeed between the circumstances of this country and of America.
+In the United States the Constitution has not been in existence more than
+forty years. I will not say it has been deteriorating, for I wish to avoid
+all invidious phrases; but it has been rapidly undergoing a change from a
+republic to a mere democracy. The influence of the executive--the influence
+of the government--has been daily becoming less, and more power has
+consequently been vested in the hands of the people. And yet, in that
+country, there is land uncultivated to an extent almost incalculable--there
+is no established church, no privileged orders--property exists on a very
+different tenure from that on which it is held in this country; therefore
+let not the people of England be deceived, let them not imagine, from the
+example of the United States, that because democracy has succeeded and
+triumphed there, it will also succeed and triumph here."
+
+[Sidenote: Reform Bill debate]
+
+[Sidenote: Exciting elections]
+
+[Sidenote: Tories defeated]
+
+[Sidenote: Cobbett's state trial]
+
+Altogether seventy-one speakers joined in the debate. In the end the
+government obtained a second reading of the bill by a bare majority of one.
+The opposition had made a motion to withdraw the bill. After another
+prolonged debate this was carried against the government by a majority of
+eight. Parliament was dissolved as both Houses were on the point of
+carrying a motion asking the King not to consent to a dissolution. The
+elections which followed were turbulent in the extreme. Throughout England
+the reformers raised the cry: "The bill, the whole bill, and nothing but
+the bill." It was then that the custom of electioneering by means of
+processions and bands of music came into vogue. When the results of the
+elections were announced it was found that the Tories had lost more than a
+hundred seats. On the other hand a few of the most prominent supporters of
+the government suffered signal defeat, notably Lord Palmerston and
+Cavendish. On the Tory side, young Gladstone, then still a student at
+Oxford, came into notice by his warm speech against the proposed reform.
+Parliament was reopened with another hot debate on the all-engrossing bill.
+It was passed to a second reading by a strong majority of 135 votes.
+Scarcely had this been accomplished when the government was embarrassed by
+William Cobbett's state trial for sedition. Throughout the trial the
+Attorney-General treated Cobbett with marked courtesy, speaking of him as
+"one of the greatest masters of the English language who had ever composed
+in it."
+
+[Sidenote: Macaulay]
+
+[Sidenote: Commons pass Reform Bill]
+
+[Sidenote: Rejected by the Lords]
+
+In truth Cobbett's pure, virile, racy, Saxon style, while it delighted men
+of taste, was also intelligible to the humblest commoner, and accounted in
+some measure for the tremendous popularity of his journal, the "Political
+Register." The government was unable to secure Cobbett's conviction and he
+was suffered to escape punishment by a disagreement of the jury. After this
+interlude the debate on the Reform Bill went on. On the second night of
+the debate Thomas Babington Macaulay delivered his first reform speech.
+When he sat down he had taken rank among the best Parliamentary orators.
+"Portions of the speech," said Sir Robert Peel, "were as beautiful as
+anything I have ever heard or read. It reminded me of old times. The names
+of Burke, Fox and Canning during the evening were linked with that of Mr.
+Macaulay." The "Spectator" computed the number of speeches which were
+delivered in committee between the middle and end of July at more than two
+hundred. Sir Robert Peel alone spoke forty-eight times, while Wetherell,
+the Tory wag of the House, spoke fifty-eight times. Finally the Opposition
+was caught unawares late one night on September 19, when they could muster
+but fifty-eight votes before the doors closed for division, and the bill
+was thus passed to its third reading. The Tories took pains to be present
+in force a few days afterward, when the final passage of the bill was
+moved. After a last passionate debate lasting through three days and nights
+the Commons passed the bill by a majority of 106 votes. That same night
+Earl Grey proposed the bill before the Lords. Addressing himself to the
+bishops he said significantly: "I specially beg the spiritual portion of
+your lordships to pause and reflect. If this bill shall be thrown out by a
+narrow majority and the scale should be turned by the votes of the
+prelates, what would be their situation? Let them set their houses in
+order!" These menacing words gave great offence to the clergy. The Duke of
+Wellington spoke strongly against the measure. The bill was thrown out by
+the Lords after an all-night debate.
+
+[Sidenote: Riots in England]
+
+The immediate effect was a sharp decline in stocks. A few hours after the
+House of Peers adjourned at six o'clock in the morning, a run for gold
+began on the Bank of England. The simultaneous effort of the French to
+abolish their hereditary peerage was hailed as an omen of what was coming
+in England. Riots broke out all over England. The return to Bristol of Sir
+C. Wetherell, one of the chief opponents of the bill, was made the occasion
+of ominous demonstrations. A riotous mob burned the mansion house over his
+head. Next, the Bishop of Bristol was driven from his episcopal seat. The
+mob fired the mansion house, the bishop's palace, the excise office, the
+custom house, three prisons, four toll houses, and forty-two private houses
+of prominent Tories.
+
+No one was injured until the troops were called in to disperse the mob.
+Then a number of rioters were sabred and shot. About the same time riots
+broke out at Bath, Worcester, Coventry, Warwick, Lichfield, Nottingham and
+Canterbury. With difficulty Archbishop Howley of Canterbury was rescued
+from the hands of an infuriated mob. The Bishops of Winchester and Exeter
+were burned in effigy before their very palaces. The Bishop of London did
+not dare to hold services at Westminster. The news from France served to
+increase the alarm. Disturbances of a far more serious character were
+reported from Lyons.
+
+[Sidenote: Reform Bill up again]
+
+Late in the year, after another rejection of the Reform Bill by the Lords,
+the bill was triumphantly reintroduced in the Commons. The question now was
+no longer, "What will the Lords do?" but, "What will be done with the
+Lords?" Rather than risk the threatening downfall of the House of Peers,
+the Ministers reluctantly determined to pack the Upper House by the
+creation of a sufficient number of new peers pledged to vote for the Reform
+Bill. A verse attributed to Macaulay ran:
+
+  What though now opposed I be,
+  Twenty peers shall carry me,
+  If twenty won't, thirty will,
+  For I'm his Majesty's bouncing Bill.
+
+"Thus," as Molesworth, the historian of the Reform Bill, has put it, "amid
+the anxieties of the reformers on one hand, and the dread of revolution on
+the other, amid incendiary fires and Asiatic cholera spreading throughout
+the country, amid distress of trade and dread of coming bankruptcy, the
+year 1831 went gloomily out."
+
+
+
+
+1832
+
+
+[Sidenote: English sedition trials]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Grey's Cabinet]
+
+[Sidenote: Wellington impotent]
+
+[Sidenote: The King humiliated]
+
+[Sidenote: Passage of Reform Bill]
+
+[Sidenote: Changes effected]
+
+The new year opened in England with a series of trials arising out of the
+disturbances which followed the rejection of the Reform Bill in the House
+of Lords. A great number of rioters were convicted. Altogether, seven men
+were put to death at Bristol and Nottingham. The officers who commanded the
+troops during the riots were court-martialed. When Parliament reassembled,
+the Commons once more passed the Reform Bill and carried it up to the
+Lords. In the course of the renewed debate on the Reform Bill in the House
+of Peers the Duke of Wellington announced that he had reason to believe
+that the King did not approve of the bill. The statement was confirmed by
+the King's refusal to create new peers wherewith to pass the bill through
+the Upper House. Thereupon Lord Grey and his colleagues resigned from the
+Ministry. The King accepted their resignation. Monster petitions were
+immediately sent in to the Commons from Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds and
+other great centres of population, urging the Commons to refuse the
+supplies until reform should have been secured. Once more stocks fell
+sharply. For the express purpose of embarrassing the King's chosen
+successors for the Cabinet, runs were made on the Bank of England, and on
+the savings banks at Birmingham and Manchester. The streets of London were
+covered with placards: "Go for gold and stop the Duke!" In the face of this
+agitation the Duke of Wellington declined the King's offer to form a
+Ministry. Sir Robert Peel likewise declined. As a last resort Wellington
+consented to form a Ministry, but could not get together a Cabinet strong
+enough to stem the storm. The Iron Duke's popularity as well as the King's
+was at an end. When the King came up to London, accompanied by his sons,
+they were received with hoots and insults. Missiles were thrown at the
+royal carriage, and the Life Guards had to fight a way through the mob with
+their swords. The King was driven to the humiliating expedient of recalling
+his dismissed Ministers. William IV. now consented to create the required
+number of new peers. Lord Brougham gave mortal offence to the King by a
+request that he should put his promise in writing. With the King's written
+pledge in their hands the Ministers obtained an agreement from their
+opponents to pass the bill without further coercion. Early in June, at
+length, the Reform Bill passed through the House of Lords after a third
+reading. One hundred and six peers voted for it and only twenty-two against
+it. On this occasion Sir Robert Peel made a remark to which his subsequent
+change of front gave peculiar significance: "Whenever the government comes
+to deal with the corn laws, the precedent formed by the present occasion
+will be appealed to." The reform measure, as at last adopted, swept away
+142 seats in the Commons. It gave to the counties sixty-five additional
+representatives and conferred the right of sending members to Parliament on
+Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds and thirty-nine other large towns hitherto
+unrepresented. The King showed his disapproval of the reform by
+peremptorily declining to give his assent to the bill in person. The
+Crown's sanction was given by commission. This ended all agitation for the
+time being.
+
+[Sidenote: Otto, King of Greece]
+
+It was in May that the great Powers, in response to another appeal from
+Greece, suggested Prince Otto of Wittelsbach, the second son of the
+Philhellene King of Bavaria, for the vacant throne. This choice was
+ratified in October amid general rejoicings by the population of Greece.
+
+[Sidenote: Foreign intervention in Italy]
+
+In Italy, early in the year, the Pope's failure to carry out his promise of
+reform created new troubles. An amnesty, which had been granted by the
+legate Benvenuti, was disregarded and the papal soldiery practiced all
+manner of repression. Another revolt broke out and once more the Austrians,
+at the Pope's request, crossed the frontier. They restored order so well
+that they were actually welcomed as protectors against the ruthless
+condottieri of the papal troops. Austria's intervention was resented by
+France as a breach of the peace. Casimir Perier, now on his deathbed,
+despatched a French force to Ancona. The town was seized before the
+Austrians could approach it. Austria accepted the situation, and both
+powers in Italy remained face to face jealously watching each other. Had
+Casimir Perier lived he might have made Ancona a lever for effecting the
+desired reforms at Rome. As it was, the French garrison at Ancona remained
+merely as a balancing point between the contending parties in Italy.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Cuvier]
+
+[Sidenote: Cuvier's Works]
+
+France in the same year lost one of its distinguished men of science, by
+the death of Baron Cuvier, the great naturalist. Georges Leopold Cuvier was
+born in 1769 at Montbeliard. After studying at Stuttgart he became private
+tutor in the family of Count D'Hericy in Normandy, where he was at liberty
+to devote his leisure to natural science and in particular to zoology. A
+natural classification of the _Vermae_ or worms was his first achievement.
+The ability and knowledge shown in this work procured him the friendship of
+the greatest naturalists of France. He was invited to Paris, took a chair
+at the Ecole Centrale, and was received by the Institute as a member of the
+first class. His lectures on natural history, distinguished not less for
+the elegance of their style than for profound knowledge and daring
+speculation, were attended by some of the most accomplished persons of
+Paris. In January, 1800, Cuvier was appointed to the College de France.
+Under Napoleon, who fully recognized his merits, Cuvier held important
+offices in the department of public instruction. Under the Restoration he
+was made one of the forty members of the French Academy. In 1831, a year
+prior to his death, he was appointed a Peer of France. Among the numerous
+works by which Cuvier greatly expanded the study of natural history may be
+mentioned as foremost "Researches into Fossil Bones," "Discourse of the
+Revolutions on the Surface of the Globe," "A Course of Comparative
+Anatomy," "Natural History of Fishes," and his great work, "The Animal
+Kingdom," with its subdivisions into the four great classes--vertebrates,
+mollusks, articulates and radiates.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Goethe]
+
+On March 22, Wolfgang von Goethe, Germany's foremost man of letters,
+expired at Weimar. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was born in 1749, at
+Frankfort-on-the-Main, the son of a councillor under the old German empire.
+His best traits were inherited from his mother. As he himself sang in later
+years:
+
+  Vom Vater hab ich die Statur,
+  Des Lebens ernstes Fuhren,
+  Vom Mutterchen die Frohnatur
+  Und Lust zum Fabuliren.[A]
+
+[Footnote A:
+  From my father I have my stature
+  And serious view of life;
+  From dear little mother my glad heart
+  And fondness for telling stories.]
+
+[Sidenote: Goethe's career]
+
+[Sidenote: "Goetz von Berlichingen"]
+
+[Sidenote: "The Sorrows of Werther"]
+
+[Sidenote: Goethe at Weimar]
+
+[Sidenote: "Hermann und Dorothea"]
+
+His father had him educated for the study of law. In his sixteenth year he
+was sent to the University at Leipzig. Later he went to Strasburg, where he
+became acquainted with the poet Herder, and had his first love affair with
+Friederike Brion of Sesenheim, whose charm has been kept alive in Goethe's
+autobiography, "Dichtung und Wahrheit." In 1772 he returned to Frankfort
+and practiced law. While thus engaged he wrote his first
+romantic-historical play, "Goetz von Berlichingen." In the following year
+he published his sentimental romance, "The Sorrows of Werther," based in a
+measure on one of his own unfortunate love affairs at Wetzlar. Both of
+these early works achieved instant success. "The Sorrows of Werther"
+inaugurated in German literature what is known as the period of storm and
+stress. Disenchantment of life, or "Weltschmerz," became a fashionable
+malady. The romantic suicide of Goethe's sentimental hero Werther was aped
+by a number of over-susceptible young persons. Wieland drew the attention
+of the Duke of Weimar to Goethe, and the young poet was invited to Weimar.
+He remained under the patronage of this enlightened prince until the end of
+his days. At Weimar, Goethe was the centre of a court comprising some of
+the foremost spirits of Germany. The little capital became a Mecca for
+poets, scholars, artists and musicians from all over the world. Goethe's
+only rival poet in Germany, Schiller, was drawn into the circle and the two
+became life-long friends. Most of Goethe's lyric poems were written during
+the first ten years at Weimar. At the outbreak of the French Revolution he
+accompanied the Duke of Weimar in one of the campaigns against France. The
+thrilling atmosphere of the Revolution furnished him with a literary
+background for his epic idyl, "Hermann und Dorothea." Goethe's subsequent
+journey to Italy, which was a turning-point in the poet's career, was
+commemorated in his "Letters from Italy"--a classic among German books of
+travel. Another eminently successful creation was the epic of "Reynard, the
+Fox," modelled after the famous bestiary poems of early Flemish and
+French literature.
+
+  [Illustration: THE KING OF ROME
+    Painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence]
+
+[Sidenote: Goethe's dramas]
+
+[Sidenote: "Wilhelm Meister"]
+
+[Sidenote: "Dichtung und Wahrheit"]
+
+[Sidenote: "Faust"]
+
+During the same period Goethe wrote four of his greatest dramas, "Iphigenie
+in Tauris," "Torquato Tasso," "Egmont," and the first part of "Faust."
+Later he wrote his great prose work, "Die Wahlverwandtschaften," a
+quasi-physiological romance; "Wilhelm Meister's Lehr und Wander Jahre," a
+narrative interspersed with some of Goethe's finest lyrics, such as the
+songs of Mignon and of the old harper, as well as the famous critique of
+Hamlet. The height of Goethe's superb prose style was reached in "Dichtung
+und Wahrheit," which stands as one of the most charming autobiographies of
+all times. Goethe's versatility as a writer and man was shown not only by
+his free use of all literary forms, but also by his essays on such abstruse
+subjects as astrology, optics, the theory of color, comparative anatomy and
+botany. Shortly before his death, the poet finished the greatest of his
+works, the tragedy "Faust." He died in the eighty-third year of his life,
+uttering the words "More Light." Goethe was entombed in the ducal vault at
+Weimar, by the side of his friends, Friedrich Schiller and Carl August of
+Weimar.
+
+[Sidenote: Goethe's genius]
+
+Like Heine, Goethe offended his fellow Germans by his apparent lack of
+purely national and patriotic sentiments. To the present day his outspoken
+admiration of Napoleon and his cold abstention from the ardent enthusiasm
+of the Prussian war of Liberation have not been forgiven by certain
+Germans. As a man, Goethe has been denounced as an egotist, for the
+apparently selfish character of his relations with women, ending with his
+marriage to a woman far below him. On the other hand, Goethe must be
+regarded as the most universal literary genius produced by Germany. He
+stands in line with those master spirits of all ages, Homer, Virgil, Dante,
+Cervantes, Shakespeare and Moliere.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Scott]
+
+[Sidenote: Walter Scott's poems]
+
+[Sidenote: "The Waverley Novels"]
+
+[Sidenote: Scott a bankrupt]
+
+[Sidenote: Literary drudgery]
+
+A few months after the death of Goethe, in September, Sir Walter Scott died
+in England. Goethe was accustomed to speak of Scott as "the greatest writer
+of his time." Shortly before his death Goethe said: "All is great in
+Scott's 'Waverley Novels'--material, effect, characters and execution."
+Scott himself derived much of his inspiration from Goethe's writings. One
+of his earliest works was a translation of "Goetz von Berlichingen." The
+creation of Mignon, in "Wilhelm Meister," furnished Scott with the
+character of Fenella in his "Peveril of the Peak." Scott began his career
+as a writer with a translation of Buerger's "Ballads." His most successful
+metrical pieces, "The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border," "The Lay of the
+Last Minstrel," "Marmion," and "The Lady of the Lake," for the most part
+appeared during the opening years of the Nineteenth Century. Then came the
+great series of the "Waverley Novels," named after the romance of
+"Waverley," published anonymously in 1814. The series comprised such
+classics as "Guy Mannering," "The Heart of Midlothian," "Kenilworth,"
+"Quentin Durward," and "Ivanhoe." Scott's historical romances, based as
+they were on painstaking researches into old chronicles, revived in
+Englishmen an interest in their own past. The romance of the Middle Ages
+was recognized for the first time, if in an exaggerated degree, throughout
+the civilized world. The romantic movement in French literature, now in
+full swing, was directly inspired by Scott. Notwithstanding his great
+success as a writer, Scott's later career was clouded by difficulties and
+debt. Through his friendship with Canning early in his career he obtained
+the post of court clerk in Edinburgh. This left him leisure to edit a
+number of literary works, such as the editions of Swift, Dryden and Sir
+Tristan. The great popular success of his novels soon made him rich. His
+hospitality at Abbotsford grew so lavish that in order to defray his
+expenses he joined in a financial partnership with his publishers. The
+failure of the Bank of Constable, in 1826, and the consequent failure of
+the house of Ballantyne, ruined Scott. His debts amounted to L117,000. In
+his efforts to earn enough money wherewith to pay this enormous sum, Scott
+became a literary drudge. It was at this time that he wrote his
+seven-volume history of the life of Napoleon Bonaparte, "Tales of a
+Grandfather," and a two-volume "History of Scotland." His work as a
+historian was by no means equal to that of his purely literary creations.
+In 1830, as the result of overwork, Sir Walter Scott suffered from a stroke
+of paralysis. A journey to Italy brought no relief. Two years later he
+died. He was buried at Dryburgh Abbey. For several generations after his
+death Scott remained one of the most popular authors of England.
+
+[Sidenote: Advances in Medicine]
+
+A remarkable instance of good resulting from evil was afforded this year by
+the revolting murders committed by Burke and Hare in Edinburgh. These two
+men deliberately killed a number of persons to sell their bodies to medical
+dissecters. The discovery of their crimes led to a Parliamentary
+investigation in the course of which Sir Astley Cooper boldly stated that
+any man's body could be obtained in the United Kingdom if enough money were
+offered. The scandal resulted in the passage of an Anatomy Act licensing
+the traffic in human bodies within strict limitations. Before this reform
+surgeons experimenting in human anatomy had to rely on body-snatchers for
+their material. The repeal of the old laws on this subject removed much of
+the odium hitherto attached to the science of dissection, while the
+increase of experimental material gave a fresh impetus to the study of
+anatomy.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Napoleon II.]
+
+A menace to the royal crown of France was removed by the death of
+Napoleon's son, the young Duke of Reichstadt, erstwhile King of Rome. He
+expired at Schoenbrunn, after an empty life spent under Metternich's
+tutelage in Vienna, and was buried there. His death at the time was
+commemorated in the famous German ballad, beginning with the lines:
+
+  In the gardens of Schoenbrunn
+  Lies buried the King of Rome.
+
+The French playwright Rostand made the life and death of this unfortunate
+Prince the subject of a romantic tragedy "The Eaglet," in which Sarah
+Bernhardt achieved so striking a success at the close of the Nineteenth
+Century.
+
+[Sidenote: Attempted revolts in France]
+
+[Sidenote: Repressive measures]
+
+The removal of another menace to Louis Philippe's throne was accompanied by
+circumstances less tragic. In April, the Duchesse de Berry, wearying of her
+exile, crossed over to Marseilles and travelled thence in disguise to
+Chateau Plassac, in the Vendee, where she summoned the Royalists to arms.
+She was betrayed into the hands of constables sent to arrest her, and was
+placed in safe keeping at Chateau Blaye on an island in the Gironde. The
+affair took an awkward turn for the cause of the Orleanists in France, when
+the Duchess gave birth to an infant daughter, whose parentage she found it
+difficult to explain. Next, the death of General Lamarque, a popular
+soldier of France, started an insurrection at Paris in the summer. An
+attempt was made to build barricades, and conflicts occurred in the
+streets, but the National Guard remained true to the army and the King, and
+the revolt was soon put down. The government of Louis Philippe resorted to
+severe repressive measures, and trials for sedition were common. In Germany
+a revolutionary appeal to arms, made at a popular festival at the Castle of
+Homburg, near Zweibruecken, resulted in renewed reactionary measures. The
+German Diet, at the instance of Metternich, declared that the refusal of
+taxes by any legislature would be treated as an act of rebellion. All
+political meetings and associations were forbidden and the public press was
+gagged.
+
+[Sidenote: Naval demonstration at Lisbon]
+
+[Sidenote: Civil war in Portugal]
+
+The excesses of Dom Miguel's followers in Portugal were followed by more
+serious international results. A series of wanton attacks upon foreign
+subjects in Lisbon called for outside intervention. English and French
+squadrons appeared in the Tagus. Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign
+Secretary, declared himself satisfied after Portugal had apologized and
+paid an indemnity to the British sufferers. The French admiral, unable to
+obtain quick redress, carried off the best ships of the Portuguese navy.
+The worst result for Dom Miguel was the foreign encouragement given to his
+brother, Emperor Pedro of Brazil, who was preparing an expedition against
+him in the Azores. Some of the best British naval officers and veterans of
+the Peninsular War were permitted to enlist under Dom Pedro's banner.
+Captain Charles Napier took charge of Dom Pedro's navy. In July a landing
+was made near Oporto, and that important city was captured by Dom Pedro's
+forces. Dom Miguel was constrained to lay siege to Oporto. Thus the civil
+war in Portugal dragged on.
+
+The most formidable revolt of the year was that of Mehemet Ali, the Viceroy
+of Egypt, against his suzerain, Sultan Mahmoud of Turkey. The disappointing
+results of Egypt's participation in Turkey's war in Greece left Mehemet Ali
+dissatisfied. He considered the acquisition of Crete by Egypt but a poor
+recompense for the loss of his fleet at Navarino.
+
+[Sidenote: Mehemet Ali's revolt]
+
+[Sidenote: Siege of Acre]
+
+[Sidenote: Turkish reverses]
+
+[Sidenote: Russian intervention]
+
+A quarrel with the Pasha of Acre, Abdallah, gave Mehemet Ali a chance for
+Egyptian aggrandizement in that direction. Egyptian forces under the
+command of Mehemet Ali's adopted son Ibrahim marched into Palestine and
+laid siege to Acre. That stronghold resisted with the same stubbornness
+that Bonaparte had encountered years before. The protracted struggle there
+gave the Sultan time to prepare an expedition wherewith to intervene
+between his warring vassals. He took the part of the Pasha of Acre. A
+proclamation was issued declaring Mehemet Ali and his son rebels. A Turkish
+army under Hussain Pasha entered Syria. The fall of Acre, while the
+relieving army was still near Antioch, enabled Ibrahim to throw his full
+force against the Turks. In the valley of the Orontes the two forces met.
+The Turkish vanguard was routed and the Turkish main column fell back on
+Aleppo, leaving Antioch and all the surrounding country to the Egyptians.
+The Pasha of Aleppo, won over by Mehemet Ali, closed the gates of his city
+against Hussain's disordered forces. The Turks retreated into the mountains
+between Syria and Cilicia. The Egyptians pursued. At the pass of Beilan a
+stand was made by Hussain. The fierce mountain tribes turned against him,
+and with their help Ibrahim won a signal victory over the Turks, on July
+29. The retreat continued through Cilicia far into Asia Minor. After
+several months a new Turkish army under Reshid Pasha, Ibrahim's colleague
+in the siege of Missolonghi, advanced from the north. A pitched battle was
+fought at Konieh on the 21st of December. The Turks were utterly routed.
+The army was dispersed and Reshid himself was made a prisoner. The road to
+Constantinople now lay open to Mehemet Ali. Sultan Mahmoud was so alarmed
+that he turned to his old adversary, Russia, for help. General Muravieff
+was summoned to Constantinople and was empowered to make terms for Turkey
+with Mehemet Ali.
+
+[Sidenote: Affair of Quallah Buteau]
+
+In America, likewise, President Jackson had found it necessary to assert
+the rights of the United States by means of a punitive expedition. This
+grew out of the affair of Quallah Buteau on the Island of Sumatra in the
+Dutch East Indies. The American ship "Friendship" had put in there during
+the previous year to load with pepper. The captain, whose men were on
+shore, permitted the crew of a Malay boat to come on board. There was not a
+sign of danger, when suddenly the Malays attacked the Americans, killing
+the first officer and two sailors and plundering the vessel. They then
+tried to beach the vessel, but two other American ships compelled the
+Malays to flee. The Rajah of Quallah Buteau appropriated the plunder and
+refused to return it. Commodore Downs, with the frigate "Potomac," was
+ordered to Sumatra. He reached there early in February. Finding that
+nothing could be accomplished by peaceful means he landed two hundred and
+fifty of his sailors under command of Lieutenant Shubrick. The Malays
+refused to give or receive quarter. Their palisades were torn down and
+turned into a bridge, and the fort was stormed. The Stars and Stripes were
+hoisted. Another fort with its magazines was blown up. The town was
+occupied. In all one hundred and fifty Malays were killed and wounded,
+among them the Rajah. The total loss of the Americans was two men. The
+offending town was razed.
+
+[Sidenote: Struggle over United States Bank]
+
+Jackson's domestic policy during this year brought him into conflict with
+two powerful factors. One was the United States Bank at Philadelphia.
+Jackson disapproved of the Bank on the ground that it failed to establish a
+sound and new form of currency. A financial panic had been caused by
+worthless paper currency issued by so-called "wildcat" banking
+institutions. A petition for the renewal of the National Bank's charter,
+which was to expire in 1836, was laid before the Senate. Both Houses passed
+a bill to that effect. Jackson vetoed it, and a two-thirds vote wherewith
+to override his veto could not be obtained for the measure. Jackson then
+ordered the Bank's deposits removed. He read to the Cabinet a long paper,
+in which he accused the officers of the Bank of mismanagement and
+corruption, and stated that he would assume the entire responsibility for
+the removal of the deposits. The Bank made a stubborn fight and spent over
+$50,000 in defending itself. In the Senate, Benton was the chief opponent
+of the Bank, and Webster was its principal defender. In December, the
+President sent a message to Congress recommending the removal of the public
+funds from the National Bank to certain State banks. Congress refused to
+remove the funds.
+
+[Sidenote: American tariff legislation]
+
+[Sidenote: South Carolina nullification]
+
+[Sidenote: Jackson's vigorous measures]
+
+The passage of a new tariff law, on July 14, which was considered harmful
+to Southern interests, brought the Federal Government into armed conflict
+with the South. On November 19, a State Convention met at Columbus, South
+Carolina, in response to a call of the Legislature, and on the 24th a
+nullification ordinance was adopted. The tariff laws were declared
+unconstitutional, and therefore "null and void and no law, nor binding upon
+the State." On December 10, President Jackson issued a proclamation against
+nullifiers, threatening them with trial for treason. Governor Hamilton of
+South Carolina in reply warned citizens not to be diverted from their
+allegiance to their State by this Federal proclamation. Jackson summoned
+General Scott to Washington and sent a part of the army to Charleston with
+a ship of war to collect the revenues. On December 28, J.C. Calhoun
+resigned the office of Vice-President on account of Jackson's proclamation.
+He was forthwith elected Senator from South Carolina.
+
+[Sidenote: Treaty of Payne's Landing]
+
+[Sidenote: Troubles with Indians]
+
+[Sidenote: Black Hawk War]
+
+It was during this year that renewed troubles with the Seminoles in Florida
+resulted in one of the most serious Indian wars of the century. By the
+treaty of Fort Muller, in 1823, the Indians were to be confined to a
+reservation on the eastern peninsula, but the Territorial Legislature
+petitioned Congress for their removal. Finally, in 1832, the treaty of
+Payne's Landing stipulated that seven Seminole chiefs should examine the
+country assigned to the Creeks west of the Mississippi, and that if they
+could live amiably with the Creeks, the Seminoles were to be removed within
+three years, surrendering their lands in Florida, and receiving an annuity
+of $15,000 and certain supplies. President Jackson sent a commission to the
+West to convince the seven chiefs that the country was eminently
+desirable, and a supplementary treaty from these seven was obtained without
+consulting the rest of the Seminoles. Many Seminoles were opposed to moving
+West through fear of the Creeks. The Sacs and Foxes and Winnebago Indians
+of Wisconsin by treaty, in 1830, had ceded their lands to the United
+States, but they still refused to leave their territory. Governor Reynolds,
+of Illinois, called out troops to compel them to go to the lands set apart
+for them, west of the Mississippi. Black Hawk returned, but was again
+driven off. In 1832 he came back with a thousand warriors and Indian
+warfare broke out. Generals Scott and Atkinson were sent with troops to
+Rock Island. It was the first time that a steamboat was used as a military
+transport. The force was there divided. General Scott could effect nothing,
+but General Atkinson pushed on, and in August defeated the Indians and took
+Black Hawk and his two sons prisoners.
+
+[Sidenote: Cholera reaches America]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Charles Carroll]
+
+In many other ways public attention was engrossed in America. On June 21,
+the Asiatic cholera appeared in New York with appalling results. The
+epidemic spread to Philadelphia, Albany, Rochester, and westward. A number
+of new railroads were opened in New York and Pennsylvania. The first
+horse-drawn street cars began running in New York. On July 2, the
+Agricultural Society of New York was founded, and the first public trial
+was held of Obett Hussy's new reaping machine, which Cyrus MacCormick also
+claimed as his invention. The device was destined to give a tremendous
+impetus to agriculture in the development of the western prairies. About
+the same time the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence,
+Charles Carroll of Maryland, died at the age of ninety-six. In American
+letters, this year is noted for the appearance of Smith's national anthem,
+"My Country, 'tis of Thee." Among the books that attracted attention were
+Whittier's "Moll Pitcher," Sparks's "Gouverneur Morris," and Irving's
+"Alhambra." James Gordon Bennett began the publication of the "New York
+Globe."
+
+
+
+
+1833
+
+
+[Sidenote: American abolition movement]
+
+At the very outset of this year in America the slavery question burst into
+flame. The abolition movement inaugurated by Garrison and Whittier in the
+North was in full sway. In the slave-holding States large rewards were
+offered for the apprehension of Garrison, Whittier and others connected
+with the publication of the Boston "Liberator," Philadelphia "Freeman" and
+New York "Emancipator." The legislatures of Northern States were called
+upon to suppress anti-slavery societies by penal enactments. Governor
+Edward Everett of Massachusetts and Governor Marcy of New York commended
+such legislation. Prominent Northern citizens travelling in the South were
+arrested, imprisoned and flogged for flimsy reasons. At New York,
+Montpelier, Utica, Boston, Philadelphia, Cincinnati and Alton, meetings
+were broken up, houses sacked, newspapers destroyed and public halls
+burned. Berry's "Philanthropist" at Cincinnati and Lovejoy's "Observer" at
+Alton were destroyed and Pennsylvania Hall at Philadelphia, a costly
+building intended for anti-slavery discussion, was burned on the day after
+its dedication, at which a poem by Whittier had been read. The firemen
+refused to extinguish the flames. In Boston, Garrison was dragged through
+the streets with a rope around his neck. Whittier and Thompson tried to
+lecture against slavery in Boston, but their meeting could not be held in
+the face of the following placard posted in all parts of Boston:
+
+[Sidenote: A typical manifesto]
+
+"That infamous foreign scoundrel, Thompson, will hold forth this afternoon
+at 46 Washington Street. The present is a fair opportunity for the friends
+of the Union to snake Thompson out. It will be a contest between the
+Abolitionists and the friends of the Union. A purse of _one hundred
+dollars_ has been raised by a number of patriotic citizens to reward the
+individual who shall first lay violent hands on Thompson, so that he may be
+brought to the tar-kettle before dark. Friends of the Union, be vigilant!"
+
+[Sidenote: Wendell Phillips]
+
+These events inspired Wendell Phillips, who was present at a meeting in
+Faneuil Hall, Boston, called to approve these outrages, to take an open
+stand in favor of the rights of the people, which were threatened, and gave
+to the cause for thirty years his active brain and eloquent tongue.
+
+[Sidenote: Compromise tariff]
+
+As a counterpart to the popular excesses in behalf of slavery, the
+Catholics of New England had to suffer persecution. At Charlestown, in
+Massachusetts, a mob burned the Ursuline Convent. Another indignation
+meeting was held at Faneuil Hall in Boston to denounce this outrage. As a
+concession to the Southern agitators, the American Congress, on February
+26, adopted a so-called "Compromise tariff." The new bill cut down all
+duties of over twenty per cent by one-tenth of the surplus of each year,
+so as to bring about a uniform rate of twenty per cent within a decade. On
+the other hand, Congress passed a "force bill," which empowered the
+President to execute the revenue laws in South Carolina by force of arms. A
+State Convention in South Carolina for its part repealed the ordinance of
+nullification, but proceeded to declare the new Federal force bill null and
+void.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Randolph]
+
+On May 24, John Randolph of Roanoke, Virginia, a descendant of Pocahontas,
+died at the age of sixty. He commenced public life in 1799, and served
+thirty years in Congress. There he became distinguished for his eccentric
+conduct, his sharpness of wit, and his galling sarcasm, which made him
+feared by all parties. He had to resign from the Cabinet under odious
+charges. In 1830, Jackson appointed him Minister to Russia. Randolph's
+speeches are still widely read.
+
+[Sidenote: Texas filibusters]
+
+In the extreme South the American settlers of Texas, aided by Davy
+Crockett's filibusters from the United States, began a war for independence
+against Mexico.
+
+[Sidenote: English abolition movement]
+
+[Sidenote: Gladstone's first speech in Parliament]
+
+[Sidenote: Misgovernment in Ireland]
+
+[Sidenote: Irish resentment]
+
+The abolition of slavery was likewise the most absorbing topic that came up
+during this year in the Parliament of England. Young Gladstone, the newly
+elected member from Newark, taunted with his father's slave-holding methods
+at Demerara, made his maiden speech in Parliament on this subject. One who
+heard the rising orator recorded: "Burke himself could not be more
+sympathetic, more earnest, and more strong." Another engrossing topic was
+that of Ireland. The state of Ireland at this period, as conceded by a
+Tory historian of modern England, was a disgrace to the history of the
+Nineteenth Century. So wretched was the government of this unhappy
+dependency that during the year 1832 alone nearly 1,500 people were
+murdered and robbed in Ireland. Instead of giving to Ireland a better
+administration, Parliament passed another coercion bill. Tithes for the
+Protestant clergy were collected at the point of the bayonet. The cause of
+Ireland, as heretofore, was pleaded most eloquently by Daniel O'Connell. He
+denounced the Irish Church bill as "the basest act which a national
+assembly could sanction." The people became so enraged that when an
+Englishman was killed in a riot the coroner's jury returned a verdict of
+justifiable homicide. The Court of King's Bench quashed the verdict and
+tried the murderer before a jury. He was acquitted in the face of the
+clearest proofs against him and in direct contravention of the instructions
+of the judge. The spirit of the English aristocracy was indicated by the
+fact that a bill for relieving Jews from their civil disabilities was
+thrown out by the House of Lords.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Wilberforce]
+
+On July 26, William Wilberforce died in his seventy-fourth year. He lived
+long enough to hear that the bill for the abolition of slavery in the
+British colonies, to which he had devoted the greater part of his life, had
+passed its second reading, and that success was assured. Of all English
+advocates of human freedom he was the most persevering and faithful. After
+a distinguished Parliamentary career of forty-five years, he gave up all
+political ambitions to devote himself to the cause of humanity and
+religion. He had been the intimate friend and associate of Pitt, Fox, G.
+Milner, Brougham and Macaulay. His wish that he be buried simply and
+privately was not granted by England. He was buried in Westminster Abbey,
+close to the tombs of Pitt, Fox and Canning. Around his open grave stood
+the royal dukes of Sussex and Gloucester, the Duke of Wellington, Lord
+Chancellor Brougham, the venerable Archbishop Howley, with other
+representatives from the House of Lords and Commons.
+
+[Sidenote: Tractarian Movement]
+
+[Sidenote: Newman]
+
+[Sidenote: Dr. Arnold]
+
+It was at this period of the ecclesiastical history of England that the
+Tractarian Movement began at Oxford. It is a significant fact that the
+"Tracts for the Times" appeared at Oxford within less than a year after the
+passage of the Reform Bill. The connection of the two movements has been
+revealed in Newman's "Apologia Pro Vita Sua." In January, Dr. Arnold, the
+celebrated headmaster at Rugby, published his "Principles of Church
+Reform." He aimed at a reunion of all Christians within the pale of a great
+national church. In the discussion that followed, the foremost spirits were
+Newman, Froude, Dr. Pusey, and Keble, the sweet singer of the Church of
+England, whose "Christian Year" will live as long as that Church endures.
+
+[Sidenote: Browning]
+
+[Sidenote: Keane]
+
+[Sidenote: Steel pens]
+
+[Sidenote: Electro-magnetism]
+
+Enlightened Englishmen were further stirred at this time by the publication
+of Robert Browning's "Pauline," a narrative in unusually virile verse, and
+by Edmund Keane's original creation of the character of "Othello." The new
+invention of steel pens first came into general use during this same year,
+as did Hansom's "safety cab," and Lord Brougham's favorite style of
+carriage. Robert Brown, an English scientist, in the course of his
+microscopic studies of orchids happened to make the important discovery of
+the nucleus of cells. Joseph Saxton, an American, constructed the first
+electro-magnetic machine in England.
+
+[Sidenote: Bismarck]
+
+[Sidenote: Revolt at Frankfort]
+
+[Sidenote: Caspar Hauser]
+
+The invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph was claimed by Gauss and
+Weber in Germany. The first telegraph actually constructed and used was set
+up at Goettingen. Among those who witnessed it was young Bismarck, who had
+already achieved a reputation as a duellist among the students of
+Goettingen. An impulse toward his political ambitions of the future may
+possibly have been given by the sensational events at Frankfort during this
+year. A band of misguided enthusiasts attempted to establish German unity
+by a _coup de main_. They overpowered a small detachment of guards and
+hoisted the black-red-gold banner of Germany. The expected rising of the
+population did not follow. The little band of revolutionists was dispersed
+at the first appearance of a strong military force. It is characteristic of
+the premature nature of this movement that it excited less serious
+attention in Germany than the death of Caspar Hauser, a freak foundling,
+whose unexplained origin has remained one of the mysteries of the
+Nineteenth Century.
+
+[Sidenote: Teplitz conference]
+
+[Sidenote: Zollverein]
+
+The affair at Frankfort received the usual serious consideration by
+Metternich, who arranged for meetings of the allied monarchs at
+Muenchengraetz, and of their ministers and authorized representatives at
+Teplitz. The most beneficial measure agreed on at these meetings was the
+comprehension of all German States in a tariff union known as the
+Zollverein.
+
+[Sidenote: Otto's reign in Greece]
+
+Full recognition was given to Prince Otto of Wittelsbach as King of Greece.
+The young prince, then in his eighteenth year, had already landed at
+Nauplia. He commenced his reign with a regency consisting of Bavaria's
+ablest ministers, Count Armandsberg, Von Maurer, and Heideck. King Louis of
+Bavaria commemorated the accession of his son to the throne of Greece by
+erecting a number of monumental buildings at Munich in imitation of the
+architecture of ancient Greece, and by mural paintings in the arcades of
+his palace garden depicting all the most famous places and incidents of the
+Greek struggle for independence.
+
+[Sidenote: French painters]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Legendre]
+
+In France, a new impetus was likewise given to art. Jean Baptiste Leloir
+began his career as a painter of religious and historical subjects;
+Lecquereux, the great historical painter, stood already at the zenith of
+his power, and Corot's exquisite landscapes were receiving their full
+measure of appreciation. In French letters, this year is noted for the
+first appearance of Balzac's "Eugenie Grandet" and Prosper Merimee's
+"Double Erreur." Legendre, the great French mathematician, died during this
+year.
+
+[Sidenote: Treaty of Keteya]
+
+[Sidenote: Compact of Unkiarskelessi]
+
+[Sidenote: Moltke]
+
+It was the foreign policy of France to supplant Russia as mediator between
+Turkey and Egypt. Admiral Roussin had made it plain to the Sultan that if
+Syria could not be reconquered from the rebellious Mehemet Ali except by
+Russian forces the province was more than lost to Turkey. Accordingly, a
+French envoy was sent to Mehemet's victorious son, Ibrahim, with powers to
+conclude peace on any terms. The French suggestions were adopted on April
+10, in the treaty of Keteya. The Sultan made over to his viceroy all of
+Syria and a part of Adana. The Egyptians consented to leave Anatolia. The
+Sultan took the spoliation so much to heart that he turned from France.
+Once more he entered into negotiations with Russia. Russian warships were
+permitted to enter the Dardanelles, and Russian troops camped side by side
+with the Turks on the east bank of the Bosphorus. A secret treaty for
+defence and offence was concluded between Russia and Turkey at the palace
+of Unkiarskelessi: The Porte undertook to close the Dardanelles to the
+warships of all other nations whenever Russia should be at war. Thus the
+entrance to the Black Sea was made practically a Russian stronghold. As
+soon as the purport of this treaty was apprehended it had the effect of
+uniting the rest of Europe against Russia--notably, France and England.
+Henceforth Russia's ascendency in the East was watched by the chancelleries
+of Europe with growing suspicion. Sultan Mahmoud set himself seriously to
+reorganize his army after Western models. Following the example of Mehemet
+Ali, he summoned foreign officers to his general staff. It was then that
+Moltke, the subsequent strategist of Germany, entered Turkish service.
+
+[Sidenote: Portuguese civil war]
+
+[Sidenote: Civil war in Spain]
+
+[Sidenote: Revolt in Cuba]
+
+Lord Napier's namesake, Captain Charles Napier, had won fresh laurels in
+the Portuguese war for the succession to the throne. In command of the
+fleet fitted out by Dom Pedro of Brazil he attacked and annihilated Dom
+Miguel's navy off St. Vincent. Napier's colleague, Villa Flor, landed his
+forces and marched on Lisbon. The resistance of Dom Miguel's forces was
+overcome. On July 28, Dom Pedro was able to enter Lisbon as a victor. Still
+the struggle went on. Among those who linked themselves with Dom Miguel was
+Don Carlos, the rebellious pretender to the throne of Spain. Upon the death
+of King Ferdinand VII., in September, and the coronation of the Infanta
+Isabella as Queen of Spain under a regency, Don Carlos was proclaimed king
+by his followers. The Basque provinces declared in his favor. Civil war
+began. Had Don Carlos crossed the border at once he might have captured his
+crown. Unfortunately for his cause, he lingered in Portugal until the end
+of the year. The regency of Spain, in the face of this embarrassment at
+home, was called upon to proceed energetically against a revolutionary
+rising in Cuba under the leadership of Manuel Quesada. Henceforth the Pearl
+of the Antilles was no longer the "ever faithful Isle."
+
+
+
+
+1834
+
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Pedro IV.]
+
+[Sidenote: Quadruple alliance]
+
+[Sidenote: Foreign intervention in Portugal]
+
+[Sidenote: Pretenders withdraw]
+
+The death of Pedro IV., the Emperor of Brazil and claimant king of
+Portugal, made matters worse in Portugal. Diego Antonio Fergio set himself
+up as Regent. Monasteries were suppressed and the Society of Jesus was
+expelled from the kingdom. Dom Miguel continued his fight for the throne.
+Don Carlos, the Spanish pretender, remained with him. The situation grew so
+threatening for the established governments in Portugal and Spain that
+they, too, combined for mutual defence. Queen-Regent Christina of Spain
+found that she would have to rely for support upon the Spanish Liberals.
+Martinez de la Rosa was made Prime Minister. His first measure was to give
+his country a constitution, which was ratified, on April 10, by royal
+statute. He then entered into negotiations with Portugal as well as with
+England and France to crush the two rebellious pretenders by a combined
+effort. On April 22, a fourfold treaty was signed at London by the terms of
+which the Spanish and Portuguese Governments undertook to proceed
+conjointly against Miguel and Carlos. England promised to co-operate with
+her fleet. France agreed to send an army into the Peninsula if called upon.
+Before the treaty had been ratified even by the English Parliament and
+French Chambers, General Rodil marched a Spanish division into Portugal.
+Dom Miguel's forces were driven before him. The threatening demonstrations
+of British cruisers and the simultaneous publication of the terms of the
+quadruple alliance in Lisbon and Madrid cowed the revolutionists. On May
+22, Dom Miguel yielded. On the promise of a handsome pension, he renounced
+his rights to the crown of Braganza and agreed to leave Portugal forever.
+Don Carlos, while declining thus to sell his rights, took refuge with the
+British admiral on his flagship and was taken to London.
+
+[Sidenote: Return of Don Carlos]
+
+[Sidenote: Zumalacarregui]
+
+For a while it seemed as if order had been restored in the Peninsula. The
+problem of Portugal was settled. Don Carlos' shrewd move, however, left
+matters open in Spain. The pretender had not been made a prisoner of war,
+nor was he placed under any constraint or obligations. After a short
+residence in England he crossed the Channel, and, travelling through France
+in disguise, reappeared on July 10 in Navarre, where Zumalacarregui, a
+brigand chief of considerable military ability, was conducting brilliant
+operations against the Spanish government forces. Of the detachments sent
+against him one after another was defeated in the mountains of Navarre.
+
+[Sidenote: Spanish reverses]
+
+All manner of help from the peasants was obtained by a system of ruthless
+intimidation. The personal presence of Don Carlos strengthened the cause.
+It was in vain that old General Mina, who had won renown in these parts ten
+years ago, was sent against the Carlists. Unable to cope with them, the
+old soldier resigned from his command. The Spanish Minister, Valdes,
+thereupon took the field himself. His attempt to operate in Navarre with a
+large army resulted in the worst defeat that had yet befallen the
+government forces. He had to retreat before the victorious Carlists.
+Zumalacarregui prepared to cross the Ebro to march upon Madrid.
+
+[Sidenote: Delacey's expedition to Spain]
+
+[Sidenote: French intervention refused]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of La Rosa's Ministry]
+
+The Spanish Ministry in alarm turned to its allies for aid. The English
+Government would render no further aid beyond that already given by the
+British squadron in Spanish waters. Permission, however, was granted to
+enroll volunteers for the Spanish cause in England and in Ireland. Colonel
+Delacey Ebbons raised a corps of needy adventurers, and, having been
+supplied with arms and funds, crossed over to Spain. The first appeal for
+French intervention resulted in like failure. France had cause to hesitate
+before embarking in another Peninsular War. Lord Palmerston's refusal on
+behalf of the British Government to co-operate with France in any such
+undertaking gave Louis Philippe reason to reflect. A large party in France,
+moreover, was in sympathy with Don Carlos. The Spanish Government was
+informed that French military assistance, under the circumstances, was
+impossible. The first result of this refusal was the downfall of La Rosa's
+Ministry in Spain. The civil war continued.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolts in France]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Broglie's Ministry]
+
+[Sidenote: Thiers, Prime Minister]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Lafayette]
+
+In France, domestic troubles rather than international questions were the
+problems of the day. On April 5, a violent outbreak had been precipitated
+by Mazzini among the workingmen of Lyons, which arose from a labor strike
+involving thousands. Soon the whole city was in uproar. Barricades were
+thrown up. Blood was shed in hand-to-hand fights with the troops. Similar
+outbreaks had been prepared at St. Etienne, Vienne, Grenoble, Chalons,
+Auxerre, Arbois, Marseilles, and Luneville. The insurrection spread to
+Paris. On April 13, a conflict of some workmen with the troops was followed
+by the building of barricades all over the city. The revolt was ruthlessly
+suppressed by General Bugeaud, the commandant of Paris, who was henceforth
+denounced as a butcher. After it was all over the Ministry of Duc de
+Broglie fell in consequence of an adverse vote of the Chambers on the
+subject of the indemnities due to America. The succeeding Ministry lasted
+just three days. Then came the recall of Thiers, Guizot, Duchatel, Humann,
+and Rigny. Marshal Mortier became President of the Council. The Chamber of
+Deputies was dissolved. The aged Prince Talleyrand quitted the embassy at
+London. A proposal to form a Ministry headed by Marquis de la Fayette for
+the last time brought the name of that venerable hero into the public
+affairs of France. Shortly afterward he died in peace at La Grange,
+surrounded by his children and calling for his dead wife. His burial in the
+graveyard of Picpus, consecrated to the memory of the victims of the
+Terror, was left undisturbed by political demonstrations.
+
+[Sidenote: Lafayette's career]
+
+The name of Lafayette is indissolubly linked with the cause of the American
+Revolution and struggle for independence. To join the revolutionists'
+cause, Lafayette not only had to sacrifice his private fortune and
+brilliant prospects at home, but also to leave a young, dearly-loved wife
+with an unborn babe. Throughout the weary struggle of America against the
+overwhelming power of England, Lafayette, together with Kosciusko and De
+Kalb, stood by Washington and the cause for which he had drawn his sword.
+Lafayette's presence in the American army, and the example of his constant
+financial sacrifices for the American cause, were instrumental in winning
+France over to that offensive alliance against England which helped to turn
+the tide of war against that country. Throughout his subsequent career,
+Lafayette sustained the reputation he had won in early manhood. He was one
+of the few prominent figures of the French Revolution who emerged from that
+ordeal with untainted reputation. From then until his closing days he was
+the foremost champion of liberal thought and political freedom in France.
+
+[Sidenote: Delaroche]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Blackwood]
+
+Another distinguished Frenchman who died during this year was Jacquard, the
+inventor of the loom which bears his name. In the French Salon in spring,
+"The Execution of Lady Jane Grey in the Tower," by Paul Hippolyte
+Delaroche, took the highest prize. The picture was a happy medium between
+the ultra-romantic method of Delacroix and the classicism of David. Three
+years previous to this, Delaroche sent to the Salon his famous paintings
+"Cromwell at the Bier of Charles I.," and "The Children of Edward IV. in
+the Tower." At this same time he was engaged on the greatest of his works,
+"The Hemicycle," now in the Hall of the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris.
+England lost three men prominent in letters, Blackwood, Lamb, and
+Coleridge. Blackwood's contribution to English letters was the "Edinburgh
+Magazine," founded and maintained by him from 1817 until his death.
+
+[Sidenote: Charles Lamb]
+
+[Sidenote: "Essays of Elia"]
+
+Charles Lamb appeared in the world of letters as "Elia," a fancifully
+adopted name of an Italian fellow clerk at the South Sea House, where Lamb
+served his literary apprenticeship. While serving as a clerk for the South
+Sea Company he published his first poems at the age of twenty-two, followed
+shortly by "Rosamond Gray" and "John Woodville," at the beginning of the
+century. With his sister Mary he shared in the publication of the two
+children's books, "Tales from Shakespeare" (1806), and "Poetry for
+Children" (1809). During this same period he compiled and edited the famous
+"Specimens of Dramatic Poets Contemporary with Shakespeare." The "Essays of
+Elia," which made Lamb's reputation, did not appear until 1823. The charm
+of these essays is a frank note of autobiography tempered by a kindly humor
+and whimsicality peculiar to Lamb. His fond appreciation of the poetry of
+Elizabethan days, as revealed in these essays, was instrumental in bringing
+about that revival of Shakespeare and old English poetry which set in early
+in the Nineteenth Century.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Coleridge]
+
+Thus it happened that Lamb and Coleridge were intimately associated. Lamb's
+first poems appeared in a volume of Coleridge's. Lamb repaid the debt by
+his tribute to Coleridge in his letters. There he has aptly described him
+as a "logician, metaphysician and bard." It so happened that both friends,
+who were almost of the same age, died in the same year.
+
+[Sidenote: The "Lake School"]
+
+[Sidenote: "Rime of the Ancient Mariner"]
+
+[Sidenote: Swinburne on Coleridge]
+
+Samuel Taylor Coleridge was born in 1772 at Ottery St. Mary, in Devonshire,
+the son of a clergyman. He studied at Cambridge and then went to London,
+where he enlisted as a trooper in a regiment of dragoons. Finding military
+service uncongenial, he obtained a discharge and devoted himself to
+literature. Together with Southey and Lovell he undertook to found a
+communistic colony on the banks of the Susquehanna in America. The project
+failed from lack of money. The three friends married the three sisters
+Fireckes of Bristol and settled in Stowey. There Coleridge, Southey and
+Wordsworth founded their so-called "Lake School of Poetry." Coleridge has
+told in his "Biographia Literaria," how the "Lyrical Ballads," issued at
+that time, derived their inspiration from two sources; to wit, supernatural
+themes, which appealed to Coleridge, and homely every-day subjects, which
+Wordsworth loved to beautify. Occasionally Coleridge tried himself in the
+other field, as in his "Lines to a Young Ass." In the same year Coleridge
+brought out the famous "Rime of the Ancient Mariner," his "Odes," and wrote
+his first version of "Christabel." The period at Nether Stowey, from 1797
+to 1798, was Coleridge's most fruitful year as a poet. All his best poetic
+works had their origin at that time. Swinburne has said of Coleridge: "For
+height and perfection of imaginative quality he is the greatest of lyric
+poets, this was his special power and is his special praise." Much of the
+charm and magnetic suggestion of his famous poem "Christabel" rests on its
+exquisite vowel-music. The same is true of his wonderful "Rime of the
+Ancient Mariner." There the running prose glossary accompanying the poem
+displays the same delicate, fanciful tone as his most musical verse. By
+these two poems alone Coleridge proved himself the most successful of the
+English poets who have tried to imbue their verse with an eerie sense of
+the invisible and the unreal:
+
+  Like one that on a lonesome road,
+  Doth walk in fear and dread,
+  And, having once turned round, walks on,
+  And turns no more his head;
+  Because he knows a frightful fiend,
+  Doth close behind him tread.
+
+[Sidenote: "Aids to Reflection"]
+
+[Sidenote: "Sartor Resartus"]
+
+After his twenty-fifth year, Coleridge's poetic qualities declined. As a
+result of his travels in Germany he published, in 1800, a translation of
+Schiller's "Wallenstein," after which he reluctantly undertook to edit the
+"Morning Post," a government organ. In 1804 he went to Malta as secretary
+of Governor Ball. His last works were "Biographia Literaria" (1817),
+"Zapolya" (1818), "Aids to Reflection" (1825), "Constitution of the Church
+and State" (1826), as well as his posthumous "Literary Remains,"
+"Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit," and the "Theory of Life." In English
+literary annals this year is noted likewise for the appearance of Carlyle's
+"Sartor Resartus."
+
+[Sidenote: The Church of Ireland]
+
+[Sidenote: Royal interference]
+
+[Sidenote: Earl Grey resigns]
+
+A Parliamentary bill admitting dissenters to university honors in England
+was thrown out by the House of Lords. Another bill for the removal of the
+civil disabilities of the Jews was again carried in the Lower House only to
+be rejected by the Lords. Next, another coercion bill against Ireland was
+introduced by the Ministry early in July. In the Commons much fault was
+found with the Government's manner of dealing with Irish questions. In
+spite of the concessions to O'Connell, that formidable leader had not been
+won over. The Tories held that the Ministry had gone altogether too far. At
+this critical moment, on the King's birthday, the Irish prelates, with the
+Primate at their head, presented an address signed by fourteen Irish
+clergymen in which they deprecated the proposed changes in the discipline
+of the Church in Ireland. Instead of leaving the reply to his Ministers,
+the King answered it in person: "I had been by the circumstances of my life
+led to support toleration to the utmost extent of which it is justly
+capable, but toleration must not be suffered to go into licentiousness....
+I have spoken more strongly than usual, because of unhappy circumstances
+that have forced themselves on the observation of all. The words which you
+hear from me have not been learned by heart, but do indeed flow from my
+heart." This speech was received with transports of joy by the opposition.
+Earl Grey and his colleagues, on July 9, handed in their resignation.
+Viscount Melbourne was called in with a heterogeneous Cabinet. During this
+interregnum, on October 16, the two Houses of Parliament burned down.
+Westminster Hall, the Abbey and the Speaker's residence were saved, but all
+the rest, including the interior of the tower and the library of
+Parliament, was destroyed.
+
+[Sidenote: Troubles in China]
+
+[Sidenote: Opium trade resented]
+
+[Sidenote: Lord Napier's defiance]
+
+[Sidenote: British ships fired on]
+
+The most serious of the many embarrassments inherited from the
+Administration of Grey was the trouble with China, that had arisen out of
+the East India Company's opium trade in the Far East. When the charter of
+the East India Company was renewed in 1834, it was shorn of its monopoly of
+this trade. The consequent extension of the trade in opium, so strenuously
+opposed by the Chinese Government, incensed Emperor Taouk-Wang. Lord
+Napier, the new British Commissioner, reached the Canton River in July. His
+instructions from Lord Palmerston were to foster the English opium trade
+not only at Canton, but to demand an extension of the trade to other parts
+of the Chinese empire. The Chinese mandarins, under instructions from the
+Viceroy of Canton, refused to have anything to do with Napier. He was
+lampooned in Chinese prints as "the foreign eye." The Viceroy issued an
+edict forbidding the British Commissioner to proceed up the river. At the
+same time all trade with English merchants was suspended. In defiance of
+the Chinese orders Lord Napier left Macao, and sailing up the river made
+his way to the English factory at Canton. There he found himself isolated.
+An Imperial proclamation declared that the national dignity was at stake,
+and ordered all Chinese subjects to keep away from the Englishmen. The
+Canton factory was deserted by all of its coolies and domestic servants.
+Lord Napier, ailing in health as he was, found his position untenable. He
+sent a final defiance to the Viceroy of Canton: "The merchants of Great
+Britain wish to trade with all China on principles of mutual benefit. They
+will never relax in their exertions until they gain this. The Viceroy will
+find it as easy to stop the current of the Canton River, as to carry into
+effect his insane determination." After this the Viceroy sent his troops
+into the foreign settlements, and ordered the Bogue forts to fire on any
+English ship that attempted to pass. On September 5, two British ships in
+the river were fired upon by the Chinese. The English merchants petitioned
+Lord Napier to retire to Macao. This he did with a futile protest against
+China's acts "of unprecedented tyranny and injustice." Lord Napier died,
+leaving to others the settlement of the difficulties which his presence had
+intensified.
+
+[Sidenote: Lord Melbourne dismissed]
+
+[Sidenote: Peel dissolves Parliament]
+
+The death of Earl Spencer, which raised Lord Althorp, his son, to the Upper
+House, gave the King a chance to get rid of his new advisers. When Lord
+Melbourne, on November 14, submitted to the King the changes he proposed to
+make in the Ministry in consequence of the vacancies in the Exchequer,
+William IV. expressed his disapproval and called in the Duke of Wellington
+in his stead. The Duke advised that the task of forming a new Cabinet be
+intrusted to Sir Robert Peel, then in Rome. Sir Robert arrived in London
+on December 9, and at once accepted the task imposed on him. The opposition
+against his new-formed Ministry was so strong that it was decided to appeal
+to the country. On December 30, Parliament was dissolved.
+
+[Sidenote: American slavery agitation]
+
+[Sidenote: "Atherton Gag"]
+
+[Sidenote: American events]
+
+In North America, the contest between the Northern and Southern States in
+regard to slavery steadily gathered force. President Jackson, in his annual
+message, called attention to "the fearful excitement produced in the South
+by attempts to circulate through the mails inflammatory appeals addressed
+to the slaves." The Federal postmasters of the South and in several cities
+of the North were encouraged in the practice of rifling the mails of
+possibly offensive matter. John Quincy Adams was threatened with public
+censure at the bar of the House for proposing to print a petition for
+freedmen. All attempts to get such petitions before Congress were defeated
+by a standing rule known as the Atherton Gag. During this year the national
+debt was almost liquidated by Jackson's payment of $4,760,082. A measure
+was passed through Congress establishing the value of gold and silver. Gold
+flowed into the Treasury through all channels of commerce. The mint was
+kept busy, and specie payments, which had been suspended for thirty years,
+were resumed. Gold and silver became the recognized currency of the land.
+The President's measures against the National Bank were less successful. On
+March 28, the Senate debated Clay's resolution censuring the President for
+his removal of the government deposits. A joint resolution by both Houses
+of Congress was passed, in the Senate, June 3, by a vote of 29 to 10. Other
+events of the year of interest to Americans were the popular riots that
+threw New York into a turmoil on the occasion of the first mayoralty
+election in that city, the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Legislature
+of Illinois, the establishment of the Indian Territory; and the first
+appearance of Bancroft's "History of the United States."
+
+[Sidenote: Friction matches]
+
+Of world-wide interest was the emancipation of all black slaves in the
+British West Indies, South Africa, and other colonies; the establishment of
+the German tariff union, including all German States except Austria; the
+transfer of the capital of Greece from Nauplia to the site of Athens; the
+foundation of the free university of Brussels, and the death of the great
+German theologian Schleiermacher. An innovation that was destined to add to
+the convenience and comfort of domestic life throughout the world was the
+introduction of lucifer matches during this year.
+
+
+
+
+1835
+
+
+[Sidenote: Irish balance of power]
+
+[Sidenote: Gladstone's anti-Irish speech]
+
+[Sidenote: O'Connell's reply]
+
+On February 19, Parliament reassembled. It was found that a working
+majority of Tories had been returned, but the first vote on the King's
+speech revealed a junction of the Whigs with O'Connell's Irish party, which
+foreboded disaster to the government. For the first time in Parliamentary
+history the Irish members held the balance of power. In vain did Sir Robert
+Peel attempt to stave off his downfall by the introduction of welcome
+measures of reform. Once more it was on a question affecting Ireland that
+the government was defeated. This was Peel's high commutation bill. Lord
+Russell in reply moved that the surplus revenues of the Irish Church be
+used for non-ecclesiastical purposes. In the debate that followed,
+Gladstone spoke strongly against the measure. For this early speech,
+embodying as it did views so radically different from those of his later
+life, he was constantly reproached during his career. It ended with the
+words, "I hope I shall never live to see the day when such a system shall
+be adopted in this country; for the consequences of it to public men will
+be lamentable beyond all description." O'Connell said in reply: "I shall
+content myself with laying down the broad principle that the emoluments of
+a church ought not to be raised from a people who do not belong to it....
+All that the Catholics of Ireland require is justice--equal and even-handed
+justice."
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Peel's Ministry]
+
+[Sidenote: Melbourne's second Administration]
+
+When the matter came to a vote the government was defeated by a majority of
+thirty-three. On April 8, the resignation of the Ministry was announced to
+Parliament. The King sent for Earl Grey, and, on his refusal to form a
+Ministry, was driven to the humiliating expedient of recalling Lord
+Melbourne. On April 18, a new Cabinet was formed, composed largely of the
+men who had been so summarily dismissed by the King a few months before.
+Lord Melbourne's second Administration was marked by the elevation of the
+settlements of South Australia to a Crown colony. The city of Melbourne,
+which was founded that year, was named in his honor.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of William Cobbett]
+
+An extraordinary career was ended, on June 18, by the death of William
+Cobbett, from overwork in Parliament. With but little school education,
+this remarkable man succeeded in becoming not only one of the foremost
+prose writers of English, but the leader of a great popular party.
+
+[Sidenote: The Orange Lodges]
+
+[Sidenote: Duke of Cumberland implicated]
+
+During the early part of Lord Melbourne's Administration, the discontent
+and irritation prevailing in Ireland were heightened by the agitation
+against the Orange lodges. The original purpose of these lodges had been to
+defend, against the Stuarts and their supporters, the Protestant ascendancy
+which had begun with the reign of William of Orange. The lodges had grown
+in strength until, in 1835, it was estimated that they numbered 140,000
+members in Ireland, and as many as 40,000 in London alone. The Grand Master
+of all the Orange Lodges was no less a personage than the Duke of
+Cumberland, the King's brother. It was believed in Ireland that a
+conspiracy existed on the part of the Orangemen to set aside the Princess
+Victoria, the next heir to the throne, in favor of the Duke of Cumberland.
+The subject was brought to the notice of Parliament by Hume and O'Connell,
+who drew special attention to the illegal introduction of Orangemen into
+the British army, under warrants signed by the Duke of Cumberland. The
+scandal grew to such an extent that the Duke of Cumberland hastened to
+dissolve the order before a resolution condemning his conduct could pass
+through the Commons.
+
+[Sidenote: D'Urban in South Africa]
+
+[Sidenote: Beginning of Boer trek]
+
+In South Africa, another war over boundary questions broke out between the
+Dutch and English settlers and the Kaffirs. Sir Benjamin d'Urban advanced
+the frontier of Cape Colony to the Keir River. The Zulu chief, Dingaan, on
+the assassination of King Chaka, who had welded together a confederation of
+warlike tribes, succeeded to his powers. In the midst of these difficulties
+an advance guard of Boers, exasperated by Great Britain's abolition of the
+old Dutch moot courts or "Heemraden," and of slavery in Cape Colony,
+trekked across the Orange River and founded a colony of their own.
+
+[Sidenote: South American disorders]
+
+[Sidenote: Revolution of Texas]
+
+In South America, political changes rapidly followed one upon the other.
+Rocafuerte seized the reins of power in Ecuador. About the same time
+General Rosas had himself re-elected for fifteen years as dictator of the
+Argentine Republic. President Santa Cruz of Bolivia made a raid into Peru,
+and in his absence the State of Bolivia promptly fell a prey to internal
+disorders. In Mexico, General Santa Anna established his rule as dictator.
+The affairs of Texas soon demanded his attention. On December 20, Texas
+declared itself independent of Mexico. Support came from the United States.
+The revolution began with the battle of Gonzales, in which 500 Americans
+took part. The Mexicans were defeated. Soon afterward Goliad and the strong
+citadel of Bexar, known as the Alamo, were taken and the Mexican forces
+dispersed.
+
+[Sidenote: Osceola in Florida]
+
+[Sidenote: Treaty of Payne's Landing disputed]
+
+In the meanwhile the Seminole war in Florida had assumed a serious aspect.
+The chief Indian leader who opposed the removal of the Seminoles west of
+the Mississippi was Osceola, son of a half breed squaw and an Englishman.
+His wife, the daughter of a slave, had been seized and returned to her
+mother's master. Thenceforth Osceola became an uncompromising enemy of the
+whites. The Indian controversy with the American Government turned on the
+interpretation of a pronoun in the treaty of Payne's Landing. President
+Jackson held that the word "they" in the most important clause of the
+treaty relating to the compensation of the despoiled Indians referred only
+to the deputies who executed the document, whereas Osceola contended that
+it was meant to stand for all the Indians. The continued quibbling so
+enraged Osceola that he drove his knife into the table exclaiming: "The
+next treaty I will execute is with this."
+
+[Sidenote: American progress]
+
+[Sidenote: New York conflagration]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Justice Marshall]
+
+Among the intellectual and scientific achievements of this year in America
+must be reckoned Colt's invention of a revolver and the manufacture of
+pins. Longfellow brought out his "Outre-Mer," and Audubon published his
+"Birds of America." On December 16, a disastrous fire destroyed most of the
+commercial houses of New York City. In all 530 houses burned down and
+$18,000,000 worth of property was consumed. Chief Justice Marshall of the
+United States Supreme Court died during this year, eighty years of age. As
+a member of Congress, a Cabinet officer, and the foremost jurist of the
+United States, Marshall won lasting distinction. His ability as a writer
+was conspicuously displayed in his popular "Life of Washington."
+
+[Sidenote: Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria]
+
+[Sidenote: Wilhelm von Humboldt]
+
+[Sidenote: Andersen's Fairy Tales]
+
+In Europe, in the meanwhile, there had been some significant changes. On
+March 2, Emperor Francis of Austria died at the age of sixty-seven. The
+succession of Archduke Ferdinand to the throne produced no change in the
+national policy. Metternich was retained at the head of affairs. Almost of
+more moment to Germany was the death of Karl Wilhelm von Humboldt, the
+diplomat, and brother to Alexander, the great German explorer and
+philosophic writer. Besides his services as a statesman at the time of the
+international conferences at Paris and Vienna, he is distinguished for his
+philological researches in the Basque and Kauri languages. About the same
+time Hans Christian Andersen, the Danish author, published his first
+collection of fairy tales. The book had an immediate success, and after its
+translation into German achieved a world-wide reputation. Various
+translations from the German version and from the original had large sales
+in England and America.
+
+[Sidenote: Artistic activity in France]
+
+[Sidenote: May riots of Paris]
+
+[Sidenote: Fieschi's infernal machine]
+
+[Sidenote: Second campaign in Algiers]
+
+In France, too, notwithstanding political disturbances, fine arts and
+letters flourished. New creations appeared from the pens of Lamartine,
+Victor Hugo, Balzac, De Vigny and Alfred De Musset. Theophile Gautier
+brought out his masterpiece "Mademoiselle de Maupin." Among the musicians
+at Paris, Meyerbeer, Auber, Berlioz, Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, Spontini,
+and Schapa were at the height of their activity. Politically it was a year
+of disturbances for France. The opening of the State trial of last year's
+conspirators before the Chamber of Peers was followed by diatribes in the
+press. The liberties of the press were further restricted. Riots again
+broke out in May. After all, but one man was condemned to death. Most of
+those who were implicated were sentenced to transportation. New laws for
+the repression of sedition were proposed by the Cabinet. Then it was that
+the first serious attempt was made on the life of Louis Philippe. Already
+seven projects of assassination had been discovered and frustrated, when a
+grand review of the National Guards, on July 28, gave an opportunity for a
+telling stroke. At the moment when the royal procession arrived on the
+Boulevard Temple, an infernal machine was set off by a Corsican named
+Fieschi. The King was saved only by the fact that he had bent down from
+his horse to receive a petition when the machine was discharged. Among
+those that were struck down were the Dukes of Orleans and Broglie, Marshal
+Mortier, General Verigny, and Captain Vilate. The perpetrators of the crime
+were put to death. In French foreign affairs a renewed uprising of Arab
+tribes under Abd-el-Kader necessitated another military campaign in
+Algeria.
+
+In Greece, King Otto, having come of age on June 1, dissolved the Bavarian
+regency and assumed his full royal powers at Athens. His reign, lacking
+though it was in national spirit or sympathies, assured to Greece an era of
+undisturbed peace and tranquillity.
+
+[Sidenote: Seminole War]
+
+Toward the close of the year, the American Government's attempt to remove
+the Seminole Indians from their hunting grounds in Florida resulted in a
+sanguinary Indian war. Micanopy the Seminole Sachem and Osceola were the
+Indian leaders. Osceola opened hostilities with a master stroke. On
+December 28, he surprised General Wiley Thompson at Fort King. Thompson had
+wantonly laid Osceola in chains some time before. Now Osceola scalped his
+enemy with his own hands. On the same day, Major Dade, leading a relief
+expedition from Tampa Bay, was ambushed and overwhelmed near Wahoo Swamp.
+Only four of his men escaped death. Within forty-eight hours, on the last
+day of the year, General Clinch, commanding the troops in Florida, won a
+bloody fight on the banks of the Big Withlacoochee.
+
+
+
+
+1836
+
+
+[Sidenote: Withlacoochee]
+
+[Sidenote: Creek Indians subdued]
+
+[Sidenote: Fight in Wahoo's swamp]
+
+Throughout this year the Seminole War in Florida dragged on. Gaines's
+command was assailed by the Indians near the old battleground of the
+Withlacoochee on February 27. In May, the Creeks aided the Seminoles in
+Florida, by attacking the white settlers within their domain. Success made
+them bold, and they attacked mail carriers, stages, river barges and
+outlying settlements in Georgia and Alabama, until thousands of white
+people were fleeing for their lives from the savages. General Scott was now
+in chief command in the South, and he prosecuted the war with vigor. The
+Creeks were finally subdued, and during the summer several thousand of them
+were forcibly removed to their designated homes beyond the Mississippi.
+Governor Call of Georgia marched against the Seminoles with some two
+thousand men in October. A detachment of five hundred of these had a severe
+contest (November 21) with the Indians at Wahoo swamp, near the scene of
+Dade's massacre. As in so many other engagements with the Seminoles in
+their swampy fastnesses, both sides claimed the victory.
+
+[Sidenote: Diet of Pressburg]
+
+[Sidenote: Magyar demands]
+
+[Sidenote: Kossuth]
+
+[Sidenote: Scechenyi]
+
+[Sidenote: Transylvanian Diet]
+
+[Sidenote: Vesselenyi]
+
+In Europe, early during 1836, the conclusions reached by the long-sitting
+Diet of Hungary opened the eyes of the new Emperor of Austria and of
+Metternich to the changed spirit within their own dominions. For many years
+during the long period when the government did not dare to convoke the
+Diet, the Hungarians in their county assemblies had opposed a steady
+resistance to the usurpations of the crown. These county assemblies,
+rejoicing as they did in the right of free discussion, and the appointment
+of local officials, were one of the hardiest relics of home rule existing
+anywhere in Europe, comparable only to the democratic government of the
+Swiss cantons and to the old English town meetings reconstituted in New
+England. By banishing political discussion from the Diet to the county
+sessions, Metternich only intensified the provincial spirit of opposition
+which he thought to quell. When the Hungarian Diet reassembled at Pressburg
+at last, the new spirit showed itself in the demand of the Magyars for the
+substitution of their own language, in all public debates, for the older
+customary Latin. The government speakers, who attempted to address the
+deputies in Latin, were howled down by the Magyars. When the government
+forbade the publication of all Magyar speeches, Kossuth, one of the
+youngest of the deputies, circulated them in manuscript. After the
+dissolution of the Diet, in summer, he was punished for this act of
+defiance by a three years' imprisonment. The foremost leader of the
+Hungarian Liberals at this time was Count Scechenyi, a Magyar magnate of
+note. He it was that opened the Danube to steam navigation by the
+destruction of the rocks at Orsova, known as the Iron Grates, and to him,
+too, Hungary owes the bridge over the Danube that unites its double capital
+of Budapesth and Ofen. Of the Hungarian noblemen he was one of the few who
+recognized the injustice of the anomalous institution which restricted
+Parliamentary representation to the noblemen, and absolved them at the same
+time from taxation. The new liberal spirit thus manifested was turned into
+revolutionary channels by Metternich himself. The dissolution of the
+Hungarian Diet and the subsequent imprisonment of deputies whose persons
+should have been inviolable aroused bad blood among the Magyars. This was
+made worse by the peremptory dissolution of the Transylvanian Diet, where
+the Magyar element likewise predominated. The leader of the Transylvanian
+opposition, Count Vesselenyi, a magnate in Hungary, betook himself to his
+own county session and there inveighed against the government. He was
+arrested and brought to trial before an Austrian court on charges of high
+treason. His plea of privilege was supported by the Hungarian county
+sessions as involving one of their oldest established rights. In the face
+of this agitation Count Vesselenyi was convicted and sentenced to exile.
+Henceforth opposition to the government and hostility to all things
+Austrian were synonymous with patriotism in Hungary.
+
+[Sidenote: Poland restive]
+
+The discontent in Hungary and the Slav provinces of Austria was fomented by
+a keen sympathy with the misfortunes of Poland groaning under the yoke of
+Russia. Notwithstanding Austria's official conference with Russia, Polish
+refugees were received with open arms in Galicia, Bohemia and Hungary.
+
+[Sidenote: The great Boer trek]
+
+[Sidenote: Piet Retief]
+
+[Sidenote: Zulu treachery]
+
+[Sidenote: Massacre of Weenen]
+
+In various other parts of the world the spirit of revolution would not be
+quelled. More Dutch settlers in South Africa sought relief from British
+interference with their customs and the institution of slavery by
+emigrating into the virgin veldt lying to the north of their former
+settlements. It was in vain that the British authorities of Cape Colony
+tried to stop this "great trek." Rather than submit to British domination,
+the Boers preferred to renew the inevitable struggle with the wild beasts
+and the savages of the African wilderness. While one part of the emigrant
+body remained in the Transvaal and Northern Free State, the foretrekkers
+passed over the Drakensberg Mountains into Natal, under the leadership of
+Piet Retief. The land of Natal was at that time practically unpopulated.
+Chaka and his warriors had swept the country clean of its native
+inhabitants, so Dingaan considered it within his sphere of influence. The
+Boers accordingly made overtures to Dingaan, Chaka's successor, who resided
+at his kraal on the White Umvolosi, a hundred miles distant in Zululand,
+for the right to trek into this country. This was granted after the Boers
+had undertaken to restore some cattle of the Zulus stolen by the Basutos. A
+thousand prairie wagons containing Boer families trekked over the
+Drakensberg into Natal, and scattered over the unpeopled country along the
+banks of the Upper Tugela and Mooi Rivers. Piet Retief, with sixty-five
+followers, went to visit Dingaan in his kraal. They were made welcome. A
+solemn treaty of peace and friendship was drawn up by one Owens, an English
+missionary with the Zulus. During a feast, the Boers, disarmed and wholly
+unprepared for an attack, were suddenly seized and massacred to a man. Then
+the Zulus, numbering some ten thousand warriors, swept out into the veldt
+to attack the Boer settlements. Near Colenso, at a spot called Weenen
+(weeping), in remembrance of the tragedy there enacted, the Zulus
+overwhelmed the largest of the Boer laagers, and slaughtered all its
+inmates--41 men, 56 women, 185 children and 250 Kaffir slaves. In spite of
+this and other battles the Boers held their ground.
+
+[Sidenote: South Australia settled]
+
+[Sidenote: British seize Aden]
+
+The Englishmen likewise extended their colonial conquests. The unsettled
+Bushland of South Australia was colonized by Captain Hindmarsh and his
+followers. They founded the city of Adelaide, named after the consort of
+William IV. A wrecked British ship having been plundered by Arabs, the
+Sultan of Aden, under a threat of British retaliation, was made to cede
+Aden to Great Britain. New claims for territory were preferred by Great
+Britain against the Republic of Honduras, in Central America.
+
+[Sidenote: Mexican independence acknowledged]
+
+[Sidenote: Defence of the Alamo]
+
+[Sidenote: Joaquin Miller's lines]
+
+The neighboring republic of Mexico, under the dictatorship of Santa Anna,
+at last succeeded in having its independence formally acknowledged by
+Spain. On March 6, Santa Anna, having raised a new force of 8,000 men,
+marched on Fort Alamo, which had been left in charge of a small garrison of
+Americans under Colonel Jim Bowie. All night they fought. Every man fell
+at his post but seven, and these were killed while asking quarter. Here
+died David Crockett, the famous American frontiersman, whose exploits had
+made him so popular in Tennessee, that, though unable to read, he was
+thrice elected to Congress. Joaquin Miller, the American poet, based on
+this encounter his stirring ballad on "The Defence of the Alamo":
+
+  Santa Anna came storming, as a storm might come;
+  There was rumble of cannon; there was rattle of blade;
+  There was cavalry, infantry, bugle and drum,--
+  Full seven thousand, in pomp and parade,
+  The chivalry, flower of Mexico;
+  And a gaunt two hundred in the Alamo!
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of San Jacinto]
+
+On April 21 was fought the decisive battle of San Jacinto, in which Santa
+Anna with 1500 men was defeated by 800 Texans under Sam Houston. On the
+next day General Santa Anna was captured. He was compelled to acknowledge
+the independence of Texas, but the people of Mexico refused to ratify his
+act. Nonetheless serious hostilities against the Texans were abandoned.
+
+[Sidenote: Peru and Bolivia joined]
+
+The abolition of slavery in Bolivia gave a new impetus to the government of
+that republic. President Santa Cruz of Bolivia felt encouraged by this to
+attempt to carry out his pet project of the amalgamation of Peru with
+Bolivia. A prolonged guerilla war was the result.
+
+[Sidenote: Spanish rule in Cuba and Philippines]
+
+[Sidenote: Civil war in the Peninsula]
+
+[Sidenote: Portuguese slave trade abolished]
+
+The example of these movements in Central and South America encouraged the
+revolutionists of Cuba to keep up their struggle against the rule of Spain.
+Unfortunately for them, the apparent weakness of the Spanish
+constitutional government at Madrid did not extend to the more distant
+possessions of Spain. The only result of the rising of Manuel Quesada was
+that Cuba was deprived of her representation in the Spanish Cortes. In the
+Philippine Islands, Spanish rule was extended to the Island of Sulu. On the
+Peninsula, on the other hand, matters went from bad to worse. The Carlist
+war continued unabated. On May 5, General Evans, commanding the
+constitutional troops and foreign volunteers, won a victory over the
+Carlists at Vigo, but within a few months he was himself defeated at San
+Sebastian. On Christmas Day, another crushing defeat was inflicted on the
+Constitutionalists by the Carlist leader Espertero at Bilboa. In Portugal
+the marriage of Princess Maria II. to Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
+was followed by fresh disorders. Revolution broke out at Lisbon, on August
+9, and could be subdued only by the re-establishment of the Constitution of
+1832. On November 8 came another popular rising. It was a sign of the times
+and of a more liberal turn of affairs at Lisbon that one of the first
+measures of the new government was a total abolition of Portuguese slave
+trading.
+
+[Sidenote: British reforms]
+
+[Sidenote: Charles Dickens]
+
+[Sidenote: "Pickwick Papers"]
+
+[Sidenote: Marryat]
+
+[Sidenote: Landor]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Mill]
+
+[Sidenote: Wheatstone]
+
+[Sidenote: Balfe]
+
+Reform of all kinds had become popular in England under the dexterous
+resistance of O'Connell, who held the balance in Parliament. The government
+was induced to bring in a corporation reform bill for Ireland. An official
+register of births, deaths, and marriages was conceded to the dissenters.
+Next came the abolition of one of the most barbarous practices of English
+and Irish law courts. Up to this time prisoners accused of felony were not
+allowed to be defended by counsel. At the instance of Lord Lyndhurst this
+was now changed. Another gain for humanity was made by the abolition of the
+law which required that persons convicted of murder should be executed on
+the next day but one. On the other hand a bill for the abolition of
+imprisonment for debt miscarried. The most potent plea against the abuses
+of this particular relic of barbarism in England was put forth by Charles
+Dickens in his "Pickwick Papers." These serial papers relating the humorous
+adventures of Mr. Pickwick and his body servant Sam Weller, when brought in
+conflict with the English laws governing breach of marital promise and
+debt, had an immense success in England and all English-speaking countries.
+Already Dickens had published a series of "Sketches of London," under the
+pseudonym of Boz, while working as a Parliamentary reporter for the
+"Morning Chronicle." The success of the "Pickwick Papers" was such that he
+felt encouraged to emerge from his pseudonym and to devote himself entirely
+to literature. Other literary events of the year in England were the
+publication of the initial volumes of Lockhart's "Memoirs of the Life of
+Sir Walter Scott," of Captain Marryat's "Mr. Midshipman Easy," and "The
+Pirate and the Three Cutters," and of Landor's "Pericles and Aspasia." The
+first Shakespeare jubilee was celebrated at Stratford-on-Avon in the
+spring. A loss to English letters was the death of James Mill, the great
+political economist, in his sixty-third year. About this time Wheatstone
+constructed his electro-magnetic apparatus by which he could send signals
+over nearly four miles of wire. The Irish composer Balfe began his
+brilliant career as a composer of English operas with the "Siege of
+Rochelle," produced at Drury Lane in London. About the same time
+Mendelssohn brought out his "St. Paul" in Duesseldorf.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of La Malibran]
+
+[Sidenote: Her operatic career]
+
+[Sidenote: Alfred de Musset's lines]
+
+Maria Felicita Malibran, the great contralto singer of the early part of
+the Nineteenth Century, died on September 23, at Manchester, in her
+twenty-eighth year. Taken from Paris to Naples at the age of three, she
+made her first appearance as a public singer in her fifth year. Two years
+later she studied solfeggio with Panseron. At the age of sixteen she made
+her debut as Rosina in "Barbiere di Seville" at London. The success of her
+first appearance was so great that she was at once engaged for the season.
+Next she appeared in New York, where she was a popular favorite for two
+years, singing in Mozart's "Don Giovanni," in "Tancred," "Romeo and
+Juliet," and two of her father's operas. Here she married a French
+merchant, Malibran. After her separation from him she returned to Paris,
+where she was engaged as prima donna at a salary of 50,000 francs.
+Thereafter she sang at every season in Paris, London, Milan, Rome and
+Naples. For one engagement of forty nights in Naples she received 100,000
+francs. Both as a singer and woman she exercised an extraordinary
+fascination over her contemporaries. Only a few months before her death she
+married the violinist De Beriot. In England she suffered a severe fall
+from her horse, which shattered her health. After this she literally sang
+herself to death. Her loss was mourned most of all in France, where her
+death has been commemorated by Alfred de Musset's beautiful threnody ending
+with the lines:
+
+  Die, then. Thy death is sweet, thy goal is won;
+  What is called genius by men here below
+  Is the great cry for Love; all else is but show;
+  And since, soon or late, human love is undone,
+  It is for great hearts and great voices like thine
+  To die as thou didst--for Love all-divine.
+
+[Sidenote: Meyerbeer's "Huguenots"]
+
+[Sidenote: Gounod]
+
+[Sidenote: Chopin]
+
+[Sidenote: Liszt]
+
+[Sidenote: Georges Sand]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Ampere]
+
+In France, great strides had been made in music, art and literature.
+Giacomo Meyerbeer, whose real name was Jacob Beer, surpassed the success of
+his "Robert le Diable" with his greatest opera "Les Huguenots," produced on
+February 20, at the Paris Opera House. The success of this masterpiece so
+disheartened Rossini that he resolved to write no more operas, and withdrew
+to Bologna. Charles Francois Gounod, on the other hand, now began his
+musical career by entering the Paris Conservatory. Frederick Chopin, the
+Polish composer, at this time was at the height of his vogue as the most
+_recherche_ pianist of Paris. He was the favorite of a circle of friends
+consisting of Meyerbeer, Bellini, Berlioz, Liszt, Balzac, and Heine. It was
+during this year that Liszt introduced Chopin to Madame Dudevant, better
+known as Georges Sand, the famous French novelist. Their attachment was the
+talk of Paris. Andre Marie Ampere, the noted French mathematician and
+physicist, died during this year at sixty-one years of age. He was the
+inventor of the electrical unit of measure which bears his name.
+
+[Sidenote: Thiers Prime Minister]
+
+[Sidenote: Algerian reverses]
+
+[Sidenote: Thiers resigns]
+
+[Sidenote: Fiasco of Strasburg]
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon exiled]
+
+[Sidenote: Amnesty acts]
+
+Politically it was a turbulent year for France. On the question of the
+budget the Ministry was defeated in January and had to resign. The new
+Ministry called in went to pieces on February 22, when Guizot and De
+Broglie retired from the Cabinet. Thiers was placed at the helm. On June
+26, another attempt to assassinate the King was made by Louis Alibaud, a
+former soldier of the south who had taken part in the revolution of July.
+The military expedition to Algeria under Marshal Clauzel and the Duke of
+Orleans first met with distinguished success. The French army occupied
+Mascera. But later the unfortunate issue of an expedition against the town
+of Constantine caused the retirement of Marshal Clauzel as Governor-General
+of Algeria. Commander Changarnier at the head of a French battalion was
+beaten back step by step by an overwhelming body of Achmet Bey's cavalry of
+the desert. The question of French intervention in Spain resulted in the
+downfall of the Ministry of Thiers. King Louis Philippe, ever since Lord
+Palmerston's chilling reply to his overtures for joint intervention, was
+opposed to such a project. "Let us aid the Spaniards from a distance," said
+he, "but never let us enter the same boat with them. Once there we should
+have to take the helm, and God knows where that would bring us." He
+demanded the retirement of the French corps of observation in the Pyrenees.
+Thiers was utterly opposed to this: "Nothing can bring the King to
+intervention," said he, "and nothing can make me renounce it." On
+September 6, the Cabinet resigned, having been in power but six months.
+Count Mole was charged with forming a new Ministry. A new cause of
+disquietude was given late in October by Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte at
+Strasburg. On the last day of that month, Louis Napoleon, with no other
+support than that of Persigny and Colonel Vauterey, paraded the streets of
+that town and presented himself at the barracks of the 4th regiment of
+artillery. He was received with the cry "Vive l'Empereur." An attempt to
+win over the soldiers of the other barracks failed. The young prince was
+arrested. Ex-Queen Hortense interceded in his behalf. The attempt to regain
+the Napoleonic crown had been so manifest a fiasco that Louis Philippe
+thought he could afford to be generous. Louis Napoleon was permitted to
+take himself off to the United States of America with an annuity of fifteen
+thousand francs from the royal purse. His adherents were taken before the
+court at Colmar and were all acquitted by the jury. A simultaneous military
+mutiny at Vendome was treated with like leniency. After the death of
+ex-King Charles X., Prince Polignac and other of his Ministers who had come
+to grief after the revolution of 1830 were sent out of the country. A
+general amnesty was announced.
+
+[Sidenote: American elections]
+
+[Sidenote: The "Gag Law"]
+
+[Sidenote: Smithson's bequest]
+
+[Sidenote: Jackson's specie circular]
+
+The arrival of Prince Louis Napoleon created little stir in the United
+States. The people there were in the midst of a Presidential election.
+President Jackson wished Vice-President Van Buren to be his successor. He
+therefore recommended that the Democratic nomination should be by national
+convention. The National Republicans had by this time generally adopted the
+name of Whigs. They supported William H. Harrison and John McLaine of Ohio
+with Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. The opposition hoped to throw the
+Presidential election into the House, but did not succeed in doing so. A
+majority of Van Buren electors were chosen by 761,549 votes against 736,656
+divided among the other candidates. Congress met on December 5. Arkansas
+and Michigan were admitted as new States of the Union. Before this
+Jackson's Administration had won a complete success over his opponents. The
+President gave his sanction to a Congressional resolution in favor of the
+South, that "all petitions, memorials, and resolutions relating to slavery
+shall be laid on the table, and no further action whatever shall be had
+thereon." A select committee resolved that "Congress cannot
+constitutionally interfere with slavery in the United States and it ought
+not to do so." The so-called "Gag Law" was adopted by 117 over 68 votes.
+About this same time Congress accepted the bequest of James Smithson, an
+Englishman, who left $515,169 to be expended in America "for the general
+diffusion of knowledge among men." After the fall of the United States
+Bank, a number of State banks were formed, many of which were without
+adequate capital. Their notes were used in large quantities for the
+purchase of public lands from the United States. Thereupon President
+Jackson issued the so-called specie circular, ordering federal agents to
+receive no other money but gold and silver. This caused such a demand for
+specie that many of these minor banks fell into difficulties. By the close
+of the year bank failures had become so numerous that a financial crisis
+was at hand.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Madison]
+
+Ex-President James Madison died this year at the ripe age of eighty-five.
+His entire career was such as to make him one of the great line of Southern
+Presidents of Virginian stock: Washington, Jefferson and Monroe.
+
+[Sidenote: Seminole War]
+
+[Sidenote: American railroad development]
+
+The military campaign against the Seminoles was far from satisfactory. Many
+of the soldiers sent into Georgia and Florida succumbed to disease. They
+had to abandon Forts King, Dane and Micanopy, giving up a large tract to
+the Indians. The Indians were defeated in battle at New Mannsville, and in
+the fall of the year General Call rallied them on the Withlacoochee, but
+could not drive them into the Wahoo Swamp. A change in commanders was once
+more made, and Jesup succeeded Call. With 8,000 men he entered on a winter
+campaign. The Indians were forced from their positions on the
+Withlacoochee, and were pursued toward the Everglades, and at the end of
+1836 sued for peace. On December 15, the Federal Post-Office and
+Patent-Office burned down. Irreparable loss was caused by the destruction
+of 7,000 models and 10,000 designs of new inventions. At the close of
+Jackson's Administration some three thousand miles of railroad had been
+constructed. Eight years previously, when he came into office, no railway
+had ever been seen in America.
+
+
+
+
+1837
+
+
+[Sidenote: American financial crisis]
+
+[Sidenote: Government relief measures]
+
+[Sidenote: Sub-Treasury system]
+
+[Sidenote: Texas independent]
+
+The financial crisis of this year was not only one of the most severe, but
+also the most remarkable in the financial history of the United States. A
+Congressional act of the previous year provided that after January 1, 1837,
+all surplus revenues of the government should be divided as loans among the
+States. The amount to be distributed this year aggregated $28,000,000. No
+part of this large sum was ever recalled. When the government called for
+its deposits in order to distribute the surplus an immediate shrinkage of
+specie was the result. As bank after bank suspended, it was found that the
+paper issue had increased from $51,000,000 in 1830 to $149,000,000 in 1837.
+Jackson's attacks on the National Bank had shaken public confidence in this
+institution, and it likewise suspended specie payments. The mercantile
+failures of a single fortnight in New York City amounted to $100,000,000. A
+repeal of Jackson's order that payments for public lands should be in coin
+filled the National Treasury with paper money. Congress met in special
+session to relieve the financial distress. A law was passed authorizing the
+issue of $10,000,000 in Treasury notes. This brought some relief. President
+Van Buren's first message recommended the adoption by the government of
+the Sub-Treasury plan. A bill for the establishment of an independent
+treasury passed the Senate, but was defeated in the House by a union of
+Whigs and Conservatives. The Sub-Treasury plan, as eventually carried out,
+provided for complete separation of the National Bank and the government,
+and established the principle that the government revenues should be
+received in coin only. President Van Buren in his message specially
+deprecated any interference by Congress in the struggle between Texas and
+Mexico. Texas, which had been bargained away by Southern votes in 1819, was
+now an eagerly desired prize. It had now become a part of Coahuila, and had
+declared its independence. Still Congress persisted in its attempt to
+interfere, but a bill to that effect was voted down by the adherents of the
+President.
+
+[Sidenote: Distress in Spain]
+
+In Mexico, Bustamente had again become President. In the neighboring State
+of Colombia, President Marquez, likewise, had himself re-elected. The
+influence of North American progress was shown in Cuba by the opening of
+the first railway there, long before the mother country, Spain, could boast
+of such an advance in civilization. There the civil war was still draining
+the resources of the country. On May 17, General Evans took Trun, but
+failed to follow up his success. In Portugal, the restoration of Pedro's
+Charta de Ley was proclaimed by the Duke of Terceira.
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Guizot]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Fourier]
+
+In France, an unfortunate attempt to fix large dowries on the Duc de
+Nemours and the Queen of the Belgians raised an outcry against the private
+avarice of the King. As the result of the Ministerial crisis that followed
+the defeat of these measures in the Chambers Guizot had to retire from the
+Ministry. Mole remained in charge with the reconstituted Cabinet. The
+success of a second expedition against Constantine, in which the Duc de
+Nemours gained distinction, invested Mole's new Ministry with a certain
+popularity. Measures for a general political amnesty and for the closing of
+gambling houses were readily voted by the Chambers. The people of Paris
+were kept amused first by the marriage of the Duc d'Orleans to Princess
+Helene of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and by the subsequent wedding of Princess
+Marie d'Orleans, the amateur sculptress, to Duke Alexander of Wurtemberg, a
+dilettante, like herself, in letters. The occasion provoked the German poet
+Heine, then lying ill at Paris, to some of his most pungent witticisms.
+Ailing though he was, Heine was made a member of the new "Societe des Gens
+de Lettres," founded by Balzac, Lamennais, Dumas and Georges Sand. Further
+events in French letters were the publication of Eugene Sue's
+"Latreaumont," and the appearance of the early part of Michelet's "History
+of France." Francois Charles Marie Fourier, the philosophic writer and
+follower of St. Simon, died in his sixty-fifth year. Before his death his
+well-elaborated system of communism, as put forward in his "Traite de
+l'Association Domestique et Agricole," had found general acceptance among
+the radical orders of France.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Leopardi]
+
+[Sidenote: Ode to Brutus Minor]
+
+[Sidenote: A self-apostrophe]
+
+Count Giacomo Leopardi, the foremost lyric poet of modern Italy, died on
+June 14. Leopardi's genius was tinctured with pessimism. Like Byron, he was
+powerfully moved by the painful contrast between the classic grandeur of
+ancient Italy and the degeneracy of its latter days. The tendency toward
+pessimism was increased by his own ill health. His first works were the
+result of his eager study of classic antiquities. Thus he brought out a new
+edition and translation of Porphyrios' "De vita Plotini." His earliest
+verses, such as the fine "Ode to Italy," and his poem on a projected
+monument for Dante, already contained the strain of sadness that ran
+through all his later poems. On the publication of Leopardi's first
+collection of verses, Niebuhr, the Prussian Ambassador at Rome, offered him
+a professorship at Berlin, but the poet's failing health prevented
+acceptance. Religious dissensions with his father depressed his spirits
+still more. He gave expression to his increasing sadness in the beautiful
+ode on the "Minor Brutus." In 1825 he took part in bringing out the famous
+"Antologia" at Florence, and also issued an edition of Petrarch and two
+collections of Italian verse. Another collection of his own poems was
+published in 1826, followed by the prose dialogues "Operette Morali." In
+1833, declining health led Leopardi to withdraw to Naples. One year before
+his death he brought out a last collection of poems distinguished alike for
+poignant pessimism and for their high lyric beauty. Characteristic of
+Leopardi's verse is this poem addressed to himself:
+
+  Now lie forever still,
+  My weary heart. Farewell, my last illusion
+  The dream that we endure. Farewell! Too surely
+  I know my end, and now of self-deception
+  The hope long since and dear desire has left me.
+  Be still forever! Enough
+  Of fluttering such as thine has been. Vain, vain
+  Thy palpitation, the wide world is not worth
+  Our sighs; for bitter pain
+  Life's portion is, naught else, and slime this earth.
+  Subside henceforth, despair forever!
+  Fate gave this race of ours
+  For only guerdon death. Then make a sport
+  Of thine own self, of nature, and the dark
+  First power that, hidden, rules the world for harm--
+  And of the infinite emptiness of all.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Pushkin]
+
+[Sidenote: Lermontov]
+
+Russia lost her foremost man of letters at this period by the death of
+Count Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin, as the result of a duel. His last
+work, the drama "Boris Goudunov," was left uncompleted. After his recall
+from his exile in Bessarabia, Pushkin had been appointed as imperial
+historian by Czar Nicholas, in which capacity he wrote a history of Peter
+the Great and an account of the conspiracy of Pugatshev. Of his poetic
+works, the most important was "Eugene Onegin," an epic written after the
+manner of Byron's "Don Juan." "Eugene Onegin" has remained one of the
+classics of Russian literature throughout the Nineteenth Century. Pushkin's
+brother poet Lermontov, then an officer of the Guards, wrote a poem
+demanding vengeance for Pushkin's death. He was banished to the Caucasus,
+and his writings were suppressed. Under a false name he now wrote his
+famous epic: "Song of Czar Ivan Vasilyevitch."
+
+[Sidenote: The first kindergarten]
+
+[Sidenote: German clerical struggle]
+
+A joyful event in German letters was the great festival at Mainz in honor
+of Gutenberg and his invention of the art of printing. Froebel opened his
+first kindergarten at Blankenburg in Thuringia. Auerbach, the popular
+novelist, brought out his "Spinoza." Much was made by Germans of the
+opening of the first railway between Dresden and Leipzig, and of the
+invention of coal-tar colors, or aniline dyes, by a process destined to
+revolutionize the arts of coloring and dyeing throughout the world. A great
+stir was created by the imprisonment of the Archbishop of Cologne at Minden
+after a quarrel with the Prussian Government concerning marriages between
+persons of different creeds. He was forbidden to go to Bonn. Backed by the
+Holy See in Rome, he continued to defy the Protestant authorities.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of William IV.]
+
+[Sidenote: Victoria's accession]
+
+A change of rule, fraught with future consequences for Hanover, resulted
+from the death of William IV., King of England and Hanover, on the 20th of
+June. By the death of the old King, his niece, Victoria Alexandra, then in
+her eighteenth year, became Queen of England. Miss Wynn, in her "Diaries of
+a Lady of Quality," has told how the news was brought to the young Princess
+at Kensington by the Archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Howley) and the Lord
+Chamberlain (Marquis Conyngham): "They did not reach Kensington Palace
+until five o'clock in the morning. They knocked, they rang, they thumped
+for a considerable time before they could rouse the porter at the gate;
+they were again kept waiting in the courtyard, then turned into one of the
+lower rooms, where they seemed forgotten by everybody. They rang the bell,
+and desired that the attendant of the Princess Victoria might be sent to
+inform Her Royal Highness that they requested an audience on business of
+importance. After another delay, and another ringing to inquire the cause,
+the attendant was summoned, who stated that the Princess was in such a deep
+sleep that she could not venture to disturb her. Then they said, 'We are
+come on business of state to the Queen, and even her sleep must give way to
+that.' In a few minutes she came into the room in a loose white nightgown
+and shawl, her nightcap thrown off, and her hair falling upon her
+shoulders, her feet in slippers, tears in her eyes, but perfectly collected
+and dignified."
+
+[Sidenote: Her first Privy Council]
+
+Lord Melbourne, the Prime Minister, was summoned, and at eleven o'clock
+that same morning a Privy Council was held, which is thus described by
+Charles Greville, an eye-witness: "Never was anything like the first
+impression she produced, or the chorus of praise and admiration which is
+raised about her manner and behavior, and certainly not without justice. It
+was very extraordinary, and something far beyond what was looked for. Her
+extreme youth and inexperience, and the ignorance of the world concerning
+her, naturally excited intense curiosity to see how she would act on this
+trying occasion, and there was a considerable assemblage at the palace,
+notwithstanding the short notice which was given. The first thing to be
+done was to teach her her lesson, which for this purpose Melbourne had
+himself to learn.... She bowed to the Lords, took her seat, and then read
+her speech in a clear, distinct, and audible voice, and without any
+appearance of fear or embarrassment."
+
+[Sidenote: Hanover separates from England]
+
+[Sidenote: Ernest, King of Hanover]
+
+[Sidenote: Royal breach of faith]
+
+[Sidenote: Revolt at Goettingen]
+
+The first signature to the Act of Allegiance was that of Ernest, Duke of
+Cumberland, eldest surviving brother of the late King William. To him
+passed the crown of Hanover, which for a hundred and twenty-five years had
+been held by the occupants of the British throne. Under the Salic law,
+restricting succession to the male line, Hanover now became separated from
+England. On June 28, the new King arrived in Hanover. He refused to receive
+the deputation of the estates that had come to greet him. Dispensing with
+the formality of taking the required oath to the constitution, he dissolved
+the estates. The validity of the Hanoverian Constitution was next called in
+question, and the restoration of the less liberal constitution of 1819 was
+ordained. The first to protest against this royal breach of faith were
+seven professors of the University of Goettingen. Among them were the two
+brothers Grimm, to whom the German language and literature are so deeply
+indebted, and Gervinus, the great historian of modern Europe. The
+professors were instantly dismissed. This high-handed act provoked an
+insurrection among the students, which had to be quelled by troops, with
+bloodshed.
+
+The departure of the unpopular Duke of Cumberland and the dissolution of
+the embarrassing connection with Hanover wrought distinct relief to the
+people of England. According to usage on the accession of a new sovereign,
+Parliament was dissolved, in this instance by the Queen in person. She
+drove to the House of Lords in state, and created a sensation by her youth
+and graciousness. What she said of her own good intentions, her confidence
+in the wisdom of Parliament and the love of her people and her trust in
+God, was re-echoed throughout the English dominion. Her popularity speedily
+became unbounded. The change in the person of the sovereign was a great
+advantage for the Melbourne Ministry. They had no longer to fear such a
+summary dismissal or interference by the throne as they had suffered during
+the last reign. The dissolution of Parliament only resulted in their favor.
+The Tories were in despair. The departure of the Duke of Cumberland, their
+power behind the throne, had deprived them of a leader. The old Duke of
+Wellington regarded the accession of a female sovereign a probable bar to
+his return to power. To a friend he said: "I have no small talk, and Peel
+has no manners."
+
+[Sidenote: The Victorian era]
+
+The Victorian era in England, a period comparable for brilliancy only to
+that of Queen Elizabeth, began indeed under auspicious circumstances. In
+the field of letters there was the galaxy of diverse spirits: Southey,
+Wordsworth, Tennyson, and Browning. A new start was given to English prose
+by such powerful writers as Lord Macaulay, Carlyle, Charles Dickens, and
+William Makepeace Thackeray, who brought out his "Yellowplush Papers" this
+very year. Another newcomer in the field of romance was the Irish
+novelist, Charles Gaines Lever, whose early "Adventures of Harry Lorrequer"
+found instant favor. Among the women writers were Maria Edgeworth, Jane
+Austen, and Elizabeth Barrett. Great strides were also made in science.
+Shortly after the appearance of Whewell's "History of Inductive Sciences,"
+the Ornithological and Electrical Societies were founded at London. The
+principle of working clocks by electricity was advanced by Alexander Bain.
+Wheatstone and Cooke invented the magnetic needle telegraph. Ericsson's new
+screw steamer "Francis Bogden" was found to develop a speed of ten miles an
+hour. John Upton patented his steam plow, and the first photographic prints
+on paper were made by Fox Talbot.
+
+[Sidenote: Macaulay joins Cabinet]
+
+[Sidenote: Famine in India]
+
+[Sidenote: Boers defeat Zulus]
+
+When Parliament was reconvened, Lord Macaulay was added to the Cabinet. In
+the northwestern provinces of East India a widespread famine, which cost
+the lives of 8,000 natives, necessitated relief measures on a large scale.
+In the midst of these troubles the death of the ruling King of Delhi caused
+a vacancy, which was filled by Mahmoud Bahadour Shah, the last titular
+Great Mogul under the protection of the British colonial government. In
+South Africa some measure of home rule was accorded to Cape Colony by the
+institution of a representative legislative council under a governor
+appointed by the Crown. To the north of Cape Colony the Boer emigrants
+carried on their war of revenge against the Zulus. In a fierce battle on
+December 16, at Blood River, the Boers under Maritz and Potgieter utterly
+defeated Dingaan's warriors. Pantah, the brother of Dingaan, became King of
+the Zulus. The anniversary of this battle was ever after celebrated as a
+holiday by the Boers. A settlement was founded in the conquered land, and
+the first church was built on the site of Pietermaritzburg, named after the
+Boer leaders.
+
+[Sidenote: Canada restive]
+
+[Sidenote: Papineau]
+
+[Sidenote: The "family compact"]
+
+On December 22, the British Parliament received the news of rebellion in
+Lower Canada. The distress occasioned by the financial panic of this year
+in the United States had spread to Canada. It found vent in agitation
+against English rule on the part of the French Canadians. On the occasion
+of the announcement of Queen Victoria's accession to the throne, when Te
+Deums were sung in the churches, the French Canadians signified their
+disapproval by walking out of church. Louis Joseph Papineau, Speaker of the
+Lower House, led the opposition to the government proposals regarding the
+application of the revenues of the province. The home government kept up a
+narrow "British party" devoted to the so-called interests of the mother
+country. The majority in the Legislative Council constantly thwarted the
+resolutions of the vast majority of the popular Assembly. In Upper Canada,
+a British and official class practically held within its control the
+government of the province. This class became known as the "family
+compact." The public offices and lands were parcelled out among themselves
+and their followers.
+
+[Sidenote: Supplies refused]
+
+The immediate points in dispute in 1837 were, that the government retained
+in its service certain officials contrary to the wishes of the
+Representative Assembly, and insisted on paying their salaries out of
+colonial funds. The Representative Assembly declined to furnish the
+supplies, complained of arbitrary infringement of the Constitution, and
+demanded that the Legislative Council, instead of being nominees of the
+Crown, should be made elective.
+
+[Sidenote: Lord Russell's measures]
+
+When intelligence reached England that the Assembly obstinately refused
+supplies for the payment of public officials, and of the arrears, which up
+to that time amounted to nearly one hundred and fifty thousand pounds
+sterling, Lord John Russell carried in the English House of Commons a
+series of resolutions rejecting the demand for an elective legislative
+council and other changes in the Constitution, and empowering the executive
+government to defray the expenses of the public service out of the
+territorial and casual revenues.
+
+[Sidenote: Fils de la Liberte]
+
+[Sidenote: Mackenzie]
+
+[Sidenote: American filibusters]
+
+[Sidenote: Sinking of "Carolina"]
+
+[Sidenote: Major Head's measures]
+
+On November 6, the so-called "Fils de la Liberte" rose in Montreal under
+the leadership of Papineau. In Upper Canada, a similar rising was headed by
+William Lyon Mackenzie, a journalist. On December 4, an attempt was made to
+surprise Montreal. With the help of the militia the insurgents were
+defeated, on December 4, at St. Eustace. The leaders of the insurrection at
+Toronto fled to the United States and persuaded Van Rensselaer with other
+citizens of Buffalo to join them. On December 12, they seized Navy Island
+in Niagara River, established a provisional government, and issued paper
+money. Loyalists of Canada attempted in vain to capture the place. On
+December 29, they attacked the steamer "Carolina" and sent her over the
+Falls, resulting in the loss of several lives. This incident caused great
+excitement, both in England and this country. President Van Buren issued a
+proclamation of neutrality forbidding all interference in Canada, and sent
+General Wool with a military force to compel obedience to the proclamation.
+In Upper Canada, Major Head--afterward Sir Francis Head--undertook to
+suppress the rebellion by throwing the Canadians on their honor. Trusting
+to the good will of the people, he sent all the regular soldiers out of the
+province to the assistance of Governor Gosford in Lower Canada. The plan
+worked well. The Canadians, proud of the confidence reposed in them,
+enrolled themselves in the militia to the number of ten or twelve thousand,
+and when Mackenzie and the rebels assembled to show fight, they were routed
+at the first encounter, and the rebellion in Upper Canada was at once
+suppressed. But Major Head's policy was not approved by the British
+Government, and Head had to make way for Lord Durham, the newly appointed
+Governor of Canada.
+
+
+
+
+1838
+
+
+[Sidenote: Lord Durham in Canada]
+
+[Sidenote: Napierville]
+
+[Sidenote: Prescott]
+
+[Sidenote: Durham repudiated]
+
+[Sidenote: Canadian interregnum]
+
+Early in the year the Canadian insurgents and their sympathizers at Navy
+Island were compelled to surrender. United States troops were posted at the
+frontier. In the meanwhile Lord Durham had taken charge in Canada with
+dictatorial powers. He undertook to remodel the Constitution of Canada. His
+first act was a proclamation of amnesty from the Queen. The beneficent
+effect of this was spoiled by a clause of exceptions providing for the
+perpetual banishment of a number of men implicated in the recent rising. On
+April 2, Lunt and Matthews, two conspicuous rebels, were hanged. Lord
+Durham's confession that his measures were illegal evoked a storm in
+Parliament. Lord Brougham, who had a personal quarrel with him, led the
+opposition there. In Canada, Mackenzie promptly proclaimed a republic. On
+June 5, a fight between the rebels and British troops near Toronto quelled
+the rebellion for a short time. Within a few months it broke out again at
+Beauharnais. A pitched battle was fought at Napierville early in November.
+After their defeat there, the rebels made another stand at Prescott on
+November 17, but suffered so crushing a defeat that the insurrection was
+believed to have been ended. In the meanwhile, Lord Brougham had succeeded
+in passing a bill through the House disapproving Lord Durham's measures.
+Durham, he said, had been authorized to make a general law, but not to hang
+men without the form of law. To save his own Administration Lord Melbourne
+on the next day announced that the Cabinet had decided to disallow Durham's
+expatriation ordinances. Durham was called upon to proclaim to the
+rebellious colonists that the ordinance issued by him had been condemned by
+his own government. Venting his mortification in a last indignant
+proclamation, he quitted Canada without waiting for his recall. By the
+express orders of the government the honors usually paid to a
+Governor-General were withheld from him. Lord Durham returned to England a
+broken-hearted and dying man. He was succeeded by Sir John Colbourne. His
+first measure was to offer a reward of L1,000 for the apprehension of
+Papineau. The storm of indignation that followed was so violent that
+Colbourne incontinently threw up his post, and hastened back to England.
+The Hudson's Bay Fur Company improved the interval of the interregnum to
+monopolize the functions of government in the vast regions of the extreme
+north of America. An expedition was sent out to explore the northernmost
+coast. The United States also fitted out an Antarctic exploring expedition,
+consisting of six vessels, under the command of Lieutenant Wilkes.
+
+[Sidenote: Renewed agitation in England]
+
+[Sidenote: People's Charter]
+
+In the British Parliament, the question of the adoption of the ballot was
+raised by Duncombe, but Lord John Russell spoke against it, stating that
+the majority of the people were against fresh changes, or any renewal of
+the agitating circumstances which preceded the Reform Bill. But twenty
+members voted with Duncombe, of whom six were asked to meet six members of
+the Workingmen's Association to discuss a programme of action. At that
+meeting a document in the shape of a Parliamentary petition was prepared
+containing "six points," which were: Universal suffrage, or the right of
+voting by every male of twenty-one years of age; vote by ballot; annual
+Parliaments; abolition of the property qualification for members of
+Parliament; members of Parliament to be paid for their services; equal
+electoral districts. At the conclusion of the meeting, Daniel O'Connell
+rose and handed the petition to the secretary of the Workingmen's
+Association, saying, "There, Lovett, is your Charter. Agitate for it and
+never be content with anything else."
+
+[Sidenote: Feargus O'Connor]
+
+[Sidenote: Chartist leaders]
+
+The "People's Charter" was submitted to a large public meeting and
+enthusiastically approved, and the leaders of the movement began to
+organize. They soon fell into two factions; those who were in favor of
+force and those in favor of agitation only. The leader of both parties was
+Feargus O'Connor, an Irish barrister, and once a follower of O'Connell,
+with whom he subsequently quarrelled. Associated with him as leaders of the
+movement at various periods were Lovett, Heatherington, Henry Vincent,
+Ernest Jones, and Thomas Cooper "the poet of Chartism."
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN VICTORIA TAKING THE OATH
+    Painted by Sir George Hayter]
+
+[Sidenote: French expedition to Mexico]
+
+[Sidenote: Coast towns bombarded]
+
+In France, the sympathies of the people with the cause of the French
+Canadians were kept under firm control by the government of Louis
+Philippe. A dissolution of the Chambers, which modified the condition of
+the Assembly, served to strengthen the Ministry of Mole. To vent the
+feelings excited in behalf of the Frenchmen of Canada, the French
+Government picked a quarrel with the Republic of Mexico. Reparation was
+demanded late in March for injuries inflicted on French residents during
+the internal dissensions of Mexico. The demand was refused. A French
+squadron of warships, under Admiral Baudin and Prince de Joinville, was
+sent out to blockade the coast of Mexico. On November 27, San Juan de Ulloa
+was bombarded. Vera Cruz likewise suffered bombardment. The Argentine
+Republic became involved and declared war on France. French cruisers
+blockaded Buenos Ayres.
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon returns]
+
+[Sidenote: Alexandre Dumas]
+
+On the occasion of his mother's death, Prince Louis Napoleon returned to
+Europe. His book, "Idees Napoleoniennes," which was widely read throughout
+France, at once drew attention upon him. At the request of the French
+Government he was expelled from Switzerland. Louis Philippe's friend,
+Alexandre Dumas, at this time achieved a popular success with his book "Le
+Capitaine Paul." Dumas's romantic plays and several of his latest comedies,
+written in the style of Scribe, were at the height of their vogue.
+
+[Sidenote: Daubigny]
+
+In the French salon of this year, Francois Daubigny, the great pupil of
+Delaroche, first exhibited his early masterpieces, "Banks of the River
+Oulins" and "The Seine at Charenton." Both paintings were purchased by the
+French Government.
+
+[Sidenote: Poe]
+
+[Sidenote: Hawthorne]
+
+[Sidenote: Emerson]
+
+[Sidenote: Wendell Phillips]
+
+In America, a new writer had arisen in Edgar Allan Poe, who disputed the
+field with Longfellow and Whittier. Poe's "Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym,"
+a story of marine adventures, which had begun in Poe's own journal, "The
+Messenger," was published in complete form by Harpers. Before this several
+of his works, among them that of "Ligeia," had already brought him into
+some prominence. Nathaniel Hawthorne during this same year wrote his early
+stories, which were afterward collected under the title of "Twice Told
+Tales." Ralph Waldo Emerson at Concord, Massachusetts, had begun to deliver
+those penetrating lectures which, rewritten in the form of essays, later
+established his rank as the foremost philosophic writer in America. Wendell
+Phillips made his appearance as a lecturer against slavery in Boston.
+Shortly before this a pro-slavery mob at Alton, Illinois, murdered the Rev.
+E.P. Lovejoy and destroyed the press and building of his newspaper,
+published in the interests of abolition. Abraham Lincoln, who had been
+re-elected to the Legislature of Illinois, voiced a strong protest against
+this and other pro-slavery tendencies in Illinois.
+
+[Sidenote: Removal of Cherokees]
+
+Other acts of persecution during this year brought lasting disgrace upon
+America. In direct violation of the Federal treaties with the Indians the
+State troops of Georgia forcibly removed 16,000 Cherokees from their lands
+in that State. Nothing was done to alleviate the sufferings of the
+Cherokees, who were driven from their settlements in midwinter. The
+resulting death rate was fearful. More than 4,500 Indians, or one-fourth
+of the whole number, perished before they reached their destination in the
+distant Indian Territory.
+
+[Sidenote: Persecution of Mormons]
+
+The members of the new sect of Mormon, numbering some 12,000 souls, were
+driven from their homes at Nauvoo in western Missouri. They went across the
+plains of Iowa, stopping temporarily at Council Bluffs. From there they
+passed over the great American prairies, and, crossing the Rocky Mountain
+range, settled near the Great Salt Lake of Utah.
+
+[Sidenote: Record transatlantic trip]
+
+Chicago was incorporated with a population of 4,170 residents. Much comment
+was excited by a record trip of the steamboat "Great Western," which
+steamed from Bristol, England, to New York in fifteen days. Among those who
+lived to witness this event was John Stevens, one of the pioneers of modern
+steamboat building. Shortly afterward he died in his eighty-ninth year.
+
+[Sidenote: Indian truce broken]
+
+[Sidenote: Betrayal of Osceola]
+
+[Sidenote: Zachary Taylor in Florida]
+
+Within a short time after suing for peace, the Southern Indians broke the
+truce and made a determined effort to take Fort Mellon. In this they were
+unsuccessful. In March, at Fort Dade, five of the chiefs signed an
+agreement, in which they stipulated to cease from war until the government
+decided whether they might remain in Florida. Some seven hundred Indians
+and negroes were taken by the government before its decision was announced,
+and were sent off to Tampa for shipment. In violation of a flag of truce,
+Osceola and several of his principal chiefs were seized and sent to Fort
+Moultrie as prisoners. Their treatment there was such that Osceola soon
+died. In May, Colonel Zachary Taylor succeeded Jesup. The remaining forces
+of the Indians were now wary. They scattered in the swamps, eluding
+attempts of organized troops to capture them. In December, Colonel Taylor
+set out with over a thousand men for their almost inaccessible haunts. On
+Christmas Day they found the Seminoles prepared to receive them near
+Okeechobee Lake. After a hard fought battle, in which Taylor lost 139 men,
+the Indians once more retreated into the swamps of Florida.
+
+[Sidenote: Boers in Natal]
+
+[Sidenote: Pretorius]
+
+In South Africa during this year, the new community of Dutch settlers, who
+had evaded English jurisdiction, soon revived their peculiar institutions
+in the region that is now Natal--from the Drakensberg to the sea at Durban,
+and from the Tugela River to the Umzimbolbu. The fight against the African
+savages continued. Early in the spring, a Boer expedition was defeated by
+the Zulus, who followed up their advantage by an attack on the nearest Boer
+laager. Seventy Boers, with their Kaffir servants, were massacred. A large
+Boer settlement, numbering some 800 persons, was saved from extermination
+only by a timely relief expedition under Pretorius, in December. On the
+other side troubles arose between the Boers and the Bechuanas in
+consequence of King Moroka's prohibition of the importation of spirituous
+liquors into Bechuanaland. The growth of a new Dutch State to the north of
+Cape Colony caused uneasiness among the British authorities at Cape Town. A
+movement was started to extend British rule to Natal, and to secure the
+important seaport of Durban.
+
+
+
+
+1839
+
+
+[Sidenote: French hold on Mexico]
+
+[Sidenote: Ancona evacuated]
+
+[Sidenote: Status of Belgium]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Mole's Ministry]
+
+[Sidenote: French provincial government]
+
+[Sidenote: Parisian revolt suppressed]
+
+The French expedition against Mexico was brought to a successful close
+after the capture of the fort of San Juan d'Ulloa and the town of Vera
+Cruz. General Santa Anna's attempt to relieve Vera Cruz resulted only in
+another upheaval of the government at the capital. President Bustamente had
+to call in a new Ministry, with which, through the mediation of England,
+negotiations for peace were undertaken. On March 9, the terms of peace were
+concluded. Mexico had to pay an indemnity of $600,000. Further use for the
+French squadron in American waters was found in the complicated affairs of
+the small South American republics at the mouth of the Plata and the
+alleged injuries suffered by Frenchmen from the disordered state of affairs
+in Hayti. On the other hand, France withdrew its troops from the citadel of
+Ancona in the Papal dominions, simultaneously with the withdrawal of the
+Austrian forces of occupation from the Papal States. The long-pending
+difficulties between Belgium and Holland were brought to a settlement at
+last by the King of Holland's acceptance of the conditions of separation
+fixed by the international conference. The abandonment of Casimir Perier's
+vigorous foreign policy in Europe was viewed with regret by the Liberal
+party in France. Guizot combined with Thiers and Odilon Barrot against the
+Ministry, and thus accomplished its downfall, though they retained Marshal
+Soult, the most popular member of Mole's Cabinet. "I must have that gallant
+sword," remarked Louis Philippe. Their efforts to conduct the government
+proved a failure. The King established a provisional government in their
+place, which prolonged the crisis. On May 12, an insurrection broke out in
+the most populous quarters of Paris. Under the leadership of Barbes,
+Bernard and others, attacks were made on the Hotel de Ville, the Palace of
+Justice and the Prefecture of Police. The revolt had to be put down by
+merciless measures. Marshal Soult was placed at the head of the government
+to the exclusion of Guizot and Odilon Barrot, while Thiers was made
+president of the Chambers. Guizot employed his leisure time to write his
+famous "Life of Washington." About the same time Daguerre published his new
+invention of making the sun prints which were called daguerreotypes after
+him. A life pension of 6,000 francs was awarded to him by the government of
+Louis Philippe. The interest in the family of Bonaparte and its dreaded
+pretensions in France was revived by the death of Letizia Buonaparte, the
+mother of Napoleon, in her eighty-ninth year. The first problem confronting
+the new administration of France was the fresh trouble that had broken out
+in the Orient.
+
+[Sidenote: Turkish-Egyptian War]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Nissiv]
+
+[Sidenote: Abdul Medjid, Sultan]
+
+The long-brewing war between Sultan Mahmoud of Turkey and his vassal,
+Mehemet Ali of Egypt, broke out in May. In the face of new assurances of
+peace, the Sultan ordered his commander-in-chief of the Euphrates to
+commence hostilities. The Turkish troops crossed the Euphrates on May 23.
+In spite of the good counsels of Moltke and other European officers at the
+Turkish headquarters, the Turks were outmanoeuvred by the Egyptian forces
+under Ibrahim. June 24, Ibrahim Pasha inflicted a crushing defeat on the
+Turkish army at Nissiv. All the artillery and stores fell into his hands.
+The Turkish army dispersed in another rout. Mahmoud II. did not live to
+hear of the disaster. One week after the battle of Nissiv, before news from
+the front had reached him, he died. The throne was left to his son, Abdul
+Medjid, a youth of sixteen.
+
+[Sidenote: Turkish fleet betrayed]
+
+[Sidenote: Anglo-French intervention]
+
+[Sidenote: French diplomacy offset]
+
+Scarcely had the new Sultan been proclaimed when the Turkish admiral,
+Achmet Fevzi, who had been sent out to attack the coast of Syria, sailed
+into Alexandria and delivered his fleet over to Mehemet Ali. Turkey, now
+practically rulerless, was left without defence, on land and on water.
+Mehemet Ali not only declared Egypt independent of the Porte, but,
+encouraged by France, prepared to move on Constantinople. In this extremity
+the foreign Ambassadors at Constantinople addressed a collective note to
+the Divan, announcing European intervention. Shortly afterward a squadron
+of British and French warships sailed into the Dardanelles for the
+ostensible purpose of protecting Constantinople against Mehemet Ali, in
+reality to prevent Russia from profiting by the terms of its treaty of
+Unkiar Skelessi. In vain did Russia propose to join the coalition. The
+recent acquisition of Aden gave England the upper hand. Russian diplomacy
+accordingly directed itself toward effecting a breach between the allies. A
+good opening was afforded by the French intrigues at Cairo, which fell in
+with the ambitions of Mehemet Ali. As a result, France was gradually
+crowded out of the European coalition during the course of 1839.
+
+[Sidenote: Decamps]
+
+At the French Salon of this year Decamps exhibited his celebrated
+"Punishment of the Hooks," "Executioners at the Door of a Prison," and
+"Children Playing with Turtles." Decamps with Delacroix, the leader of the
+French school of romanticism, was praised at this time for the exceeding
+charm of his colors.
+
+[Sidenote: Rise of English Conservatives]
+
+England during this period passed through a Cabinet crisis. The popularity
+of Melbourne's Ministry was waning. Lord Melbourne was a typical Whig,
+opposed to the policy of the Tories, or, as they were beginning to be
+called at that time, the Conservatives. The alteration in title is
+attributed to John Wilson Croker, who, in the "Quarterly Review," referred
+to "what is called the Tory, but which might with more propriety be called
+the Conservative party." This new name was indorsed by Lord John Russell,
+who said, "If that is the name that pleases them, if they say that the old
+distinction of Whig and Tory should no longer be kept up, I am ready, in
+opposition to their name of Conservative, to take the name of Reformer,
+and to stand by that opposition." Sir Robert Peel defined Conservatism when
+he said, "My object for some years past has been to lay the foundation of a
+great party, which, existing in the House of Commons, and deriving its
+strength from the popular will, should diminish the risk and deaden the
+shock of collisions between the two branches of the legislature."
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Melbourne Ministry]
+
+[Sidenote: Bedchamber question]
+
+In May, the government's proposition to suspend the Constitution of Jamaica
+brought about the fall of the Ministry. The measure was sustained by a
+majority of only five. The Queen sent for Sir Robert Peel. Her wish to
+retain as ladies of her household the wife and sister of two members of the
+last Cabinet brought forth a respectful remonstrance from Peel. The Queen
+replied in this wise: "The Queen having considered the proposal made to her
+yesterday by Sir Robert Peel, to remove the Ladies of her Bedchamber,
+cannot consent to a course which she considers to be contrary to usage, and
+is repugnant to her feelings."
+
+[Sidenote: Queen Victoria yields]
+
+This ended Peel's attempt to form a Ministry and Melbourne was recalled.
+The question created much discussion at the time. Lord Brougham maintained
+that Lord Melbourne "had sacrificed liberal principles and the interests of
+the country to the private feelings of the sovereign." "I thought," he
+said, "that we belonged to a country in which the government by the Crown
+and the wisdom of Parliament was everything, and the personal feelings of
+the sovereign were absolutely not to be named at the same time." In the
+end the Queen yielded her point. A statement was put forth that "the Queen
+would listen to any representation from the incoming Prime Minister as to
+the composition of her household, and would arrange for the retirement, of
+their own accord, of any ladies who were so closely related to the leaders
+of Opposition as to render their presence inconvenient."
+
+[Sidenote: Chartist agitation]
+
+On behalf of the Chartists large public meetings were organized in London
+and in all parts of England at which violent speeches were made. On the 1st
+of April, at a public meeting in Edinburgh to support the Ministry, the
+Chartists took possession of the platform, ejected the Lord Provost, and
+passed their own resolutions. On the same day at Devizes, in Wiltshire,
+Vincent entered the town at the head of about a thousand men, carrying
+sticks, and attempted to address them in the market-place. In May, the
+Chartist National Convention removed from London to Birmingham. There they
+were met by a mob of five thousand persons and conducted through the
+principal streets to the meeting-place.
+
+[Sidenote: Chinese oppose opium trade]
+
+[Sidenote: English opium destroyed]
+
+[Sidenote: British resentment]
+
+[Sidenote: Chinese orders defied]
+
+[Sidenote: Opening of hostilities]
+
+[Sidenote: Sea fight off Chuenpee]
+
+[Sidenote: British squadron sails for China]
+
+Meanwhile, Great Britain was embroiled in another Oriental war. The
+despatch of Admiral Maitland and Captain Elliot to China to deal with the
+difficulties growing out of the English opium trade there only served to
+make the situation more acute. In January, Emperor Taouk-Wang ordered Lin
+Tsiaseu, Viceroy of Houk Wang, to proceed to Canton to put a definite stop
+to the opium traffic. The peremptory instructions given to Commissioner
+Lin were "to cut off the fountain of evil, and if necessary to sink the
+British ships and to break their caldrons, since the hourly thought on the
+Emperor's part was to do away with opium forever." Within a week of Lin's
+arrival at Canton he issued an edict wherein he stigmatized the foreigners
+as a heartless people who thought only of trade and of making their way by
+stealth into the Flowery Land, whereas the laws of England, he asserted,
+prohibited the smoking of opium in their own country. A demand was made to
+surrender to him all stores of opium within three days. To enforce this
+demand, Chinese troops were concentrated around the European settlement.
+Eventually more than 20,000 chests of opium were seized and dumped into the
+sea. After this triumph, Lin wrote a letter to Queen Victoria calling upon
+her government to interdict the importation of opium. At the same time a
+memorial was sent to England by the British merchants of Canton begging the
+government to protect them against "a capricious and corrupt government"
+and demanding compensation for the opium confiscated by the Chinese. On the
+part of the British Government no answer was vouchsafed to the demands of
+the viceroy. In China, matters took their course. Captain Elliot at Canton,
+on May 22, issued a notice in which he protested against the action of the
+Chinese Government "as utterly unjust per se," and advised all British
+merchants to withdraw to Hong Kong. The merchants acted on the suggestion,
+and the English factory at Canton, which had existed for nearly 200 years,
+was abandoned. The British sailors in Chinese waters threw off all
+restraint. Frequent collisions occurred between them and the natives. In
+one of them a Chinaman was killed. The Chinese viceroy denounced this act
+as "going to the extreme of disobedience to the laws" and demanded the
+surrender of the British sailor who perpetrated the murder. This demand was
+flatly refused. The Chinese thereupon refused to furnish further supplies
+to the ships and prohibited all British sailors from coming ashore on
+Chinese soil. The official notice said: "If any of the foreigners be found
+coming on shore to cause trouble, all and every one of the people are
+permitted to withstand and drive them back, or to make prisoners of them."
+The English naval officers retaliated by sending out their men to seize by
+force whatever they needed. A boat's crew of the British ship "Black Jack"
+was massacred. Thus hostilities began. Two British men-of-war exchanged
+shots with the forts in the Bogue. On November 3, the two frigates "Volage"
+and "Hyacinth" were attacked by twenty-nine junks-of-war off Chuenpee. A
+regular engagement was fought and four of the junks were sunk. On the news
+of the fight at Chuenpee, Emperor Taouk-Wang promoted the Chinese admiral.
+On December 6, an imperial edict prohibiting all trade with Great Britain
+was issued. Already a strong British squadron was on its way to China.
+
+[Sidenote: War with Afghans]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Kandahar]
+
+[Sidenote: British enter Kabul]
+
+[Sidenote: Failure of Russian counter move]
+
+Simultaneously with these troubles the British had become embroiled in war
+with the Afghans. The ostensible purpose was to depose Dost Mohammed Khan
+from his usurpation of the throne of Afghanistan. In reality this chieftain
+had aroused the ire of England by entering into negotiations with Russia,
+after Lord Auckland had declined to call upon Runjit Singh to restore
+Peshawar to Afghanistan. When it was learned that a Russian mission had
+been received at Kabul, the British Government resolved to dethrone Dost
+Mohammed Khan and to restore Shah Shuja to the throne of Kabul. War was
+declared at Simla. Columns were sent out from Bombay and Bengal and were
+united at Quetta under the command of Sir John Keene. Kandahar was captured
+in April. In July, Ghasni was taken by storm. It was on this occasion that
+Sir Henry Durand, then a young subaltern, distinguished himself by blowing
+up the Ghasni gate. In August, the British entered Kabul. Dost Mohammed
+Khan fled over the Oxus into Bokhara. Shah Shuja was restored as ruler of
+Afghanistan under the tutelage of a British resident minister. In response
+to Dost Mohammed's appeals, the Russian Government sent out an expedition
+toward Khiva, in November; but the winter weather in the mountains was so
+severe that the expedition had to return.
+
+[Sidenote: British colonial problems]
+
+Other problems engaged the attention of the British Colonial Office. A
+rebellion in Borneo had to be suppressed by force of arms. In Canada, the
+new Governor-General, Charles Pollot Thompson, later Lord Sydenham, found
+it difficult to carry out Durham's scheme of union. In November, martial
+law had to be declared again at Montreal. The reported discovery of gold
+by Count Strzelescki in New South Wales, and the discovery of copper in
+South Australia, drew great numbers of emigrants thither. New Zealand was
+incorporated in New South Wales. The wild financial speculations engendered
+by these changes plunged almost all of Australia into bankruptcy. In Cape
+Colony the public school system was introduced by Sir W. Herschel.
+
+[Sidenote: Industrial development]
+
+[Sidenote: Charles Darwin]
+
+In England, it was a period of material advances in civilization. Postal
+reforms were introduced by Sir Roland Hill. In July, a bill for penny
+postage was introduced in Parliament, resulting in a new postage law
+providing a uniform rate of fourpence per letter. New speed records were
+made on land and on water. While the steam packet "Britannia" crossed from
+Halifax to Liverpool in ten days, the locomotive "North Star" accomplished
+a run of thirty-seven miles in one hour. Wheatstone perfected his invention
+of a telegraph clock. A patent was obtained for the process of obtaining
+water gas. Charles Darwin, having returned from his scientific travels on
+H.M.S. "Beagle," published his "Journal of Researches."
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Schelling]
+
+[Sidenote: Agassiz]
+
+A loss to German philosophic literature was the death of Joseph Schelling,
+whose theories formed the main inspiration of the romantic poet Novalis.
+Agassiz, the naturalist, published his original researches on fresh-water
+fishes.
+
+[Sidenote: Schwann's cell theory]
+
+[Sidenote: Liebig's theory of fermentation]
+
+It was then that Dr. Theodore Schwann, stimulated in his microscopic
+researches by the previous discoveries of Robert Brown, Johannes Mueller
+and Schleiden, propounded the famous cell theory in his work, "Microscopic
+Researches Concerning the Unity in the Structure and Growth of Animals and
+Plants." Schwann's book became a scientific classic almost from the moment
+of its publication. It was Schwann, too, who, simultaneously with Cagniard
+la Tour, discovered the active principle of gastric juice to be the
+substance which he named pepsin. The cell theory was for some time combated
+by the most eminent German men of science. Thus Liebig, in apparent
+agreement with Helmholtz, took a firm stand against the new doctrine with
+his famous "theory of fermentation" promulgated this same year.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of William Smith]
+
+[Sidenote: The new geology]
+
+In England, William Smith, "the father of English geology," died. Born in
+1769, Smith, like many another English scientist, was self-taught and
+perhaps all the more independent for that. He discovered that the fossils
+in rocks, instead of being scattered haphazard, are arranged in regular
+systems, so that any given stratum of rock is labelled by its fossil
+population; that the order of succession of such groups of fossils is
+always the same in any vertical series of strata in which they occur, and
+that a fossil, having once disappeared, never reappears in a later stratum.
+The facts which he unearthed were as iconoclastic in their field as the
+discoveries of Copernicus and Galileo.
+
+[Sidenote: Spanish civil war]
+
+[Sidenote: Carlist reverses]
+
+[Sidenote: Flight of Don Carlos]
+
+[Sidenote: Decline of Spain]
+
+In Spain, a signal defeat of the Carlists at Pennecerrada during the
+previous year had caused a decisive turn in the civil war. Don Carlos'
+attempted march on Madrid had to be abandoned, and was followed by the
+retreat of his forces to the Ebro. General Espartero forced back the
+Carlist forces step by step, and carried the fight into the Basque
+provinces. There the struggle degenerated into a war of extermination. The
+Carlist leaders turned against one another. The priests excommunicated the
+generals, and the generals in turn shot the priests. At last, by the middle
+of September, so many of the insurgents had surrendered to Espartero that
+Don Carlos found himself almost without followers. He gave up the struggle
+and fled into France. This ended the civil war. It had lasted six weary
+years, and had proved almost as disastrous for Spain as the great
+Peninsular War. Robbed of her former colonial resources, excepting only
+those from Cuba and the Philippines, Spain's finances were all but ruined.
+Of industrial progress there was next to none. The country relapsed into
+semi-barbarism.
+
+[Sidenote: American Whig Convention]
+
+[Sidenote: Henry Clay's candidacy.]
+
+[Sidenote: Financial failures]
+
+[Sidenote: Longfellow's poems]
+
+In the United States, prominent Northern abolitionists met at Warsaw, New
+York, and resolved to form an independent political party. A Whig
+Convention, the first of such gatherings, was held at Harrisburg, fifteen
+months before the next Presidential election. Harrison was nominated for
+President and John Tyler for Vice-President. In the West, Henry Clay,
+popularly known as "Harry of the West," was the ideal of a strong minority.
+His repeated failures to attain the Presidency led to the remark: "He is
+too good a man to be President." The first session of the Twenty-sixth
+Congress opened in December. An organization of the House was at last
+effected by John Quincy Adams, who put a question to vote which the
+Speaker had refused to present. The Representatives indulged for the first
+time in the practice of "pairing off." Adams opposed this, declaring that
+it was a violation of the Constitution, of an express rule of the House
+which the Representatives owed to their constituents. Another event of the
+year in America was the failure of the United States Bank at Philadelphia,
+in consequence of speculations in cotton, as the result of which the
+government lost $2,000,000 of its deposits. Other bank failures followed.
+Mississippi repudiated $5,000,000 of its State bonds. The first power loom
+for making carpets was set up at Lowell, Massachusetts. Charles Goodyear
+obtained his first patent for making vulcanized rubber. The express
+business was organized by Harndon, who sent his first pack from New York to
+Boston by the public messenger. Longfellow published his romance
+"Hyperion," and "Voices of the Night," a collection of verses embracing
+some of his most widely known poems. In the same year appeared Willis's
+"Letters from Under a Bridge" and Cooper's "History of the Navy."
+
+Toward the close of the year, Queen Victoria held a Privy Council at
+Buckingham Palace, at which she announced her intention to marry her
+cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
+
+[Sidenote: Queen Victoria's betrothal]
+
+Greville wrote in his diary that "about eighty Privy Councillors were
+present, the folding-doors were thrown open, and the Queen came in, attired
+in a plain morning gown, but wearing a necklace containing Prince Albert's
+portrait. She read the declaration in a clear, sonorous, sweet tone of
+voice, but her hand trembled so excessively that I wonder she was able to
+read the paper which she held."
+
+All this time the agitation for the People's Charter in England went on
+unabated. In the autumn, St. Paul's Cathedral in London was temporarily
+taken possession of by a large body of Chartists. Churches were likewise
+entered in Manchester.
+
+[Sidenote: Popular riots in England]
+
+[Sidenote: The Charter propaganda]
+
+At Newport, in Monmouthshire, an organized attempt was made, under the
+leadership of John Frost and Zephaniah Williams, to rescue Henry Vincent
+from prison. Armed with guns, crowbars and pick-axes the mob poured into
+the town twenty thousand strong. They were met by a small body of soldiery,
+and after a sharp conflict were scattered with a loss of ten killed and
+fifty wounded. The leaders were arrested and condemned in court. A vast
+periodical literature kept alive the agitation. Among the new Chartist
+newspapers were the "Northern Star," the property and the organ of Feargus
+O'Connor; the London "Despatch"; the Edinburgh "New Scotsman"; the
+Newcastle "Northern Liberator"; the Birmingham "Journal," and many others.
+
+
+
+
+1840
+
+
+[Sidenote: England declares war on China]
+
+The Chinese edict prohibiting all trade and intercourse with England was
+put in force on January 5. The English missionaries in China fled to Hong
+Kong, which port was put in readiness for defence against the Chinese.
+Great Britain declared war, and sent out an expedition consisting of 4,000
+troops on board twenty-five transports, with a convoy of fifteen
+men-of-war.
+
+[Sidenote: End of Dingaan]
+
+In South Africa, during January, the Boers inflicted a crushing defeat on
+the Zulus under Dingaan. The Zulu King himself was killed. His brother,
+Upanda, succeeded him as ruler.
+
+[Sidenote: Union of Upper and Lower Canada]
+
+[Sidenote: Canadian boundary commission]
+
+On the other side of the globe, the legislative union of Upper and Lower
+Canada was at last effected, after a separation of forty-nine years. Each
+had equal representation in the common legislature, with practical
+concession on the part of the mother country of responsible government.
+Kingston was selected as the new seat of government, to be shifted
+presently to Montreal. To settle the long pending boundary dispute between
+Canada and the United States, a commission was appointed, consisting of
+Lord Ashburton for England and Daniel Webster for America. Between the line
+claimed by Great Britain and that demanded by the United States lay 12,000
+square miles of territory. The commission sat all the year.
+
+[Sidenote: American Presidential election]
+
+[Sidenote: Morse]
+
+[Sidenote: Draper]
+
+[Sidenote: Florence]
+
+[Sidenote: Fanny Ellsler]
+
+The American Senate early in the year passed the Sub-Treasury bill. By this
+measure it was required that the national funds should be kept at
+Washington, and in federal sub-treasuries in some of the large cities,
+subject to the orders of the Washington office. The first National
+Convention against anti-slavery met at Albany. James G. Birney, a
+Kentuckian, was nominated for President. The Whigs were incensed at the
+nomination and Birney withdrew. The Democratic National Convention at
+Baltimore unanimously renominated Van Buren. The political campaign that
+followed began a new era in American elections. The facilities of transit
+effected by the railroads now first rendered possible immense gatherings at
+central points. In May, 20,000 political followers gathered at Baltimore in
+Harrison's interest. The contest had just opened, when a leading Democratic
+paper stated "if some one would present Harrison with a barrel of cider he
+would sit down on a log content and happy the rest of his days." The log
+cabin and hard cider jug forthwith became the emblems of the Whigs. Log
+cabin songs were heard, with shouts for "Tippecanoe, and Tyler too." All
+the Middle States gave their majorities to Harrison. Harrison and Tyler
+were elected by a vote of 1,275,017 to 1,128,702 for Van Buren. It was a
+political revolution, breaking the Democratic success of forty years. It
+was during this year that Samuel F.B. Morse obtained his first American
+patent on the telegraph. William Draper of New York turned out the most
+successful daguerreotype portraits yet obtained. Florence, the actor, made
+his first appearance at the National Theatre in Philadelphia, while Fanny
+Ellsler appeared at the Park Theatre in New York City. Ralph Waldo Emerson
+published the "Dial." Other notable publications in American letters were
+Poe's "Tales of the Arabesque and Grotesque," Willis's "Loiterings of
+Travel," Cooper's "Pathfinder," and Dana's "Two Years Before the Mast."
+
+[Sidenote: New Mexico]
+
+[Sidenote: Yucatan]
+
+[Sidenote: Revolution in Mexico]
+
+[Sidenote: Dom Pedro II. of Brazil]
+
+[Sidenote: General Lavalle shot]
+
+In Central and South America, it was likewise a year of political
+upheavals. The Yankee settlers of Texas maintained their independence
+against Mexico. Their movement was joined by the Northern States along the
+Rio Grande. The independent State of New Mexico was formed. Yucatan
+likewise became an independent government. On July 25, a revolution broke
+out in the City of Mexico. General Urrea captured in person President
+Bustamente. After two days Bustamente was released on a pledge of general
+amnesty and administrative reforms. Santander, the first President of
+Colombia, died in May. The election of Marquez to the Presidency was
+followed by civil war. The province of Cartagena seceded from Colombia. The
+union of Central American States was dissolved, and Costa Rica became an
+independent republic. In Brazil, another political overturn resulted in
+material changes in the Constitution. In July, the Brazilian Legislature
+declared Dom Pedro II., then still under age, Emperor of Brazil. In the
+Argentine Republic, General Lavalle, who had taken the field against his
+opponents, was utterly defeated and shot. A new treaty was concluded
+between Argentina and Montevideo.
+
+[Sidenote: Hawaiian Islands recognized]
+
+In the distant South Seas, the Hawaiian Islands were recognized as an
+independent kingdom by the Powers on the condition that free access be
+given to white missionaries and the teachings of Christianity.
+
+[Sidenote: Oriental problems]
+
+[Sidenote: Egypt's status defined]
+
+In regard to the affairs of the Orient, the Powers found agreement more
+difficult. France gave continued support to the pretensions of Mehemet Ali
+of Egypt against Turkey. The French scheme to anticipate Russia's designs
+on Constantinople by a dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire and the
+establishment of Mehemet Ali at Constantinople found little favor with the
+Powers. The Russian statesmen understood the true weakness of Turkey, and
+were willing to bide their time. Metternich and Lord Palmerston clung to
+the belief that the Ottoman Empire could still be reconstructed. Thus Lord
+Palmerston said at this time: "All that we hear about the decay of the
+Turkish Empire, and its being a dead body, or a sapless trunk, and so
+forth, is pure and unadulterated nonsense." Metternich affected to look
+upon Mehemet Ali as a mere rebel. At last, on July 15, the negotiators of
+Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia, without waiting for France,
+concluded a treaty at London. Egypt was offered to Mehemet Ali in
+perpetuity with southern Syria for his lifetime. If this offer was not
+accepted within ten days, Egypt alone was to be ceded; if, after twenty
+days, this alternative were not accepted, joint action was to be taken
+against Mehemet Ali.
+
+[Sidenote: France slighted]
+
+[Sidenote: French pretensions on the Rhine]
+
+[Sidenote: Becker's Rhine song]
+
+[Sidenote: Musset's defiance]
+
+The exclusion of France from the concert of Europe aroused a storm of anger
+at Paris. Guizot, the French Ambassador at London, expostulated with Lord
+Palmerston. Thiers, then at the head of affairs in France, issued orders
+for an increase of the strength of army and navy. The long-delayed
+fortifications at Paris were begun. Military spirit was so awakened in
+France that the familiar cry was raised to avenge Waterloo and recover the
+Rhine. The Germans fiercely resented this threat of invasion, prompted
+largely by French exasperation over the turn which Egyptian affairs had
+taken. Even the Rhenish provinces, which owed so much to France, shared in
+this national feeling. It was at this time that Becker, himself a man from
+the Rhine, wrote the lines which in later years became one of Germany's
+most famous war songs:
+
+  "Sie sollen ihn nicht haben
+  Den freien deutschen Rhein."
+
+Alfred de Musset answered this with his defiant verses:
+
+  "Nous avons eu votre Rhin Allemand,"
+
+[Sidenote: Napoleonic memories]
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's second fiasco]
+
+Under the stress of this new military ardor in France, agitation was
+revived for the return of Napoleon Bonaparte's remains from St. Helena to
+France. The consent of the British Government having been obtained, a
+decree to this effect was passed by the French Chambers. Other events
+helped to fan to fresh life the smouldering flames of Napoleonic
+imperialism. Thus the death of Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's eldest
+brother, and of Marshal MacDonald, hero of Wagram, recalled a host of
+Napoleonic memories. On August 6, Prince Louis Napoleon deemed the time
+ripe for another Napoleonic rising. Crossing over from England with General
+Moltenon and fifty followers he attempted to incite an insurrection at
+Vimereux near Boulogne. He hoped to re-enact the events after Elba. Once
+more his plans ended in a fiasco. "Bonaparte or not, I see in you only a
+conspirator," exclaimed Colonel Puygelier. The conspirators fled back to
+their boat and capsized. Louis Napoleon was taken and sentenced to life
+imprisonment within the fortress of Ham. As a sop to popular feeling, King
+Louis Philippe permitted the bronze statue of the Great Napoleon to be
+replaced on the column of the Grande Armee in Paris.
+
+  [Illustration: WASHINGTON IRVING AND HIS FRIENDS
+    Painted by Daniel Huntington
+
+   1 Henry T Tackerman
+   2 Oliver Wendell Holmes
+   3 William Gilmore Simms
+   4 Fitz Greene Halleck
+   5 Nathaniel Hawthorne
+   6 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
+   7 Nathaniel Parker Willis
+   8 William H Prescott
+   9 Washington Irving
+  10 James K Paulding
+  11 Ralph Waldo Emerson
+  12 William Cullen Bryant
+  13 John P Kennedy
+  14 J Fenimore Cooper
+  15 George Bancroft]
+
+[Sidenote: Prince Consort Albert]
+
+[Sidenote: First attempt to assassinate Victoria]
+
+In England, great popular rejoicings had been occasioned by the marriage of
+Queen Victoria to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg. A bill was passed
+appointing the Prince Consort regent of England in case of the Queen's
+death. The royal couple were well matched. The credit of having brought
+about this marriage was chiefly due to Lord Melbourne. The tactful conduct
+of Prince Albert after the marriage fully justified his choice. Yet Prince
+Albert was never popular in England. Parliament cut down his proposed
+income from the Crown by nearly one half. The lower classes were prejudiced
+against him as a foreigner, while the nobility and army turned against him
+when they found that he preferred the society of men eminent for their
+intellectual attainments to that of dukes and marquises. On June 10, an
+insane pot-boy named Oxford attempted to assassinate the Queen and the
+Prince Consort with a pistol. The would-be assassin was confined in an
+asylum. On November 21, Queen Victoria gave birth to her eldest child,
+Augusta, who subsequently became Empress of Germany.
+
+[Sidenote: First Charter petition]
+
+[Sidenote: Jack Frost's revolt]
+
+Other English events of domestic importance were the passage of the
+vaccination act, the introduction of screw propellers in the British navy,
+and the State trial of the three leaders of the Chartist movement of the
+previous year. A monster petition subscribed by 1,280,000 signatures on a
+great cylinder was rolled into Parliament. In it were embodied new demands
+for a bill of rights, or the "People's Charter," comprising universal
+suffrage, including that of woman, secret ballots, payment of Parliamentary
+representatives, and the like. The denial of this petition provoked a
+popular uprising under the leadership of Jack Frost at Newport, which had
+to be suppressed by the military. After a sensational trial, the leaders
+were condemned to deportation.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Beau Brummel]
+
+Echoes of the English Regency were re-awakened by the death of "Beau"
+Brummel, a dandy after the manner of the French exquisites. It was a boast
+of this leader of fashion that he spoiled twenty-five cravats before one
+was tied to his liking. The Prince Regent in his dress imitated Brummel.
+The offended beau retaliated one day, when some of his friends saluted the
+Prince on Rotten Row, by asking, "Who is your fat friend?" Leigh Hunt
+improved upon this in his "Examiner" by describing the Prince as "a
+corpulent Adonis of fifty." For this Hunt was sentenced to imprisonment for
+two years and fined L500. After George IV. became king, Brummel fell into
+disfavor and had to leave London. Years later, the bankrupt beau, who had
+been cheated out of a snuff-box by Prince George, presented the King with
+another in token of submission. In the words of Thackeray, "the King took
+the snuff, and ordered his horses, and drove on, and had not the grace to
+notice his old companion--favorite, rival, enemy, superior." Poor Beau
+Brummel died in extreme poverty. Some of the striking episodes of the
+beau's career were dramatized in a play, which has kept alive the memory of
+this lesser light of modern English society.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Paganini]
+
+[Sidenote: Foremost violin virtuoso]
+
+[Sidenote: Genius and charlatan]
+
+[Sidenote: Paganini's compositions]
+
+The career of another striking figure of the Nineteenth Century was ended
+by the death of Paganini, the most remarkable of violin virtuosi. The son
+of a poor shopkeeper, with little musical knowledge, but of some
+proficiency on the mandolin, Paganini received an indifferent early
+schooling in music. After the boy had come under the tutelage of Costa, the
+orchestral leader of Genoa, his progress on the violin was rapid. At the
+age of eight he composed a violin sonata. Soon he surpassed his
+instructors. At sixteen he ran away from his father, after a concert at
+Lucca, and made a tour of his own through Italy. Already he was addicted to
+gambling and other forms of dissipation. At Leghorn he had to sell his
+violin to pay a gambling debt. A Frenchman, M. Levron, lent him his own
+Guarnero violin. When he heard him play on it he was so charmed that he
+made him a present of the instrument. Paganini kept the Guarnero throughout
+the rest of his life. It was the turning-point of his career. After two
+years of incessant practice, Paganini appeared in public again at Lucca,
+where he aroused unbounded enthusiasm by his novel performances on the G
+string. For the next twenty years he travelled and played throughout Italy,
+vanquishing all rivals. His superstitious countrymen believed him to be in
+league with the Evil One, an impression which Paganini loved to confirm by
+dark utterances and eccentricities of dress. Not until 1828 did he leave
+his own country to gather foreign laurels. His first appearance at Vienna
+was an unprecedented triumph. The Emperor appointed him court violinist and
+the city of Vienna presented him with a gold medal. From there he made a
+triumphal tour through Europe, appearing in Berlin, Paris and London. He
+was acknowledged the most wonderful violinist that had ever been heard. He
+soon amassed a colossal fortune. Withal, Paganini was almost as much a
+charlatan as he was an original genius. He liked to impress his audiences
+by fantastic eccentricities and by mere tricks of legerdemain, such as
+dropping and catching his instrument, or breaking one string after another
+to finish his concert on one alone. Other tricks of virtuosity, such as
+tuning up the A string by a semi-tone, left hand pizzicato, or his double
+thirds, were executed with such stupendous technique that they held
+connoisseurs and amateurs spellbound. His individuality, in fact, was so
+abnormal that it rendered him unfit to play with others in quartets or
+other chamber music. As a man he had all the worst faults of a genius. The
+vast sums of money which he accumulated were gambled away. His whole life
+was disgraced by unbridled sensuality coupled with sordid avarice. This
+explains in a measure Paganini's inferior rank as a composer. Famous are
+his variations on the tune "God Save the King," his "Studies," his twenty
+variations on "Il Carnevale di Venezia," and the concert allegro "Perpetual
+Motion." The celebrated twenty-four violin capricci, written early in
+Paganini's career, have been rendered familiar by their transcriptions to
+the pianoforte by Schumann and Liszt. Paganini died from the results of
+dissipation. He left his famous Guarnero fiddle to his birthplace, Genoa.
+
+[Sidenote: Frederick William IV. King of Prussia]
+
+In Germany, King Frederick William III. of Prussia died in his sixty-sixth
+year. He was succeeded by Frederick William IV. The pending dispute between
+the Prussian Government and the Vatican, arising out of the refusal of the
+Rhenish priests to sanction marriages between Catholics and Protestants,
+found a temporary adjustment by the new king's concessions to the clergy.
+
+[Sidenote: Religious discussions]
+
+[Sidenote: Chinese naval brigade]
+
+[Sidenote: Capture of Chusan]
+
+In England, too, church questions temporarily rose uppermost during debates
+in Parliament over the proposed government assistance to schools in which
+the Douay Bible, or Roman Catholic version of the Scriptures, was used. On
+account of these Parliamentary debates, and the attempted reform of Irish
+registration by which more Roman Catholic voters were to be admitted, a
+loud anti-Popery cry was raised by the English Tories. Once more the House
+of Peers rejected a bill for removing the political disabilities of the
+Jews, after its passage through the Commons by a handsome majority of 113
+yeas. The attention of Englishmen at this time was diverted to questions of
+foreign policy. The British expedition against China had arrived at the
+mouth of the Canton River in June. A naval blockade was established in
+Chinese waters. The Chinese retaliated by offering a reward for every
+Englishman taken, and a prize of $20,000 for the destruction of a British
+man-of-war. Sir Gordon Bremer sent an expedition against the Island of
+Chusan. The Chinese officials refused to surrender until after the city of
+Tinghai had been all but demolished by the English guns. Tinghai was made a
+British base of supplies, but proved a very unhealthy place. The Chinese
+capture of an English subject, Vincent Stanton, was followed by a British
+expedition into the Canton River. The barrier forts, after a heavy
+bombardment, were taken by storm. Stanton was released. The British fleet
+made demonstrations at Amay, Ningpo, and in the Gulf of Pechili. Emperor
+Taouk-Wang sent for troops from the interior. Mandarin Lin, who had entered
+into negotiations with the British, was degraded and was succeeded by
+Viceroy Keshen of Peiho. Keshen received Lord Palmerston's formal demands
+upon China and forwarded them to Pekin. By dilatory tactics he succeeded in
+gaining a breathing space.
+
+[Sidenote: Burmese expedition]
+
+[Sidenote: Sikhs restive]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Kelat]
+
+[Sidenote: Todd leaves Herat]
+
+In India, the British occupation of Kabul continued. New trouble broke out
+in Burma where the British Resident was expelled from Ava. An expedition
+had to be sent against Burma. The death of Runjit Singh led to a series of
+revolutions which shook the Sikh dominion to its foundations. The
+successive deaths of Runjit Singh's son and grandson, who had succeeded him
+as Maharajas, led to a general belief that they had been murdered by the
+Prime Minister, Dhian Singh. All the chief Sirdars rose against Dhian. The
+Sikh army of Khalsak, numbering 7,000 soldiers, became a menace for
+Hindustan. In July, the British garrison of Kelat in Beluchistan was
+overpowered by the natives. Lord Auckland had to prepare another expedition
+to restore English prestige in that quarter. Kelat was retaken by the
+British in November. New complications arose at Herat. This had long been
+the bone of contention between Great Britain and Russia in Central Asia.
+British ascendency over Herat had been gained by large financial subsidies,
+which had been spent in frustrating the designs of the Persians and
+Russians in that quarter. Major d'Arcy Todd, the English envoy at Herat,
+incensed by King Kamram's continued dealings with Russia, withheld the
+further payment of the British subsidies, unless British troops were
+admitted to Herat. The situation became so acute that Major Todd on his own
+authority threw up his post and left Herat. It was a severe setback for
+British influence in Central Asia. Lord Auckland in exasperation dismissed
+his erstwhile ambassador from political employ. Todd found a soldier's
+death on the field of Ferozeshahar. The continued rebellion of the
+Sarawacks in Borneo gave the British an opportunity for interference there.
+Sir James Brooke, at the head of a British expedition, helped the Sultan of
+Borneo in quelling the rising.
+
+[Sidenote: Turkish-Egyptian War]
+
+[Sidenote: Mehemet Ali brought to terms]
+
+The operations of the international coalition against Mehemet Ali of Egypt
+had now begun. Though the Viceroy's soldiers lay on Turkish soil without a
+foe before them, and France stood at his back, Mehemet Ali found himself
+checkmated. While Russia undertook to keep Ibrahim's army out of
+Constantinople, all French support was neutralized by Germany's
+mobilization on the Rhine. A naval squadron, composed of British and
+Austrian warships, was free to land the Turkish forces in Syria. On October
+10, Commodore Napier bombarded Beyrout. The Syrians were armed against
+their Egyptian oppressors. On November 3, the British and Austrian fleets
+captured Acre. Ibrahim, with the remains of his army, fell back toward the
+Egyptian frontier. When the British fleet arrived before Alexandria,
+Mehemet Ali made haste to come to terms. In contravention of the ultimatum
+of the Powers, he was allowed to retain his hereditary dominion over Egypt
+upon relinquishment of Syria, and of the Turkish fleet, which had been
+betrayed into his hands. Sir Charles Napier in later years, while speaking
+of his part in this expedition in Parliament, said: "I was ashamed for my
+country and for myself."
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Thiers' Ministry]
+
+[Sidenote: Oriental affairs readjusted]
+
+The humiliating position forced upon France caused the downfall of the
+Ministry of Thiers. Marshal Soult was placed at the head of affairs. Guizot
+was recalled from his embassy at London to take the portfolio of Foreign
+Affairs. He succeeded in restoring France to her former place in the
+concert of Europe. The French Government joined with the other powers in
+the restoration of the ancient rule of the Ottoman Empire by which all
+foreign warships were excluded from the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles.
+Russia thereby virtually conceded the abrogation of her treaty of Unkiar
+Skelessi. On the other hand, Sebastopol and the Russian arsenals of the
+Euxine were thus safeguarded against any maritime attack except by Turkey.
+
+[Sidenote: Napoleon's body returned]
+
+The revival of the Napoleonic legend by such writers as Beranger,
+Lamartine, and Victor Hugo, together with other influences which served to
+keep bright the glories of the Empire, bore their fruit in the return of
+Napoleon's remains to France. On October 15, his body had been removed from
+the simple tomb at St. Helena. On November 30, the ship bearing Napoleon's
+remains arrived at Cherbourg. A million francs were voted by the Chambers
+for the new sepulchre under the dome of the chapel of the Hotel des
+Invalides. On this occasion great publicity was given to Lord Palmerston's
+letter to Ambassador Granville: "The government of her British Majesty hope
+that the promptness of their response to this French request will be
+considered in France as a proof of their desire to efface all traces of
+those national animosities which, during the life of the Emperor armed
+against each other the French and English nations. The government of her
+Majesty are confident that if such sentiments still exist anywhere, they
+will be buried in the tomb in which the remains of Napoleon are to be
+laid." Napoleon's reburial was witnessed by a million of persons including
+a hundred and fifty thousand soldiers drawn up in line to do him honor. The
+ceremonies were attended by the royal family and all the dignitaries of
+France, excepting only the immediate relatives of the great Napoleon. As it
+happened, those of the Napoleonides that were not dead were either in exile
+or in prison.
+
+[Sidenote: Floods in France]
+
+[Sidenote: Earthquake of Zante]
+
+Shortly before this, great havoc had been wrought in France by disastrous
+inundations of the Saone and Rhone. The water, which covered 60,000 acres,
+and flooded Lyons, rose higher than it had within 250 years. In Greece, a
+tremendous earthquake laid the city of Zante in ruins. These catastrophes
+were made the object of special study in Germany and Switzerland, where
+Agassiz was in the midst of his epoch-making discourses on the glacial
+period.
+
+[Sidenote: Isabella abdicates]
+
+[Sidenote: Rule of Espartero]
+
+Toward the end of the year wretched Spain suffered another political
+upheaval. After the last abandonment of the cause of Don Carlos by General
+Cabrera, in July, the Queen-Regent found herself confronted by a strong
+democratic party both in the Cortes and the country. The scandals of her
+private life undermined her political authority. By an insurrection at
+Barcelona she was forced to call in General Espartero, the chief of the
+Progressist party, as her Prime Minister. Rather than submit to his demands
+she abdicated the Regency in October and left Spain. Espartero, toward the
+close of the year, was acknowledged by the Cortes as Regent of Spain. His
+first measures turned a large part of the people against him. On December
+29, as a result of the growing discussions between the government and the
+clergy, the Papal Nuncio was expelled from Madrid. Thereafter Espartero and
+the clerical party of Spain were at daggers' points.
+
+[Sidenote: Overbeck]
+
+This year Friedrich Overbeck finished his masterpiece, the "Triumph of
+Religion and the Arts." This German artist, at the time when the classicism
+of David was at its height, had become his most strenuous opponent, and had
+brought about the regeneration of the German religious school of painting.
+He and several of his followers formed the Nazarites, whose fundamental
+principle was that art existed only for the service of religion. Overbeck's
+frescoes of the "History of Joseph" and "Jerusalem Delivered" are best
+known. Among his paintings of this period, "The Entrance of Christ into
+Jerusalem" at Luebeck, "Christ on the Mount of Olives" at Hamburg, and "The
+Coronation of Mary" in the Cathedral of Cologne, are the most celebrated.
+
+
+
+
+1841
+
+
+[Sidenote: British capture Bogue forts]
+
+[Sidenote: Hong Kong ceded to Britain]
+
+The dilatory tactics of Viceroy Keshen in China had prolonged the
+negotiations there for several weeks. In the meanwhile a large Chinese army
+was gathering in the interior. Early in the year, after the arrival of the
+British plenipotentiaries, orders were issued for an attack on the Bogue
+forts. On January 7, 1,500 British troops were landed on the flank and rear
+of the forts at Chuenpee. After a sharp cannonade by the fleets, the forts
+were carried by a storming party under Captain Herbert. Simultaneously the
+forts at Taikok were destroyed by the fleet, and their Chinese garrison was
+routed by landing parties. Several Chinese junks were sunk during the
+engagement. In all the Chinese lost some 1,500 men in casualties; the
+British losses were small. After the capture of the Bogue forts, Viceroy
+Keshen came to terms. He agreed to pay a large money indemnity and to cede
+Hong Kong absolutely. On January 29, Hong Kong was declared a British
+possession, and was heavily garrisoned with the troops transferred from
+Chusan. The importance of the new acquisition was scarcely realized by
+Englishmen at the time.
+
+[Sidenote: Chinese convention repudiated]
+
+[Sidenote: British threaten Canton]
+
+[Sidenote: English opium factory destroyed]
+
+[Sidenote: Canton bombarded]
+
+[Sidenote: Heavy ransom exacted]
+
+[Sidenote: British camp attacked]
+
+[Sidenote: More ransom saves Canton]
+
+The suspension of hostilities proved but temporary. Keshen was degraded and
+banished. Emperor Taouk-Wang issued an edict that he was resolved "to
+destroy and wash the foreigners away, without remorse." Keshen's successor,
+Elang, repudiated the convention signed by his predecessor. On February 25,
+the British proceeded to attack the inner line of forts guarding the
+approaches to Canton. The formidable lines of Anunghoy, with batteries of
+two hundred guns, were carried in the first rush. In quick succession the
+other positions of the Chinese were taken, until, on March 1, the English
+squadron drew up in Whampoa Reach, under the very walls of Canton. On the
+arrival of Sir Hugh Gough, to take command of the British forces, a brief
+armistice was granted. After a few days, hostilities were renewed by the
+capture of the outer line of defences. Under the threat of immediate
+military occupation, the Viceroy of Canton came to terms. On March 18, the
+British reoccupied their opium factories in Canton. Emperor Taouk-Wang's
+anti-foreign policy remained unshaken. He appointed a new commission of
+three mandarins to govern Canton, and collected an army of 50,000 men in
+that province. In May, Captain Elliot was insulted in the streets of
+Canton. He sent for reinforcements from Sir Hugh Gough at Hong Kong. A
+notice was issued advising all Englishmen to leave Canton that day. On the
+following night the Chinese sacked the opium warehouses and fired upon the
+British ships lying at anchor. Fire rafts were let loose against the
+squadron, but drifted astray. The British promptly took the offensive. They
+sunk forty war junks, and dismantled the Chinese batteries. On May 24, Sir
+Hugh Gough arrived at Canton with all his forces. The fleet advanced up the
+Macao passage, and troops were landed under unusually difficult
+circumstances. The Chinese failed to take advantage of this, preferring to
+await the British attack in a strong line of intrenchments north of the
+city. On May 25, two British columns of 2,000 men each, with sixteen pieces
+of artillery and fifty-two rockets, advanced to the attack across the
+sacred burial grounds. Three of the hill forts were carried with slight
+loss. At the fourth fort desperate resistance was encountered. After this
+fort had succumbed to a bayonet attack the Chinese rallied in an open camp
+one mile to the rear. Intrenchments were thrown up with remarkable
+rapidity. The British troops, led by the Royal Irish Fusiliers, streamed
+over the open ground and scattered the remaining forces of the Chinese. The
+brilliancy of this exploit was dimmed by the slaughter of Chinamen while
+asking quarter. The British losses were 70 killed and wounded. A general
+attack on the city was ordered for the next day. A fierce hurricane and
+deluge of rain frustrated this plan. During the day the Canton mandarins
+came to terms. They agreed to pay an indemnity of $6,000,000, and to
+withdraw their troops sixty miles from the city. A few days after this,
+when $5,000,000 of the indemnity had already been paid, the Chinese broke
+the armistice by an attempt to surprise the British camp. Instead of
+driving the attack home, the Chinese soldiers, some 10,000 in number,
+contented themselves with waving their banners and uttering yells of
+defiance. The British artillery opened on them, and a running fight ensued.
+In the midst of it a violent thunderstorm burst over Canton. A detachment
+of Madras Sepoys lost its way, and was all but overwhelmed by the Chinese.
+They had to be extricated by a rescue party of marines, armed with the new
+percussion gun, which was proof against wet weather. Under threat of
+immediate bombardment, the payment of more ransom was exacted from Canton.
+In the end the city was spared, to remain, according to the English
+formula, "a record of British magnanimity and forbearance."
+
+[Sidenote: Reduction of Amoy]
+
+[Sidenote: Chinese reverses]
+
+[Sidenote: An Indian diversion]
+
+After this the opium trade reverted to its former footing. To bring the
+Chinese Emperor, himself, to terms, Sir Henry Pottinger, the new British
+plenipotentiary, sailed northward, and appeared before the seaport of Amoy,
+nominally at peace with England. The Viceroy of Amoy sent a flag of truce
+to demand what was wanted. He was called upon to surrender the town. This
+he refused to do. The British ships at once engaged the land batteries, and
+landing parties were sent around the rear. The Chinese gunners were driven
+from their pieces, but several of their officers committed suicide. The
+commandant of the chief fort drowned himself in the face of both armies.
+The capture of Amoy remained barren of useful results. The British fleet
+proceeded northward until scattered by a hurricane in the Channel of
+Formosa. Coming together off Ningpo, the fleet attacked Chusan for the
+second time. Spirited resistance was offered by the Chinese. In the
+defence of the capital city Tinghai, Keo, the Chinese general-in-chief, was
+killed. All his officers fell with him. Leaving a garrison at Chusan, the
+British attacked Chinhai on the mainland. Here the Chinese suffered their
+heaviest losses. After this victory the city of Ningpo was occupied without
+opposition. The inhabitants shut themselves up and wrote on their doors:
+"Submissive people." Nevertheless, Ningpo was put to ransom, under threats
+of immediate pillage. More British troops and warships were arriving to
+carry the war to the bitter end, when news arrived of disastrous events in
+Afghanistan. Troops had to be diverted in that direction, and a more
+definite settlement of the Chinese question was accordingly postponed.
+
+[Sidenote: Corn Law agitation]
+
+[Sidenote: Richard Cobden]
+
+[Sidenote: Defeat of Melbourne's Ministry]
+
+[Sidenote: Parliamentary precedents defied]
+
+[Sidenote: Adverse elections]
+
+[Sidenote: Peel, Prime Minister]
+
+The attention of Englishmen at home was all but engrossed by domestic
+topics. In Parliament, the opposition found its strongest issue in the long
+demanded reform of the Corn Laws. Various circumstances, such as increase
+of population and bad harvests, contributed to bring this issue to the
+front. The retaliatory tariffs adopted by America, Russia, France, Sweden
+and the German Zollverein had their serious effect on British trade. The
+resulting financial depression engendered discontent. It was at this time
+that Richard Cobden came into prominence with his free trade views. Then
+began the great struggle over the Corn Laws which, until its settlement,
+remained the most important question of the day in England. Lord
+Melbourne's Ministry by its attempt to adjust the sugar bounties, and
+incidentally the Corn Laws, dealt the first formidable blow against the
+great system of monopoly called protection. The government's proposals on
+that subject were denounced as an encouragement of the produce of the
+sugars of Cuba and other slave states at the expense of the British West
+Indies, where slavery had been abolished. As a result the anti-slavery
+Whigs joined with the Tories, under the leadership of Peel. The government
+was defeated by a majority of thirty-six votes. In contravention of
+Parliamentary customs, Lord Melbourne's Ministry did not hand in their
+resignations, neither did they see fit to dissolve Parliament. When
+Parliament met again Sir Robert Peel, amid tumultuous cheering from his
+followers, moved a direct vote of want of confidence in the government. By
+a majority of one the motion was carried. The dissolution of Parliament was
+announced on the morrow. The appeal to the country resulted in a strong
+gain of Conservatives. The moribund Ministry made another attempt to carry
+their measures before retiring from office. Sir Robert Peel, in his
+proposals for a sliding scale in the duties on corn, already showed some
+bias toward that free-trade policy to which he afterward became committed.
+On the first division on this question the government was outvoted by a
+majority of sixty-four. Melbourne's resignation was of course followed by
+the elevation of Peel to the Prime Ministry. Lord Palmerston was replaced
+by the Earl of Aberdeen in the Foreign Office. Lord Lyndhurst was retained
+in the Chancellorship. The leadership of the Upper House was left to the
+Duke of Wellington, who joined the Cabinet without taking any office.
+
+[Sidenote: Growth of mission work]
+
+Throughout the year industrial distress prevailed in England and Ireland,
+with the usual consequence of an increase in crime. The vigorous support of
+British trade in the Far East was followed by an extension of Christian
+missions. Thus missionary work was resumed in China, while Livingstone
+preached the Gospel to the Hottentots of South Africa. The growth in
+colonial bishoprics caused Sidney Smith to say that soon there would not be
+a rock in the ocean without an English bishop and archdeacon. During this
+year adhesive postage stamps were first used in England. Wheatstone
+patented his alphabetic printing telegraph, and telegraph wires were strung
+as far as Glasgow. Almost simultaneously with the death of Hook, the
+British humorist, the new publication of "Punch, or the London Charivari,"
+made its appearance. One of its earliest contributors was George
+Cruikshank, the caricaturist.
+
+[Sidenote: William H. Harrison inaugurated]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Harrison]
+
+[Sidenote: Tyler, tenth President]
+
+[Sidenote: Canadian boundary treaty]
+
+[Sidenote: American financial policy]
+
+In British North America, the first Parliament of Canada was opened with
+great ceremony in June. After the changes in the Ministry, Sir Charles
+Bagett became Governor-General of Canada. In the United States, General
+Harrison was inaugurated as President. It rained on his inauguration day,
+and the aged General suffered so from exposure that he contracted
+pneumonia. One month later he died. The clamor of office-seekers during his
+brief tenure contributed largely to his death. Harrison had been active in
+public life since he was Secretary of the Northwest Territory in 1797. He
+acquired a national reputation by his victory over the Indians at
+Tippecanoe. He served as Senator from Indiana from 1825 to 1828, when he
+became Minister to the Republic of Colombia in South America. Congress,
+after some debate, passed a bill to appropriate one year's Presidential
+salary to General Harrison's widow. Vice-President Tyler became President.
+A Virginian by birth, he was committed to the Southern theory of State
+rights. In his first message he recognized the veto of the United States
+Bank measure as approved by the nation. This caused a decisive break with
+the holdover Cabinet. All the members resigned except Daniel Webster, who
+was retained to complete the Canadian boundary treaty with England. The
+line at length agreed upon gave to the United States 7,000 square miles,
+and to Great Britain 5,000, with the navigation of the St. John's River.
+Lord Ashburton in a speech at New York declared that never again could war
+be possible between the two countries. Tyler's new Secretary of State was
+Upham. The first measure of the Whigs was the repeal of the independent
+Treasury act of the previous Congress, and the next was the establishment
+of a general system of bankruptcy, and for distribution of the public land
+revenue. The former was more than a bankrupt law; it was practically an
+insolvent law for the abolition of debts at the will of the debtor. The
+bill passed both Houses. The land-revenue distribution was made imperative
+by the fact that various American States and municipalities owed
+$200,000,000 to European creditors. These became uneasy, and wished the
+Federal Government to assume their debts. The system was first favored in
+1838, and again in 1839, and in 1840 became a national issue. Although
+Calhoun and Benton both opposed the measure as a squandering of the public
+patrimony, it passed by a party vote.
+
+[Sidenote: Tyler's vetoes]
+
+[Sidenote: Loss of Whig support]
+
+A compromise tariff measure, advocated by Clay, provided for an upward
+scale of duties, to reach their maximum during the following year. The bill
+was vetoed by the President. Another important measure was that for the
+rechartering of the National Bank. It passed both Houses by a close vote,
+but Tyler vetoed it, to the consternation of the Whigs. On the second vote
+the necessary two-thirds majority was not obtained. Thus the second attempt
+to resuscitate the old United States Bank resulted in failure. After this
+the Whigs withdrew their support from the Administration they had put into
+office.
+
+During this year, in America, the grain drill was patented. Wilkes explored
+the coast of California. Graham's Magazine was published--one of the first
+American literary magazines of high pretensions. Among its earliest
+contributors was Edgar Allan Poe. At the same time Longfellow published his
+ballads, Cooper his "Deerslayer," and Ralph Waldo Emerson brought out his
+philosophical lectures in essay form.
+
+[Sidenote: Close of Seminole War]
+
+War with the Seminoles continued unabated. In the spring, General William
+J. Worth had been appointed to succeed Armisted. During the summer, Worth
+dispersed his troops into small parties, which ascended the rivers and
+penetrated the swamps to the islands to which the Indians had retired.
+Worth brought Chief Coacoochee to Tampa in irons. To secure peace, Worth
+bade him name five of his fellow chieftains, who were to return to the
+Indians and inform them that unless they should appear at Tampa within a
+given time and give themselves up, Coacoochee and his fellow prisoners
+would forthwith be hanged. The Indians came within the appointed time. As
+one band after another surrendered they were sent West to Mississippi. The
+cost of the war from first to last had been $40,000,000, which was twice
+the sum paid for the Territories of Louisiana and Florida together. It was
+estimated that for each black slave brought back from Florida to his
+owners, three white men had lost their lives, and $80,000 had been
+expended.
+
+[Sidenote: Latin-American upheavals]
+
+In Mexico, the Presidency of Bustamente was superseded by that of General
+Santa Anna. The northern States of Mexico maintained their independent
+attitude. The State of Costa Rica attempted to withdraw from the ascendant
+influence of Guatemala. About the same time the city of Cartago was
+destroyed by an earthquake. In Colombia, Marquez maintained himself as
+President against his opponents. The States of Panama and Veragua seceded
+from the Colombian Union, but the President prevailed upon them to return
+to the confederation. In South America, an expedition from Peru invaded
+Bolivia and laid siege to La Paz, only to be driven back. Peru was now
+invaded by an army from Bolivia, but General Bolnes, the newly elected
+President of Chile, interfered on behalf of Peru.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolts in Spain]
+
+In Spain, General Espartero throughout this year continued his precarious
+rule. In October, Generals O'Donnel and Concha headed a rising at Pambulna
+in behalf of the former Queen-Regent Christina. The Queen's guard repelled
+an attack of Don Diego Leon on the palace. On October 15, Don Diego was
+captured and shot. One week later O'Donnel fled to France. On the same day,
+General Zurbano gained possession of the citadel and port of Bilbao. He
+declared himself in favor of the Queen-Regent.
+
+[Sidenote: French Algerian victories]
+
+On the other side of the Pyrenees the restoration of the French _entente
+cordiale_ with England and the other European Powers was manifested in the
+conclusion of the International Convention of Alexandria in July, and the
+quintuple treaty for suppression of the slave trade proposed by the British
+Government. The French cry for the forcible recovery of the Rhine frontier
+died down and public funds rose accordingly. Alfred de Musset's second
+invective poem on "Le Rhin Allemand" scarcely raised a stir. All desire for
+military conquests was satisfied for the moment by the exploits of French
+arms under General Bugeaud and the Duc d'Aumale in Algeria. For once the
+Arab chiefs of the Desert were cowed into submission. The effect of the Duc
+d'Aumale's triumphal return was spoiled somewhat by the attempt to
+assassinate him on September 13. Under Guizot's guidance the French
+Chambers showed their appreciation of the flourishing state of literature
+in France by their amendments to the copyright law, extending the
+provisions of copyright to a period of thirty years after an author's
+death.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Lermontov]
+
+[Sidenote: Lermontov's work]
+
+Michel Jurgevitch Lermontov, the Russian poet, died on July 27, as the
+result of a duel in the Caucasus. His romance, "A Hero of Our Time," was
+the immediate cause of the duel. This poet was the Russian spokesman of the
+so-called Weltschmerz (world-sorrow) which had come into vogue with the
+"Sorrows of Werther." Following in the wake of Chateaubriand and Byron,
+Lermontov wrote epic poems in a pessimistic, cynical strain, without
+attaining quite the bitterness of spirit of a Byron or Heine, nor the
+melancholy lyric beauty of a Lenau or Leopardi. Pre-eminent, on the other
+hand, are his poetical descriptions of the scenery and wild national traits
+of the Caucasus, which furnished the background for almost all of his
+poems. Noteworthy among his epics are "The Circassian Boy," "Ismail Bey,"
+"Valerik," "Hadshy-Abrak," and "The Demon." Under Czar Nicholas,
+Lermontov's works were forbidden in Russia. After having been banished to
+the Caucasus, for demanding revenge for Pushkin's death, the poet published
+his last brilliant epic, "Song of Czar Ivan Vasilyevitch," under a
+pseudonym.
+
+[Sidenote: German letters]
+
+[Sidenote: Prussian General Estates]
+
+In Germany, too, letters and arts were flourishing. In Vienna, Nikolaus
+Lenau (Baron Strehlenau) and his friend, Anastasius Gruen (Count
+Auersperg), were the leaders of a literary movement which found its
+counterpart in the so-called "Young German" movement of the north, where
+Ferdinand Freiligrath, Laube, Gutzkow, and Emanuel Geibel came under the
+ban of the German Bundesrath. The great political event of the year was the
+meeting of the first General Estates, convoked at Berlin. The new king's
+hostile attitude toward their popular demands for constitutional rights and
+larger liberties soon destroyed the hopes of liberal Germans for a change
+of spirit in the government of Prussia. A more material advance in
+civilization was assured by the opening of the first railway from Berlin to
+Magdeburg.
+
+[Sidenote: Cornelius]
+
+Peter von Cornelius, one of the leaders of the religious Catholic movement
+in art which had followed the classicism of the first decade of the
+century, was commissioned by the King to decorate the cemetery at Berlin.
+These decorations afterward, as well as the mural paintings in the Church
+of Saint Louis at Munich, proved to be his masterpieces.
+
+[Sidenote: Defence of Jellalabad]
+
+The British occupation of Afghanistan had continued since the last year.
+The expenses of the occupation were so heavy that economy was imperative.
+As soon as the British Resident cut down the subsidies paid to Shah Shuja
+the situation took a sinister turn. In October, Sir Robert Sale left Kabul
+with a brigade of British troops to reopen communications with Jellalabad,
+which had been interrupted by hostile mountain tribes. He got to Jellalabad
+only after a desperate struggle and heavy losses. His subsequent defence of
+that stronghold against the Afghans is one of the heroic traditions of
+British India.
+
+[Sidenote: Massacre of Kabul]
+
+[Sidenote: Afghans up in arms]
+
+At Kabul, in the meanwhile, the garrison had been removed from the citadel
+of Bala Hasir to open cantonments outside of the city. Sir William
+MacNaghten, the British Resident, had been appointed Governor of Bombay,
+and was about to be succeeded by Sir Alexander Byrnes. Byrnes took up his
+abode in the centre of the city amid the turbulent bazaars. On November 2,
+the people of Kabul rose against the English. Byrnes barricaded his house
+and sent to MacNaghten for help. On the advice of General Elphinstone,
+MacNaghten decided to wait for further information before acting. The delay
+was fatal for Byrnes. He held out with thirty-two others from eight in the
+morning until two in the afternoon. Then the ammunition gave out. The mob
+rushed in and tore the house to pieces. Byrnes and twenty-three of his
+followers were massacred. One hour later a British relief corps tried to
+enter the city. All Kabul turned against them. The British were forced to
+retire. The news of this set Afghanistan wild. Thousands of armed
+mountaineers flocked to Kabul, and the whole nation rose against the
+foreigners. The British troops were cut off from all supplies. They
+maintained their precarious position only by lavish promises of ransom. At
+length, after many parleys, a meeting was arranged, for December 23,
+between MacNaghten and the Afghan chiefs. When the English envoy walked
+into the meeting the Afghans fell upon him, and he was slain by Akbar
+Khan.
+
+
+
+
+1842
+
+
+[Sidenote: MacNaghten's murder unavenged]
+
+[Sidenote: The retreat from Kabul]
+
+[Sidenote: Disaster of Khaibar Pass]
+
+The situation of the British in Afghanistan was so critical that they could
+not avenge the murder of their countrymen. Negotiations were actually
+renewed with Akbar Khan upon his statement that he had not meant to murder
+the British envoy, but had been goaded into the act by the taunts of
+MacNaghten. Promises of safe conduct were obtained. In January the British
+forces began their retreat from Kabul. Then followed a series of
+treacheries and mutual breaches of faith. Akbar Khan and his hordes of
+Afghans dogged the retreating column exacting further concessions. The
+English women and children were demanded as hostages. From the heights of
+the Khaibar Pass, the Ghilzai mountaineers poured a destructive fire into
+the Englishmen. Akbar Khan's followers made common cause with them.
+Thousands of Englishmen were slain, or perished in the deep snows of the
+Khaibar Pass. The wounded and those who fell behind were butchered by the
+Afghans. A fortnight sufficed to cut the whole column to pieces. Of the
+entire force of 4,000 soldiers and 12,000 followers, one single survivor
+succeeded in reaching Jellalabad. He was a British surgeon named Brydon,
+who dragged himself on all fours out of reach of the Afghans; but he lived
+to tell the tale for more than thirty years afterward.
+
+Colonel Stoddart and Captain Connelly had been sent as British emissaries
+to Bokhara. When the news of the British massacre at Kabul reached Bokhara,
+both men were promptly thrown into prison. Later, when the news of the
+British disaster in the Khaibar Pass reached Bokhara, the Ameer had the two
+envoys taken from their dungeons. They were publicly beheaded in the
+market-place of Bokhara.
+
+[Sidenote: Lord Ellenborough in India]
+
+[Sidenote: Jellalabad relieved]
+
+[Sidenote: Recapture of Kabul]
+
+[Sidenote: British vandalism]
+
+Such was the state of affairs in India when Lord Ellenborough landed at
+Calcutta in February, to succeed Lord Auckland as Governor-General. The
+first trying need was to rescue the remaining British garrisons at
+Jellalabad and Kandahar. General Pollock, with a strong force of Sepoys,
+was sent through the Punjab and Peshawar. In April, he pushed his way
+through the Khaibar Pass, in the face of fierce resistance from the
+mountaineers. The relieving force reached Jellalabad none too soon. General
+Sale and his garrison were fighting for time. In a last sortie they had
+just inflicted a telling defeat on Akbar Khan and his besieging army. From
+Kabul the boy sovereign of the Afghans fled out of Akbar Khan's reach and
+put himself under the protection of General Pollock. Akbar Khan now wrote
+to General Pollock, offering to deliver up his British prisoners and
+hostages if he would withdraw from Afghanistan. Lord Ellenborough showed
+himself inclined to accept this proposition. The British officers at the
+front were furious. General Pollock wrote to Nott at Kandahar not to move
+until further instructions, while he himself reported to headquarters that
+he could not retire to Jellalabad for want of transports. Eventually, Lord
+Ellenborough consented to modify his instructions. Without waiting for
+this, General Nott was already marching on Kabul. Pollock, accompanied by
+Sale, left Jellalabad to support Nott's advance. In the Tezeen Valley the
+British came upon the scene of one of the bloodiest massacres of the
+retreat from Kabul. The sight of the murdered bodies of their comrades
+exasperated the soldiers. The heights around were bristling with Akbar
+Khan's men. In the face of a murderous fire from their matchlocks, the
+British stormed the heights and gave no quarter. Akbar Khan fled into the
+northern hills. In September, Nott's column took Kabul and hoisted the
+British flag over the Bala Hassar. The English captives managed to bribe
+their keepers and to join the rescuing army, amid general rejoicings. The
+British conquest of Afghanistan was followed by barbarous deeds of
+vandalism. The great bazaar of Kabul, one of the handsomest stone
+structures of Central Asia, was blown up by gunpowder. The city itself was
+turned over to loot and massacre. The bloodcurdling atrocities of the white
+men on that occasion kept alive the fierce hatred of all things British in
+Afghanistan for years to come. By the express orders of Lord Ellenborough
+the sacred sandalwood gates of Somnath, which had adorned the tomb of
+Mahmud of Ghasni since the Eleventh Century, were brought away as trophies
+of war.
+
+[Sidenote: Boers driven from Natal]
+
+[Sidenote: Foundation of Transvaal]
+
+In South Africa, too, the seeds of enduring hatred were sown at this time.
+Scarcely had the new Boer community in Zululand become well settled when a
+proclamation was issued in Cape Town, declaring that Natal should become a
+British territory. Soldiers were despatched to Durban to support this
+claim. After some sharp fighting the Boers were driven out of the seaport.
+When the British Commissioner arrived at Pietermaritzburg, a stormy mass
+meeting was held. For two hours Erasmus Smith, the Boer predicant, argued
+in vain in behalf of his flock. In the end the Boer women passed a
+unanimous resolution that rather than submit to English rule they would
+emigrate once more. Pointing to the Drakensberg Mountains, the oldest of
+the women said: "We go across those mountains to freedom or to death." Over
+these mountains almost the whole population of Natal trekked their way into
+the uninhabited regions beyond. Only 300 families remained, the ancestors
+of some 10,000 Afrikanders of Natal in later days. On the other side of the
+Orange and Vaal Rivers the Boer emigrants founded once more their
+commonwealth, known later as the Transvaal, or South African Republic.
+
+In Australia the first representative constitution was granted to the
+English colonists of New South Wales. Almost simultaneously with this began
+the agitation for separating Victoria from New South Wales.
+
+[Sidenote: "The Sliding Scale"]
+
+[Sidenote: British Income Tax]
+
+In England, early in the Parliamentary session, Sir Robert Peel on behalf
+of the government moved his famous bill for a sliding scale of the duties
+on corn. In the debate that followed, the most notable speeches were made
+by Cobden and Macaulay, who advocated complete free trade. In spite of all
+opposition, the bill in an unamended form reached its third reading and was
+passed on the 5th of April. The most serious difficulty confronting the
+government was a financial deficit of L2,570,000, to which had to be added
+the heavy expenditures for the wars in India and China. To fill up this
+deficiency, Peel resorted to the levy of an income tax. To make this
+unpopular tax more acceptable a number of minor mischievous taxes were
+abolished. Thus rendered palatable, this bill, too, was carried through
+Parliament with tolerable speed, and was passed with handsome majorities by
+both Houses. It called for a tax of sevenpence on every pound of annual
+income above L150.
+
+[Sidenote: Copyright reform]
+
+[Sidenote: "Lays of Ancient Rome"]
+
+[Sidenote: "Locksley Hall"]
+
+In emulation of the new provisions for copyright in France, a bill was
+brought in to extend English copyright from twenty-eight to forty-two
+years. Among the considerations which prompted Parliament to perform this
+long delayed act of justice was the recent lamented death of Sir Walter
+Scott. The royalties on his works were the only resource left to his
+family, and the copyright on the most important of them, the Waverley
+Novels, was about to expire. Southey, the Poet Laureate, before his recent
+illness, it was stated, had been deterred from undertaking a projected
+great work by the unsatisfactory copyright provisions. Wordsworth was about
+to lose the fruits of some of his earliest and most patriotic poems. Among
+those who actively pressed the measure were Charles Dickens and Thomas
+Carlyle. The sixty years' copyright demanded in Carlyle's petition was not
+obtained; but authors were allowed to retain the property of their works
+during life, while their heirs could possess it for seven years after their
+death. Coincident with this literary victory came other triumphs in
+literature. Thomas B. Macaulay published his "Lays of Ancient Rome"; Alfred
+Tennyson brought out "Locksley Hall" and other poems; Bulwer Lytton
+finished "Zanoni"; the new Shakespeare Society issued some twenty volumes
+of researches. A new impetus to the making of books and printing was given
+by Woolwich's new system of electrotyping, and Charles Young's new device
+of a type-setting machine, first employed on the "Family Herald."
+
+It was then, too, that Dr. Julius Robert Meyer, an obscure physician in
+Heilbronn, published a paper in Liebig's "Annalen," entitled "The Force of
+Inorganic Nature." Not merely the mechanical theory of heat, but the entire
+doctrine of the conservation of energy was clearly formulated. It is true
+that he was anticipated in a measure by Mohr, and that Helmholtz more
+exhaustively demonstrated the truth of the hypothesis of the conservation
+of energy; but Helmholtz himself hailed Meyer as the rightful claimant of
+the honor of having first clearly formulated the doctrine.
+
+[Sidenote: Second Charter petition]
+
+[Sidenote: The "Sacred Month"]
+
+A great gain for humanity was made in Lord Ashley's successful bill for the
+restriction of work done by women and children in mines and collieries.
+Under the leadership of O'Connell's former Irish rival, Feargus O'Connor,
+the agitation for a People's Charter was revived. On May 2, another monster
+petition, containing nearly three and a half million signatures, was rolled
+into Parliament. Too voluminous to pass through the doors, it had to be cut
+up and carried into the hall by sixteen men. A motion to consider it was
+violently opposed by Macaulay. Once more the petition was rejected by 287
+over 49 votes. Now followed one of the most singular labor strikes of
+England. This was the so-called sacred month, or thirty days' idleness to
+be enforced throughout the United Kingdom. Within a few days the Chartists
+could boast that for fifty miles round Manchester every loom was still. The
+attempt to extend the strike to London was followed by the arrest of
+O'Connor and nearly a hundred of his associates. They were tried and
+convicted, but owing to a flaw in the indictment sentence could not be
+carried out. The agitation was made to appear more serious by two attempts
+to assassinate the Queen in May and July, but the young Queen was not
+deterred thereby from making her first visit to Scotland.
+
+[Sidenote: Chinese opium war]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Chapoo]
+
+[Sidenote: Shanghai occupied]
+
+[Sidenote: Assault of Chinkiangfoo]
+
+[Sidenote: China brought to terms]
+
+[Sidenote: Treaty ports designated]
+
+[Sidenote: Opium forced upon China]
+
+In August, the Duke of Wellington was reinstated as commander-in-chief of
+the British army. Among the military reforms undertaken was the general
+introduction of the percussion-cap musket in the infantry, and the use of
+the carbine in the artillery. The war in China was brought to a close. The
+long period of inaction following the occupation of Ningpo had been broken
+in March by Chinese attempts to recapture Ningpo, Chinhai and Chusan. In
+all three places the British beat off their assailants. At Ningpo the
+Chinese succeeded in breaking through the south and west gates, and reached
+the centre of the city only to be mowed down there by the British
+artillery. At Tszeki a strong Chinese camp was captured by the British. The
+Chinese losses on this occasion were over a thousand killed, including many
+of the Imperial Guards. The British casualties did not exceed forty. A
+naval expedition next attacked Chapoo, China's port of trade with Japan.
+The main body of the Chinese was routed, but 300 of their soldiers shut
+themselves up in a walled inclosure, and held their ground until
+three-fourths of their number were slain. As heretofore, the British
+casualties were small. The important city of Shanghai was captured without
+appreciable resistance. The most serious affair of the war was the attack
+on Chinkiangfoo on the southern bank of the Yangtse-Kiang at one of the
+entrances of the great canal. A part of the Manchu garrison held out there
+until shot down to the last man. The inner Tartar city was only taken after
+the Manchus had first killed the women and children and then themselves.
+The immediate losses of the British were nearly two hundred. Owing to the
+intense heat, they failed to bury the bodies of the Chinese. Pestilence and
+cholera broke out, and caused more serious losses than befell the main
+force sent against Nanking. On August 5, the British fleet appeared before
+Nanking, the second city of the empire. It was then that Minister Elepoo,
+the leader of the Chinese peace party, prevailed upon Emperor Taouk-Wang to
+give in. On August 26, peace was concluded on board the British flagship
+"Cornwallis." China paid an indemnity of $21,000,000, and confirmed the
+cession of Hong Kong to England. The English opium factory at Canton was to
+be reinstalled, and, in addition to this, foreign trading was to be allowed
+at the ports of Shanghai, Ningpo, Amhoy and Foochow, after a tariff should
+have been agreed upon and consular officers appointed. The final ceremonies
+of peace were marred by barbarous injuries inflicted upon the famous
+porcelain tower of Nanking by a party of British officers and soldiers. In
+the words of a British historian: "The only weak point in the commercial
+treaty was that it contained no reference to opium. Sir Henry Pottinger
+failed to obtain the assent of the Chinese government to its legalization."
+In reply to Sir Henry Pottinger's final demand for legalization of the
+opium trade in China, Emperor Taouk-Wang delivered this ultimatum: "True, I
+cannot prevent the introduction of the poison; but nothing will induce me
+to raise revenue from the vice and misery of my people." The emperor,
+himself a reformed opium smoker, had lost three sons by this vice. All this
+time American, Dutch and Russian trade with China had been continued.
+President Tyler made it the subject of his message to the American Congress
+during this year. From the first any American traffic in opium was
+discouraged.
+
+[Sidenote: Webster-Ashburton agreement]
+
+[Sidenote: "Battle of the Maps"]
+
+[Sidenote: American interests in Hawaii]
+
+[Sidenote: Daniel Webster resigns]
+
+The Webster-Ashburton treaty, regulating the northeastern boundary between
+the United States and Canada, was signed on August 9. A strip of territory
+claimed by the State of Maine was ceded to Canada, while a more important
+strip was yielded to Vermont and New York. The treaty also provided for a
+joint repressive action against the slave trade, and for the extradition of
+criminals. It was Webster's greatest achievement in diplomacy, as was
+indicated by the fact that the American Senate, notwithstanding its
+hostility to President Tyler, ratified it by a three-fourths vote. In
+England more serious opposition was encountered. In Parliament the treaty
+was termed "Ashburton's Capitulation," and Lord Palmerston went so far as
+to attribute its concessions to Ashburton's partiality toward his American
+wife. The ratification of the treaty was followed by an international
+controversy known as "The Battle of the Maps." An early map found by Jared
+Sparks, the American historian, in the Library of Paris, had been used in
+the Senate to insure the ratification of the treaty without the knowledge
+of Lord Ashburton. When this became known in England it was denounced as
+underhand dealing. Frantic search in the archives of the British Museum
+brought to light another map, bearing the autograph indorsement of King
+George III. As it turned out, this only sustained the American contentions,
+and was used in Parliament to vindicate Lord Ashburton, just as Sparks's
+map had been used in behalf of Webster. Credit also belongs to Webster for
+his strong stand made at the time the Hawaiian Islands were threatened by
+a French expedition. It was then stated, as reiterated by President Tyler
+to Congress, that, in view of the preponderant intercourse of the United
+States with those islands, the American government would insist that no
+European nation should colonize or possess them, nor subvert the native
+governments. After a settlement of these international questions, Daniel
+Webster was permitted to resign his secretaryship to join the Whig
+opposition on the floor of the House. His resignation was the more readily
+accepted since he was known to be out of harmony with the Administration's
+designs against Mexico. As the son of President Tyler has recorded: "The
+time had come when it was necessary to have in the office of the Secretary
+of State one who would go the full length of the Texas question. Certainly,
+that man was not Webster." In the Senate, Henry Clay resigned his seat, the
+better to carry on his canvass as a candidate for the Presidency.
+
+[Sidenote: First American submarine cable]
+
+At the time that Charles Dickens paid his first visit to America the
+agitation for a better copyright law was renewed, and was in a measure
+successful. Dickens's early impressions of the United States, as published
+later in England, were distinctly unfavorable to the American people. Had
+he lingered longer he might have witnessed the laying of the first
+submarine telegraph between Governor's Island and New York City. In the
+extreme West another outlet toward the Pacific Ocean was found by Fremont
+and Kit Carson in the south pass of the Rocky Mountains.
+
+[Sidenote: Latin-American affairs]
+
+In Central America, General Morazan invaded Costa Rica to re-establish by
+force the federation of the Central American States. At first he was
+welcomed by the population and recognized as President of Costa Rica. But
+later, as the guerilla war dragged itself out, the opposition gained
+ground. Jose Maria Alfaro was recognized as President. In South America,
+General Rosas made another attempt to subject Montevideo. Gold was
+discovered in Uruguay. In the West Indies, the restoration of peace in Cuba
+was followed by educational, far-reaching reforms. Another revolution in
+Hayti provoked French interference.
+
+[Sidenote: French-Algerian campaign]
+
+The French squadron that had made demonstrations in the Caribbean Sea
+presently descended upon the Marqueso Islands in the southern Pacific. The
+islands were annexed to France. In Africa, the war against Abd-el-Kader was
+pushed forward. The Arabs attacked Mostaganem and Arzee and lured Yussuf,
+the commander of the new French corps of native Spahis, into an ambush.
+General Valle, with a division of 9,000 men, drove Abd-el-Kader from an
+intrenched pass between Medah and Muzaia; but the French lost heavily. The
+Algerian war during this year alone cost 12,000 lives and 50,000,000
+francs. Valle was superseded by Bugeaud.
+
+The French general elections had just resulted in favor of the government,
+when, on July 13, the Duke of Orleans was killed by a fall from his
+carriage. After this event the Chambers fixed the succession to the throne
+upon the Duke of Nemours, until the children of the Duke of Orleans should
+be of age.
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Blanc]
+
+[Sidenote: Proudhon]
+
+[Sidenote: Eugene Sue]
+
+[Sidenote: "Stendhal"]
+
+By this time the socialistic theories of Saint Simon and Fourier were
+exploited still further by Louis Blanc and Proudhon. Blanc's writings had
+an immense vogue among the workmen of Paris. This was especially true of
+his "Organisation du Travail," published this year, wherein he proclaimed
+the opportunity to work as a social right. Proudhon carried Etienne Cadet's
+"Icarian" theories so far that in his famous book, "What is Property?"
+after describing the conditions under which property is held according to
+the Napoleonic Code, he delivered the categorical dictum, "If this be
+property, then property is theft." Other popular books of the day were
+Eugene Sue's "The Mysteries of Paris," "Le Morne au Diable," and Georges
+Sand's famous novel "Consuelo." Marie Henri Beyle, known better under his
+pseudonym, "Stendhal," died during this year. As a novelist he was the
+precursor of the naturalistic school of romance in France, and was later
+acknowledged as such by Balzac, Flaubert and Emile Zola. His powers of
+prose were most ably demonstrated in the novel "Rouge et Noir," treating of
+the adventures of a worldly Abbe.
+
+[Sidenote: Cherubini]
+
+Another notable figure in Paris passed away with Luigi Cherubini, the great
+Italian composer. Cherubini, many of whose works were brought out during
+the previous century was so popular by the beginning of the Nineteenth
+Century, that he was esteemed above Beethoven. A Viennese critic who
+ventured to say that Beethoven's "Fidelio" was of equal merit with
+Cherubini's "Fanisca" was laughed to scorn. Cherubini's best opera, "The
+Water Carrier," was brought out in Paris and London in 1800 and 1801. Owing
+to his disregard of Napoleon's musical opinions, Cherubini found himself
+out of favor throughout the First Empire in France. He retired to the
+estate of his friend, Prince de Chimay, and would have given up music but
+for the latter's request to write a Mass for his chapel. The result was the
+celebrated three-part Mass in F, which proved such a success that Cherubini
+thenceforward devoted himself to sacred music. After Napoleon's fall he
+received an appointment at the Paris Conservatory of Music, from the
+directorship of which he did not retire until 1841. Cherubini's voluminous
+compositions reveal him as one of the great modern masters of counterpoint.
+His great skill and erudition show to the best advantage in his sacred
+music.
+
+[Sidenote: Bunsen]
+
+[Sidenote: Gervinus]
+
+[Sidenote: Forecasts of German union]
+
+Germany about this same time lost her great Oriental scholar, F.W.
+Genesius. Bunsen invented his carbon battery. Gervinus, the banished
+Hanoverian professor, brought out his History of German Literature, which
+ended with a stirring appeal for political unity. The same ideal, in a
+measure, was voiced during the ceremonies commemorating the resumption of
+work on the great Cathedral of Cologne. King Frederick William IV. of
+Prussia, fresh from the riots of Berlin, declared: "The spirit that builds
+this cathedral is the same that has broken our chains, and the disgrace of
+foreign domination over this German river--it is the spirit of German
+strength and unity." Even Archduke John, the uncle of the Emperor of
+Austria, proposed this toast: "No Austria, no Prussia; but a great united
+Germany--firm-rooted as her mountains."
+
+[Sidenote: Reforms in Russia]
+
+[Sidenote: Gogol]
+
+[Sidenote: Turgenyev]
+
+In Russia, a concession to modern ideas was made by Czar Nicholas, in his
+ukase of April 14, permitting the great landholders to liberate their
+serfs. Another imperial ukase deprived the Roman as well as the Greek
+clergy of all church lands upon condemnation proceedings and money payments
+by the government. Russian literature, notwithstanding the strict
+censorship, flourished during this period. A new source of poetry was
+discovered by Koltsov in the Slavic folk songs. Griboyodov's new comedy,
+"Gore Ot Ouma" (Too Clever by Half), had already become one of the stock
+pieces. The success of this play was rivalled by Gogol's comedy, "The
+Revisor." In 1842, this same writer brought out his celebrated romance,
+"Dead Souls." Ivan Turgenyev was just entering upon his career.
+
+Toward the close of the year new troubles broke out in Spain. In November,
+a popular insurrection at Barcelona was joined by the National Guards.
+Following upon a bitter fight in the streets of the city, on November 15,
+the Guards retired into the citadel, where they held their ground. After
+one month's stubborn resistance there, they were subjected to such heavy
+artillery fire that they were glad to surrender to Espartero's government
+forces on Christmas Eve.
+
+
+
+
+1843
+
+
+[Sidenote: Napier's desert march]
+
+To carry on the British war with Afghanistan it was necessary to pass
+troops through Scinde. The Ameers remonstrated. Emaun-Ghur, in the Desert
+of Beluchistan, was a stronghold where the Ameers could gather a numerous
+army unobserved by the English. Sir Charles Napier determined to strike for
+this point with a small force, capable of speedily traversing the desert.
+On the night of January 5, he commenced his perilous adventure. With 360
+Irish soldiers on camels, with 200 of the irregular cavalry, with ten
+camels laden with provisions, and with eighty carrying water, he set forth.
+
+[Sidenote: Emaun-Ghur reduced]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Meanee]
+
+When the fortress, which no European eye had before seen, was reached, it
+was found deserted. Immense stores of ammunition had been left behind.
+Napier mined Emaun-Ghur in twenty-four places, and blew up all the mighty
+walls of its square tower. After great privations on the march back, Napier
+and his men rejoined the main army on the 23d near Hyderabad. The Duke of
+Wellington said that the march to Emaun-Ghur was one of the most arduous
+military feats of which he knew. On February 12, the Ameers at Hyderabad,
+who, according to the British Resident himself, had been "cruelly
+wronged," came to terms. On the day after their apparent submission the
+British Resident, Major Outram, was attacked by the infuriated Beluchees.
+With a hundred followers he barely succeeded in fighting his way through to
+two British war steamers lying in the river. Napier, with his 2,600 men,
+now moved against the Beluchee army, numbering nearly 10,000. On February
+17, the day of the battle of Meanee, Napier wrote in his journal: "It is my
+first battle as a commander. It may be my last. At sixty it makes little
+difference what my feelings are. It shall be do or die." It proved an
+all-day fight. Most of the white officers fell. In the end, Napier closed
+the doubtful struggle by a decisive cavalry charge. The Sepoy horsemen
+charged through the Beluchee army and stormed the batteries on the ridge of
+the hill of Meanee.
+
+[Sidenote: Hyderabad]
+
+Napier followed up his victory the next day by a message sent into
+Hyderabad that he would storm the city unless it surrendered. Six of the
+Ameers came out and laid their swords at his feet. Another enemy
+remained--Shere Mahomed of Meerpoor. On March 24, Napier, with 5,000
+troops, attacked this chief, who had come with 20,000 Beluchees before the
+walls of Hyderabad. Napier won another brilliant victory, which was
+followed up by the British occupation of Meerpoor. The spirit of the
+Beluchees was so broken that after two slight actions in June, when Shere
+Mahomed was routed and fled into the desert, the war was at an end. Scinde
+was annexed to the British Empire.
+
+[Sidenote: English free-trade agitation]
+
+[Sidenote: Irish disaffection]
+
+[Sidenote: O'Connell arrested]
+
+[Sidenote: Anti-corn law league]
+
+[Sidenote: Mill's "System of Logic"]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Southey]
+
+[Sidenote: Ballad of Blenheim]
+
+At home, in the meanwhile, the Chartist agitation, with its "sacred month"
+strike, was carried over into this year, while the leaders were tried
+before the Lancashire Assizes. Popular meetings were held at Birmingham,
+Manchester and London. O'Connor, after his suspension of sentence in court,
+made the mistake of setting himself against the anti-corn law agitation led
+by Cobden and Bright. To most Englishmen of the day the free-trade issue
+appeared the most momentous. O'Connor's star paled accordingly. Early in
+the year a new free-trade hall had been opened in London, the largest room
+for public meetings in the United Kingdom. A dozen lecturers were kept
+busy. Cobden alone addressed some thirty great country meetings during the
+first half of the year. At the same time the Irish agitation for repeal of
+the legislative union with England assumed formidable proportions. The
+Irish secret society of the "Molly Maguires" spread alarmingly. On March
+16, Daniel O'Connell addressed 30,000 persons at Trim, urging repeal of the
+act of united legislation for Ireland and Great Britain. A few months later
+several hundred thousand people gathered on the hill of Tara to listen to
+his eloquent words. As a result of this agitation, O'Connell, with several
+of his followers, was arrested, in October, on charges of sedition.
+Simultaneously with this the so-called "Becca Riots" against turnpikes
+broke out in Wales. One month after O'Connell's arrest the greatest
+free-trade meeting of the year was held at Manchester. Both Cobden and
+Bright made speeches against the corn laws. One hundred thousand pounds
+were collected on the spot from wealthy manufacturers who attended the
+meeting. This opened the eyes even of the editors of the London "Times."
+Under the caption "The League is a Great Fact," it announced that a new
+power had arisen in the State. This reluctant concession of the leading
+Tory paper of England caused a great sensation. Other events that excited
+the attention of Englishmen were the erection of the great Nelson column in
+Trafalgar Square and the opening of the Thames tunnel for pedestrians.
+Thousands of curious Londoners passed through its shaft, measuring 1,300
+feet in length. Nasmyth invented his steam hammer. Mill published his
+"System of Logic." The event of the year in English letters was the death
+of Robert Southey, the Poet Laureate. During the last few years his brain
+had softened, and his mind had become enfeebled. Southey was born at
+Bristol in 1774. He was educated at Westminster School and Baliol College,
+Oxford. While still at college he brought out two volumes of poems,
+together with Robert Lovell. His first long narrative poem, "Joan of Arc,"
+was written at the age of nineteen, and gave him, as he called it, "a
+Baxter's shove into the right place in the world." At the opening of the
+Nineteenth Century, he published the "wild and wondrous song" of "Thalaba,
+the Destroyer," founded on Moslem mythology. "Kehema," founded on Hindu
+lore, followed. In 1803, after some years of wandering, the poet went to
+live at Greta Hall, near Keswick, which remained his home until his death.
+Besides a long line of prose works, Southey wrote innumerable short poems.
+Famous among them is the ballad of the battle of Blenheim, with its homely
+irony:
+
+  "With fire and sword the country round
+  Was wasted far and wide,
+  And many a childing mother then
+  And new-born baby died;
+  But things like that, you know, must be
+  At every famous victory."
+
+[Sidenote: Brilliant occasional pieces]
+
+[Sidenote: Southey's works]
+
+[Sidenote: "Stanzas in My Library"]
+
+Southey nourished a passionate hatred against Napoleon Bonaparte. Again and
+again he invoked the Muse against the world conqueror. Thus he wrote to
+Landor in 1814: "For five years I have been preaching the policy, the duty,
+the necessity of declaring Bonaparte under the ban of human nature." Under
+this stress of feeling he wrote his great "Ode During the Negotiations for
+Peace." It was the most powerful of his occasional pieces. In 1813, he was
+made Poet Laureate. As such, it fell to him to write another occasional
+piece on the death of the Princess Charlotte. The grace and beauty of his
+lines on this occasion have long outlived the memory of that lamented
+princess. Unlike his great contemporaries, Lord Byron and Sir Walter Scott,
+Southey never achieved a great material success. Having married young, he
+often walked the streets, so he himself confessed, "not having eighteen
+pence for a dinner, nor bread and cheese at his lodgings." In 1835, when he
+was sixty-one years old, he wrote to Sir Robert Peel while declining the
+offer of a baronetcy, "Last year for the first time in my life I was
+provided with a year's expenditure beforehand." Yet his works at this time
+filled nearly a hundred volumes. In the words of his brother poets:
+
+     "Southey's epics crammed the creaking shelves."
+
+It was in his declining age that he wrote the prophetic "Stanzas Written in
+My Library":
+
+  My days among the Dead are passed:
+    Around me I behold,
+  Where'er these casual eyes are cast,
+    The almighty minds of old;
+  My never-failing friends are they,
+    With whom I converse day by day.
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  My hopes are with the Dead, anon
+    My place with them will be,
+  And I with them shall travel on
+    Through all Futurity;
+  Yet leaving here a name, I trust,
+    That will not perish in the dust.
+
+[Sidenote: Wordsworth, Poet Laureate]
+
+[Sidenote: "The Lost Leader"]
+
+After Southey's death, William Wordsworth was made Poet Laureate. His
+acceptance of this benefice from the government incensed his more radical
+friends. Robert Browning then wrote the famous invective lines entitled
+"The Lost Leader":
+
+  Just for a handful of silver he left us,
+    Just for a ribbon to stick in his coat--
+  Found the one gift of which fortune bereft us,
+    Lost all the others, she lets us devote;
+  They, with the gold to give, doled him out silver,
+    So much was theirs who so little allowed:
+  How all our copper had gone for his service!
+    Rags--were they purple, his heart had been proud!
+  We that had loved him so, followed him, honored him,
+    Lived in his mild and magnificent eye,
+  Learned his great language, caught his clear accents,
+    Made him our pattern to live and to die!
+  Shakespeare was of us, Milton was for us,
+    Burns, Shelley, were with us--they watch from their graves!
+  He alone breaks from the van and the freemen,
+    He alone sinks to the rear and the slaves!
+
+[Sidenote: Prescott's "Conquest of Mexico"]
+
+[Sidenote: Edgar Allan Poe]
+
+[Sidenote: "The Gold Bug"]
+
+America this year lost three of her prominent literary men by the deaths of
+Allston, the poet and painter, Noah Webster, the lexicographer, and Key,
+the author of "The Star-Spangled Banner." The historian Prescott now
+brought out his great "Conquest of Mexico." Longfellow published his
+"Spanish Student." Edgar Allan Poe entered upon his new journalistic
+venture "The Stylus." For this he wrote his stories of "The Tell-Tale
+Heart," "Leonore," and his "Notes upon English Verse." For other
+publications he wrote "The Pit and the Pendulum," and the striking poem,
+"The Conqueror Worm." His fearful tale of the "Black Cat" was published in
+the "Saturday Evening Post." At this time he was ailing in health, while
+his young wife, Virginia, was dying. During these trying months his
+principal income was a hundred dollar prize received for his famous story
+of "The Gold Bug," published in the "Dollar Newspaper." The judges
+confessed later that they awarded the prize to this contribution largely on
+account of its neat handwriting.
+
+[Sidenote: Oregon controversy]
+
+[Sidenote: Texas unannexed]
+
+On June 17, the new Bunker Hill Monument of Boston was dedicated amid
+impressive ceremonies. Daniel Webster, who as a young man had spoken there
+when the cornerstone was laid by Lafayette, was once more the orator of the
+day. In the South, Jefferson Davis began his political career as a member
+of the Mississippi Convention, as did Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, who was
+then elected to Congress. The pending negotiations with Great Britain
+concerning the possession of Oregon were made more momentous by the exodus
+of some thousand American emigrants from Missouri, on an overland journey
+to distant Oregon. The first session of the Thirty-eighth Congress, in
+December, showed a Democratic majority in the House of sixty-nine votes.
+Under the Whig regime, the policy of a great navy had been developed. A
+bill for a large increase in ships was passed. Tyler's last message
+recommended the annexation of Texas, for which a treaty was pending. It was
+voted down in the Senate by a two-thirds vote.
+
+[Sidenote: Central-American upheavals]
+
+Under the shadow of impending war with the United States, a new
+Constitution was proclaimed in Mexico. Santa Anna prepared for the conflict
+by assuming the practical powers of a dictator. In Ecuador, too, a new
+Constitution was adopted. General Flores had himself made President for a
+third time. When the opposition to him became too formidable, he consented
+to yield and quit the country after accepting a bonus of $20,000 and the
+title of generalissimo. Another revolution in Hayti resulted in the
+expulsion of President Boyer.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolution in Spain]
+
+[Sidenote: Isabella proclaimed queen]
+
+[Sidenote: Spanish marriage projects]
+
+In Spain a revolutionary junta in June once more assumed power at
+Barcelona. Other parts of the country declared for the ex-Queen Regent
+Christina. On July 15, General Narvaez compelled the surrender of Madrid to
+Christina. General Espartero laid siege to Seville. On November 8, the
+Spanish Cortes proclaimed as queen, Princess Isabella, then in her
+thirteenth year. With the crown of Spain on the head of a young girl, and
+no immediate successor in sight but her sister, the King of France and his
+Prime Minister, Guizot, deemed the time ripe for action. It was proposed to
+marry both Spanish princesses to the sons of Louis Philippe, so as to
+secure the throne of Spain to the House of Orleans, as it had once been
+secured to that of Bourbon. For the French people the interest in Spain was
+revived by Gautier's new book, "Tras los Montes." During the negotiations
+over the new extradition treaty with England, the project was
+confidentially broached to Lord Aberdeen. He gave his consent to the
+proposed marriage of the Duke of Montpensier to the Infanta Fernanda, on
+the express understanding that it should not be celebrated until Queen
+Isabella had been married herself, and had children. For some time still
+the plan hung fire.
+
+In the meanwhile, Hungary was once more in uproar. Kossuth, after his
+release from prison in 1840, had become the spokesman of the new generation
+of Magyars. The other wings of the Hungarian party were led by Scechenyi
+and Deak.
+
+  [Illustration: THE EMPEROR OF CHINA RECEIVING THE DIPLOMATIC CORPS]
+
+[Sidenote: Hungarian reform movement]
+
+[Sidenote: Clash at Agram]
+
+[Sidenote: Kossuth's oratory]
+
+By the time the Hungarian Diet of 1843 was convoked, all parties united in
+demanding the most important reforms, _i.e._ of a new electoral system, a
+new criminal code, trial by jury, and official recognition of the Magyar
+language. One of the first resolutions of the Lower Chamber was that no
+language but Magyar should be permitted in debate, and that all persons
+incapable of speaking Magyar should gradually be excluded from all public
+employment. Against the prohibition of Latin in the Diet, the Croatians
+appealed to the government. The Emperor promptly vetoed the resolution.
+Upon the publication of the imperial rescript a popular storm broke forth
+in Hungary. At Agram, the capital of Croatia, the two factions fought on
+the streets. The Austrian Cabinet receded from its position. A compromise
+was accepted whereby Latin was to be permitted in the Hungarian Diet for
+the next six years. Of all the important schemes for reform brought before
+the Hungarian Diet of this year, only the language compromise became law.
+This was due to the fact that the members of the Lower House were bound to
+vote as directed by the Provincial Assemblies, which vetoed everything
+affecting their local interests. To do away with this anomaly Kossuth and
+his followers now set themselves to bring their appeal before the country
+at large. Kossuth dropped the pen and became an orator.
+
+[Sidenote: Algerian campaign]
+
+[Sidenote: "Foreign Legion" formed]
+
+In other parts of the world the spread of Western civilization was carried
+on with accustomed vigor. A French squadron seized Tahiti in the Society
+Islands. In Algiers the war against Abd-el-Kader was kept alive by
+occasional raids and by buying over the less faithful of his followers. The
+natives were enrolled in the French army in regiments of Turcos, Zouaves
+and Spahis. The barbaric glamour of their oriental garb, as well as the
+reputation of their dashing leader, Colonel Lamorciere, attracted many
+Frenchmen and foreign adventurers to this service. Soon there were enough
+men to form the famous "Foreign Legion."
+
+[Sidenote: Chinese treaty ports opened]
+
+[Sidenote: British seize Sindia]
+
+In China, after the ratification of the Nanking treaty, the five treaty
+ports were opened to all foreigners on the same footing as to Englishmen.
+Long before this, the Russians had already established themselves in
+certain parts of China. The smouldering resentment against the white men
+found vent in the truculent doings of the anti-foreign society of the
+"Green Water Lily" in Hoonan. Now trouble broke out in the Punjab. Jankoji
+Bao Sindia had died in February, and his widow, a girl of twelve, now ruled
+over the Sikhs. She outwitted her native Minister, who was supported by the
+British. Lord Ellenborough hastened to interfere. He ordered the British
+army to advance to Gwalior, under Sir Hugh Gough, in December. All Sindia
+made common cause against the foreigner. The Sikh warriors tried to oppose
+the British advance in two simultaneous battles at Maharajpore and Punniar,
+fought on the twenty-ninth day of December. Both engagements resulted in
+their defeat. The Queen and her Ministers submitted to England's terms.
+They were deposed. The Sikh army was reduced to 6,000 men.
+
+
+
+
+1844
+
+
+[Sidenote: Texas]
+
+[Sidenote: Calhoun becomes Secretary of State]
+
+[Sidenote: Texan annexation rejected]
+
+Tyler's scheme for the annexation of Texas to the North American Union was
+uppermost in American affairs from the outset of this year. After the
+retirement of Daniel Webster from the State Department, active efforts
+toward that end were begun. The Mexican Government, learning of this
+movement, notified the United States that annexation would be regarded as a
+cause for war. Texas first asked for American interference, and, failing in
+this, came to an agreement with Great Britain. In return for England's
+action in securing the recognition of independence by Mexico, Texas pledged
+itself not to be annexed to any other country. This agreement was approved
+in Mexico. The Texan debt was largely owed in England, and it was the
+policy of Lord Aberdeen, accordingly, to encourage her independence. In
+February, a note by Lord Aberdeen was transmitted to the American
+Government, stating that Great Britain desired to see slavery abolished in
+Texas, as elsewhere, but disclaimed any intention unduly to force that
+point. This statement in itself whetted the desire of the Southern States
+of the Union to incorporate Texas among the slave-holding States. Calhoun,
+who as early as 1836 had demanded the annexation of Texas on behalf of the
+interests of Southern slavery, was invited to join Tyler's Cabinet as
+Secretary of State. The office had been rendered vacant by the calamitous
+explosion of a new monster gun on the U.S.S. "Princeton," killing Secretary
+of State Upshar and Secretary Gilmer of the Navy in the immediate vicinity
+of President Tyler. Calhoun entered office on March 6, and on April 12 the
+Texan treaty of annexation was signed. On April 18, Calhoun answered Lord
+Aberdeen's note, declaring that "the British avowal made it the imperious
+duty of the Federal Government to conclude in self-defence a treaty of
+annexation with Texas." As to this transaction, Von Holst, Calhoun's
+biographer, has said: "It may not be correct to apply, without
+modification, the code of private ethics to politics; but, however flexible
+political morality may be, a lie is a lie, and Calhoun knew there was not a
+particle of truth in these assertions." The annexation treaty was held back
+in the American Senate until the Democratic Convention of 1844 had declared
+for the reannexation of Texas. In the hope that this would secure
+ratification the treaty was submitted in June, but the Senate once more
+rejected it by 35 to 16 votes. Undismayed by this, President Tyler within
+three days sent another message to the House of Representatives asking for
+reconsideration of the subject, but the matter went over until after the
+Presidential campaign in the autumn. Henry Clay's vacillating stand
+throughout this controversy proved fatal to his Presidential aspirations.
+
+[Sidenote: Anti-Mormon riots]
+
+[Sidenote: Brigham Young]
+
+During this same year, the Indians surrendered the regions adjoining Lake
+Superior, which were promptly settled by white men. Iron was then
+discovered at Marquette and copper at Kewenaw Point. At Nauvoo, Illinois,
+where the Mormons had just erected a temple, their revival of patriarchal
+polygamy excited the wrath of the people. Riots broke out June 27. The
+Mormon leader, Joseph Smith, and his brother, who had been lodged in jail,
+were killed. Brigham Young thenceforth became the leader of the Mormons.
+
+[Sidenote: Morse's telegraph]
+
+[Sidenote: Wells' anaesthetic discovery]
+
+By means of a Congressional grant of $30,000, Samuel B.F. Morse constructed
+his first telegraph line over the forty miles between Baltimore and
+Washington. The first message, "What hath God wrought?" is still preserved
+by the Connecticut Historical Society. Before this Alfred Vail had
+perfected his telegraph code of alphabetical signs, with his dry point
+reading register and relay key. Now Ezra Cornell contributed his invention
+of an inverted cup of glass for insulating live wires. Dr. Horace Wells, a
+dentist of Hartford, Connecticut, first employed nitrous oxide gas,
+popularly known as laughing gas, in extracting one of his own teeth.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of John Dalton]
+
+In England, Faraday published his first "Experimental Researches in
+Electricity." The anonymous publication of "Vestiges of the Natural History
+of Creation," containing the first enunciation of Darwin's doctrine of the
+origin of species by evolution, was followed by a storm of controversy.
+Another subject for controversy was furnished by the invention of the new
+tonic system in music (Do re mi fa). Kingsley brought out his "Village
+Sermons," while Max Mueller came into prominence by his new edition and
+translation of "Hitopadesa," a collection of old Hindu fables. The
+necrology of the year in England includes John Dalton, the physicist, and
+Sir Francis Burdett, the parliamentarian and popular leader, who did so
+much for liberty of speech and of the press. John Dalton, a strangely
+original genius, and perhaps the greatest theoretical chemist of his
+generation, first came into prominence by showing that water existed in air
+as an independent gas. The wonderful theory of atoms, on which the whole
+gigantic structure of modern chemistry rests, was the logical outgrowth of
+the original conception of this country-bred, self-taught Quaker.
+
+[Sidenote: O'Connell's trial]
+
+[Sidenote: Government monopoly of English railways]
+
+[Sidenote: Y.M.C.A. founded]
+
+A feature of the year was the sensational trial of Daniel O'Connell and his
+associates on charges of sedition in Ireland. On May 30, O'Connell was
+sentenced to imprisonment for one year and fined L2,000. After Lord
+Heytesbury's advent as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland the judgment of the Irish
+Court of Queen's Bench against O'Connell was reversed and O'Connell and his
+associates were liberated. Baring's bill for a renewal of the Bank of
+England's charter was passed with a handsome government majority. The new
+Royal Exchange was opened by the Queen in October. Another measure which
+was speedily passed through Parliament, owing to the slight importance
+attached to it, was Gladstone's bill requiring the railroads of England to
+provide proper accommodations and to run cheap trains daily. The government
+was authorized, with the approval of Parliament, to undertake the gradual
+purchase of all existing railways before the year 1866. At this same time
+there were but fourteen miles of railroad in all British America. Minor
+events of importance to Englishmen were the foundation of the Young Men's
+Christian Association by certain drygoods clerks of London, and the
+demolition of the notorious Fleet Prison, made immortal by the novels of
+Dickens.
+
+[Sidenote: Secession of Santo Domingo]
+
+The discovery of gold in South Australia drew hordes of immigrants to that
+colony. Others were attracted to America by the discovery of diamonds in
+Brazil. In the West Indies, the successful rising against President Boyer
+of Hayti resulted in the foundation of the Black Republic of Santo Domingo.
+President Riviere, at the head of 20,000 negroes from Hayti, was defeated
+and had to abandon his attempt to subdue the Dominicans. Guerrier
+superseded him as President of Hayti. The warlike spirit of these negroes
+spread to the neighboring island of Cuba. Various armed risings of the
+blacks in the province of Santiago and elsewhere were sternly put down by
+the Spaniards and their white descendants in Cuba.
+
+[Sidenote: Otto's reign in Greece]
+
+A bloodless revolution in Greece resulted in the dismissal of King Otto's
+Bavarian Ministry and the King's acceptance of a Constitution, which left
+the King almost as absolute as before. Yet his government was weak and
+slipshod. The wretched fiscal system and heavy taxation of the old Turkish
+regime were retained, while ill-managed innovations from Bavaria, such as
+military conscription, drove large numbers to brigandage. As an American
+traveller remarked at the time: "The whole Greek Government is one enormous
+job."
+
+[Sidenote: Revolt of Calabria]
+
+The long-smouldering discontent of the common people in Italy and Sicily,
+fomented by the secret agitation of such men as Mazzini and Garibaldi,
+found premature vent in a popular insurrection in Calabria. The revolt was
+ruthlessly put down. The patriotic leaders, Attilio and Emilio Bandiero,
+with eighteen others, were shot for their part in the affair.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Bernadotte]
+
+On March 8, Bernadotte, latterly known as King Charles XIV. of Sweden, died
+in his eighty-first year. During the last years of his reign he received
+many signs of love and appreciation from his adopted people, notably on the
+occasion of the twenty-fifth anniversary of his coronation. Shortly before
+his death this self-made king asserted with good reason: "No one living has
+made a career like mine."
+
+[Sidenote: Progress in Sweden]
+
+[Sidenote: Geijer]
+
+[Sidenote: Tegner's "Frithiof's Saga"]
+
+The reign of Bernadotte produced a new line of eminent scientists and was
+the golden age of Swedish literature. Berzelius remolded the science of
+chemistry and founded theoretical chemistry. Elias Fries devised a new
+system of botany. Sven Nilsson, a distinguished zoologist, also became the
+founder of a new science, comparative archeology. Schlyter brought out a
+complete collection of the old Scandinavian laws, a work of equal
+importance to philology and jurisprudence. Ling invented the Swedish system
+of gymnastics and founded the Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm, where
+his Swedish massage or movement cure was further developed. Geijer, as a
+philosopher, was a follower of Hoeijer, while as a historian he attained
+foremost rank in Sweden. As a poet and composer, Geijer also attained
+noteworthy success. Professor of History at Upsala, he was accused of
+atheism, but acquitted. His political career was equally remarkable. Geijer
+was a firm supporter of the government until fifty-seven years of age, when
+he joined the opposition. Swedish writers were divided in factions as
+opposed to each other as political parties. The old Gustavian school, of
+which Leopold remained the last representative, was attacked by the "New
+School," which was inspired by German Romanticism. Of this so-called
+"phosphoristic" school Atterbom was the leader. Stagnelius, the young poet,
+who died early, belonged to the same group. The New School was in turn
+opposed by the Gothic Society or Scandinavian School, among whom were Ling
+and Geijer. Franzen and Wallin devoted themselves to religious poetry. The
+most famous of all modern Swedish poets was Esaias Tegner, whose
+"Frithiof's Saga" achieved an international reputation. Politically, he was
+conspicuous for his inveterate hostility to the "Holy Alliance" and its
+reactionary spirit in state, church and literature.
+
+[Sidenote: Oscar I. of Sweden]
+
+Bernadotte's son, Oscar I., was forty-five years old when he ascended the
+throne. Like his father, he was a patron of the fine arts. Upon his
+accession several important reforms were at once enacted by the new
+Riksdag. It was decided that this assembly should meet every third instead
+of every fifth year; the liberty of the press was extended, and equal
+rights were accorded to women in certain matters of inheritance and of
+marriage. This last reform aroused so much criticism that a powerful
+opposition was organized in the Riksdag, under the leadership of
+Hartmansdorff and Bishop Wingan.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Thorvaldsen]
+
+[Sidenote: The great sculptor's career]
+
+Albert Bertal Thorvaldsen, the great Danish sculptor, died suddenly on
+March 25, at Copenhagen. Thorvaldsen was the son of an Icelandic sailor,
+who incidentally earned a living by carving wooden figure-heads for ships.
+The boy was born at sea, in 1770, while his mother was making a voyage to
+Copenhagen. At the age of twenty-four, young Thorvaldsen, who had attended
+the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Copenhagen, won the grand prize, which
+enabled him to pursue his studies at Rome. His first work was the model of
+a colossal statue of Jason, a marble execution of which was ordered by
+Thomas Hope, the English banker. For this work Thorvaldsen asked six
+hundred sequins. Hope offered him eight hundred. Yet Thorvaldsen did not
+fulfil his contract with Hope until fourteen years had passed. At the house
+of Baron Wilhelm von Humboldt, in Rome, Thorvaldsen met Count von Moltke,
+who commissioned him to execute two statues of Bacchus and Ariadne. About
+the same time he made his famous "Cupid and Psyche" for the Countess von
+Ronzov. The fame of these statues and others was such that the Academy of
+Copenhagen bestowed upon the young sculptor another prize of four hundred
+crowns.
+
+[Sidenote: Famous works]
+
+[Sidenote: A Napoleonic order]
+
+[Sidenote: "Morning and Night"]
+
+In the spring of 1805 Thorvaldsen made his first important bass-relief,
+"The Abduction of Briseis," which still remains one of the most celebrated
+of the sculptor's works. Orders now began to come in from all over the
+world. Marquis Torlogna commissioned Thorvaldsen to make companion pieces
+to Canova's famous group "Hercules and Lycas" in the Palazzo Brazzino,
+while a government representative of the United States offered to pay five
+thousand crowns apiece for colossal statues of a Liberty and a Victory to
+be erected in the city of Washington. These and other works Thorvaldsen was
+prevented from executing by his unfortunate entanglement with Signora
+d'Uhden, whose fits of jealousy imbittered his life. About this time the
+sculptor formed life-long friendships with his German fellow-sculptor,
+Rauch, and with Prince Louis of Bavaria, who commissioned him to execute an
+Adonis for the Munich Museum, and to restore the AEgean marbles lately
+acquired by that prince. Napoleon's visit to Rome in 1811 resulted in a
+characteristic order. The Emperor left to Thorvaldsen the choice of the
+subject, but gave him only three months' time wherein to finish his models.
+The sculptor accordingly executed his colossal frieze presenting the "Entry
+of Alexander the Great into Babylon." It remains one of the largest and
+most ambitious of Thorvaldsen's works. It was intended for the Temple of
+Glory, now the Church of the Madeleine in Paris, and the price stipulated
+by Napoleon was 320,000 francs. Before Thorvaldsen could execute the frieze
+in marble, Napoleon suffered his reverses and was exiled to Elba. The
+Bourbon Government in France refused to take the monument. A replica in
+marble now adorns the Palace of Christianborg in Denmark. No less abortive
+was Thorvaldsen's undertaking of a great monument intended to commemorate
+the re-establishment of Poland. The monument was ordered in 1812, after
+Napoleon's entry into Warsaw. By the time the work was finished Poland was
+no more. To the year 1815 belong Thorvaldsen's famous bass-reliefs "The
+Workshop of Vulcan," "Achilles and Priam," and the two well-known
+medallions, "Morning" and "Night," which were reproduced a thousand-fold
+throughout Europe. They were conceived, it is said, during a sleepless
+night, and were modelled in one day.
+
+Despite the urgent requests of his countrymen, Thorvaldsen would not be
+weaned from Rome. About this time Thorvaldsen produced his famous "Dancing
+Girl," "Love Victorious," "Ganymede and the Eagle," and "A Young Shepherd
+with his Dog." It was then, too, that he modelled the portrait of Lord
+Byron which served for the monument subsequently erected to that poet in
+the library of Trinity College, Cambridge.
+
+[Sidenote: "The Lion of Luzerne"]
+
+[Sidenote: Thorvaldsen in Copenhagen]
+
+At last, after thirty-three years of absence from home, Thorvaldsen
+resolved to return to Denmark. On the way he stopped at Luzerne in
+Switzerland, and there executed the famous Lion of Luzerne, carved into the
+solid rock of the Alps. When he modelled this monument, Thorvaldsen had
+never seen a live lion. From Luzerne, Thorvaldsen proceeded straight to
+Copenhagen. He was received like a royal sovereign. At Copenhagen the
+artist began his great series of sculptural embellishments for the
+Cathedral. As completed, they comprised almost all his works on religious
+subjects, among them the colossal "Christ and the Twelve Apostles," the
+grand frieze of "Christ on the Road to Calvary," "The Baptism of Christ,"
+"The Preachings of St. John the Baptist," "Christ's Entry into Jerusalem,"
+and "The Lord's Supper." From Copenhagen Thorvaldsen went to Warsaw, where
+he executed a bust of Emperor Alexander, and an equestrian statue of Prince
+Poniatovski. This monument did not reach Warsaw until 1829. It was never
+put up. What became of it is still a matter of conjecture.
+
+[Sidenote: Roman honors]
+
+[Sidenote: Thorvaldsen's friends]
+
+[Sidenote: Sculptures for Germany]
+
+[Sidenote: The Thorvaldsen Museum]
+
+The accidental collapse of Thorvaldsen's studio at Rome, and the damage
+done to several of his sculptures there, hastened his return to that city.
+On the death of Pope Pius VII., shortly afterward, Thorvaldsen was
+commissioned by Cardinal Consalvi to execute a monument to his memory. The
+death of Canova having left the Academy of St. Luke without a president,
+Pope Leo XII. himself nominated Thorvaldsen as Canova's successor. When
+objections were raised that he was a heretic, the Holy Father asked: "Is
+there any doubt that Thorvaldsen is the greatest sculptor in Rome?" "The
+fact is incontestable," answered the prelates. "Then Thorvaldsen shall be
+made president," said Leo XII. The office was held by the Danish sculptor
+for the full term of three years, when he was glad to resign it. Just
+before the outbreak of the Paris Revolution of 1830, Thorvaldsen was
+commissioned to execute a colossal bust of Napoleon I. He entered upon this
+task with enthusiasm. During the trying times of the revolution at Rome,
+Thorvaldsen formed a close friendship with Horace Vernet, the French
+artist, and Felix Mendelssohn, the German composer. Mendelssohn would play
+on the piano in Thorvaldsen's studio at Rome, while the sculptor worked on
+his models. About this time, too, occurred the famous interview between
+Thorvaldsen and Walter Scott. Neither understood the other's language, yet
+they took a warm liking to each other. Later, Thorvaldsen modelled a bust
+of Sir Walter Scott. Shortly after the Revolution of 1830, the new French
+Government of Louis Philippe appointed Thorvaldsen an officer of the Legion
+of Honor. At the invitation of King Louis of Bavaria, Thorvaldsen went to
+Munich. There he finished his monument to Prince Eugene, the equestrian
+statue of Elector Maximilian, and another model of his famous "Adonis,"
+ordered by that art-loving King. For the city of Mainz he finished his
+model of Gutenberg, for which he refused to receive any pay, while for the
+city of Stuttgart he made a monument of Schiller. On Thorvaldsen's return
+to Rome, his stay there was brought to an end by an epidemic of cholera.
+The government of Denmark sent a royal frigate to Leghorn to bring
+Thorvaldsen and all his sculptures back to his native land. Arriving in
+Copenhagen, the old artist was received with even greater honor than
+before. The Castle of Nysoe was put at his disposal, and there he executed
+his last works, among them a statue of himself. In his seventy-second year
+he died very suddenly, while attending a performance at the Royal Theatre
+at Copenhagen. His obsequies were marked by all the pomp and ceremony due
+to a sovereign of Denmark. Four years later, after the completion of the
+Thorvaldsen Museum, his remains were laid in the vault that had been
+prepared for him there, amid the rich collection of his masterpieces.
+
+[Sidenote: The master's pupils]
+
+As a sculptor, Thorvaldsen's name will always be linked with that of his
+great rival and contemporary, Canova. Both sculptors are equally remarkable
+for the way they returned to the classic traditions of Hellenic sculpture.
+It can be said of them that they bridged the chasm of nearly two thousand
+years that had elapsed between antiquity and modern times. It was reserved
+to their successors to introduce a modern note in sculpture. Like Canova,
+Thorvaldsen exerted great influence on almost all the sculptors who came to
+Rome in his day. Thus Rauch declared himself indebted to him for the purity
+of his style. From his school in turn issued Riechel of Dresden, Drake,
+Wolff and Blauser of Cologne. Among the friends of Thorvaldsen, who
+profited by his councils, were Dannecker, Schadow and Schwanthaler. At
+Rome, Tenerini, Louis Bienaime, Pierre Galli and Emile Wolff proved
+themselves apt pupils of the Danish master, while, at Copenhagen,
+Thorvaldsen's influence was kept alive by Bisson.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Saint Hilaire]
+
+[Sidenote: Comte]
+
+[Sidenote: Lacordaire]
+
+[Sidenote: "Count of Monte Cristo"]
+
+In France two other great personages of Napoleonic days passed away with
+Joseph Bonaparte, the great Napoleon's brother and quondam king of Naples
+and Spain, and Jacques Lafitte, Napoleon's banker, to whose honor were
+intrusted the millions left behind by Napoleon, when he fled from Paris.
+More lamented than their death, perhaps, was that of Etienne Geoffroy
+Saint-Hilaire, the great French naturalist. Born in 1772, he first came
+into prominence as the curator of the wild animals in the Jardin des
+Plantes. Here he formed his life-long friendship with Cuvier. General
+Bonaparte took him along on the expedition to Egypt, where Saint-Hilaire
+helped found the Institute of Cairo. In 1807 he was admitted into the
+French Institute, and two years later was appointed Professor of Zoology
+and Comparative Physiology in the Faculty of Sciences. This chair he
+retained until his death. Starting as a pure zoologist, Saint-Hilaire
+became the founder of the science of philosophical anatomy. This new
+doctrine was fully expounded in his "Philosophie Anatomique" (1818-1822).
+Other important works of Saint-Hilaire were "Histoire Naturelle des
+Mammiferes," collaborated with Cuvier (1819-1837); "Principes de la
+Philosophie Zoologique" (1830), and "Etudes Progressives d'un Naturaliste."
+During this same year Comte published his "Discours sur l'Esprit Positive."
+Pere Lacordaire brought out his "Funeral Orations," while Charles
+Lenormais, with others, published the great French work on "Ceramographic
+Monuments." Practical effect to the teachings of Saint-Simon, Fourier and
+Louis Blanc was given by the establishment of the so-called Creches, or
+infant asylums for the temporary care of children of working mothers. The
+greatest literary success of the year was that of Alexandre Dumas's serial
+novel, "The Count of Monte Cristo."
+
+[Sidenote: French war with Morocco]
+
+[Sidenote: Hawaiian independence guaranteed]
+
+The foreign affairs of France throughout this year were conducted by
+Guizot. As a result of the military occupation of Algiers, war with Morocco
+broke out in May. The Prince de Joinville bombarded and captured the
+fortified town of Mogador. Marshal Buguead won a signal victory over the
+Moors on the banks of Isly. After the defeat of the rebellious subjects of
+the Sultan of Morocco, this potentate, Abder Rahman, made common cause with
+the French against Abd-el-Kader. A French treaty with China was negotiated
+by Guizot in October. In regard to the vexed problem of Tahiti and the
+Hawaiian Islands an understanding was reached with the other Powers. Amends
+were made to England for the French indignities to the British Consul at
+Tahiti, while the independence of Hawaii was guaranteed by a joint
+declaration of France, Great Britain and the United States. Toward the
+close of the year the uncertainties of government in Spain were once more
+made manifest by a military insurrection, headed by General Zurbano.
+
+
+
+
+1845
+
+
+[Sidenote: Poe's "Raven"]
+
+At the beginning of the year, in America, came a literary sensation of
+unwonted brilliancy. In the New York "Evening Mirror," January 29, Edgar
+Allan Poe's famous poem "The Raven" was reprinted from the advance sheets
+of "The American Whig Review," in which the name of the author was masked
+under the pseudonym of "Quarles." The poem was copied all over America and
+soon reached England. Baudelaire translated it into French. As Poe's
+biographer, Woodberry, has said: "No great poem ever established itself so
+immediately, so widely and so imperishably in men's minds." A literary
+tradition has it that Poe only received ten dollars for this masterpiece,
+and had to wait a year and more for his money.
+
+[Sidenote: Texas annexed to the United States]
+
+[Sidenote: Florida admitted to Union]
+
+[Sidenote: James K. Polk, President]
+
+[Sidenote: Oregon dispute settled.]
+
+War between the United States of North America and Mexico was now seen to
+be inevitable. On January 25, a joint resolution for the annexation of
+Texas passed through the American House of Representatives by a vote of 120
+to 98, and through the Senate by 27 over 25 votes. On March 1, President
+Tyler signed the bill. The tactics by which Texas was annexed were similar
+to those by which the Missouri Compromise had been forced through Congress
+in 1820, and the nullification compromise in 1833. It meant a distinct
+gain for the pro-slavery party in the United States, and was denounced as
+such by the abolitionists of the North. Both in Mexico and in the United
+States active preparations were now made for war. American ships were still
+welcomed in the ports of Mexico, the more so since many of them brought
+needed munitions of war. In the United States strenuous efforts were made
+to settle all pending differences with other countries. In February, Great
+Britain had already accepted the forty-ninth parallel as a boundary line
+agreeable to the governments of both countries, and soon the Oregon
+boundary dispute was likewise settled by treaty. Caleb Cushing's treaty
+with China was ratified by the Senate. Florida was admitted into the Union
+on March 3, the day before Tyler ceased to be President. James K. Polk
+succeeded him as the eleventh President. He had represented Tennessee in
+the House for fourteen years, serving twice as Speaker. Having declined the
+re-election to Congress, he was chosen Governor of his State. His
+nomination to the Presidency had been brought about by accident.
+Immediately after his inauguration, Polk appointed James Buchanan as his
+Secretary of State. Polk in his inaugural address suggested a settlement of
+the Oregon boundary dispute with England on the line of 54 deg. 40'. The
+Democratic platform of 1844 had declared: "Fifty-four-forty, or fight." In
+other words, both Great Britain and the United States claimed the country
+on the Columbia River. When Calhoun proposed a line of boundary along the
+forty-ninth degree of latitude, the British Ministry made a counter
+proposition, accepting the line to the summit and thence along the Columbia
+River to the Pacific. Despite much talk of war, Calhoun's successor in the
+end accepted the British proposition of a boundary along the line of forty
+degrees, continuing to the ocean.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Andrew Jackson]
+
+By the aid of the Whig Senators a treaty on this basis was approved by the
+Senate. With this question out of the way, the brunt of preparing for war
+now fell upon the new administration. Troops were massed within striking
+distance, and General Taylor was put in command of the American army. He
+proceeded to St. Joseph's Island, and from there crossed over to Corpus
+Christi on the mainland, near the mouth of the Neuces. At this point more
+troops were concentrated to remain in winter quarters until the opening of
+hostilities. On June 8, Andrew Jackson died at "The Hermitage" in
+Tennessee. He had lived there quietly ever since his retirement from the
+Presidency. One of his last acts was to write a public letter to President
+Polk, wherein he urged him to prompt action in the Oregon boundary matter
+so as to be ready for decisive measures in Texas.
+
+[Sidenote: Slave trade under ban]
+
+[Sidenote: General Zurbano shot]
+
+The frustration of the British attempt to keep slavery out of Texas was
+offset in other directions. A convention was concluded between Ecuador and
+Great Britain to suppress slave trading in that region. In Cuba, likewise,
+General Concha took measures for the total suppression of the slave trade.
+A law was passed making the trade a criminal offence in the Spanish West
+Indies. The government of Spain after much reluctance recognized the
+independence of Venezuela. Affairs in Spain had taken a new turn. On
+January 21, General Zurbano was betrayed into the hands of his enemies and
+was shot. The Cortes adopted a reactionary constitution.
+
+[Sidenote: Atrocities in Algiers]
+
+In France, a Liberal majority in the Chambers, after a prolonged struggle,
+brought about the expulsion of the Jesuits. In the midst of this movement,
+Cavaignac, the great opposition journalist, expired. The French war in
+Algeria by this time had degenerated into mere guerilla fighting. The chief
+event of the year brought execration upon the arms of France. A tribe of
+Kabyles had taken refuge in the caves of Dahra. Unable to dislodge them
+from there, General Pelissier gave orders to smoke them out. Some five
+hundred of the tribesmen, among them women, children and aged people, were
+suffocated.
+
+[Sidenote: Colonial expansion]
+
+[Sidenote: Sikhs belligerent]
+
+Colonial extension in other parts of the world was carried on in like
+aggressive manner. Thus a joint expedition of France and Great Britain made
+an attack on Tamatave in Madagascar, but failed of success. Another joint
+expedition of the two powers forced the Republic of Argentine to concede
+free navigation of the La Plata River. From China concessions were wrested
+by which Christian missionaries were to be admitted to all of the five
+treaty ports. As a consequence of these concessions a virulent hatred of
+the foreigners sprang up among the common people of China. In South
+Africa, Governor-General Maitland of Cape Colony earned the everlasting
+hatred of the Boers by sending out an armed expedition to assist the black
+warriors of Griqualand against the Boers. In India, affairs at Lahore had
+reached a crisis. There the boy Maharajah, with his regent mother and her
+favorite sirdar, Lal Singh, were at the mercy of their Sikh soldiery. To
+save themselves they determined to launch their army upon the British.
+
+[Sidenote: John Franklin's Arctic quest]
+
+[Sidenote: Conflagration of Quebec]
+
+[Sidenote: Irish famine]
+
+[Sidenote: Peel's Cabinet resigns]
+
+British enterprise found a vent in other ways beyond colonial conquests. In
+the spring of this year Sir John Franklin sailed out once more with the
+"Erebus" and "Terror," in quest of the Northwest Passage. The last message
+from him was received in July. News also reached England that he had
+entered Lancaster Sound, but it was long after that before anything was
+heard concerning him. Since then more than thirty Arctic expeditions have
+searched in vain for the body of Franklin. About the same time that
+Franklin sailed on this expedition, a great fire in Quebec destroyed 1,650
+houses, rendering 12,000 people homeless. Just one month later, on June 29,
+a second fire destroyed 1,365 houses. Two-thirds of the city was laid in
+ashes. Another serious calamity was the Irish famine of this year, caused
+by the failure of the potato crop. The distress thus occasioned increased
+the agitation against the corn laws. As during the preceding year, great
+mass meetings were held in Birmingham and Manchester. Sir Robert Peel,
+early in the year, had showed his new leanings toward free trade, by the
+introduction of a bill for the abolition of import duties on no less than
+four hundred and thirty articles. The government's discrimination in favor
+of the duties on sugar provoked a long debate in Parliament. Gladstone
+continued to support his old colleagues in the government, while Cobden and
+Bright led the opposition on the floor of the House. By the time Parliament
+was prorogued in August, the Ministry had won a complete victory. The
+spread of the famine during the summer, when almost all harvests failed,
+reacted powerfully upon the government. A strong public letter from the pen
+of Lord Russell brought the precarious position of the government home to
+the Cabinet. Sir Robert Peel admitted the necessity of an absolute repeal
+of the corn laws. Rather than confess such a complete change of position,
+Peel's Cabinet resigned. Lord Russell was summoned to form a new Cabinet.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Hood]
+
+[Sidenote: Thomas Hood's Works]
+
+During this interim the practice of duelling in England, but recently
+countenanced in the army by the Duke of Wellington, fell under lasting
+disfavor by the fatal outcome of an army duel, in which Lieutenant Hawkes
+killed Lieutenant Seaton. About the same time occurred the death of Thomas
+Hood, the poet and humorist. Born in 1798, as a son of a bookseller, he
+soon became a writer. As one of the editors of the "London Magazine," he
+moved among all the principal wits of the day. His first book, "Odes and
+Addresses to Great People," was written in conjunction with J.H. Reynolds,
+his brother-in-law. This was followed by "Whims and Oddities," in prose
+and verse; "National Tales," and "The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies," a
+book full of imaginative verse. Hood's rich sense of humor found scope in
+his "Comic Annual," appearing through ten successive years, and his
+collection of "Whimsicalities." Among his minor poems, "The Bridge of
+Sighs" and "The Song of the Shirt" deserve special mention.
+
+  [Illustration: LORD TENNYSON
+    Painted by Frederic Sandys]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Sydney Smith]
+
+[Sidenote: Pungent satire]
+
+Sir Sydney Smith, the essayist, died shortly before this. Born in 1771, he
+studied for orders and became a clergyman. At the opening of the Nineteenth
+Century he entered the field of authorship with the publication of "Six
+Sermons Preached at Charlotte Chapel." Then came the famous "Letters on the
+Catholics, from Peter Plymley to his Brother Abraham." This book
+established Sydney Smith's reputation as a satirist. For nearly twenty
+years he published no more books, though a constant contributor to the
+"Edinburgh Review." Some idea of Sydney Smith's pungent style may be
+derived from his famous remarks on England's taxation during the wars with
+Napoleon: "The schoolboy," he said, "whips his taxed top; the beardless
+youth manages his taxed horse with a taxed bridle on a taxed road; and the
+dying Englishman, pouring his medicine which has paid seven per cent, into
+a spoon which has paid fifteen per cent, flings himself back upon his
+chintz bed which has paid twenty-two per cent, and expires in the arms of
+an apothecary, who has paid a license of one hundred pounds for the
+privilege of putting him to death. His whole property is then immediately
+taxed from two to ten per cent. Large fees are demanded for burying him
+in the chancel; his virtues are handed down to posterity on taxed marble,
+and then he is gathered to his forefathers to be taxed no more."
+
+[Sidenote: Meagre literary remains]
+
+It was Sydney Smith, too, who asked the famous question: "Who ever reads an
+American book?" In 1824 Sydney Smith broke his long silence as an author,
+with the fervent pamphlet "The Judge that Smites Contrary to the Law." This
+was followed by a long series of open letters on clerical and political
+questions of the day. Shortly before his death he brought out a collection
+of sermons. A posthumous work was his collection, "Elementary Sketches of
+Moral Philosophy." Sydney Smith's case has been held up, together with that
+of Swift, as an example of political ingratitude. Despite all his labors
+for the Whig cause, but slender recognition was given to him by his
+political friends in office. The excuse for not making him a bishop was
+that his writings were generally regarded as inconsistent with clerical
+decorum. Like Jeffrey, Wilson and other distinguished contributors to
+English periodical literature at this time, he left no truly great work to
+posterity.
+
+[Sidenote: Elizabeth Fry's work]
+
+Elizabeth Fry, the great English prison reformer, died on October 15. She
+it was that improved the condition of women prisoners at Newgate. Later her
+influence was apparent in most of the reforms introduced into the jails,
+houses of correction, lunatic asylums and infirmaries of England, the
+abuses of which were so eloquently voiced by Dickens.
+
+[Sidenote: Peel recalled]
+
+[Sidenote: A premature announcement]
+
+Lord John Russell's attempts to form a new Ministry proved unsuccessful,
+largely because Lord Howick--who by the death of his father had become Earl
+Grey--refused to join the new Ministry on account of his objections to the
+foreign policy of Lord Palmerston. Sir Robert Peel was presently recalled.
+All of his colleagues retained their posts, except Lord Stanley, superseded
+by Gladstone. Soon after Peel's re-entry into office, the London "Times"
+announced that the Cabinet had decided on proposing a measure for the
+repeal of the corn laws. This premature announcement was one of the most
+startling journalistic achievements of the time. Notwithstanding all the
+published denials it was generally believed, and was followed by a great
+fall in the price of corn.
+
+[Sidenote: War with Sikhs]
+
+[Sidenote: Moodkee]
+
+[Sidenote: Ferozeshahar]
+
+In the mind of the Ministry, as well as of the country at large, the
+threatening state of foreign affairs claimed precedence. In Autumn the Sikh
+army of the Khalsa had crossed the Sutlej, to the number of 60,000
+warriors, 40,000 armed followers and 150 guns. Sir John Little marched out
+of Ferozepore with 10,000 troops and 31 guns to offer battle, but the Sikhs
+preferred to surround them. Meanwhile, Sir Hugh Gough and Sir Henry
+Hardinge, the new Governor-General, hurried toward the frontier with a
+large relieving force. On September 18, they met the army of Lal Singh at
+Moodkee and won a slender success. But for the flight of Lal Singh, the
+Sikhs might have claimed the victory. The British troops now advanced on
+the Sikh intrenchments, Ferozeshahar, where they effected a junction with
+Little. On December 21, the British advanced in force, but encountered such
+stubborn resistance that the day ended in a drawn battle. Not until after
+sunset did Gough's battalions succeed in storming the most formidable of
+the Sikh batteries. After a night of horrors the battle was resumed. The
+Sikh soldiers, who had risen in mutiny against their own leaders, fell back
+and yielded their strong position. The second army of the Sikhs under Tej
+Singh came up too late. After a brief artillery engagement, all the Sikh
+forces fell back across the Sutlej River.
+
+
+
+
+1846
+
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Sobraon]
+
+[Sidenote: End of first Sikh war]
+
+In January, the hostile forces on both sides of the Sutlej River in India
+were reinforced. The Sikhs recrossed the river, entered British territory,
+and hostilities were renewed. On January 27, Sir Harry Smith defeated a
+part of the Sikh forces at Aliwal. The Sikhs threw up intrenchments at
+Sobraon. On February 10, the British army advanced to the attack under
+Gough and Hardinge. The battle proved one of the hardest fought in the
+history of British India. Advancing in line, the British had two battalions
+mowed down by the Khalsa guns. Tej Singh broke down the bridge over the
+river. After fighting all day, the British at last succeeded in driving the
+Sikhs into the Sutlej at the point of the bayonet. The victory was dearly
+won. The British losses were 2,000 men, while the Sikhs were said to have
+lost 8,000. This practically ended the first Sikh war. The British army
+crossed the Sutlej River by means of their pontoons, and, pushing on to
+Lahore, there dictated terms of peace. An indemnity of a million and a half
+pounds was exacted. It was paid by Gholab Singh, the Viceroy of Cashmere
+and Jamu, upon British recognition of his independence of the Sikh
+Government at Lahore. The British frontier was extended from the banks of
+the Sutlej to those of the Ravi.
+
+[Sidenote: English internal affairs]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Clarkson]
+
+[Sidenote: Disraeli]
+
+[Sidenote: Repeal of corn laws]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Peel's Ministry]
+
+[Sidenote: Richard Cobden's reward]
+
+[Sidenote: Modern progress]
+
+[Sidenote: Astronomical discoveries]
+
+[Sidenote: Sue's "Wandering Jew"]
+
+In England, Sir Henry Hardinge's services in the Sikh war were rewarded by
+his elevation to the peerage. The distress of the previous year continued,
+owing partly to a commercial panic brought on by overspeculation in
+railways, and partly to a repeated failure of the crops. To relieve the
+potato famine in Ireland, Parliament voted L10,000,000 for that country. In
+the midst of this general distress the twopenny omnibuses made their first
+appearance in London, and the first issue of the "Daily News" appeared in
+the metropolis. Leigh Hunt brought out his stories from the Italian poets.
+Sir Aubrey De Vere, the Irish poet, died in his thirty-ninth year. A few
+years before his death he had published his "Song of Faith" and other
+poems. A posthumous publication was the poetic drama "Mary Tudor." Thomas
+Clarkson, the great anti-slavery advocate of England, died soon afterward,
+in his eighty-sixth year. Early during the first Parliamentary session Sir
+Robert Peel avowed his complete change of face in regard to the corn laws.
+The rage of the protectionists was voiced by Benjamin Disraeli, then known
+chiefly as a writer of novels remarkable for the wild exuberance of their
+fancy. He denounced Peel as a political trimmer and no more of a statesman
+"than a boy who steals a ride behind a carriage is a great whip." Peel, in
+speaking for the principle of free trade, declared that England had
+received no guarantees from any foreign government that her example would
+be followed. Notwithstanding their hostile tariffs, however, he showed that
+the value of British exports had increased above L10,000,000 since the
+first reductions in the tariffs were made. On June 26, a bill for the total
+repeal of the corn laws was at last accepted. It passed through the Commons
+by a majority of 98 votes, while in the House of Peers, largely through the
+efforts of the Duke of Wellington, a majority of 47 was attained. The wrath
+of the defeated protectionists found vent on the same day when another
+Irish oppression bill was brought before the House. Lord Bentinck, as the
+mouthpiece of the protectionist party, launched forth in vehement invective
+against Sir Robert Peel, "his forty paid janizaries, and the seventy other
+members who, in supporting him, blazoned forth their own shame." In
+conclusion, Lord Bentinck called upon Parliament to "kick the bill and the
+Ministry out together," exclaiming, "It is time that atonement should be
+made to the betrayed honor of Parliament and of England." After this speech
+the Ministry called for a vote of confidence. It was denied by a majority
+of 73 votes against the government. On June 29, Sir Robert Peel announced
+his resignation. In a final speech he gave all credit for the repeal of the
+corn laws to Richard Cobden. A few weeks later a testimonial of L80,000 was
+placed at the disposal of Richard Cobden for his eminent services in
+promoting the repeal of the corn laws. On July 16, Lord Russell succeeded
+Peel as Prime Minister. His Cabinet included the Marquis of Lansdowne,
+Viscount Palmerston, Earl Grey, Earl Granville, Lord Auckland and
+Gladstone. The Duke of Wellington was retained in supreme command of the
+army. Unlike other heroes, he lived to see several monuments raised to his
+fame. Thus the grand Wellington Monument in London, made chiefly from
+captured cannon, was erected at the corner of Hyde Park. Otherwise it was a
+year of bridge building in England. At Newcastle a high level bridge was
+erected, while at Conway and at the Menai Strait work was begun on two of
+the greatest tubular bridges of England. In Germany, Schoenbein invented
+gun-cotton. About the time of the death of Friedrich Bessel, the great
+German astronomer, one of the greatest triumphs of abstract astronomical
+reasoning was achieved. In France, Leverrier had worked out the position of
+the planet Neptune, finally determining it on September 23. He communicated
+this to Johann Galle at Berlin, who discovered the planet on the same
+night. Adams, in England, a few months previous, had made calculations to
+the same effect, and communicated with Challis, but owing to delays Challis
+did not discover the planet until after Galle. The Royal Astronomical
+Society at London awarded its gold medal to each as equally deserving.
+Within a few days after this discovery, on October 10, a satellite of
+Neptune was discovered by Laselle. Eugene Sue, moved by the popular
+agitation against the Jesuits, wrote his novel of the "Wandering Jew,"
+first published in serials.
+
+[Sidenote: Attempts to kill French king]
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham]
+
+Another attempt to kill King Louis Philippe by one Lecompte in April had
+been frustrated by the Guards. On July 29, Joseph Henry risked his life in
+the seventh attempt at the assassination of the King. Louis Bonaparte, the
+quondam king of Holland, who resigned his throne rather than submit to his
+brother Napoleon's demands, died in his sixty-eighth year. His namesake,
+Prince Louis Napoleon, imprisoned in the fortress of Ham, succeeded in
+making a sensational escape disguised in the garb of a stone mason. Once
+more he returned to his exile in England.
+
+[Sidenote: Schleswig-Holstein question]
+
+On July 8, King Christian VIII. of Denmark published an open letter in
+which he reasserted the union of the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein with
+Denmark regardless of the differing systems of succession prevailing in
+these provinces. The question of succession was so intricate that the
+Chancelleries of Europe despaired of satisfactory solution. Inasmuch as
+Schleswig and Holstein had been recognized as German principalities
+entitled to representation in the Germanic Confederation, the German people
+as such objected to their absolute incorporation with Denmark. The storm
+raised over King Christian's letter was such as to forebode no other
+settlement than by arms.
+
+[Sidenote: Gioberti]
+
+[Sidenote: Pius IX.]
+
+[Sidenote: Early Papal measures]
+
+Pope Gregory XVI. died at Rome in his eighty-first year. At the time of his
+death the Papal prisons were filled with conspirators and reformers, among
+whom were some of his best subjects. His death gave new hope to the
+followers of Gioberti, whose political dreams depicted a new Italy,
+regenerated by the moral force of a reforming Papacy. Austria's candidate
+for the Papacy having failed to secure the requisite number of votes in the
+College of Cardinals, Mastai Ferretti, Bishop of Imola, was elected, and on
+June 17 assumed the title Pius IX. The choice of this popular prelate was
+taken to be a tribute to Italian feeling. The first acts of Pio Nono
+confirmed this impression. Universal amnesty was extended to political
+prisoners. Hundreds of Italian patriots who had been sentenced to
+imprisonment for life were set free. When, in addition to this, permission
+was given to the citizens of Rome to enroll themselves in the new civic
+guard, all Rome gave itself up to popular rejoicings. The climax of
+national enthusiasm was reached when the new Pope took occasion to voice a
+formal protest against the designs of Austria upon Ferrara.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolt of Cracow]
+
+[Sidenote: Anarchy in Austrian-Poland]
+
+[Sidenote: Cracow incorporated in Austria]
+
+[Sidenote: Tennyson on Poland]
+
+For the time being the Austrian Government was too preoccupied with its
+troubles at home to carry its Italian policy to extremes. The Polish
+refugees at Paris had long determined to strike another blow for the
+freedom of their country. It was arranged that the Polish provinces in
+Austria and Prussia should rise and revolt, early during this year, and
+extend the revolution to Russian Poland. But the Prussian Government
+crushed the conspiracy before a blow was struck. In Austria the attempt was
+more successful. Late in February insurrection broke out in the free city
+of Cracow. General Collin occupied the city, but his forces proved too
+weak. The Polish nobles around Tarnow in Northern Galicia raised the
+standard of revolt. Some 40,000 Polish insurgents marched on Cracow. A
+severe reverse was inflicted upon them by the government troops. Now the
+peasants turned against the nobles, burning down the largest estates and
+plunging the country into anarchy. The landowners, face to face with the
+humiliating fact that their own tenants were their bitterest foes, charged
+the Austrian Government with having instigated a communistic revolt. In a
+circular note to the European courts, Metternich protested that the
+outbreak of the Polish peasantry was purely spontaneous. A simultaneous
+attempt at revolution in Silesia was ruthlessly put down. Austria, Russia
+and Prussia now revoked the treaty of Vienna in regard to Poland. Cracow,
+which had been recognized as an independent republic, was annexed by
+Austria with the consent of Russia and Prussia, and against the protests of
+England, France and Sweden. New measures of repression against Polish
+national aspirations were taken in Russia. The last traces of Poland were
+blotted from the map of nations. It was then that Tennyson wrote his famous
+sonnet on Poland:
+
+  "How long, O God, shall men be ridden down,
+  And trampled under by the last and least
+  Of men? The heart of Poland hath not ceased
+  To quiver, tho' her sacred blood doth drown
+  The fields, and out of every smouldering town
+  Cries to Thee, lest brute Power be increased."
+
+In Russia during this year Otto von Kotzebue, the great navigator and
+Arctic explorer, died in his fifty-ninth year.
+
+[Sidenote: Civil war in Portugal]
+
+Almost simultaneously with the attempted revolution of Poland, another
+revolt broke out in Portugal. On April 20, the northern provinces rose
+against the Ministry of Costa Cabral, the Duke of Tomar. After desultory
+fighting, the Duke of Plamella, one of the commanders of the constitutional
+army, gave up the struggle. He resigned his post and was banished from the
+country. Late in the year the Marquis of Saldanha, with a force of Pedro
+loyalists, defeated Count Bonfinn at the Torres Vedras.
+
+[Sidenote: Spanish princesses married]
+
+In Spain, the long-pending diplomatic struggle over the Spanish marriages
+culminated, on October 10, in the wedding of Queen Isabella to her cousin,
+Don Francisco d'Assisi, Duke of Cadiz. Put forward by France, this prince
+was physically unfit for marriage. Simultaneously with the Queen's wedding,
+her sister was married to the Duke of Montpensier, the son of Louis
+Philippe. Thus the King of France and his Minister, Guizot, had their way.
+
+[Sidenote: Guizot's doubtful success]
+
+Lord Palmerston's candidature of the Prince of Saxe-Coburg for Queen
+Isabella's hand was foiled. It proved a doubtful success for France. The
+_entente cordiale_ between France and Great Britain was broken. Guizot was
+charged in the Chambers with sacrificing the most valuable foreign alliance
+for the purely dynastic ambitions of the House of Orleans. Having cut loose
+from England, Guizot now endeavored through his diplomatic envoys to form a
+new concert of Europe from which England should be left out.
+
+[Sidenote: Oregon treaty signed]
+
+[Sidenote: Rae's Arctic explorations]
+
+Great Britain's diplomatic dispute with America, concerning the
+northwestern boundary, was satisfactorily settled by the Oregon treaty,
+signed on June 15. Before this a peremptory demand had been put forward by
+the American Congress that the joint occupation of Oregon should cease. The
+British originally claimed all the territory west of the Rocky Mountains,
+from Mexico to Alaska. For years the land was settled jointly. Now the
+forty-ninth degree of northern latitude was accepted as the boundary
+between British North America and the United States. The Columbia River was
+retained by the United States, with free navigation conceded to English
+ships, while the seaport of Vancouver, the importance of which was not as
+yet recognized, fell to England. The value of this possession was soon
+revealed. Agents of the British Hudson's Bay Company selected Victoria, on
+the Island of Vancouver, as the most promising British port in the Pacific.
+During this same year, Dr. John Rae, by sledge journeys of more than 1,200
+miles, explored the northernmost region, Boothia, wherein was determined
+the northern magnetic pole.
+
+[Sidenote: Ether in surgery]
+
+[Sidenote: Chloroform]
+
+On October 16, Dr. J.C. Warren of Boston, to whom Drs. Wells and Morton had
+communicated their discoveries with sulphuric ether, demonstrated the
+potency of the drug in a public test. A severe operation was performed at
+the Boston Hospital, in the presence of some of the foremost medical men of
+the city, while the patient remained unconscious. The news was heralded
+abroad and was received by medical men throughout the world as a new
+revelation. Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, the famous physician and author,
+named the new method "Anaesthesia." The credit of the new discovery was
+claimed forthwith by several persons--notably by Dr. Charles T. Jackson of
+Boston, and Dr. Crawford W. Long of Alabama. A few months after the value
+of ether in surgery had come to be clearly recognized, a Scotch surgeon,
+Sir J.V. Simpson, discovered that chloroform could be administered with
+analogous effect.
+
+[Sidenote: Mexican war begun]
+
+[Sidenote: Mexican success]
+
+[Sidenote: American reverse at Fort Brown]
+
+[Sidenote: Palo Alto]
+
+[Sidenote: Resaca de la Palma]
+
+[Sidenote: Invasion of Mexico]
+
+In the United States, during this period, the long-expected war with Mexico
+was well under way. By a joint resolution of Congress, Texas had at last
+been admitted into the Union. General Taylor took position in Texas,
+opposite Matamoras on the Rio Grande, where the Mexican troops were
+gathering. Taylor presently moved his troops to Point St. Isabel. There a
+fleet of seven ships brought supplies. Leaving a part of his force there,
+he marched to a point on the Rio Grande opposite Matamoras, where he built
+Fort Brown, named after Major Brown, whom he left in command. The ground
+was malarious, and many soldiers died of disease. On April 12, the Mexican
+general, Ampudia, moved forward with a strong force to drive Taylor beyond
+the Rio de la Nueces. Ampudia demanded that Taylor should withdraw within
+twenty-four hours, but Taylor refused to leave what he claimed to be the
+soil of the United States. Ampudia hesitated, and General Arista was
+appointed in his place. Learning that two vessels with supplies for the
+Mexicans were about to enter the Rio Grande, Taylor caused the river to be
+blockaded, at the "cost of war." Arista prepared to attack Fort Brown, and
+cut off communication between Taylor and his supplies. Captain Thornton's
+command, sent out to reconnoitre, was captured on April 26. Only Thornton
+escaped by leaping his horse over a dense hedge. On May 1, leaving Major
+Brown in command at the fort, Taylor made a forced march to Point Isabel.
+The Mexicans promptly sent men across the river to the rear of Fort Brown,
+and opened fire together with the guns of Matamoras on that work. Major
+Brown was first among the killed. Signal guns were fired to recall Taylor.
+With 2,300 men he turned back on May 6. Meanwhile, 6,000 Mexicans had
+arrived and taken up a strong position at Palo Alto. On the 8th, Taylor
+assaulted the superior force confronting him. Two eighteen-pounders and two
+light batteries made fearful havoc in the closed ranks of the Mexican
+infantry. The prairie grass between the two armies took fire. Both lines
+drew back, but soon renewed the fight. Taylor's left was met by cannonade,
+but the Mexican column was overthrown and the entire force fell back to
+Resaca de la Palma. The Americans took up their march to Fort Brown. When
+within three miles of the fort they encountered the Mexicans, strongly
+posted in Resaca de la Palma, a ravine three hundred feet wide bordered
+with palmetto trees. Taylor deployed a portion of his force as skirmishers,
+and a company of dragoons overrode the first Mexican battery. The
+Americans then advanced their battery to the crest. A regiment charged in
+column, and, joined by the skirmishers, seized the enemy's artillery. After
+hard fighting in the chaparral, the Mexicans were put to flight. The
+Mexicans lost one thousand men, the Americans conceded but one hundred.
+Refusing an armistice, Taylor crossed the river on May 18, and unfurled the
+Stars and Stripes on Mexican territory. Another attempted stand of the
+Mexicans resulted in worse defeat. Arista's retreat became a rout. Of 7,000
+men he brought only 2,500 to Linares. The American troops occupied
+Matamoras, Reinosa and Camargo. The three States of Tamaulipas, Coahuila
+and Nuevo Leon were annexed to the territory of the Rio Grande. In the
+interior of Mexico a revolution broke out. General Paredes was made
+President.
+
+[Sidenote: Kearney annexes New Mexico]
+
+[Sidenote: Fremont in California]
+
+In July, Colonel Philip Kearney, with an American force, marched unopposed
+from the Arkansas River and took possession of Santa Fe. On August 1, he
+annexed the State of New Mexico as a Territory of the United States. In
+May, Captain John C. Fremont, in charge of an exploring expedition in the
+South, received a message from Secretary of State Buchanan and Senator
+Benton, whose daughter he had married, suggesting that he should remain in
+California. Fremont took the hint and returned to Sacramento. There he
+learned that the Mexican commander was about to take the offensive. He at
+once assumed command of the American forces, and on June 15 captured
+Sonoma. Meanwhile Commodores Sloat and Stockton took possession of the
+coast towns as far as Los Angeles, and, on August 13, held Monterey, the
+capital of California. Fremont set up a provisional government, placing
+himself at the head. In the meantime, the United States had sent a company
+of artillery, which took two hundred days in making the journey around the
+Horn. Among its members were three future heroes of the American Civil
+War--Lieutenants Sherman, Halleck and Ord.
+
+[Sidenote: Tardy declaration of war]
+
+The news of these events did not reach Washington until after Congress had
+declared war on April 26, authorized a call for 50,000 volunteers, and made
+an appropriation of $10,000,000. Three hundred thousand volunteers
+responded. Of these some 75,000 were enrolled with the regular army of
+40,000. President Polk, on May 11, sent to Congress an aggressive measure,
+announcing that war existed by the act of Mexico. On May 23, Mexico made
+her formal declaration of war. General Taylor, with the army of occupation,
+was ordered to seize and hold points on the Rio Grande.
+
+[Sidenote: Assault of Monterey]
+
+[Sidenote: Hoffman's stanzas]
+
+[Sidenote: Long armistice]
+
+General Taylor waited at Matamoras until September 19, when, having been
+joined by General Worth, he encamped with 6,000 men within three miles of
+Monterey, a strongly fortified place, ninety miles distant from Matamoras.
+On the north, Monterey was protected by a strong citadel, with lunettes on
+the east, and by two fortified hills on either side of the river just above
+the town. Worth's division planted itself above the city on the Mexican
+line of retreat. Garland's brigade, advancing between the citadel and the
+first lunette, reached the city with heavy loss. After three companies had
+failed to move to Garland's support, two other companies passed to the rear
+of the citadel and compelled the Mexicans to abandon that point. An attempt
+on the second lunette failed with heavy loss to the Americans. The next
+morning Worth endeavored to capture the fortified eminence south of the
+river. The Americans advanced in the face of a plunging artillery fire. A
+host of skirmishers clambered over the parapet and turned its guns on the
+fleeing Mexicans, and, with two supporting regiments moving along the
+slope, drove the Mexicans out of Fort Saldado. At daybreak the hill on the
+north side of the river was carried. These positions commanded the western
+half of the city. On the morning of the 23d, the American troops fought
+their way in, but were driven out again. Worth's men then pushed into the
+town from the west, and finding the streets swept by artillery, broke into
+the houses. On the next morning, September 24, Ampudia capitulated. The
+capture of Monterey inspired the American poet, Charles F. Hoffman, to a
+song modelled after the famous St. Crispin's Day speech in Shakespeare's
+"King Henry V.":
+
+  We were not many--we who stood
+    Before the iron sleet that day;
+  Yet many a gallant spirit would
+  Give half his years if he but could
+    Have been with us at Monterey.
+
+  Our banners on those turrets wave,
+    And there our evening bugles play;
+  Where orange-boughs above their grave
+  Keep green the memory of the brave
+    Who fought and fell at Monterey.
+
+An armistice of eight weeks was agreed upon. The armistice was disapproved
+by the American Secretary of War, and, in November, General Scott was
+ordered to take command and conduct the war on his own plans.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolution in Mexico]
+
+In Mexico, General Paredes, who favored the restoration of monarchical
+rule, was opposed by General Alvarez in the south. When Paredes left the
+capital to go to the front, revolution broke out behind him. Don Mariano
+Solas, the commandant of the City of Mexico, summoned to his aid General
+Santa Anna. On his arrival this popular general, but recently banished from
+the capital, was hailed as the saviour of his country and was invested with
+the supreme military command. Paredes went into exile. Santa Anna, after
+inexplicable delay, raised war funds to the amount of six million dollars,
+and advanced toward San Luis Potosi. There the "Napoleon of the West," as
+they called him in Mexico, wasted more precious months.
+
+[Sidenote: Howe's sewing machine]
+
+[Sidenote: Iowa becomes a State]
+
+On the American side, too, little was done. On August 8, the Wilmot Proviso
+was considered. It was a proviso to the $2,000,000 bill asked by the
+President to arrange peace with Mexico, and it declared it to be "an
+express and fundamental condition to the acquisition of any territory from
+Mexico, that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist
+therein." August 10 the proviso came up for final passage, but John Davis
+of Massachusetts, in order to defeat action on the bill, held the floor
+till the session expired. Congress adjourned on that day. Great agitation
+prevailed in the North over the defeat of this proviso. The Democrats lost
+their majority in the Twenty-ninth Congress, owing to the new tariff and
+the predominance of pro-slavery issues in the war. Polk had but 110 votes
+against 118 when the new Congress met. Now the new tariff went into effect.
+Howe, the American inventor, secured a patent for an improvement in
+sewing-machines, which embodied the main features of the machine used at
+present; to wit, a grooved needle provided with an eye near its point, a
+shuttle operating on the side of the cloth opposite the needle to form a
+lockstitch, and an automatic feed. On December 28, Iowa was admitted to the
+Union as the twenty-ninth State.
+
+
+
+
+1847
+
+
+[Sidenote: Santa Anna's advance]
+
+[Sidenote: Buena Vista]
+
+General Winfield Scott reached the harbor of Vera Cruz in January, and
+assumed command of all the American forces. He took with him the best
+officers and troops on the field of action, and left Taylor with only 5,200
+men, most of whom were volunteers. Santa Anna, who had gathered 12,000 men
+eager to be led against the Americans, was approaching Saltillo. Leaving
+Monterey on January 31, Taylor reached Saltillo on February 2, and passed
+on to Aqua Nueva, twenty miles south of Saltillo, where he remained three
+weeks. Thence he fell back to a mountain gorge opposite Buena Vista. On
+February 22, his troops and those of Santa Anna were within sight of each
+other. Under a flag of truce, Santa Anna demanded Taylor's surrender, which
+was refused. The famous battleground, taking its name from the estate of
+Buena Vista, is a rugged valley from two to five miles wide, between rocky
+walls a thousand feet high. The slopes on either side are cut by deep
+ravines. Taylor placed his forces in groups on the crests of the bluffs, at
+the base of the eastern mountain, and in the southern edge of the plateau.
+The Mexican troops attempted to flank his position, but were driven off.
+The Mexican cavalry were sent to Taylor's rear to intercept the American
+retreat, but they were beaten back after a fierce hand-to-hand fight, led
+by Taylor himself. Santa Anna made his first attack in three columns. Two
+of these combined and turned the American left. The third, thrown against
+the American right, was forced to retreat, the Americans having formed a
+new front. Again the Mexicans sought to gain Taylor's rear, but with two
+regiments supported by artillery and dragoons, the American commander drove
+them back, firing into their heavy mass.
+
+[Sidenote: Taylor's order to Bragg]
+
+[Sidenote: Conflicting claims of victory]
+
+At one point in the engagement, an Indiana regiment, through a mistaken
+order, gave way, thereby placing the American army in peril. But the
+Mississippians and the Kentuckians threw themselves forward; the Indiana
+troops rallied, and the Mexicans were repulsed. General Taylor, standing
+near Captain Bragg's battery, saw signs of wavering in the enemy's line.
+"Give them a little more grape, Captain Bragg," he exclaimed--a command
+which was repeated all over the United States during the political campaign
+two years later. The Mexican column broke, and Taylor drove it up the slope
+of the eastern mountain. By means of a false flag of truce the endangered
+wing, however, escaped. Santa Anna, forming his whole force into one
+column, advanced. The Americans fell back, holding only the northwest
+corner of the plateau. When morning broke, the enemy had disappeared. The
+Mexican loss was 2,000, that of the Americans 746. Henry Clay, a son of the
+Kentucky statesman, as he lay wounded, was despatched by a Mexican
+vacquero. Colonel Jefferson Davis commanded with distinction a regiment of
+Mississippi riflemen. Buena Vista was Taylor's last battle. Its fame was
+heralded throughout America. Both sides claimed the victory. The Mexicans
+chanted Te Deums. In the United States the poet Kifer sang:
+
+    From the Rio Grande's waters to the icy lakes of Maine,
+    Let us all exult! for we have met the enemy again.
+  Beneath their stern old mountains we have met them in their pride,
+  And rolled from Buena Vista back the battle's bloody tide;
+  Where the enemy came surging swift, like the Mississippi's flood,
+  And the reaper, Death, with strong arms swung his sickle red with blood.
+
+After the battle of Buena Vista, General Taylor returned to the United
+States, his task finished. The exploit shed such lustre on his name that he
+was soon regarded as the fittest candidate for the Presidency.
+
+[Sidenote: San Juan d'Ulloa captured]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Cerro Gordo]
+
+[Sidenote: American advance into Mexico]
+
+In March, Scott's army of 12,000 landed at Vera Cruz. After four days'
+bombardment by land and water, the city and castle of San Juan d'Ulloa
+surrendered. General Worth was left in command at Vera Cruz, and Scott
+started on his march to the City of Mexico, two hundred miles away. Santa
+Anna, with the flower of his army, awaited him in the strong position of
+Cerro Gordo, fifty miles northwest. General Twiggs turned the Mexican left
+flank. On the following morning, April 18, the Americans attacked in three
+columns. Pellow advanced against the Mexican right, where three hills at an
+angle in the road were crowned with batteries. Shields' division, climbing
+by a pass, fell upon Santa Anna's right and rear. Twiggs and Worth,
+bearing to the right, covered the El Telegrafo Hill, and attacked the
+height of Cerro Gordo, where Santa Anna commanded in person. Carrying this
+position, they turned its guns on the retreating Mexicans. Caught between
+the columns of Pellow, Twiggs and Worth, Santa Anna's forces surrendered.
+The American troops thus gained the national road to the capital of Mexico.
+They had made 3,000 prisoners and taken forty-three cannon, with $22,000 in
+silver and immense munitions of war. They lost, at Cerro Gordo, 481 killed
+and wounded; the Mexican loss was 2,000. Jalapa was occupied on April 19,
+and on the 22d the American flag waved above the Castle of Perote, fifty
+miles beyond. Puebla, containing 80,000 inhabitants, was occupied without
+opposition on May 15. On account of the sufferings of the men in the hot
+climate, General Scott rested at Puebla for several months.
+
+[Sidenote: Doniphan's exploit]
+
+The authority of the United States was established on the Pacific Coast,
+after a final defeat of the Mexicans at San Gabriel. Colonel Doniphan of
+Kearney's command, having been left in charge in New Mexico, compelled the
+Navajo Indians to enter into a treaty of peace, after which he set out with
+1,000 Missourians to join General Wool. At Bracto, a Mexican commander with
+a superior force sent a black flag demanding his surrender. On refusal of
+this summons notice was given that no quarter should be granted. The
+Mexicans then advanced firing; the Americans lying down to escape the
+bullets. Cheering, the Mexicans ran forward, when suddenly Doniphan's
+command rose and fired, killing more than 200 Mexicans. The rest turned and
+fled. Near the capital of Chihuahua, Doniphan, after a sharp encounter,
+dispersed 4,000 Mexicans. The Stars and Stripes were raised above the
+citadel. In May, Doniphan rejoined Wool at Saltillo. Then followed a long
+lull in the Mexican campaign.
+
+[Sidenote: Slavery controversy revived]
+
+The question concerning the power of the American Congress to legislate on
+slavery again came up in connection with the bill for the establishment of
+the Oregon Territorial government. In February Calhoun had introduced his
+new slavery resolution, declaring the Territories to be the common property
+of all the States, and denying the right and power of Congress to prohibit
+slavery in any Territory. Thus began the agitation which led to the
+abrogation of the Missouri Compromise. By the terms of an amendment offered
+for the extension of the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific Ocean,
+slavery was to be excluded from all future territory in the West. This
+amendment was lost, but the bill passed with another, incorporating the
+anti-slavery clause of the ordinance of 1787. Calhoun declared that the
+exclusion of slavery from any Territory was a subversion of the Union, and
+proclaimed "the separation of the Northern and Southern States complete."
+
+[Sidenote: John Franklin's career]
+
+[Sidenote: Long overland journey]
+
+[Sidenote: The Northwest Passage]
+
+In British North America a new era of home rule began after the Earl of
+Elgin took his oath as Governor-General of Canada in January. The imperial
+government abandoned all control over the customs of Canada. The building
+of the first great Canadian railroad was begun on the main line of the
+Grand Trunk system. Discouraging reports from the extreme northern regions
+of America at last confirmed the impression that Sir John Franklin, with
+the other members of his expedition, had perished in the Arctic regions. A
+romantic naval career was thus brought to a close. Born in 1786, John
+Franklin entered the British navy at the age of fourteen as a midshipman,
+and soon saw his first active service at the battle of Copenhagen in 1801.
+In the following year he was taken on his first trip of exploration to
+Australia by his cousin, Captain Flinders of the "Investigator." In 1818 he
+was a member of an expedition sent out by the British Government to attempt
+a passage to India by crossing the Polar Sea. His bold seamanship during
+this voyage brought him into such prominence that during the next year he
+was appointed by the Admiralty to command an expedition to travel overland
+from Hudson's Bay to the Arctic Ocean. During the course of this expedition
+he and his companions walked 5,560 miles and endured many hardships, of
+which Franklin wrote a thrilling narrative on his return to England in
+1822. He then married Eleanor Porden, the author of the heroic poem
+"Coeur de Lion." In 1825 he was appointed to the command of another
+overland Arctic expedition. When the day of his departure arrived, his wife
+was dying of consumption. Lying at the point of death as she was, she would
+not let him delay his voyage, and gave him for a parting gift a silk flag
+to hoist when he reached the Polar Sea. On the day after Franklin left
+England she died. When he returned again he was knighted and showered with
+honors by various scientific societies of England and France. After serving
+as Governor of Van Diemen's Land, Sir John, in 1845, was appointed an
+admiral, and then another Arctic expedition to discover the Northwest
+Passage was organized. He sailed from Sheerness on May 26, 1845, and was
+last seen by a whaler in Baffin's Bay. Many years later a record was found
+on the northwest shore of King William's Land, announcing that Sir John
+Franklin died in the spring of 1847, and that the survivors of his
+expedition had attempted to make their way back on the ice to the American
+continent. To Sir John Franklin belongs the honor of the first discovery of
+the northwest passage leading from Lancaster Sound to Behring Strait.
+
+[Sidenote: O'Connell's last speech]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of O'Connell]
+
+On February 8, Daniel O'Connell, the great Irish Parliamentary leader, made
+his last speech in the English House of Commons. The question on which he
+spoke was a proposed bill for the relief of famine in Ireland: "I am
+afraid," he said, in the course of this address, "that the English people
+are not sufficiently impressed with the horrors of the situation in
+Ireland. I do not think they understand the accumulated miseries which my
+people are suffering. It has been estimated that 5,000 adults and 10,000
+children have already died from famine, and that one-fourth of the whole
+population must perish unless something is done." Failing in health
+himself, O'Connell went to Italy. At Rome, Pope Pius IX. prepared a
+magnificent reception for him. Before he could reach the Eternal City,
+O'Connell died in his seventy-second year. Lacordaire, who but shortly
+before this had pronounced his greatest of funeral orations over the bier
+of General Drouot, thus spoke of O'Connell: "Honor, glory and eternal
+gratitude for the man who gave to his country the boon of liberty of
+conscience. Where is a man in the Church since the time of Constantine who
+has at one stroke enfranchised six millions of souls?" When the body of
+O'Connell was buried at Glasnevin, it was followed to the grave by fifty
+thousand mourners, among whom Orangemen and Ribbonmen walked side by side.
+In England, O'Connell's death was regarded with a feeling akin to relief.
+There his persistent demands of "justice for Ireland" had come to be
+regarded with derision, bringing him the nickname of "Big Beggarman."
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Thomas Chalmers]
+
+[Sidenote: "Vanity Fair"]
+
+[Sidenote: "Jane Eyre"]
+
+[Sidenote: Jenny Lind]
+
+Another spirit that won religious renown in England passed away with Thomas
+Chalmers, the great Scotch divine. As a teacher of theology at Edinburgh he
+wrote no less than twenty-five volumes, the most famous of which is his
+"Evidences of the Christian Revelations," a reprint of his article on
+"Christianity" contributed to the "Encyclopedia Britannica." In other
+respects it was a notable year for English letters. Charles Dickens had
+just published his famous stories "Dombey and Son" and "The Haunted Man."
+The success of these novels was surpassed by that of Thackeray's "Vanity
+Fair." Three writers now made their appearance. Anthony Trollope brought
+out his "MacDermotts of Ballycoran"; Emily Bronte published her first
+novel, "Wuthering Heights," while her sister, Charlotte Bronte, at the same
+time achieved an immense success with her story of "Jane Eyre." These
+successes were more than rivalled by that of Jenny Lind, the great soprano
+singer, who made her first appearance in London during this season. Another
+event for intellectual England was the sale at auction of Shakespeare's
+house at Stratford. It was acquired by a united committee of Shakespeare
+lovers for the sum of L3,000.
+
+[Sidenote: Jewish disabilities reconfirmed]
+
+The oft-mooted question of the civil disabilities of the Jews in England
+was brought up again by the election of Baron Rothschild as a member of
+Parliament for London, together with Lord John Russell. The Premier, whose
+name was already identified with the cause of civil and religious liberty,
+made another strong effort to obtain the recognition of his colleague's
+claim to his seat. He was supported in this not only by most of the Whigs
+in the House of Commons, but also by three such prominent men of the
+opposition as Lord Bentinck, Gladstone and Benjamin Disraeli, himself of
+Jewish lineage. As heretofore, this proposed reform was accepted by the
+Commons only to be rejected by the Lords, now installed in their new House
+of Peers. Otherwise, Lord Russell's Ministry followed largely in the
+footsteps of their immediate predecessors. Palmerston pursued his wonted
+vigorous foreign policy.
+
+[Sidenote: Don Pacifico affair]
+
+[Sidenote: British retaliation]
+
+[Sidenote: Palmerston obdurate]
+
+It had been customary in Greek towns to celebrate Easter by burning an
+effigy of Judas Iscariot. This year the police of Athens were ordered to
+prevent this performance, and the mob, disappointed of their favorite
+amusement, ascribed the new orders to the influence of the Jews. The house
+of one Don Pacifico, a Portuguese Jew of Gibraltar, happened to stand near
+the spot where the Judas was annually burned. Don Pacifico was known to be
+a Jew, and the anger of the mob was wreaked upon him accordingly. On April
+4, his house was sacked. Don Pacifico made a claim against the Greek
+Government for compensation. He estimated his losses, direct and indirect,
+at nearly L32,000. Another claim was made at the same time by another
+British subject, Finlay, the historian of Greece. The Greek Government,
+which was all but bankrupt, was dilatory in settling these claims. A
+British fleet was ordered to the Piraeus. It seized all the Greek vessels
+belonging to the government and to private merchants that were found within
+those waters. The Greek Government appealed to France and Russia as Powers
+joined with England in the treaty to protect the independence of Greece.
+France and Russia both made bitter complaint of not having been consulted
+in the first instance by the British Government, nor was their feeling
+softened by Lord Palmerston's peremptory reply that it was all a question
+between England and Greece. It was on this occasion that Palmerston made
+the famous speech harking back to the sentiment expressed in the old Roman
+boast "Civis Romanus Sum."
+
+[Sidenote: Troubles in China]
+
+[Sidenote: Bogue forts recaptured]
+
+[Sidenote: A Chinese protest]
+
+Next, new troubles arose with China. During the previous year riots broke
+out in Canton, by reason of a superstitious belief that a weather-vane on
+top of the flagstaff over the American Consulate interfered with the
+spirits of the air. A Chinaman was shot during the riots. The British had
+to interfere on behalf of the threatened Americans. The outraged feelings
+of the Chinese populace were allayed by a conciliatory declaration of
+Emperor Taouk-Wang, to the effect that the Christian religion could be
+commended as a faith for inculcating the principles of virtue. At the same
+time he sent a special commissioner, Ke-Ying, "amicably to regulate the
+commerce with foreign merchants at Canton." Trouble again broke out in
+March, when a small English hunting and fishing party violated the
+agreement confining them to the foreign concession at Canton. They were
+pelted with stones by the natives. Sir John Davis denounced this incident
+as international outrage, and, in disregard of the accepted treaty
+provisions, proclaimed "that he would exact and acquire from the Chinese
+Government that British subjects should be as free from molestation and
+insult in China as they would be in England." On April 1, all the available
+forces at Hong Kong were summoned to Canton. Three steamships, bearing two
+regiments of soldiers, convoyed by a British man-of-war, attacked the Bogue
+forts. The Chinese, acting under orders from Ke-Ying, made no resistance. A
+British landing force seized the batteries and spiked the guns. Next, the
+forts opposite Canton were captured without a blow. Without a shot fired,
+Canton, on April 3, lay at the mercy of the British guns. Ke-Ying accepted
+the British ultimatum that the whole city of Canton should be opened to
+Englishmen two years from date. The agreement was closed with this
+significant statement on behalf of the Chinese Emperor: "If mutual
+good-will is to be maintained between the Chinese and foreigners, the
+common feelings of mankind, as well as the just principles of heaven, must
+be considered and conformed with."
+
+[Sidenote: Nicaragua coerced]
+
+[Sidenote: Threatened intervention in Portugal]
+
+A new phase in Great Britain's boundary dispute with Nicaragua was reached
+by a British squadron's abrupt seizure of the harbor of San Juan del Norte,
+Nicaragua's only seaport on the Atlantic coast. In regard to the demands
+made for the free navigation of the La Plata River, the Argentine Republic
+at last came to terms. The joint squadrons of England and France thereupon
+raised their blockade of Buenos Ayres. At London a conference of English
+and French statesmen, to which Spain was likewise admitted, had come to an
+agreement to interfere on behalf of Queen Maria II., in Portugal. When this
+was made known, Bandiera, one of the chief partisans of Dom Pedro,
+announced his submission. Nonetheless, Pedro's followers persevered, and on
+June 26 the Junta at Oporto had to capitulate to Pedro's army.
+
+[Sidenote: German Parliamentary essays]
+
+[Sidenote: Schleswig-Holstein issue]
+
+In Germany, in the meanwhile, the agitation for Parliamentary government
+steadily gained ground. In Bavaria, where King Louis's open liaison with
+the dancer Lola Montez had turned his subjects against him, the deputies
+of the Landtag exerted their power to abolish the crown lotteries by a
+unanimous vote. In Prussia, King Frederick William IV. at last issued his
+long-promised summons for a united provincial Diet. A semblance of
+representative government was established. It was at this time that
+Frederick William became Elector of Hesse-Cassel. The agitation for a
+representative government grew. On September 12, the Liberals held a
+meeting at Orthenburg. Within a month the Constitutional party met at
+Heppenheim, in Hesse. At length a united Prussian Parliament, called the
+Landtag, was convoked at Berlin. The first question to claim the attention
+of this Parliament was that of Schleswig-Holstein. The gauntlet recently
+flung down to the German population of Schleswig and Holstein, by King
+Christian VIII. of Denmark, was picked up not only by the anti-Danish
+Holsteiners, but by the whole German nation as well. Little Schleswig, with
+its 160 square miles and 400,000 inhabitants, was claimed by every German
+as German borderland. King Christian at this time was failing in health.
+His condition had been aggravated by the recent great fire at Copenhagen,
+which, amid other costly properties, destroyed invaluable records of
+Icelandic literature, including more than 2,000 unpublished manuscripts.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Mendelssohn]
+
+[Sidenote: "Songs Without Words"]
+
+An event of like international importance was the death of Felix
+Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, at the age of thirty-eight. He was the grandson of
+the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, and the son of the gifted Lea
+Solomon-Bartholdy, from whom he received his first piano lessons. At the
+age of ten he joined the Singing Academy of Berlin, where a composition of
+his, the "Nineteenth Psalm," was performed shortly after his entry. In 1825
+his father took him to Paris to consult Cherubini, as to his future.
+Cherubini offered to take him as a pupil, but his father preferred to bring
+him up in the musical atmosphere of his own home. There the boy perfected
+himself as a piano player and wrote a host of early compositions. The
+overture to "A Midsummer Night's Dream" was written in 1826, when
+Mendelssohn was but seventeen years old. Two years later his first opera,
+"The Marriage of Camecho," was given at the Berlin Opera. In Berlin,
+Mendelssohn became the leading figure in the propaganda for the music of
+Bach. Having undertaken a journey to England, at the suggestion of
+Moscheles, he gave a series of concerts there, after which he travelled
+throughout Europe. It was at this time that he wrote his "Songs Without
+Words," and composed the overture, "A Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage."
+After filling a musical directorship at Duesseldorf, he was summoned to
+conduct the orchestra of the Gewandhaus there. This proved an important
+turn in his career. In 1841, Frederick William IV. of Prussia invited him
+to Berlin, where he organized the famous Cathedral choir. Returning to
+Leipzig, he founded the musical conservatory in that city. The sudden death
+of his favorite sister, Fannie, gave him such a shock that he died within a
+few months after her. Mendelssohn exerted little influence as an operatic
+composer, but achieved the highest rank by such vocal compositions as the
+oratorios "St. Paul" and "Elijah," and some of his beautiful songs, which
+have become folksongs. Of his orchestral pieces, the most famous are his
+concert overtures, such as that of the "Midsummer Night's Dream," or "Ruy
+Blas," and his "Funeral March." The most celebrated of his piano pieces are
+the popular "Songs Without Words," the "Wedding March" and the brilliant
+"Rondo Capriccioso."
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Marilhat]
+
+[Sidenote: Gautier on Marilhat]
+
+By the death of Prosper Marilhat, a young artist of great promise was lost
+to France. But a few years before, Marilhat sent no less than eight
+masterpieces to the Salon, but they were received so coldly that the young
+artist fell into a state from which death was a happy deliverance.
+Theophile Gautier wrote of him, "That exhibition was Marilhat's swan song,
+and the works he sent were eight diamonds." After Marilhat's death, some of
+his unfinished paintings commanded great prices. Thus his "Entrance to
+Jerusalem," at the Wertheimer sale at Paris in 1861, fetched 16,000 francs.
+Fifteen years later, at the Oppenheim sale in Paris, Marilhat's "Ruins Near
+Cairo" brought no less than 29,000 francs. It was as a painter of Oriental
+subjects that Marilhat won his most lasting distinction. Having travelled
+to the East with Baron Hugel, he remained for many years in Egypt, painted
+portraits of the Khedive and decorated several of the buildings of
+Alexandria. In an obituary article published in the "Revue des Deux
+Mondes," Theophile Gautier wrote: "Marilhat was a Syrian Arab. He must
+have had in his veins some blood of the Saracens whom Charles Martel did
+not kill.... One of the glories of Marilhat was that he preserved his
+originality in presence of Decamps. The talents of these two men are
+parallel lines, it is true, but they do not touch each other. The more
+fruitful fancy of the one is balanced by the character in the works of the
+other."
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Oudinot]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Grouchy]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Marie Louise]
+
+[Sidenote: Merimee and Dumas]
+
+In France the dissatisfaction with Louis Philippe's government, as
+administered by Guizot, was steadily increasing. The Socialist party, led
+by Louis Blanc, agitated the country for reform. An appeal to Revolutionary
+traditions was made by the simultaneous publication of Blanc's and
+Michelet's histories of the French Revolution. At the same time, Lamartine
+brought out his "Histoire des Girondins." Napoleonic traditions were
+revived by a series of events following the death of General Drouot. In
+September came the death of Marshal Oudinot, the hero of Bitche,
+Moorlautern, Treves, Ingolstadt, Ulm, Austerlitz, Jena, Ostralenka,
+Friesland and Wagram. Oudinot was wounded innumerable times and was twice
+made a prisoner. He bore a prominent part throughout the Russian campaign
+and that of 1814. During the Hundred Days he remained in retirement. For
+this he was made Commander-in-chief of the National Guards under the
+Restoration, and passed through the campaign of Spain in 1823, when he
+captured Madrid. After his death, Marshal Soult, another veteran of the
+Napoleonic wars, succeeded him as general commander of the French army.
+Before this, Marshal Grouchy had likewise expired in his eighty-first year.
+He it was who was held responsible by Napoleon for the final crushing
+defeat at Waterloo. There he failed to support his chief, when Bluecher came
+to the support of Wellington. To the end of his days, Grouchy insisted that
+Napoleon's orders to this effect never reached him, but it was held up
+against him that some of his officers on that occasion had vainly urged him
+to march on the sound of the cannons at Waterloo. On October 10, Jerome
+Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother and the quondam king of Westphalia, was
+permitted to return to France after an exile of thirty-two years. Late in
+the year, ex-Empress Marie Louise, Napoleon's second wife, died at the age
+of fifty-six in Austria. Never beloved like her predecessor Josephine, she
+lost the esteem of all Frenchmen by her failure to stand by her husband
+after his downfall and exile to St. Helena, and by her subsequent liaison
+with her chamberlain, Neipperg, to whom she bore several children. Other
+events of lasting interest in France, during this year, were the opening of
+the great canal from Marseilles to Durano, the death of Duc de Polignac,
+who helped cause the downfall of his royal master Charles X., and the
+publication of Merimee's "Carmen" and of "Aventures de Quatre Femmes et
+d'un Perroquet," by the younger Dumas.
+
+[Sidenote: Austrians occupy Ferrara]
+
+[Sidenote: Italy aroused]
+
+Under the stimulus of Pius IX.'s apparent sympathy for the cause of
+national unity in Italy, as well as that of the teachings of Mazzini, the
+Italian patriots took heart again. One group, consisting mostly of the
+politicians and military men of Piedmont, centred their hopes in the
+traditional antagonism of the princes of Savoy against Austria. Charles
+Albert of Carrignano, whom Metternich had attempted to exclude from the
+succession, showed marked independence in his dealings with Austria. In
+1847, the Italian question came uppermost again when the Austrian
+Government, on a new interpretation in one of the clauses in the treaty of
+Vienna, occupied the town of Ferrara in the ecclesiastical states. Pius IX.
+promptly protested against this trespass of his territories. The King of
+Sardinia openly announced his intention to take the field against Austria,
+should war break out. English and French warships appeared at Naples. In
+Sicily and southern Italy the attitude of the patriots grew threatening.
+Apprehensions of a general revolution throughout Italy at length induced
+Metternich to agree with the neutral powers on a compromise concerning the
+occupation of Ferrara. Lucca was united with Tuscany. Still patriotic
+passion seethed in Italy.
+
+[Sidenote: Mexican campaigns resumed]
+
+[Sidenote: Santa Anna outflanked]
+
+In America, after several months of comparative inaction, the war in Mexico
+was renewed with vigor. On August 6, General Scott received reinforcements.
+Leaving a governor at Puebla, he marched on with 14,000 men. He met with no
+resistance at the passes of the Cordilleras. On August 10, from the top of
+the Rio Frio Mountains, the City of Mexico, lying in a fertile, lake-dotted
+basin, was in sight. The land around the city was under water, and the
+capital was approached by causeways across the low and marshy ground. The
+numerous rocky hills were all fortified. Scott passed around Lake Chalco to
+the southwest, and thence moved west skirting the south shore. Santa Anna,
+intercepting the Americans, took up his headquarters at San Antonio, five
+miles from the city. His position was flanked on the west by broken lava,
+and on the east by marshy ground. The ground was as bad as could well be
+encountered. Santa Anna sent orders to General Valencia, who held a
+fortified hill in front of the Americans, to spike his guns, destroy his
+stores and retreat, but Valencia refused. Riley, occupying a hill in his
+rear, took his intrenchments in reverse. He was cut off both north and
+south; 2,000 of his force were killed and wounded; a thousand with four
+generals were captured, and guns, stores and ammunition fell into the hands
+of the Americans.
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Contreras]
+
+The divisions of Pellow and Twiggs were ordered, August 19, to storm
+Contreras. The line between that position and Santa Anne's reserves was cut
+at the close of the day, and General Persifer F. Smith at sunrise the next
+morning led an assault on the Mexican camp, and in less than half an hour
+drove 6,000 Mexicans out of the fortification. Shortly afterward General
+Worth attacked Santa Anna and routed the garrison.
+
+[Sidenote: Churubusco]
+
+The Americans followed to Churubusco on the road to the capital, where
+Santa Anna had concentrated his whole force. Here the river was protected
+by levees, the head of the bridge strongly fortified, and the stone convent
+surrounded by a strong field-work. The attack on the bridge and the
+convent was desperate. Pierce and Shields had made a detour to the main
+road in the rear of Churubusco. They struck the Mexican reserves, and all
+the troops on both sides were engaged. Worth and Pellow carried the bridge
+in time to save Pierce and Shields. The Mexican left gave way. A detachment
+crossed the river and threatened the bridge from the rear. Worth threw his
+whole force upon the broken line. Through ditches and over parapets they
+went with a rush, and the battle was won. The Americans lost a thousand men
+and seventy-six officers.
+
+[Sidenote: Santa Fe captured]
+
+[Sidenote: Mexican reverses]
+
+General Kearney had left Fort Leavenworth in the spring of 1847. To him
+fell the task of conquering New Mexico and California. On August 18, Santa
+Fe was captured, and all New Mexico submitted. From Santa Fe, Kearney, with
+400 dragoons, set off for California. Kit Carson, whom he met on the road,
+informed him that Colonel Fremont had conquered California. On learning
+this Kearney sent back most of his force, and with the few remaining pushed
+on to the coast. In the five distinct victories thus far gained over the
+Mexican army of 80,000, scarcely 10,000 Americans had been engaged, 4,000
+Mexicans had been killed and wounded, and 3,000 made prisoners, and
+thirty-seven pieces of artillery were captured.
+
+[Sidenote: Another armistice]
+
+Scott again made overtures for peace. He had with him a government
+commissioner, Trist, who had already made a vain effort to secure peace.
+Scott accordingly advanced to Tecubaya within three miles of the capital,
+and on August 21 sent to Santa Anna a proposition for an armistice looking
+to negotiations for peace. The proposition was accepted, and Trist entered
+the capital on the 24th, where he remained until September 5. He reported
+that the American proposition had not only been rejected, but that Santa
+Anna had improved the armistice to strengthen the city's defences. Scott
+instantly declared the armistice at an end.
+
+[Sidenote: Molino del Rey]
+
+Scott had now 8,500 men and 68 guns. He moved, September 7, upon Molino del
+Rey (King's Mill), a group of stone buildings 500 yards long, forming the
+western side of the inclosure surrounding the rock and castle of
+Chapultepec, and 1,100 yards from the castle, which is a mile and a half
+from the city wall. Scott's purpose was to enter the city on the south, and
+he considered the castle of slight importance. He supposed that the battle
+of Molino would be a small affair. Worth anticipated a desperate struggle,
+and took up his position in the dark on the morning of the 8th. At 3 A.M.
+he opened fire with his twenty-four pounders, and his storming party
+advanced toward the point where the enemy's batteries had been, but their
+position had been changed, and they suddenly opened fire on the flank of
+his 500. After various contests, the fighting became a struggle for the
+possession of the Molino. A desperate and deadly fight took place. The
+southern gate gave way and the Americans passed in. The fight was renewed
+with bayonet and sword, and Worth lost a large number of the flower of his
+forces. At last the Mexicans, all but 700, retreated to Chapultepec. On the
+left the Americans were received with a murderous fire, which was long
+continued. Their whole artillery was then concentrated upon the Casa Mata
+and its works, which, after a desperate defence, were abandoned. Except as
+an outpost to Chapultepec, the position had no value. By Scott's order
+Worth withdrew his command, and left to the enemy the field which had been
+so dearly won. Of 3,500 Americans in the fight, 787 had fallen, including
+59 officers.
+
+[Sidenote: Chapultepec]
+
+The Rock of Chapultepec rises 150 feet, and is crowned by the great castle.
+The northern side was inaccessible; the eastern and southern sides nearly
+so, and the southwestern and western could be scaled. A zigzag road on the
+southern side was swept by a battery at an angle. The crest was strongly
+fortified; ditches and strong walls and a redoubt were constructed at
+various points. The garrison numbered 2,000, and thirteen long guns were
+mounted. A select party under Captain Joseph Hooker seized the Molino, and
+at night Pellow threw his whole force into it. Two forces made a desperate
+assault on the intrenchments in front, united and passed the Mexicans and
+mounted the western slope. A party passed around the western front, which
+they scaled, and gained the parapet. Their comrades on the western side
+climbed the southern slope at the same time and joined the two. The whole
+castle was occupied. The Mexicans were dislodged and many prisoners were
+taken.
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of City of Mexico]
+
+The approach to the capital was difficult. It was by two roads, each along
+a stone aqueduct. On the Belen road the Mexicans were gradually pressed
+back, however, and the Americans entered the first work, where they were
+confronted by the citadel commanded by Santa Anna. A terrible fire rendered
+further advance impossible. On the San Cosme road the enemy was pursued to
+a second barricade, which was carried under Lieutenant U.S. Grant and
+Lieutenant Gire. Worth's columns pushed on. Having passed the arches, they
+began breaking their way through the walls of the houses. Howitzers were
+hauled to the roofs, and at last the main gate was carried. During the
+night a delegation proposed a capitulation. Scott refused to grant terms.
+At dawn Quitman advanced to the grand palace and occupied the Plaza, and an
+hour later Scott took up his headquarters there. Presently some 2,000
+liberated convicts and others began casting paving stones on the soldiers,
+and it became necessary to sweep the streets with grape and canister. By
+the 15th Scott was in full possession of the City of Mexico.
+
+[Sidenote: Flight of Santa Anna]
+
+On the morning of September 14, Generals Quitman and Worth raised the
+American flag over the national palace, and Scott soon afterward reined up
+at the Grand Plaza, where he removed his hat, and, raising his hand,
+proclaimed the conquest of Mexico. Santa Anna's men afterward treacherously
+attacked the hospital at Puebla, where were 2,000 Americans, sick and
+wounded. They bravely resisted and were presently rescued; the Mexicans
+being routed by General Lane. Santa Anna, again a fugitive, fled for safety
+to the shores of the Gulf.
+
+[Sidenote: Many reputations made]
+
+Among the officers who distinguished themselves were many who gained a
+lasting reputation fifteen years later, during the American civil war; for
+instance, Jefferson Davis, Grant, Lee, McClellan, Beauregard, Sherman,
+Hill, Jackson, Hooker, Longstreet, Buell, Johnston, Lyon, Kearney,
+Reynolds, French, Ewell and Sumner.
+
+[Sidenote: Premonitions of trouble in France]
+
+Late in the year simultaneous risings against the Bourbon government of
+Naples and Sicily occurred in Calabria and at Messina. In the north a
+conspiracy against further government by Austria assumed the proportions of
+a national movement. In France the popular clamor for reforms grew to
+threatening proportions. Prime Minister Guizot declined to enter into any
+of the radical schemes for reform. In the Chambers, Guizot declared: "The
+maintenance of the union of the Conservative party, of its policy and
+power, will be the fixed idea of the rule of conduct in the Cabinet." Late
+in December the Chambers met but promised no reforms. Defeated in this, the
+opposition determined to voice its protests at a political banquet in Paris
+similar to those that had been held at Strasburg, Lille, Lyons, Rouen, and
+other cities. The government forbade the banquet. It was postponed until
+the nest year. Popular passions for the moment were appeased by
+Abd-el-Kader's final surrender to General Lamorciere in Algeria, and the
+reported end of the troublesome war with the Arabs.
+
+
+
+
+1848
+
+
+[Sidenote: Revolution in Palermo]
+
+[Sidenote: Neapolitan constitution granted]
+
+[Sidenote: Anti-Austrian riots at Milan]
+
+[Sidenote: Northern Italy aflame]
+
+[Sidenote: Revolt at Rome]
+
+[Sidenote: Rome bombarded]
+
+The long seething discontent of the lower classes in Italy, fomented by the
+national aspirations of such radical leaders as Mazzini and Manin, had
+reached its culmination by this time. The centenary of the expulsion of the
+Austrians from Genoa had just been celebrated with such enthusiasm
+throughout central Italy that Austria was forewarned of the storm that was
+about to burst. Metternich wrote to Apponyi, "The world is very sick. The
+general condition of Europe is dangerous." Communications passed between
+the patriots in northern Italy and the opponents of the Bourbon government
+in Sicily. On January 12, the people of Palermo rose in revolt. The
+government troops were driven from the city. Palermo was bombarded and
+fighting continued for a full fortnight. In the end the insurgents were
+victorious, and a provisional government was established. Other towns in
+Sicily followed suit. On January 27, revolutionary riots broke out in
+Naples. Threatened by revolution throughout his dominions, King Ferdinand
+II. of Naples and Sicily, like his grandfather, made haste to proclaim a
+popular constitution. A Liberal Ministry was called in on January 29. The
+city of Messina was still in full insurrection when the standard of revolt
+was raised in northern Italy. In order to deprive the Austrian Government
+of one of its chief financial supports, the patriotic societies of Italy
+formed a resolution to abstain from the use of tobacco, on which the
+government had a monopoly. On the following Sunday, Austrian officers,
+smoking in the streets of Milan, were attacked by the populace. The troops
+had to be called to arms, and blood was shed on both sides. Similar
+outbreaks followed in Padua and elsewhere. Radetzky, the Austrian
+commander-in-chief, proclaimed martial law. On February 15, the people rose
+in Tuscany, and compelled their grandduke to proclaim a constitution. In
+March the insurrectionary movement spread from Lombardy to Piedmont. The
+republic of Venice was proclaimed. The King of Sardinia declared himself in
+sympathy with the liberation of Venice from Austrian rule. For a while Pope
+Pio Nono showed similar leanings. On March 15, the Nationalists of Rome
+declared against the Pope. The National Guards joined in the movement. The
+Papal troops had to be called out to put down the revolt by force of arms.
+The hordes of Roman lazzaroni or beggars profited by the confusion to
+commit hideous crimes. The Pope created a high council and Chamber of
+Deputies with privileges of limited legislation, the Pope retaining his
+full veto power on whatever they might decree. But on April 29, after the
+Jesuits had been expelled from Sardinia, Pio Nono turned his back on these
+reforms, and returned to the conservative policy of his immediate
+predecessors in the chair of St. Peter. His definite refusal to declare
+against Austria provoked another insurrection at Rome. This time the revolt
+grew to such proportions that the city had to be subjected to bombardment
+by artillery.
+
+[Sidenote: Spread of the revolution]
+
+[Sidenote: Democratic governments spared]
+
+In the meanwhile a revolution of far more serious proportions had broken
+out at Paris. Successful from the start, the contagion of its example had
+spread from France to most of the various principalities of Germany, to
+Austria, Bohemia and Hungary, and thence to almost every quarter in Europe.
+Few other events afford so striking an illustration of the modern
+cosmopolitan spirit that had arisen in Europe during the first half of the
+Nineteenth Century. The great revolutions of England, of America and of
+France, in previous times, affected the rest of humanity only long after
+their occurrence. The overthrow of Charles X. in 1830 gave rise to more or
+less abortive revolutions in Belgium, Italy and Poland, as well as some of
+the smaller German States. But the French February revolution of 1848
+spread instantly to all the civilized communities of the world, except
+Switzerland, Great Britain, and the United States of North America. The
+exemption of these three countries, where alone true democratic forms of
+government prevailed, was in itself a revelation of the general discontent
+of European peoples. Other explanations in plenty have been given, every
+one of which contained its measure of truth. To Polish refugees the
+upheavals of this year have been in part attributed. The rise of the new
+national spirit in literature was revealed in Italy and Germany as well as
+among the Magyars, Slavs and Greeks. The apparently epidemic character of
+the movement found another explanation in the improved means of transit and
+communication, and the great development of the public press.
+
+[Sidenote: Changes in Switzerland]
+
+In the countries untouched by revolution internal progress kept pace with
+the continued spread of civilization. In Switzerland, the expulsion of the
+Jesuits resulted in the attempted secession of the seven Catholic cantons.
+This was frustrated by General Dufour's prompt occupation of Freibourg and
+Luzerne. The so-called Sonderbund of the seceding cantons was dissolved. In
+place of the former union of sovereign cantons, the Swiss republic was now
+reconstituted after the model of the United States of North America, as a
+union of States with a central federal government at Berne. The Swiss army,
+postal system and finances were put under federal control and a national
+coinage was established. The separate interest of the cantons found
+representation in the Staenderat, while the Swiss people at large were
+represented in the Nationalrath, the members of which were elected from
+districts apportioned among the cantons according to equal numbers of
+population.
+
+[Sidenote: England unaffected]
+
+[Sidenote: Insurrection in Tipperary]
+
+[Sidenote: Queen Victoria in Ireland]
+
+[Sidenote: Orange River territory annexed to England]
+
+The people of England, though the stirring events on the Continent were
+brought home to them by so many eminent refugees seeking shelter in their
+land, held the issues at stake too well settled by their own great
+revolution of 1649 to find a sufficient incentive for another such
+movement. The popularity of the young Queen doubtless contributed its share
+to the stability of the government. The renewed demonstrations of the
+Chartists in London were merely co-incident with the revolutionary
+demonstrations abroad. Still the influence of contemporaneous events in
+Europe was strong enough to frighten Parliament into passing an act which
+made the utterance of seditious speeches a felony. A popular insurrection
+in Tipperary, Ireland, was made the pretext for once more suspending the
+habeas corpus act in Ireland. By the end of July the revolt was put down.
+Its leaders, John Mitchell, O'Brien and others were apprehended and tried
+in court for high treason. They were sentenced to death, but the Queen
+mitigated their sentences to transportation. A calming effect on Ireland
+was produced by the personal visit of the young Queen and her royal consort
+to Ireland. When she held her court at Dublin in midsummer, the most
+poignant causes for discontent were lost sight of amid wild demonstrations
+of apparently universal loyalty. A constitution on home rule principles was
+proclaimed in West Australia. In South Africa, Sir Harry Smith, the
+Governor of Cape Colony, after his successful termination of a fourth war
+with the Kaffirs, proclaimed the authority of Great Britain over the Orange
+River territory. The Boer settlers there under the leadership of Pretorius
+found themselves unable to maintain their independence. The adjoining lands
+of the Basutos were declared under British protectorate.
+
+[Sidenote: Massacre of Multan]
+
+[Sidenote: Punjab up in arms]
+
+[Sidenote: Sikhs and Afghans join revolt]
+
+Early in the year, Lord Dalhousie had relieved Lord Hardinge as
+Governor-General of India. Up to that time the British occupation of the
+Punjab had continued without material change. Now a new fiscal system was
+to be introduced there to settle up the arrears of Viceroy Mulraj of
+Multan. In April, Vance Agnew, a British commissioner, with a military
+escort of three hundred men, arrived at Multan to occupy the citadel as
+surety for these arrears. The British officers were admitted to the city,
+but as they emerged from the citadel they were attacked, and all the
+Englishmen were massacred. Mulraj called upon the Sikhs to rise against the
+English. A force of seven thousand British troops were sent against Multan.
+When they reached the city all the native troops turned against them. The
+whole of the Punjab revolted and a holy war was proclaimed against England.
+Lord Dalhousie rose to the occasion. As he left Bengal to go to the front
+he delivered a characteristic speech containing the historic declaration:
+"Unwarned by precedent, uninfluenced by example, the Sikh nation have
+called for war. On my word, sirs, they shall have it with vengeance!" The
+Sikh garrisons of Peshawar joined in the revolt, which was quickly taken up
+by the Afghans. George Lawrence, the British Resident there, was carried
+off as a prisoner. In the fort of Attock, Captain Herbert held out for a
+while, but in the end was forced to succumb. The first general engagement
+between Lord Gough and Sagr Singh at Ramluggar, late in the year, resulted
+in a drawn battle. On both sides reinforcements were hurried up wherewith
+to wage the coming year's campaign.
+
+[Sidenote: More Arctic expeditions]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of George Stephenson]
+
+[Sidenote: Stephenson's career]
+
+From England, during this time, two more expeditions had been sent out in
+search of Sir John Franklin. The first of these was commanded by Sir James
+Ross, the famous Antarctic explorer. The second expedition, while
+discovering no trace of Franklin, claimed that it had discovered the long
+sought for Northwest Passage. The science of astronomy lost one of its most
+distinguished representatives in England by the death of Caroline Herschel,
+the sister of the famous discoverer of Uranus. Besides her the necrology of
+the year in England included the two authors, Isaac d'Israeli, the father
+of Lord Beaconsfield, and Captain Frederick Marryat, the romancer of the
+sea; Lord Alexander Ashburton, the framer of the Canadian boundary treaty
+that commemorates his name, and George Stephenson, the inventor of the
+first practicable locomotive. Stephenson began life as a pit-engine boy at
+twopence a day near Newcastle-on-Tyne. Having risen to the grade of
+engineman, he was employed in the collieries of Lord Ravensworth improving
+the wagon way and railway planes under ground. In 1814 he completed a
+locomotive steam-engine, which was successfully tried on the Killingworth
+Railway. The locomotive "Rocket," constructed by Stephenson and his son
+Robert, which won the premium of five hundred pounds in 1829, offered by
+the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Company, ushered in the greatest
+mechanical revolution since the invention of the steam-engine by Watt.
+After this Stephenson became a locomotive builder on a large scale and
+acquired enormous wealth. Another invention standing to the credit of
+Stephenson was one of the earliest safety lamps, but a committee which
+investigated the subject accorded to Sir Humphry Davy the priority of this
+invention. During this year Sir Austin Henry Layard published the results
+of his original researches of Nineveh and its remains. Macaulay printed the
+first two volumes of his "History of England," while Matthew Arnold brought
+out his "Strayed Reveller" and other poems. Elizabeth Gaskell published
+"Mary Barton."
+
+Of the various expeditions undertaken in search of Sir John Franklin, the
+most noteworthy perhaps was Dr. John Rae's overland journey through the
+northwestern territory of America from the Mackenzie to the Copper Mine
+River. This opened up a vast tract of country to adventurous Canadians.
+Another lasting benefit was conferred upon Upper Canada by the
+reorganization of the public school system of Ontario.
+
+[Sidenote: Peace with Mexico]
+
+[Sidenote: Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo]
+
+[Sidenote: American expansion]
+
+On the part of the United States the war with Mexico was brought to a
+close. The President of the Mexican Congress assumed provisional authority,
+and, on February 2, that body at Guadaloupe Hidalgo concluded peace with
+the United States. With slight amendments the treaty was ratified by the
+United States Senate on March 10, and by the Mexican Congress at Queratero
+on the 30th of May. President Polk, on July 4 following, finally proclaimed
+peace. The Americans under the terms of the treaty evacuated Mexico within
+three months, paid Mexico $3,000,000 immediately, and $12,000,000 in three
+annual instalments, and assumed debts of $3,500,000 due from Mexico to
+American citizens. These payments were made in consideration of new
+accessions of territory which gave to the United States not only Texas, but
+Arizona, New Mexico and California. The war had cost the United States
+approximately $25,000,000 and 25,000 men.
+
+[Sidenote: Gold found in California]
+
+While these negotiations were under way, Colonel Sutter had begun the
+erection of a mill at Colonna on the American branch of the Sacramento
+River. In January one Marshall, who was engaged in digging a race-way for
+the mill for Colonel Sutter, found a metal which he had not seen before,
+and, on testing it in the fire, found that it was gold. The "finds" were
+sent to Sacramento and tested, with the result that they were declared to
+be pure gold. The mint at Philadelphia also declared the metal to be gold,
+and the President referred to the fact in his annual message to Congress.
+
+[Sidenote: Influx of Gold Seekers]
+
+Then the gold seekers poured into California. They arrived in multitudes
+from all parts of America and other countries--thousands tracking across
+the plains and mountains with ox-teams and on foot, and other thousands
+crossing the Isthmus with scarcely less difficulty, while around the Horn a
+steady procession of ships passed up the coast of South America and Mexico
+to the new El Dorado. In two years the population of California increased
+100,000, and still the hordes of gold seekers came.
+
+Wisconsin, the thirtieth State, was admitted May 29. It had been one of the
+first districts to receive the visits of the fur traders and the French
+missionaries, who went thither in 1639.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of John Quincy Adams]
+
+John Quincy Adams was overtaken by death in the midst of his career. On
+February 21 he entered the House and took his seat. Suddenly he fell to the
+floor, stricken with apoplexy. As he was carried to the Speaker's room and
+was laid on a lounge, he feebly murmured: "This is the last of earth. I am
+content." He died on February 23.
+
+[Sidenote: His diplomatic career]
+
+[Sidenote: Morse on Adams]
+
+John Quincy Adams's long career is unique in American history. At the age
+of eleven he accompanied his father on a diplomatic mission to Europe, and
+early acquired a knowledge of French and German. When barely fourteen he
+went to St. Petersburg as private secretary to the American Minister, Dana.
+At sixteen Adams served as one of the secretaries of the American
+Plenipotentiaries during the negotiations resulting in the treaty of peace
+and independence of 1783. At the age of twenty-seven he was appointed
+Minister to Holland by President Washington, and afterward was Minister to
+Berlin and Commissioner to Sweden. After serving for some years in the
+United States Senate he was sent, in 1809, as Minister to Russia, where he
+remained till 1815. Then he was transferred to London, where he resided
+till 1817, when he became Secretary of State. His career as President of
+the United States and his subsequent Congressional life was honorable in
+the extreme. Yet Adams's biographer, Morse, has aptly said: "Never did a
+man of pure life and just purposes have fewer friends or more enemies....
+If he could ever have gathered even a small personal following, his
+character and abilities would have insured him a brilliant and prolonged
+success; but for a man of his calibre and influence, we see him as one of
+the most lonely and desolate of the great men of history."
+
+[Sidenote: James Russell Lowell]
+
+During this year James Russell Lowell published his "Bigelow Papers," a
+humorous satire on the Mexican war in Yankee dialect, the "Indian Summer
+Reverie," and "A Fable for Critics."
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Donizetti]
+
+[Sidenote: Early operas]
+
+[Sidenote: Prolific compositions]
+
+On April 8, Gaetano Donizetti--who together with Rossini and Bellini formed
+the brilliant triumvirate of Italian composers in the first half of the
+Nineteenth Century--died in his native town of Bergamo. Donizetti composed
+his first opera, "Enrico di Borgogna," in 1819, while serving as a soldier
+in Venice. Three other operas followed quickly. His fourth, "Zoraide di
+Granada," was such a success that he was exempted from further military
+service in 1822. During the following six years he wrote no less than
+twenty-three operas, many of which were cheap imitations of Rossini. In
+1880, stung by the success of Bellini, he wrote "Anna Bolena," which
+inaugurated his second more original period, which included "Lucrecia
+Borgia" and the immensely popular "Lucia di Lammermoor." The prohibition of
+his opera "Poliecto," while he was serving as a director of the Naples
+Conservatory, so exasperated Donizetti that he betook himself to Paris in
+1838. There he brought out the "Daughter of the Regiment" and "La
+Favorita." After a few years he went to Vienna, where his "Linda di
+Chamounix," sung in 1842, achieved an immense success. Having returned to
+Italy he was stricken with paralysis from overwork in 1845. He never
+recovered. Besides more than threescore of operas, Donizetti composed seven
+masses, twelve string quartets, and a host of songs, cantatas and vespers,
+as well as pianoforte music.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Chateaubriand]
+
+[Sidenote: New world inspirations]
+
+[Sidenote: "Essay on Revolutions"]
+
+[Sidenote: "Atala"]
+
+[Sidenote: "Rene"]
+
+[Sidenote: "Genius of Christianity"]
+
+[Sidenote: "The Last of the Abencerrages"]
+
+[Sidenote: "The monarchy under the Charter"]
+
+[Sidenote: The poet's political career]
+
+Another figure of world-wide renown was lost by the death of the French
+poet Francois Rene de Chateaubriand. Born at chateau Combourg in 1768, the
+scion of one of the noblest families of France, he received a careful
+education at chateau Combourg. Roaming about on the sea-shore and in the
+famous forest of Brezilien, the youth received his earliest impressions of
+the grandeurs of nature. Shortly before the outbreak of the French
+Revolution he was sent to Paris, where he received a commission in the
+royal army. It was then he published his first poem, "L'Amour de la
+Campagne," in the Almanach des Muses. Dissatisfied with the revolutionary
+turn of affairs, he resigned his commission in 1790, and journeyed to North
+America. There he travelled extensively, seeking poetic inspiration from
+the wilderness and the primitive customs of the Indians. After the downfall
+of King Louis XVI. and the French nobility, Chateaubriand hastily returned
+to France and joined the army of emigres under Prince Conde. At the siege
+of Thionville he was wounded and went to England. By the time
+Chateaubriand recovered he found himself in abject poverty, and had to
+spend his days in bed for lack of fuel. In England, he wrote his "Essai sur
+les Revolutions," in which he compared the recent rising in France to that
+of the English Commonwealth. On the fall of the Directorate he returned to
+France, and became one of the editors of Fontaine's "Mercure de France." At
+the opening of the Nineteenth Century he published "Atala," an episode of
+his epic poem "Les Natchez," treating of the suicide of an Indian virgin,
+who sought death rather than violate a solemn vow of chastity given to her
+mother. In 1802 appeared the second episode, "Rene," a subjective story
+treating of the hapless love of a sister for her brother, full of a French
+form of _maladie du monde_ akin to Goethe's _Weltschmerz_ in the "Sorrows
+of Werther." During the same year, Chateaubriand brought out his famous
+"Genius of Christianity, or the Beauties of the Christian Religion," which
+achieved an immense success. It won the approbation even of Napoleon, who
+appointed Chateaubriand to diplomatic posts at Rome and Vallis. The
+execution of the Duc d'Enghien was so horrifying to Chateaubriand that he
+forthwith resigned his appointments. After extensive travels through
+Greece, Egypt and the Holy Land, Chateaubriand went to Spain, where he
+found inspiration at the Alhambra to write "Le dernier des Abencerrages."
+There, too, he wrote his story of "The Martyrs, or the Triumph of the
+Christian Religion," brought out in Paris in 1809. Less successful was his
+tragedy "Moses." In 1810, Chateaubriand published the famous political
+pamphlet "La Monarchie selon la Charte," which was made the basis of the
+subsequent royal constitution of France. On the restoration of the Bourbons
+he wrote another political pamphlet, directed against Bonaparte, which sent
+him into exile together with Louis XVIII. during the Hundred Days. On the
+return of Louis XVIII. he was made a member of State, a peer of France, and
+member of the French Academy. In 1820 he was sent as ambassador to Berlin
+and then to London, from where he was recalled into the Cabinet. Crowded
+out of the Cabinet by Villele, he became one of the leaders of the
+opposition. In 1828, he went on another diplomatic mission to Rome. The
+rest of his life was uneventful. Shortly before his death he brought out
+his complete works, including his latest "Etudes Historiques." A posthumous
+work was his "Memoires d'Outre-Tombe," containing the famous comparison
+between the characters of George Washington and Napoleon Bonaparte.
+
+[Sidenote: Paris reform banquet]
+
+[Sidenote: Ministry impeached]
+
+In the French Chambers, early in February, a great debate had been held on
+the Reform Bill. Guizot, the Prime Minister, held firm in his opposition to
+all the proposed reforms. It was now proposed to hold the reform banquet,
+that had repeatedly been prohibited and postponed, on February 22. The
+banquet was once more interdicted, and it was announced that any unlawful
+assemblage would be dispersed by force. Thereupon the banquet was
+abandoned. The evening papers declared that the deputies of the opposition
+had agreed to abstain from the proposed manifestation. A manifesto
+published by the "Journal National" was the cause of a noisy demonstration
+in the streets of the 12th Arrondissement. The National Guards were called
+out. On the same day fifty-two deputies of the Left laid before the
+Chambers a bill of impeachment against the Ministry. The King and his
+advisers were in a state of blind security.
+
+[Sidenote: Street demonstrations]
+
+[Sidenote: National Guard disaffected]
+
+On the morning of the eventful 22d of February, the Parisian populace
+congregated by thousands near the Madeleine and the Rue Royale, shouting
+"Vive la reforme; a bas les ministres!" and singing the "Marseillaise." No
+troops made their appearance; but encounters occurred at several points
+between the mob and the municipal guards. Still the day passed over without
+serious hostilities. On the next day, the National Guards of Paris were
+called out. Their cry, as they marched through the different quarters of
+the city, was "Vive la reforme!" This emboldened the leaders of the
+revolutionists. The members of the secret societies flew to arms; and in
+the skirmishes which followed between the populace and the regular troops,
+the National Guard everywhere interfered in favor of the former. Thus
+confronted, officers and soldiers hesitated to commit a general assault
+upon their fellow citizens. They allowed themselves to be reduced to
+inaction. The insurrection thus triumphed almost without actual strife.
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Guizot's Ministry]
+
+[Sidenote: Barricades erected]
+
+[Sidenote: Thiers' manifesto]
+
+[Sidenote: The last stroke]
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Philippe succumbs]
+
+The King at length became acquainted with the true situation. In the
+afternoon of the 23d, Guizot tendered his resignation, which was promptly
+accepted, and published as an act of satisfaction on the part of the King
+to the demands of the people. Count Mole was charged with the formation of
+a new Ministry. It was now generally expected that tranquillity would be at
+once restored. But late at night the detachment of troops posted at the
+Office of Foreign Affairs was attacked by a band of rioters. The commanding
+officer ordered them to fire, and several persons in the crowd were shot
+down. Their dead bodies were paraded through the city. This spectacle
+raised the indignation of the multitude to the highest pitch. Fresh
+barricades were erected in all the most populous quarters of the city, and
+the soldiers, stupefied and panic-struck, renounced all further opposition
+to the revolt. The King now named Marshal Bugeaud to the supreme command of
+the whole military force at Paris. Mole having declined the task of
+constructing a Ministry, the King summoned Thiers to the head of affairs.
+This statesman, in conjunction with Odillon-Barrot, immediately issued a
+proclamation announcing their appointment as Ministers, and stating that
+orders had been given to the troops to withdraw and abandon the contest.
+This gave the last blow to the monarchy of Louis Philippe. Marshal Bugeaud
+resigned his command. The soldiers quitted their ranks, giving up arms and
+ammunition to the insurgents. The National Guard openly joined the masses
+of the people and marched with them upon the Tuileries. The catastrophe was
+now inevitable. Louis Philippe, feeling that all was lost, signed an act
+of abdication in favor of his grandson the Comte de Paris, and withdrew to
+St. Cloud.
+
+[Sidenote: Mob invades the Chamber]
+
+An attempt was made to obtain the recognition of the Duchess of Orleans as
+regent, and thus to preserve the throne to the heir of Louis Philippe,
+according to the terms of his abdication. The Duchess went to the Chamber
+of Deputies, holding by the hand her sons the Comte de Paris and the Duc de
+Chartres. They took their seats in front of the tribune. More than one
+member spoke earnestly in favor of the regency. In the midst of the debate
+the Chamber was invaded by a tumultuous throng of armed men. One of them
+was Arnold Boecklin, the Swiss artist, who subsequently rose to highest rank
+among the painters of the Nineteenth Century. Marie, a violent Republican,
+ascending the tribune, announced that the first duty of the Legislature was
+to appoint a strong provisional government capable of re-establishing
+public confidence and order. Cremieux, Ledru-Rollin and Lamartine in turn
+insisted on a new government and constitution to be sanctioned by the
+sovereign people. The proposition was hailed with tumultuous acclamations.
+The Duchess of Orleans and her children retired precipitately.
+
+[Sidenote: Provisional Government formed]
+
+[Sidenote: Fulsome promises]
+
+[Sidenote: Proclamation of French Republic]
+
+The Republicans remained masters of the field. A provisional government was
+forthwith nominated. It included the poet Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin,
+Garnier-Pages and Arago. While the mob was searching the Hotel de Ville
+these men conferred in a small out-of-the-way chamber behind locked doors.
+Louis Blanc, the great socialistic writer, and one Albert, a locksmith,
+were added to the provisional government. Every half hour Lamartine had to
+confront some new crowd of rioters preferring fresh claims. The confusion
+lasted several days. Throughout this time more barricades were thrown up,
+until the government gained a breathing space by a promise to distribute
+one million francs among the laboring men. Louis Blanc and Ledru-Rollin
+signed another decree whereby they pledged the government to furnish every
+Frenchman with work. With the help of National Guardsmen, and an organized
+body of students, Caussidiere, the new police prefect, succeeded at last in
+keeping the mob out of the Hotel de Ville and the Palais Bourbon. On
+February 27, the Republic was formally proclaimed from the Place de la
+Bastille. The barricades were levelled and the crowds that had surged
+through the streets of Paris gradually dispersed. Throughout France the
+Republic was accepted without serious opposition.
+
+[Sidenote: Flight of royal family]
+
+For a while it was feared that Louis Philippe's sons in Algiers, the Duke
+d'Aumale and Prince de Joinville, who commanded the French army and navy,
+disposing of more than a hundred thousand men, might make a stroke on their
+father's behalf. This hope of the Royalists was doomed to disappointment.
+Both princes resigned their command, to be succeeded by General Cavignac,
+who took charge of the forces in the name of the French Republic. The other
+members of the dynasty accomplished their escape from France amid many
+curious adventures. After leaving Paris the party separated so as to avoid
+suspicion. Louis Philippe and the Queen with a few attendants fled to
+Honfleur, where they lay for nearly a week in concealment. At length the
+packet steamer "Express" was placed at their disposal by the British
+Government. On March 4, Louis Philippe, having assumed the name of William
+Smith, landed at Newhaven in Sussex. With the Queen he proceeded to
+Claremont, a country-seat belonging to his son-in-law, King Leopold of
+Belgium. The Duke of Montpensier with the Duchess of Nemours fled to
+Belgium, as did the Duchess of Orleans.
+
+[Sidenote: English Chartists encouraged]
+
+[Sidenote: Inflammatory speeches]
+
+[Sidenote: London ready for revolution]
+
+[Sidenote: Rioters discouraged]
+
+The French Revolution gave quickening impulse to the Chartist movement in
+England. Feargus O'Connor had been returned at the General Election of 1847
+as member for Nottingham. He threw himself into a renewal of the agitation
+with all the strength and vigor of a madman. A National Convention was
+summoned, and it was determined that another monster petition should be
+carried to the House of Commons, to be followed by a procession of half a
+million persons. The idea got abroad that a revolution might break out in
+London on the presentation of the petition. Ernest Jones had exclaimed on
+Kensington Common, "Never fear the vile men of the law; the police, the
+troops, sympathize with you. Down with the Ministry! Dissolve the
+Parliament! The Charter, and no surrender!" At the National Convention,
+Vernon declared: "If a few hundreds do fall on each side, they will only be
+the casualties in a mighty movement." On April 10 a great demonstration
+was to be held on Kensington Common. In anticipation, special constables to
+the number of 170,000 were sworn in to keep the peace; troops were
+quartered in the houses of the main thoroughfares; two thousand stands of
+arms were supplied to the officials of the General Post-Office; the Custom
+House, Bank, Exchange, and other public buildings were similarly equipped;
+the Admiralty was garrisoned by a body of marines, and the Tower guns were
+mounted. On the eventful morning, London assumed a military guise such as
+it had never worn before. Traffic was suspended along the streets for fear
+that the vehicles should be employed, as in France, in the construction of
+barricades. Finally a proclamation was issued warning people against
+collecting for disorderly purposes. The military arrangements were in the
+hands of the Duke of Wellington. Owing to these thorough precautions the
+threatened mass meeting collapsed. The procession was never held. The whole
+affair was covered with ridicule. The "monster petition" was found to
+contain not six million signatures as was alleged, but only 1,975,469, and
+many of these proved to be fictitious, whole sheets being found to be in
+the same handwriting, and containing such names as Victoria Rex, Prince
+Albert, Punch, and so forth.
+
+[Sidenote: Collapse of Chartism]
+
+[Sidenote: End of Feargus O'Connor]
+
+In the words of a contemporary, "Chartism had received its death-blow.
+O'Brien, Vincent, and others endeavored to revive it, but in vain. Its
+members fell off in disappointment and allied themselves with reformers of
+greater moderation, and Feargus O'Connor, who for ten years had madly
+spent his force and energy in carrying forward the movement, gave it up in
+despair. Everything he had touched had proved a failure. From being an
+object of terror, Chartism had become an object of ridicule. O'Connor took
+the matter so much to heart that he soon became an inmate of a lunatic
+asylum, and never recovered his reason."
+
+[Sidenote: Progress of Italian Revolution]
+
+[Sidenote: Austrians driven northward]
+
+[Sidenote: Radetzky seeks refuge]
+
+All Italy now, from the southern shores of Sicily to the Alps, was in a
+blaze of insurrection. Venice, Piedmont and Lombardy were in arms. Charles
+Albert, the King of Sardinia, put himself at the head of the movement in
+northern Italy. From all parts of Italy volunteers crowded to his banners.
+In defiance of the Pope's orders a compact body of these volunteers marched
+from Rome. Radetzky, the Austrian commander, a veteran of all the Austrian
+wars since the outbreak of the French Revolution, had long prepared for
+this struggle by formidable fortifications at Verona. When Milan revolted
+and the Austrian Vice-Governor, O'Donnell, was captured, Radetzky evacuated
+the city at the approach of Charles Albert's army from Piedmont. His
+outlying garrison was cut off by the Italians. Preferring the loss of Milan
+to a possible annihilation of the army, Radetzky fell back upon Verona. On
+the banks of the Adige, about twenty-five miles east of the Mincio, he
+rapidly concentrated all available forces, while the Italians threw up
+intrenchments on the Mincio. There, with the armies of Piedmont and
+Lombardy in front of him and the revolutionary forces of Venice behind him,
+Radetzky stubbornly held his ground. Nothing remained to Austria on
+Italian ground but Verona and the neighboring fortresses on the Adige and
+Mincio.
+
+[Sidenote: Kossuth's appeal]
+
+[Sidenote: Magyar Constitution proclaimed]
+
+[Sidenote: Stocks fall in Vienna]
+
+The Austrian Empire itself, by this time, was shaken to its foundations.
+When the news of the February Revolution in Paris reached Austria the
+Magyar Diet was in session in Hungary. The success of the revolutionists in
+France inflamed the Liberal leaders in Hungary. Casting aside all reserve,
+Kossuth declared in the Diet: "From the charnel house of the Viennese
+system a poison-laden atmosphere steals over us. It would paralyze our
+nerves and pin us down when we might soar. The future of Hungary can never
+be secured while Austria maintains a system of government in direct
+antagonism to every constitutional principle. Our task is to found a
+happier future on the brotherhood of all the races in Austria. For a union
+enforced by bayonets and police spies let us substitute the enduring bond
+of a free constitution!" On March 3, the Hungarian Lower House triumphantly
+passed a resolution to that effect. The cry for a liberal constitution was
+instantly taken up in the other dominions of Austria. It so happened that
+the Provincial Estates of Lower Austria were to meet about this time. It
+was planned that an address embodying demands similar to those of Hungary
+should be forwarded to the Emperor by this assembly. The political
+agitation in Vienna became feverish. The students indulged in noisy
+demonstrations. Rumors of the impending repudiation of the paper currency
+and of State bankruptcy made matters worse. A sharp decline in stocks
+showed Metternich that a public catastrophe was near at hand.
+
+[Sidenote: Viennese Diet stormed]
+
+[Sidenote: Fighting in the street]
+
+[Sidenote: Imperial palace invaded]
+
+[Sidenote: Downfall of Metternich]
+
+On March 13, the Provincial Diet met. Dense crowds surged about the Diet
+Hall. The students marched around in procession. Street orators harangued
+the crowds. The tumult was at its height when a slip of paper was let down
+from one of the windows of the hall, stating that the Diet was inclining to
+half measures. An announcement to this effect was received with a roar of
+fury. The mob overran the guards and burst into the Diet Hall. All debate
+was stopped, and the leading members of the Estates were forced to head a
+deputation to the Emperor's palace to exact a hearing. All the approaches
+to the palace were choked with people. Street fighting had already begun.
+Detachments of soldiers were hurried to the palace and to the Diet Hall.
+From the roof and windows of the Diet Hall missiles were hurled upon the
+soldiery. The interior of the Hall was demolished. The soldiers now fired a
+volley and cleared the Hall with their bayonets. Blood flowed freely and
+many were killed. The sound of the shots was received by the crowds around
+the palace with howls of rage. The whole city was in an uproar. Barricades
+were thrown up and the gunsmith shops were sacked. At the palace, where the
+Emperor himself remained invisible, Metternich and his assembled Council
+received the deputation in state. The Council urged the aged Prime Minister
+to grant the demanded concession. At length he withdrew into an adjoining
+chamber to draft an order annulling the censorship of the press. While he
+was thus engaged the cry was raised, "Down with Metternich!" The deputies
+in the Council Chamber peremptorily demanded his dismissal. When the old
+statesman returned he found himself abandoned even by his colleagues.
+Metternich realized that the end had come. He made a brief farewell speech,
+marked by all the dignity and self-possession of his greatest days, and
+left the Council Chamber to announce his resignation to the Emperor.
+
+[Sidenote: Quiet restored]
+
+[Sidenote: Hungarian demands]
+
+[Sidenote: Kossuth in Vienna]
+
+[Sidenote: Demonstrations of enthusiasm]
+
+The news of Metternich's downfall was received with deafening cheers. His
+personality was so closely identified with all that was most hateful in
+Austrian politics that the mere announcement of his resignation sufficed to
+quell the popular tumult. On the night of March 14, Metternich contrived to
+escape from Vienna unobserved, and fled across the frontier. On the same
+day a National Guard was established in Vienna, and was supplied with arms
+taken from the government arsenal. The Viennese outbreak gave irresistible
+force to the national movement in Hungary. Now the Chamber of Magnates,
+which had hitherto opposed the demands of the Lower House, adopted the same
+by a unanimous vote. On March 15, a deputation was despatched to Vienna to
+demand from the Emperor not only a liberal constitution, but a separate
+Ministry, absolute freedom of the press, trial by jury, equality of
+religion, and a free public-school system. The Hungarians, with Kossuth in
+the lead, were received in triumph in Vienna. They paraded through the
+streets, and were greeted by Emperor Ferdinand in person. He consented to
+everything and issued an imperial rescript, promising a liberal
+constitution to the rest of Austria as well. The light-hearted Viennese
+indulged in indescribable jubilations. On March 18, the Emperor drove
+through the city. Somebody put a revolutionary banner into his hands. The
+black, red and gold ensign of united Germany was hoisted over the tower of
+St. Stephen. In an intoxication of joy the people took the horses from the
+imperial carriage and drew it triumphantly through the streets. The regular
+troops around the imperial palace were superseded by the new National
+Guards.
+
+[Sidenote: Germany in a ferment]
+
+[Sidenote: Prussian Assembly convoked]
+
+[Sidenote: King of Prussia cowed]
+
+[Sidenote: Revolt in Berlin]
+
+[Sidenote: Prince William's part]
+
+[Sidenote: King of Prussia submissive]
+
+[Sidenote: Royal promises]
+
+[Sidenote: Rising of Schleswig-Holstein]
+
+[Sidenote: Reverse at Bau]
+
+By this time the same storm of revolution was sweeping over Germany.
+Popular demonstrations occurred at Mannheim, Cassel, Breslau, Koenigsberg
+and along the Rhine region in Cologne, Duesseldorf and Aix-la-Chapelle. A
+popular convention at Heidelberg, on March 5, had resolved upon a national
+assembly to be held at Frankfort-on-the-Main by the end of March. Elections
+for this assembly were being held throughout Germany. The long-desired
+union of Germany was at last to be accomplished. On March 14, King
+Frederick William of Prussia convoked the Prussian Assembly for April 27,
+to deliberate upon Prussia's part in the proposed German union. Then came
+the news of the events in Vienna. Crowds gathered in the streets excitedly
+discussing the events of the day. Attempts on the part of the police to
+disperse them led to threatening encounters. Under the stress of alarming
+bulletins from Vienna, the King issued a rescript on March 18, in which he
+not only convoked the Prussian Assembly for the earlier date of April 2,
+but himself proposed such reforms as constitutional government, liberty of
+speech, liberty of the press, and the reconstitution of the Germanic
+Federation as a national union of states--a realization in brief of all the
+most ardent ideals of the German Liberals. Now the popular agitators
+proposed a monster demonstration to thank the King for his concessions.
+Shortly after noon, on March 18, the processions converged upon the palace.
+Immense crowds filled the streets. The appearance of the King upon the
+balcony was greeted with cheers. King Frederick William tried to speak but
+could not make himself heard. The troops set out to clear the palace
+grounds. Angry shouts arose for the withdrawal of the soldiery. In the
+confusion two shots were fired. A panic ensued: "We are betrayed," cried
+the leaders, and called the people to arms. The troops of the garrison
+charged into the rioters. Barricades were thrown up, and here and there
+church bells rang the tocsin. From three in the afternoon until early the
+next morning, fighting continued in the streets. The entire garrison of
+Berlin was called out and with the help of the bright moonlight succeeded
+in clearing one street after another. Prince William, the future German
+Emperor, gained unenviable notoriety by his zeal. At two in the morning
+the King gave orders to stop firing. He issued a proclamation: "To my dear
+people of Berlin," the mild tone of which only betrayed his weakness. On
+the following day all the troops were withdrawn and ordered out of the
+city. Prince William likewise left Berlin in deep chagrin and departed for
+England. His palace had to be protected from the fury of the people by
+placards pronouncing it the property of the nation. Once more the rioters
+appeared before the royal palace with the bodies of some of their slain.
+The King convoked a new Ministry and consented to substitute armed citizens
+and students for his royal guards. A general amnesty was proclaimed. On
+March 21, the King agreed to adopt "the sacred colors of the German Empire"
+for those of Prussia. After the manner of the weak Emperor of Austria, he
+rode through the streets of Berlin wearing a tricolor sash. Not satisfied
+with this, the revolutionists, on March 22, paraded before the palace with
+the open biers of 187 men that had been killed during the riots. Standing
+on his balcony with bared head, King Frederick William reviewed the ghastly
+procession. In a manifesto published at the close of the day he declared:
+"Germany is in ferment within and exposed from without to danger from more
+than one side. Deliverance from this danger can come only from the most
+intimate union of the German princes and people under a single leadership.
+I take this leadership upon me for the hour of peril. I have to-day assumed
+the old German colors, and placed myself and my people under the venerable
+banner of the German Empire. Prussia is henceforth merged into Germany."
+Thus Frederick William, by word and acts, which he afterward described as a
+comedy, directly encouraged the imperial aspirations of liberal Germany.
+The passage of his address in which he spoke of external dangers
+threatening Germany came true sooner than was expected. King Christian
+VIII. of Denmark had died early in the year. The fear of revolution at
+Copenhagen drove his son Frederick VII., the last of the Oldenburg line, to
+prick the war bubble blown by his father. On March 22, he called the
+leaders of the Eider-Dane party--the party which regarded the Eider as the
+boundary of the Danish dominions, thus converting Schleswig into a Danish
+province--to take the reins of government. The people of Schleswig and
+Holstein protested. The King was checkmated at Kiel by the appointment of a
+provisional government. The troops joined the people, and the insurrection
+spread over the whole province. The struggle then began. Volunteers from
+all parts of Germany rushed to the northern frontier. The German Bundestag
+admitted a representative of the threatened Duchies, and intrusted Prussia
+with their defence. An attempt was made to organize a German fleet. General
+Wrangel was placed in command of the Prussian forces despatched toward
+Denmark. Before he could arrive, the untrained volunteer army of
+Schleswig-Holsteiners suffered defeat at Bau. A corps of students from the
+University of Kiel was all but annihilated.
+
+[Sidenote: Russia stems revolution]
+
+An attempted rising of the Poles, in the Prussian province of Posen and at
+Cracow, was quickly suppressed. As soon as the news of the revolution in
+Paris reached Russia, the absolute ruler of that vast empire mobilized his
+armies, "so that, if circumstances should demand it, the tide of Anarchy
+could be dammed." After the abortive revolt at Cracow, Czar Nicholas issued
+an imperial manifesto, closing with a quotation from Isaiah: "Listen, ye
+heathen, and submit, for with us is God." When the spirit of revolt spread
+to Moldavia and Wallachia, Emperor Nicholas without further ado despatched
+a Russian army corps across the Pruth. The Sultan of Turkey was prevailed
+upon to do the same. Russian and Turkish troops occupied Jassy and
+Bucharest during the summer.
+
+  [Illustration: OPENING OF THE OPERA
+    Painted by Edouard Detaille
+    Copyright by M. Knoedler & Co.]
+
+[Sidenote: Frankfort Vor-Parlament]
+
+[Sidenote: Revolution in Baden]
+
+[Sidenote: General Gagern shot]
+
+[Sidenote: Flight of rebels]
+
+The German preliminary Parliament of five hundred delegates had met at
+Frankfort in April. It lasted but five days. The Republicans found
+themselves outnumbered, when they submitted their scheme for a national
+constitution. Repulsed in this, the Liberals proposed that they should
+continue in session until the real National Parliament should meet, thus
+extending their function beyond the limits of a mere constituent assembly.
+Outvoted in this, the leaders of the extreme Republicans resorted to armed
+revolt. Assisted by Polish refugees and men from France, they raised the
+red flag in Baden. Friedrich Hecker, a popular orator and representative of
+Baden, headed the movement. George Herwegh, the poet, took charge of the
+refugees from Switzerland and a group of German operatives recently
+returned from France. A provisional government was declared in the lake
+district of Baden. The Parliamentary majority of Frankfort, on breaking up,
+left behind a committee of fifty to prepare the draft of a constitution.
+The Bundestag meeting at the same time called for military measures against
+the insurgents. From three sides troops advanced into Baden. A Bavarian
+detachment marched from Lindau, Swabian troops came from the Black Forest,
+while from the north Hessian forces were led by General von Gagern, a
+brother of the new Prime Minister of Hesse. On April 19, Von Gagern
+encountered the revolutionists under Hecker at Kandern. While haranguing
+the insurgents, he was shot from his horse. The troops charged the
+insurgents with the bayonet and dispersed them in less than an hour. Four
+days later the revolutionary intrenchments at Freiburg were stormed. On the
+27th, Herwegh's corps of 1,000 refugees was dispersed by General Miller.
+Hecker fled to America. The other leaders likewise made good their escape.
+On April 29 they issued a manifesto at Strasburg: "An overwhelming number
+of imported bestial mercenaries have crushed Republican aspirations in
+Baden, and have once more subjected the people to the hateful tyranny of
+princes."
+
+[Sidenote: The cause of Italy]
+
+[Sidenote: Other Powers hostile]
+
+[Sidenote: Italy isolated]
+
+The unexpected outbreak of revolution in Vienna and Hungary had inspired
+the Italians to rebel against Austrian rule with new confidence. On March
+30, Pio Nono at Rome issued a proclamation to the people of Italy, in which
+he said: "The events which have followed one another with such astounding
+rapidity during the last two months are not the work of man. Woe to him
+who, in this storm that shatters cedars as well as oaks, hears not the
+voice of the Lord." Under the command of General Durando, a band of
+Crociati, or crusaders, marched from Rome against the Austrians. Count
+Balbo was placed in command of the Piedmontese army. To the remonstrances
+of the British Ambassador at Turin, King Charles Albert replied that he
+must either march against Austria or lose his crown. England, indeed, was
+emphatic in its disapproval of the Italian national movement. In the pages
+of the "Edinburgh Review," Sir Archibald Allison, the court historian,
+wrote: "It is utterly repugnant to the first principles of English policy,
+and to every page in English history, to lend encouragement to the
+separation of nationalities from other empires." The new republican
+government in France, on its part, had no desire to see a strong Italian
+national State spring up on its southern frontier. Lamartine, the French
+Foreign Minister, declined Charles Albert's request to sanction his
+military occupation of Lombardy. A strong French army of observation was
+concentrated on the Italian frontier in the Alps. Germany, which in later
+years was destined to become the strongest ally of Italy, was still so
+bound up with Austria that when Arnold Ruge in the Frankfort Parliament
+dared to express a wish for the victory of Italian arms against Austria, a
+great storm of indignation broke out in Germany. As a last resort, Charles
+Albert, on April 6, proposed an offensive and defensive alliance to
+Switzerland, but the little republic wisely declined to emerge from its
+traditional neutrality. It was then that the Italians raised the defiant
+cry: "Italia fara de se" (Italy will fight her own battles). When the hard
+beset Austrian Government, in a confidential communication of Minister
+Wessendberg to Count Casati, showed itself inclined to yield Lombardy upon
+payment of Lombardy's share in the Austrian national debt, the proposition
+was curtly declined.
+
+[Sidenote: Set-back at Naples]
+
+[Sidenote: Neapolitan forces recalled]
+
+[Sidenote: Pio Nono's allocution]
+
+It was a fatal move. The course of Italy, as Dante once sang, seemed like
+that of "a ship without stars in a wild storm." Affairs took a wrong turn
+in Naples. There a new popular Parliament had just been elected, which was
+about to meet, when there were some final difficulties between the King and
+his Liberal Ministers over the exact wording of the oath of allegiance. The
+excitable Neapolitan populace forthwith became unmanageable. The Swiss
+Guards, who had long been the butt of the people, put down the revolt
+without mercy. Once more King Ferdinand was master. He hastened to dismiss
+his Cabinet and dissolved the Parliament before it could come to order.
+Orders were sent to General Pepe, who had marched to the front in northern
+Italy with 14,000 men, to return at once. General Pepe, who had already
+reached Bologna and had entered hostilities under Charles Albert's command,
+declined to obey the orders of his sovereign. His rank and file trooped
+back to Naples. Only fifteen hundred Neapolitan volunteers remained with
+Pepe at the front. A number of the officers who returned felt their
+disgrace so keenly that they committed suicide. The Neapolitan fleet, which
+had already succeeded in raising the Austrian blockade of Venice, was
+likewise ordered home. A more serious blow to the cause of Italy was Pio
+Nono's apparent change of front. On April 29, without previous consultation
+with his new Ministry, the Pope issued the famous "Allocution," in which he
+declared that he had despatched his troops northward only for the defence
+of the Papal dominions, and that it was far from his intentions to join
+with the other Italian princes and peoples in the war against Austria. The
+Papal Ministry immediately handed in its resignation. The Municipal Council
+of Rome called upon the Pope to abstain from interference with his army.
+General Durando, commanding the Papal troops at the front, had already
+yielded to their entreaties by crossing the Po. Now he threw in his lot
+with Charles Albert. Pio Nono sent a confidential messenger to Naples to
+arrange for an asylum there, in case the people should turn against him at
+Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: Garibaldi]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Goito]
+
+[Sidenote: Cortatone]
+
+[Sidenote: Surrender of Peschiera]
+
+[Sidenote: Radetzky firm]
+
+Charles Albert on the Mincio lost three precious weeks. His army now
+numbered nearly one hundred thousand men, only sixty thousand of whom were
+trained soldiers. About this time he was joined by Giuseppe Garibaldi, who
+had just returned from the revolutionary battlefields of South America,
+whither he had been driven an exile from Charles Albert's own dominions. He
+was received with honor, and was put in charge of a volunteer corps which
+he had raised at Milan. The Austrian commander profited by the delay of his
+opponents to place his army between the strong fortresses of Verona,
+Mantua, Legnano and Peschiera, and to draw reinforcements from the Tyrol,
+until the situation in Austria itself became so threatening that no further
+aid could be given him. In truth, the fate of the Austrian empire now
+rested on the aged shoulders of Radetzky. On April 8, the Sardinian army,
+in a sharp engagement at Goito, effected the passage of the Mincio. The
+Austrians lost one thousand men. Siege was now laid to Peschiera. A Tuscan
+division moved on Mantua, while the bulk of Charles Albert's army cut off
+Verona from the roads to the Tyrol. Radetzky was driven to take the
+offensive. In a fight at Cortatone he defeated the Tuscans, but within
+twenty-four hours the Austrian garrison of Peschiera was brought to the
+point of capitulation. The Italians took two thousand one hundred and fifty
+men. On May 6, Charles Albert made an attempt to drive the Austrians out of
+their positions in front of Verona. Repulsed at Santa Lucia, he was forced
+to fall back on the Mincio. Under the influence of the peace party, the
+Austrian Emperor now directed Radetzky to offer an armistice to the
+Italians. Simultaneously with this, Austrian reinforcements cut their way
+through to Verona. Radetzky sent Prince Felix Schwarzenberg to Innsbruck to
+implore the Emperor for permission to continue the combat. This was
+reluctantly given. Fearing another reversal of his orders, Radetzky
+forthwith threw his army into Venetia. General Durando and his Papal army
+were shut up in Vicenza, and compelled to capitulate. The capture of
+Vicenza was followed by that of all the Venetian mainland east of the
+Adige.
+
+[Sidenote: Custozza]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Milan]
+
+[Sidenote: Truce of Vigevano]
+
+The republic of St. Mark sought shelter under the royal AEgis of Piedmont.
+Manin, the liberator of Venice, resigned his presidency and went into
+retirement. Charles Albert now moved on Mantua, leaving half his army at
+Peschiera and further north. Radetzky instantly threw himself on the weakly
+guarded centre of the long Sardinian line. Charles Albert sought too late
+to rejoin his northern detachments. At Custozza, on July 25, he suffered a
+signal defeat. While he was thrown back over the Mincio the northern
+divisions were also overcome. Charles Albert retreated to Milan closely
+followed by Radetzky. He declared himself unable to hold the city. The
+people rose against him. On the night of August 5, he escaped with
+difficulty, protected by General La Marmora and a few guards. Milan
+capitulated on the following day. When the Austrians made their triumphant
+entry, half of the population left their homes to emigrate to Piedmont and
+Switzerland. On August 9, an armistice was arranged at Vigevano. Venice
+refused to accept it, and detaching itself once more from Sardinia,
+restored Manin to power. Garibaldi with his volunteers likewise held aloof
+and carried the fight into the northern mountains. From there he was
+eventually dislodged by D'Aspre and crossed the frontier into Switzerland.
+
+[Sidenote: Raffet's battle scenes]
+
+The picturesque scenes of the revolutionary struggle in Italy have been
+perpetuated by Denis-Auguste-Marie Raffet, a pupil of Charlot and of Gros,
+who had already distinguished himself by his lithographs of the brief
+Belgian war of 1832, and by his Russian and Oriental sketches made while
+travelling with Prince Demidov. The motley uniforms of the volunteers of
+Garibaldi, the Swiss Papal Guards and the Austrian, Piedmontese and French
+troops, as well as the picturesque costumes of the Italian peasantry,
+afforded a great scope for Raffet's brush. One of the most characteristic
+specimens of Raffet's art during this period is his well-known picture of
+"The Evening of the Battle of Novara."
+
+[Sidenote: Austrian court returns]
+
+[Sidenote: Jellacic ban of Croatia]
+
+[Sidenote: Croats and Serbs secede from Magyars]
+
+[Sidenote: Riots in Vienna]
+
+[Sidenote: Jellacic disavowed]
+
+[Sidenote: Civil War in Hungary]
+
+[Sidenote: Metternich's comment]
+
+The success of Radetzky restored a measure of confidence in Austria. The
+Emperor and his court, who had sought refuge at Innsbruck, consented to
+return to Vienna. There the promised elections had been held, and an
+assembly representing all the provinces of the Empire, excepting Hungary
+and Italy, had met in the third week of July. With the armies of Radetzky
+and Windischgraetz within call, the Emperor and his Ministry assumed a
+bolder front toward the Magyars. The concessions exacted by Hungary in
+April had raised that kingdom almost to the position of an independent
+state. Under its separate management of the Hungarian army, Austria found
+it difficult even to use her Magyar troops at the front in Italy. The
+Magyars showed the same haughty spirit toward the Austrian Serbs, Slavs and
+Croatians. After Hungary's successful emancipation in March, the Serbs of
+southern Hungary demanded from Kossuth the restoration of their own local
+autonomy. The Magyars insisted on maintaining their ascendency, and decreed
+that only the Magyar language should be the language of the state. Slavic
+race feeling was kindled to sudden hatred. The Croatian national committee
+at Agram, that had assumed charge of affairs after the catastrophe in
+March, elected Jellacic, the colonel of the first Croatian regiment, Ban of
+Croatia. The appointment was confirmed at Vienna, even before formal
+notification had reached the Emperor. On assuming office, Jellacic caused
+all Magyar officials to be driven out of the country, and broke off all
+relations with the Hungarian government at Pesth. Batthyany, the Hungarian
+Premier, hastened to Vienna, and obtained the disavowal of Jellacic. No
+attention was paid to this at Agram. Now, General Hrabovsky, commanding the
+troops in the southern provinces, received orders from Pesth to suspend
+Jellacic from office and bring him to trial for high treason. In the
+meanwhile the Serbs, meeting in Congress at Carlowitz on the Lower Danube,
+proclaimed home rule, elected a Voiovode of their own and authorized him to
+enter into intimate relations with their fellow Slavs in Croatia. This was
+in the middle of May. Vienna during these same days was in a continual
+uproar. Early in May a report that the Austrian Ambassador at London had
+given a formal reception to Prince Metternich upon his arrival in England
+caused an outbreak of popular wrath in Vienna. A mob surrounded the house
+of Count Ficquelmont, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and compelled him to
+resign his office. Detachments of troops patrolled the streets at night. On
+May 15, the people revolted against this measure before the Palace, and
+compelled Minister Pillersdorf to sign an order for the withdrawal of the
+troops. The Emperor and his family fled to the Tyrol. At Innsbruck, where
+he was received with great demonstrations of loyalty, the Emperor issued a
+rescript in which he declined to return to his capital or to open the
+national assembly until order should be restored. In Croatia, on hearing of
+Hrabovsky's orders, the Palatine was burned in effigy. Batthyany hastened
+to Innsbruck to turn this Slavic affront to the crown to account. By
+assuring to the Emperor the support of Hungary's troops against the
+Italians, Batthyany obtained the Emperor's signature to an emphatic
+condemnation of Jellacic and his suspension from office. Jellacic then set
+out for Innsbruck, accompanied by a large deputation of Croats and Serbs.
+On the day that he arrived at Innsbruck, Batthyany at Pesth published the
+text of the Emperor's orders against the Ban. Still Jellacic held his
+ground. He regained the Emperor's favor by issuing an address to the
+Croatian soldiers serving in Italy, enjoining them to stand by the colors
+no matter what reports reached them from home. He was permitted to return
+to Croatia and to resume his government at Agram. As soon as he reached
+home, he declared himself the champion of Austrian unity, and assumed
+dictatorial powers. Civil war broke out in Lower Hungary. General
+Hrabovsky, when he attempted to occupy Carlowitz, encountered serious
+opposition. He was attacked with such vehemence, by the Serbs led by
+Stratimirovic, that he had to beat a retreat. The Hungarian Diet at Pesth
+called for a levy of 200,000 men to crush the Slavic rebellion. In the face
+of a letter from the Emperor, condemning the resistance offered to the
+Hungarian government by the Slavs, Kossuth charged the Austrian Court with
+instigating the civil war. Evidence was brought forward to show that the
+Minister of War at Vienna was encouraging Austrian officers to join the
+insurrection. Such was the situation in Austria at midsummer. A
+characteristic comment on this apparently sudden disintegration of the
+Austrian Empire at this time was furnished by Prince Metternich to his
+fellow refugee, Francois Pierre Guizot, the fallen Prime Minister of
+France. "During the catastrophes of 1848," writes Guizot, in his "Memoires
+pour servir a l'Histoire de mon Temps," "meeting Prince Metternich at
+London one day, I said to him: 'Explain to me the causes of your revolution
+in Austria. I know why and how things happened in Paris; but in Austria,
+under your government, I cannot understand.' He replied with a smile of
+mingled pride and sadness: 'I have sometimes ruled Europe, but Austria
+never.'"
+
+[Sidenote: The Frankfort Parliament]
+
+[Sidenote: John of Austria elected leader]
+
+[Sidenote: Prussia discredited]
+
+[Sidenote: Foreign Powers intervene]
+
+[Sidenote: Truce of Malmoe]
+
+[Sidenote: Frankfort Parliament powerless]
+
+At Frankfort, during this interval, the national parliament of Germany was
+convened on May 18. The event was celebrated throughout Germany with the
+ringing of bells and bonfires at night. In truth, the assembly was such
+that Germany might well be proud of it. Of the 586 delegates, more than a
+hundred were university professors and scholars of eminence. Among them
+were such men as Arndt, the poet, Gervinus and Dahlberg, the historians,
+with others of like note. A promising unity of ideals seemed to prevail.
+Heinrich von Gagern, a man of high character and parliamentary experience,
+was elected chairman by a majority of 305 out of 397 votes. It was his
+proposal to create a central executive in the person of a _Reichsverweser_.
+Archduke John of Austria, one of the most popular of German princes, was
+elected to this office by an overwhelming majority of 436 votes. The
+Archduke, who was then presiding over the new Austrian Assembly at Vienna,
+accepted the honor. By the time the German Bundestag adjourned, on July 13,
+everything seemed full of promise. The minor German States formally
+acknowledged the new Reichsverweser. King Frederick William of Prussia
+invited him, together with many members of the Frankfort Parliament, to the
+Cologne Cathedral festival on August 14. There the King pledged the
+Archduke at a public banquet: "May he give us," declared the King, "united
+and free German peoples; may he give us united and free sovereigns." A few
+days later an event occurred which opened the eyes of the Germans to
+Prussia's real part in the destinies of Germany. This was the armistice of
+Malmoe, concluded on August 26, between Denmark and Prussia. The early
+German victories at Dannewirk and Oversee had borne no fruit. The Danes
+were masters of the sea, and mercilessly ravaged the German coasts,
+unprotected by any navy. As King Frederick William remarked, it was like a
+fight between a hound and a fish. The Danes took innumerable prizes and
+crippled the commerce of the Hanseatic cities. General Wrangel thereupon
+exacted a contribution of 2,000,000 thalers in Jutland. For every
+fisherman's hut that the Danish fleet might injure on the German coast, he
+threatened to lay a Danish village in ashes. The foreign Powers objected to
+such ruthless campaigning. The Scandinavian States intervened on behalf of
+Denmark. Emperor Nicholas of Russia, who regarded the Schleswig-Holstein
+movement as an unjustifiable rebellion, came to their support. Lord
+Palmerston, who had once proposed to end the quarrel by simply cutting the
+disputed territory in two, according to the preferences of the inhabitants,
+now threw in the weight of England with the other Powers. Prussia was
+constrained to withdraw her army. According to the provisions of the seven
+months' truce forced upon Prussia at Malmoe in Sweden, all prisoners were to
+be returned, the Schleswig-Holstein army was to be disbanded, while a
+temporary government of the duchies was to be administered by
+representatives of Denmark and Prussia. All Germany was in an uproar. The
+Frankfort Parliament repudiated the armistice by 238 against 221 votes. The
+new-formed German Ministry resigned. Prof. Dahlmann, one of the
+protagonists of the Schleswig-Holstein movement, was commissioned to form a
+new Ministry. His efforts resulted only in failure. The conviction grew
+that the German Parliament was powerless. Presently the Parliament revoked
+its own decision, approving the armistice by 258 over 236 votes. After all,
+it was plain that the most momentous German question of the day had been
+settled independently of united Germany by Prussia standing alone. In South
+Germany the revolutionists were once more called to arms.
+
+[Sidenote: The French Republic]
+
+[Sidenote: National workshops]
+
+[Sidenote: Fyffe's judgment]
+
+The new republican government of France had been kept far too busy by the
+logical consequences of its revolutionary measures to take any active part
+in the international settlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question. The
+majority of the provisional government were moderate republicans,
+representing the _bourgeoisie_, or middle class, rather than the workmen,
+but associated with them were such radicals as Louis Blanc, Ledru-Rollin
+and Albert, a locksmith. During the first few days of the installation they
+undertook to guarantee employment to every citizen. It proved a gigantic
+engagement. The mere distribution of idle workmen among the various
+industries in which they were employed called for a new branch of the
+administration. The task outgrew all expectations. Within four weeks the
+number of applicants for government work rose from 140 to 65,000. Under the
+stimulus of government competition, a series of labor strikes were declared
+against private factories and establishments. The scheme, as then
+attempted, grew utterly unmanageable. As Fyffe has said in his chapter on
+this subject: "If, instead of a group of benevolent theorists, the
+experiment of 1848 had had for its authors a company of millionaires
+anxious to dispel all hope that mankind might ever rise to a higher order
+than that of unrestricted competition of man against man, it could not have
+been conducted under more fatal conditions."
+
+[Sidenote: Radicals outvoted]
+
+[Sidenote: Another attempted revolution]
+
+[Sidenote: National workshop abolished]
+
+The elections of April 23 gave the moderate element a handsome majority. An
+attempt to change the elections was frustrated by the National Guard.
+Strengthened by this manifestation of popular approval, Lamartine and his
+colleagues got rid of their radical associates in the Cabinet. The excluded
+radicals now planned a new revolution. On May 15, simultaneously with the
+renewed riots in Vienna, an attempt was made to overthrow the government.
+On the pretext of presenting a petition on behalf of Poland, a mob invaded
+the Chambers and dissolved the Assembly. A provisional government was
+installed at the Hotel de Ville. The government supporters rallied the
+National Guard. The leaders at the Hotel de Ville were taken captive. The
+Palais Bourbon was cleared, and the Deputies were reconvened in their
+assembly hall. Encouraged by this success, the government resolved to rid
+itself of the incubus of the national workshops, after a variety of schemes
+with this purpose in view had been brought forward in the Assembly. The
+government cut the Gordian knot by a violent stroke. On June 21, an edict
+was issued that all beneficiaries of the public workshops between the ages
+of seventeen and twenty-five must enlist in the army or cease to receive
+support from the State.
+
+[Sidenote: Paris up in arms]
+
+[Sidenote: Archbishop killed]
+
+[Sidenote: End of bloodshed]
+
+At this time more than a hundred thousand destitute men had flocked to the
+national workshops. They rose as of one accord. The rising of June 23 was
+the most formidable yet experienced in Paris. The number of the workmen
+alone exceeded that of several army corps. The unity of grievances and
+interests gave them an _esprit de corps_ similar to that of an army. The
+whole eastern part of Paris was barricaded like a fortified camp. Instead
+of a mere revolt, the government found itself entering upon a civil war.
+General Cavaignac, the Minister of War, was placed in supreme command, the
+executive commission resigning its powers. He summoned all available troops
+into the capital. Regardless of private interests, Paris was treated as a
+great battlefield in which the enemy was to be attacked in a mass and
+dislodged from all his main lines. The barricades were battered down with
+field and siege artillery. Four days and nights the fight lasted. Whole
+houses and blocks in which the insurgents had found a lodgment had to be
+demolished. On the third day the Archbishop of Paris was struck by a bullet
+while trying to stop the bloodshed. On both sides the fight was waged with
+inexcusable savagery. The National Guard, with a few exceptions, fought
+side by side with the regular troops. The workmen, threatened with the loss
+of their subsistence, fought with the courage of despair. At the point of
+the bayonet they were at last driven into the northeastern quarter of the
+city. There, plied with grape and canister from every direction, they were
+brought to the point of surrender.
+
+[Sidenote: Cavaignac]
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon]
+
+After this hard-won victory, the government did not hesitate to transport
+without trial the whole mass of prisoners taken alive. A policy of reaction
+set in. The government workshops and other concessions to socialism were
+abandoned. General Cavaignac, at the direction of the Assembly, retained
+his dictatorial powers until a new Constitution could be drafted. It seemed
+as if Cavaignac was marked to become the permanent ruler of France, but his
+own rigid republicanism stood in his way. It was at this time that Prince
+Louis Napoleon once more came into prominence. When he first made his
+reappearance in Paris he was requested to leave by the Provisional
+Government. Retiring to England, he awaited developments, while his friends
+and supporters agitated in his behalf. During the supplementary elections
+he was nominated for the Chambers by four districts at once, and, despite
+the government's efforts, he obtained a fourfold election. A vote of the
+Assembly declared the election valid. With unwonted self-command the Prince
+declined to take his seat, on the ground that it might embarrass the
+government in its difficult situation. His letter to the president of the
+Assembly ended with the significant declaration that if duties should be
+imposed upon him by the will of the people he would know how to fulfil
+them.
+
+[Sidenote: France spellbound]
+
+Three months later, in the midst of the debates on the constitution, while
+Cavaignac was still in power, Louis Napoleon was re-elected to the
+Assembly--this time by five departments. His hour had come. From this
+moment he was a recognized aspirant for power. The great name of his uncle
+shed its glory upon him. The new constitution of the Republic provided that
+a President with executive powers should be elected by a direct vote of all
+citizens. Louis Napoleon at once became a candidate. In an address to the
+people he declared that he would devote himself without stint to the
+maintenance of the Republic. In well-worded generalities something was
+promised to all the classes and parties of France. The other candidates
+were Cavaignac and Lamartine. Out of seven millions of votes cast in this
+election, five million went to Louis Napoleon. The mere glamour of an
+imperial name cast a new spell over France.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Chopin]
+
+[Sidenote: The pianist's career]
+
+In the midst of these stirring events in Paris, Frederick Chopin, the piano
+composer, died on October 17. Born at Jelisovaya-Volia in Poland, he
+received his early musical education at Warsaw. At the age of nine he
+played a pianoforte concerto with improvisations in public. His first
+compositions were Polish dances. In his fifteenth year he published a rondo
+and a fantasie. Having perfected himself as a pianist, he set out on a
+concert tour through Vienna, Munich, Paris and London. After his first
+appearance in Vienna, the foremost musical critic there wrote of him: "From
+the outset Chopin took place in the front rank of masters. The perfect
+delicacy of his touch, his indescribable mechanical dexterity, the
+melancholy tints in his style of shading, and the rare clearness of his
+delivery are in him qualities which bear the stamp of genius. He must be
+regarded as one of the most remarkable meteors blazing on the musical
+horizon." In Paris he gave a concert at Pleyel's house. His reception was
+such that he gave up all idea of proceeding further and made Paris his home
+for life. He was welcomed to the intimacy of men like Liszt, Berlioz,
+Meyerbeer, Bellini, Balzac and Heine. As one after another of his unique
+compositions for the piano appeared, he took rank as the foremost composer
+for that instrument. On the publication of his preludes and new Polish
+dances, Schumann wrote of Chopin: "He is and ever will be the most daring
+and proud poetic spirit of the time."
+
+[Sidenote: Chopin and Georges Sand]
+
+In 1836, Chopin met Madame Dudevant, better known as the celebrated
+novelist Georges Sand. Their attachment was mutual. For her he wrote some
+of his most inspired pieces. They spent the winter of 1838-39 together on
+the Island of Majorca, where Georges Sand nursed Chopin through a severe
+attack of bronchitis. Of this episode, which had its profound effect on
+Chopin's music, Georges Sand has left an unengaging record in the novel
+"Lucreticia Floriani," published shortly afterward, and another in her
+"Histoire de ma Vie." Chopin returned from Majorca broken in health. He was
+supplanted in Georges Sand's affections by Alfred de Musset. During the
+season of 1848-49 he gave concerts in London, whence he returned to Paris
+only to die. He was buried at Pere la Chaise, between Bellini and
+Cherubini's graves.
+
+[Sidenote: Sicilian elections]
+
+[Sidenote: King of Sardinia wary]
+
+In Italy, after the armistice between the Austrians and the Piedmontese,
+matters went from bad to worse. In Sicily, a National Parliament had met
+and put Ruggiero Settimo at the head of affairs by a unanimous vote. King
+Ferdinand and the House of Bourbon were declared to have forfeited the
+crown of Sicily forever. Elections were ordered to call another Prince to
+the vacant throne. England, interested as ever in Sicilian affairs,
+impressed upon the Sicilian leaders the urgency of an early settlement. The
+elections were held in haste. On July 12, at two in the morning, the vote
+was announced in Parliament. The Duke of Genoa, Albert Amadeus of Savoy,
+Charles Albert's second son, was elected King. The British and French
+warships in Sicilian waters fired a royal salute. For Charles Albert this
+only meant fresh embarrassment. In case of acceptance, he was sure to be
+involved in war with Naples in the south, as well as with Austria in the
+north. When the Sicilian deputies submitted their proposition in Piedmont,
+on August 27, they obtained no definite reply.
+
+[Sidenote: Venice steadfast]
+
+[Sidenote: Riots at Bologna]
+
+[Sidenote: Rossi, Papal Minister]
+
+Meanwhile King Ferdinand of Naples gathered his forces to win back Sicily.
+In the north the cause of Italy was on the wane. Francis V. was reinstated
+as Duke of Modena, with the help of Austrian arms. On his return in August
+he granted an amnesty, from the benefits of which "only those who had taken
+part in the revolution" were to be excluded. Austrian troops under Count
+Thurn likewise occupied the Duchy of Parma, the Duke remaining in Germany.
+In Tuscany, the Archduke found it difficult to maintain himself at
+Florence. His principality was overrun by radical refugees. A revolutionary
+junta at Leghorn threatened to proclaim the republic unless the Duke of
+Tuscany should appoint a governor in sympathy with their ideas. In his
+extremity the Duke sent them Montanelli, a political dreamer, who
+proclaimed Jesus Christ as the father of democracy. At Venice the Republic
+of St. Mark, under Manin's able leadership, still held its own. Austria's
+occupation of Ferrara and the Romagna brought new embarrassment to the
+Pope. Baron Von Welden, the Austrian general, made matters worse in the
+Romagna by his threatening language: "Woe to those who dare to oppose me!"
+Formal protests were made in vain by Pope Pio Nono and the diplomatic
+representatives of France and England. The Papal Ministry of Mamiani
+resigned. The Roman Radicals, under the leadership of Prince Canino, a
+Bonaparte, clamored for war, and some Austrian officers dared to show
+themselves in Bologna. They were attacked in the streets and murdered by
+the mob. Fighting began around Bologna. Too late the Austrians consented to
+relieve the Pope from this embarrassment by withdrawing their troops from
+his dominions. The Pope's new Minister, Count Pellegrino Rossi, an
+unusually able and forceful man who had once acted as an envoy for Louis
+Philippe, was denounced as a Frenchman and an enemy to Italy.
+
+[Sidenote: Bombardment of Messina]
+
+In September, King Ferdinand of Naples, having got rid of his Parliament,
+launched his forces upon Sicily. General Filangieri, with 12,000 men, was
+sent against Messina. There the Neapolitan garrison still held the
+citadel--all that remained to Ferdinand of his Sicilian kingdom. Three
+days before Filangieri landed, the gunners in the citadel began to bombard
+the helpless town lying beneath them. Half of the city was laid in ruins.
+The foreign warships in the harbor were filled with refugees. It was this
+outrage that gave to King Ferdinand the nickname of "King Bomba." The
+inhabitants remained steadfast. When Filangieri effected his landing, the
+fight was carried on with ferocity. The fall of the city was followed by
+barbarous excesses. For three days incendiary fires raged in the hapless
+town. At last the foreign admirals, Parker and Baudin, put a stop to the
+horrors, "as against all canons of civilized nations." An armistice was
+established between the Neapolitans and the Sicilians. King Ferdinand's
+dogged resistance to the remonstrances of the French and English
+Ambassadors was strengthened by the latest event in Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: Assassination of Rossi]
+
+[Sidenote: Flight of Pio Nono]
+
+On November 15, as the Roman Chambers were about to be opened, Prime
+Minister Rossi was assassinated as he left his carriage to enter the
+Chambers. It was the signal for a new revolt. The delegates in the Hall of
+Chambers sought safety in flight. The National Guards made common cause
+with the insurgents. A howling mob beset the Quirinal. But for the resolute
+stand of the Pope's Swiss mercenaries, the palace would have been stormed.
+As bullets penetrated the walls of the Pope's ante-chamber, Pio Nono
+exclaimed: "Has Heaven no lightning?" For a while the Pope was practically
+a prisoner in his palace, while the Prince of Panino and Sterbini, the
+President of the Circolo Popolare, ruled Rome. At last, on the night of
+November 24, Pio Nono, in the disguise of a groom, escaped from Rome,
+seated on the box of the carriage of the Bavarian Ambassador, Count Spaur.
+He fled to Naples. From the Neapolitan fortress Gaeta he sent a letter to
+his "dearest son," the Emperor of Austria, imploring his help against the
+Republic of Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: Revolt in Frankfort]
+
+At Frankfort, the ratification of the armistice of Malmoe by the German
+Parliament had aroused the Radicals to fury. On September 17, the day after
+the second vote on this matter, a mass meeting was called at Frankfort. One
+delegate, Zitz, proposed the abolition of the Parliament; another, Ludwig
+Simon, declared the time had come to discuss all further questions from
+behind barricades. The Municipal Senate of Frankfort, taking alarm, ordered
+out the city troops and appealed for help to Prussia. On the morrow
+fighting began in the streets of Frankfort. Barricades had been erected
+overnight, and all day long the insurgents held their ground. It was known
+that a Prussian column was approaching. Prince Lichnovsky and General Von
+Auerswald, two leaders of the Conservative majority in the Parliament,
+rashly undertook to meet the Prussian troops halfway. At the gates of
+Frankfort both men were seized by the insurgents and were lynched by the
+mob. Shortly before midnight the Prussian troops arrived and soon overran
+the barricades with their bayonets. On the following day the city was under
+military rule.
+
+[Sidenote: South Germany restive]
+
+In other parts of South Germany revolution had broken out anew. The Prince
+of Sigmaringen was driven from his little domain, which was proclaimed a
+republic. Insurgent expeditions were organized in Wurtemberg and Baden.
+There Karl Blind and Gustav Struve made another attempt on Freiburg. At
+Staufen, on September 24, they were beaten back by regular troops under
+General Hoffmann and fled toward Switzerland. Struve himself was captured
+near the frontier. On the same day the German Cabinet at Frankfort was
+reinstated. Still the ill success of popular government in Germany brought
+the Parliament into lasting disrepute.
+
+[Sidenote: Reaction in Berlin]
+
+[Sidenote: Brandenburg Prime Minister]
+
+[Sidenote: Prussian Parliament dissolved]
+
+The reaction was first felt at Berlin. There the return of General
+Wrangel's troops from Denmark was followed by friction between the soldiers
+and the democratic agitators in the streets. A resolution was passed in the
+popular Parliament of Prussia that all officers out of sympathy with
+democratic government should be encouraged to leave the army. The failure
+of the Minister of War to act on this suggestion was followed by his
+downfall. Having succeeded in this, the parliamentary majority next passed
+a vote to eliminate the words "by the grace of God" from the titles of the
+King. Toward the end of October a national convention of democrats met at
+Berlin, and held its sessions amid tumultuous scenes in the streets. In
+exasperation, the King dissolved the Cabinet that had been forced upon him,
+and commissioned Count Brandenburg, a natural son of Frederick William II.,
+to form another. It included Major-General von Strotha, Minister of War,
+and Otto von Manteuffel, Minister of the Interior. The Parliament sent a
+deputation to remonstrate with the King. One of the delegates, Jacoby, as
+the King terminated the audience, called after him: "Behold the chief
+misfortune of kings, that they will not listen to the truth!" Immediately
+after this King Frederick William IV. prorogued the Parliament to the town
+of Brandenburg. The majority of the delegates declined to adjourn. The
+Cabinet Ministers, followed by the members that had been outvoted, left the
+hall. On November 15, the remaining Parliament issued a proclamation to the
+people to withhold all further payment of taxes. General Wrangel posted his
+troops throughout Berlin. The Municipal Guards of Berlin were dissolved. An
+attempt on the part of the Parliament to meet again was easily frustrated.
+The taxes were collected as before. When the Parliamentary minority came to
+order at Brandenburg their sessions were dissolved by royal order. On his
+own initiative, King Frederick William IV. now proclaimed a constitution.
+The Chambers, provisions for which were contained in this royal
+constitution, were to meet at Berlin on February 24, 1849. Such was the end
+of the People's Parliament in Prussia.
+
+  [Illustration: WAGNER AND LISZT
+    Painted by W. Beckmann]
+
+About the same time Robert Blum, one of the radical Parliamentarians of
+Frankfort, was shot in Austria. Together with Froebel, he had been
+despatched to Vienna by the Parliamentary minority in Frankfort with
+messages of sympathy for the popular cause in Austria. To offset this, the
+majority sent two delegates to the Emperor to offer the Parliament's good
+services for mediation with his rebellious subjects. They were coolly
+received.
+
+[Sidenote: Slav Congress of Prague]
+
+[Sidenote: Bohemian revolt suppressed]
+
+[Sidenote: Ferdinand's duplicity]
+
+[Sidenote: Archduke Stephen withdraws]
+
+[Sidenote: Kossuth in power]
+
+[Sidenote: Murder of General Lamberg]
+
+[Sidenote: Count Zichy shot]
+
+All Austria was in a state of civil war. After the example of the Slavs in
+Servia and Croatia, the Czechs of Bohemia rose at Prague. Austrian-German
+authority there collapsed. A National Guard was organized, and a popular
+Assembly convened. In midsummer a Congress of Slavs from all parts of
+Austria met at Prague. Popular excitement rose to a threatening pitch. On
+the day that the Panslavistic Congress broke up, barricades were erected
+and fighting began in the streets of Prague. The wife of Count
+Windischgraetz, the military commandant, was killed by a bullet.
+Windischgraetz, after withdrawing his troops, threatened to bombard the city
+unless the barricades were removed. This was not done. Windischgraetz then
+took the city by storm. Military law was proclaimed. This success, like
+that of Radetzky's arms in Italy, gave new hope to the Austrian Emperor. He
+pronounced his veto on Hungary's military measures against Croatia. A
+hundred delegates from the Magyar Diet at Pesth posted to Vienna to exact
+from the Emperor the fulfilment of his promises to Hungary. On September 9,
+the Emperor received them at his palace with renewed assurances that he
+would keep his plighted word. A few hours afterward the official "Gazette"
+published a letter over the Emperor's signature, expressing his full
+approval of Jellacic's measures in Croatia. This was all Jellacic had been
+waiting for. On September 11, he crossed the Drave with his Croatians and
+marched upon Pesth. Archduke Stephen, the Hungarian Palatine, took command
+of the Magyar army and went to the front. At Lake Balaton he requested a
+conference with Jellacic. The Ban paid no attention to it. Realizing the
+secret support given to Jellacic by the Crown, Archduke Stephen resigned
+his command in Hungary. The Emperor now appointed General Lamberg at Vienna
+to the supreme command over the military forces of Hungary as well as
+Croatia. At the same time the Austrian Cabinet submitted a memorial
+suggesting that the laws establishing Hungarian autonomy be declared null
+and void. On the publication of this memorial in Pesth, Batthyany's
+Ministry resigned. Kossuth openly proposed war with Austria. When Lamberg
+arrived at Pesth, Kossuth prevailed upon the Diet to withhold its
+ratification of Lamberg's appointment. Should Lamberg attempt to resume his
+military command Kossuth demanded that he should be outlawed as a traitor.
+As General Lamberg crossed the bridge at Budapesth he was recognized by the
+populace. A cry was raised that he meant to seize the citadel and bombard
+the town. He was dragged from his carriage and torn to pieces by the mob.
+His body was dragged through the streets, and finally strung up before one
+of the government buildings. A few days later, Count Zichy, one of the
+Magyar magnates, was court-martialled by order of Arthur Goergey, the
+Hungarian Honved leader, for entering into a correspondence with Jellacic,
+and was shot.
+
+[Sidenote: Imperial rescript repudiated]
+
+[Sidenote: Troops mutiny in Vienna]
+
+[Sidenote: Flight of Emperor]
+
+On the receipt of this news, Emperor Ferdinand declared the Hungarian
+Parliament dissolved, and pronounced all its acts null and void. Jellacic
+was appointed representative of Austria in Hungary with command of all the
+forces. The Magyar Diet repudiated the Emperor's manifesto as a breach of
+the constitution, and pronounced Jellacic a traitor. Jellacic's forces were
+checked by the Hungarian army in their advance upon Pesth. General Latour,
+the Austrian Minister of War, ordered a division of troops at Vienna to go
+to the support of Jellacic. The Magyar sympathizers at Vienna raised a
+fearful uproar. As the troops were marching out of the city several
+battalions were prevailed upon to mutiny. The Hungarian flag was hoisted
+above the Cathedral of St. Stephen. The National Guard joined the mutiny.
+Other battalions of the line were driven out of the city. The guards at the
+arsenal capitulated. Vienna was at the mercy of the insurgents. The
+Emperor, who had sought refuge at Schoenbrunn, left his palace at four on
+the morning of October 1, and fled to Olmuetz.
+
+[Sidenote: Jellacic marches on Vienna]
+
+[Sidenote: Windischgraetz moves from Bohemia]
+
+[Sidenote: Assault on Vienna]
+
+[Sidenote: Arrival of Hungarians]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of the Schwechat]
+
+As soon as the news of these events reached Jellacic he evacuated his
+threatened positions on the banks of the Raab and marched for Vienna.
+Windischgraetz, with his garrison, set out from Prague. Revolutionists of
+all races flocked into Vienna. Among them were the German delegates Froebel
+and Blum, and the Polish general, Bem. The Hungarians pursued Jellacic no
+further than their frontier. The regiments expelled from Vienna, under the
+command of Count Auersperg, joined forces with Jellacic. The insurgents at
+Vienna manned their fortifications as well as they could, and called upon
+the people throughout Austria to take up arms. Emperor Ferdinand, at
+Olmuetz, offset this by an imperial proclamation to his people in which he
+guaranteed all peasant rights. Prince Windischgraetz was created a field
+marshal, with full command over all the forces in the empire, except those
+under Radetzky in Italy. Windischgraetz took immediate steps to effect a
+junction with Jellacic by seizing the bridges at Krems and Stein. In vain
+did the delegates from Frankfort, who now appeared upon the scene, present
+their offer of intervention. Windischgraetz would not listen to them. On
+October 23, the Austrian army, 80,000 strong, appeared before Vienna. The
+defence of the city had been intrusted to Captain Messenhauser, an officer
+of the regular army, and to General Bem. Robert Blum, the German
+Parliamentarian, fought in the ranks. While Windischgraetz was wasting his
+time in parleys, an army of 18,000 Hungarians crossed the frontier and
+threatened Jellacic's rear. On October 28, twenty-four hours after the time
+fixed in Windischgraetz's last ultimatum, he began his assault on the city.
+In the course of an all-day fight the troops succeeded in taking the
+suburbs. The scenes of that night were frightful. The troops bivouacked on
+the ramparts. The following Sunday was spent in further parleys. Already
+the terms of capitulation had been settled, when Messenhauser, from the top
+of the church of St. Stephen, made out the approaching columns of the
+Hungarians. The news of their arrival was signalled to the city by a column
+of smoke rising from the top of the tower. All negotiations for surrender
+were dropped. The Hungarians attacked Jellacic on the banks of the
+Schwechat, within a few leagues of the capital. The boom of their artillery
+could be plainly heard in Vienna. In a frenzy of enthusiasm the Viennese
+resumed the struggle. A corps of students attempted a sortie. Unfortunately
+for them, the engagement on the banks of the Schwechat turned against the
+Hungarians. Shortly after noon they gave way all along the line and fell
+back toward Hungary. On the ramparts of Vienna the hopeless fight of a few
+thousand civilians against an army of 90,000 men was continued until
+nightfall. At six in the evening the troops broke into the city.
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Vienna]
+
+[Sidenote: Stadion's Ministry]
+
+[Sidenote: Abdication of Ferdinand]
+
+On the following day, November 1, Prince Windischgraetz declared Vienna
+under military law. All arms had to be delivered within forty-eight hours.
+Arrests and courts-martial followed in profusion. Robert Blum was one of
+the first to be shot. His colleague, Froebel, owed his life to a political
+pamphlet signed with his name, in which he had defended the interests of
+Austria against those of a united Germany. A new Ministry was installed,
+under the leadership of the notorious Prince Felix Schwarzenberg and Count
+Stadion. They announced their programme to be the maintenance of a strong
+central government and the integrity of the Austrian Empire, with quick
+suppression of the civil war in Hungary. A new Reichsrath was convoked at
+the village of Kremsier, near Olmuetz. On December 2, it was announced that
+Emperor Ferdinand had resolved to abdicate his throne. His brother,
+Archduke Francis Charles, renounced the succession. The Archduke's son,
+Francis Joseph, a youth of eighteen, was declared by a family council to
+have attained his majority. In virtue of this he ascended the throne as
+Emperor.
+
+[Sidenote: Francis Joseph, Emperor]
+
+[Sidenote: The war in Hungary]
+
+The Hungarian Diet, on learning of this transfer of the crown, refused to
+acknowledge Francis Joseph as King of Hungary. The whole nation was
+summoned to arms. The command of the army was given to Goergey. His first
+serious problem was a rising of the Roumanians in Transylvania against
+Magyar rule. The Roumanian peasants committed all conceivable atrocities.
+When they raised the standard of the Empire, the Austrian commander,
+General Puchner, espoused their cause. Transylvania was lost to Hungary.
+The Roumanians led by Puchner co-operated with Jellacic's forces in
+Croatia, and moved on Hungary from that quarter. On December 15, the main
+Austrian army, under Windischgraetz, crossed over the River Leitha and
+invaded Hungary. Goergey declared from the first that Pesth would have to
+be abandoned. Kossuth's frantic efforts to prevent this only served to
+hamper Goergey's able campaign. One line after another had to be abandoned.
+At last, toward the close of the year, Kossuth and his Magyar Diet were
+compelled to evacuate Pesth. The Hungarian army fell back over the River
+Theiss, upon the fortress of Comorn, and the mountainous regions of
+northern Hungary. Kossuth's government was established at Debreczin.
+
+
+
+
+1849
+
+
+[Sidenote: Bem's aggressive campaign]
+
+[Sidenote: Goergey and Dembinsky]
+
+On January 5, Windischgraetz and Jellacic made their triumphant entry into
+Budapesth. The Vienna "Gazette" announced "the glorious end of the
+Hungarian campaign." Prince Windischgraetz rested on his arms. During this
+interval the Polish general, Bem, who had escaped from Vienna, aroused his
+countrymen in Siebenbuergen and carried the war into that region. The
+Austrian troops under General Puchner were beaten in a series of
+engagements. Goergey, aided by another Pole, Dembinsky, repulsed the
+Austrian troops under General Schlik in the north. While Windischgraetz
+remained idle at Pesth, Klapkah, the new Hungarian Minister of War,
+organized the Magyar forces and created new defences for his country.
+
+[Sidenote: Afghan war]
+
+[Sidenote: Chilian Wallah]
+
+[Sidenote: Lord Gough superseded]
+
+[Sidenote: "Battle of the Guns"]
+
+[Sidenote: Punjab annexed to England]
+
+Prince Metternich, whiling away his idle hours among other notable refugees
+at London and Brighton, now had the satisfaction of seeing the dangers of
+revolt brought home to the people of England. The tidings of a disaster in
+Afghanistan provoked an outburst of alarm and indignation in England. On
+January 13, Lord Gough had advanced on Sher Singh's intrenchments at
+Chilian Wallah. They were held by 30,000 Sikhs with sixty guns, screened by
+a thick jungle. As the British imprudently exposed themselves the Sikhs
+opened fire. Lord Gough ordered a general charge. The drawn battle that
+followed proved the bloodiest affair in the history of British India.
+Driven from their first line of defences, the Sikhs stood their ground in
+another stronger position, and repulsed the British attack. Nearly 2,500
+British officers and men fell in the fight. In the face of the Afghan
+rejoicings Lord Gough claimed a victory. The British War Office, however,
+hastily despatched Sir Charles Napier to India to supersede Lord Gough.
+There was still time for that commander to retrieve himself. General Whish
+captured the town of Multan, and by terrible bombardment of the citadel
+brought Mulraj to surrender. General Whish then joined forces with Lord
+Gough in his final struggle with Sher Singh. At Guzerat, on February 22,
+Lord Gough achieved the crowning victory known as "the battle of the guns."
+For two hours a terrific artillery duel was maintained, the Sikhs firing
+with all their sixty pieces. Finally the British stormed their batteries in
+a combined charge of bayonets and cavalry. The Sikh forces were scattered,
+and their camp, with most of their standards and guns, were captured by the
+British. Dost Muhammad Khan and his Afghans were driven out of Peshawar and
+narrowly escaped to Kabul. Mulraj was imprisoned for life. The whole of the
+Punjab was annexed to British India. A successful administration of this
+hostile province was Lord Dalhousie's first great triumph.
+
+[Sidenote: President Taylor inaugurated]
+
+[Sidenote: Development of Western America]
+
+[Sidenote: The "Forty-Niners"]
+
+About the same time, General Taylor, the conqueror of Buena Vista, was
+inaugurated as President of the United States. One sentence in his
+inaugural address provoked derision: "We are at peace with all the world
+and the rest of mankind." The old Spanish missions in the conquered
+territory were deprived of their wealth and influence. The name of San
+Francisco was adopted in place of Yerba Buena. Besides California, the new
+territory included the subsequently admitted States of Nevada, Arizona,
+Utah, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado, Wyoming and Kansas. The Apache and
+Navajo Indians in those regions gave immediate trouble. The gold seekers
+tracking across the plains were the first to suffer from the Indians. Still
+the stream of immigrants poured into California. Their halfway stations on
+the Missouri River developed into the two thriving towns of Omaha and
+Council Bluffs. The Bay of San Francisco was soon surrounded by a
+settlement of tents and sheds. A Vigilance Committee took affairs into its
+own hands, and administered justice without fear or favor. Six times the
+new city was destroyed by fire. Within two months all traces of the
+disaster would be lost. California soon had a population entitling it to
+Statehood. President Taylor eagerly seconded the wishes of the people for a
+government of their own. The first Constitutional Convention of California
+declared against slavery. More than $40,000,000 worth of gold was produced
+in the new State, and the first gold dollars were coined.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Poe]
+
+[Sidenote: Posthumous poems]
+
+[Sidenote: "The Conqueror Worm"]
+
+The death of Edgar Allan Poe, the American poet, was as tragic as his life
+had been. After the death of his wife, Poe had engaged himself to marry a
+wealthy lady in Richmond, and the wedding day was fixed. On his way to New
+York to settle up affairs in anticipation of his marriage, Poe fell in with
+some of his companions in dissipation at Baltimore. He became drunk,
+wandered through the streets, and was finally taken to a hospital in an
+unconscious condition. Later he became delirious and finally expired,
+saying: "Lord, help my poor soul!" After Poe's death the simplest and
+sweetest of his ballads, "Annabel Lee," and the wonderful poem of "The
+Bells," were published. His former friend and editor, Griswold, published a
+scathing denunciation of the dead man in the New York "Tribune." Poe's fame
+as a master of the weird and fanciful in literature was already established
+wherever his thrilling tales and superb poem "The Raven" had penetrated. He
+was one of the few poets of America at that period who had succeeded in
+achieving an international reputation. The best of his poems were rendered
+in choice French by Baudelaire, while his short stories were translated
+into almost all European languages. As his biographer, Woodberry, has said:
+"On the roll of American literature Poe's name is inscribed with the few
+foremost, and in the world at large his genius is established as valid
+among all men. Much as he derived nurture from other sources, he was the
+son of Coleridge by the weird touch in his imagination, by the principles
+of his analytic criticism, and the speculative bent of his mind." Most
+characteristic of Poe's genius perhaps are these lines from his famous
+poem "The Conqueror Worm":
+
+  Lo! 'tis a gala night
+  Within the lonesome latter years!
+  An angel throng, bewinged, bedight
+  In veils, and drowned in tears,
+  Sit in a theatre, to see
+  A play of hopes and fears,
+  While the orchestra breathes fitfully
+  The music of the spheres.
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  That motley drama--oh, be sure
+  It shall not be forgot!
+  With its Phantom chased for evermore
+  By a crowd that seize it not,
+  Through a circle that ever returneth in
+  To the self-same spot,
+  And much of Madness, and more of Sin,
+  And Horror the soul of the plot.
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Out--out are the lights--out all!
+  And over each quivering form
+  The curtain, a funeral pall,
+  Comes down with the rush of a storm,
+  And the angels, all pallid and wan,
+  Uprising, unveiling, affirm
+  That the play is the tragedy "Man,"
+  And its hero the Conqueror Worm.
+
+[Sidenote: Abortive Spanish rising]
+
+[Sidenote: Italian republics]
+
+[Sidenote: Situation in Sicily]
+
+In Europe, the startling upheavals of the previous year were followed by an
+aftermath no less startling. Even in Spain, where a first attempt at
+revolution had easily been crushed at Madrid, Don Carlos deemed the time
+ripe to join Cabrera's revolutionary rising in Catalonia. On his way there
+he was arrested at the French frontier. Deprived of his support, Cabrera
+himself had to remove his forces to French soil. In Italy, the
+revolutionary movement spread. On February 7, Duke Leopold of Florence was
+driven out of Tuscany. A republican government was established at Florence
+under the triumvirate of Guerazzi, Montanelli and Manzoni. Taking refuge on
+a British man-of-war, the Duke of Tuscany fled to Gaeta to share the Pope's
+exile there. On the same day that the new republic was proclaimed at
+Florence a popular assembly at Rome formally deposed the Pope from temporal
+power and proclaimed the Republic of Rome. The armistice in Sicily was
+about to expire. King Ferdinand's final concessions to his rebellious
+subjects were repudiated. Lord Palmerston, who had vainly offered British
+mediation to Ferdinand, on the floor of Parliament openly defended the
+uncompromising attitude of the Sicilians. In preparation for the inevitable
+conflict, Filangieri gathered an army of 20,000 Neapolitans, while
+Mierolavsky, a Pole, took command of the Sicilian insurgents.
+
+[Sidenote: Hungarian defeats]
+
+[Sidenote: Austrian reverses]
+
+[Sidenote: Windischgraetz "Reconcentrates"]
+
+[Sidenote: Hungarian declaration of independence]
+
+Meanwhile the tide of war set against the Hungarians. On February 4, Bem
+was defeated on the site of his former victory at Hermannstadt. While
+retreating he was defeated again at Paiski. By the middle of February the
+Austrians succeeded in taking the fortress of Essek from the Hungarians.
+Toward the close of the month a disastrous defeat was inflicted upon the
+Hungarians under the command of General Dembinsky at Kapolna. Kossuth had
+made the mistake of superseding Goergey by that commander. Now Goergey was
+reinstated. The Hungarians rallied. On March 5, the Magyar Csikos, or
+irregular cavalry, under Janos Damjanies, defeated the Austrians under
+General Grammont at Szolnok. A few days later the Hungarian army in
+Transylvania, under General Bem, retrieved their ill-fortune by another
+glorious victory at Hermannstadt. A Russian contingent from Wallachia,
+which had crossed the frontier to assist the Austrians, was defeated by Bem
+at Brasso. General Puchner and his Russian allies sought refuge across the
+border. Goergey relieved Komorn. The ablest of the Austrian generals,
+Schlik, was beaten at Hapvan, while Jellacic was overthrown at Isaszteg and
+Goedoelloe. Prince Windischgraetz had to give up Pesth, or, as he put it in
+his immortal thirty-fourth bulletin: "Reconcentrate the army in front of
+Budapesth, a movement hastily imitated by the enemy." Goergey added another
+touch of humor by attributing the Hungarian victory solely to the activity
+of Windischgraetz and Jellacic. On March 4, Emperor Francis Joseph had
+annulled the old Hungarian constitution. Kossuth retaliated in kind. Under
+his influence the Magyar Diet at Debreczin pronounced the deposition of the
+House of Hapsburg from the throne of Hungary and declared the independence
+of Hungary and the adjoining southern provinces. While the Hungarian army,
+instead of marching on Vienna, lost valuable time before Ofen, the Austrian
+Government improved the interval to perfect its long-threatened alliance
+with Russia.
+
+[Sidenote: Sardinia renews war]
+
+[Sidenote: Polish leaders]
+
+[Sidenote: The "Five Days' Campaign"]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Novara]
+
+[Sidenote: Italian retreat]
+
+[Sidenote: D'Aspre's heavy losses]
+
+[Sidenote: Charles Albert abdicates]
+
+In the interim war had broken out anew in Schleswig-Holstein and in Italy.
+Before the expiration of the Austrian-Italian armistice, Charles Albert of
+Sardinia, in a spirited address on February 1, announced his determination
+to renew the war. To this desperate resolve he was driven by the increasing
+turbulence of Italian affairs. The spread of the revolutionary movement to
+his dominions could be forestalled only by placing himself once more at the
+head of the Italian movement. In some respects the moment appeared
+propitious. Charles Albert's army now numbered a hundred and twenty
+thousand men, while Radetzky had little more than seventy thousand
+Austrians. A characteristic note of the times was the appointment of Poles
+to command the Italian troops. Prince Chrzanovsky, who had fought under
+Napoleon at Leipzig and Waterloo, and had subsequently commanded a Russian
+division at Varna, was put in supreme command, seconded by Alexander La
+Marmora. Another Pole, or half Pole, Ramorino, who had figured in the
+unfortunate rising of 1833, commanded the legion of Lombardy. On March 12,
+the pending termination of the truce was officially announced. At noon on
+March 20, hostilities were to be resumed. The campaign that followed lasted
+but five days. Radetzky, by his preliminary feint, made the Italians
+believe that he would evacuate Lombardy as heretofore; but at the last
+moment he quickly concentrated his five army corps at Pavia. At the stroke
+of noon, on March 20, he threw his army across the Tessino on three
+bridges. While the Italians believed that Radetzky was retreating on the
+Adda, the Austrians were already bivouacking on the flank of the
+Piedmontese army. Three bloody engagements at Mortara, Gambola and
+Sforzesca, on March 21, ended in a retreat of the Italians all along the
+line. Ramorino had received orders to move northward and to destroy the
+bridges behind him. Out of accord with his countryman, Chrzanovsky, he
+disobeyed his orders and lingered at Stradella. Radetzky flung his army in
+between, and cut off the Italian line of retreat upon Turin and
+Alessandria. It was then that Benedek, an Austrian colonel, distinguished
+himself by leading his troops far in advance of the Austrian army, and
+cutting his way through an Italian brigade, under the cover of night. At
+midnight of March 21, Charles Albert had to order a general retreat on
+Novara. There Chrzanovsky determined to make a stand with his main column
+of about 50,000 men. Radetzky was in doubt whether the Italians had fallen
+back on Novara or Vercelli. To make sure he sent his troops in either
+direction. He himself remained at his headquarters, so as to be ready to
+ride either way. The roar of artillery from Novara, on the morning of March
+23, told him where the battle was to be fought. There General D'Aspre,
+commanding the second Austrian army corps, undertook to win some laurels on
+his own account by a bold attack on the superior position of the Italians.
+As Charles Albert rode out of the gate of Novara he received the last
+cheers of his devoted Bersaglieri. After a three hours' fight the scale
+turned against the Austrians. Count D'Aspre repented of his rashness, and
+sent for help to Count Thurn at Vercelli. Fortunately for him, Radetzky and
+Thurn had marched in that direction as soon as they heard the sound of the
+cannon. It was a race between the two divisions. As Radetzky, at the head
+of the first army corps, galloped through Nebola, the aged marshal met the
+retreating columns of D'Aspre's second corps. Both the first and the third
+Austrian corps rushed into the battle almost simultaneously. The Italian
+advance was checked. At last, when Thurn's fourth corps arrived at sundown,
+the Austrian bugles sounded for a general charge. The Italian line of
+battle was overthrown. The Austrian cavalry circled around the flank. While
+the Italians fled into Novara they suffered from the fire of their own
+artillery. Charles Albert was one of the last who left the Bicocca to seek
+refuge in Novara. The town itself was bombarded by the Austrian artillery
+far into the night. Standing on the ramparts of Novara, Charles Albert
+realized the disastrous nature of his defeat. His losses aggregated more
+than seven thousand, of whom three thousand had been taken captive. Of the
+Austrian losses of 3,158 men, five-sevenths fell to D'Aspre's corps. The
+other Austrian divisions were practically intact. The Italians were in
+confusion. Charles Albert, who throughout the day had exposed his person
+with the utmost gallantry, had to be dragged from the ramparts by General
+Durando. As the Austrian shells struck all around them he exclaimed, "Leave
+me, General. Let it be the last day of my life. I wish to die." At last he
+consented to send his Minister, Cadorna, to Radetzky's headquarters to sue
+for an armistice. Cadorna was received in an insulting manner. Charles
+Albert came to the conclusion that his own person was an obstacle in the
+way of peace. That night he resigned his crown. In the presence of his
+generals he pronounced his eldest son, Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia.
+Accompanied by but one attendant he left Novara, and passed unrecognized
+through the enemy's lines. Sending a farewell letter to his wife, he went
+into exile. A few months later he died at Oporto in Portugal.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Charles Albert]
+
+As Fyffe has said of this unfortunate Prince: "Nothing in his reign became
+him like the ending of it. He proved that there was one sovereign in Italy
+who was willing to stake his throne, his life, the whole sum of his
+personal interests, for the national cause.... The man who, beaten and
+outnumbered, had for hours sat immovable in front of the Austrian cannon in
+Novara, had, in the depth of his misfortune, given to his son not the crown
+of Piedmont only, but the crown of Italy."
+
+[Sidenote: Victor Emmanuel yields]
+
+[Sidenote: Italian Princes reinstated]
+
+[Sidenote: French expedition to Rome]
+
+On the day after the battle of Novara, King Victor Emmanuel sought out
+Marshal Radetzky and came to terms. Venice and the Italian duchies had to
+be relinquished to the Austrians. Austrian troops, in conjunction with
+those of Piedmont, occupied Alessandria. Piedmont was to reduce its army to
+a peace footing, to disperse all volunteers, and to pay a war indemnity of
+75,000,000 francs. The Austrian demand that Victor Emmanuel should annul
+the liberal constitution granted by his father was unconditionally refused.
+For this Piedmont had to suffer a prolonged military occupation by Austrian
+troops, but Victor Emmanuel, by the same token, retained his father's
+claim to the leadership of the national cause of Italy. The victory of
+Austrian arms was speedily followed by the return of the princes of
+northern Italy to their petty thrones. Radetzky's troops undertook the
+reconquest of Venice. To forestall an Austrian movement against Rome,
+France undertook to reinstate Pio Nono in the Holy Chair of St. Peter. A
+French expedition under Oudinot, a son of the famous marshal, disembarked
+at Civita Vecchia. Mazzini and Garibaldi alone rallied their men to the
+defence of the republic.
+
+[Sidenote: Subjection of Sicily]
+
+In Sicily, hostilities had been likewise renewed on March 29. The Sicilians
+were discouraged by the report of the Italian defeats in the north.
+Filangieri succeeded in capturing Taormina, the Sicilian base of supplies.
+In the defence of Catania the Polish general commanding the Sicilian
+troops, Mierolavsky, was severely wounded. At the foot of Mount Etna, the
+Sicilians were again defeated on April 6, Good Friday. Catania was taken.
+Syracuse surrendered to the Neapolitan fleet. Filangieri's army penetrated
+into the interior. In vain did the English and Austrian Ambassadors offer
+mediation. Ruggiero Settimo resigned his Presidency of the Sicilian
+Republic. The heads of the insurrection fled the country. Palermo
+surrendered. The customary courts-martial and military executions followed.
+Until the accession of King Ferdinand's eldest son to the throne,
+Filangieri ruled as military governor. In commemoration of one of the
+cities he had laid in ashes, he was created Duke of Taormina. When England
+tried to exact the promised recognition of the Constitution of 1812, King
+Ferdinand rejected the proposal with the sardonic statement that peace had
+been re-established in Sicily, and everybody was content.
+
+[Sidenote: Danish war]
+
+[Sidenote: Dueppel trenches stormed]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Gudsoe]
+
+The armistice of Malmoe with Denmark expired on February 26. The German
+Bundestag mobilized three divisions of the allied German federation. Within
+a month Prussian, Bavarian and Swabian troops marched into Holstein. A
+Prussian general, Von Prittwitz, assumed supreme command. On April 3, the
+Danes opened hostilities by a bombardment of the Island of Allston. Then
+came the battle of Eckenfoerde, when German shore batteries blew up the
+Danish ship of the line, "Christian VIII.," and two smaller vessels, the
+crews of which surrendered. On April 13, the Bavarians and Saxons stormed
+the intrenchments of Dueppel. One week later, the German troops, in
+conjunction with the volunteers of Schleswig-Holstein, under Von Bonin,
+occupied Jutland, and defeated the Danes at Kolding. A Danish advance from
+Fridericia was repulsed after a seven hours' fight, on May 7, at Gudsoe.
+The Danes fell back on Fridericia, where they were invested.
+
+[Sidenote: Francis Joseph's "Constitution"]
+
+[Sidenote: German Constitution adopted]
+
+[Sidenote: German imperial crown rejected]
+
+Meanwhile the German Parliament had met again at Frankfort. After the
+resignation of the former Austrian chief of the Cabinet, Schmerling, the
+Parliament was split into two factions, according to their preferences for
+a German union with or without Austria. Early in January it had been
+decided to elect some German prince to assume the leadership of German
+affairs as Emperor of the Germans. To this plan the minor German
+sovereigns gave their consent. During the first week of March, when the
+Emperor of Austria issued his new Constitution, which declared the whole of
+the Austrian Empire under one indivisible constitutional monarchy, it was
+plain to the German delegates that Austria could no longer be reckoned on.
+On March 28, King Frederick IV. of Prussia was elected by 290 votes. Some
+284 delegates, among whom were 100 Austrians, abstained from voting. An
+imperial constitution was adopted which limited the former sovereign rights
+of the various principalities, declared for the liberties of speech and of
+the press, religious worship, free public schools, and the total abolition
+of all feudal titles of nobility. On April 23, the great Parliamentary
+deputation, with President Simpson at its head, came to Berlin to notify
+the King of Prussia of his election. To the consternation of all, Frederick
+William declined the honor. He explained in private that he did not care
+"to accept a crown offered to him by the Revolution."
+
+[Sidenote: Saxon revolution]
+
+[Sidenote: South German risings]
+
+[Sidenote: German Parliament dispersed]
+
+The immediate effects of his rejection were new attempts at revolution in
+Germany. After Frederick William's refusal to enter into the plans of the
+German Parliament, this body fell into utter disrepute. Its radical
+elements could no longer be kept in control. Armed revolts, encouraged by
+the radical delegates, broke out in Frankfort, Kaiserslautern and
+throughout Saxony. The King of Saxony, with his Ministers, Von Beust and
+Rabenhorst, fled from Dresden. From the barricades the provisional
+government was proclaimed. The garrison was at the mercy of the insurgents,
+great numbers of whom flocked to Dresden from Leipzig and Pirna. Prussian
+troops overran Saxony. The revolutionary movement spread to Hesse, Baden,
+the Rhine provinces, Wurtemberg and the Bavarian Palatinate. Encounters
+with the troops occurred at Elbafeldt, Duesseldorf and Cologne. The reserves
+and municipal guards sided with the insurgents. All Baden rose and declared
+itself a republic, forming an alliance with the revolted Palatinate. The
+people of Wurtemberg, in a turbulent mass-meeting, demanded coalition with
+both of these countries. It was then that the Parliament at Frankfort
+decided to hold its future sessions at Stuttgart. Those principalities
+which had not yet succumbed to revolution withdrew their delegates. Prussia
+now gave to the Parliament its _coup de grace_ by arrogating to herself all
+further prosecution of the Danish war, on the ground that "the so-called
+central government of Frankfort had no more weight of its own to affect the
+balance of peace or war." The remnants of the Parliament tried to meet at
+Stuttgart, under the leadership of Loewe and Ludwig Uhland, the foremost
+living poet of Germany. When they came together at their meeting hall they
+found the doors blocked by troops. Attempts at protest were drowned by the
+roll of drums. Under the threat of a volley the delegates dispersed. Such
+was the end of the first German Parliament.
+
+[Sidenote: Princes reinstated]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Fridericia]
+
+Prussian troops advanced into the Palatinate, Baden and Wurtemberg. After
+desultory encounters with ill-led bands of insurgents, the sovereigns of
+these principalities were reinstated on their thrones by the Prussian
+army. The refugees thronged into Switzerland. In the north, on the other
+hand, Prussia's further advance into Denmark was stopped by the
+threatening attitude of England, Russia and France. On July 5, the Danes
+made a sortie from Fridericia and inflicted a crushing defeat on the
+Schleswig-Holsteiners, capturing 28 guns and 1,500 prisoners. The Germans
+lost nearly 3,000 men in dead and wounded.
+
+[Sidenote: Danish armistice]
+
+Five days after this disgrace to German arms, the Prussian Government
+accepted an armistice, according to which Schleswig was to be cut in two to
+be occupied by Swedish and Prussian troops. The provisional government of
+this province was intrusted to a joint commission, presided over by an
+Englishman. Holstein was abandoned to its fate. The final downfall of all
+the ideals of the German Liberals was followed by a feeling of dejection in
+Germany akin to despair. The number of immigrants who left Germany to seek
+new homes in America and elsewhere rose abruptly to 113,000 persons.
+
+[Sidenote: Austrian-Russian alliance]
+
+[Sidenote: Russians invade Hungary]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Budapesth]
+
+[Sidenote: Last Hungarian victories]
+
+[Sidenote: Kemmisvar]
+
+[Sidenote: Surrender of Vilagos]
+
+[Sidenote: Batthyany hanged]
+
+[Sidenote: Hungary crushed]
+
+Worse even than in Germany fared the cause of popular government in
+Hungary. On the day that Goergey's Hungarians stormed Ofen (May 21),
+Emperor Francis Joseph had a personal interview with Czar Nicholas at
+Warsaw. A joint note announced that the interest of all European States
+demanded armed interference in Hungary. The Emperor of Russia placed his
+whole army, under the command of Paskievitch, at the disposal of his "dear
+brother, Francis Joseph." On June 3, the vanguard of the Russian main army
+occupied Pressburg. Paskievitch called upon all Magyars to submit. Instead
+of that, Kossuth called upon his countrymen to destroy their homes and
+property at the approach of the enemy, and to retreat into the interior as
+did the Russians before Napoleon. The rapid course of military events made
+this impracticable. While Kossuth and his government retired to Scegedin in
+the far southeast, Goergey, with the bulk of the army, took post on the
+upper Danube to prevent the junction of the Austrians and Russians. There
+the notorious Haynau, who had been recalled from Italy, was in command.
+While Goergey attacked his left wing on the River Vag, Haynau perfected his
+junction with the Russians. On June 28 their united forces, 80,000 strong,
+captured Raab, under the eyes of Francis Joseph. The Russians occupied
+Debreczin, while the Austrians moved on Budapesth. Goergey's attempts to
+stop them resulted only in placing him in a dangerous position between both
+armies. On the same day that the Austrians reoccupied Budapesth, the
+Hungarians under Vetter succeeded in inflicting another disastrous defeat
+on Jellacic at Hegyes. Three days later, Goergey won his last victory over
+the Russians at Waitzen. After this the tide of war turned against Hungary.
+The united army of Austria and Russia exceeded 225,000 men and 600 guns.
+The Hungarian resources were exhausted. In the first week of August the
+final conclusion of peace between Austria and Sardinia and the victorious
+movement against Venice put new forces at Austria's disposal. Dembinsky,
+who was to defend the passage of the Theiss before Scegedin, was defeated,
+on August 5, at Czoreg with heavy losses. Kossuth now gave the command to
+Bem. He fought the last battle of the campaign at Kemmisvar, on August 9,
+ending in the disastrous defeat of the Hungarians. Bem barely succeeded in
+saving the remnant of his army by crossing the Moldavian frontier. On
+August 11, Kossuth at Arad relinquished his dictatorship in favor of
+General Goergey. This headstrong soldier, in realization of his
+helplessness, led his army of 20,000 foot, 2,000 horse and 130 guns within
+the Russian lines at Vilagos and surrendered unconditionally. Goergey's
+life was spared. Not so those of his foremost fellow prisoners, who were
+handed over to the tender mercies of Haynau. "Hungary," wrote Paskievitch
+to the Czar, "lies at the feet of your Majesty." Goergey's galling
+explanation that he did not deign to surrender to his despised Austrian
+adversaries was brutally avenged by Haynau. The foremost Magyar officers
+and statesmen who fell into Austrian hands were court-martialled and shot.
+Count Batthyany, the former Prime Minister, was hanged as a common felon.
+Hungary lost all her ancient constitutional rights, besides her former
+territories of Transylvania and Croatia. The flower of her youth was
+enrolled in Austrian ranks and dispersed to the most remote garrisons of
+the empire. Her civil administration was handed over to German bureaucrats
+from Austria. The exiled patriots sought refuge in Turkey and in America.
+
+[Sidenote: Paris insurrection suppressed]
+
+[Sidenote: French enter Rome]
+
+[Sidenote: Flight of Garibaldi]
+
+[Sidenote: Pio Nono firm]
+
+The French interference in Rome aroused the Republicans in France. While
+Oudinot was carrying on siege operations against Rome, Ledru-Rollin, in
+Paris, demanded the impeachment of the Ministry. The rejection of this
+motion by the Chambers was followed by revolutionary risings at Paris,
+Lyons, Marseilles and other cities. Then it was shown that France had a new
+master. President Louis Napoleon was on his guard. Large forces of troops,
+held in readiness for this event, put down the insurrections without much
+trouble. The siege of Rome was pressed to its conclusion. On June 14,
+Oudinot began his bombardment of Rome. Garibaldi prolonged his defence
+until the end of the month. Then, when sufficient breaches had been opened,
+the French stormed the ramparts and entered Rome. Garibaldi attempted to
+throw his forces into Venice to prolong the war against Austria. With his
+ever-dwindling followers he was hunted from place to place. In the end,
+through the devotion of Italian patriots, he managed to escape to America.
+On July 14, the restoration of the Pope's authority over Rome was announced
+by Oudinot. Pio Nono, however, showed no inclination to place himself in
+the power of his protectors. Remaining at Gaeta, he sent a commission of
+cardinals to take over the government of Rome. Their first act was to
+restore the Inquisition, and to appoint a court for the trial of all
+persons implicated in the Roman revolution. Thereat great wrath arose
+among the Republicans of France. Louis Napoleon felt compromised. In
+reliance on the growing ascendency of Austria, the Pope insisted on his
+absolute rights as a sovereign of Rome. All that Pio Nono would consent to,
+under the pressure of the French Government, was to suffer his political
+prisoners to go into exile, and to bestow a small measure of local powers
+upon the municipalities of the various States.
+
+After the fall of Rome and of Hungary no hope remained for Venice. A
+fortnight after the surrender of Vilagos, and several months after the
+subjugation of the Venetian mainland, the Republic of St. Mark, reduced by
+cholera and famine, gave up its long struggle. The Austrians re-entered
+Venice.
+
+Having gained a free hand in her Hungarian and Italian dominions, Austria
+set to work to recover her ascendency in Germany.
+
+
+
+
+1850
+
+
+[Sidenote: Blockade of the Piraeus]
+
+[Sidenote: Cholera in England]
+
+At the opening of the year the British Foreign Office determined to bring
+pressure to bear upon Greece for payment of the public debts which were
+owing to English bankers. A British squadron, during January, blockaded the
+Piraeus. On January 17, a resolution was passed in the British House of
+Lords condemning the foreign policy of the government in Greece. Later
+France interposed in behalf of Greece and the blockade was discontinued.
+Throughout the earlier part of the year the scourge of cholera continued in
+England. In London alone the death-rate for a while was 1,000 per week.
+More than 50,000 people died from the epidemic in England and Wales.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Wordsworth]
+
+[Sidenote: "Lyrical Ballads" and "Peter Bell"]
+
+[Sidenote: The "Lake School"]
+
+[Sidenote: Wordsworth's doctrine]
+
+William Wordsworth, the English Poet Laureate, died on April 23, at Rydal
+Mount. Born at Cockermouth in 1770, Wordsworth received his academic
+education at Cambridge University. Two years after his graduation, he made
+his first appearance as a poet with the publication of "An Evening Walk; an
+Epistle in Verse." In the same year he published "Descriptive Sketches in
+Verse," inspired by a pedestrian tour through the Alps. These poems brought
+the appreciation of Coleridge, and both men soon became friends. Together
+with Wordsworth's sister they made a tour of Germany. On their return,
+Wordsworth brought out the first volume of his "Lyrical Ballads," which won
+great popularity, and the anonymous "Peter Bell," the most condemned of all
+his poems. After his marriage in 1803, Wordsworth settled at Grasmere in
+the lake country, where he was joined by Southey and Coleridge. This caused
+the writings of all three to be classified under the generic title of "The
+Lake School of Poetry" by the "Edinburgh Review." The fame of Wordsworth's
+poetic productions, and especially of his sonnets, slowly grew. While he
+won the immediate approbation of his countrymen by some of his stirring
+patriotic pieces, his strongest appeal to the world at large and to future
+generations lay in his poetic appreciation of the beauties of nature and of
+the essential traits of human character. As he sang in the famous preface
+to "The Excursion":
+
+  Beauty--a living presence of the earth,
+  Surpassing the most fair ideal forms
+  Which craft of delicate spirits hath composed
+  From earth's materials--waits upon my steps;
+  Pitches her tents before me as I move,
+  An hourly neighbor. Paradise, and groves
+  Elysian, Fortunate Fields--like those of old
+  Sought in the Atlantic main--why should they be
+  A history only of departed things,
+  Or a mere fiction of what never was?
+  For the discerning intellect of man,
+  When wedded to this goodly universe
+  In love and holy passion, shall find these
+  A simple produce of the common day.
+
+[Sidenote: Ode on immortality]
+
+The annunciation of this doctrine was greeted by the critic of the
+"Edinburgh Review" with the insolent: "This will never do." In truth,
+Wordsworth's fondness for the inner beauty of common things sometimes led
+his verse into the commonplace. Wordsworth reached the height of his poetic
+fervor in his "Ode on the Intimations of Immortality," containing the
+famous lines:
+
+  Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting:
+  The Soul that rises with us, our life's Star,
+      Hath had elsewhere its setting,
+      And cometh from afar.
+
+[Sidenote: Shelley's sonnet to Wordsworth]
+
+It is at the end of this ode that Wordsworth summed up his veneration for
+nature in the lines:
+
+  To me the meanest flower that blows can give
+  Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears.
+
+After the death of his friend Southey, the mantle of the Poet Laureate fell
+upon him. His acceptance of this honor, and of the humble office of stamp
+distributer in the counties of Westmoreland and Cumberland, was decried by
+some of his fellow poets as a sordid compromise. Robert Browning then wrote
+his stirring invective, "The Lost Leader," while Shelley wrote the famous
+sonnet addressed to Wordsworth:
+
+  Poet of Nature, thou hast wept to know
+  That things depart which never may return:
+  Childhood and youth, friendship and love's first glow,
+  Have fled like sweet dreams, leaving thee to mourn.
+  These common woes I feel. One loss is mine
+  Which thou too feel'st, yet I alone deplore.
+  Thou wert as a lone star, whose light did shine
+  On some frail bark in winter's midnight roar,
+  Thou hast like to a rock-built refuge stood
+  Above the blind and battling multitude:
+  In honored poverty thy voice did weave
+  Songs consecrate to truth and liberty--
+  Deserting these, thou leavest me to grieve,
+  Thus having been, that thou shouldst cease to be.
+
+[Sidenote: "The Prelude"]
+
+Sir Robert Peel's recognition of Wordsworth's genius, on the other hand,
+was regarded by the English Liberals as one of the brightest points in that
+famous statesman's career. The University of Oxford, shortly afterward,
+bestowed upon Wordsworth an honorary degree. One of Wordsworth's latest
+poems was addressed to the Mount of Wanswell, rising above his country home
+at Ambroside, closing with the prophetic lines:
+
+                  When we are gone
+  From every object dear to mortal sight,
+  As soon we shall be, may these words attest
+  How oft, to elevate our spirits, shone
+  Thy visionary majesties of light,
+  How in thy pensive glooms our hearts found rest.
+
+After Wordsworth's death, appeared "The Prelude, or Growth of the Poet's
+Mind," an autobiographical poem.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Peel]
+
+[Sidenote: First international cable]
+
+[Sidenote: The Koh-i-noor]
+
+The next noted death in England this year was that of Sir Robert Peel,
+which occurred after a stirring debate on the foreign policy of Lord
+Palmerston in Greece. On the following day Peel was thrown from his horse
+while riding near London. The injuries he received were such that he died
+three days later. A monument to his memory was erected in Westminster
+Abbey; but in accordance with his own wish he was buried in the village
+churchyard of Drayton Bassett. Of other events arousing interest in
+England, the most noteworthy was the laying of the first submarine electric
+telegraph between England and France. The cable, which was twenty-seven
+miles long and covered with gutta-percha, stretched from Dover to Cape Gris
+Nez. Messages were interchanged, but the cable soon parted. During the
+same year the great East Indian diamond, Koh-i-noor, was presented to Queen
+Victoria. The history of this great jewel was more stirring, in its way,
+than that of any living man. Its original weight was nearly 800 carats. By
+the lack of skill of the European diamond cutters this was reduced to 270
+carats.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Taouk Wang]
+
+[Sidenote: Hien Fong, Emperor]
+
+[Sidenote: The Taiping rebellion]
+
+[Sidenote: Chinese emigration]
+
+Beyond the immediate shores of England the course of events kept the
+British Colonial Office fully occupied. In Canada, a movement arose for the
+annexation of British America to the United States. Earl Grey, the Colonial
+Secretary, took occasion to warn all Canadians against this movement as an
+act of high treason. In India, the Afghans succeeded in reconquering Balkh.
+The fifth Kaffir war broke out in South Africa. The affairs of China gave
+fresh concern. On February 24, Emperor Taouk Wang died in his sixty-ninth
+year. The thirty years during which he reigned were among the most
+eventful, and in some respects the most portentous, for China. His
+strenuous opposition to the evils of the opium trade mark him as a wise, if
+not a powerful, ruler. He never wasted the public moneys of China on his
+own person, and his expenditures in behalf of the court and mere pomp were
+less than that of most of his predecessors. One of Taouk Wang's last acts
+showed how his mind and his health had been affected by the recent
+misfortunes of the empire. It appeared that the Chinese New Year's
+Day--February 12, 1850--was marked by an eclipse of the sun. Such an event
+being considered inauspicious in China, the Emperor decreed that the new
+year should begin on the previous day. The decree was utterly disregarded,
+and the Chinese year began at the appointed time. Taouk Wang's end was
+hastened by the outbreak of a great fire in Pekin, which threatened the
+imperial city with destruction. On February 25, a grand council was held in
+the Emperor's bedchamber, and Taouk Wang wrote in his bed an edict
+proclaiming his fourth son, Yihchoo, ruler of the empire. Prince Yihchoo,
+who was less than twenty years old, took the name of Hien Fong, which means
+great abundance, and immediately upon his accession drew to his aid his
+four younger brothers, a new departure in Manchu rule. Their uncle, Hwuy
+Wang, who had made one attempt to seize the throne from his brother Taouk
+Wang, once more put forward his pretensions. After the imperial Ministers,
+Kiaying and Muchangah, had been degraded, Hwuy Wang's attempt signally
+failed, but his life was spared. Later in the year, as a result partly of
+poor harvests, the great Taiping rebellion began. The great secret society
+of the Triads started the movement by raising an outcry in southern China
+against the Manchus. Their leader, Hung Tsiuen, a Hakka or Romany,
+proclaimed himself as Tien Wang, which means the head of the Prince. Under
+the cloud of the impending upheaval, Chinese coolies in great numbers began
+to emigrate to the United States. At the same time the bitter feeling
+against foreigners was intensified by an encounter of the British
+steamship "Media" with a fleet of piratical Chinese junks. Thirteen of the
+junks were destroyed.
+
+[Sidenote: California an American issue]
+
+[Sidenote: Fugitive slave bill]
+
+In California, where most of the Chinese immigrants landed, this movement
+was scarcely considered in the heat of the discussion whether California
+should be admitted into the Union as a pro-slavery or anti-slavery State.
+In the American Senate, Henry Clay introduced a bill for a compromise of
+the controversy on slavery. His proposal favored the admission of
+California as a free State. On March 7, Daniel Webster delivered a
+memorable speech in which he antagonized his anti-slavery friends in the
+North. This was denounced as the betrayal of his constituents. State
+Conventions in South Carolina called for a Southern Congress to voice their
+claims. Not long afterward a fugitive slave bill was adopted by the United
+States Congress. A fine of $1,000 and six months' imprisonment was to be
+imposed on any person harboring a fugitive slave or aiding him to escape.
+Fugitives were to be surrendered on demand, without the benefit of
+testimony or trial by jury. This served to terrorize some 20,000 escaped
+slaves and created intense indignation in the North. The issues were still
+more sharply drawn by the resignation of Jefferson Davis from the Senate,
+to run as a State-rights candidate for Governor of Mississippi. His
+Unionist rival, Foote, was elected.
+
+[Sidenote: American filibusters in Cuba]
+
+[Sidenote: Bulwer-Clayton treaty]
+
+[Sidenote: Friction with Portugal]
+
+In the meanwhile trouble had arisen with Spain and Portugal. On May 19,
+General Narcisso Lopez, with 600 American filibusters, landed at Cardenas
+to liberate Cuba from the dominion of Spain. He was defeated and his
+expedition dispersed. Another Cuban expedition was agitated in America. On
+April 25, President Taylor felt constrained to issue a second proclamation
+against filibusters. In May, the United States, in conjunction with Great
+Britain, recognized the independence of the Dominican Republic. Both
+countries at the same time agreed not to interfere in the affairs of
+Central America. In accordance with this agreement the famous
+Bulwer-Clayton Treaty was completed. It provided that neither country
+should obtain exclusive control over any inter-oceanic canal in Central
+America, nor erect fortifications along its line. In June an American
+squadron was sent to Portugal to support the United States demand for
+American war claims of 1812. The claims were refused and the American
+Minister was recalled from Lisbon. The American fleet was withdrawn without
+further hostile demonstrations. The American President, in pursuance of his
+policy of peace, proclaimed neutrality in the civil war which had arisen in
+Mexico.
+
+[Sidenote: Shields' prophecy]
+
+[Sidenote: Webster scourged]
+
+The furious slavery debate was resumed when Clay's so-called "Omnibus Bill"
+was offered for final consideration. It was during this debate that Senator
+Shields of California uttered his famous prophecy that the United States,
+so far from dissolving, would within a few generations send its soldiers to
+Asia and into China. On July 9, Webster soothed the angry passions of the
+legislators when he announced that President Taylor was dying. Webster's
+support of the Compromise Act of 1850, with its fugitive slave bill,
+dimmed his Presidential prospects. It was then that Whittier wrote the
+scathing lines entitled "Ichabod":
+
+  So fallen! so lost! the light withdrawn
+    Which once he wore!
+  The glory from his gray hairs gone
+    For evermore!
+
+  Revile him not! the tempter hath
+    A snare for all;
+  And pitying tears, not scorn and wrath,
+    Befit his fall.
+
+  Oh, dumb be passion's stormy rage,
+    When he who might
+  Have lighted up and led his age
+    Falls back in night!
+
+  Scorn! would the angels laugh to mark
+    A bright soul driven,
+  Fiend-goaded, down the endless dark,
+    From hope and heaven?
+
+  Let not the land once proud of him
+    Insult him now,
+  Nor brand with deeper shame his dim
+    Dishonor'd brow!
+
+  But let its humbled sons, instead,
+    From sea to lake,
+  A long lament, as for the dead,
+    In sadness make!
+
+  Of all we loved and honor'd naught
+    Save power remains,
+  A fallen angel's pride of thought
+    Still strong in chains.
+
+  All else is gone; from those great eyes
+    The soul has fled:
+  When faith is lost, when honor dies.
+    The man is dead.
+
+  Then pay the reverence of old days
+    To his dead fame!
+  Walk backward, with averted gaze,
+    And hide the shame!
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Calhoun]
+
+John Caldwell Calhoun, after a final speech on the issues of the country,
+died on the last day of March. He was the most prominent advocate of State
+sovereignty. He was noted for his keen logic, his clear statements and
+demonstrations of facts, and his profound earnestness. Webster said
+concerning him that he had "the indisputable basis of high character,
+unspotted integrity, and honor unimpeached. Nothing grovelling, low, or
+mean, or selfish came near his head, or his heart."
+
+[Sidenote: Death of President Taylor]
+
+[Sidenote: Fillmore's Presidency]
+
+On July 9, President Taylor died, and Vice-President Fillmore succeeded
+him. He received the resignations of all the Cabinet. His new Cabinet was
+headed by Webster, Secretary of State (succeeded by Everett in 1852). The
+new fugitive slave bill was signed by Fillmore. But the law was defied in
+the North as unconstitutional. Benton called the measure "the complex,
+cumbersome, expensive, annoying and ineffective fugitive slave law." In
+Boston occurred the cases of the fugitives Shadrach, Simms and Anthony
+Burns. Fillmore and Webster came to be looked upon in the North as traitors
+to the anti-slavery cause. But for this Fillmore would have had a fair
+chance of re-election to the Presidency.
+
+[Sidenote: "Uncle Tom's Cabin"]
+
+[Sidenote: "The Scarlet Letter"]
+
+Then appeared in the "National Era" at Washington the opening chapters of
+Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin." A million copies of the book
+were sold in America and in Europe. It spread and intensified the feeling
+against slavery. Emerson published "Representative Men"; Hawthorne "The
+Scarlet Letter"; and Whittier brought out his "Songs of Labor." Parodi,
+the Italian singer, made her first appearance in America. She was eclipsed
+presently by Jenny Lind, whose opening concert at Castle Garden in New York
+netted $30,000 to her manager, Barnum.
+
+[Sidenote: Russian conscription]
+
+[Sidenote: Schleswig-Holstein abandoned]
+
+[Sidenote: Ibsen]
+
+Under the stress of another Mohammedan rising against the Christians in
+Syria and the Balkans, Emperor Nicholas of Russia decreed a notable
+increase of the Russian army. Out of every thousand persons in the
+population seven men were mustered into the ranks in western Russia, thus
+adding some 180,000 men to the total strength of the Russian force. In
+midsummer, the city of Cracow, in Poland, was nearly destroyed by fire.
+Later in the year occurred the death of the Polish general Bem, in Turkey,
+who had won such distinction while serving the cause of Hungary. Another
+attempt to win Schleswig-Holstein from Denmark was made in summer. Unaided
+by the Germans, the Schleswig-Holsteiners, under the leadership of
+Willisen, a former Prussian general and distinguished theoretical
+strategist, engaged a superior Danish army at Idstedt. They were beaten.
+Their defeat had so discouraging an effect that Prussia abandoned the
+struggle in their behalf. In Norway, about this time, Henrik Ibsen came
+into prominence with a publication of his early drama "Catalina."
+
+[Sidenote: Dumas Fils]
+
+In France, the younger Dumas proved himself a formidable rival of his
+father by such works as his "Trois Hommes" and "Henri de Navarre."
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Balzac]
+
+[Sidenote: "The Human Comedy"]
+
+The death of Honore de Balzac, the celebrated French novelist, was an event
+in literature. Born at Tours in 1799, he soon devoted himself to writing.
+His first work, the tragedy "Cromwell," written at the age of nineteen,
+proved unsuccessful, as did all of his earlier novels, which appeared under
+a pseudonym. Various unfortunate undertakings, such as the publication of
+new editions of "La Fontaine" and "Moliere," plunged him into debt. He
+returned to writing novels. Not until late was his authorship openly
+avowed. By this time several of his stories, such as "Le Dernier Chouan,"
+"La Femme de Trente Ans," and his sprightly "Physiologie du Mariage," had
+achieved immense success. Still Balzac failed to turn his successes to
+financial account. He sank ever deeper in debt. In 1843 he turned upon his
+critics with a slashing "Monograph on the Parisian Press." The major part
+of his striking, realistic novels was published in the famous series "La
+Comedie Humaine." This in turn was divided into these seven parts: "Scenes
+of Private Life," "Life in the Provinces," "Life in Paris," "In Politics,"
+"In the Army," "In the Country," with "Philosophical Studies" and "Studies
+in Analysis." In his preface of 1842, Balzac thus explained the scheme of
+his work:
+
+     "In giving the general title of 'The Human Comedy' to a work begun
+     nearly thirteen years ago, it is necessary to explain its motive, to
+     relate its origin, and briefly sketch its plan, while endeavoring to
+     speak of these matters as though I had no personal interest in them.
+     This is not so difficult as many imagine. Few works conduce to much
+     vanity; much labor conduces to great diffidence....
+
+     "As we read the dry and discouraging list of events called History,
+     who can have failed to note that the writers of all periods, in Egypt,
+     Persia, Greece and Rome, have forgotten to give us the history of
+     manners? The fragment of Petronius on the private life of the Romans
+     excites rather than satisfies our curiosity....
+
+     [Sidenote: The novel defined]
+
+     "A sure grasp of the purport of this work will make it clear that I
+     attach to common, daily facts, hidden or patent to the eye, to the
+     acts of individual lives, and to their causes and principles, the
+     importance which historians have hitherto ascribed to the events of
+     public national life.... I have had to do what Richardson did but
+     once. Lovelace has a thousand forms, for social corruption takes the
+     hues of the medium in which it lives. Clarissa, on the contrary, the
+     lovely image of impassioned virtue, is drawn in lines of distracting
+     purity. To create a variety of Virgins it needs a Raphael.
+
+     "It was no small task to depict the two or three thousand conspicuous
+     types of a period; for this is, in fact, the number presented to us by
+     each generation, and which the Human Comedy must require. This crowd
+     of actors, of characters, this multitude of lives, needed a
+     setting--if I may be pardoned the expression, a gallery. Hence the
+     division into Scenes of Private Life, of Provincial Life, of Parisian,
+     Political, Military and Country Life. Under these six heads are
+     classified all the studies of manners which form the history of
+     society at large.
+
+     "The vastness of a plan which includes both a history and a criticism
+     of society, an analysis of its evils, and a discussion of its
+     principles, authorizes me, I think, in giving to my work the title
+     'The Human Comedy.' Is this too ambitious?"
+
+[Sidenote: Balzac's Works]
+
+Altogether, Balzac brought out more than a hundred prose romances. They
+contain the most graphic pictures of the life of the French people under
+Louis Philippe. Balzac said of himself that he described people as they
+were, while others described them as they should be. A few months before
+his death Balzac improved his circumstances by a marriage with the rich
+Countess Hanska. On his death Victor Hugo delivered the funeral oration,
+while Alexandre Dumas, his rival throughout life, erected a monument to him
+with his own means.
+
+One week later Louis Philippe, the deposed King of France, died at
+Claremont in England, in his seventy-seventh year. His career, from the
+time that he followed the example of his father, Philippe Egalite, by
+fighting the battles of the Revolution, and through the vicissitudes of his
+exile until he became King in 1830, was replete with stirring episodes.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Gay-Lussac]
+
+Gay-Lussac, the great French chemist and physicist, died during the same
+year. Born at Saint Leonard, Haut-Vienne, in 1788, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
+distinguished himself early in his career as a scientist by his aerial
+voyages in company with Biot for the observation of atmospheric phenomena
+at great heights. In 1816, he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at the
+Polytechnic School of Paris, a chair which he held until 1832. Promoted to
+a professorship at the Jardin des Plantes, Gay-Lussac labored there
+incessantly until his death. There is scarcely a branch of physical or
+chemical science to which Gay-Lussac did not contribute some important
+discovery. He is noted chiefly for his experiments with gases and for the
+discovery of the law of combination by volumes.
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's presidency]
+
+Louis Napoleon, while administering affairs as President, began to let
+France feel his power. Early in the year he created his incapable uncle,
+Jerome Bonaparte, a marshal of France. On August 15, his Napoleonic
+aspirations were encouraged by a grand banquet tendered to him at Lyons.
+His government felt strong enough to enact new measures for the restriction
+of the liberty of the press.
+
+[Sidenote: Prussian constitution]
+
+[Sidenote: South German alliance]
+
+[Sidenote: Denmark's integrity guaranteed]
+
+[Sidenote: Hessians resist despotism]
+
+In Germany, as well as in Austria and Russia, similar reactionary measures
+were enforced. Frederick William IV. of Prussia for a while appeared
+anxious to undo the effects of his narrow policy of the previous year. A
+constitution had been adopted in Prussia on the last day of January, and on
+February 6 the King took the constitutional oath. Austria now began to edge
+her way back into the management of German affairs. Under her influence
+Hanover withdrew from the alliance of the three North German powers,
+Hanover, Saxony and Prussia. Later Saxony also withdrew. On February 27,
+the Kings of Bavaria, Wurtemberg and Saxony signed a joint agreement for a
+restoration of the German Confederation and a maintenance of the federal
+union. The Emperor of Austria gave to this scheme his full support. When
+the Bundestag met again at Frankfort, Austria insisted on her rights as a
+German State. Too late the Prussian representative advocated a German
+federal State, with Austria excluded. The disastrous failure of Prussian
+intervention in Schleswig-Holstein about this time brought Prussia into
+further disrepute with the rest of Germany. England, France and Sweden
+united to guarantee the integrity of Denmark. Prussia left the Duchies to
+their fate. On July 19, Austria called for another assembly of the old
+Confederation. Prussia and her adherents could not join. On August 17, the
+German sovereigns met on the call of Austria at Frankfort to consider a
+plan of federal union. The old Bundestag was reopened at Frankfort on
+September 2, under the auspices of Austria. Prussia clung to her rival
+federal union. A bone of contention was furnished by the little State of
+Hesse. The Archduke of Hesse, the most reactionary of German princes, had
+resumed his rule with the help of his hated Prime Minister, Hassenpflug.
+The financial budget of this Minister was disapproved by the Hessian
+Estates. Hassenpflug now dissolved the Assembly and proceeded to levy taxes
+without its sanction. The people refused to pay. The courts decided against
+the government. Even the soldiers and their officers declined to lift a
+finger against the people. In the face of this resolute attitude the Prince
+and his Minister fled the country, on September 12, and appealed to the new
+Bundestag at Frankfort for help. The restoration of the Archduke to his
+throne was decreed.
+
+[Sidenote: Prussians intervene]
+
+[Sidenote: Austria prepares for war]
+
+[Sidenote: Prussia cowed]
+
+[Sidenote: Hessia ground under]
+
+Prussia now took a decided stand. On September 26, General von Radowitz,
+the originator of the North German Union, was placed at the head of
+Prussia's foreign affairs. He declared for the cause of the people in
+Hesse. The Prussian troops were withdrawn from Baden over the military
+roads leading through Hesse. To meet this situation, Francis Joseph of
+Austria, in October, had a personal interview with the Kings of Bavaria
+and of Wurtemberg at Bregenz. It was decided to crowd the Prussians out of
+Baden and Hesse by moving Bavarian and Austrian troops into those
+countries. Another personal conference between Francis Joseph and Czar
+Nicholas at Warsaw assured to Austria the support of Russia. In vain did
+Frederick William send his cousin, Count Brandenburg, to win over the Czar
+to his side. Count Brandenburg met with so haughty a reception that he
+returned chagrined, and, falling ill, died soon afterward. Both Austria and
+Prussia mobilized their armies. At Vienna the Austrian Prime Minister
+avowed to the Ambassador of France that it was his policy to "avilir la
+Prussie, puis la demolir." On November 8, the vanguards of the Prussian and
+Austrian troops exchanged shots. The single casualty of a bugler's horse
+served only to tickle the German sense of humor. The Prussians retired
+without further encounters. Radowitz resigned his Ministry. Otto von
+Manteuffel was put in charge. On November 21, the Austrian Ambassador at
+Berlin, Prince Schwarzenberg, demanded the evacuation of Hesse within
+forty-eight hours. Prussia gave in. Manteuffel requested the favor of a
+personal interview at Olmuetz. Without awaiting Austria's reply he posted
+thither. In a treaty signed at Olmuetz late in the year, Prussia agreed to
+withdraw her troops from Baden and Hesse, and to annul her military
+conventions with Baden, Anhalt, Mecklenburg and Brunswick. Thus miserably
+ended Prussia's first attempt to exclude Austria from the affairs of
+Germany. As heretofore, the Prussian-Polish provinces of Posen and Silesia
+were excluded from the Confederation. Austria, on the other hand, tried to
+bring her subjected provinces in Italy and Hungary into the Germanic
+Confederation. Against this proposition, repugnant to most Germans, France
+and England lodged so vigorous a protest that the plan was abandoned. The
+Elector of Hesse-Cassel returned to his capital. Under the protection of
+the federal bayonets he was able to bring his wretched subjects to complete
+subjection.
+
+[Sidenote: Gervinus]
+
+[Sidenote: Richard Wagner]
+
+[Sidenote: Lenau]
+
+[Sidenote: Lenau's pessimism]
+
+The profound disappointment of the German patriots at the downfall of their
+political ideals found its counterpart in German letters and music. Georg
+Gottfried Gervinus, the historian, who had taken so active a part in the
+attempted reorganization of Germany, turned from history to purely literary
+studies. It was then that he wrote his celebrated "Study of Shakespeare."
+Richard Wagner, who had escaped arrest only by fleeing from Dresden, gave
+up active composition to write pamphlets and essays, and published his
+remarkable essay on "The Revolution and the Fine Arts." In the meanwhile,
+Franz Liszt at Weimar brought out Wagner's new operas "Lohengrin" and
+"Tannhaeuser." Nicolas Lenau, the most melodious of the German lyric poets
+after Heine, died insane. Lenau, whose true name was Niembsch von
+Strehlenau, was a Hungarian by birth. He joined the group of German poets
+among whom were Uhland, Gustav Schwab and Count Alexander von Wurtemberg,
+whose literary aspirations were ridiculed by Heine as "la Romantique
+defroquee." Stimulated by his fellow poet Chamisso's voyage to Bering
+Strait, Lenau sought new inspiration in America. On his return he wrote a
+number of poems on America, which were published under the title of
+"Atlantica." In later years Lenau's verses, like those of Leopardi in
+Italy, became ever more melancholy, owing partly to inherited tendencies.
+In the early forties the poet's pessimism turned into absolute melancholia.
+
+[Sidenote: Uhland]
+
+[Sidenote: Heyse]
+
+After the death of Lenau the mantle of German poetry fell upon Uhland. One
+of the younger poets, Paul Heyse, at the same time made his first
+appearance with the poetic drama "Francesca da Rimini."
+
+[Sidenote: Babism in Persia]
+
+In this year, Mirza Ali Mohamad, the great founder of the new Bab religion
+in Persia, with his disciples Aka Mohamad Ali and Sayyid Husayn of Yezd,
+suffered martyrdom. Sayyid Husayn recanted under torture, but the Bab and
+Aka went firmly to the place of execution. Condemned to be shot, the Bab
+escaped death by an apparent miracle. The bullets only cut the cords that
+held him bound. He was afterward slain by a soldier. His body was recovered
+by his disciples. Thus, in the words of Denison Ross, the Persian scholar,
+"died the great Prophet-Martyr of the Nineteenth Century, at the age of
+twenty-seven, having during a period of six brief years, of which three
+were spent in prison, attracted to his person and won for his faith
+thousands of devoted men and women throughout Persia, and having laid the
+foundation to a new religion destined to become a formidable rival to
+Islam." Further persecution of the Babis during this same year did much to
+forward the new religion.
+
+
+
+
+1851
+
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's measures]
+
+President Louis Napoleon's growing mastery of France was revealed early in
+the year. On January 3, as the result of his restrictions of the liberty of
+the press, the Ministry had to resign. The President deprived General
+Changarnier, a pronounced Republican, of the command of the Paris garrison,
+and dissolved the Assembly, which might have objected to these measures.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Spontini]
+
+[Sidenote: Spontini's career]
+
+Gasparo Spontini, the celebrated Italian composer, died on January 24, at
+his birthplace in Ancona province. Born in 1774, Spontini was intended for
+the priesthood, but while still a lad ran away and took up music. A
+sympathetic uncle sent him to the musical conservatory at Naples, where he
+studied under Sala Tritto. Spontini began his career as a dramatic composer
+at the opening of the century while acting as orchestral conductor at
+Palermo. In 1800 he brought out three operas, and wrote others for Rome and
+Venice, so that by the time he went to Paris in 1803 he had sixteen operas
+to his credit. His study of Mozart's music served to bring about a complete
+change in his style. Thus his one-act opera "Milton," dedicated to Empress
+Josephine, may be regarded as the first of his truly original works.
+Empress Josephine appointed him her chamber composer, and secured a hearing
+for his new opera "The Vestal," produced at the Grand Opera. Napoleon
+awarded to him the prize for the best dramatic work of that year. In 1810,
+Spontini became the director of the Italian opera, and there staged
+Mozart's "Don Giovanni." Dismissed in 1812, on charges of financial
+irregularity, he was reappointed as court composer by Louis XVIII. His
+stage pieces in glorification of the Restoration only achieved a _succes
+d'estime_. He was glad to accept an appointment to Berlin as court composer
+for Frederick William III. There he brought out "Lalla Rookh," "Alcidor,"
+and "Agnes Hohenstauffen," none of which found currency in other cities.
+His overweening conduct gradually made his position at Berlin untenable. He
+was finally driven out by the hostile demonstrations of his audiences, and
+retired, in 1841, a broken man. After a few years spent in Paris he
+returned to Italy, where the Pope created him a count. Spontini returned to
+his birthplace of Magolati village only to die.
+
+[Sidenote: Prussian events]
+
+[Sidenote: Schleswig-Holstein again]
+
+[Sidenote: Metternich returns]
+
+[Sidenote: Bismarck]
+
+[Sidenote: The Dreibund]
+
+[Sidenote: Austrian-Turkish agreement]
+
+In Germany, King William IV. at Berlin celebrated the 150th anniversary of
+the Prussian monarchy on January 18. A colossal statue of Frederick the
+Great was made for this occasion by the sculptor Christian Rauch. At the
+same time a further humiliation upon Prussia was inflicted by the military
+occupation of Schleswig-Holstein by Austria. The Austrian troops, who came
+to put a definite stop to hostilities in those provinces, marched into
+Schleswig-Holstein over a pontoon bridge laid by the retreating columns of
+the Prussians. As a concession to outraged German feeling, representatives
+from Schleswig-Holstein were to be readmitted to the Diet of the Germanic
+Confederation. This superannuated Diet met again at Frankfort as in the
+days of the Holy Alliance. Before this a conference of Ministers had been
+held at Dresden, at which Prussia was represented by Baron Lamsikell, while
+Prince Felix Schwarzenberg appeared for Austria. With the powerful backing
+of Russia, Austria could force the hand of Prussia into reacceptance of the
+old order of things. As if to emphasize this, old Prince Metternich made
+his reappearance in Vienna as if nothing had happened. On May 30, the
+Confederate Diet met again at Frankfort. Baron Bismarck was appointed as a
+delegate from Prussia. On the day after the opening of the Diet, the
+sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia met at Olmuetz to renew the
+former alliance of these countries. A period of reaction set in. The
+Prussian Constitution was modified. The Emperor of Austria began to undo
+the reforms granted by the Liberal Constitution of 1849. On August 20, he
+arrogated to himself absolute powers in a series of Cabinet letters, in
+which he declared that his Ministers were "responsible to no other
+political authority than the throne," while the Reichsrath was to be merely
+"considered as the council of the throne." Before this the Austrian and
+Turkish Governments had come to a settlement respecting Hungarian and
+Polish refugees in Turkey. With the exception of Kossuth and seven others
+of the foremost leaders of the Hungarian revolution, a so-called amnesty
+was extended to all refugees, provided they did not set foot in Hungary.
+About this time another popular rising occurred in Bosnia. A Turkish army
+was sent to suppress it, and Austrian troops took up their station on the
+frontier. Many of the exiled Hungarians betook themselves to America.
+Kossuth first went to England. A magnificent reception awaited him there.
+
+[Sidenote: Palmerston rebuked]
+
+[Sidenote: Boers lose Orange Colony]
+
+Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Secretary, in the meanwhile had
+compromised himself with his colleagues in the Cabinet by his independent
+threats of interference in regard to the Hungarian refugees in Turkey.
+Queen Victoria sent a letter to Prime Minister Russell containing these
+significant words: "The Queen expects to be kept informed by Lord
+Palmerston of what passes between him and the foreign Ministers, before
+important decisions are taken based upon that intercourse; to receive the
+foreign despatches in good time; and to have the drafts for her approval
+sent to her in sufficient time to make herself acquainted with their
+contents before they be sent off." Lord Palmerston replied: "I have taken a
+copy of this memorandum of the Queen, and will not fail to attend to the
+directions which it contains." Some of the most troublesome foreign
+complications, as often before, first came up for settlement in the
+Colonial Office. Thus, in March a British force under Sir Harry Smith
+defeated a commando of Boers at Boomplaatz. Other Boer forces were
+dispersed. The British flag was hoisted beyond the Orange River and the
+annexation of that territory to Great Britain was accomplished.
+
+[Sidenote: Second Burmese war]
+
+[Sidenote: Fall of Rangoon]
+
+In India, war was renewed with the King of Burma. As usual, the trouble
+started with complaints of the British merchants at Rangoon calling for the
+protection of their country. Lord Dalhousie sent Commodore Lambert to
+Rangoon on the "Fox." Lambert seized one of the ships of the Burmese king
+lying in the river, promising to restore it on receipt of ten thousand
+rupees as compensation for the injured merchants. In reply the Burmese
+opened fire on the "Fox." Now all Burmese ports were declared in a state of
+blockade. Lord Dalhousie sent nineteen steamers and 6,000 men to Rangoon
+under General Godwin. Rangoon was captured after a heavy cannonade. The
+three terraces of the great Pagoda there were carried by storm, and the
+British flag hoisted over the golden dome of the sacred Pagoda. The capture
+of Rangoon was followed by that of Bassie on the Irawaddy, and Prome. The
+whole of Pegu was annexed to the British Empire.
+
+[Sidenote: Gold found in Australia]
+
+In Australia great excitement was created by the discovery of gold in
+various places. As early as February, gold was found in New South Wales by
+returned gold seekers from California. A great number of immigrants rushed
+into that province. In July, a squatter on Meroo Creek found a mass of
+virgin gold weighing above a hundred pounds. Thereupon the famous gold
+fields of Ballarat were opened in Victoria. In October, gold discoveries
+were made near Melbourne surpassing all others. As a result of the great
+tide of immigration that swept into Victoria that province separated itself
+from New South Wales. Melbourne became the capital of Victoria.
+
+[Sidenote: Crystal Palace show]
+
+In England, throughout the summer, a great international exposition in the
+so-called "Crystal Palace" erected on Hyde Park attracted visitors from far
+and wide. A special ode by Alfred Tennyson was sang at the opening:
+
+  Uplift a thousand voices full and sweet,
+    In this wide hall with earth's invention stored,
+    And praise the invisible universal Lord,
+  Who lets once more in peace the nations meet,
+    Where Science, Art and Labor have outpoured
+  Their myriad horns of plenty at our feet.
+
+The Exposition was the most ambitious affair of the kind held so far. The
+building, which covered an area of nineteen acres, cost about L180,000. The
+total receipts of the Exposition were more than a half million pounds. At
+one time it was calculated nearly a hundred thousand visitors were
+assembled under its roof. The difficult problem how to place the exhibits
+of various countries was settled by awarding the choice places in an
+arrangement according to Mercator's projection of the map of the world.
+Even then Spain refused to be represented at the Exposition unless she were
+provided with an entrance distinct from that of Portugal.
+
+[Sidenote: Civil war in Portugal]
+
+Portugal was scarcely in a condition to share in any exhibition of
+industrial progress. Another outbreak of the persistent conflict between
+the Septembrists and Cabralists broke out in April. An insurrection in
+Oporto declared for the fugitive Duke of Saldanha. On April 29, he arrived
+at Oporto. The movement assumed such threatening proportions that Queen
+Maria da Gloria dismissed Count Thomar de Costa Cabral, and made Saldanha
+Prime Minister.
+
+[Sidenote: South American convulsions]
+
+In Portugal's former colonial possessions a civil war, no less wearing, was
+maintained. On October 2, General Urquiza of the Argentine Republic, having
+joined forces with Brazil and Montevideo, compelled General Oribe to
+capitulate at Montevideo. This ended the nine years' investment of
+Montevideo. Later in the year General Urquiza overthrew General Rosas at
+Montevideo and proclaimed himself military dictator. In Chile, about the
+same time that a violent earthquake wrecked more than four hundred houses
+at Valparaiso, a military insurrection broke out under Colonel Ourriola. In
+a sharp engagement between the government troops and the insurgents
+Ourriola with three hundred of his followers was killed. The insurrection
+was prolonged by General Jose Maria de la Cruz. Between four and five
+thousand men were killed in the desultory engagements that followed. At
+last the revolt was crushed by the decisive defeat of General Cruz in the
+battle of Longamilla.
+
+[Sidenote: Extension of railways]
+
+In China, the threatening Taiping rebellion gathered force. In Siam, the
+unusual spectacle was beheld of the simultaneous enthronement of two kings
+as rulers of that country. The progress of modern civilization was attested
+by the opening of a steam railway in Egypt between the cities of Cairo and
+Alexandria. In Russia, too, a straight line of railroad was laid over the
+long stretch between St. Petersburg and Moscow, and work was begun on
+others no less ambitious.
+
+[Sidenote: American filibusters pardoned]
+
+[Sidenote: American yacht victory]
+
+[Sidenote: Kossuth in America]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Fenimore Cooper]
+
+[Sidenote: Cooper's novels]
+
+The fears of unpleasant complications between the United States and Spain,
+by reason of Cuban filibustering expeditions, were allayed by a general
+pardon extended to the American filibusters on the part of the Queen of
+Spain. On August 11, Lopez had landed with more filibusters in Cuba. He was
+captured shortly after his landing and was shot. The same fate was shared
+by his Cuban followers. Only to the American adventurers who accompanied
+the expedition did the Spanish Queen's pardon apply. An event of joyful
+interest to Americans was the victory of the American schooner-yacht
+"America" over all her English competitors in the yacht races at Cowes on
+October 22. She carried off the trophy of an international cup, which,
+under the name of the America's Cup, was destined to remain beyond the
+reach of English racing yachts throughout the rest of the century. Not long
+after this the visit of two distinguished Europeans excited general
+interest in America. One was Lola Montez, the famous Spanish dancer, whose
+relations with King Louis I. of Bavaria had resulted in the loss of his
+crown. The other was Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot, who had been
+brought from England on an American vessel. His reception in America
+surpassed even that which had been accorded to him in England. During this
+same year in America occurred the deaths of Audubon, the great naturalist;
+Gallaudet, the benefactor of deaf-mutes, and James Fenimore Cooper, the
+novelist. Cooper was born in Burlington, New Jersey, the son of a wealthy
+father, who settled on the shores of Lake Otsego in New York. After
+attending Yale College for three years, Cooper entered the United States
+navy as a common sailor. He was promoted after some time to the rank of
+midshipman and eventually to that of lieutenant. On his marriage in 1811 he
+left the service, and soon began his career as an author. His first novel,
+"Precaution," was not promising. In "The Spy," which appeared in 1821, he
+gave the first indications of his peculiar originality. It made Cooper's
+reputation as an American author. The knowledge that Cooper had acquired in
+his father's estate on the borders of the wilderness and later on the sea
+was turned to account in his many tales of Indian life and sea stories,
+which took his contemporaries by storm. Most famous among them are:
+"Deerslayer," "The Last of the Mohicans," "Pathfinder," "Pioneers,"
+"Prairie," and the sea tales "The Pilot" and "Red Rover." His strictures on
+American customs in "Homeward Bound" and "Home as Found" brought upon him
+much newspaper abuse. About the time of Cooper's death, Francis Parkman
+published his "Conspiracy of Pontiac," Longfellow his "Golden Legend,"
+while Nathaniel Hawthorne brought out "The House of the Seven Gables."
+
+[Sidenote: Tennyson, poet laureate]
+
+In England, Alfred Tennyson had been selected as the worthiest successor of
+William Wordsworth in the office of Poet Laureate. He showed his
+appreciation of the honor by his famous dedication to Queen Victoria in
+"The Keepsake."
+
+  Revered, beloved--O you that hold
+    A nobler office upon earth
+    Than arms, or power of brain, or birth
+  Could give the warrior kings of old,
+
+  Victoria--since your Royal grace
+    To one of less desert allows
+    This laurel greener from the brows
+  Of him that utter'd nothing base:
+
+  And should your greatness, and the care
+    That yokes with empire, yield you time
+    To make demand of modern rhyme
+  If aught of ancient worth be there;
+
+  Then--while a sweeter music wakes,
+    And thro' wild March the throstle calls,
+    Where all about your palace walls
+  The sunlit almond-blossom shakes--
+
+  Take, Madam, this poor book of song;
+    For tho' the faults were thick as dust
+    In vacant chambers, I could trust
+  Your kindness. May you rule us long,
+
+  And leave us rulers of your blood
+    As noble till the latest day!
+    May children of our children say,
+  "She wrought her people lasting good;
+
+  "Her court was pure; her life serene;
+    God gave her peace; her land reposed;
+    A thousand claims to reverence closed
+  In her as Mother, Wife, and Queen;
+
+  "And statesmen at her council met
+    Who knew the seasons when to take
+    Occasion by the hand, and make
+  The bounds of freedom wider yet
+
+  "By shaping some august decree,
+    Which kept her throne unshaken still,
+    Broad-based upon her people's will,
+  And compass'd by the inviolate sea."
+
+[Sidenote: Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]
+
+Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, daughter of Godwin and wife of the poet
+Shelley, died during this year. She wrote some half dozen novels and
+stories, the best of which was "Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus."
+The weird story, which was written in 1816 in a spirit of friendly rivalry
+with Shelley and Byron, achieved great popularity. This was largely by
+reason of the originality of the author's conception of the artificial
+creation of a human monster which came to torment its maker. Mrs. Shelley's
+last book was an account of rambles in Germany and Italy. She also brought
+out a careful edition of her husband's complete works.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Turner]
+
+[Sidenote: "The Slave Ship"]
+
+Joseph M.W. Turner, the most celebrated English artist of the Nineteenth
+Century, died in this same year. Born in 1775, he displayed his artistic
+talents at an early age. At the outset of the Nineteenth Century he
+achieved a national reputation by his "Battle of the Nile," but did not
+reach the apotheosis of his fame until Ruskin sang his praises. One of his
+most discussed pictures was that of the "Slave Ship," which has in turn
+excited the most scathing ridicule and the most extravagant admiration.
+Thus George Inness, the American artist, wrote of him: "Turner's 'Slave
+Ship' is the most infernal piece of clap-trap ever painted. There is
+nothing in it." Thackeray confessed with delightful frankness: "I don't
+know whether it is sublime or ridiculous." Mark Twain, the American
+humorist, has voiced both of these views at once, whereas Ruskin has
+recorded:
+
+[Sidenote: Ruskin's estimate]
+
+"I believe if I were reduced to rest Turner's immortality upon any single
+work, I should choose 'The Slave Ship.' Its daring conception, ideal in the
+highest sense of the word, is based on the purest truth, and wrought out
+with the concentrated knowledge of a life. Its color is absolutely perfect,
+not one false or morbid hue in any part or line, and so modulated that
+every square inch of canvas is a perfect composition; its drawing as
+accurate as fearless; the ship buoyant, bending, and full of motion; its
+tones as true as they are wonderful; and the whole picture dedicated to the
+most sublime of subjects and impressions (completing thus the perfect
+system of all truth, which we have shown to be formed by Turner's
+works)--the power, majesty, and deathfulness of the open, deep, illimitable
+sea."
+
+[Sidenote: Some Turner prices]
+
+The picture, having first been acquired by Ruskin, finally went to America.
+About this time Turner's canvases began to command fabulous prices. "Van
+Goyen Looking for a Subject," sold in 1833 for a few hundred pounds, was
+resold in London thirty years later for 2,510 guineas. At a Turner sale in
+1878 hitherto unsold canvases and unfinished sketches brought over L73,000,
+or about $365,000. Over a hundred of Turner's paintings and as many
+sketches and drawings, dating from 1790 to 1850, are now in the National
+Gallery of London.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Sebastiani]
+
+[Sidenote: Corsican diplomacy]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Soult]
+
+[Sidenote: Soult's early successes]
+
+[Sidenote: First Peer of France]
+
+[Sidenote: Foremost soldier of Empire]
+
+In France, Marshal Horace Francois Sebastiani, one of the favorites of
+Napoleon the Great, died on July 21 at Paris. Sebastiani was a Corsican
+like Napoleon. He was identified with his great countryman's career from
+beginning to end. A soldier of fortune, like his illustrious chief, he
+distinguished himself chiefly by his Machiavellian talents for diplomacy.
+It was he who stirred up Napoleon's first war with England by his famous
+mission to the East to lay bare England's weakness in that quarter. After
+this, Sebastiani's name figured in many confidential missions. By his
+machinations at Constantinople, at one time he embroiled both England and
+Russia with Turkey, when such a diversion came most welcome to Napoleon,
+who was then fighting on the frontiers of Poland. On the downfall of
+Napoleon, Sebastiani was temporarily intrusted with the management of
+affairs at Paris. His conduct at this time as at all others laid him open
+to charges of double dealing and treachery. Napoleon showed his
+appreciation of Sebastiani's services by remembering him in his will. The
+famous old marshal's death gave to Prince Louis Napoleon a welcome
+opportunity to recall the lost glories of the First Empire. A still better
+chance was presently afforded. For, soon after Sebastiani, Marshal Soult
+died at chateau St. Amans, on November 26, in his eighty-second year. The
+death of this distinguished Marshal-General of France served to recall some
+of the brightest glories of Napoleonic days. Born in 1769 at St.
+Amans-la-Bastide, Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult joined the royal army of
+France at the age of sixteen. He served as a sous-lieutenant under Marshals
+Lukner and Ustine, and so distinguished himself that he soon won his steps
+and was attached as adjutant-general to Marshal Lefebvre's staff. As a
+brigadier-general he turned the tide of victory at the battle of Fluress.
+After this he was intrusted with the command of a division, and took part
+in all the campaigns in Germany, and through the Swiss and Italian
+campaigns waged by Massena. In a sortie from Genoa he was taken prisoner.
+Set at liberty after the battle of Marengo, he returned to France at the
+peace of Amiens, and was made one of the four colonels of the guard of the
+consuls. Napoleon Bonaparte, though by no means fond of Soult, was quick to
+detect his great talents as a soldier. After this a prominent part was
+assigned to Soult in all of Napoleon's campaigns. He was one of the first
+of the generals selected for the new rank of marshal in 1804, and was the
+first of the marshals to be advanced to the dignity of a peer of France. In
+1805, Soult led the main column of the Grand Army, which gained the
+Austrian rear, and thus brought about the disastrous capitulation of Ulm.
+On the field of Austerlitz he was charged with the execution of the
+brilliant manoeuvre which decided the fate of that battle. His share in
+the battle of Jena was scarcely less distinguished. After this victory,
+Soult defeated Kalkreuth, captured Magdeburg, and put to flight Bluecher and
+Lestocq. On the bloody field of Eylau, Soult's ardor helped to secure the
+semblance of victory for France. In 1808 he was sent to secure the French
+conquest of Spain. He defeated the Spaniards at Manuessa and fought the
+battle at Coruna where Sir John Moore lost his life. The English army
+having fled, Soult overran Galicia and the north of Portugal, where he
+stormed Oporto. On the landing of Wellington he retreated before that
+commander into Spain, but after the battle of Talavera once more drove the
+Spaniards and English before him into Portugal.
+
+[Sidenote: Last stand at Toulouse]
+
+[Sidenote: Minister of war]
+
+[Sidenote: Marshal-General of France]
+
+After the loss of Badajoz and Ciudad Rodrigo, Soult was recalled to aid
+Napoleon in Germany after the catastrophe of Moscow. He was the Emperor's
+chief-of-staff in the battles of Luetzen and Bautzen. On Wellington's
+invasion of France, Soult was sent against him. Marching through the passes
+of the Pyrenees, he succeeded in inflicting great losses on the English.
+His attempts to secure Pampeluna and San Sebastian having failed, Soult was
+compelled to face Wellington on the soil of France. His dispirited troops
+were driven back at Toulouse, where he held his ground tenaciously until
+the allies had lost 5,000 men. At the Peace of Paris he signed a separate
+suspension of arms, and was rewarded for this by Louis XVIII. with the
+cross of St. Louis and the portfolio of the Ministry of War, but during the
+Hundred Days he declared for Napoleon, and once more served as his
+chief-of-staff at Waterloo. On his return from exile in 1819 his marshal's
+baton was restored to him. Charles X. also confirmed him in his rank as
+peer. Louis Philippe twice made him Minister of War. At the coronation of
+Queen Victoria in 1838, Soult was elected to represent France. When he
+retired into private life, nearly ten years later, the King revived for him
+the ancient dignity of Marshal-General of France.
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's aspirations]
+
+[Sidenote: Maupas]
+
+[Sidenote: Emphatic disavowals]
+
+By the time of Marshal Soult's death, the storm that arose over Louis
+Napoleon's abrupt removal of Changarnier had been suppressed with a firm
+hand. The majority in the Assembly who voted for a revision of the
+Constitution was found to be ninety-seven less than the three-fourths
+required, and all further opposition of the Assembly against Louis
+Napoleon's measures was denounced as factious. Maupas, the obsequious Chief
+of Police, discovered dangerous plots against the government and against
+the person of the President. Fears of possible Napoleonic aspirations had
+been silenced by Louis Napoleon's energetic protests. He himself stated
+publicly: "They think that I wish to revive Napoleon. What could I revive
+of Napoleon? One sole thing--a crime. I am not a genius--so I cannot copy
+Napoleon; but I am an honest man--so I will imitate Washington. My name,
+the name of Bonaparte, will be inscribed on two pages in the history of
+France. On the first there will be crime and glory; on the second propriety
+and honor. And the second, perhaps, will be worth the first. Why? Because,
+if Napoleon is the greater, Washington is a better man. Between the guilty
+hero and the good citizen I choose the good citizen. Such is my ambition."
+
+[Sidenote: A last denial]
+
+[Sidenote: The Coup d'Etat]
+
+Later, after a caricaturist had been imprisoned and fined for depicting
+Louis Bonaparte in the act of shooting at the French Constitution as a
+target, Morigny, Minister of the Interior, declared in the Council that "a
+guardian of public power should never so violate the law, as otherwise he
+would be--" "A dishonest man," interposed President Napoleon. Such was the
+situation on the eve of December 2. As Victor Hugo put it, in the opening
+chapter of his "History of a Crime": "People had long suspected Louis
+Bonaparte; but long continued suspicion blunts the intellect and it wears
+itself out by fruitless alarms." On December 1, the session of the Assembly
+was devoted to a discussion on municipal law. It terminated with a peaceful
+tribunal vote. Prince Louis Napoleon held an informal reception at the
+Elysees. During that night, Louis Napoleon, in complicity with the bastard
+princes, De Morny, Valevsky, Saint-Arnaud, Persigny, Maupas and others,
+having made sure of the commanding officers of the troops on duty, caused
+the arrest before daylight of all the leading Republicans. It was alleged
+afterward that Colonel Espinasse, who was in charge of the soldiers
+stationed at the Legislative Palace, received 100,000 francs and the
+promise of a general's rank for his part in the affair.
+
+[Sidenote: "Boxed up"]
+
+At the stroke of five in the morning, columns of soldiery filed out of all
+the Paris barracks and occupied the commanding positions where barricades
+had been thrown up in former times. At the same time a score of detectives
+in closed carriages apprehended the leading members of the Assembly. Among
+them were Cavaignac, Changarnier, Thiers, Bedeau, General Lamorciere, the
+Acting-Secretary of War, and Charras. The government printing establishment
+and all the newspaper offices were occupied by troops. Soldiers were placed
+at the side of the printers, who were then ordered to set up a series of
+proclamations. Before six in the morning bands of bill stickers, hired for
+the occasion, posted them up all over Paris. At breakfast time, when
+sixteen deputies and seventy-eight citizens had been arrested and were held
+secure, the Duke of Morny reported the success of the undertaking to Louis
+Napoleon with the two words: "Boxed up." Louis Napoleon hereupon issued the
+following decree in the name of the French People:
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's manifesto]
+
+     "ARTICLE I.--The National Assembly is dissolved.
+
+     "II.--Universal suffrage is re-established. The law of May 31 is
+     abrogated.
+
+     "III.--The French People are convoked in their electoral districts
+     from the 14th December to the 21st December following.
+
+     "IV.--The State of Siege is decreed in the district of the first
+     Military Division.
+
+     "V.--The Council of State is dissolved.
+
+     "VI.--The Minister of the Interior is charged with the execution of
+     this decree.
+
+     "Given at the Palace of the Elysee, 2d December, 1851.
+
+     "LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE.
+
+     "DE MORNY, Minister of the Interior."
+
+[Sidenote: A Napoleonic address]
+
+Together with this decree Louis Napoleon issued this appeal to the people:
+
+     "FRENCHMEN! The present situation can last no longer. Every day which
+     passes enhances the dangers of the country. The Assembly, which ought
+     to be the firmest support of order, has become a focus of
+     conspiracies. The patriotism of three hundred of its members has been
+     unable to check its fatal tendencies. Instead of making laws in the
+     public interest it forges arms for civil war; it attacks the power
+     which I hold directly from the People, it encourages all bad passions,
+     it compromises the tranquillity of France; I have dissolved it, and I
+     constitute the whole People a judge between it and me. The men who
+     have ruined two monarchies wish to tie my hands in order to overthrow
+     the Republic; my duty is to frustrate their treacherous schemes, to
+     maintain the Republic, and to save the Country by appealing to the
+     solemn judgment of France.
+
+     "Such is my firm conviction. If you share it, declare it by your
+     votes. If, on the contrary, you prefer a government without strength,
+     Monarchical or Republican, borrowed I know not from what past, or from
+     what chimerical future, answer in the negative.
+
+     "But if you believe that the cause of which my name is the
+     symbol--that is to say, France regenerated by the Revolution of '89,
+     and organized by the Emperor, is to be still your own, proclaim it by
+     sanctioning the powers which I ask from you.
+
+     "Then France and Europe will be preserved from anarchy, obstacles will
+     be removed, rivalries will have disappeared, for all will respect, in
+     the decision of the People, the decree of Providence.
+
+     "Given at the Palace of the Elysee, 2d December,
+     1851.          LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE."
+
+[Sidenote: The Second December]
+
+[Sidenote: Summary executions]
+
+[Sidenote: Proscription]
+
+During the same day the Assembly was dissolved by troops. Attempts at
+public protests were roughly suppressed. A few barricades were thrown up,
+but the crowds were quickly dispersed, and those agitators who were caught
+were hurried off to prison. On December 4, the troops were ordered out in
+force, and proceeded to clear the streets. Nearly a thousand persons were
+shot during the course of the day. The insurrection was stamped out. A few
+days later, when the National Assembly tried to meet again, a hundred and
+eighty members were arrested. Then appeared two parallel lists of names.
+One contained the names of those who could be counted on for the purposes
+of Prince Napoleon. They were all created members of a consultative
+committee, which was to sit "until the reorganization of the legislative
+party." The other list contained the names of those who were proscribed
+from French territory, from Algeria, and from the colonies "for the sake of
+public safety." Among them were Victor Hugo, Thiers, Baune, Laboulaye,
+Theodore Bac, and Lamarque. Many hundreds of compromised Republicans fled
+before they were proscribed. Others were transported across the borders
+without any publication of the fact. Still others were summarily shot in
+the barrack courtyards.
+
+[Sidenote: The plebiscite]
+
+[Sidenote: Foreign congratulations]
+
+[Sidenote: Palmerston dismissed]
+
+On December 21, the result of the so-called popular plebiscite was
+announced. Louis Napoleon had been elected President for ten years by an
+alleged vote of 7,473,431 ays against 641,341 nays. He was clothed with
+monarchical power and was authorized to issue a constitution for France.
+Outside of France the results of the _coup d'etat_ were received with
+equanimity. Pope Pius IX. went to a review held by General Gemeau in Rome
+and begged him to congratulate Prince Louis Napoleon for him. Lord
+Palmerston in London, it was stated, told the French Ambassador that he
+"entirely approved of what had been done, and thought the President of the
+French fully justified." The British Ambassador at Paris was instructed to
+make no change in his relations with the French Government, and to do
+nothing that might wear the appearance of English interference. It appeared
+that Lord Palmerston had once more acted on his own initiative. He was
+requested to resign. Before long the dismissed Minister had an opportunity
+of showing the government how formidable an adversary he could be.
+
+
+
+
+1852
+
+
+[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon in power]
+
+[Sidenote: Empire foreshadowed]
+
+On the first day of January, Louis Napoleon was reinstalled as President of
+France in the Cathedral of Notre Dame. The day was made a public holiday.
+On New Year's Eve the Diplomatic Corps had congratulated Prince Napoleon at
+the Palace of the Tuileries. A few days later some of the more prominent of
+the President's opponents, among them Changarnier and Lamorciere, were
+conducted to the Belgian frontier. On January 10, the President banished
+eighty-three members of the Legislative Assembly. Some six hundred persons
+who had been arrested for resisting the _coup d'etat_ at the same time were
+taken to Havre for transportation to Cayenne. On January 14, the new
+constitution was made public. All real powers were vested in the President.
+He had the initiative for all new measures, as well as the veto on
+deliberations of both Senate and Legislative Assembly. The Senators were to
+be appointed by him. The sessions of both bodies were to be held behind
+closed doors. The impotence of the legislators was offset by their princely
+salaries. Senators were to receive 30,000 francs per year, while the
+Deputies drew half that sum. The actual sessions of the Legislature were
+limited to three years. The President himself was to draw an annual salary
+of 12,000,000 francs. The money for these expenditures was raised by
+extraordinary means. A decree on January 22 confiscated all former crown
+lands and the estates of the Princes of Orleans. The press was gagged by a
+decree prohibiting the publication of any newspaper without the sanction of
+the government. All liberty poles were chopped down, and the motto of
+"Liberte, Fraternite, Egalite," was tabooed. On February 29, the elections
+for the Legislative Assembly were held. The government nominated all the
+candidates, and practically all were elected. Late in March, Prince Louis
+Napoleon opened the Senate and Corps Legislatif. His address throughout was
+couched in the language of a monarch. While he conceded the intention of
+the republican reforms to be harmless, he suggested the possibility that he
+might be called upon "to demand from France in the interest of peace a new
+title, by which the powers that have been conferred upon me may be
+confirmed once for all." A Cabinet was formed of the President's most
+devoted followers, under the nominal leadership of Persigny. One of the
+first votes of the Legislature, after fixing the President's salary, was a
+grant of 80,000,000 francs for public works wherewith to occupy the
+laboring classes. This done, the President made a triumphal tour of France.
+The government officials saw to it that he received a magnificent welcome
+wherever he appeared.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Schwarzenberg]
+
+[Sidenote: Buol Schauenstein, Austrian Minister]
+
+In the neighboring countries the progress of events in France created less
+misgivings than had the doings of the Republic. In Austria, Emperor
+Francis Joseph further undid the work of the recent revolution by his total
+abolition of the rights of trial by jury on January 15. Shortly afterward,
+Prince Felix Schwarzenberg, the Prime Minister, died in Vienna. He was a
+nephew of Charles Philippe, the famous Prince of Schwarzenberg who
+negotiated the marriage of Napoleon and Marie Louise, and later led the
+allied armies against Napoleon. In 1848, Prince Felix Schwarzenberg
+commanded a division in Italy. Later he joined Windischgraetz in the
+military occupation of Jena, and soon took charge of the civil
+administration of the empire, in which he continued until his death. He was
+succeeded by Count Buol von Schauenstein.
+
+[Sidenote: German affairs]
+
+[Sidenote: The Danish succession]
+
+[Sidenote: German fleet sold]
+
+Throughout the year the affairs in Germany were tranquil. Shortly after the
+death of the old King of Hanover, a tariff union was established with
+Russia, while a postal and telegraph union was extended to all the German
+States. Early in the year the King of Prussia revived the old Council of
+State as it was before 1848. The Constitution underwent new modifications.
+In May, a conference of the great Powers met at London to treat of certain
+German affairs. An agreement was signed practically assuring the
+independence of the Swiss district of Neuchatel, which had revolted from
+Prussia in 1848. Three days later, on May 8, a protocol was signed
+concerning the Danish succession. This intricate problem continued to vex
+the souls of diplomats. Lord Palmerston, when interrogated about it, said
+that there were only three persons who understood the Danish succession.
+One was the Queen Dowager of Denmark, the second was God Almighty, and the
+third was a German professor, but he had gone mad. While attempting to
+settle the terms of the succession the five great Powers and Sweden signed
+a treaty guaranteeing the integrity of the Danish monarchy. The throne was
+granted to Christian of Sonderburg-Gluecksburg. Christian, Duke of
+Augustenburg-Holstein, consented to surrender his rights for a money
+consideration. The treaty was not recognized by the German Confederation,
+but was accepted by Hanover, Saxony and Wurtemberg. In June, Germans had
+the humiliating experience of seeing their fleet, the formation of which
+was undertaken in 1848, sold at public auction. All aspirations for sea
+power had been abandoned by the Bund. In July, Prussia's representative at
+the Bund meetings, Baron Bismarck, was sent as envoy to Austria. Through
+his efforts at Vienna the Austrian Government was prevailed upon to join
+the German Zollverein and to sign commercial treaties.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Froebel]
+
+During this year in Germany, Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel, the German
+educator, died at Marienthal on July 21, in his seventieth year. After an
+unsettled and aimless youth, he started teaching, and soon developed a
+system which has become famous under the name of Kindergarten (children's
+garden). It was intended to convert schooling into play, which, according
+to Froebel, is the child's most serious business. The first Kindergarten
+was opened in 1840 at Blankenburg, Prussia. Meeting at first with little
+encouragement, it gradually gained a footing in most civilized countries.
+Froebel was largely assisted in the propagation of his ideas by the
+Baroness Marenholz-Buelow. He was the author of "Die Menschenerziehung"
+(Human Education) and "Mutter und Koselieder," a book of nursery songs and
+pictures for children.
+
+[Sidenote: "Prometheus" affair]
+
+In England, the dismissal of Lord Palmerston left the Foreign Office in an
+embarrassing position as regarded Louis Napoleon's government. Other
+embarrassments were likewise bequeathed. Thus, on January 10, Lord
+Palmerston's successor, Lord Granville, had to disavow to the American
+Minister the act of the British man-of-war "Empress," which had fired into
+the American steamer "Prometheus." England offered an apology which was
+accepted.
+
+[Sidenote: "The Third of February"]
+
+The caustic comments of the English press on French affairs, together with
+the free utterances of Victor Hugo and other French exiles on English soil,
+gave great offence to Louis Napoleon. Count Valevski's diplomatic protests
+found support in the British House of Lords. It was then that Alfred
+Tennyson, undeterred by the supposed reserve of his Poet Laureateship,
+wrote the invective lines entitled "The Third of February."
+
+[Sidenote: "Henry Esmond"]
+
+About the same time Thackeray brought out his "History of Henry Esmond," a
+masterpiece of English historical fiction. In the dedication to Lord
+Ashburton, Thackeray thus announced his departure for America. "My volume
+will reach you when the author is on his voyage to a country where your
+name is as well known as here."
+
+[Sidenote: Transvaal's independence recognized]
+
+In South Africa, at the Sand River Convention on January 17, the British
+virtually accepted the independence of the Transvaal. In the meanwhile the
+fifth war with the Kaffirs was begun by Sir George Cathcart. Incidentally a
+crushing defeat was inflicted on the Basutos at Guerea. Toward the close of
+the year the situation grew so alarming that martial law was proclaimed by
+the Governor of Cape Colony. All inhabitants were bidden to the frontier
+for the defence of the colonies.
+
+[Sidenote: Progress of Taiping rebellion]
+
+In China, the Taiping rebellion grew ever more threatening. Early in the
+year Tien Wang decided to march out of Kmaysi to invade the vast untouched
+provinces of Central China. He averred that he had "the divine commission
+to possess the Empire as its true sovereign." The rebels now became known
+as Taipings, after a town of that name in Kwangsi province. Tien Wang began
+his northern march in April. Irritated by the conduct of Tien Wang's
+lieutenants, the Triads took a secret departure and made peace with the
+Imperialists. Their secession put an end to the purpose of attacking Canton
+which Tien Wang had cherished, and he made an assault on Kweisling. The
+Imperial Commissioners at that place having beaten them back failed to
+pursue and conquer them, and they advanced unopposed across the vast
+province of Hoonan. At Changsha they encountered strong resistance. After a
+siege of eighty days they abandoned the attack and marched northward. They
+captured Yoochow, which was an important arsenal, and soon afterward
+Hankow, Manchong and How-Kong were taken.
+
+[Sidenote: South American struggles]
+
+In the Argentine Republic, the civil war and its consequent upheavals were
+continued. On February 3, General Urquiza, commanding the combined army of
+Entre Rios and Brazil, defeated General Rosas at Monte Cazeros, "the gate
+of Buenos Ayres." The city capitulated and the civil war seemed ended.
+Urquiza announced himself as provisional dictator. On May 31, he was
+elected Provisional President, while Vincente Lopez was elected Governor of
+Buenos Ayres. One month later, Urquiza, having won over the army by a
+sudden _coup d'etat_, seized the reins of government as dictator. His first
+measure was to acknowledge the independence of Paraguay. In September,
+Urquiza's refusal to recognize the political and commercial pre-eminence of
+Buenos Ayres produced another revolt. On September 11, the people of Buenos
+Ayres, under the leadership of Bartholomay Mitre, seceded from the
+confederacy. Urquiza was compelled to leave Buenos Ayres and proceeded to
+Santa Fe, where he was acknowledged as President by the thirteen other
+provinces. They bound themselves by a treaty to secure the free navigation
+of all rivers flowing into the La Plata. On November 20, the Congress of
+the Confederation met at Santa Fe and invested Urquiza with full powers to
+suppress the revolution in Buenos Ayres. Urquiza's blockade of the city by
+sea led to another revolution within the walls of Buenos Ayres. General
+Pintos assumed charge and Urquiza withdrew.
+
+  [Illustration: EXECUTION OF SEPOY REBELS
+    Painted by Verestchagin]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Gogol]
+
+[Sidenote: "Dead Souls"]
+
+Nicholas Vasilievitch Gogol died on March 4 at Moscow. Born in 1810, at
+Soroczince, in the district of Poltava, he began his career as a writer
+with poems and a metrical tragedy, written in the dialect of Little Russia.
+To this period belongs his ballad "Two Fishes." After travelling in
+Germany, he was called to a professorship at the patriotic institute of St.
+Petersburg, where he wrote his famous prose romances in Greater Russian
+dialect. His "Evenings at a Farm" admitted him to the literary circles of
+the capital and brought him the friendship of his fellow poet, Pushkin. He
+wrote a series of short stories, treating of life in the Russian provinces,
+and among the middle class, which were subsequently published in the
+collection of four volumes, entitled "Mirgorod." In 1833, Gogol brought out
+his satirical comedy, "The Commissioner," in which he laid bare the
+all-pervading corruption of Russian official life. After prolonged travels
+through Germany, France, Italy and Palestine, Gogol returned to Russia and
+settled near St. Petersburg. He wrote more short stories and descriptions
+of travel, and finally published the incomplete satirical novel, "Dead
+Souls," which is the best of his works. In this novel he handled Russian
+life fearlessly, with satirical comments on the weak points of Russian
+society. It is stated that he finished the story before his death, but
+burned the manuscript. When he died he was acknowledged as the best writer
+of satirical prose in Russia.
+
+[Sidenote: Palmerston's revenge]
+
+[Sidenote: Earl of Derby Premier]
+
+On February 20, Lord Palmerston was enabled to make his former colleagues
+in the Cabinet feel his power. Owing to general vague apprehensions that
+Prince Louis Napoleon might revive his illustrious namesake's projects
+against England, a cry had arisen for the strengthening of the national
+defences. To satisfy this demand, Lord John Russell brought in a local
+militia bill. Lord Palmerston promptly moved an amendment for a general
+volunteer force instead of local militia, thus totally altering the nature
+of the bill. The amendment was sustained by a majority of eleven votes.
+Lord John Russell's Ministry thereupon resigned, and the Earl of Derby was
+called in. The most conspicuous member of the new Cabinet was Benjamin
+Disraeli, who took the portfolio of the Exchequer. Disraeli by this time
+had already achieved popularity as an author. Some idea of his personality
+may be gathered from a contemporary's description of his outward appearance
+in those days:
+
+[Sidenote: Disraeli's appearance]
+
+"Usually he wore a slate-colored velvet coat lined with satin, purple
+trousers with a gold band down the outside seam, a scarlet waistcoat, long
+lace ruffles falling down to the tips of his fingers, white gloves with
+brilliant rings outside them, and long black ringlets rippling down over
+his shoulders. When he rose in the House, he wore a bottle-green frock
+coat, with a white waistcoat, collarless, and a needless display of gold
+chains."
+
+[Sidenote: American fisheries dispute]
+
+The new Ministry was so distinctly protectionist that the Anti-Corn Law
+League was reorganized to resume the agitation for free trade. Soon the
+perennial troubles with America about the fisheries of Newfoundland broke
+out afresh. The new Foreign Secretary, the Earl of Malmesbury, insisted
+upon a strict fulfilment of the terms agreed upon in the convention of
+1818. Armed vessels were sent to the coast of British North America. The
+United States likewise sent a war steamer to the disputed fishing-grounds.
+Many vessels were boarded for information, but both sides abstained from
+giving serious grounds for complaint.
+
+[Sidenote: Franklin Pierce elected]
+
+In the United States, the Whigs, encouraged by their success with Taylor,
+put forth another military officer, General Scott, as their Presidential
+candidate. At the convention held in Baltimore in June, Webster, Fillmore
+and Scott were put in nomination. Fifty-two ballots were cast before Scott
+was nominated. The candidates before the Democratic Convention in Baltimore
+were Buchanan, Cass, Marcy and Douglas. Franklin Pierce was chosen after
+more than forty ballots. The Free Democrats selected John P. Hale and
+Julian of Indiana. Pierce carried twenty-seven States, to Scott's four,
+receiving 254 votes to Scott's 42.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Clay]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Webster]
+
+[Sidenote: Webster's oratory]
+
+[Sidenote: The Concord speech]
+
+[Sidenote: Webster in Congress]
+
+Henry Clay died in June. He was a candidate for the Presidency three times.
+Few Americans have been more idolized than he. His great success was
+largely due to his manner, which captivated opponents as well as friends.
+In will and fine sense of honor he was as firm and lofty as Jackson or
+Jefferson. He it was who said that he would "rather be right than
+President." His death was followed in October by that of his great rival,
+Daniel Webster. This great American orator was born in 1782, the son of a
+New England farmer. He was graduated from Dartmouth College, and began the
+study of law. While reading Vattel, Montesquieu, and Blackstone, he eked
+out a humble income as a school teacher. He became associated with
+Christopher Gore, a noted lawyer of those days in Boston, and presently
+acquired a reputation as an orator. An address delivered at Fryeburg in
+1802 furnished the model for his great Concord speech four years later. As
+a result of the speeches in opposition to Jefferson's and Madison's embargo
+policy against England, Daniel Webster was elected by the Federalists of
+New Hampshire to represent them in the Thirteenth Congress. Henceforth
+Webster's stirring addresses were delivered in the national forum of the
+United States. Pitted against such distinguished speakers as Calhoun and
+Henry Clay, he gradually came to be acknowledged the foremost orator of
+America. He was at the height of his reputation when he died. His most
+lasting achievement, perhaps, was the conclusion of the famous
+Webster-Ashburton treaty with England, settling the boundaries between
+British North America and the United States.
+
+Shortly before Webster's death another orator of world-wide reputation was
+heard at Washington. This was Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian exile. On the
+occasion of a banquet tendered to him by the American Congress early in the
+year, Kossuth delivered the famous speech in which he compared the Roman
+Senate of antiquity to that of the New World.
+
+[Sidenote: Junius Brutus Booth]
+
+Junius Brutus Booth, the great English tragedian, died in America while
+returning from a lucrative tour to California. Booth made his debut at
+Covent Garden Theatre in London in 1814 as Richard III. His personal
+resemblance to the hunchbacked tyrant conformed so well to the traditions
+of the stage, and his personification of the character was in other
+respects so striking, that he eclipsed Edmund Keane, then acting at Drury
+Lane. The rivalry of the two actors grew so intense that Booth was driven
+from the stage by a serious theatrical riot. In 1821, he made his first
+appearance in the United States, again as Richard III., and was received
+with such enthusiasm that he settled permanently at Baltimore. From here he
+made professional excursions to other American cities. Among his most
+familiar personations were Iago, Hamlet, Shylock, Sir Giles Overreach, and
+Sir Edmund Mortimer. Over his audiences he ever exercised a wonderful
+power. On his death he left two sons, both actors like himself, and both
+destined to make their mark in life.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Tom Moore]
+
+[Sidenote: Moore's American impressions]
+
+The death of Thomas Moore, the Irish poet, excited as much attention in
+America as it did in England. Born at Dublin in 1779, Tom Moore, as he was
+usually called, wrote verses in early youth. Like Pope, he may be said to
+have lisped in numbers. At the age of thirteen he was a contributor to the
+"Anthologia Hibernica." After graduating at Trinity College he came to
+London, and there dedicated his translation of the poems of Anacreon to the
+Prince Regent. He became a favorite of fashionable society. Among his
+patrons were the Earl of Moira, Lord Holland, the Marquis of Lansdowne, and
+other noblemen of the Whig party. He obtained the appointment of Registrar
+to the Admiralty in Bermuda, but on arriving there hired a deputy to
+discharge the duties of the office and went on a tour to America. Like some
+other famous travellers, he conceived a poor opinion of the American
+people. In commemoration of his trip, Moore brought out "Epistles, Odes and
+other Poems," containing many defamatory verses on America. One scurrilous
+stanza read:
+
+  The patriot, fresh from Freedom's councils come,
+  Now pleas'd retires to lash his slaves at home;
+  Or woo, perhaps, some black Aspasia's charms,
+  And dream of freedom in his bondmaid's arms.
+
+[Sidenote: "Irish Melodies"]
+
+[Sidenote: "Lalla Rookh"]
+
+In a footnote Moore was careful to explain that this allusion was to the
+President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson. The poems were roughly
+handled by the "Edinburgh Review." This led to a duel between Moore and
+Jeffrey--a bloodless encounter, which resulted in a life-long friendship
+between the two men. The same affair produced a quarrel and Moore's
+subsequent friendship with Byron. Throughout this time Moore brought out
+his charming "Irish Melodies," the most popular of all his productions.
+Messrs. Longwin, the publishers, agreed to give him L3,000 for a long poem
+on an oriental subject. Moore retired to the banks of the Dofe, surrounded
+himself with oriental books, and in three years produced "Lalla Rookh." The
+success of this work was beyond the expectations of the publishers. After
+achieving this triumph, Moore travelled abroad in the company of the
+wealthy poet Rogers, and later of Lord John Russell. At Venice he visited
+Lord Byron. The affairs of his office in Bermuda next called him there,
+after which he resided in Paris, where he wrote his famous "Fables for the
+Holy Alliance." Returning to England, he settled at Bow-wood near
+Wiltshire, the seat of his life-long friend, Lord Lansdowne. There he spent
+his declining years and died in dotage.
+
+[Sidenote: "Dear Harp of My Country"]
+
+Tom Moore, while a very popular poet, produced few poems of lasting
+quality. Most characteristic of Moore, perhaps, are his lightest verses,
+such as "The Time I Lost in Wooing," the melodious lines "Oft, in the
+Stilly Night," or the famous Irish apostrophe:
+
+  Dear Harp of my Country! in darkness I found thee,
+    The cold chain of silence had hung o'er thee long,
+  When proudly, my own Island Harp, I unbound thee,
+    And gave all thy chords to light, freedom, and song!
+
+  The warm lay of love and the light note of gladness
+    Have waken'd thy fondest, thy liveliest thrill;
+  But, so oft hast thou echoed the deep sigh of sadness,
+    That ev'n in thy mirth it will steal from thee still.
+
+  Dear Harp of my Country! farewell to thy numbers,
+    This sweet wreath of song is the last we shall twine!
+  Go, sleep with the sunshine of Fame on thy slumbers,
+    Till touch'd by some hand less unworthy than mine;
+
+  If the pulse of the patriot, soldier, or lover,
+    Have throbb'd at our lay, 'tis thy glory alone;
+  I was but as the wind, passing heedlessly over,
+    And all the wild sweetness I wak'd was thine own.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Wellington]
+
+[Sidenote: Wellesley's campaigns]
+
+The death of Wellington, on September 14, was felt as a national loss in
+England. The Iron Duke died in his eighty-fourth year, having grown more
+and more infirm in his last few years. Arthur Wellesley, or Wesley, as the
+name was originally written, singularly enough received his first military
+education in France, under the direction of Pignorel, the celebrated
+engineer. He saw his first active service with the Duke of York's
+disastrous expedition to the Netherlands in 1794. There he gained his
+colonelcy. After his transfer to India he served under his elder brother,
+Marquis Wellesley, and gained the brilliant victories of Assaye and of
+Argaum. On his return from India he was appointed Secretary of Ireland, and
+there established the celebrated police force which later served as a model
+for that of London. In 1807, he took part in the expedition against
+Copenhagen, and after the death of Sir John Moore was sent to Portugal,
+where he won the battles of Rolica, Vimiera, the brilliant passage of the
+Douro, and the hard-fought field of Talavera. The battle of Busaco, the
+storming of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the victories of Salamanca and
+Vittoria, followed, and the Viscount successively became Earl and Marquis
+of Wellington, and a grant from Parliament subsequently placed him in
+possession of the domain of Strathfieldsaye. The capture of Pampeluna and
+St. Sebastian, and the defeat of the French in the passes of the Pyrenees,
+enabled him to plant the British ensign on French ground.
+
+[Sidenote: Wellington's funeral]
+
+[Sidenote: Tennyson's Ode]
+
+The concluding triumphs of Orthes and Toulouse were succeeded by the
+general peace and by his own promotion to a dukedom, the baton of a
+field-marshal having previously been conferred upon him for his victory at
+Salamanca. In 1814, the Duke of Wellington was appointed Ambassador to
+France, and proceeded in that capacity to the Congress of Vienna. While
+there, the return of Napoleon from Elba once more called him to the field;
+and on June 18, 1815, he gained his greatest triumph at Waterloo. After
+this Wellington served his country in the capacity of a diplomat, as
+Commander-in-Chief of the army, Prime Minister, and again as
+Commander-in-Chief of the army. A public funeral was of course decreed.
+William Gladstone pronounced the funeral oration in Parliament. In the
+procession that followed Wellington's bier, British soldiers of every arm
+and of every regiment of the service for the first time marched together.
+From Grosvenor Gate to St. Paul's Cathedral there was not a foot of
+unoccupied ground. An unbroken silence was maintained as the procession
+moved slowly by to the mausoleum where the remains of England's great
+warrior were to be placed side by side with those of Nelson. Alfred
+Tennyson recited his famous ode on the death of the Duke of Wellington:
+
+  Bury the Great Duke
+  With an empire's lamentation,
+  Let us bury the Great Duke
+  To the noise of the mourning of a mighty nation,
+  Mourning when their leaders fall,
+  Warriors carry the warrior's pall,
+  And sorrow darkens hamlet and hall.
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Lead out the pageant: sad and slow,
+  As fits an universal woe,
+  Let the long, long procession go,
+  And let the sorrowing crowd about it grow,
+  And let the mournful martial music blow;
+  The last great Englishman is low.
+
+[Sidenote: Disraeli and Gladstone]
+
+A new Parliament assembled in November. The result of the elections left
+the government in as hopeless a minority as before. An elaborate system of
+finance brought forward by Disraeli was rudely handled by Gladstone. The
+debate was one of the fiercest ever heard in Parliament. The excitement on
+both sides was intense. Disraeli, animated by the power of desperation, was
+in a mood neither to give nor to take quarter. He assailed Sir Charles
+Wood, the late Chancellor of the Exchequer, with a vehemence which more
+than once went to the very limits of Parliamentary decorum. The House had
+not heard the concluding word of Disraeli's bitter and impassioned speech,
+when Gladstone leaped to his feet to answer him. The Government was
+defeated. Disraeli took his defeat with characteristic composure. The
+morning was cold and wet. "It will be an unpleasant day for going to
+Osborne," he quietly remarked to a friend as they went down Westminster
+Hall together and looked out into the dreary street. That day, at Osborne,
+the resignation of the Ministry was accepted by the Queen.
+
+[Sidenote: New English Ministry]
+
+The Earl of Aberdeen formed a new Ministry including Lord John Russell as
+Foreign Secretary; Lord Palmerston, Home Secretary; Earl Granville,
+President of the Council; Gladstone, Chancellor of the Exchequer, while Sir
+W. Molesworth, the historian, was Commissioner of Public Works. The Marquis
+of Lansdowne occupied a seat in the Cabinet without holding any office. It
+was another Ministry of all the talents. Recent events in France demanded
+instant attention, the more so since the municipal council of London had
+taken upon itself to send an address of congratulation to Louis Napoleon
+upon his assumption of the empire. In the end the British Government took
+the same course.
+
+[Sidenote: End of French Republic]
+
+[Sidenote: Second Empire]
+
+In Paris, the Senate had been reconvened to consider the reinstitution of
+the empire. Within three days a _senatus consultum_ was ready recommending
+the desired change to another plebiscite. Every one of the Senators, so the
+Parisians suggested, had 30,000 francs' worth of reasons for advocating the
+change. The formality of a plebiscite was accomplished by November 21. The
+government functionaries reported 7,854,189 yeas against 253,145 nays. On
+the anniversary of his _coup d'etat_ of the previous year, Louis Napoleon
+took the title of Napoleon III., by the grace of God and the will of the
+nation, Emperor of the French. The title was made hereditary. In vain did
+the Count of Chambord voice the protest of the Royalists, and Victor Hugo,
+in his exile on the Island of Jersey, that of the Republicans. France was
+once more under imperial rule, and seemed content to remain so. About this
+time the great Credit Mobilier was established as a joint-stock company by
+Isaac and Emile Pereire.
+
+[Sidenote: Holy Sepulchre controversy]
+
+Outside of France, Louis Napoleon's second _coup d'etat_ created little
+stir. Only Emperor Nicholas of Russia refused to recognize Louis Napoleon
+as a full-fledged monarch. An ecclesiastical dispute concerning the
+guardianship of the holy places in Palestine threatened to make trouble
+between France and Russia. In the end the Sultan was prevailed upon to sign
+a treaty confirming the sole custody of the Holy Sepulchre to the French.
+
+
+
+
+1853
+
+
+[Sidenote: Empress Eugenie]
+
+[Sidenote: French Royalists reconciled]
+
+On January 30, Louis Napoleon married Eugenie Marie de Montijo de Guzman, a
+Spanish beauty. Raised to the rank of Empress, this ambitious lady at once
+became a leader of fashion. The Czar of Russia, acting in conformity with
+the sovereigns of Austria and Prussia, finally consented to acknowledge
+Napoleon III. as Emperor of the French, and Great Britain followed.
+Strengthened by this outward recognition, Louis Napoleon deemed it safe to
+extend an amnesty to some 4,500 political prisoners and Republican exiles.
+On February 5, however, General Saint-Priest, with many other Royalists,
+was secretly arrested on charges of communicating with the Comte de
+Chambord and of sending false news to foreign newspapers. Not long
+afterward a bill was passed restoring capital punishment for attempts to
+subvert the imperial government and for plots against the life of the
+Emperor. On the recognition of the Empire by Great Britain, application was
+made to the English Government for a surrender of the Great Napoleon's last
+testament. The request was granted. Louis Napoleon thereupon undertook to
+carry out his famous uncle's bequests. Under the stress of adversity, the
+two branches of the Bourbon family became reconciled to each other. The
+Duke de Nemours, on behalf of the House of Orleans, made his peace with the
+Comte de Chambord. Henceforth, the Count of Paris was recognized by the
+Royalists of France as the rightful pretender to the crown.
+
+[Sidenote: Gervinus' State trial]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Tieck]
+
+In Germany, reactionary measures of repression were still in order. An
+alleged democratic conspiracy was unearthed at Berlin in March, and another
+in April. In Baden, Georg Gervinus, the historian, on charges of high
+treason for writing his "Introduction to the History of the Nineteenth
+Century," was sentenced to ten months' imprisonment, and his book was
+ordered to be burned. The sentence of imprisonment, however, was not
+executed. On April 28, Ludwig Tieck, the great German Shakespearian scholar
+and romantic poet, died at Berlin. Born in 1778 at Berlin, he entered into
+literary activity at the opening of the Nineteenth Century, and joined the
+enlightened circle of Weimar. There he issued his great collection of
+German medieval romances, and of the works of the Minnesingers. It was he
+who drew Goethe into the study of Shakespeare, and who persuaded Henry
+Steffens, the Norwegian philosopher, to try his hand at purely literary
+productions. Together with Schlegel he was the greatest German exponent of
+the works of Shakespeare.
+
+[Sidenote: Reaction in Italy]
+
+In Italy, likewise, severe measures of reaction were inflicted on the
+people of the governments of Austria, Naples and some of the petty
+principalities. In Tuscany, the reading of the Bible was prohibited. In
+February, a revolt at Milan, instigated by Mazzini, was ruthlessly put
+down. A few months later a revolutionary plot was revealed at Rome. Some
+hundred and fifty conspirators were thrown into prison. As heretofore,
+Garibaldi figured in these movements. In Sardinia alone, under the
+enlightened Ministry of Count Cavour, the liberal movement for united Italy
+was encouraged. The Pope's hostile attitude was resented by the passage of
+anti-clerical measures in Sardinia. Thus at first ecclesiastical
+jurisdiction was abolished, and later bills were proposed for the
+suppression of convents and for the ultimate withdrawal of all State
+support from the clergy.
+
+[Sidenote: Tommaso Grossi]
+
+In October, while the conspiracy trials were still in full prosecution at
+Milan, Tommaso Grossi, the Italian romantic poet, died in that city. Grossi
+was born at Belland, on Lake Como, in 1791, and at an early age won
+distinction by a patriotic satire against Austrian rule in northern Italy.
+In 1817 he published "La Fuggitiva," a love story of the French wars, which
+found great favor. Inspired by his intercourse with Manzoni, a few years
+later he wrote "Ildegonda," a romantic poem treating of the times of
+chivalry and cloister life. This poem won a great success. Less happy was
+his attempt to rival Tasso with an epic poem in fifteen cantos on the
+Crusades. Among his prose tales, the most lasting in interest are the
+historical novel "Marco Visconti" and the idyl "Ulrico e Lida." Of his
+lyric songs, "La Rondiella" achieved the greatest popularity.
+
+[Sidenote: Gustave Courbet]
+
+Gustave Courbet, the French originator of realism in painting, the author
+of "Le Beau c'est le Laid," the man who claimed that all search for the
+beautiful or ideality in art was a gross error, this year exhibited his
+"Women Bathing," and again created a stir on the exhibition of his "Funeral
+at Ornans" and his "Drunken Peasants at Flagny." This early exponent of
+realism in its most radical form, despite his taste for vulgar types,
+showed such strength of technique that his landscapes were accepted almost
+at once as masterpieces.
+
+[Sidenote: International expositions]
+
+In England, a period of great prosperity had set in, notwithstanding
+several great labor strikes, among them that of the London cabmen, and of
+many thousands of operatives at Stockport and Preston. The success of the
+Crystal Palace Exhibition had been such that another great Industrial
+Exhibition was held at Dublin. It was made the occasion of Queen Victoria's
+second visit to Ireland. International expositions were likewise held at
+Berlin and in New York.
+
+[Sidenote: President Pierce inaugurated]
+
+The change of Administration in the United States of North America gave a
+new tone to affairs there, and incidentally brought America into closer
+touch with the East. Congress had counted the electoral vote on February 9,
+giving to Pierce 254 and 42 to Scott. Franklin Pierce was forty-nine years
+of age when he became President, and was the youngest man who had been
+elected to that office. During the Mexican war he had fought with credit
+under Scott. William L. Marcy became Secretary of State, and Guthrie,
+McClelland, Jefferson Davis, Dobbin, Campbell and Cushing completed the
+Cabinet. It was said that Pierce came into office with no bitter
+opposition and went out with none. In his inaugural message he spoke with
+doubt concerning his own powers. In truth, he proved himself the tool of
+different managers.
+
+[Sidenote: Kane's Arctic voyage]
+
+The American Government also assisted Grinnell in fitting out a second
+expedition to the Arctic under charge of Dr. Kane, who was surgeon and
+naturalist of the former expedition. The ships were frozen fast on the
+shores of Greenland. Kane's crew, without waiting for relief, set out to
+return in open boats, and after a voyage of 1,300 miles reached a Danish
+settlement in Greenland, where a relief expedition met them. They reached
+New York on October 11, 1855, where they were welcomed as men risen from
+the dead. They brought no news concerning Sir John Franklin.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Arago]
+
+Dominique Francois Arago died on October 2, at the age of sixty-seven.
+Scientists remember him chiefly for his experiments and discoveries in
+magnetism and optics. He was one of the few men who championed Fresnel
+during the controversy which raged at the time when the undulatory theory
+of light was first announced. As a popular expounder of scientific facts,
+Arago had few equals. With Gay-Lussac he was the founder of "Annales de
+Chimie et de Physique." He was also an active politician, and was a member
+of the French Provisional Government of 1848.
+
+[Sidenote: The opening of Japan]
+
+[Sidenote: Japanese dissensions]
+
+[Sidenote: Preparing for intrusion]
+
+A thriving oriental trade had sprung up, fostered partly by the development
+of steam navigation and partly by the discovery of gold in California. A
+few years previously a first attempt had been made by the United States
+Government to break down if possible the system of exclusion kept up by
+Japan. Commodore Biddle was despatched with two war vessels. His mission
+proved unsatisfactory, and the Commodore was subjected to humiliating
+experiences. Early in 1853, President Fillmore sent Commodore Perry with a
+squadron of four vessels to present a letter from the President of the
+United States to the Mikado of Japan, asking consent to the negotiation of
+a treaty of friendship and commerce between the two governments. On July 7,
+Commodore Perry's squadron steamed into the harbor of Yeddo. Perry got a
+favorable reception after using his big guns. The President's letter was
+left with the Mikado for the consideration of the Japanese Government,
+while Perry sailed away, promising to return the following spring. In the
+meanwhile violent upheavals in Japan resulted from the appearance of the
+American mission at Yeddo. The appearance of the squadron had long been
+anticipated, and was the subject of violent political discussions. Japan at
+that time was threatened with civil war. Two parties were disputing
+concerning the proper successor to the worn-out Shogun, who had hitherto
+wielded the powers of the impotent Mikado. The head of one party was Ee
+Kamong No Kami, the head of the Fudai Daimios. By right he was to be
+appointed Regent in case of an emergency. The head of the other party was
+the Prince of Mito, one of the "three families," hereditary Vice-Shogun in
+Yeddo, and connected by marriage with the family of the Emperor and with
+the wealthiest Daimios. The two parties made the arrival of the American
+squadron a pretext for grasping at the reins of power. Letters were sent to
+all the Daimios and Ometkis, requesting their opinions as to the reception
+to be given to the Americans. The majority were for resenting any foreign
+interference in the affairs of Japan by force. It was agreed, however, that
+open declaration of war had best be deferred until the comparatively
+defenceless shores of Japan could be strengthened and sea forts could be
+erected. Orders were sent to the Daimios to muster the full strength of
+their retainers and munitions of war, for "if Japan does not conquer, it
+will be a great disgrace."
+
+[Sidenote: Taipings capture Nanking]
+
+[Sidenote: Peking threatened]
+
+In China, the Taipings, having captured Kinkiang and Gurking, closely
+invested Nanking. After a fortnight's siege, the city surrendered to an
+armed rabble. The Tartar colony of 200,000 threw themselves upon Tien
+Wang's mercy, but not a hundred of them escaped: "We killed them all," said
+one of the Taipings; "we left not a root to sprout from." The acquisition
+of Nanking, the second city in the empire, made the Taipings a formidable
+rival to the Manchus, and Tien Wang became a contestant with Hienfung for
+imperial honors. It cut off communication between north and south China.
+Chinkiangfoo, at the entrance of the Grand Canal, and Yangchow, on the
+north bank of the river, also fell into their hands. Tien Wang proclaimed
+Nanking, the old Ming city, his capital. At a council of war it was decided
+to provision and fortify Nanking, and then march against Peking. By the
+end of May the Taiping army numbered 80,000. They attacked Kaifong and were
+repulsed, but continued their march toward Peking. After crossing the
+Hoang-ho, they were again repulsed at Hwaiking. Passing on, they defeated a
+Manchu force in the Sin Simming Pass, and in September added the province
+of Pechili, and came to Tsing, twenty miles south of Tien-tsin, less than a
+hundred miles from Peking. The fate of the Manchu dynasty trembled in the
+balance. The Mongol levies at last arrived under their great chief,
+Sankolinsin, and the invaders retired to their fortified camp at Tsinghai
+and sent to Tien Wang for succor. At Tsinghai they were closely beleaguered
+for some time to come.
+
+[Sidenote: American declaration as to Cuba]
+
+The recurrence of American filibustering expeditions to Cuba appeared to
+the governments of England and France as evidence of an American purpose to
+secure Cuba and the West Indian Islands. To avert this, they suggested to
+the United States Government to make a treaty which should secure Cuba to
+Spain. The American Government was asked "to decline now and forever
+hereafter all intention to obtain possession of the island of Cuba and to
+discontinue all such attempts in that direction on the part of any
+individual or power whatever." Secretary of State Everett replied that the
+question affected American and not European policy, coming not properly
+within the scope of the interference of European Cabinets; that the United
+States did not intend to violate any existing laws; that the American
+Government claimed the right to act regarding Cuba independently of any
+other power, and that it could not view with indifference the fall of Cuba
+into any other hands than those of Spain. This was tantamount to a
+reassertion of the Monroe Doctrine. France did not reply to Everett's note,
+and the correspondence with the British Foreign Office was scarcely more
+satisfactory.
+
+[Sidenote: Gadsden's Mexican treaty]
+
+A new treaty with Mexico was negotiated by Gadsden, by which the United
+States secured Marrila Valley, with 44,000 square miles, on the payment of
+$10,000,000. This settled the Mexican boundary dispute and averted all
+danger of further war.
+
+[Sidenote: Koszta episode]
+
+Another international complication had arisen with Austria. On June 21,
+Martin Koszta, a Hungarian refugee and would-be American citizen,
+travelling under a United States passport, was arrested by the Austrian
+consul at Smyrna. Captain Ingraham of the United States sloop-of-war "St.
+Louis," cruising in Turkish waters, hearing of this, put into Smyrna. In
+accordance with the recent treaty governing Austrian refugees in Turkey, he
+demanded the surrender of Koszta within eight hours. If the man were not
+surrendered he threatened to land marines and take him by force. It was
+finally agreed to leave Koszta in the hands of the French consul, who
+presently released him. Austria issued a circular note to the courts of
+Europe protesting against the conduct of Captain Ingraham, and followed
+this up with a formal protest to the government of the United States. The
+reply of the American Congress was to vote a medal for Captain Ingraham.
+There the incident closed.
+
+[Sidenote: Austria supports Montenegrins]
+
+[Sidenote: Russia threatens Turkey]
+
+Other affairs absorbed the interest of Austria's Foreign Minister. A treaty
+was signed with Prussia establishing a virtual defensive and offensive
+alliance. At the same time Austria joined the German Zollverein for twelve
+years. When the Montenegrins rose against their Turkish oppressors, Austria
+supported their cause and demanded a redress of their grievances from
+Turkey. After protracted negotiations this was granted. The wrongs of the
+Montenegrins and other Christian subjects of Turkey were warmly espoused by
+Russia. Czar Nicholas, as the pontiff of the Russian-Greek Church, claimed
+a protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey. The pending
+difficulties concerning the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem became part of the
+controversy. On the pretext of legalizing the predominant position of the
+Greek Church as one of the guardians of the Holy Sepulchre, the Czar
+assumed a threatening attitude toward Turkey. For a while Lord Stratford
+Canning, the British Ambassador at Constantinople, succeeded in mediating
+between Russia and France. A temporary agreement was effected. At this
+point the appearance of a French fleet in Turkish waters gave great offence
+to Russia, making it appear that the concessions to France had been
+extorted by a menace. Already Sir Hamilton Seymour, the British Ambassador
+at St. Petersburg, had been sounded by the Czar. It was on that occasion
+that Nicholas uttered the historic phrase that "the sick man was dying,"
+meaning the Ottoman Empire. It was then, too, that tentative offers were
+made to England to let her take Egypt and the island of Candia, provided
+Russia could make herself mistress of the Balkans.
+
+[Sidenote: International concern]
+
+The traditional aspirations of Russia toward Constantinople were well
+understood in Europe. With the exception of Prussia, the European Powers,
+contrary to the Czar's expectations, were resolved to preserve the
+integrity of Turkey.
+
+[Sidenote: Austria's timely measures]
+
+[Sidenote: Menzikov's mission]
+
+[Sidenote: French-English naval demonstration]
+
+The Continental Powers diplomatically met the Czar on his own religious
+ground. Protestant England, on the other hand, with no pilgrims to defend,
+could protest only on the score of preserving the balance of power. A
+deeper reason for British opposition lay in the possible opening of the
+Black Sea to Russian commerce, and the consequent loss of oriental trade to
+English merchants. Louis Napoleon, who could hardly begin his imperial
+reign in France more auspiciously than by avenging the disasters of his
+immortal uncle and of the Grand Army in Russia, entered the lists as the
+champion of the Roman Catholic Christians of the Orient. Austria, though
+she took no active part against her recent ally, ingeniously frustrated the
+plans of the Russian autocrat by bringing the Sultan to terms in his
+attempt to crush the insurgent Montenegrins, who had been incited by Russia
+to revolt. Thus was Nicholas robbed of his best pretext for impressing his
+will upon Turkey. Chagrined at the triumph of Austria, angered by the
+demands made by the French Ambassador, Marquis de Lavalette, in behalf of
+Roman Catholic pilgrims, Nicholas sent his Admiral, Prince Menzikov, as
+Ambassador Extraordinary to the Porte. With unusual ostentation Menzikov
+gathered the Russian fleet and an army of 30,000 men at Sebastopol, and
+then went alone to Constantinople. He demanded an audience of the Sultan,
+and on March 2 appeared before him in a plain overcoat and with boots
+covered with dust. His appearance was in keeping with his mission. In the
+name of his master he demanded the protectorate over all Greek Christians.
+Failing to attain his end, Menzikov, after a six weeks' stay, delivered a
+Russian ultimatum. Late in May he left Constantinople, prophesying his
+speedy reappearance in uniform. Three weeks later the French and English
+fleets cast anchor in the entrance to the Dardanelles.
+
+[Sidenote: Russians cross Pruth]
+
+[Sidenote: Cossacks in Danube provinces]
+
+It was not to be expected that a ruler like Nicholas would shrink from war.
+On July 7, he despatched Prince Michael Gortschakov, together with two army
+divisions of 40,000 men each, respectively commanded by Generals Lueders
+and Danneberg, across the Pruth, with orders to hold the Danube
+principalities until the Sultan had granted the Russian demands. Sultan
+Abdul Majid, through his grand vizier, Reschid Pasha, issued a firman
+recognizing the rights of his Christian subjects. Upon crossing the Pruth,
+the Russian Commander-in-Chief assured the people of Moldavia and Wallachia
+that their property and persons would not be molested; but the Russian
+soldiers seized the public funds, compelled peasants to give up their
+cattle and their grain, and pressed the native militia into the Czar's
+service.
+
+[Sidenote: Turkish ultimatum]
+
+[Sidenote: Russia declares war]
+
+[Sidenote: Oltenizza]
+
+Still, European diplomats hoped to preserve peace. The Porte was persuaded
+not to regard the invasion of the Danube principalities as a _casus belli_.
+The conference which was held by the representatives of the Powers resulted
+in the Viennese mediatory note, by the terms of which the Sultan was to
+yield to the Czar, with certain restrictions. Russia's claim of a
+protectorate was utterly ignored. The Czar accepted the conditions imposed,
+but held that the note gave him the desired protectorate by implication. In
+England, the press fiercely attacked the faint-hearted politicians of the
+Continent. Layard, the discoverer of the royal palaces of Nineveh, appeared
+as the champion of Turkey in the House of Commons. Still more threatening
+was the attitude of the war party in Constantinople. The Sultan was forced
+to reject the note and to prepare for the storm. Hatred of Russia and
+religious fanaticism inspired the Turks with something of the old love of
+battle and lust of conquest. On October 4, an ultimatum was sent to Russia
+in which war was threatened if the invaded territory were not forthwith
+evacuated. Russia replied with a declaration of war on November 1. The
+Sultan, for complying with the wishes of his people, was rewarded by the
+ready payment of heavy war taxes, and by hordes of volunteers flocking to
+arms. Even Tunis and Egypt placed troops at the disposal of the mother
+country. In a short time a considerable fighting force was gathered under
+Omar Pasha on the south bank of the Danube. On the 4th of November the
+river was crossed and a defeat inflicted on the Russians at Oltenizza.
+
+  [Illustration: THE BATTLE OF INKERMANN
+    Painted by Gustave Dore
+    From Carbon Print by Braun, Clement & Co., N.Y.]
+
+Had the Czar sent his troops into the Balkans immediately after he declared
+war, he might have struck a decisive blow before the Powers could come to
+the assistance of the Turks. But he had pledged himself not to cross the
+Danube when he met the Emperor of Austria at Olmuetz, and again when he
+visited the King of Prussia in Berlin. Thus he had persuaded them to adopt
+a policy of neutrality. England and France now promised to give Turkey
+their armed support if the Czar persisted in his demands. Their fleets
+sailed for the Bosphorus.
+
+[Sidenote: Turkish naval disaster]
+
+At Sinope, a Turkish squadron composed of two steamers, two corvettes and
+seven frigates rode at anchor under the guns of a small battery. On
+November 30, the Turks were surprised by a Russian fleet commanded by
+Admiral Nachimov, consisting of six ships of the line and three
+steamers--all vessels of large size, armed with the smooth-bore shell-gun.
+For the first time in naval history the disastrous effect of shell fire on
+wooden ships was demonstrated. Only one Turkish steamer escaped to tell the
+tale.
+
+This blow, dealt beneath the very guns of the allied fleets, had its
+immediate effect. Lord Aberdeen, whose foreign policy was far too mild for
+the taste of most Englishmen, was so bitterly attacked that he resigned.
+The return of Palmerston to the Ministry was the signal for war. In
+December, the Vienna Conference sent to Nicholas a second note, demanding
+the evacuation of the Danube principalities.
+
+
+
+
+1854
+
+
+[Sidenote: Opening of Nebraska]
+
+[Sidenote: American slavery issue revived]
+
+[Sidenote: Rise of Republican Party]
+
+In the American Congress, on January 4, Senator Douglas introduced a bill
+for opening the Territory of Nebraska. All land west of Iowa and Missouri
+had been closed against immigrants, so that it was impossible for them to
+secure a farm. By "Nebraska" was meant all territory north of Texas
+westward to the Rocky Mountains. On January 23, Douglas introduced his
+second bill, repealing the provisions of the Missouri Compromise for the
+proposed two Territories. This reopened the slavery discussion, which
+President Pierce six weeks before had declared to be closed forever. At the
+East, Mason and Dixon's line between Pennsylvania and Maryland had been
+regarded as separating freedom from slavery. At the West, the parallel of
+36 deg. 30', agreed on in 1820, was regarded as the border line. To cross this
+boundary, and remove all obstacles against slavery, promptly became the
+determination of the South. Douglas's bill now declared that the Compromise
+of 1850 left the question of slavery to the people within the Territory.
+General Cass gave to this doctrine the title of "Squatter Sovereignty." The
+bill passed by 113 to 100, and was taken up by the Senate, May 24, and
+passed by 35 to 13. President Pierce signed it on May 30. By the
+provisions of the bill, the country in question was to be organized into
+the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska; the slavery question was to be
+settled by the residents; the Supreme Court was to determine the title to
+slaves, if appeal was taken from the local courts, and the Fugitive Slave
+law was to be enforced. The Whig Party was destroyed and the Republican
+Party rose in its place. On July 6, a State Convention of all anti-Nebraska
+citizens irrespective of former political affiliations assembled. This
+Convention designated the fusion of Whigs, Free Soilers, "Know Nothings,"
+and Democrats who opposed the extension of slavery, by the name
+"Republicans."
+
+[Sidenote: Opening of Kansas]
+
+[Sidenote: Fraudulent elections]
+
+Within the three months immediately preceding, treaties had been quietly
+made with a half score of Indian nations in Kansas, by which the greater
+part of the soil for 200 miles west was opened. In June, within a few days
+after the act had been passed, hundreds of Missourians crossed into Kansas,
+took up quarter-sections and claimed the right of pre-emption upon the
+eastern region. In Massachusetts and other Eastern States, societies were
+meanwhile formed for the purpose of making Kansas a free State. All the
+Northwest was eager to furnish squatters. In the East, Eli Thayer organized
+immigration to Kansas. When the country was thrown open to settlement, the
+company which he had organized took up claims at Lawrence. A population of
+8,000 pressed in from the North. Meetings were held in Missouri in the
+slave interest, which pledged that State to send men to Kansas and remove
+all the Free State immigrants. A bloody election was held in Kansas. The
+pro-slavery Legislature made it a felony to circulate anti-slavery
+publications, or to deny the right to hold slaves. Reeder, the newly
+appointed first Governor, arrived. An election was ordered to choose a
+delegate for Congress. Armed Missourians from across the border took
+possession of the polls, and by methods of intimidation elected Whitfield,
+a slave-holding delegate, to Congress. At a second election 13 State
+Senators and 26 members of a Lower House were declared elected. For this
+purpose 6,320 votes were cast--more than twice the number of legal voters.
+
+[Sidenote: Mexican adjustment]
+
+Foreign affairs for a short while served to distract attention from the
+all-engrossing subject. Mexican boundary disputes were further ended by a
+repeal of the obligation of Guadeloupe Hidalgo which required the Mexican
+frontier to be defended against the Indians. For this release the United
+States paid to Mexico $10,000,000.
+
+[Sidenote: Reciprocity with Canada]
+
+A reciprocity treaty was made with Great Britain which opened to the United
+States all the frontiers of British America except Newfoundland, and gave
+to the British the right to share the American fisheries to the 36th
+parallel. Commerce in breadstuffs, fish, animals and lumber between the
+United States and the British provinces was made free. The St. Lawrence and
+Canadian Canals were opened to American vessels. All future differences
+were to be settled by arbitration.
+
+[Sidenote: Fremont in California]
+
+During this year news arrived of the safe arrival of Fremont's fifth
+expedition to California. He had crossed the Rocky Mountains at the
+sources of the Arkansas and Colorado Rivers, passed through the Mormon
+settlement, and discovered a number of passes. He was chosen the first
+United States Senator from California, and served for a short term.
+
+[Sidenote: Cuban filibusters]
+
+[Sidenote: Ostend manifesto]
+
+On February 28, the American steamship "Black Warrior" was seized in Havana
+Harbor, and was confiscated by the Spanish Government on the charge of
+filibustering. The American House of Representatives prepared to suspend
+the neutrality laws between the United States and Spain; but it was finally
+decided to demand an indemnity from Spain. This action gave an interest to
+filibustering operations in Cuba. Expeditions were fitted out, but were
+stopped by a proclamation of the President on June 1. The American
+representatives at the courts of England, France and Spain, by direction of
+the President, met at Ostend, Belgium, to confer on the best method of
+settling the difficulties of Cuba and obtaining possession of the island.
+In the Ostend Circular these diplomats recommended to the government of the
+United States that Cuba should be purchased if possible, and if that could
+not be done that it should be taken by force. "If Spain, actuated by
+stubborn pride and a false sense of honor, should refuse to sell Cuba to
+the United States, then by every law, human and divine, we shall be
+justified in wresting it from Spain if we possess the power." In this
+Messrs. Buchanan, Mason and Soule were held to have gone beyond the demands
+of public opinion.
+
+[Sidenote: Course of Taipings]
+
+In their camp at Isinghai the Taiping rebels, in China, were closely
+beleaguered through the early part of the year until spring. Their
+provisions then becoming exhausted, they cut their way out and retreated
+southward. A relieving army from Nanking rescued them from imminent
+capture. They then captured Lintsing, where their headquarters remained for
+some months. During the rest of the year their successes were unimportant.
+
+[Sidenote: Orange Free State recognized]
+
+In South Africa, the difficulties of administering the recalcitrant
+communities of the Boers in the Orange River territory proved such that
+during this year the struggle was abandoned as hopeless by the British
+authorities. The Orange River Free State, organized as an independent
+republic of Dutch settlers, was recognized as such.
+
+[Sidenote: Espartero in Spain]
+
+On June 28, another military insurrection broke out near Madrid. General
+Espartero assumed charge of the movement. It found favor in Madrid and
+Barcelona. Within a fortnight the Ministry was overthrown. On July 19,
+Baldomero Espartero was welcomed with great enthusiasm on his return to
+power. On the last day of the month the Queen had to present herself on the
+balcony of her palace in Madrid while 3,000 revolutionists from the
+barricades paraded before her. Espartero on his return to power forthwith
+convoked the Cortes to frame a new liberal constitution, a task which was
+accomplished before the close of the year.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Sontag]
+
+In Mexico, the celebrated operatic singer Henriette Sontag died of cholera.
+Born at Coblenz in 1805, she made an early debut, and appeared with
+brilliant success in all the capitals of Europe, where she was recognized
+as a worthy rival of Malibran. In 1829 she married Count Rossi, and in the
+following year retired from the stage. Twenty years later, in consequence
+of the loss of her fortune, she returned to the stage, and it was found
+that her voice had lost none of its power and charm.
+
+[Sidenote: The Crimean war]
+
+In the Balkans, the Servians, Bulgarians and the Bosnians, in view of the
+meagre success of Russian arms so far, were disinclined to rise against
+Turkey. In Greece, on the other hand, Russian partisans succeeded in
+inciting the populace to revolt. From all sides volunteers rushed to the
+northern frontier. There was even some talk of establishing a new Byzantine
+Empire. King Otto, partly from lack of sympathy, but more through fear of
+the Western Powers, whose ships suddenly appeared at the Piraeus, opposed
+the movement. The Greek volunteers who had gathered at the frontier were
+ordered to disperse.
+
+[Sidenote: Kalafat]
+
+[Sidenote: Cetate]
+
+[Sidenote: Russians cross Danube]
+
+[Sidenote: Powers declare war]
+
+The war had so far not fulfilled the expectations of Russia. Not only had
+the Czar's troops been repulsed at Kalafat, despite their greater numbers,
+but they had also been surprised and beaten at Cetate. The respect which
+Russia commanded as a great Power had been engendered largely by her
+supposed inexhaustible resources. The Czar was therefore forced to maintain
+the old appearance of strength by recruiting troops throughout his empire
+and by intrusting the command of all his men to Prince Paskievitch,
+regarded, despite his great age, as the best general of Russia. Operations
+were shifted further to the east, partly to still the apprehensions of
+Austria, partly in the hope that more Slavic Christians would join the
+Russian army. In the middle of March, Paskievitch crossed the Danube not
+far from the mouth of the Pruth, despite the promises made by the Czar to
+Prussia and Austria. The Czar's rejection of a second pacific note from
+Vienna, together with the breach of the promise given to his fellow
+sovereigns, was followed, on March 28, by a formal declaration of war on
+the part of France and England.
+
+Without effective resistance on the part of the Turks, General Lueders
+seized the Dobrudsha and joined General Schilder before the walls of
+Silistria, while Omar Pasha, in the face of a superior Russian force, was
+compelled to retire to the fortress of Shumla. These energetic Russian
+movements spurred the Western Powers to greater activity.
+
+[Sidenote: Allied troops landed]
+
+In April, an English army of 20,000 men under Lord Raglan, together with a
+French force more than twice as large under the command of Marshal St.
+Arnaud, distinguished for his deeds in Africa and for his part in Louis
+Napoleon's _coup d'etat_, landed at Gallipolis. The allies bombarded Odessa
+on April 22, taking good care, however, not to destroy English property in
+the city.
+
+[Sidenote: Austrian-Prussian remonstrances]
+
+[Sidenote: Assault of Silistria]
+
+[Sidenote: Paskievitch withdraws]
+
+[Sidenote: Allies at Varna]
+
+The crossing of the Danube by the Russians led Austria and Prussia to form
+an offensive and defensive alliance, both agreeing to wage war on the Czar
+if he sent his armies across the Balkans or incorporated the Danube
+principalities. But how little Prussia intended to engage in a struggle
+with the Czar was indicated by the retirement of Bonin, the Minister of
+War, and of Bunsen, the Ambassador to London. Even a tentative offer of
+Schleswig and Holstein made by England could not tempt Prussia to forsake
+her old confederate. A joint note was sent to St. Petersburg by Austria and
+Prussia, demanding the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the invaded
+territory of the Danube. Austria concluded a treaty with the Porte, by the
+terms of which she was to seize the Danube principalities, on the borders
+of which she had mobilized her troops. Paskievitch's efforts to reduce
+Silistria proved fruitless. The courageous example of Mussa Pasha and the
+skill of Grach, a Prussian officer of artillery, were more than a match for
+the strategy of the Russian commanding general. The hostile attitude of the
+Austrian troops on the frontier of Wallachia and Moldavia, and the landing
+of French and English expeditions at Varna, caused Paskievitch, on June 21,
+to withdraw his weakened force across the Danube and the Pruth. In the
+attempt to reduce Silistria the lives of many Russian soldiers had been
+sacrificed. Paskievitch himself was slightly wounded. Eighteen months after
+his defeat he died in Warsaw. Schilder, Mussa and Grach, all mortally
+wounded, had been carried off before him. The losses of the allies were
+also serious. An ill-considered march of the French from Varna into the
+Dobrudsha resulted in the loss of 2,000 men, most of whom succumbed to the
+insufferable heat. In the camp at Varna cholera wrought terrible havoc.
+
+[Sidenote: Ineffectual naval operations]
+
+Upon the sea the allies were no more successful. An English and French
+fleet, under Sir Charles Napier, proceeded to the Baltic Sea for the
+purpose of persuading Sweden to join France and England, of reducing the
+fortress of Kronstadt, the key to the Russian capital, and of attacking St.
+Petersburg itself. Sweden, despite the efforts of the Powers, held aloof
+like Prussia. The walls of Kronstadt defied the ships. Besides the capture
+of Bomarsund on August 16, nothing was accomplished.
+
+[Sidenote: A council of war]
+
+[Sidenote: Before Sebastopol]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of the Alma]
+
+In Varna, a council of war was held to decide upon the course to be pursued
+against the Russians. Among others, General Stein, or Ferhat Pasha, as he
+was called after his conversion to Mohammedanism, proposed the landing of
+troops in Asia in order to drive the enemy from the Caucasus. But St.
+Arnaud, who felt that he had not long to live, and, therefore, wished to
+end his career as gloriously as he could, voted for an attack on
+Sebastopol, the naval port of the Crimea. He was supported by Lord Raglan,
+who desired nothing more fervently than the destruction of the Russian
+fleet. So far no less than 15,000 men had perished in the campaign. The
+remaining force, composed of 56,000 soldiers, of whom 6,000 were Turks, was
+landed, on September 14, at Eupatoria on the west coast of the peninsula.
+To the south of Eupatoria the sea forms a bay which receives the waters of
+the River Tchernaya, flowing past the ruins of Inkermann. Upon the southern
+side is the fortified city of Sebastopol. On the northern side
+fortifications had been built to protect the fleet anchored in the bay.
+Upon the heights overlooking the river Alma, Prince Menzikov, Governor of
+the Crimea, had stationed his army of 39,000 men with 106 guns. Although
+the heights overhanging the Alma are more than five miles long, the Russian
+troops by which they were defended formed a front of but three miles. This
+left the extreme left of the Russians open to an attack by a ford opposite
+the village of Almatack. Against Menzikov, Marshal St. Arnaud and Lord
+Raglan could oppose 63,000 men and 128 guns. The weakness of the undefended
+left flank of the Russian army was discovered from the French ships. St.
+Arnaud laid his plans accordingly. On the morning of September 20, the
+attack was begun. The warships steamed up the river and opened fire on the
+enemy. Bosquet, in command of a French division and a Turkish contingent,
+was assigned to attack Menzikov's left. He pushed his way through the
+village of Almatack and forded the river. His Zouaves nimbly climbed the
+heights and reached the feebly defended plateau. Menzikov, busily engaged
+in resisting the advance of the English against his right, at first refused
+to believe the unwelcome tidings. He endeavored to shift a part of his
+force from right to left. Meantime the English, under Lord Raglan, were
+subjected to so fierce a fire from the Russian main position that they
+could make no headway. They lay passive upon the ground waiting for the
+French under Canrobert and Louis Napoleon to begin the attack in front, and
+thus divert the attention of Menzikov. Weary of their long delay, Lord
+Raglan took matters into his own hands. The English infantry rose from the
+field, advanced upon the Russian main position, and, under a hot fire,
+stormed the Russian redoubt with dreadful loss. Attacked on the one side by
+the English and on the other by the French, Menzikov was compelled to beat
+a retreat.
+
+[Sidenote: War artists and correspondents]
+
+The battle of the Alma was one of the first modern engagements described by
+special war correspondents in the field. The news of the victory was
+despatched to London with a rapidity prophetic of the feats performed by
+latter-day correspondents. Besides the war correspondents, several artists
+of note followed the armies of the allies. Among the French painters who
+have perpetuated some of the well-known episodes of the Crimean War were
+Horace Vernet, who painted a "Battle of Alma," and Paul Alexandre Protais,
+a pupil of Desmoulins, who first came into note about that time. Another
+artist who made his early reputation in the war of the Crimea was Adolphe
+Schreyer.
+
+[Sidenote: Tolstoi]
+
+On the Russian side, Count Lyof Tolstoi served at the front, together with
+his namesake and fellow writer, Count Alexander Tolstoi. There he gathered
+impressions for his stories on the siege of Sebastopol, and for his
+subsequent great novel of the Napoleonic invasion, "War and Peace."
+
+[Sidenote: Cholera]
+
+Besides the news of victory, the Crimean War correspondents told of the
+sore plight of the English army, of the ravages of cholera, and of the
+wretchedly organized hospital system. No preparations had been made for a
+very long campaign. The taking of Sebastopol, it was thought by the
+English, would present no grave difficulties.
+
+[Sidenote: Todleben]
+
+But Sebastopol was better prepared to meet an attack than England knew.
+True it is that early in the war the city might have been taken by a dash
+from the land and sea. But the chance was now gone. Three days after the
+defeat of Alma, Menzikov sank seven vessels of the Russian Black Sea fleet
+in the mouth of the harbor. On all sides the city was strongly fortified in
+accordance with the suggestion of Todleben, an ingenious artillery officer.
+
+[Sidenote: Allies beaten off]
+
+Instead of moving directly upon Sebastopol the allies first marched to
+Balaklava, further to the south, where they would be in constant
+communication with the ships and could establish a base of supplies. On
+October 17, an unsuccessful attack was made on Sebastopol.
+
+[Sidenote: Russian success]
+
+At dawn on October 25, the Russians crossed the Tchernaya and stole rapidly
+on until their vanguard had reached a position from which they could
+cannonade Canrobert's Hill, the post most distant from the forces of the
+allies and nearest the village of Kamara. The main Russian army under
+Liprandi soon came up and began to fire upon Canrobert's Hill and the
+adjacent works. The English replied with the assistance of a troop of horse
+artillery and of a field battery. Two English divisions and two French
+brigades were sent to the aid of the garrison on the hills. The Russians
+succeeded in storming Canrobert's Hill and in capturing the next and
+smaller fortification. Threatened by overwhelming numbers, the troops on
+the remaining hills withdrew.
+
+[Sidenote: Balaklava]
+
+Two English cavalry brigades--the Light and the Heavy--commanded by Lord
+Lucan, had been manoeuvring to protect Balaklava. The Light Brigade,
+under Lord Cardigan, faced the Tchernaya; the Heavy Brigade, under
+Scarlett, was on the Balaklava side of the ridge. A great body of Russian
+cavalry swept down the slope upon the Heavy Brigade, and for a moment threw
+it into disorder. But Scarlett's men charged the Russians. The two opposing
+bodies of cavalry clashed and seemed to melt one within the other. Then the
+Russian horsemen yielded, and fled over the ridge whence they had first
+appeared five minutes before.
+
+[Sidenote: The charge of the Light Brigade]
+
+A disposition on the Russian side to carry off the captured guns induced
+Lord Raglan to send Lord Lucan an order "to advance rapidly to the front
+and try to prevent the enemy carrying away the guns." The order was carried
+by Captain Nolan, who found Lucan between his two brigades, with the Light
+Brigade beyond Woronzov road. Whose "front" was meant Lucan did not know.
+Nolan conjectured that "the guns" in question were those which had retired
+with the retreating Russian cavalry. Already the Russian cavalry had taken
+protection behind its works toward the Tchernaya, and was supported by
+Liprandi's troops posted along the Woronzov road, and by Russian guns
+bearing on the valley from the ridge and from Fedioukin heights. Nolan,
+Lord Lucan reported later, insisted that these very guns must be regained.
+Although Lord Cardigan of the Light Brigade shared Lucan's misgivings he
+obeyed the command. With the order, "The Brigade will advance!" the famous
+charge of the Six Hundred began. Nolan galloped obliquely across the
+Brigade as it started. He was killed by the first shell fired from a
+Russian gun. Into the thick of the Russians Cardigan rode with his men. The
+forlorn exploit has been immortalized by Alfred Tennyson:
+
+  Half a league, half a league,
+    Half a league onward,
+  All in the valley of Death
+  Rode the six hundred.
+  "Forward, the Light Brigade!
+  Charge for the guns!" he said:
+  Into the valley of Death
+    Rode the six hundred.
+
+[Sidenote: Liprandi's victory]
+
+The whole Brigade would have been wiped out after the repulse, when the
+Russian cavalry rode in pursuit, had not several squadrons of French
+cuirassiers ridden to the rescue. The fact that the Russians retained the
+hills which they had captured justified Liprandi in claiming the victory.
+
+[Sidenote: Preparing for battle]
+
+In November, the French infantry in the Crimea numbered 81,000, the British
+16,000, and the Turkish 11,000. Brave as the Moslems undoubtedly were, they
+were not permitted to demonstrate their value in subsequent encounters.
+While the allies strengthened their batteries and replenished their
+magazines, the Russians likewise fortified their position and gathered
+reinforcements. It was a race on both sides for the first delivery of the
+attack. On November 4, the allied commanders definitely arranged for a
+cannonade and an assault which was to place Sebastopol at their mercy. The
+Russians, recognizing their peril, completed the assembly of their forces
+to attack the allies and forestall them. In all, Menzikov could oppose
+115,000 soldiers to the 65,000 available men of the allies. The Russian
+commander assigned the main attack to General Soimonov with 19,000 infantry
+and 38 guns and to General Paulov with 16,000 infantry and 96 guns. The
+regiments in the valley of the Tchernaya, formerly commanded by Liprandi,
+but now led by Gortschakov, were "to support the general attack by drawing
+the enemy's forces toward them." The garrison of Sebastopol was to cover
+with its artillery fire the right flank of the attacking force. After
+effecting their junction, the two divisions were to place themselves under
+General Danneberg's command.
+
+[Sidenote: Inkermann]
+
+Soimonov issued under cover of a thick fog from the fortress before dawn on
+November 5, and to the surprise of the allies began the attack on the
+English left. The timely arrival of reinforcements under Buller enabled the
+British to repel the Russians. Soimonov was left dead on the field. The
+attack of Paulov on the right was no more successful. The Russians were
+here repulsed with frightful loss. When Danneberg arrived on the scene he
+found that, with Paulov's battalions on Mount Inkermann and with those of
+Soimonov, he could recommence the battle with 19,000 men and 90 guns. Ten
+thousand of these men were hurled against the English centre and right by
+Danneberg. The carnage was frightful. Between the hostile lines rose a
+rampart of fallen men. The Russians would probably have swept away the
+British by the sheer force of greater numbers, had they not been taken in
+the flank and repulsed by a French regiment which arrived just in time to
+save their English comrades.
+
+[Sidenote: A dear victory]
+
+Although the Russian attacking force had been diminished to 6,000 men, it
+was once more resolutely launched against the enemy, this time against the
+centre and left of the allied armies. So impetuous was the assault, that
+for a time the Russians carried all before them. But a simultaneous,
+irresistible advance of the French and English not only repulsed the
+attacking force, but drove it off the field. Shortly before noon the battle
+was decided. The heavy losses suffered by the Russians enabled the allies
+to oppose greater numbers of men against Danneberg's broken battalions and
+his still unused reserve, and to make use of their guns, now for the first
+time superior in number to the Russian ordnance. The battle of Inkermann
+closed with no grand charge on the one side, nor wild flight on the other.
+When the Russians saw that success was hopeless, they withdrew gradually,
+with no attempt on the part of the wearied allies to convert the repulse
+into a rout. On both sides, men had been ruthlessly sacrificed.
+
+[Sidenote: Crimean horrors]
+
+Inkermann was followed by a gloomy winter. The Black Sea was swept by
+terrible storms which destroyed transport ships laden with stores for the
+army. The horses that charged at Balaklava became unfit for service; the
+men who had fought at Inkermann languished in field hospitals. In the
+wretchedly organized lazarets at Scutari the sick and wounded died by
+scores for lack of proper medical attendance. Shameful frauds were
+perpetrated in filling the contracts for preserved meats. With grim humor
+"Punch" exclaimed: "One man's preserved meat is another man's poison."
+After the harrowing misery that prevailed in camp had been pictured in the
+London newspapers, something like system was finally established in the
+hospitals by the energy of Miss Florence Nightingale.
+
+[Sidenote: Sardinia's offered help]
+
+Balaklava and Inkermann had a profound effect upon the diplomatic
+negotiation of the Powers. England and France attempted to induce Austria
+and Prussia to take arms against the Czar. But Prussia would do nothing
+without the Confederation; and Austria would do nothing without Prussia.
+Buol-Schauenstein, the Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs, would gladly
+have mediated; but the prospects of success were not rosy. To the annoyance
+of Austria, Piedmont, which had maintained its position in Italy despite
+Austria, offered to take part in the war. Austria saw that she must now act
+quickly if she wished to preserve her European prestige. On December 2, she
+signed a treaty with England and France binding herself not to negotiate
+separately with the Czar; to defend the principalities which she had
+occupied in accordance with her compact with Turkey, after their evacuation
+by the Russians; and to deliberate with the Powers as to the best course to
+be pursued if the war were not ended by January 1, 1855. The treaty was
+intended merely to thwart Piedmont.
+
+
+
+
+1855
+
+
+[Sidenote: Crimean war scandals]
+
+[Sidenote: Parliamentary inquiry]
+
+Complaints of neglect and maladministration in the Crimea waxed ever
+louder. The reports of the war correspondents at the front aroused
+indignation in London and Paris. Now the London "Times" came out with a
+leading article which produced a profound sensation throughout England. The
+burden of it was a bitter complaint that "the noblest army ever sent from
+our shores has been sacrificed to the grossest mismanagement. Incompetency,
+lethargy, aristocratic hauteur, official indifference, favor, routine,
+perverseness and stupidity reign, revel, and riot in the camp before
+Sebastopol, in the harbor of Balaklava, in the hospitals of Scutari, and
+how much nearer home we do not venture to say. We say it with extremest
+reluctance, no one sees or hears anything of the Commander-in-Chief.
+Officers who landed on the 14th of September, and have incessantly been
+engaged in all the operations of the siege, are not even acquainted with
+the face of their commander." The exposures of the "Times" were taken up in
+Parliament. Already Lord John Russell had urged upon the Earl of Aberdeen
+the necessity of having the War Minister in the House of Commons, and
+recommended that Lord Palmerston should be intrusted with the portfolio of
+war. The Prime Minister refused to recommend the proposed change to the
+Queen, on the ground that it would be unfair to the Duke of Newcastle,
+against whom, he said, no positive defect had been proved. As soon as
+Parliament assembled on January 25, the opposition moved for a commission
+of inquiry "into the condition of our army before Sebastopol, and into the
+conduct of those departments whose duty it has been to minister to the
+wants of that army." Lord John Russell at once wrote to Lord Aberdeen that
+since this motion could not be resisted, and was sure to involve a censure
+of the War Department, he preferred to tender his resignation. The
+retirement of the leaders of the House of Commons served to paralyze the
+government's resistance. After a debate of two nights the motion for an
+inquiry was accepted by 305 against 148 votes. As Mr. Molesworth, who was
+present, wrote:
+
+[Sidenote: Aberdeen's Ministry defeated]
+
+"Never, perhaps, had a government been more decisively defeated. When the
+numbers were announced, the House seemed to be surprised, and almost
+stunned by its own act. There was no cheering; but for a few moments a dead
+silence, followed by a burst of derisive laughter. The Ministers of course
+resigned."
+
+[Sidenote: Palmerston, Premier]
+
+Lord John Russell and Lord Derby, each in turn, tried to form a Ministry,
+but both failed. Lord Palmerston was then called in, and succeeded in
+rallying a Cabinet composed largely of the members of the old
+Administration. Thus Lord Granville, Earl Grey, the Duke of Argyll, Lord
+Clarendon and William E. Gladstone were retained. The chief change was the
+appointment of Lord Panmure to take the place of the Duke of Newcastle as
+Secretary of War. Lord Panmure, better known as Fox Maule, had already
+served as Minister of War during the six years of Lord Russell's
+administration, and had shown himself thoroughly capable in that post.
+Commissions of inquiry were now sent to the Crimea. At the same time
+diplomatic conferences were reopened at Vienna.
+
+[Sidenote: Cavour's master-stroke]
+
+The evident insincerity of Count Buol stirred up a hornet's nest of
+indignation. The people of England and France became incensed as they saw
+that Austria showed no inclination to fight. Prussia flatly refused to
+assist Austria in any warlike undertaking. Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia took
+advantage of the situation to join the allies. On April 21 he sent 15,000
+men to the Crimea.
+
+During the diplomatic parleys of the Powers, the siege of Sebastopol
+wearily dragged along. The commissariat and land-transport systems broke
+down. The armies were weakened by cholera, cold, and starvation.
+Negotiations for peace were set on foot by Austria. A conference was opened
+at Vienna under promising auspices.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Emperor Nicholas]
+
+[Sidenote: The Four Points]
+
+Czar Nicholas, with whom the war was a personal grievance, died on March
+2--of pulmonary apoplexy, reported the physicians--of bitter disappointment
+and despair, claimed his people. His son, Alexander II., peace-loving as he
+was known to be, did not venture to show himself less of a true Russian
+than his father. The Conference proved a failure. Lord John Russell,
+England's representative, was instructed to insist upon the admission of
+Turkey into the Concert of Powers. To secure this end, four principal
+points were to be considered, now famous under the name of the Four
+Points--the fate of the Danube principalities, the free navigation of the
+Danube, the limitation of Russian supremacy in the Black Sea, and the
+preservation of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. The attempt to limit
+Russia's supremacy in the Black Sea was the chief point upon which the
+Powers could not agree.
+
+[Sidenote: Changes at the front]
+
+The operations in the Crimea were vigorously renewed. Lord Raglan died and
+was succeeded by General Simpson. Long before him, old Marshal St. Arnaud
+was carried away by disease. His post was taken by Canrobert, who afterward
+resigned in favor of Pelissier. On August 16, the Russians under Liprandi
+made a desperate effort to raise the siege by an attack on the allies. The
+assault was made on the French divisions and on the Sardinian contingent.
+Liprandi was foiled. Northern Italy was in a delirium of joy when the news
+came that the banner of Piedmont had been carried to victory over a great
+Power, side by side with the flag of France. The far-sightedness of
+Cavour's audacious policy was now fully appreciated.
+
+[Sidenote: Russian works assaulted]
+
+[Sidenote: Zouaves storm the Malakov]
+
+[Sidenote: British beaten off]
+
+[Sidenote: Sebastopol yielded to allies]
+
+[Sidenote: Cost of the great siege]
+
+The repulse proved fatal to the Russians. Nearer and nearer the French drew
+to the city. But the ingenious Todleben threw up works which also brought
+the Russians closer to the enemy. Sometimes it seemed as if the allies were
+the besieged and not the besiegers. Malakov Tower and the Mamelon battery
+in front of it were the scenes of bloody conflicts. Night sorties were made
+and repelled. On June 7, the English assaulted the quarries in front of the
+Redan, and the French assailed the Mamelon. Both attempts were successful.
+On the 18th, a fierce attack was made on the Redan and the Malakov
+batteries, which resulted in failure, because the French did not act with
+sufficient precision. A simultaneous assault was made on the Malakov and
+the Redan on September 5. The French upon capturing the Malakov were to
+hoist their flag, and thereby signal to the English when to move against
+the Redan. A brilliant success was won by the Zouaves. Their tricolor waved
+over the ramparts fifteen minutes after they had started to scale the steep
+heights. The task of the English troops proved more difficult. They were
+compelled to advance under a galling fire, but stormed the parapets despite
+the resistance which they encountered. The attacking force, however, was
+too small; reinforcements did not come in time, and the remnant of the
+party was compelled to withdraw. It was the story of Balaklava told over
+again with bloody emphasis--the story of splendid courage on the part of
+the men, of wretched generalship on the part of their commanders. After the
+attack, the Russians withdrew from the south side of Sebastopol. That
+portion of the city had been so thoroughly bombarded that Gortschakov could
+no longer hold out. "It is not Sebastopol that we have left to them, but
+the burning ruins of the town, to which we ourselves set fire," wrote the
+Russian commander after his brave defence. He could indeed boast that later
+generations would "recall with pride" the great siege and its stirring
+events. The investment had lasted eleven months. It involved the
+construction of seventy miles of trenches and the employment of 60,000
+fascines, 80,000 gabions, and 1,000,000 sandbags. One and one-half million
+shells and shot were fired into the town from the cannon of the besiegers.
+The Russian forces in and about Sebastopol numbered 150,000; their losses
+sustained in its defence amounted, in killed, wounded and missing, to
+90,142. The allied armies numbered 80,650 French, 43,000 English, and
+20,000 Turks in January, 1855. The British troops suffered terribly from
+disease. The forty-one English infantry battalions, which embarked
+originally, mustered 36,923, and were reinforced by 27,884. Their strength
+at the conclusion of hostilities was 653 less than it was at the beginning.
+The Sardinians suffered proportionately. The wastage, due principally to
+disease, thus amounted to 28,537 men.
+
+  [Illustration: BALAKLAVA--"OUT OF THE MOUTH OF HELL--"
+    Painted by Elizabeth Thompson (Lady Butler)
+    Copyright. By permission of Henry Graves & Co., Ltd., London]
+
+[Sidenote: The defense of Kars]
+
+With the fall of Sebastopol the war may be said to have ended. A brilliant
+chapter which had little effect on the Crimean campaign, partly because it
+occurred after the fall of Sebastopol, partly because it concerned chiefly
+the Armenians, was the long defence of Kars by Colonel Williams and Wassif
+Pasha against an overwhelming Russian army under General Muraviev. Williams
+sturdily held his ground, bravely repulsed a violent attack in which the
+Russians lost over 5,000 men, and surrendered on November 27, with all
+the honors of war, only when starvation stared his little garrison in the
+face.
+
+[Sidenote: First ironclads before Kinburn]
+
+[Sidenote: Success of first trial]
+
+Hostilities still continued for a time in the Crimea. The allied fleet was
+sent to bombard various sea forts. The most important of these naval
+operations from a historical standpoint was the expedition against Kinburn,
+for here it was that the modern ironclad was first tried. On September 5,
+1854, Napoleon had ordered the construction of five armored floating
+batteries, which embodied the results obtained in the tests of plating made
+before the War Ministry's representatives at Vincennes. The ships were of
+1,400 tons displacement, were armed with eighteen 50-pounder smoothbores,
+and protected by four inches of iron armor. They were the prototypes of the
+later ironclads. Not without some misgivings three of these batteries were
+sent to the Crimea to join the allied fleet under Admirals Lyons and Bruat.
+The English squadron consisted of six line-of-battle ships, seventeen
+frigates and sloops, ten gunboats, six mortar-boats and ten transports. The
+French fleet, besides the three armored batteries mentioned, included four
+line-of-battle ships, three corvettes, four despatch boats, twelve gun
+boats and five mortar-boats. The combined fleets prepared to attack the
+Russian works at Kinburn. On October 18, the bombardment began. The
+ironclads steamed up to within 800 yards of the main fort; the other ships
+took up positions at distances varying from 1,200 to 2,800 yards. Without
+appreciable effect the Russian 32-pound and 18-pound shot and shell
+dropped into the sea from the iron plating of the French ships. Whatever
+injury was sustained was caused by the entrance of shot and splinters
+through the portholes. Unable to withstand the well-directed fire of their
+invulnerable enemy, the Russians hoisted the white flag, after having lost
+45 killed and 130 wounded. The allies lost but two killed and had but
+forty-five wounded--all on board the armored ships. "Everything may be
+expected of these formidable engines of war," wrote Admiral Bruat in his
+report. The Black Sea was the cradle of the modern ironclad.
+
+[Sidenote: Achievements in Science and Letter]
+
+Another achievement of far-reaching consequences was Captain Henry
+Bessemer's process for manufacturing steel. He took out a patent for his
+invention of forcing air through liquid molten iron. Other inventions of
+interest were Brewster's prismatic stereoscope, Garcia's laryngoscope (a
+mirror for examining the throat), and Drummond's light, patented by Captain
+Thomas Drummond. Captain Robert Le Mesurier M'Clure of the "Investigator"
+received the L5,000 prize for the discovery of the Northwest Passage and
+was knighted. Famous English books of the year were Robert Browning's "Men
+and Women," Charles Kingsley's "Westward Ho!" and George Henry Lewes' "Life
+of Goethe."
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Charlotte Bronte]
+
+Charlotte Bronte, the novelist, died on the last day of March. She was born
+in 1824, the daughter of the Rev. Patrick Bronte of Haworth in Yorkshire.
+In June, 1854, she married her father's curate, the Rev. Archer Bell
+Nicholls. Under the pseudonym of Currer Bell she published several novels,
+in which she displayed great power in the delineation of character. The
+most important of these were "Shirley," "Villette" and the celebrated "Jane
+Eyre." At the same time her sister, Emily Jane, who published under the
+name of Ellis Bell, won fame by her novel "Wuthering Heights." She died six
+years earlier.
+
+[Sidenote: Corot]
+
+This year Jean-Baptiste Corot, the famous French painter of "Paysage
+Intime," and follower and modifier of the new realistic schools under the
+lead of Courbet, exhibited his "Souvenir de Marcoussy," which was purchased
+later by Napoleon III.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Rogers]
+
+Samuel Rogers, the English poet, wit and patron of art, died, on December
+18, in his ninety-second year. The son of a banker, he travelled
+extensively while a young man, and applied himself to the study of art and
+letters. His first published essays and poetry were an "Ode to
+Superstition" and "The Pleasures of Memory." The death of his father in
+1793 left him in the possession of an ample fortune, and he lost no time in
+retiring from active business. In 1798 he published "The Epistle to a
+Friend" and other poems. During the early part of the Nineteenth Century,
+Rogers figured in the foremost rank of the literary and artistic society in
+London, where he went by the name of "The Banker Bard of St. James's
+Place." In 1812 he brought out an epic on "The Voyage of Columbus," which
+met with indifferent success. This was followed by "Jacqueline" and "Human
+Life." His last and largest publication was his descriptive poem "Italy,"
+brought out in 1822. Rogers devoted the rest of his literary life to the
+publication of exquisitely illustrated editions of his "Italy" and his
+"Poems." Shortly after Rogers' death a collection of his witty sayings was
+published under the title of "Table Talk."
+
+[Sidenote: Horace Vernet]
+
+[Sidenote: His early works]
+
+[Sidenote: Vernet's earnings]
+
+[Sidenote: Highest artistic honors]
+
+At the Parisian Art Exposition of this year, Horace Vernet, the celebrated
+French battle painter, had a Salon devoted entirely to his works. The walls
+were covered by his immense canvases. At this time Vernet was the most
+successful of French artists. Born at the Louvre at the outbreak of the
+French Revolution, Vernet in his early career was identified with the
+events of that epoch. For the Duke of Orleans he painted his celebrated
+series of the four revolutionary battles, "Jemmapes, Hanau, Montmirail, and
+Valmy." In 1812 he received his first important commission from King Jerome
+of Westphalia, and in 1813 another from Empress Marie Louise. In 1814,
+Horace Vernet, with his father and Gericault, fought on the Barriere de
+Clichy, and for his gallant conduct there received the decoration of the
+Legion of Honor from the hands of Napoleon. After the Restoration, Vernet
+achieved a great success by his "Battle of Torlosa," which was purchased
+for 6,000 francs for the Maison du Roi. At the Salon of 1819 Vernet
+contested the field with Gericault and Ingres, whose "Medusa" and
+"Odalisque" were the success of the season. By his popular lithographs of
+Napoleonic scenes, Vernet so jeopardized his interests at Court that it was
+thought best for him to transfer his studio from Paris to Rome. On his
+return from there in 1822 he painted his masterpiece, "The Defence of the
+Barrier of Clichy," for which Odiot paid 4,000 francs. It was presented to
+the Chamber of Peers, from which it was transferred subsequently to the
+Gallery of the Louvre. Thenceforward Vernet's pictures, the first of which
+had sold for a few hundred francs, commanded ever higher prices. For
+Avignon, his ancestral home, Horace Vernet painted "Mazeppa Pursued by
+Wolves," a picture which was injured by a sabre stroke in the artist's
+studio. After his election to the Institute, Vernet changed the style of
+his subjects, charging staggering prices. For a ceiling fresco in the
+Museum of Charles X. he received 17,910 francs; for "Phillip Augustus
+Before Bovines," now at Versailles, 24,775 francs; for "The Battle of
+Fontenoy," 30,000 francs. Still these pictures were scarcely up to the
+standard of the "Barrier of Clichy," and on Vernet's second removal to Rome
+his art seemed to decline. After many years spent in Rome and with French
+armies in Algiers and in the Orient, Vernet went to Russia, where he was
+received with great favor at the Court of the Czar. The highest financial
+point in his career was marked by a 50,000-franc commission for a portrait
+of the Russian Empress. He returned to France in good time to receive, in
+1855, the greatest honors yet showered upon a French painter.
+
+[Sidenote: "Leaves of Grass"]
+
+[Sidenote: American "Know Nothings"]
+
+In America, Longfellow brought out his "Hiawatha" and Walt Whitman
+published "Leaves of Grass." At this period the "Know Nothing" Party had
+come to be a power in politics. The party had started from a New York
+society formed to check the influence of the Pope, for purifying the ballot
+and maintaining the Bible in the public schools. It was called the American
+Party. Wherever the difference of opinion on the Missouri Compromise in
+1854 dissolved party ties in the North, multitudes flocked to the new
+party. Before 1855 it had a million and a half of voters. In 1854 it all
+but wrecked the old organizations. In Virginia, Henry A. Wise, an old Whig,
+led the Democratic Party, and overthrew the new organization. At the
+National Convention of the new party, Southern resolutions were adopted by
+a vote of 80 to 59. The Northern delegates met and repudiated the
+anti-slavery alliance. In 1855 the party carried New York, California and
+Massachusetts, and the Democrats carried New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Indiana
+and Illinois.
+
+[Sidenote: Stirring party contest]
+
+[Sidenote: Buchanan elected]
+
+The American Convention met in Philadelphia, February 22, and nominated
+Fillmore and Donelson. On the same day a convention met at Pittsburg to
+effect a national organization of the Republican Party, which appointed a
+National Convention for the 17th of June, the anniversary of Bunker Hill.
+The Democratic Convention met at Cincinnati. Pierce, Douglas and Buchanan
+were candidates. On the seventeenth ballot Buchanan was chosen by unanimous
+vote with Breckenridge for Vice-President. The Republican Convention met,
+and in it were King, Clay, Wilson and Wilmot. Fremont was made a candidate
+by 359 votes against 196 for McLean. For Vice-President, Abraham Lincoln
+had 110 votes, but Dayton received the majority. The nominees of the
+American Convention were afterward withdrawn. The various nominees each
+represented real issues. Buchanan stood for the South, Fremont for
+non-extension, and Fillmore for the Union. The election resulted in the
+choice of Buchanan, who received 1,838,169 votes, to Fremont's 1,341,000,
+and Fillmore's 875,000. Of the electoral votes, Buchanan received 174,
+Fremont 114, and Fillmore 8.
+
+[Sidenote: Struggle in Kansas]
+
+[Sidenote: "Bleeding Kansas"]
+
+At another election in Kansas to choose members of the Territorial
+Legislature, armed bodies from Missouri took possession of the polls and
+elected a pro-slavery Legislature. Of 6,218 votes cast but 1,310 were
+legal. Governor Reeder set the election aside and ordered another. May 22,
+supplementary elections were held and the Free State men won. June 11,
+Governor Reeder was charged with fraud in the purchase of the Indian lands,
+and, on July 26, was removed. Dawson was appointed in his place, with
+Woodson as acting-governor. On July 2, the pro-slavery Legislature met at
+Pawnee, organized, expelled nine Free State members, and adjourned to the
+Shawnee Mission, near the Missouri State line. Thereupon the Free State men
+met at Lawrence, repudiated the Shawnee Mission Legislature as spurious,
+and summoned a new convention at Topeka. The Convention adopted a Free
+State Constitution, and nominated Reeder for Congress. On October 1, the
+pro-slavery party elected Whitfield for Congress by more votes than the
+census list contained. The Free Staters declared the pro-slavery
+Legislature to have been elected by fraud. A rival government was
+organized. Discord, violence, and crime prevailed for a year. "Bleeding
+Kansas" became an issue in American national politics.
+
+[Sidenote: Congress takes action]
+
+The House resolved by 101 to 93 votes to send a special committee to Kansas
+to inquire into the anarchy prevailing there. The committee consisted of
+Howard, Sherman, and Oliver. After several weeks' investigation they
+returned and reported that every election in Kansas had been carried by
+Missourians, and the people had been prevented from exercising their
+rights; that the Legislature was illegal and its acts null and void; that
+Whitfield held his seat under no valid law, and Reeder had received more
+votes than he; that a well-devised election law was necessary, and
+impartial judges should be guarded by United States troops, and that the
+Topeka Free Soil Convention embodied the will of the majority. A bill
+admitting Kansas under her free constitution was defeated by 107 to 106,
+but was subsequently passed by 99 to 97. In the Senate the bill was
+defeated. Meanwhile turmoil and disorder continued in Kansas. Finally
+negotiations between Shannon, and the Free State leaders suspended the feud
+for a time.
+
+[Sidenote: Mexican filibusters]
+
+[Sidenote: Count Bouldon shot]
+
+[Sidenote: Alvarez revolution]
+
+[Sidenote: Santa Anna withdraws]
+
+[Sidenote: Anarchy in Mexico]
+
+[Sidenote: General Comonfort]
+
+The latest attempts to overthrow the government in Mexico, while they
+brought General Santa Anna once more to the head of affairs seriously
+imperilled his position. After the release of the United States Government
+from guarding the frontiers of Mexico, the Indians once more became
+troublesome. Predatory bands of Apaches and Comanches so ravaged the
+province of Cohauila that the government had to distribute arms among the
+inhabitants. A filibustering expedition under Major Walker of Kentucky
+established itself in Lower California. They proclaimed the independence of
+that province, so as to bring about annexation by the United States. A
+strong display of Mexican forces had the effect of driving them into Texas.
+Another filibustering expedition led by a French adventurer who called
+himself Count Raousset de Bouldon terrorized the north. From Guyamas this
+expedition marched inland, but was defeated in the first encounter with a
+strong Mexican force. Raousset de Bouldon was taken captive and was shot.
+More serious was a military revolution in the south led by General Alvarez.
+In his proclamation of Ayutla, Alvarez called for a new Constitution and a
+new Congress, and promised such reforms as the abolition of personal
+taxation, of military conscription, and of the feudal system of passports.
+Other popular leaders like Bravo and Moreno joined the movement. In vain
+did Santa Anna put forth all the powers of a military dictator. The
+revolutionists took Monterey, and the insurrection spread throughout the
+country until it reached the capital. Santa Anna gathered fourteen hundred
+of his best troops and left the City of Mexico to march upon his enemies.
+Soon the hopelessness of his enterprise became apparent. On the way to Vera
+Cruz he suddenly abdicated, and embarked on August 19 for Havana. Scarcely
+had Santa Anna left Mexico when the country was plunged into new
+disorders. General Carrera, on August 15, declared for the plan of Ayutla
+and proclaimed himself Vice-President. Funds were raised by a forced loan
+from the clerical orders. Several provinces of Mexico refused to recognize
+Carrera. Within a month he had to abdicate. He was succeeded at first by
+General Diaz de la Vavaga, and then by Juan Alvarez, the leader of the
+Puros. While he tried to establish his rule, General Vidini in the north
+strove to wrest the States of Cohauila, Tamaulipas and Nuego Leon from
+Mexico, to form an independent republic under the name of Sierra Madre.
+Before the close of the year Alvarez likewise found his position untenable
+and resigned. General Comonfort seized the reins of power as substitute
+president--the thirty-sixth President within forty years, the fifth within
+four months. He fell heir to the serious international complication with
+Spain resulting from the unpaid dividends of Mexico's original debt of
+indemnity to that country.
+
+[Sidenote: Growth of Taiping movement]
+
+In China, the Taiping rebels still holding Lintsing were beset by the
+imperial troops. They were expelled from the province of Shantung during
+the spring, but on the other hand carried their arms up the Yangtse-Kiang
+as far as Ichang, and eastward from Nanking to the sea. The establishment
+of the Taiping power at Nanking attracted the attention of Europeans. At
+length a ruthless system of capital executions, by which nearly one hundred
+thousand victims are believed to have perished, terrorized China.
+
+
+
+
+1856
+
+
+In America, the increasing virulence of the long controversy over slavery
+was brought home to the people by a cowardly assault committed by one
+Albert Rust upon Horace Greeley, the editor of the New York "Tribune," and
+one of the leaders of the agitation against slavery.
+
+[Sidenote: Buford in Kansas]
+
+[Sidenote: The "Kansas War"]
+
+At a Territorial election in Kansas on January 15 a Legislature was chosen,
+and Robinson was elected Governor under the Free State Constitution.
+January 26, President Pierce recognized the pro-slavery Legislature in
+Kansas, and, on February 11, by proclamation ordered the dispersion of
+armed invaders of Kansas. The Legislature met at Topeka, March 4, and
+inaugurated Robinson. Congress appointed a committee to investigate the
+Kansas troubles. On May 5, the Grand Jury of Douglas County found
+indictments against Reeder, Robinson and Lane, the Free State leaders. In
+the spring of 1856, Colonel Buford of Alabama, with a thousand young men
+from South Carolina and Georgia, came to Kansas in military array. In May,
+Lawrence was surrounded by these men bearing Federal arms taken from the
+United States armory. Nearly all the pro-slavery leaders were with them.
+They demanded the surrender of the people's arms. The inhabitants were
+unprepared to resist. The armed pro-slavery force marched through the town,
+destroying the hotels and printing-offices and the residence of Governor
+Robinson, doing a damage of $150,000. Such was the beginning of the "Kansas
+War" which continued throughout the year.
+
+[Sidenote: "Osawatomie Brown"]
+
+Acting-Governor Woodson proclaimed the Territory to be in a state of
+rebellion. A large pro-slavery force was gathering at Lecompton and another
+at Santa Fe. Osawatomie was captured, seven men were killed and thirty
+buildings burned. Among the killed was a son of John Brown. Atchison's
+pro-slavery force withdrew into Missouri. On September 1, in a municipal
+election at Leavenworth, an armed band of Missourians killed and wounded a
+number of Free State men, burned their houses, and compelled one hundred
+and fifty of them to embark for St. Louis.
+
+[Sidenote: Fight at Lawrence]
+
+The attack on Lawrence was renewed under the direct authority of the
+government. Many lives were lost. The United States troops at Leavenworth
+were used by Shannon. The Free State Legislature was dispersed by the
+United States forces. Other Missouri forces invaded the Territory and
+destroyed Brown's village of Osawatomie, but the Free State men compelled
+them to retreat across the Missouri. In September, President Pierce
+appointed Gray Governor of Kansas. Arriving at Lecompton, he released
+Robinson and other Free State prisoners on bail, and ordered all hostile
+forces to disband. On September 15, three regiments of Missourians with
+cannon attacked Lawrence. Governor Gray with United States troops
+compelled them to retire. December 15, Lecompton, a partisan judge, was
+removed on demand of the Governor, and Harrison of Kentucky was appointed.
+The Free State preponderance among settlers constantly increased. Nearly
+all the clearing, plowing, and planting was done by Free State men. All
+manner of irregularities constantly thinned the ranks of volunteers from
+the South. Kansas, according to Greeley's expressive phrase, "was steadily
+hardening into the bone and sinew of a Free State."
+
+[Sidenote: Senator Sumner assaulted]
+
+The National Convention of the American Party virtually approved the
+Fugitive Slave law and the Kansas-Nebraska act. In Congress, Sumner
+delivered a philippic on "The Crime against Kansas," in which he commented
+severely on Senator Butler of South Carolina. Thereupon Preston Brooks
+brutally assaulted Sumner in his seat in the Senate. As a result of his
+injuries Sumner was an invalid for four years.
+
+[Sidenote: Puebla revolts]
+
+In Mexico, President Comonfort had barely reached a temporary adjustment of
+difficulties with Spain when his government was embarrassed by a serious
+insurrection in Puebla. Government troops in overwhelming numbers put a
+bloody end to the revolt. Orihuela, the rebel chief, was shot.
+
+[Sidenote: Friction with Spain]
+
+[Sidenote: Civil war in Mexico]
+
+A new liberal Constitution in Mexico, proclaimed by President Comonfort,
+did not mend matters much in that distracted republic. New troubles with
+Spain arose over unpunished robberies and murders of Spanish subjects. In
+March, diplomatic intercourse between the two countries was severed.
+Spanish warships were ordered to the Gulf of Mexico. At the last moment,
+diplomatic mediation on the part of England and France succeeded in
+averting war. General Comonfort, finding himself unable to make much
+headway by constitutional means, invoked the help of General Zuloaga, and
+established himself once more as military dictator. When it came to
+dividing the spoils, Comonfort and Zuloaga fell out, and a seven days'
+conflict resulted. Comonfort's followers were routed. The defeated
+President had to flee the country.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Heine]
+
+[Sidenote: Heine's Muse]
+
+Heinrich Heine, the foremost German lyric poet, died at Paris, February 18.
+The last ten years of his life were clouded by ill health. Heine derived
+his first poetic inspiration from A.W. Schlegel, while a student at the
+University of Bonn. In the literary and artistic circle of Rachel Varnhagel
+in Berlin he found further encouragement in his early literary labors. He
+was a Jew, but, for the purpose of taking up the study of law, he had
+himself baptized a Christian, and became a doctor of law at the University
+of Goettingen. After a journey to England, he gave up law to devote himself
+exclusively to the pursuit of letters. In 1827, he brought out his "Buch
+der Lieder," and followed this up with the first part of his famous
+"Reisebilder." Heine's lyrics, by their unwonted grace and sprightliness,
+captivated German readers. Some of his songs, like that of the "Lorelei" or
+"Thou Art Like a Flower," soon became German folksongs. More
+characteristic, perhaps, of Heine's light muse are lines like these:
+
+  A youth once loved a maiden,
+    But for another she sighed;
+  This other loved still another
+    And took her for his bride.
+
+  The maid for spite then married
+    The first that came along;
+  Alas for the youth who loved her,
+    He suffered grievous wrong!
+
+  It is an old, old story,
+    But yet it is ever new,
+  And the one to whom it happens
+    His heart is broken in two.
+
+[Sidenote: The poet in Paris]
+
+[Sidenote: "La Mouche"]
+
+Shortly after the July Revolution, Heine went to Paris, where he became a
+contributor to several of the foremost literary journals of the day as a
+writer of French feuilletons. His French prose style was almost equal to
+his brilliant command of German. Not until 1844 did Heine bring out any new
+German poems. Then he published the epic satires "Germany, a Winter's
+Tale," and "Atta Troll, a Summer Night's Dream," two works which aroused
+intense indignation in Germany. Much was made of the fact that Heine
+accepted an annual pension of 4,800 francs from the government of Louis
+Philippe. On the other hand, Heine made the terse observation that whenever
+he was treated with rude discourtesy he could be sure that he had met a
+German. In Paris, the poet was captivated by the charm of young Matilde
+Mirat, his "lotos flower," as he called her, or also "la mouche." The
+uneducated yet infinitely charming and loyal grisette was the good angel of
+Heine's later years. On the eve of the famous duel with his rival poet
+Boerne, in 1841, Heine married Matilde at the Church of St. Sulpice.
+
+[Sidenote: Deathbed wit]
+
+To his sorrow the poet lived many more years suffering great agony from a
+spinal complaint which confined him to his bed, or "mattress grave" as he
+called it. His powers of wit and raillery never failed him, even to the
+last. On the night before he died an anxious friend called to bid farewell.
+He asked if the dying man had made his "peace with God." Heine replied with
+a wan smile: "Do not trouble yourself. God will pardon me. That's his
+trade." These were the last recorded words spoken by Heine. Another story
+has it that when the physician put a handglass to the lips of the dying man
+and said, "Can you hiss (siffler)?" Heine murmured, "No, not even a play of
+Scribe."
+
+[Sidenote: German romantic poets]
+
+Among German writers of this period, Friedrich Rueckert, the lyric poet,
+and Fritz Reuter, who wrote in Low German dialect, were at the height of
+their activity. Emanuel Geibel presented himself as heir presumptive to the
+mantle of Heine. Unlike Heine, this poet devoted his muse to the
+glorification of German patriotism. He achieved such a success that he was
+soon called to Munich, where he brought out the first "Golden Book of
+Poets." Other German poets, such as Gottfried Kinkel, the revolutionist,
+Hoffmann von Fallersleben, and Ferdinand Freiligrath, famous outside of
+Germany for his happy translations of English and American verse, had to
+write their poems in exile.
+
+[Sidenote: Biela's comet]
+
+On February 18, Wilhelm von Biela, the great German astronomer, died at
+Venice. Born in 1782 at Rossla in the Hartz Mountains, he entered the
+Austrian military service in 1805, and was made colonel in 1826, and
+commandant of Rovigo in 1832. On February 27, 1826, he discovered the
+famous comet named after him. According to Biela's prediction, the comet
+returned every six years and thirty-eight weeks until 1852. Thereafter it
+was not seen as a comet during the century. Biela also discovered two other
+comets.
+
+[Sidenote: Crimean peace conference]
+
+[Sidenote: Black Sea and Danube opened]
+
+[Sidenote: Status Quo in Balkans]
+
+After the fall of Sebastopol, Austria made another attempt to secure peace.
+Two of the Powers, France and Russia, were heartily weary of the war. Louis
+Napoleon had entered the struggle merely to gain military glory and
+political prestige. He had succeeded in attaining his ends. Alexander II.,
+who had continued the war largely as a matter of filial piety, was ready to
+seize the first opportunity to conclude peace with honor. A Congress was
+therefore assembled in Paris to draw up terms satisfactory to all
+concerned. On March 30, a treaty was signed which gave Kars back to the
+Sultan and restored Sebastopol to the Czar. The Porte was admitted to the
+Concert of Powers. Most important was the regulation of the navigation of
+the Black Sea. It was decreed in the treaty that "the Black Sea is
+neutralized; its waters and its ports, thrown open to the mercantile marine
+of every nation, are formally and in perpetuity interdicted to the flag of
+war of the Powers possessing its coasts or of any other Power." Patrolling
+of the sea by small armed vessels was permitted. The Danube was thrown open
+to the commerce of the world. In order more fully to secure free navigation
+of the river, the Czar's frontier in Bessarabia was somewhat changed by
+the cession of certain territory to Moldavia under the suzerainty of the
+Porte. Both Wallachia and Moldavia continued under the protection of
+Turkey, and were permitted to enjoy their former privileges. The _status
+quo_ of Servia was assured. It was further stipulated that, following the
+ancient rule of the Sultans, no foreign war vessels were to pass through
+the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus while Turkey was at peace. To insure the
+integrity of the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Austria signed a
+treaty, on April 15, guaranteeing the independence of the Sultan's
+dominions and declaring that any violation of this would call for war.
+
+[Sidenote: The Paris convention]
+
+Besides drawing up the treaty of peace, the Congress of Paris settled
+various moot points in international law. The plenipotentiaries all agreed
+to the doctrines: "First, privateering is and remains abolished. Second,
+the neutral flag covers enemy's goods, with the exception of contraband of
+war. Third, neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are not
+liable to capture under an enemy's flag. Fourth, blockades in order to be
+binding must be effective; that is to say, maintained by a force sufficient
+really to prevent access to the enemy's coast." The United States of
+America did not subscribe to this convention.
+
+[Sidenote: Results of Crimean war]
+
+Russia came out of the conflict defeated but respected. She had received a
+check in the Black Sea and her frontier line had been readjusted. Still her
+political losses were trivial. The war most deeply affected Austria. She
+had played a false game and had lost. The sceptre of European leadership
+slipped from her. The situation afforded to Bismarck and Cavour the
+opportunity each was anxiously awaiting.
+
+[Sidenote: Italy benefited]
+
+Cavour had won his first point. At the Conference of Paris he took his
+place as a representative of Sardinia by right of an alliance with the
+other great Powers. Then it was seen that every Italian soldier who had
+fallen on the Tchernaya, or who had wasted away in the fever-stricken
+camps, had died indeed for the honor of Italy among the nations of the
+world. At the close of the Conference Cavour made a plain statement
+concerning the misgovernment of southern and central Italy and the evils of
+the Austrian occupation. When Count Buol von Schauenstein protested, the
+French and English representatives supported Cavour. The effect of these
+representations was such that there was a sudden change in Austria's
+restrictive measures hitherto inflicted upon her Italian dominions. Old
+Marshal Radetzky, the man of the sword, was retired. The sequestrated
+Italian estates were returned to their owners. Emperor Francis Joseph came
+in person to Milan to proclaim a general amnesty. His brother Maximilian, a
+prince of liberal tendencies, came with his young bride Charlotte to undo
+the harsh measures of the military government. Maximilian's liberal policy
+proved too much for the narrow spirit of the Ministry at home.
+
+[Sidenote: After effects in England]
+
+[Sidenote: Friction with America]
+
+[Sidenote: Australian Home Rule]
+
+One of the first results of the Crimean war was the threatened suspension
+of the Bank of England. In November, it was found that the reserve funds
+of the Bank had shrunk to L1,462,153, while the deposits that might at any
+moment be drawn out aggregated L18,248,003. In these circumstances, a
+special bill of Parliament authorized a new issue of paper notes for
+L180,000 more than the law permitted. Furthermore, the war with Russia left
+behind it a dispute between the governments of Great Britain and of the
+United States. Under the provisions of a recent foreign enlistment bill in
+England, American citizens had been induced to enter the British military
+service. The American Government complained that the practice was in
+violation of international law. The point was practically conceded by the
+English Government, which at once put a stop to the enlistment of American
+citizens and tendered an apology to the government of the United States.
+The situation was aggravated by the fact that one of the attaches of the
+American Legation in London at this very time was refused admission to a
+diplomatic levee at the Court of St. James because he did not appear in
+court dress. The British Minister at Washington received his passports. In
+Australia, the first Home Rule Parliament had been opened at Sydney by Sir
+William Denison. The popular elections were conducted under the famous
+ballot system which was afterward adopted in other parts of the world.
+
+[Sidenote: Singular suicidal mania]
+
+In South Africa, the province of Natal was separated from Cape Colony, and
+became an independent Crown Colony with a constitution of its own. The land
+of the Basutos, no longer under British protectorate, suffered greatly from
+hostile incursions and cattle raids from the Boers. During the summer the
+Kaffirs fell victims to a fatal delusion. Their prophet Amaxosa foretold
+the resurrection of all their dead heroes and warriors, on condition that
+they themselves should put an end to their lives. In all, some 50,000
+Kaffirs committed suicide. Emigrants from Cape Colony occupied the Kaffir
+lands, which had become depopulated.
+
+[Sidenote: Affair of "The Arrow"]
+
+[Sidenote: British reprisals on China]
+
+[Sidenote: Canton bombarded]
+
+[Sidenote: Insufficient British forces]
+
+In October, the Chinese Emperor, beset as he was by the victorious Taiping
+rebels, was made to feel the heavy hand of Great Britain. A Portuguese
+lorcha, "The Arrow," flying the British flag though without British
+register, was overhauled by the Chinese authorities while at anchor near
+Dutch Folly. One of her crew had been recognized as one of a band of
+pirates who had committed some recent outrages. The Taotai of Canton had
+the offender arrested. Sir John Bowring at Hong Kong at once protested. The
+Chinese Imperial Commissioner Yeh replied that "The Arrow" was not a
+foreign vessel, and therefore declined to enter into any discussion about
+her. As a first step toward obtaining reparation the British seized a
+Chinese imperial junk and held her in reprisal. As this failed to bring the
+Chinese to terms, Sir Michael Seymour with a British squadron bombarded and
+seized the barrier forts of Canton. The fleet proceeded up the river, and,
+after capturing the Chinese fort of Macao Passage, came to anchor before
+Canton. An ultimatum was addressed to Yeh, stating that unless he at once
+complied with all English demands they would "proceed with the destruction
+of all the defences and public buildings of the city and of the government
+vessels in the harbor." No reply was vouchsafed. The Canton forts were
+seized by the British and their men-of-war trained guns on the city. All
+able-bodied Chinamen were called upon by the Viceroy of Canton to rally for
+the defence of their city. The British bombarded Canton and sunk a large
+fleet of Chinese war junks up the river. A fort at French Folly was
+reduced, and the Bogue forts on both sides of the river were captured. The
+Chinese retaliated by burning the whole foreign settlement, and by chopping
+off the heads of all the Englishmen who came into their power. Sir Michael
+Seymour found his force inadequate to capture Canton, and had to withdraw
+from his positions while he sent home a request for reinforcements. The
+urgency of the request opened the eyes of the British Foreign Secretary to
+the gravity of the situation. A force of 1,500 men was at once sent from
+England, another regiment from Mauritius, and a division from the Madras
+army. The situation in India shortly became such that this force never
+reached China.
+
+[Sidenote: British war with Persia]
+
+New difficulties had arisen with Persia respecting Herat. The death of Yar
+Muhammad Khan in 1852 was followed by intrigues in Herat. The province
+became a bone of contention between the Shah of Persia and the aged Dost
+Muhammad Khan. This ruler's hostility to England during the second Sikh war
+had been condoned, and a treaty of friendship concluded between him and
+Lord Dalhousie. In virtue of this treaty the British sided with Dost
+Muhammad. When the Shah moved an army into Herat and captured the capital,
+England declared war on Persia. Arms and munitions in great quantity were
+presented to Dost Muhammad, together with a subsidy of ten thousand pounds
+a month so long as the Persian war should last. An expedition under Sir
+James Outram was sent from Bombay to the Gulf of Persia. The capture of
+Bushire by the English and their victory at Mohamrah brought the Shah of
+Persia to withdraw his troops from Afghanistan. Herat was relinquished.
+While the war lasted a new danger to the British Indian Empire arose at
+Delhi. In July, the heir-apparent of old Bahadur Shah, the reigning King of
+Delhi, suddenly died. A younger queen was believed to have poisoned him.
+She persuaded Bahadur Shah to proclaim her son heir to the throne. Lord
+Canning withheld Great Britain's recognition. An elder brother was
+recognized as successor by Lord Canning, on condition that he should leave
+Delhi upon his succession to the throne and take up his abode at Kutut. The
+young Queen was moved to wild wrath. She was a daughter of the House of
+Nadir Shah, burning with the traditional ambitions of her family. Forthwith
+she took a part in all manner of intrigues against the English on the side
+of Persia as well as of the Afghans. The remarkable outbursts of
+anti-British feeling that followed have been credited to her.
+
+
+
+
+1857
+
+
+[Sidenote: Chinese war ships sank]
+
+[Sidenote: Assault on Fatshan]
+
+The reverses of the Persians brought the Shah to terms. A treaty of peace
+was presently concluded in which all claim to Herat was abandoned by
+Persia. Early in the year the British expedition in China resumed
+hostilities. Commodore Elliot with five gunboats and a host of small boats
+destroyed a fleet of forty armed junks. Next an attack was delivered on the
+Chinese headquarters at Fatshan. A flotilla of English small boats cut
+their way through the long line of war junks, and a landing party under
+Commodore Harry Keppel attacked the main position. The Commodore's boat was
+sunk and several others had to be abandoned. A number of the Chinese junks
+were burned. Keppel's force was found too small to capture Fatshan. Sir
+Michael Seymour decided to postpone further hostilities until the arrival
+of the promised reinforcements that were to come after Lord Elgin. When
+these troops failed to arrive in good time, Lord Elgin went to Calcutta
+himself to hasten their despatch. There he found affairs of far more
+serious import than those in China.
+
+[Sidenote: Murmurs in India]
+
+[Sidenote: The greased cartridges]
+
+Some time previously rumors had been circulated concerning a danger to
+British rule in India. Mysterious little cakes were circulated far and
+wide. Lord Canning, the new Governor-General, was blamed for not taking
+alarm. A dangerous story got abroad early in the year. The Enfield rifle
+had been introduced. Its cartridges were greased with animal lubricants.
+The fat of pigs was hateful to Mohammedans, while that of cows was still
+more of an abomination in the eyes of the Hindus. At Barrackpore, near
+Calcutta, where Sepoys were stationed, a Laskar reviled a Brahmin as
+defiled by the British cartridges. The whole of the Bengal army was seized
+with horror. The British authorities claimed that none of the greased
+cartridges had been issued to the Sepoys. The story of the greased
+cartridges ran up the Ganges to Benares, Delhi and Meerut. It was soon
+noised abroad that the bones of cows and pigs had been ground to powder and
+thrown into wells with flour and butter in order to destroy the caste of
+the Hindus so as to convert them to Christianity.
+
+[Sidenote: Hindu soldiers demur]
+
+In March, incendiary fires broke out at Barrackpore. The Sepoys from the
+Nineteenth Regiment refused to receive the cartridges dealt out to them.
+There was only one white regiment in the 400 miles between Barrackpore and
+Patna. After remonstrances had been made by the English officers, the
+Sepoys returned, but there still remained disaffection at Benares, Lucknow,
+Agra and other places. When it was believed that the excitement was allayed
+another outbreak occurred at Lucknow. Lawrence's energetic measures
+maintained order in Oude. The mutiny was only scattered, however. Within a
+week Meerut, thirty-eight miles northeast of Delhi, and the largest
+cantonment in India, was in a blaze. The story of the greased cartridges
+had been capped by that of the bone dust. Some eighty-five of a regiment of
+Sepoy cavalry refused to take the cartridges and were marched off to the
+guard-house. During the afternoon of the following Sunday, when the
+European officers were preparing for church, the imprisoned Sepoys were
+liberated with others. They shot down every European they met.
+
+[Sidenote: The Indian mutiny]
+
+The mutiny became a revolt. The rebellious Sepoys marched on Delhi. When
+the rebel troops came up from Meerut the English officers prepared to meet
+them. Their Sepoys joined the mutineers. The revolt spread throughout
+Delhi. In despair, Willoughby blew up the fort with 1,500 rebels who were
+assaulting it. Only four of his command escaped. Willoughby himself died
+six weeks afterward, while India and Europe were ringing with his name.
+Fifty Englishmen whom the rebels had captured were butchered in cold blood.
+Delhi on Monday evening was in rebel hands. The remaining officers on the
+Ridge fled for their lives. Their subsequent suffering was one of the
+harrowing features of the great convulsion. The revolution at Delhi opened
+Lord Canning's eyes. He telegraphed for regiments from Bombay, Burma,
+Madras and Ceylon.
+
+[Sidenote: Lahore mutineers foiled]
+
+On May 11, the news of the outbreak at Meerut was brought to the
+authorities at Lahore. Meean Meer is a large military cantonment five or
+six miles from Lahore, and there were then some four thousand native troops
+there, with only about thirteen hundred Europeans of the Queen's and the
+Company's service. There was no time to be lost. A parade was ordered on
+the morrow at Meean Meer. On the parade-ground an order was given for a
+military movement which brought the heads of four columns of the native
+troops in front of twelve guns charged with grape, the artillerymen with
+their port-fires lighted, and the soldiers of one of the Queen's regiments
+standing behind with loaded muskets. A command was given to the Sepoys to
+stack arms. Cowed, they piled their arms, which were borne away at once in
+carts by the European soldiers. All chances of a rebellious movement were
+over for the moment in the Punjab.
+
+[Sidenote: Situation at Lucknow]
+
+[Sidenote: Massacre of Jhansi]
+
+At three stations--Lucknow, Jhansi and Cawnpore--the mutiny was of
+political importance. The city of Lucknow, the capital of Oude, extended
+four miles along the right bank of the river Goomti. The British Residency
+and other principal buildings were between the city and the river. The
+Residency was a walled inclosure, and near it stood a castellated
+structure, the Muchi Bowun. Since the affair of May 3, Sir Henry Lawrence
+had been making preparations for a defence in case of insurrection. The
+native force consisted of three regiments of infantry and one of cavalry,
+all Sepoys, and there was a European force of 570 men with sixty
+artillerymen. Lawrence brought all the European non-combatants within the
+Residency walls, and established a strong post between the Residency and
+the Muchi Bowun to command the two bridges which led to the cantonments.
+The outbreak began on May 30, when the insurgents rushed to the bridges,
+and, being repulsed by Lawrence, made off to Delhi. At Jhansi, the garrison
+of fifty-five men was butchered in cold blood.
+
+[Sidenote: Defence of Cawnpore]
+
+[Sidenote: Massacre of Cawnpore]
+
+[Sidenote: Englishwomen spared]
+
+At Cawnpore, on the Ganges, fifty-five miles southwest of Lucknow, the
+tragedy was even more terrible. Cawnpore had been in the possession of the
+English for more than fifty years. In May, sixty-one artillerymen and four
+Sepoy regiments were there. Sir Hugh Wheeler, the commandant, prepared for
+the coming storm. He took some old barracks and there quartered the white
+women, children and invalids. He accepted from the Nana, who professed
+great friendship, 200 Mahrattas and two guns. On the night of June 4, the
+Sepoy regiment at Cawnpore broke out in mutiny. The Nana overtook them on
+the road to Delhi and soon returned with them to Cawnpore. Sir Hugh was
+taken by surprise on the morning of the 6th, when he received a message
+from the Nana, announcing that his men were about to attack the Englishmen.
+Sir Hugh prepared for the defence of the barracks. The mutineers first
+rifled the city and cantonment, and murdered all the English who came in
+their way. At noon they opened fire on the intrenchments. From the 6th to
+the 25th of June, the inmates struggled against fearful odds. Though
+starving, they resisted successfully. On June 25, Wheeler received a
+proposal that safe passage would be given to Allahabad to those who were
+willing to lay down their arms. An armistice was proclaimed, and next
+morning terms were negotiated. The English were to capitulate and march
+out with their arms and sixty rounds of ammunition for each man, to the
+river a mile away, where boats would be furnished for all. The next morning
+they marched down to the boats--the men on foot, the wounded and
+non-combatants on elephants and bullocks. They were all huddled together on
+board the boats. Suddenly, at the sound of a bugle, a murderous fire was
+opened on them. The women and children, one hundred and twenty-five in
+number, were hurried off to prison, and the men were ordered to immediate
+execution. All was soon over. Nana was proclaimed Peishwa. English
+reinforcements were coming from Allahabad. Nana hastened back to Cawnpore.
+There, within a few days, more than two hundred English were taken
+prisoners. The men were all butchered, and eighty women and children were
+sent to join those in a house near the Nana. Great excitement prevailed in
+England, where it was believed that these women were subjected to all
+manner of outrage and made to long for death as an escape from shame. As a
+matter of fact the royal widows of the Nana's adoptive father did their
+utmost to protect the captive Englishwomen. They threatened to throw
+themselves and their children from the palace windows should any harm
+befall the English ladies. Thanks to them no worse indignity than the
+compulsory grinding of corn was inflicted on the white women. Meanwhile,
+Colonel Mill was pushing up from Calcutta. In July, he was joined at
+Allahabad by a column under General Havelock.
+
+[Sidenote: Havelock to the relief]
+
+[Sidenote: Englishwomen slaughtered]
+
+[Sidenote: Capture of Cawnpore]
+
+In July, Havelock left Allahabad for Cawnpore with 2,000 men, Europeans and
+Sikhs. He burned to avenge the massacre of Cawnpore. On the 12th and 15th
+of July he inflicted three defeats on the enemy. When within twenty miles
+of Cawnpore, having halted for the night, he heard that the women and
+children at Cawnpore were still alive, and that the Nana had taken the
+field to oppose him. He broke camp and marched fifteen miles that night. In
+the meantime, the crowning atrocity was committed at Cawnpore. The defeated
+rebels had returned to the Nana. On receiving the tidings of their repulse,
+he ordered the slaughter of the 200 women and children. They were hacked to
+death with swords, bayonets, knives and axes. Their remains were thrown
+into a well. At 2 p.m. Havelock toiled on with a thousand Europeans and
+three hundred Sikhs, and without cavalry and artillery, to meet the 5,000
+rebels. Failing to silence the enemy's batteries, Havelock ordered a
+bayonet charge. Nana Sahib with his followers took flight. He was never
+heard from again. The next morning Havelock marched into the station at
+Cawnpore, and there found the well filled with mangled human remains. On
+July 20, having been reinforced by General Neill, whom he left in charge at
+Cawnpore, Havelock set out for the relief of Lucknow.
+
+[Sidenote: The defence of Lucknow]
+
+[Sidenote: Havelock captures Bethan]
+
+The entire province of Oude was in a state of insurrection. The English had
+been closely besieged in Lucknow since the last day of May. The garrison
+had held out for two months against fifty thousand Hindus. On July 4, Sir
+Henry Lawrence was killed by a shell which burst in his room. Two weeks
+later, the rebels, learning of the advance of Havelock to Cawnpore,
+attacked the Residency with overwhelming force, but the garrison at last
+compelled them to retire. By the middle of August, Havelock advanced toward
+Bethan with 1,500 men. He met the enemy in force, and overcame him with a
+bayonet charge. The Mahratta palace was burned. This ended Havelock's first
+campaign against Lucknow. Without cavalry for the pursuit of the enemy, he
+fell back to Cawnpore.
+
+During the months which followed the outbreak at Delhi, all political
+interest was centred in that ancient capital of Hindustan. Its recapture
+was vital to the re-establishment of British sovereignty. In the absence of
+railways the British were slow to cope with the situation. Every European
+soldier sent for the relief of Delhi from Calcutta was stopped en route. On
+June 8, a month after the affair at Delhi, Sir Henry Barnard took the field
+at Alipano, ten miles away. He defeated the mutineers, and then marched to
+the Ridge and reoccupied the old cantonment, which had been abandoned.
+
+[Sidenote: Defence of Delhi]
+
+[Sidenote: Delhi recaptured]
+
+On June 23, the enemy made a desperate assault, and not long afterward
+repeated the attempt. Reinforcements came from the Punjab. The British now
+had 8,000 men. With their fifty-four guns they could shell the besiegers.
+At last, at 3 a.m. on September 14, three columns were formed for a sortie,
+with one in reserve. They rushed through the broken walls, and the first
+and second columns met at the Kabul Gate. Six days of desperate fighting
+followed. On September 20, the gates of the old fortified palace were
+broken open, but the inmates had fled. Thus fell the imperial city. The
+British army lost 4,000 men, among them Brigadier-General Nicholson, who
+led the storming party. The great mutiny at Delhi was stamped out, and the
+British flag waved over the capital of Hindustan. This was the turning
+point of the Sepoy mutiny.
+
+[Sidenote: British vengeance]
+
+[Sidenote: Delhi princes murdered]
+
+The capture of Delhi was followed by acts of barbarous retribution. Hindu
+prisoners were shot from the mouths of cannon. Hodson, of "Hodson's Horse,"
+a young officer who had once been cashiered for high-handed conduct in
+India, offered to General Wilson to capture the king and the royal family
+of Delhi. General Wilson gave him authority to make the attempt, but
+stipulated that the life of the king should be spared. By the help of
+native spies Hodson discovered that when Delhi was taken the king and his
+family had taken refuge in the tomb of the Emperor Hoomayoon. Hodson went
+boldly to this place with a few of his troopers. He found that the royal
+family of Delhi were surrounded there by a vast crowd of armed adherents.
+He called upon them all to lay down their arms at once. They threw down
+their arms, and the king surrendered himself to Hodson. Next day the three
+royal princes of Delhi were captured. Hodson borrowed a carbine from one of
+his troopers and shot the three princes dead. Their corpses, half naked,
+were exposed for some days at one of the gates of Delhi. Hodson committed
+the deed deliberately. Several days before, he wrote to a friend to say
+that if he got into the palace of Delhi, "the House of Timour will not be
+worth five minutes' purchase, I ween." On the day after the deed he wrote:
+"In twenty-four hours I disposed of the principal members of the House of
+Timour the Tartar. I am not cruel; but I confess that I do rejoice in the
+opportunity of ridding the earth of these ruffians."
+
+[Sidenote: The Princess of Jhansi]
+
+[Sidenote: An Amazon's death]
+
+The mutineers had seized Gwalior, the capital of the Maharajah Scindia, who
+escaped to Agra. The English had to attack the rebels, retake Gwalior and
+restore Scindia. One of those who fought to the last on the mutineers' side
+was the Ranee, or Princess of Jhansi, whose territory had been one of the
+British annexations. She had flung all her energies into the rebellion. She
+took the field with Nana Sahib and Tantia Topi. For months after the fall
+of Delhi she contrived to baffle Sir Hugh Rose and the English. She led
+squadrons in the field. She fought with her own hand. She was foremost in
+the battle for the possession of Gwalior. In the garb of a horseman she led
+charge after charge, and she was killed among those who resisted to the
+last. Her body was found upon the field, scarred with wounds enough to have
+done credit to any hero. Sir Hugh Rose paid her a well-deserved tribute
+when he wrote: "The best man upon the side of the enemy was the woman found
+dead, the Ranee of Jhansi."
+
+[Sidenote: Relief of Lucknow]
+
+Lucknow was still beleaguered. Late in September, Havelock had prepared for
+a second attempt to relieve that place. Sir Colin Campbell had reached
+Calcutta as Commander-in-Chief. Sir James Outram had come to Allahabad on
+September 16. He joined Havelock with 1,400 men. With generous chivalry the
+"Bayard of India" waived his rank in honor of Havelock. "To you shall be
+left the glory of relieving Lucknow," he wrote. "I shall accompany you,
+placing my military service at your disposal, as a volunteer." On September
+20, Havelock crossed the Granges into Oude with 2,500 men. Having twice
+defeated the enemy, on September 25 he cut his way through the streets of
+Lucknow. Late in the day he entered the British cantonments. The defence of
+the Residency at Lucknow was a glorious episode in British annals. It has
+been sung in immortal strains by Alfred Tennyson. The fortitude of the
+garrison was surpassed only by the self-sacrificing conduct of the women
+who nursed the wounded and cared for all. They received the thanks of Queen
+Victoria for their heroic devotion. For four months the garrison had
+watched for the succor which came at last. The surrounding city remained
+for two months longer in rebel hands. In November, Sir Colin Campbell with
+2,000 men took charge of the intrenchments at Cawnpore, and then advanced
+against Lucknow with 5,000 men and thirty guns. He defeated the enemy and
+carried away the beleaguered garrison with all the women and children.
+
+[Sidenote: Cawnpore rises again]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Havelock]
+
+Still the British were unable to disperse the rebels and reoccupy the city.
+Sir Colin Campbell left Outram with 4,000 men near Lucknow. He himself
+returned to Cawnpore. On approaching that city he heard the roll of a
+distant cannonade. Tantia Topi had come again to the front. He had
+persuaded the Gwalior contingent to break out in mutiny and march against
+Cawnpore. General Windham resisted his advance. The whole city was in the
+hands of the rebel Sepoys, but the bridge of boats over the Ganges was
+saved to the British. Sir Colin Campbell marched over it, and in safety
+reached the intrenchment in which Windham was shut up. He routed the
+Gwalior rebels and drove them out of Cawnpore. General Havelock the day
+after he left Lucknow succumbed to dysentery. Throughout the British Empire
+there was universal sorrow that will never be forgotten so long as men
+recall the memory of the mutinies of Fifty-seven. Havelock's victories had
+aroused the drooping spirits of the British nation.
+
+[Sidenote: Aftermath of the Mutiny]
+
+[Sidenote: Rose's brilliant campaign]
+
+[Sidenote: King of Delhi transported]
+
+The subsequent history of the Sepoy revolt is largely a recital of military
+operations for the dispossession of the rebels and the restoration of
+British supremacy. Sir Colin Campbell, now Lord Clyde, undertook a general
+and successful campaign against the rebels of Oude and Rohlikund, and Sir
+James Outram drove them out of Lucknow, and re-established British
+sovereignty in the capital of Oude. At the same time a column under Sir
+Hugh Rose and another under General Whitlock did a similar work in Central
+India and Bundelkund. Rose's campaign was peculiarly difficult. It was
+carried out amid the jungles and ravines of the Vindhya Mountains, and in
+the secluded regions of Bundelkund. He fought battles against baffling
+odds, and captured the stronghold of Jhansi. He then marched against Tantia
+Topi, who had an army of 40,000 near Kalpi, which he routed and scattered.
+Having brought his campaign to a close, he congratulated his troops on
+having marched a thousand miles, defeated and dispersed the enemy, and
+captured a hundred guns. The old King of Delhi was put on trial, convicted
+and sentenced to transportation. He was sent to the Cape of Good Hope, but
+the colonists there refused to receive him. The last of the line of the
+Great Moguls of India had to go begging for a prison.
+
+Toward the close of the year, when the Indian mutiny appeared to have spent
+its force, Lord Elgin returned from Calcutta to Hong Kong. In the meanwhile
+the English, French and American Governments had exchanged notes on the
+subject of Chinese outrages against Christians. Louis Napoleon was found to
+be in hearty accord with England's desire to make an example of China.
+Baron Gros was sent to China charged with a mission similar to that of Lord
+Elgin. The United States declined to join in active measures against China.
+
+[Sidenote: Buchanan, American President]
+
+In the United States of America, James Buchanan had become President at
+sixty-six years of age. He had served as a member of Congress from 1821 to
+1831; then as Minister to Russia from 1832 to 1834; United States Senator
+from 1834 to 1845; Secretary of State under Polk from 1845 to 1849, and
+Minister to Great Britain from 1853 to 1856.
+
+[Sidenote: Dred Scott case]
+
+Buchanan's first message repeated the assurance that the discussion of
+slavery had come to an end. The clergy were found fault with for fomenting
+the disturbances. The President declared in favor of the admission of
+Kansas with a Constitution agreeable to the majority of the settlers. He
+also referred to an impending decision of the Supreme Court with which he
+had been acquainted and asked acquiescence in it. This was Judge Taney's
+decision in the Dred Scott case, rendered two days after Buchanan's
+inauguration. An action had been begun in the Circuit Court in Missouri by
+Scott, a negro, for the freedom of himself and children. He claimed that he
+had been removed by his master in 1834 to Illinois, a free State, and
+afterward taken into territory north of the compromise line. Sanford, his
+master, replied that Scott was not a citizen of Missouri, and could not
+bring an action, and that he and his children were Sanford's slaves. The
+lower courts differed, and the case was twice argued.
+
+[Sidenote: The decision]
+
+The decision nullified the Missouri restriction, or, indeed, any
+restriction by Congress on slavery in the Territories. Chief-Justice Taney
+said: "The question is whether that class of persons (negroes) compose a
+portion of the people, and are constituent members of this sovereignty. We
+think they are not included under the word citizen in the Constitution, and
+can therefore claim none of the rights and privileges" of that instrument.
+"They were at that time considered as a subordinate and inferior class who
+had been subjugated by the dominant race--and had no rights or privileges
+but such as those who held the power and the government might choose to
+grant them. They had for more than a century been regarded as beings of an
+inferior grade--and so far inferior that they had no rights which the white
+man is bound to respect; and that the negro might justly and lawfully be
+reduced to slavery for his (the white man's) benefit. The negro race by
+common consent had been excluded from civilized governments and the family
+of nations and doomed to slavery. The unhappy black race were separated
+from the whites by indelible marks long before established, and were never
+thought of or spoken of except as property." The Chief-Justice nullified
+the Missouri restriction, by asserting that "the act of Congress, which
+prohibited a citizen from holding property of this kind north of the line
+therein mentioned, is not warranted by the Constitution, and is therefore
+void." This made slavery the organic law of the land. Benton said that it
+was "no longer the exception with freedom the rule, but slavery the rule,
+with freedom the exception."
+
+[Sidenote: Financial distress]
+
+[Sidenote: Trouble with Mormons]
+
+It was a year of financial distress in America, which recalled the hard
+times of twenty years before. The United States Treasury was empty. There
+had been a too rapid building of railway lines in comparatively undeveloped
+regions where they could not pay expenses for years to come. Settlers did
+not come so quickly as was expected, and a fall in railway shares resulted.
+There was great loss, yet the country suffered less than in 1837. During
+the summer the Mormons in Utah gave new trouble. Brigham Young, after Utah
+was excluded from the Union, destroyed the records of the United States
+courts, and practically drove Federal judges from their seats and other
+officials from the Territory. The Mormons now numbered 40,000 members, and
+felt strong enough to defy the government.
+
+[Sidenote: Massacre of Mount Meadow]
+
+In September, the Indians, believed to have been instigated by the Mormons,
+massacred an immigrant train of 120 persons at Mountain Meadow in Utah.
+Alfred Cumming, Superintendent of Indian Affairs on the upper Missouri,
+displaced Young as Governor of Utah. Judge Eckles of Indiana was appointed
+Chief-Justice of the Territory. A force of 2,500 men under Colonel A.S.
+Johnston was sent to Utah to suppress interference with the laws of the
+United States. On the arrival of the Federal troops in the autumn, they
+were attacked, on October 6, by the Mormons, their supply trains were
+destroyed, and their oxen driven off. Colonel Johnston was compelled to
+find winter quarters at Fort Bridger.
+
+Early in the year a Legislature had met at Topeka, Kansas, and was
+immediately dissolved by the United States marshals. A Territorial
+Legislature also met at Lecompton and provided for a State Constitution.
+The people of Kansas utterly refused to recognize the Legislature chosen by
+the Missouri invaders, and both parties continued to hold their elections.
+
+[Sidenote: Quintana]
+
+Manuel Jose de Quintana, the Spanish playwright and patriotic poet, died on
+March 11, at Madrid. He was one of the many Spanish writers whose first
+poetic inspirations were derived from the stirring incidents of the
+Peninsular War. On the return of King Ferdinand VII., Quintana had to
+expiate his liberal sentiments by a term of six years in the prison of
+Pampeluna. The revolution of 1820 brought about his release, but three
+years later he was banished again from Madrid. An ode on King Ferdinand's
+marriage restored him to royal favor. He was appointed tutor to the Infanta
+Isabella, and in 1833 was made Minister of Public Instruction. Two years
+before his death Queen Isabella publicly crowned the poet with a wreath of
+laurel in the hall of the Cortes. It was a well-merited honor, for the
+poet's patriotic odes and ringing lyrics long before this had taken rank
+among the finest productions of the modern literature of Spain.
+
+[Sidenote: Jules Breton]
+
+Jules Breton, the famous French pupil of Drolling and of Devigne, exhibited
+this year at Paris one of his greatest works, "La Benediction des Bles." It
+was of this picture that Hamerton, the author of "Painting in France,"
+wrote: "It is technically a work of singular importance in modern art for
+its almost perfect interpretation of sunshine."
+
+[Sidenote: Alfred de Musset]
+
+[Sidenote: Relations with Georges Sand]
+
+[Sidenote: "Rolla" and "Les Nuits"]
+
+Alfred de Musset, the French lyric poet, died on May 1, in Paris. Born in
+1810, the scion of an old aristocratic family, he was brought up with the
+Duke of Orleans. They remained intimate friends until the Duke's death in
+1842. In his eighteenth year De Musset took rank among the romantic writers
+of Paris by his first volume of poems--"Contes d'Espagne et d'Italie."
+During the next two years De Musset published another volume of poems and
+the collection "Un Spectacle dans un Fauteuil," and followed this up with
+several essays in dramatic verse, published under the title "Comedies
+Injouables." In 1833, De Musset went to Italy together with Georges Sand,
+but in Venice the lovers quarrelled and separated. The character of Stenio
+in Georges Sand's novel "Lelia" was recognized as a personification of De
+Musset. Alfred de Musset himself drew on these experiences for his novel
+"Confessions d'un Enfant du Siecle," published upon his return from Italy
+in 1836. Georges Sand, stung by De Musset's allegations concerning her,
+gave her version of their relations in the famous book "Elle et Lui,"
+whereupon De Musset's brother Paul published an even less lovely version of
+the affair, in his book "Lui et Elle." During the succeeding year De Musset
+became one of the foremost contributors to the "Revue des Deux Mondes." In
+its pages appeared most of his "Comedies et Proverbes," and the lyric
+pieces of "Rolla" and "Les Nuits." Among his prose tales of this period
+were "Emmeline," "Les deux Maitresses," "Frederic et Bernerette," and "Le
+Fils du Titien." Having lost part of his income, the poet was made
+librarian of the Ministry of the Interior at the instance of the Duke of
+Orleans, and as such received an ample pension. After the revolution of
+1848 he was deprived of this stipend. Louis Napoleon, on his coronation as
+Emperor, restored Alfred de Musset to office and had him elected to the
+French Academy. During his last years the poet wrote but little verse.
+
+[Sidenote: De Musset's pessimism]
+
+[Sidenote: "Rappelle-toi"]
+
+As a lyric poet, Alfred de Musset claims foremost rank among the modern
+writers of France. His verse, like that of his contemporaries, Byron,
+Lermontov, Leopardi, Lenau and Heine, is tinged with sadness and pessimism.
+Like them, too, he excels in the mastery of the subtile beauties of his
+native tongue. Characteristic of the spirit of his verse, if not of its
+outward form, are these lines, translated from his beautiful lyric
+"Rappelle-toi!"
+
+  Recall our love when the shy dawn unfoldeth
+  The enchanted radiance of the morning sun--
+  Recall our love when darkling night beholdeth
+  Veiled trains of silvery stars pass one by one,
+  When wild thy bosom palpitates with pleasure,
+  Or when the shades of night lull thee in dreamy measure;
+  Then lend a willing ear
+  To murmurings far and near:
+  Recall our love!
+
+  Recall our love when fate hath separated
+  Thy heart and mine, estranged for evermore--
+  When by the grief of exile ever mated
+  The soul is crushed that soared so high before--
+  Remember our sad love, remember how we parted--
+  Time, absence, grief, are naught for love full-hearted,
+  So long as fond hearts beat,
+  They ever must repeat:
+  Recall our love!
+
+  Recall our love when under earth reposes
+  This heart at last lulled in eternal sleep--
+  Recall our love when on my grave dark roses
+  In solitude their tender petals weep.
+  You will not see me more, but in immortal anguish
+  My stricken soul will ever near you languish;
+  Under the midnight sky
+  A spirit voice will sigh,
+  Recall our love!
+
+[Sidenote: "Les Fleurs de Mal"]
+
+[Sidenote: Baudelaire's Litany]
+
+During this same year in France the pessimism of Alfred de Musset was
+outdone by Baudelaire's famous collection of poems "Les Fleurs de Mal."
+Baudelaire, as a poet, took a unique place in French literature. Following
+in the footsteps of Victor Hugo, and the American, Poe--whose works he was
+the first to translate into French--he outdid both these masters of the
+grotesque in bizarre creations. He was the founder of diabolism in French
+letters. As Sainte-Beuve wrote of Baudelaire: "S'est pris l'enfer et s'est
+fait diable." The lucubrations of the so-called Satanic School of Byron,
+Shelley and Hugo were surpassed by Baudelaire's rapt worship of evil as the
+great power of the world. Take his famous Litany to Satan:
+
+  O thou the wisest and most beautiful of cherubim,
+  A god betrayed by fate and reft of worshipping,
+  O Satan, have pity on my endless woe!
+
+  Thou, who dost save the bones of the old sot
+  That reels 'twixt prancing steeds and heeds them not,
+  O Satan, have pity on my endless woe!
+
+  Adopted father of those whom in his rage on high
+  The God of Vengeance banished from his paradise,
+  O Satan, have pity on my endless woe!
+
+Baudelaire's worship of evil was genuine, since he cared nothing for any
+virtue save the crowning virtue of artistic excellence. From beginning to
+end his "Fleurs de Mal" may be said to have blossomed in defiance of all
+that the world has accepted as virtuous. Baudelaire's unusual sense of the
+grotesque is believed to have been fostered by his early voyages in the Far
+East.
+
+[Sidenote: Czerny]
+
+Carl Czerny, the eminent pianist and teacher, died on July 15, at the age
+of sixty-six, at his birthplace, Vienna. Czerny while a boy showed rare
+talent for music. He received encouragement from such men as Beethoven,
+Clementi and Hummel, and began his career as a teacher at sixteen. An early
+concert tour in 1804 had to be given up on account of the wars. The rest of
+his life was spent in Vienna, where he became one of the most influential
+teachers. In all he published over a thousand compositions, the most
+lasting of which were his pedagogic piano studies. As a musical writer he
+gained recognition by a work on the history of music.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Beranger]
+
+[Sidenote: The poet's early career]
+
+[Sidenote: Napoleonic songs]
+
+[Sidenote: Beranger in prison]
+
+On the day following Czerny's death, Jean Pierre Beranger, the great French
+song writer, died at Paris. He was seventy-seven years old. Little cared
+for by his father, he was brought up by his grandfather, a tailor, who let
+him roam the streets as a gamin. At the age of nine he was sent to act as a
+tavern boy for his aunt, who kept a small inn near Peronne in Picardy. In
+his fourteenth year he was apprenticed to a printer, and learned the first
+principles of versification while setting up the poems of Andre Chenier. On
+his own behalf he soon printed a small volume of songs entitled "A Garland
+of Roses." In 1798, he returned to Paris, and was reclaimed by his father.
+For more than a year he had no settled occupation, during which time he
+composed some of his best songs. At the outset of the Nineteenth Century,
+Beranger definitely determined to follow the career of letters. He wrote a
+comedy, but failing to get it accepted threw it into the fire. Collecting
+all his poems he sent them to Lucien Bonaparte, the enlightened brother of
+the First Consul. Prince Lucien took the young poet under his patronage,
+but, unfortunately for Beranger, soon had to leave France, an exile. On
+his arrival at Rome, Lucien Bonaparte transmitted to Beranger the salary
+coming to him as a member of the Institute. As a song writer Beranger made
+the most of his opportunities. In 1809, he was appointed Secretary of the
+University of France, an office which he held throughout the Napoleonic
+era. In 1813, he became a member of the Jolly Topers of the Caveau, then
+the resort of the most distinguished literary men of Paris. On the fall of
+Napoleon, Beranger took it upon himself to sing the glory of the fallen
+empire in elegiac strains. A severe reprimand was administered to him by
+the government. His second series of Napoleonic songs, published in 1821,
+cost him his place and three months' confinement in the prison of St.
+Pelagie, while his third (1828) subjected him to nine months' imprisonment
+in La Force and a fine of ten thousand francs. The fine was paid by his
+admirers, and the prison in which he was incarcerated became the gathering
+place of the most celebrated literary men of the day. The songs which he
+composed during this period helped to bring about the revolution of 1830.
+Beranger now retired to Passy, then to Fontainebleau, and finally to Tours,
+where he completed what he called his "Memoires Chantantes" by the
+publication of a fourth volume of songs. After the revolution of 1848 he
+was elected to the Constituent Assembly, but soon resigned that post. His
+declining years were spent at Passy.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Comte]
+
+Isidore Auguste Comte, the metaphysical writer and founder of modern
+positive philosophy, died on September 5, at Paris. He was born at
+Montpellier in 1798, and became acquainted in his early manhood with
+Saint-Simon. Failing to agree with Saint-Simon's doctrines, Comte began to
+lecture on his own system of philosophy as early as 1826. In 1849, he gave
+readings on the "History of Humanity." After the _coup d'etat_, however,
+the government of Louis Napoleon prohibited the continuance of his
+readings. Comte's teachings are a combination of empiricism and socialism.
+The first of his numerous works was published in 1822--"Plan of Scientific
+Work Necessary for Reorganizing Society." Comte's most important work, "A
+Course of Positive Philosophy," was published in six volumes, 1830-1842.
+During the period of his religious enthusiasm Comte published his "System
+of Positive Politics, or a Treatise of Sociology." This was followed by his
+"Positivistic Catechism," "An Appeal to Conservators," and "Subjective
+Synthesis." In England and America, Comte's works found many illustrious
+interpreters, and congregations adhering to the "Positivistic Ritual" were
+formed at several places in England. Among his most fervent adherents were
+Miss Martineau, R. Congreve, Stuart Mill, Buckle, Lewes, Bridges, Tyler,
+and the American, Carey. Positivism also found some noted exponents in
+Italy and Germany.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of the Nineteenth Century,
+Year by Year, by Edwin Emerson
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