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diff --git a/26706.txt b/26706.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f46dc4f --- /dev/null +++ b/26706.txt @@ -0,0 +1,38280 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Manual of Military Training, by James A. Moss + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Manual of Military Training + Second, Revised Edition + +Author: James A. Moss + +Release Date: September 26, 2008 [EBook #26706] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF MILITARY TRAINING *** + + + + +Produced by Brian Sogard, Chris Logan and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Manual of Military Training + +(SECOND, REVISED EDITION) + +BY + +COLONEL JAMES A. MOSS + +UNITED STATES ARMY + +(Officially adopted by ONE HUNDRED AND FIVE [105] of our military +schools and colleges.) + +Intended, primarily, for use in connection with the instruction and +training of Cadets in our military schools and colleges and of COMPANY +officers of the National Army, National Guard, and Officers' Reserve +Corps; and secondarily, as a guide for COMPANY officers of the Regular +Army, the aim being to make efficient fighting COMPANIES and to +qualify our Cadets and our National Army, National Guard and Reserve +Corps officers for the duties and responsibilities of COMPANY officers +in time of war. + +[Illustration] + +Price $2.25 + +GENERAL AGENTS + +GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY +Army and College Printers +MENASHA--WISCONSIN + + + + +_Copyright 1917_ + +_By_ + +JAS. A. MOSS + + + FIRST EDITION + + First impression (October, 1914) 10,000 + Second impression (September, 1915) 10,000 + Third impression (March, 1916) 10,000 + Fourth impression (July, 1916) 10,000 + Fifth impression (February, 1917) 3,000 + Sixth impression (April, 1917) 4,000 + + SECOND EDITION + + First impression (May, 1917) 40,000 + Second impression (August, 1917) 30,000 + Third impression (November, 1917) 50,000 + ------- + Total 167,000 + + +Publishers and General Distributers +GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING CO., MENASHA, WIS. + + +OTHER DISTRIBUTERS +(Order from nearest one) + + =Boston, Mass.= The Harding Uniform and Regalia Co., 22 School St. + =Chicago, Ill.= A. C. McClurg & Co. + =Columbus, Ohio.= The M. C. Lilley & Co. + =Fort Leavenworth, Kan.= + U. S. Cavalry Association. + Book Dept., Army Service Schools. + =Fort Monroe, Va.= Journal U. S. Artillery. + =Kalamazoo, Mich.= Henderson-Ames Co. + =New York.= + Baker & Taylor Co., 4th Ave. + Army and Navy Cooeperative Co., 16 East 42nd St. + Ridabock & Co., 140 West 36th St. + Warnock Uniform Co., 16 West 46th St. + =Philadelphia, Pa.= Jacob Reed's Sons, 1424 Chestnut. + =Portland, Ore.= J. K. Gill Co. + =San Antonio, Tex.= Frank Brothers Alamo Plaza. + =San Francisco, Cal.= B. Pasquale Co., 115-117 Post St. + =Washington, D. C.= + Army and Navy Register, 511 Eleventh St. N. W. + Meyer's Military Shops, 1331 F. St. N. W. + U. S. Infantry Association, Union Trust Bldg. + PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: Philippine Education Co., Manila, P. I. + HAWAIIAN ISLANDS: Hawaiian News Co., Honolulu, H. T. + CANAL ZONE: Post Exchange, Empire, C. Z. + + + + +NOTE + + +In order to learn thoroughly the contents of this manual it is +suggested that you use in connection with your study of the book the +pamphlet, "QUESTIONS ON MANUAL OF MILITARY TRAINING," which, by means +of questions, brings out and emphasizes every point mentioned in the +manual. + +"QUESTIONS ON MANUAL OF MILITARY TRAINING" is especially useful to +students of schools and colleges using the manual, as it enables them, +as nothing else will, to prepare for recitations and examinations. + +The pamphlet can be gotten from the publishers, Geo. Banta Publishing +Co., Menasha, Wis., or from any of the distributers of "MANUAL OF +MILITARY TRAINING." Price 50 cts., postpaid. + + + + +PREFATORY + + +Not only does this manual cover all the subjects prescribed by War +Department orders for the Junior Division, and the Basic Course, +Senior Division, of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps, but it also +contains considerable additional material which broadens its scope, +rounding it out and making it answer the purpose of a general, +all-around book, complete in itself, for training and instruction in +the fundamentals of the art of war. + +The Company is the _basic fighting tactical unit_--it is the +foundation rock upon which an army is built--and the fighting +efficiency of a COMPANY is based on systematic and thorough training. + +This manual is a presentation of MILITARY TRAINING as manifested in +the training and instruction of a COMPANY. The book contains all the +essentials pertaining to the training and instruction of COMPANY +officers, noncommissioned officers and privates, and the officer who +masters its contents and who makes his COMPANY proficient in the +subjects embodied herein, will be in every way qualified, _without the +assistance of a single other book_, to command with credit and +satisfaction, in peace and in war, a COMPANY that will be an +_efficient fighting weapon_. + +This manual, as indicated below, is divided into a Prelude and nine +Parts, subjects of a similar or correlative nature being thus grouped +together. + + PRELUDE. THE OBJECT AND ADVANTAGES OF MILITARY TRAINING. + PART I. DRILLS, EXERCISES, CEREMONIES, AND INSPECTIONS. + PART II. COMPANY COMMAND. + PART III. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS PERTAINING TO COMPANY TRAINING + AND INSTRUCTION. + PART IV. RIFLE TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION. + PART V. HEALTH AND KINDRED SUBJECTS. + PART VI. MILITARY COURTESY AND KINDRED SUBJECTS. + PART VII. GUARD DUTY. + PART VIII. MILITARY ORGANIZATION. + PART IX. MAP READING AND SKETCHING. + +A schedule of training and instruction covering a given period and +suitable to the local conditions that obtain in any given school or +command, can be readily arranged by looking over the TABLE OF +CONTENTS, and selecting therefrom such subjects as it is desired to +use, the number and kind, and the time to be devoted to each, +depending upon the time available, and climatic and other conditions. + +It is suggested that, for the sake of variety, in drawing up a program +of instruction and training, when practicable a part of each day or a +part of each drill time, be devoted to theoretical work and a part to +practical work, theoretical work, when possible, being followed by +corresponding practical work, the practice (the _doing_ of a thing) +thus putting a clincher, as it were, on the theory (the explaining of +a thing). The theoretical work, for example, could be carried on in +the forenoon and the practical work in the afternoon, or the +theoretical work could be carried on from, say, 8 to 9:30 a. m., and +the practical work from 9:30 to 10:30 or 11 a. m. + +Attention is invited to the completeness of the Index, whereby one is +enabled to locate at once any point covered in the book. + + + + +ACKNOWLEDGMENT + + +The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance received in the +revision of this Manual in the form of suggestions from a large number +of officers on duty at our military schools and colleges, suggestions +that enabled him not only to improve the Manual in subject-matter as +well as in arrangement, but that have also enabled him to give our +military schools and colleges a textbook which, in a way, may be said +to represent the consensus of opinion of our Professors of Military +Science and Tactics as to what such a book should embody in both +subject-matter and arrangement. + +Suggestions received from a number of Professors of Military Science +and Tactics show conclusively that local conditions as to average age +and aptitude of students, interest taken in military training by the +student body, support given by the school authorities, etc., are so +different in different schools that it would be impossible to write a +book for general use that would, in amount of material, arrangement +and otherwise, just exactly fit, in toto, the conditions, and meet the +requirements of each particular school. + +Therefore, the only practical, satisfactory solution of the problem is +to produce a book that meets _all_ the requirements of the strictly +military schools, where the conditions for military training and +instruction are the most favorable, and the requirements the greatest, +and then let other schools take only such parts of the book as are +necessary to meet their own particular local needs and requirements. + +"MANUAL OF MILITARY TRAINING" is such a book. + + [Illustration: (Signature) Jas. A. Moss] + +Camp Gaillard, C. Z., + March 4, 1917. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + + PRELUDE + + OBJECT AND ADVANTAGES OF MILITARY TRAINING + + Par. No. + + =Object of:= Setting-Up Exercises, Calisthenics, Facings 1-23 + and Marchings, Saluting, Manual of Arms, School of the + Squad, Company Drill, Close Order, Extended Order, + Ceremonies, Discipline--=Advantages:= Handiness, + Self-Control, Loyalty, Orderliness, Self-Confidence, + Self-Respect, Training Eyes, Teamwork, Heeding Law and + Order, Sound Body. + + PART I + + CHAPTER I. =INFANTRY DRILL REGULATIONS=--Definitions-- 24-710 + General Remarks--General Rules for Drills and Formations-- + Orders, Commands, and Signals--School of the Soldier-- + School of the Squad--School of the Company--School of the + Battalion--Combat--Leadership--Combat Reconnaissance--Fire + Superiority--Fire Direction and Control--Deployment-- + Attack--Defense--Meeting Engagements--Machine Guns-- + Ammunition Supply--Mounted Scouts--Night Operations-- + Infantry Against Cavalry--Infantry Against Artillery-- + Artillery Supports--Minor Warfare--Ceremonies--Inspections-- + Muster--The Color--Manual of the Saber--Manual of Tent + Pitching--Appendices A and B. + + CHAPTER II. =MANUAL OF THE BAYONET=--Nomenclature and 711-824 + Description of the Bayonet--Instruction without the + Rifle--Instruction with the Rifle--Instruction without + the Bayonet--Combined Movements--Fencing Exercises--Fencing + at Will--Lessons of the European War--The "Short point"-- + The "Jab." + + CHAPTER III. =MANUAL OF PHYSICAL TRAINING=--Methods-- 825-860 + Commands--Setting-Up Exercises--Rifle Exercises. + + CHAPTER IV. =SIGNALING=--General Service Code--Wigwag-- 861-866 + The Two-Arm Semaphore Code--Signaling with Heliograph, + Flash Lanterns, and Searchlight--Sound Signals--Morse Code. + + PART II + + COMPANY COMMAND + + CHAPTER I. =GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF A 867-909 + COMPANY=--Duties and Responsibilities of the Captain and + the Lieutenants--Devolution of Work and + Responsibility--Duties and Responsibilities of the First + Sergeant and other Noncommissioned Officers--Contentment + and Harmony--Efficacious Forms of Company + Punishment--Property Responsibility--Books and Records. + + CHAPTER II. =DISCIPLINE=--Definition--Methods of 910-916 + Attaining Good Discipline--Importance--Sound Discipline-- + Punishment--General Principles. + + PART III + + MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS PERTAINING TO COMPANY + TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION + + CHAPTER I. =GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COMPANY TRAINING AND 917-941 + INSTRUCTION=--Object of Training and Instruction--Method + and Progression--Individual Initiative--The Human Element-- + Art of Instruction on the Ground--Ocular Demonstration. + + CHAPTER II. =GENERAL COMMON SENSE PRINCIPLES OF APPLIED 942-953 + MINOR TACTICS=--Art of War Defined--Responsibilities of + Officers and Noncommissioned Officers in War--General + Rules and Principles of Map Problems, Terrain Exercises, + the War Game, and Maneuvers--Estimating the Situation-- + Mission. + + CHAPTER III. =GENERAL PLAN OF INSTRUCTION IN MAP PROBLEMS 954-958 + FOR NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS AND PRIVATES--INSTRUCTION + IN DELIVERING MESSAGES.= + + CHAPTER IV. =THE SERVICE OF INFORMATION=--General 959-1019 + Principles of Patrolling--Sizes of Patrols--Patrol + Leaders--Patrol Formations--Messages and Reports-- + Suggestions for Gaining Information about the Enemy-- + Suggestions for the Reconnaissance of Various Positions + and Localities--Demolitions--Problems in Patrolling. + + CHAPTER V. =THE SERVICE OF SECURITY=--General 1020-1079 + principles--Advance Guard--Advance Guard Problems-- + Flank Guards--Rear Guard--Outposts--Formation of + Outposts--Outguards--Flags of Truce--Detached Posts-- + Examining Posts--Establishing the Outpost--Outpost + Order--Intercommunication--Outpost Problems. + + CHAPTER VI. =THE COMPANY ON OUTPOST=--Establishing 1080 + the Outpost. + + CHAPTER VII. =THE COMPANY IN SCOUTING AND PATROLLING= 1081-1090 + --Requisites of a Good Scout--Eyesight and hearing-- + Finding Way in Strange Country--What to do when Lost-- + Landmarks--Concealment and Dodging--Tracking--The Mouse + and Cat Contest--Flag Stealing Contest. + + CHAPTER VIII. =NIGHT OPERATIONS=--Importance--Training 1091-1108 + of the Company--Individual Training--Collective + Training--Outposts. + + CHAPTER IX. =FIELD ENGINEERING=--Bridges--Corduroying-- 1109-1139 + Tascines--Hurdles--Brush Revetment--Gabions--Other + Revetments--Knots--Lashings. + + CHAPTER X. =FIELD FORTIFICATIONS=--Object-- 1140-1172 + Classification--Hasty Intrenchments--Lying Trench-- + Kneeling Trench--Standing Trench--Deliberate + Intrenchments--Fire Trenches--Traverses--Trench + recesses; sortie steps--Parados--Head Cover--Notches + and Loopholes--Cover Trenches--Dugouts--Communicating + Trenches--Lookouts--Supporting Points--Example of Trench + System--Location of Trenches--Concealment of Trenches-- + Dummy Trenches--Length of Trench--Preparation of + Foreground--Revetments--Drainage--Water Supply-- + Latrines--Illumination of the foreground--Telephones-- + Siege Works. + + CHAPTER XI. =OBSTACLES=--Object--Necessity for 1173-1193 + Obstacles--Location--Abatis--Palisades--Fraises-- + Cheveaux de Frise--Obstacles against Cavalry--Wire + Entanglements--Time and Materials--Wire Fence--Military + Pits or Trous de Loup--Miscellaneous Barricades-- + Inundations--Obstacles in Front of Outguards--Lessons + from the European War--Wire Cheveaux de Frise--Guarding + Obstacles--Listening Posts--Automatic Alarms--Search + Lights. + + CHAPTER XII. =TRENCH AND MINE WARFARE=--Asphyxiating 1194-1211 + Gases--Protection against Gases--Liquid Fire-- + Grenades--Bombs--Aerial Mines--Winged Torpedoes--Bombs + from Air-Craft--Protection against Hand Grenades-- + Tanks--Helmets--Masks--Periscopes--Sniperscopes--Aids + to Firing--Mining--Countermining. + + CHAPTER XIII. =MARCHES=--Marching Principal Occupation 1212-1229 + of Troops in Campaign-Physical Training Hardening New + Troops--Long Marches Not to Be Made with Untrained + Troops--A Successful March--Preparation--Starting-- + Conduct of March--Rate--Marching Capacity--Halts-- + Crossing Bridges and Fords--Straggling and Elongation + of Column--Forced Marches--Night Marches--No Compliments + Paid on March--Protection on March--Fitting of Shoes and + Care of Feet. + + CHAPTER XIV. =CAMPS=--Selection of Camp Sites-- 1230-1240 + Desirable Camp Sites--Undesirable Camp Sites--Form and + Dimensions of Camps--Making Camp--Retreat in Camp-- + Parade Ground--Windstorms--Making Tent Poles and Pegs + Fast in Loose Soil--Trees. + + CHAPTER XV. =CAMP SANITATION=--Definition--Camp 1241-1255 + Expedients--Latrines--Urinal Tubs--Kitchens--Kitchen + Pits--Incinerators--Drainage--Avoiding Old Camp Sites-- + Changing Camp Sites--Bunks--Wood--Water--Rules of + Sanitation--Your Camp, Your Home. + + CHAPTER XVI. =INDIVIDUAL COOKING=--Making Fire-- 1256-1275 + Recipes--Meats--Vegetables--Drinks--Hot Breads-- + Emergency Ration. + + CHAPTER XVII. =CARE AND PRESERVATION OF CLOTHING AND 1276-1320 + EQUIPMENT=--Clothing--Pressing--Removing Stains-- + Shoes--Cloth Equipment--Washing--Shelter Tent--Mess + Outfit--Leather Equipment--Points to Be Remembered. + + CHAPTER XVIII. =CARE AND DESCRIPTION OF THE RIFLE= 1321-1343 + --Importance--Care of Bore--How to Remove Fouling--Care + of Mechanism and Various Parts--How to Apply Oil--Army + Regulation Paragraphs About Rifle--Nomenclature of Rifle. + + PART IV + + RIFLE TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION + + Object and Explanation of Our System of Instruction-- 1344-1450 + Individual Instruction--Theory of Sighting--Kinds of + Sights--Preliminary Drills--Position and Aiming Drills-- + Deflection and Elevation Correction Drills--Gallery + Practice--Range Practice--Use of Sling--Designation of + Winds--Zero of Rifle--Estimating Distances--Wind-- + Temperature--Light--Mirage--Combat Practice--Fire + Discipline--Technical Principles of Firing--Ballistic + Qualities of the Rifle--Cone of Fire--Shot Group--Center + of Impact--Beaten Zone--Zone of Effective Fire-- + Effectiveness of Fire--Influence of Ground--Grazing + Fire--Ricochet Shots--Occupation of Ground--Adjustment + of Fire--Determination of Range--Combined Sights-- + Auxiliary Aiming Points--Firing at Moving Targets-- + Night Firing--Fire Direction and Control--Distribution + of Fire--Individual Instruction in Fire Distribution-- + Designation of Targets--Exercises in Ranging, Target + Designation Communication, etc. + + PART V + + CARE OF HEALTH AND KINDRED SUBJECTS + + CHAPTER I. =CARE OF THE HEALTH=--Importance of Good 1451-1469 + Health--Germs--The Five Ways of Catching Disease-- + Diseases Caught by Breathing in Germs--Diseases Caught + by Swallowing Germs--Disease Caught by Touching Germs-- + Diseases Caught from Biting Insects. + + CHAPTER II. =PERSONAL HYGIENE=--Keep the Skin Clean-- 1470-1477 + Keep the Body Properly Protected against the Weather-- + Keep the Body Properly Fed--Keep the Body Supplied with + Fresh Air--Keep the Body well Exercised--Keep the Body + Rested by Sufficient Sleep--Keep the Body Free of Wastes. + + CHAPTER III. =FIRST AID TO THE SICK AND INJURED= 1478-1522 + --Objectof Teaching First Aid--Asphyxiation by Gas-- + Bite of Dog--Bite of Snake--Bleeding--Broken Bones + (Fractures)--Burns--Bruises--Cuts--Dislocations-- + Drowning--Electric Shock--Fainting--Foreign Body in Eye, + in Ear--Freezing--Frost Bite--Headache--Heat Exhaustion-- + Poison--Sprains--Sunburn--Sunstroke--Wounds--Improvised + Litters. + + PART VI + + MILITARY COURTESY AND KINDRED SUBJECTS + + CHAPTER I. =MILITARY DEPORTMENT AND APPEARANCE-- 1523-1531 + PERSONAL CLEANLINESS--FORMS OF SPEECH--DELIVERY OF + MESSAGES.= + + CHAPTER II. =MILITARY COURTESY=--Its Importance--Nature 1532-1575 + of Salutes and Their Origin--Whom to Salute--When and + How to Salute--Usual Mistakes in Saluting--Respect to + Be Paid the National Anthem, the Colors and Standards. + + PART VII + + GUARD DUTY + + Importance--Respect for Sentinels--Classification of 1576-1857 + Guards--General Rules--The Commanding Officer--The + Officer of the Day--The Commander of the Guard--Sergeant + of the Guard--Corporal of the Guard--Musicians of the + Guard--Orderlies and Color Sentinels--Privates of the + Guard--Countersigns and Paroles--Guard Patrols-- + Compliments from Guards--General Rules Concerning Guard + Duty--Stable Guards--Troop Stable Guards--Reveille and + Retreat Gun--Formal Guard Mounting--Informal Guard + Mounting. + + PART VIII + + MILITARY ORGANIZATION + + Composition of Infantry, Cavalry and Field Artillery 1858 + Units up to and Including the Regiment. + + PART IX + + MAP READING AND SKETCHING + + CHAPTER I. =MAP READING=--Definition of Map--Ability to 1859-1877 + Read a Map--Scales--Methods of Representing Scales-- + Construction of Scales--Scale Problems--Scaling + Distances from a Map--Contours--Map Distances--Slopes-- + Meridians--Determination of Positions of Points on Map-- + Orientation--Conventional Signs--Visibility. + + CHAPTER II. =MILITARY SKETCHING=--The Different Methods 1878-1893 + of Sketching--Location of Points by Intersection-- + Location of points by Resection--Location of Points by + Traversing--Contours--Form Lines--Scales--Position + Sketching--Outpost Sketching--Road Sketching--Combined + Sketching--Points for Beginners to Remember. + + + + +PRELUDE + +THE OBJECT AND ADVANTAGES OF MILITARY TRAINING + + +=1. Prelude.= We will first consider the object and advantages of +military training, as they are the natural and logical prelude to the +subject of military training and instruction. + + +Object + +=2. The object of all military training is to win battles.= + +Everything that you do in military training is done with some +immediate object in view, which, in turn, has in view the _final_ +object of winning battles. For example: + +=3. Setting-up exercises.= The object of the setting-up exercises, as +the name indicates, is to give the new men the _set-up_,--the bearing +and carriage,--of the military man. + +In addition these exercises serve to loosen up his muscles and prepare +them for his later experiences and development. + +=4. Calisthenics.= Calisthenics may be called the big brother, the +grown-up form, of the setting-up exercise. + +The object of calisthenics is to develop and strengthen all parts and +muscles of the human body,--the back, the legs, the arms, the lungs, +the heart and all other parts of the body. + +First and foremost a fighting man's work depends upon his physical +fitness. + +To begin with, a soldier's mind must always be on the alert and equal +to any strain, and no man's mind can be at its best when he is +handicapped by a weak or ailing body. + +The work of the fighting man makes harsh demands on his body. It must +be strong enough to undergo the strain of marching when every muscle +cries out for rest; strong enough to hold a rifle steady under fatigue +and excitement; strong enough to withstand all sorts of weather, and +the terrible nervous and physical strain of modern battle; and more, +it must be strong enough to resist those diseases of campaign which +kill more men than do the bullets of the enemy. + +Hence the necessity of developing and strengthening every part and +muscle of the body. + +=5. Facings and Marchings.= The object of the facings and marchings is +to give the soldier complete control of his body in drills, so that he +can get around with ease and promptness at every command. + +The marchings,--the military walk and run,--also teach the soldier how +to get from one place to another in campaign with the least amount of +physical exertion. + +Every man knows how to walk and run, but few of them how to do so +without making extra work of it. One of the first principles in +training the body of the soldier is to make each set of muscles do its +own work and save the strength of the other muscles for their work. +Thus the soldier marches in quick time,--walks,--with his legs, +keeping the rest of his body as free from motion as possible. He +marches in double time,--runs,--with an easy swinging stride which +requires no effort on the part of the muscles of the body. + +The marchings also teach the soldier to walk and run at a steady gait. +For example, in marching in quick time, he takes 120 steps each +minute; in double time, he takes 180 per minute. + +Furthermore, the marchings teach the soldier to walk and run with +others,--that is, in a body. + +=6. Saluting.= The form of salutation and greeting for the civilian +consists in raising the hat. + +The form of salutation and greeting for the military man consists in +rendering the military salute,--a form of salutation which marks you +as a member of the Fraternity of Men-at-arms, men banded together for +national defense, bound to each other by love of country and pledged +to the loyal support of its symbol, the Flag. For the full +significance of the military salute see paragraph 1534. + +=7. Manual of Arms.= The rifle is the soldier's fighting weapon and he +must become so accustomed to the _feel_ of it that he handles it +without a thought,--just as he handles his arms or legs without a +thought,--and this is what the manual of arms accomplishes. + +The different movements and positions of the rifle are the ones that +experience has taught are the best and the easiest to accomplish the +object in view. + +=8. School of the Squad.= The object of squad drill is to teach the +soldier his first lesson in _team-work_,--and team-work is the thing +that wins battles. + +In the squad the soldier is associated with seven other men with whom +he drills, eats, sleeps, marches, and fights. + +The squad is the unit upon which all of the work of the company +depends. Unless the men of each squad work together as a single +man,--unless there is _team-work_,--the work of the company is almost +impossible. + +=9. Company Drill.= Several squads are banded together into a +company,--the basic fighting unit. In order for a company to be able +to comply promptly with the will of its commander, it must be like a +pliable, easily managed instrument. And in order to win battles a +company on the firing line must be able to comply promptly with the +will of its commander. + +The object of company drill is to get such team-work amongst the +squads that the company will at all times move and act like a pliable, +easily managed whole. + +=10. Close Order.= In close order drill the strictest attention is +paid to all the little details, all movements being executed with the +greatest precision. The soldiers being close together,--in _close +order_,--they form a compact body that is easily managed, and +consequently that lends itself well to teaching the soldier habits of +attention, precision, team-work and instant obedience to the voice of +his commander. + +In order to control and handle bodies of men quickly and without +confusion, they must be taught to group themselves in an orderly +arrangement and to move in an orderly manner. For example, soldiers +are grouped or formed in line, in column of squads, column of files, +etc. + +In close order drill soldiers are taught to move in an orderly manner +from one group or formation to another; how to stand, step off, march, +halt and handle their rifles all together. + +This practice makes the soldier feel perfectly at home and at ease in +the squad and company. He becomes accustomed to working side by side +with the man next to him, and, unconsciously, both get into the habit +of working together, thus learning the first principles of +_team-work_. + +=11. Extended Order.= This is the fighting drill. + +Modern fire arms have such great penetration that if the soldiers were +all bunched together a single bullet might kill or disable several men +and the explosion of a single shell might kill or disable a whole +company. Consequently, soldiers must be scattered,--_extended +out_,--to fight. + +In extended order not only do the soldiers furnish a smaller target +for the enemy to shoot at, but they also get room in which to fight +with greater ease and freedom. + +The object of extended order drill is to practice the squads in +team-work by which they are welded into a single fighting machine that +can be readily controlled by its commander. + +=12. Parades, reviews, and other ceremonies.= Parades, reviews and +other ceremonies, with their martial music, the presence of +spectators, etc., are intended to stimulate the interest and excite +the military spirit of the command. Also, being occasions for which +the soldiers dress up and appear spruce and trim, they inculcate +habits of tidiness,--they teach a lesson in cleanliness of body and +clothes. + +While it is true it may be said that parades, reviews and other +ceremonies form no practical part of the fighting man's training for +battle, they nevertheless serve a very useful purpose in his general +training. In these ceremonies in which soldiers march to martial music +with flags flying, moving and going through the manual of arms with +perfect precision and unison, there results a concerted movement that +produces a feeling such as we have when we dance or when we sing in +chorus. In other words, ceremonies are a sort of "get-together" +exercise which pulls men together in spite of themselves, giving them +a shoulder-to-shoulder feeling of solidity and power that helps to +build up that confidence and spirit which wins battles. + +=13. Discipline.= By discipline we mean the _habit_ of observing all +rules and regulations and of obeying promptly all orders. By observing +day after day all rules and regulations and obeying promptly all +orders, it becomes second nature,--a fixed habit,--to do these things. + +Of course, in the Army, like in any other walk of life, there must be +law and order, which is impossible unless everyone obeys the rules and +regulations gotten up by those in authority. + +When a man has cultivated the habit of obeying,--when obedience has +become second nature with him,--he obeys the orders of his leaders +instinctively, even when under the stress of great excitement, such as +when in battle, his own reasoning is confused and his mind is not +working. + +In order to win a battle the _will_ of the commander as expressed +through his subordinates down the line from the second in command to +the squad leaders, must be carried out by everyone. Hence the vital +importance of prompt, instinctive obedience on the part of everybody, +and of discipline, which is the mainspring of obedience and also the +foundation rock of law and order. + +And so could we go on indefinitely pointing out the object of each and +every requirement of military training, for there is none that has no +object and that answers no useful purpose, although the object and +purpose may not always be apparent to the young soldier. + +_And remember that the final object of all military training is to win +battles._ + + +Advantages of Military Training + +The following are the principal advantages of military training: + +=14. Handiness.= The average man does one thing well. He is more or +less apt to be clumsy about doing other things. The soldier is +constantly called upon to do all sorts of things, and he has to do all +of them well. His hands thus become trained and useful to him, and his +mind gets into the habit of making his hands do what is required of +them,--that is to say, the soldier becomes handy. + +Handy arms are a valuable asset. + +=15. Self-control.= In the work of the soldier, control does not stop +with the hands. + +The mind reaches out,--control of the body becomes a habit. The feet, +legs, arms and body gradually come under the sway of the mind. In the +position of the soldier, for instance, the mind holds the body +motionless. In marching, the mind drives the legs to machine-like +regularity. In shooting, the mind assumes command of the arms, hands, +fingers and eye, linking them up and making them work in harmony. + +Control of the body, together with the habit of discipline that the +soldier acquires, leads to control of the mind,--that is, to +_self-control_. + +Self-control is an important factor in success in any walk of life. + +=16. Loyalty.= Loyalty to his comrades, to his company, to his +battalion, to his regiment becomes a religion with the soldier. They +are a part of his life. Their reputation is his; their good name, his +good name; their interests, his interests,--so, loyalty to them is but +natural, and this loyalty soon extends to loyalty in general. + +When you say a man is loyal the world considers that you have paid him +a high tribute. + +=17. Orderliness.= In the military service order and system are +watchwords. The smooth running of the military machine depends on +them. + +The care and attention that the soldier is required to give at all +times to his clothes, accouterments, equipment and other belongings, +instill in him habits of orderliness. + +Orderliness increases the value of a man. + +=18. Self-confidence and self-respect.= Self-confidence is founded on +one's ability to do things. The soldier is taught to defend himself +with his rifle, and to take care of himself and to do things in almost +any sort of a situation, all of which gives him confidence in +himself,--_self-confidence_. + +Respect for constituted authority, which is a part of the soldier's +creed, teaches him respect for himself,--_self-respect_. + +Self-confidence and self-respect are a credit to any man. + +=19. Eyes trained to observe.= Guard duty, outpost duty, patrolling, +scouting and target practice, train both the eye and the mind to +observe. + +Power of observation is a valuable faculty for a man to possess. + +=20. Teamwork.= In drilling, patrolling, marching, maneuvers and in +other phases of his training and instruction, the soldier is taught +the principles of team-work,--cooeperation,--whose soul is _loyalty_, a +trait of every good soldier. + +Teamwork,--cooeperation,--leads to success in life. + +=21. Heeding law and order.= The cardinal habit of the soldier is +obedience. To obey orders and regulations is a habit with the soldier. +And this habit of obeying orders and regulations teaches him to heed +law and order. + +The man who heeds law and order is a welcome member of any community. + +=22. Sound body.= Military training, with its drills, marches, and +other forms of physical exercise, together with its regular habits and +outdoor work, keeps a man physically fit, giving him a sound body. + +A sound body, with the physical exercise and outdoor life of the +soldier, means good digestion, strength, hardiness and endurance. + +A sound body is, indeed, one of the greatest blessings of life. + + +The Trained Soldier + +=23.= Look at the trained soldier on the following page; study him +carefully from top to bottom, and see what military training does for +a man. + +[Illustration: THE TRAINED SOLDIER + +WHAT DO YOU THINK OF HIM, EH?] + + + + +PART I + +DRILLS, EXERCISES, CEREMONIES AND INSPECTIONS + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INFANTRY DRILL REGULATIONS + +(To include Changes No. 20, Aug. 18, 1917.) + +DEFINITIONS + + + (The numbers following the paragraphs are those of the Drill + Regulations, and references in the text to certain paragraph + numbers refer to these numbers and not to the numbers preceding + the paragraphs.) + + (NOTE.--Company drills naturally become monotonous. The monotony, + however, can be greatly reduced by repeating the drills under + varying circumstances. In the manual of arms, for instance, the + company may be brought to open ranks and the officers and + sergeants directed to superintend the drill in the front and rear + ranks. As the men make mistakes they are fallen out and drilled + nearby by an officer or noncommissioned officer. Or, the company + may be divided into squads, each squad leader drilling his squad, + falling out the men as they make mistakes, the men thus fallen out + reporting to a designated officer or noncommissioned officer for + drill. The men who have drilled the longest in the different + squads are then formed into one squad and drilled and fallen out + in like manner. The variety thus introduced stimulates a spirit of + interest and rivalry that robs the drill of much of its monotony. + + It is thought the instruction of a company in drill is best + attained by placing special stress on squad drill. The + noncommissioned officers should be thoroughly instructed, + practically and theoretically, by one of the company officers and + then be required to instruct their squads. The squads are then + united and drilled in the school of the company.--Author.) + + +DEFINITIONS + +=24. Alignment:= A straight line upon which several elements are +formed, or are to be formed; or the dressing of several elements upon +a straight line. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1 + +NOTE.--The line A-B, on which a body of troops is formed or is to be +formed, or the act of dressing a body of troops on the line, is called +an alignment.--Author.] + +=25. Base:= The element on which a movement is regulated. + +=26. Battle sight:= The position of the rear sight when the leaf is +laid down. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +=27. Center:= The middle point or element of a command. (See Figs. 2, +3 and 5.) (The designation "center company," indicates the right +center or the actual center company, according as the number of +companies is even or odd.--Par. 298.) + +=28. Column:= A formation in which the elements are placed one behind +another. (See Figs. 4, 5, 6.) + +=29. Deploy:= To extend the front. In general to change from column to +line, or from close order to extended order. + +=30. Depth:= The space from head to rear of any formation, including +the leading and rear elements. The depth of a man is assumed to be 12 +inches. (See Figs. 4, 5, 6.) + +=31. Distance:= Space between elements in the direction of depth. +Distance is measured from the back of the man in front to the breast +of the man in rear. The distance between ranks is 40 inches in both +line and column. (See Figs. 4, 5, 6.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + +=32. Element:= A file, squad, platoon, company, or larger body, +forming part of a still larger body. + +=33. File:= Two men, the front-rank man and the corresponding man of +the rear rank. The front-rank man is the file leader. A file which has +no rear-rank man is a blank file. The term file applies also to a +single man in a single-rank formation. + +=34. File closers:= Such officers and noncommissioned officers of a +company as are posted in rear of the line. For convenience, all men +posted in the line of file closers. + +=35. Flank:= The right or left of a command in line or in column; also +the element on the right or left of the line. (See Figs. 2, 3 and 4.) + +=36. Formation:= Arrangement of the elements of a command. The placing +of all fractions in their order in line, in column, or for battle. + +=37. Front:= The space, in width, occupied by an element, either in +line or in column. The front of a man is assumed to be 22 inches. +Front also denotes the direction of the enemy. (See Figs. 2, 3 and 5). + +=38. Guide:= An officer, noncommissioned officer, or private upon whom +the command or elements thereof regulates its march. + +=39. Head:= The leading element of a column. (See Figs. 4, 5 and 6.) + +=40. Interval:= Space between elements of the same line. The interval +between men in ranks is 4 inches and is measured from elbow to elbow. +Between companies, squads, etc., it is measured from the left elbow of +the left man or guide of the group on the right, to the right elbow of +the right man or guide of the group on the left. (See Fig. 3.) + +=41. Left:= The left extremity or element of a body of troops. + +=42. Line:= A formation in which the different elements are abreast of +each other. (See Figs. 2 and 3.) + +=43. Order, close:= The formation in which the units, in double rank, +are arranged in line or in column with normal intervals and distances. + +=44. Order, extended:= The formation in which the units are separated +by intervals greater than in close order. + +=45. Pace:= Thirty inches; the length of the full step in quick time. + +=46. Point of rest:= The point at which a formation begins. +Specifically, the point toward which units are aligned in successive +movements. + +=47. Rank:= A line of men placed side by side. + +=48. Right:= The right extremity or element of a body of troops. + +=49.= NOTE. In view of the fact that the word "Echelon" is a term of +such common usage, the following definition is given: By echelon we +mean a formation in which the subdivisions are placed one behind +another, extending beyond and unmasking one another either wholly or +in part.--Author. + +[Illustration: BATTALION IN ECHELON: COMPANIES UNMASKING WHOLLY] + +[Illustration: BATTALION IN ECHELON: COMPANIES UNMASKING IN PART] + + +INTRODUCTION + +=50. Object of military training.= Success in battle is the ultimate +object of all military training; success may be looked for only when +the training is intelligent and thorough. (1) + +=51. Commanding officers accountable for proper training of +organizations; field efficiency; team-work.= Commanding officers are +accountable for the proper training of their respective organizations +within the limits prescribed by regulations and orders. (2) + +The excellence of an organization is judged by its field efficiency. +The field efficiency of an organization depends primarily upon its +effectiveness as a whole. Thoroughness and uniformity in the training +of the units of an organization are indispensable to the efficiency of +the whole; it is by such means alone that the requisite team-work may +be developed. + +=52. Simple movements and elastic formations.= Simple movements and +elastic formations are essential to correct training for battle. (3) + +=53. Drill Regulations a Guide; their interpretation.= The Drill +Regulations are furnished as a guide. They provide the principles for +training and for increasing the probability of success in battle. (4) + +In the interpretation of the regulations, the spirit must be sought. +Quibbling over the minutiae of form is indicative of failure to grasp +the spirit. + +=54. Combat principles.= The principles of combat are considered in +Pars. 50-363. They are treated in the various schools included in Part +I of the Drill Regulations only to the extent necessary to indicate +the functions of the various commanders and the division of +responsibility between them. The amplification necessary to a proper +understanding of their application is to be sought in Pars. 364-613. +(5) + +=55. Drills at attention, ceremonies, extended order, field exercises +and combat exercises.= The following important distinctions must be +observed: + +(a) Drills executed at =attention= and the ceremonies are +=disciplinary exercises= designed to teach precise and soldierly +movement, and to inculcate that prompt and subconscious obedience +which is essential to proper military control. To this end, smartness +and precision should be exacted in the execution of every detail. Such +drills should be frequent, but short. + +(b) The purpose of =extended order drill= is to teach the =mechanism= +of deployment of the firing, and, in general, of the employment of +troops in combat. Such drills are in the nature of disciplinary +exercises and should be frequent, thorough, and exact, in order to +habituate men to the firm control of their leaders. Extended order +drill is executed =at ease=. The company is the largest unit which +executes extended order drill. + +(c) =Field exercises= are for instruction in the duties incident to +campaign. Assumed situations are employed. Each exercise should +conclude with a discussion, on the ground, of the exercise and +principles involved. + +(d) The =combat exercise, a form of field exercise= of the company, +battalion, and larger units, consists of the =application of tactical +principles= to assumed situations, employing in the execution the +appropriate formations and movements of close and extended order. + +Combat exercises must simulate, as far as possible, the battle +conditions assumed. In order to familiarize both officers and men with +such conditions, companies and battalions will frequently be +consolidated to provide war-strength organizations. Officers and +noncommissioned officers not required to complete the full quota of +the units participating are assigned as observers or umpires. + +The firing line can rarely be controlled by the voice alone; thorough +training to insure the proper use of prescribed signals is necessary. + +The exercise should be followed by a brief drill at attention in order +to restore smartness and control. (6) + +=56. Imaginary, outlined and represented enemy.= In field exercises +the enemy is said to be =imaginary= when his position and force are +merely assumed; =outlined= when his position and force are indicated +by a few men; =represented= when a body of troops acts as such. (7) + + +General Rules for Drills and Formations + +=57. Arrangement of elements of preparatory command.= When the +=preparatory= command consists of more than one part, its elements are +arranged as follows: + +(1) For movements to be executed successively by the subdivisions or +elements of an organization: (a) Description of the movement; (b) how +executed, or on what element executed. + +(For example: =1. Column of Companies, first company, squads right. 2. +March.=--Author.) + +(2) For movements to be executed simultaneously by the subdivisions of +an organization: (a) The designation of the subdivisions; (b) The +movement to be executed. (For example: =1. Squads right. 2. +March.=--Author.) (8) + +=58. Movements executed toward either flank explained toward but one +flank.= Movements that may be executed toward either flank are +explained as toward but one flank, it being necessary to substitute +the word "left" for "right," and the reverse, to have the explanation +of the corresponding movement toward the other flank. The commands are +given for the execution of the movements toward either flank. The +substitute word of the command is placed within parentheses. (9) + +=59. Any movement may be executed from halt or when marching unless +otherwise prescribed.= Any movement may be executed either from the +halt or when marching, unless otherwise prescribed. If at a halt, the +command for movements involving marching need not be prefaced by +=forward=, as =1. Column right (left), 2. MARCH=. (10) + +=60. Any movement may be executed in double time unless specially +excepted.= Any movement not specially excepted may be executed in +double time. + +If at a halt, or if marching in quick time, the command =double time= +precedes the command of execution. (11) + +=61. Successive movements executed in double time.= In successive +movements executed in double time the leading or =base= unit marches +in =quick time= when not otherwise prescribed; the other units march +in =double time= to their places in the formation ordered and then +conform to the gait of the leading or base unit. If marching in double +time, the command =double time= is omitted. The leading or base unit +marches in =quick time=; the other units continue at double time to +their places in the formation ordered and then conform to the gait of +the leading or base unit. (12) + +=62. To hasten execution of movement begun in quick time.= To hasten +the execution of a movement begun in quick time, the command: =1. +Double time, 2. MARCH=, is given. The leading or base unit continues +to march in quick time, or remains at halt, if already halted; the +other units complete the execution of the movement in double time and +then conform to the gait of the leading or base unit. (13) + +=63. To stay execution of movement when marching, for correction of +errors.= To stay the execution of a movement when marching, for the +correction of errors, the command: =1. In place, 2. HALT=, is given. +All halt and stand fast without changing the position of the pieces. +To resume the movement the command: =1. Resume, 2. MARCH=, is given. +(14) + +=64. To revoke preparatory command or begin anew movement improperly +begun.= To revoke a preparatory command, or, being at a halt, to begin +anew a movement improperly begun, the command, =AS YOU WERE=, is +given, at which the movement ceases and the former position is +resumed. (15) + +=65. Guide.= Unless otherwise announced, the guide of a company or +subdivision of a company in line is =right=; of a battalion in line or +line of subdivisions or of a deployed line, =center=; of a rank in +column of squads, toward the side of the guide of the company. + +To march with guide other than as prescribed above, or to change the +guide: =Guide (right, left, or center).= + +In successive formations into line, the guide is toward the point of +rest; in platoons or larger subdivisions it is so announced. + +The announcement of the guide, when given in connection with a +movement follows the command of execution for that. Exception: =1. As +skirmishers, guide right (left or center), 2. MARCH.= (16) + +=66. Turn on fixed and moving pivots.= The turn on the fixed pivot by +subdivisions is used in all formations from line into column and the +reverse. + +The turn on the =moving pivot= is used by subdivisions of a column in +executing changes of direction. (17) + +=67. Partial changes of direction.= Partial changes of direction may +be executed: + +By interpolating in the preparatory command the word =half, as Column +half right (left), or Right (left) half turn=. A change of direction +of 45 deg. is executed. + +By the command: =INCLINE TO THE RIGHT (LEFT).= The guide, or guiding +element, moves in the indicated direction and the remainder of the +command conforms. This movement effects slight changes of direction. +(18) + +=68. Line of platoons, companies, etc.= The =designations line of +platoons, line of companies, line of battalions=, etc., refer to the +formations in which the platoons, companies, battalions, etc., each in +column of squads, are in line. (19) + +=69. Full distance in column of subdivisions; guide of leading +subdivision charged with step and direction.= Full distance in column +of subdivisions is such that in forming line to the right or left the +subdivisions will have their proper intervals. + +In column of subdivisions the guide of the leading subdivision is +charged with the step and direction; the guides in rear preserve the +trace, step, and distance. (20) + +=70. Double rank, habitual close order formation; uniformity of +interval between files obtained by placing hand on hip.= In close +order, all details, detachments, and other bodies of troops are +habitually formed in double rank. + +To insure uniformity of interval between files when falling in, and in +alignments, each man places the palm of the left hand upon the hip, +fingers pointing downward. In the first case, the hand is dropped by +the side when the next man on the left has his interval; in the second +case, at the command front. (21) + +=71. Posts of officers, noncommissioned officers, and special units; +duties of file closers.= The posts of officers, noncommissioned +officers, special units (such as band or machine-gun company), etc., +in the various formations of the company, battalion, or regiment, are +shown in plates. + +In all changes from one formation to another involving a change of +post on the part of any of these, posts are promptly taken by the most +convenient route as soon as practicable after the command of execution +for the movement; officers and noncommissioned officers who have +prescribed duties in connection with the movement ordered, take their +new posts when such duties are completed. + +As instructors, officers and noncommissioned officers go wherever +their presence is necessary. As file closers it is their duty to +rectify mistakes and insure steadiness and promptness in the ranks. +(22) + +=72. Special units have no fixed posts except at ceremonies.= + +Except at ceremonies, the special units have no fixed places. They +take places as directed; in the absence of directions, they conform as +nearly as practicable to the plates, and in subsequent movements +maintain their relative positions with respect to the flank or end of +the command on which they were originally posted. (23) + +[Illustration] + +=73. General, field and staff officers habitually mounted; formation +of staff; drawing and returning saber.= General, field, and staff +officers are habitually mounted. The staff of any officer forms in +single rank, 3 paces in rear of him, the right of the rank extending 1 +pace to the right of a point directly in rear of him. Members of the +staff are arranged in order from right to left as follows: General +staff officers, adjutant, aids, other staff officers, arranged in each +classification in order of rank, the senior on the right. The flag of +the general officer and the orderlies are 3 paces in rear of the +staff, the flag on the right. When necessary to reduce the front of +the staff and orderlies, each line executes =twos right or fours +right=, as explained in the Cavalry Drill Regulations, and follows the +commander. + +When not otherwise prescribed, staff officers draw and return saber +with their chief. (24) + +=74. Mounted officer turns to left in executing about; when commander +faces about to give commands, staff and others stand fast.= In making +the about, an officer, mounted, habitually turns to the left. + +When the commander faces to give commands, the staff, flag, and +orderlies do not change position. (25) + +=75. Saluting when making and receiving reports; saluting on meeting.= +When making or receiving official reports, or on meeting out of doors, +all officers will salute. + +Military courtesy requires the junior to salute first, but when the +salute is introductory to a report made at a military ceremony or +formation, to the representative of a common superior (as, for +example, to the adjutant, officer of the day, etc.), the officer +making the report, whatever his rank, will salute first; the officer +to whom the report is made will acknowledge by saluting that he has +received and understood the report. (26) + +=76. Formation of mounted enlisted men for ceremonies.= For +ceremonies, all mounted enlisted men of a regiment or smaller unit, +except those belonging to the machine-gun organizations, are +consolidated into a detachment; the senior present commands if no +officer is in charge. The detachment is formed as a platoon or squad +of cavalry in line or column of fours; noncommissioned staff officers +are on the right or in the leading ranks. (27) + +=77. Post of dismounted noncommissioned staff officers for +ceremonies.= For ceremonies, such of the noncommissioned staff +officers as are dismounted are formed 5 paces in rear of the color, in +order of rank from right to left. In column of squads they march as +file closers. (28) + +=78. Post of noncommissioned staff officers and orderlies other than +for ceremonies.= Other than for ceremonies, noncommissioned staff +officers and orderlies accompany their immediate chiefs unless +otherwise directed. If mounted, the noncommissioned staff officers are +ordinarily posted on the right or at the head of the orderlies. (29) + +=79. Noncommissioned officer commanding platoon or company, carrying +of piece and taking of post.= In all formations and movements a +noncommissioned officer commanding a platoon or company carries his +piece as the men do, if he is so armed, and takes the same post as an +officer in like situation. When the command is formed in line for +ceremonies, a noncommissioned officer commanding a company takes post +on the right of the right guide after the company has been aligned. +(30) + + +ORDERS, COMMANDS, AND SIGNALS + +=80. When commands, signals, and orders are used.= =Commands= only are +employed in drill at attention. Otherwise either a =command, signal, +or order= is employed, as best suits the occasion, or one may be used +in conjunction with another. (31) + +=81. Instruction in use of signals; use of headdress, etc., in making +signals.= =Signals= should be freely used in instruction, in order +that officers and men may readily know them. In making arm signals, +the saber, rifle, or headdress may be held in the hand. (32) + +=82. Fixing of attention; a signal includes command of preparation and +of execution.= Officers and men fix their attention at the first word +of command, the first note of the bugle or whistle, or the first +motion of the signal. A signal includes both the preparatory command +and the command of execution; the movement commences as soon as the +signal is understood, unless otherwise prescribed. (33) + +=83. Repeating orders, commands and signals; officers, platoon +leaders, guides and musicians equipped with whistles; whistles with +different tones.= Except in movements executed at =attention=, +commanders or leaders of subdivisions repeat orders, commands, or +signals whenever such repetition is deemed necessary to insure +=prompt= and correct execution. + +Officers, battalion noncommissioned staff officers, platoon leaders, +guides, and musicians are equipped with whistles. + +The Major and his staff will use a whistle of distinctive tone; the +captain and company musicians a second and distinctive whistle; the +platoon leaders and guides a third distinctive whistle. (34) + +=84. Limitation of prescribed signals; special prearranged signals.= +Prescribed signals are limited to such as are essential as a +substitute for the voice under conditions which render the voice +inadequate. + +Before or during an engagement special signals may be agreed upon to +facilitate the solution of such special difficulties as the particular +situation is likely to develop, but it must be remembered that +simplicity and certainty are indispensable qualities of a signal. (35) + + +Orders + +=85. Orders defined; when employed.= In these regulations an =order= +embraces instructions or directions given orally or in writing in +terms suited to the particular occasion and not prescribed herein. + +=Orders= are employed only when the =commands= prescribed herein do +not sufficiently indicate the will of the commander. + +Orders are more fully described in paragraphs 378 to 383, inclusive. +(36) + + +Commands + +=86. Command defined.= In these regulations a =command= is the will of +the commander expressed in the phraseology prescribed herein. (37) + +=87. Kinds of commands; how given.= There are two kinds of commands: + +The =preparatory= command, such as =forward=, indicates the movement +that is to be executed. + +The command of =execution=, such as =MARCH=, =HALT=, or =ARMS=, causes +the execution. + +=Preparatory= commands are distinguished by =italics=; those of +execution by =CAPITALS=. + +Where it is not mentioned in the text who gives the commands +prescribed, they are to be given by the commander of the unit +concerned. + +The =preparatory= command should be given at such an interval of time +before the command of =execution= as to admit of being properly +understood; the command of =execution= should be given at the instant +the movement is to commence. + +The tone of command is animated, distinct, and of a loudness +proportioned to the number of men for whom it is intended. + +Each =preparatory= command is enunciated distinctly, with a rising +inflection at the end, and in such manner that the command of +=execution= may be more energetic. + +The command of =execution= is firm in tone and brief. (38) + +=88. Battalion and higher commanders repeat commands of superiors; +battalion largest unit executing movement at command of its +commander.= Majors and commanders of units larger than a battalion +repeat such commands of their superiors as are to be executed by their +units, facing their units for that purpose. The battalion is the +largest unit that executes a movement at the command of execution of +its commander. (39) + +=89. Facing troops and avoiding indifference when giving commands.= +When giving commands to troops it is usually best to face toward them. + +Indifference in giving commands must be avoided as it leads to laxity +in execution. Commands should be given with spirit at all times. (40) + + +Bugle Signals + +=90. Bugle signals that may be used on and off the field of battle.= +The authorized bugle signals are published in Part V of these +regulations. + +The following bugle signals may be used off the battlefield, when not +likely to convey information to the enemy: + + =Attention:= Troops are brought to attention. + =Attention to orders:= Troops to fix their attention. + =Forward, march:= Used also to execute quick time from double time. + =Double time, march.= + =To the rear, march:= In close order, execute =squads right about=. + =Halt.= + =Assemble, march.= + +The following bugle signals may be used on the battlefield: + + =Fix bayonets.= + =Charge.= + =Assemble, march.= + +These signals are used only when intended for the entire firing line; +hence they can be authorized only by the commander of a unit (for +example, a regiment or brigade) which occupies a distinct section of +the battlefield. Exception: =Fix bayonet.= (See par. 355.) + +The following bugle signals are used in exceptional cases on the +battlefield. Their principal uses are in field exercises and practice +firing. + +=Commence firing:= Officers charged with fire direction and control +open fire as soon as practicable. When given to a firing line, the +signal is equivalent to =fire at will=. + +=Cease firing:= All parts of the line execute =cease firing= at once. + +These signals are not used by units smaller than a regiment, except +when such unit is independent or detached from its regiment. (41) + + +Whistle Signals + +=91. Attention to orders.= A =short blast= of the whistle. This signal +is used on the march or in combat when necessary to fix the attention +of troops, or of their commanders or leaders, preparatory to giving +commands, orders, or signals. + +When the firing line is firing, each squad leader suspends firing and +fixes his attention at a =short blast= of his platoon leader's +whistle. The platoon leader's subsequent commands or signals are +repeated and enforced by the squad leader. If a squad leader's +attention is attracted by a whistle other than that of his platoon +leader, or if there are no orders or commands to convey to his squad, +he resumes firing at once. + +=Suspend firing.= A =long blast= of the whistle. All other whistle +signals are prohibited. (42) + + +Arm Signals + +=92.= The following arm signals are prescribed. In making signals +either arm may be used. Officers who receive signals on the firing +line "repeat back" at once to prevent misunderstanding. + +[Illustration] + +=Forward, MARCH.= Carry the hand to the shoulder; straighten and hold +the arm horizontally, thrusting it in the direction of march. + +This signal is also used to execute quick time from double time. + +[Illustration] + +=Halt.= Carry the hand to the shoulder; thrust the hand upward and +hold the arm vertically. + +=Double time, MARCH.= Carry the hand to the shoulder; rapidly thrust +the hand upward the full extent of the arm several times. + +[Illustration] + +=Squads right, MARCH.= Raise the arm laterally until horizontal; carry +it to a vertical position above the head and swing it several times +between the vertical and horizontal positions. + +[Illustration] + +=Squads left, MARCH.= Raise the arm laterally until horizontal; carry +it downward to the side and swing it several times between the +downward and horizontal positions. + +[Illustration] + +=Squads right about, MARCH= (if in close order) or, =To the rear, +MARCH= (if in skirmish line). Extend the arm vertically above the +head; carry it laterally downward to the side and swing it several +times between the vertical and downward positions. + +[Illustration] + +=Change direction or Column right (left), MARCH.= The hand on the side +toward which the change of direction is to be made is carried across +the body to the opposite shoulder, forearm horizontal; then swing in a +horizontal plane, arm extended, pointing in the new direction. + +[Illustration] + +=As skirmishers, MARCH.= Raise both arms laterally until horizontal. + +[Illustration] + +=As skirmishers, guide center, MARCH.= Raise both arms laterally until +horizontal; swing both simultaneously upward until vertical and return +to the horizontal; repeat several times. + +[Illustration] + +=As skirmishers, guide right (left), MARCH.= Raise both arms laterally +until horizontal; hold the arm on the side of the guide steadily in +the horizontal position: swing the other upward until vertical and +return it to the horizontal; repeat several times. + +[Illustration] + +=Assemble, March.= Raise the arm vertically to full extent and +describe horizontal circles. + +[Illustration] + +=Range or Change elevation.= To announce range, extend the arm toward +the leaders or men for whom the signal is intended, fist closed; by +keeping the fist closed battle sight is indicated; + +[Illustration] + +by opening and closing the fist, expose thumb and fingers to a number +equal to the hundreds of yards; + +[Illustration] + +to add yards describe a short horizontal line with forefinger. + +[Illustration] + +=To change elevation=, indicate the =amount of increase or decrease= +by fingers as above; point upward to indicate increase and downward to +indicate decrease. + +[Illustration] + +=What range are you using?= or =What is the range?= Extend the arms +toward the person addressed, one hand open, palm to the front, resting +on the other hand, fist closed. + +[Illustration] + +=Are you ready?= or =I am ready.= Raise the hand, fingers extended and +joined, palm toward the person addressed. + +[Illustration] + +=Commence firing.= Move the arm extended in full length, hand palm +down, several times through a horizontal arc in front of the body. + +=Fire faster.= Execute rapidly the signal, "Commence Firing." + +=Fire slower.= Execute slowly the signal, "Commence Firing." + +[Illustration] + +=Swing the cone of fire to the right, or left.= Extend the arm in full +length to the front, palm to the right (left); swing the arm to right +(left), and point in the direction of the new target. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +=Fix Bayonet.= Simulate the movement of the right hand in "Fix +bayonet." (See par. 142.) + +[Illustration] + +=Suspend firing.= Raise and hold the forearm steadily in a horizontal +position in front of the forehead, palm of the hand to the front. + +=Cease firing.= Raise the forearm as in =suspend firing= and swing it +up and down several times in front of the face. + +[Illustration] + +=Platoon.= Extend the arm horizontally toward the platoon leader; +describe small circles with the hand. (See par. 93.) + +[Illustration] + +=Squad.= Extend the arm horizontally toward the platoon leader; swing +the hand up and down from the wrist. (See par. 93.) + +=Rush.= Same as =double time=. (43) + +=93. Use of signals "platoon" and "squad."= The signals =platoon= and +=squad= are intended primarily for communication between the captain +and his platoon leaders. The signal platoon or squad indicates that +the platoon commander is to cause the signal which follows to be +executed by platoon or squad. + +=Note.=--The following signals, while not prescribed, are very +convenient: + +=Combined Sights.= Extend the arm toward the leaders for whom the +signal is intended, hand open and turn hand rapidly from right to left +a number of times. Then indicate ranges in the manner prescribed, +giving the mean of the two ranges. (For example: If the combined +sights are 1050 and 1150, indicate a range of 1100 yards. The leaders +who give the oral commands, give the command, "Range 1050 and 1150," +whereupon every man in the front rank, before deployment, fixes his +sight at 1150, and every man in the rear rank, before deployment, +fixes his sight at 1050.) + +=Company.= Bring the hand up near the shoulder and then thrust to the +front, snapping fingers in usual way; repeat several times. + +=Contract fire.= Extend both arms horizontally, fingers extended, arms +parallel, palms facing each other; bring hands together =once=, and +hold them so and look at the leader concerned. + +=Disperse fire.= Bring hands together, fingers extended, pointing in +direction of leader concerned, arms extended horizontally; swing arms +outward once, and hold them so and look at the leader concerned. + +=Platoon column.= Raise both arms vertically, full length, arms +parallel, fingers joined and extended, palms to the front. + +=Prepare to rush.= Cross the arms horizontally several times. + +=Squad Column.= Raise both arms vertically from elbows, elbows at side +of body, fingers joined and extended, palms to the front.--Author. +(44) + + +Flag Signals + +=94. Signal flags carried by company musicians; description of flags.= +The signal Hags described below are carried by the company musicians +in the field. + +In a regiment in which it is impracticable to make the permanent +battalion division alphabetically, the flags of a battalion are as +shown; flags are assigned to the companies alphabetically, within +their respective battalions, in the order given below. + +First battalion: + + Company A. Red field, white square. + Company B. Red field, blue square. + Company C. Red field, white diagonals. + Company D. Red field, blue diagonals. + +Second battalion: + + Company E. White field, red square. + Company F. White field, blue square. + Company G. White field, red diagonals. + Company H. White field, blue diagonals. + +Third battalion: + + Company I. Blue field, red square. + Company K. Blue field, white square. + Company L. Blue field, red diagonals. + Company M. Blue field, white diagonals. + + =Note.=--An analysis of the above system of signal flags will + show: 1. The color of the field indicates the battalion and the + colors run in the order that is so natural to us all, viz: =Red=, + =White= and =Blue=. Hence =red= field indicates the =first= + battalion; =white= field, the =second=; =blue= field, the =third=. + + 2. The =squares= indicate the first two companies of each + battalion, and the =diagonals=, the second two. Hence, + + +-----------+----------------+ + | Companies | Indicated by | + |-----------+----------------+ + | A | E | I | Squares | + | B | F | K | | + |-----------+----------------+ + | C | G | L | Diagonals | + | D | H | M | | + +-----------+----------------+ + + 3. The colors of the squares and diagonals in combination with + those of the fields, run in the order that is so natural to us + all, viz.: =Red=, =White= and =Blue=, the color of any given field + being, of course, omitted from the squares and diagonals, as a + white square for instance, would not show on a white field, nor + would a blue diagonal show on a blue field. For example, with a + =red= field we would have =white= and =blue= for the square and + diagonal colors; with a =white= field, =red= and =blue= for the + square and diagonal colors; with a =blue= field, =red= and =white= + for the square and diagonal colors. + + 4. From what has been said, the following table explains itself: + + +-----------+-------+-----+---------+-----------+ + | Battalion | Field | Co. | Squares | Diagonals | + +-----------+-------+-----+---------+-----------+ + | First | Red | A | White | | + | | | B | Blue | | + | | | C | | White | + | | | D | | Blue | + +-----------+-------+-----+---------+-----------+ + | Second | White | E | Red | | + | | | F | Blue | | + | | | G | | Red | + | | | H | | Blue | + +-----------+-------+-----+---------+-----------+ + | Third | Blue | I | Red | | + | | | K | White | | + | | | L | | Red | + | | | M | | White | + +-----------+-------+-----+---------+-----------+ + + Note how the square and diagonal colors always follow in the + natural order of =red=, =white=, and =blue=, with the color of the + field omitted.--Author. (45) + +=95. Signal flags used to mark assembly point of company, etc.= In +addition to their use in visual signaling, these flags serve to mark +the assembly point of the company when disorganized by combat, and to +mark the location of the company in bivouac and elsewhere, when such +use is desirable. (46) + +=96. Signals used between firing line and reserve or commander in +rear.= (1) For communication between the firing line and the reserve +or commander in the rear, the subjoined signals (Signal Corps codes) +are prescribed and should be memorized. In transmission, their +concealment from the enemy's view should be insured. In the absence of +signal flags, the headdress or other substitute may be used. (See par. +863 for the semaphore code and par. 861 for the General Service, or +International Morse Code.) (47) + + ---------------+---------------------------+---------------------------- + Letter of | If signaled from the rear | If signaled from the firing + alphabet | to the firing line | line to the rear + ---------------+---------------------------+---------------------------- + A M | Ammunition going forward. | Ammunition required. + | | + C C C | Charge (mandatory at all | Am about to charge if no + | times). | instructions to the + | | contrary. + | | + C F | Cease firing. | Cease firing. + | | + D T | Double time or "rush." | Double time or "rush." + | | + F | Commence firing. | Commence firing. + | | + F B | Fix bayonets. | Fix bayonets. + | | + F L | Artillery fire is causing | Artillery fire is causing + | us losses. | us losses. + | | + G | Move forward. | Preparing to move forward. + | | + H H H | Halt. | Halt. + | | + K | Negative. | Negative. + | | + L T | Left. | Left. + | | + O | What is the (R. N. etc.)? | What is the (R. N. etc.)? + (Ardois and | Interrogatory. | Interrogatory. + semaphore | | + only.) | | + ---------------| | + (All methods | What is the (R. N. etc.)? | What is the (R. N. etc.)? + but ardois | Interrogatory. | Interrogatory. + and semaphore.)| | + | | + P | Affirmative. | Affirmative. + | | + R | Acknowledgment. | Acknowledgment. + | | + R N | Range. | Range. + | | + R T | Right. | Right. + | | + S S S | Support going forward. | Support needed. + | | + S U F | Suspend firing. | Suspend firing. + | | + T | Target. | Target. + ---------------+---------------------------+---------------------------- + +For the semaphore signals, see par. 863. + + +SCHOOL OF THE SOLDIER + +=97. Duties of instructor.= The instructor explains briefly each +movement, first executing it himself if practicable. He requires the +recruits to take the proper positions unassisted and does not touch +them for the purpose of correcting them, except when they are unable +to correct themselves. He avoids keeping them too long at the same +movement, although each should be understood before passing to +another. He exacts by degrees the desired precision and uniformity. +(48) + +=98. Grouping of recruits according to proficiency.= In order that all +may advance as rapidly as their abilities permit, the recruits are +grouped according to proficiency as instruction progresses. Those who +lack aptitude and quickness are separated from the others and placed +under experienced drill masters. (49) + + +Instruction Without Arms + +=98a. Formation of squad for preliminary instruction.= For preliminary +instruction a number of recruits, usually not exceeding three or four, +are formed as a squad in single rank. (50) + + +Position of the Soldier, or Attention + +=99.= Heels on the same line and as near each other as the +conformation of the man permits. + +Feet turned out equally and forming an angle of about 45 deg.. + +=Knees straight without stiffness.= + +Hips level and drawn back slightly; body erect and resting equally on +hips; chest lifted and arched; shoulders square and falling equally. + +Arms and hands hanging naturally, thumb along the seam of the +trousers. + +Head erect and squarely to the front, chin drawn in so that the axis +of the head and neck is vertical; eyes straight to the front. + +Weight of the body resting equally upon the heels and balls of the +feet. (51) + + +The Rests + +=100.= Being at a halt, the commands are: =FALL OUT; REST; AT EASE=; +and, =1. Parade, 2. REST=. + +At the command =fall out=, the men may leave the ranks, but are +required to remain in the immediate vicinity. They resume their former +places, at attention, at the command =fall in=. + +At the command =rest= each man keeps one foot in place, but is not +required to preserve silence or immobility. + +At the command =at ease= each man keeps one foot in place and is +required to preserve silence but =not= immobility. (52) + +[Illustration] + +=101. 1. Parade, 2. REST.= Carry the right foot 6 inches straight to +the rear, left knee slightly bent; clasp the hands, without +constraint, in front of the center of the body, fingers joined, left +hand uppermost, left thumb clasped by the thumb and forefinger of the +right hand; preserve silence and steadiness of position. (53) + +=102.= To resume the attention: =1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION.= + +The men take the position of the soldier. (54) + + +Eyes Right or Left + +=103. 1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT (LEFT), 3. FRONT.= + +[Illustration] + +At the command =right=, turn the head to the right oblique, eyes fixed +on the line of eyes of the men in, or supposed to be in, the same +rank. At the command =front=, turn the head and eyes to the front. +(55) + + +Facings + +=104. To the flank: 1. Right (left), 2. FACE.= + +Raise slightly the left heel and right toe; face to the right, turning +on the right heel, assisted by a slight pressure on the ball of the +left foot; place the left foot by the side of the right. Left face is +executed on the left heel in the corresponding manner. + +=Right (left) half face= is executed similarly, facing 45 deg.. + +"To face in marching" and advance, turn on the ball of either foot and +step off with the other foot in the new line of direction; to face in +marching without gaining ground in the new direction, turn on the ball +of either foot and mark time. (56) + +=105.= To the rear: =1. About, 2. FACE.= + +Carry the toe of the right foot about a half foot-length to the rear +and slightly to the left of the left heel without changing the +position of the left foot; face to the rear, turning to the right on +the left heel and right toe; place the right heel by the side of the +left. (57) + + +Salute with the Hand + +=106. 1. Hand, 2. SALUTE.= + +[Illustration] + +Raise the right hand smartly till the tip of the forefinger touches +the lower part of the headdress or forehead above the right eye, thumb +and fingers extended and joined palm to the left, forearm inclined at +about 45 deg., hand and wrist straight; =at the same time look toward the +person saluted=. (=TWO=) Drop the arm smartly by the side. (58) + +(For rules governing salutes, see "Military Courtesy," Chapter XI, +Part II.) + + +Steps and Marchings + +=107. Steps and marchings begin with left foot.= All steps and +marchings executed from a halt, except right step, begin with the left +foot. (59) + +=108. Length and cadence of full step; indicating cadence.= The length +of the full step in quick time is 30 inches, measured from heel to +heel, and the cadence is at the rate of 120 steps per minute. + +The length of the full step in double time is 36 inches; the cadence +is at the rate of 180 steps per minute. + +The instructor, when necessary, indicates the cadence of the step by +calling =one, two, three, four=, or =left, right=, the instant the +left and right foot, respectively, should be planted. (60) + +=109. Steps and marchings and movements involving marchings habitually +executed in quick time.= All steps and marchings and movements +involving march are executed in =quick time= unless the squad be +marching in =double time=, or =double time= be added to the command; +in the latter case double time is added to the preparatory command. +Example: =1. Squad right, double time, 2. MARCH= (School of the +Squad). (61) + + +Quick Time + +=110.= Being at a halt, to march forward in quick time: =1. Forward, +2. MARCH.= + +At the command =forward=, shift the weight of the body to the right +leg, left knee straight. + +At the command =march=, move the left foot smartly straight forward 30 +inches from the right, sole near the ground, and plant it without +shock; next in like manner, advance the right foot and plant it as +above; continue the march. The arms swing naturally. (62) + +=111.= Being at a halt, or in march in quick time, to march in double +time: =1. Double time, 2. MARCH.= + +If at a halt, at the first command shift the weight of the body to the +right leg. At the command =march=, raise the forearms, fingers closed, +to a horizontal position along the waist line; take up an easy run +with the step and cadence of double time, allowing a natural swinging +motion to the arms. + +If marching in quick time, at the command march, given as either foot +strikes the ground, take one step in quick time, and then step off in +double time. (63) + +To resume the quick time: =1. Quick time, 2. MARCH.= + +At the command =march=, given as either foot strikes the ground, +advance and plant the other foot in double time; resume the quick +time, dropping the hands by the sides. (64) + + +To Mark Time + +=112.= Being in march: =1. Mark time, 2. MARCH.= + +At the command =march=, given as either foot strikes the ground, +advance and plant the other foot; bring up the foot in rear and +continue the cadence by alternately raising each foot about 2 inches +and planting it on line with the other. + +Being at a halt, at the command march, raise and plant the feet as +described above. (65) + + +The Half Step + +=113. 1. Half step, 2. MARCH.= + +Take steps of 15 inches in quick time, 18 inches in double time. (66) + +=Forward=, =half step=, =halt=, and =mark time= may be executed one +from the other in quick or double time. + +To resume the full step from half step or mark time: =1. Forward, 2. +MARCH.= (67) + + +Side Step + +=114.= Being at a halt or mark time: =1. Right (left) step, 2. MARCH.= + +Carry and plant the right foot 15 inches to the right; bring the left +foot beside it and continue the movement in the cadence of quick time. + +The side step is used for short distances only and is not executed in +double time. + +If at order arms, the side step is executed at trail without command. +(68) + + +Back Step + +=115.= Being at a halt or mark time: =1. Backward, 2. MARCH.= + +Take steps of 15 inches straight to the rear. + +The back step is used for short distances only and is not executed in +double time. + +If at order arms, the back step is executed at trail without command. +(69) + + +To Halt + +=116.= To arrest the march in quick or double time: =1. Squad, 2. +HALT.= + +At the command =halt=, given as either foot strikes the ground, plant +the other foot as in marching; raise and place the first foot by the +side of the other. If in double time, drop the hands by the sides. +(70) + + +To March by the Flank + +=117.= Being in march: =1. By the right (left) flank, 2. MARCH.= + +At the command =march=, given as the right foot strikes the ground, +advance and plant the left foot; then face to the right in marching +and step off in the new direction with the right foot. (71) + + +To March to the Rear + +=118.= Being in march: =1. To the rear, 2. MARCH.= + +At the command =march= given as the right foot strikes the ground +advance and plant the left foot; turn to the right about on the balls +of both feet and immediately step off with the left foot. + +If marching in double time, turn to the right about, taking four steps +in place, keeping the cadence, and then step off with the left foot. +(72) + + +Change Step + +=119.= Being in march: =1. Change step, 2. MARCH.= + +At the command =march=, given as the right foot strikes the ground, +advance and plant the left foot; plant the toe of the right foot near +the heel of the left and step off with the left foot. + +The change on the right foot is similarly executed, the command march +being given as the left foot strikes the ground. (73) + + +MANUAL OF ARMS + +=120. Instruction of recruit in use of rifle, manual of arms, etc.= As +soon as practicable the recruit is taught the use, nomenclature, and +care of his rifle. (See "The Care, Description, and Management of the +Rifle," Chapter XIV, Part II.); when fair progress has been made in +the instruction without arms, he is taught the manual of arms; +instruction without arms and that with arms alternate. (74) + +=121. Rules governing carrying of piece.= The following rules +governing the carrying of the piece: + +First. =Piece habitually carried without cartridges in chamber or +magazine.= The piece is not carried with cartridges in either the +chamber or the magazine except when specifically ordered. When so +loaded, or supposed to be loaded, it is habitually carried locked; +that is, with the =safety lock= turned to the "safe." At all other +times it is carried unlocked, with the trigger pulled. + +Second. =Inspection of pieces when troops are formed and when +dismissed.= Whenever troops are formed under arms, pieces are +immediately inspected at the commands: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. +Order (Right shoulder port), 4. ARMS=, which are executed as explained +in pars. 145-146. + +A similar inspection is made immediately before dismissal. + +If cartridges are found in the chamber or magazine they are removed +and placed in the belt. + +Third. =Cut-off habitually turned "off."= The cut-off is kept turned +"off" except when cartridges are actually used. + +Fourth. =Bayonet habitually not carried fixed.= The bayonet is not +fixed (See par. 142), except in bayonet exercise, on guard, or for +combat. + +Fifth. ="Fall in" executed at order; "attention" resumed at order.= +Fall in is executed with the piece at the order arms. =Fall out=, +=rest=, and =at ease= are executed as without arms, as explained in +par. 100. On resuming =attention= the position of order arms is taken. + +Sixth. =If at order, pieces brought to right shoulder at command +"march"; execution of movements at trail; piece brought to trail in +certain movements executed from order.= If at the order, unless +otherwise prescribed, the piece is brought to the right shoulder at +the command march, the three motions corresponding with the first +three steps. Movements may be executed at the trail by prefacing the +preparatory command with the words =at trail=; as, =1. At trail, +forward, 2. MARCH=; the trail is taken at the command =march=. + +When the facings, alignments, open and close ranks, taking interval or +distance, and assemblings are executed from the order, raise the piece +to the trail while in motion and resume the order on halting. + +Seventh. =Piece brought to order on halting.= The piece is brought to +the order on halting. The execution of the order begins when the halt +is completed. + +Eighth. =Holding disengaged hand in double time.= A disengaged hand in +double time is held as when without arms. (75) + +=122. Rules governing manual of arms.= The following rules govern the +execution of the manual of arms: + +First. =Position of left hand at balance.= In all positions of the +left hand at the balance (center of gravity, bayonet unfixed) the +thumb clasps the piece; the sling is included in the grasp of the +hand. + +Second. =Positions of piece "diagonally across the body."= In all +positions of the piece "diagonally across the body" the position of +the piece, left arm and hand are the same as in port arms. (See par. +125.) + +[Illustration] + +Third. =Next to last motion in resuming order from any position; piece +to strike ground gently.= In resuming the order from any position in +the manual, the motion next to the last concludes with the butt of the +piece about 3 inches from the ground, barrel to the rear, the left +hand above and near the right, steadying the piece, fingers extended +and joined, forearm and wrist straight and inclining downward, all +fingers of the right hand grasping the piece. To complete the order, +lower the piece gently to the ground with the right hand, drop the +left quickly by the side, and take the position of order arms. + +Allowing the piece to drop through the right hand to the ground, or +other similar abuse of the rifle to produce effect in executing the +manual is prohibited. + +Fourth. =Cadence of motions; at first attention to be paid to details +of motion.= The cadence of the motions is that of quick time; the +recruits are first required to give their whole attention to the +details of the motions, the cadence being gradually acquired as they +become accustomed to handling their pieces. The instructor may require +them to count aloud in cadence with the motions. + +Fifth. =Execution of manual "by the numbers."= The manual is taught at +a halt and the movements are for the purpose of instruction, divided +into motions and executed in detail; in this case the command of +=execution= determines the prompt execution of the first motion, and +the commands, =two, three, four=, that of the other motions. + +To execute the movements in detail, the instructor first cautions: =By +the numbers=; all movements divided into motions are then executed as +above explained until he cautions: =Without the numbers=; or commands +movements other than those in the manual of arms. + +Sixth. =Regular positions assumed without regard to previous +positions; carrying rifle in any position.= Whenever circumstances +require, the regular positions of the manual of arms and the firings +may be ordered without regard to the previous position of the piece. + +Under the exceptional conditions of weather or fatigue the rifle may +be carried in any manner directed. (76) + +[Illustration] + +=123. Position of order arms standing:= The butt rests evenly on the +ground, barrel to the rear, toe of the butt on a line with toe of, and +touching, the right shoe, arms and hands hanging naturally, right hand +holding the piece between the thumb and fingers. (77) + +=124.= Being at order arms: =1. Present, 2. ARMS.= + +[Illustration] + +With the right hand carry the piece in front of the center of the +body, barrel to the rear and vertical, grasp it with the left hand at +the balance, forearm horizontal and resting against the body. (=TWO=) +Grasp the small of the stock with the right hand. (78) + +=125.= Being at order arms: =1. Port, 2. ARMS.= + +[Illustration] + +With the right hand raise and throw the piece diagonally across the +body, grasp it smartly with both hands; the right, palm down, at the +small of the stock: the left, palm up, at the balance; barrel up, +sloping to the left and crossing opposite the junction of the neck +with the left shoulder; right forearm horizontal; left forearm resting +against the body; the piece in a vertical plane parallel to the front. +(79) + +=126.= Being at present arms: =1. Port, 2. ARMS.= + +Carry the piece =diagonally across= the body and take the position of +port arms. (80) + +=127.= Being at port arms: =1. Present, 2. ARMS.= + +Carry the piece to a vertical position in front of the center of the +body and take the position of present arms. (81) + +=128.= Being at present or port arms: =1. Order, 2. ARMS.= + +Let go with the right hand; lower and carry the piece to the right +with the left hand: regrasp it with the right hand just above the +lower band; let go with the left hand, and take the next to the last +position in coming to the order. (=TWO=) Complete the order. (82) + +=129.= Being at order arms: =1. Right shoulder, 2. ARMS.= + +[Illustration] + +With the right hand raise and throw the piece diagonally across the +body; carry the right hand quickly to the butt, embracing it, the heel +between the first two fingers. (=TWO=) Without changing the grasp of +the right hand, place the piece on the right shoulder, barrel up and +inclined at an angle of about 45 deg. from the horizontal, trigger guard +in the hollow of the shoulder, right elbow near the side, the piece in +a vertical plane perpendicular to the front; carry the left hand, +thumb and fingers extended and joined, to the small of the stock, tip +of the forefinger touching the cocking piece, wrist straight and elbow +down. (=THREE=) Drop the left hand by the side. (83) + +=130.= Being at right shoulder arms: =1. Order, 2. ARMS.= + +Press the butt down quickly and throw the piece diagonally across the +body, the right hand retaining the grasp of the butt. (=TWO=), +(=THREE=) Execute order arms as described from port arms. (84) + +=131.= Being at port arms: =1. Right shoulder, 2. ARMS.= + +Change the right hand to the butt. (=TWO=), (=THREE=) As in right +shoulder arms from order arms. (85) + +=132.= Being at right shoulder arms: =1. Port, 2. ARMS.= + +Press the butt down quickly and throw the piece diagonally across the +body, the right hand retaining its grasp of the butt. (=TWO=) Change +the right hand to the small of the stock. (86) + +=133.= Being at right shoulder arms: =1. Present, 2. ARMS.= + +Execute port arms. (=THREE=) execute present arms. (87) + +=134.= Being at present arms: =1. Right shoulder, 2. ARMS.= + +Execute port arms. (=TWO=), (=THREE=), (=FOUR=) Execute right shoulder +arms as from port arms. (88) + +=135.= Being at port arms: =1. Left shoulder, 2. ARMS.= + +[Illustration] + +Carry the piece with the right hand and place it on the left shoulder, +barrel up, trigger guard in the hollow of the shoulder; at the same +time grasp the butt with the left hand, heel between first and second +fingers, thumb and fingers closed on the stock. (=TWO=) Drop the right +hand by the side. + +=136.= Being at left shoulder arms: =1. Port, 2. ARMS.= + +Grasp the piece with the right hand at the small of the stock. (=TWO=) +Carry the piece to the right with the right hand, =regrasp= it with +the left, and take the position of port arms. + +=Left shoulder arms= may be ordered directly from the order, right +shoulder or present, or the reverse. At the command =arms= execute +port arms and continue in cadence to the position ordered. (89) + +=137.= Being at order arms: =1. Parade, 2. REST.= + +[Illustration] + +Carry the right foot 6 inches straight to the rear, left knee slightly +bent; carry the muzzle in front of the center of the body, barrel to +the left; grasp the piece with the left hand just below the stacking +swivel, and with the right hand below and against the left. + +=138.= Being at parade rest: =1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION.= + +Resume the order, the left hand quitting the piece opposite the right +hip. (90) + +=139.= Being at order arms: =1. Trail, 2. ARMS.= + +[Illustration] + +Raise the piece, right arm slightly bent, and incline the muzzle +forward so that the barrel makes an angle of about 30 deg. with the +vertical. + +When it can be done without danger or inconvenience to others, the +piece may be grasped at the balance and the muzzle lowered until the +piece is horizontal; a similar position in the left hand may be used. +(91) + +=140.= Being at trail arms: =1. Order, 2. ARMS.= + +Lower the piece with the right hand and resume the order. (92) + + +Rifle Salute + +=141.= Being at right shoulder arms: =1. Rifle, 2. SALUTE.= + +[Illustration] + +Carry the left hand smartly to the small of the stock, forearm +horizontal, palm of hand down, thumb and fingers extended and joined, +forefinger touching end of cocking piece; look toward the person +saluted. (=TWO=) Drop left hand by the side; turn head and eyes to the +front. (93) + +Being at order or trail arms: =1. Rifle, 2. SALUTE.= + +[Illustration] + +Carry the left hand smartly to the right side, palm of the hand down, +thumb and fingers extended and joined, forefinger against piece near +the muzzle; look toward the person saluted. (=TWO=) Drop the left hand +by the side; turn the head and eyes to the front. + +For rules governing salutes, see "Military Courtesy," Chapter XI, Part +II. + + +The Bayonet + +=142.= Being at order arms: =1. Fix, 2. BAYONET.= + +If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the belt: Execute parade rest; +grasp the bayonet with the right hand, back of hand toward the body; +draw the bayonet from the scabbard and fix it on the barrel, glancing +at the muzzle; resume the order. + +If the bayonet is carried on the haversack: Draw the bayonet with the +left hand and fix it in the most convenient manner. (95) + +=143.= Being at our arms: =1. Unfix, 2. BAYONET.= + +If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the belt: Execute parade rest; +grasp the handle of the bayonet firmly with the right hand, pressing +the spring with the forefinger of the right hand; raise the bayonet +until the handle is about 12 inches above the muzzle of the piece; +drop the point to the left, back of the hand toward the body, and, +glancing at the scabbard, return the bayonet, the blade passing +between the left arm and the body; regrasp the piece with the right +hand and resume the order. + +If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the haversack: Take the bayonet +from the rifle with the left hand and return it to the scabbard in the +most convenient manner. + +If marching or lying down, the bayonet is fixed and unfixed in the +most expeditious and convenient manner and the piece returned to the +original position. + +=Fix= and =unfix= bayonet are executed with promptness and regularity +but not in cadence. (For unfixing bayonet with Krag rifle, see Par. +697.) (96) + +=144. CHARGE BAYONET.= Whether executed at halt or in motion, the +bayonet is held toward the opponent as in the position of =guard= in +the Manual for Bayonet Exercise. + +Exercises for instruction in bayonet combat are prescribed in the +Manual for Bayonet Exercise. (97) + + +The Inspection + +[Illustration] + +=145.= Being at order arms: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS.= + +At the second command take the position of port arms. (=TWO=) Seize +the bolt handle with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, turn +the handle up, draw the bolt back, and glance at the chamber. Having +found the chamber empty, or having emptied it, raise the head and eyes +to the front. (For inspection of arms with Krag rifle see par. 698.) +(98) + +=146.= Being at inspection arms: =1. Order (Right shoulder, port), 2. +ARMS.= + +At the preparatory command push the bolt forward, turn the handle +down, pull the trigger, and resume =port arms=. At the command =arms=, +complete the movement ordered. (To execute with Krag rifle see par. +699.) (99) + + +To Dismiss the Squad + +=147.= Being at halt: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Port, 4. ARMS, 5. +DISMISSED.= (100) + + +SCHOOL OF THE SQUAD + +=148. Grouping into Squads.= Soldiers are grouped into squads for +purposes of instruction, discipline, control, and order. (101) + +=149. Composition of squad; object of squad movements.= The squad +proper consists of a corporal and seven privates. + +The movements in the School of the Squad are designed to make the +squad a fixed unit and to facilitate the control and movement of the +company. If the number of men grouped is more than 3 and less than 12, +they are formed as a squad of 4 files, the excess above 8 being posted +as file closers. If the number grouped is greater than 11, 2 or more +squads are formed and the group is termed a platoon. + +For the instruction of recruits, these rules may be modified. (102) + +=150. Squad leader; his post.= The corporal is the squad leader, and +when absent is replaced by a designated private. If no private is +designated, the senior in length of service acts as leader. + +The corporal, when in ranks, is posted as the left man in the front +rank of the squad. + +When the corporal leaves the ranks to lead his squad, his rear rank +man steps into the front rank, and the file remains blank until the +corporal returns to his place in ranks, when his rear rank man steps +back into the rear rank. (103) + +=151. Preservation of integrity of squads in battle.= In battle +officers and sergeants endeavor to preserve the integrity of squads; +they designate new leaders to replace those disabled, organize new +squads when necessary, and see that every man is placed in a squad. + +Men are taught the necessity of remaining with the squad to which they +belong and, in case it be broken up or they become separated +therefrom, to attach themselves to the nearest squad and platoon +leaders, whether these be of their own or of another organization. +(104) + +=152. Certain movements executed by squad as in School of the +Soldier.= The squad executes the =halt= (See par. 116), =rests= (See +par. 100-101), =facings= (See pars. 104-105), =steps and marchings= +(See pars. 107-119), and the =manual of arms= (See pars. 120-147), as +explained in the School of the Soldier. (105) + + +To Form the Squad + +=153.= To form the squad the instructor places himself 3 paces in +front of where the center is to be and commands: =FALL IN.= + +The men assemble at attention, pieces at the order, and are arranged +by the corporal in double rank, as nearly as practicable in order of +height from right to left, each man dropping his left hand as soon as +the man in his left has his interval. The rear rank forms with +distance of 40 inches. + +The instructor then commands: =COUNT OFF.= + +At this command all except the right file execute eyes right, and +beginning on the right, the men in each rank count =one, two, three, +four=; each man turns his head and eyes to the front as he counts. + +Pieces are then inspected. (106) + + +Alignments + +=154.= To align the squad, the base file or files having been +established: =1. Right (Left), 2. DRESS, 3. FRONT.= + +At the command front, given when the ranks are aligned, each hip +(whether dressing to the right or left); each man, except the base +file, when on or near the new line executes =eyes right=, and taking +steps of 2 or 3 inches, places himself so that his right arm rests +lightly against the arm of the man on his right, and so that his eyes +and shoulders are in line with those of the men on his right; the rear +rank men cover in file. + +The instructor verifies the alignment of both ranks from the right +flank and orders up or back such men as may be in rear, or in advance, +of the line; only the men designated move. + +At the command =dress= all men place the left hand upon the man turns +his head and eyes to the front and drops his left hand by his side. + +In the first drills the basis of the alignment is established on, or +parallel to, the front of the squad; afterwards, in oblique +directions. + +Whenever the position of the base file or files necessitates a +considerable movement by the squad, such movement will be executed by +marching to the front or oblique, to the flank or backward, as the +case may be, without other command, and at the trail. (107) + +=155.= To preserve the alignment when marching: =GUIDE RIGHT (LEFT).= + +The men preserve their intervals from the side of the guide, yielding +to pressure from that side and resisting pressure from the opposite +direction; they recover intervals, if lost, by gradually opening out +or closing in; they recover alignment by slightly lengthening or +shortening the step; the rear-rank men cover their file leaders at 40 +inches. + +In double rank, the front-rank man on the right, or designated flank, +conducts the march; when marching faced to the flank, the leading man +of the front rank is the guide. (108) + + +To Take Intervals and Distances + +=156.= Being in line at a halt: =1. Take interval, 2. To the right +(left), 3. MARCH, 4. Squad, 5. HALT.= + +[Illustration] + +Being in line at a halt. + +=1. Take interval, 2. To the right (left)= + +[Illustration] + +At the second command the rear-rank men march backward 4 steps and +halt; + +=3. MARCH= + +[Illustration] + +At the command =march= all face to the right and the leading man of +each rank steps off; the other men step off in succession, each +following the preceding man at 4 paces, rear-rank men marching abreast +of their file leaders. + +=4. Squad, 5. HALT= + +[Illustration] + +At the command =halt=, given when all have their intervals, all halt +and face to the front. (109) + +[Illustration: (AT INTERVALS)] + +=157. Being at intervals, to assemble the squad:= + +=1. Assemble, to the right (left), 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration: (ASSEMBLE)] + +The front-rank man on the right stands fast, the rear rank man on the +right closes to 40 inches. The other men face to the right, close by +the shortest line, and face to the front. (110) + +[Illustration: (ASSEMBLED)] + +=158.= Being in line at a halt and having counted off: =1. Take +distance, 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT.= + +[Illustration] + +At the command =March= No. 1 of the front rank moves straight to the +front; Nos. 2, 3, and 4 of the front rank and Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 of +the rear rank, in the order named, move straight to the front, each +stepping off so as to follow the preceding man at 4 paces. The command +=halt= is given when all have their distances. + +In case more than one squad is in line, each squad executes the +movement as above. The guide of each rank of numbers is right. (111) + +=159.= Being at distances, to assemble the squad: =1. Assemble, 2. +MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +No. 1 of the front rank stands fast; the other numbers move forward to +their proper places in line. (112) + + +To Stack and Take Arms + +[Illustration] + +=160.= Being in line at a halt: =STACK ARMS.= Each =even= number of +the =front= rank grasps his piece with the left hand at the upper +band + +[Illustration] + +and rests the butt between his feet, barrel to the front, muzzle +inclined slightly to the front and opposite the center of the interval +on his right, the thumb and forefinger raising the stacking swivel; +each =even= number of the =rear= rank then passes his piece, barrel to +the rear, to his file leader, who grasps it between the bands with his +right hand + +[Illustration] + +and throws the butt about 2 feet in advance of that of his own piece +and opposite the right of the interval, the right hand slipping to the +upper band, the thumb and forefinger raising the stacking swivel, +which he engages with that of his own piece; + +[Illustration] + +each =odd= number of the =front= rank raises his piece with the right +hand, carries it well forward, barrel to the front; the left hand, +guiding the stacking swivel, + +[Illustration] + +engages the lower hook of the swivel of his own piece with the free +hook of that of the even number of the rear rank; he then turns the +barrel outward into the angle formed by the other two pieces and +lowers the butt to the ground, =to the right= and =against the toe= of +his right shoe. + +The stacks made, the loose pieces are laid on them by the =even= +numbers of the front rank. When each man has finished handling pieces, +he takes the position of the soldier. (113) + +=161.= Being in line behind the stacks: =TAKE ARMS.= + +(See preceding illustration.) + +The loose pieces are returned by the =even= numbers of the =front= +rank; each even number of the front rank grasps his own piece with the +left hand, the piece of his rear rank man with his right hand, +grasping both between the bands; each =odd= number of the =front= rank +grasps his piece in the same way with the right hand; disengages it by +raising the butt from the ground and then turning the piece to the +right, detaches it from the stack; each =even= number of the front +rank disengages and detaches his piece by turning it to the left, + +[Illustration] + +and, then passes the piece of his rear-rank man to him, and all resume +the order. (114) + +Should any squad have Nos. 2 and 3 blank files, No. 1 rear rank takes +the place of No. 2 rear rank in making and breaking the stack; the +stacks made or broken, he resumes his post. + +Pieces not used in making the stacks are termed =loose pieces=. + +Pieces are never stacked with the bayonet fixed. (115) + + +The Oblique March + +=162.= For the instruction of recruits, the squad being in column or +correctly aligned, the instructor causes the squad to face half right +or half left, points out to the men their relative positions, and +explains that these are to be maintained in the oblique march. (116) + +=163. Right (Left) oblique, 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +Each man steps off in a direction 45 deg. to the right of his original +front. He preserves his relative position, keeping his shoulders +parallel to those of the guide (the man on the right front of the line +or column), and so regulates his steps that the ranks remain parallel +to their original front. + +At the command =halt= the men halt faced to front. + +To resume the original direction: =1. Forward 2. MARCH.= + +The men half face to the left in marching and then move straight to +the front. + +If at =halfstep= or =mark time= while obliquing, the oblique march is +resumed by the commands: =1. Oblique, 2. MARCH.= (117) + + +To Turn on Moving Pivot + +=164.= Being in line: =1. Right (Left) turn, 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +The movement is executed by each rank successively and on the same +ground. At the second command, the pivot man of the front rank faces +to the right in marching and takes the half step; the other men of the +rank oblique to the right until opposite their places in line, then +execute a second right oblique and take the half step on arriving +abreast of the pivot man. All glance toward the marching flank while +at half step and take the full step without command as the last man +arrives on the line. + +=Right (Left) half turn= is executed in a similar manner. The pivot +man makes a half change of direction to the right and the other men +make quarter changes in obliquing. (118) + + +To Turn on Fixed Pivot + +=165.= Being in line, to turn and march: =1. Squad right (left), 2. +MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +At the second command, the right flank man in the front rank faces to +the right in marching and marks time; the other front rank men oblique +to the right, place themselves abreast of the pivot, and mark time. In +the rear rank the third man from the right, followed in column by the +second and first, move straight to the front + +[Illustration] + +until in rear of his front-rank man, + +[Illustration] + +when all face to the right in marching and mark time; the other number +of the rear rank moves straight to the front four paces and places +himself abreast of the man on his right. Men on the new line glance +toward the marching flank while marking time and, as the last man +arrives on the line, both ranks execute =forward, MARCH=, without +command. (119) + +=166.= Being in line, to turn and halt: =1. Squad right (left), 2. +MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT.= + +The third command is given immediately after the second. The turn is +executed as prescribed in the preceding paragraph except that all men, +on arriving on the new line, mark time until the fourth command is +given, when all halt. The fourth command should be given as the last +man arrives on the line. (120) + +=167.= Being in line, to turn about and march: =1. Squad right (left) +about, 2. MARCH.= + +At the second command, the front rank twice executes squad right +initiating the second squad right when the man on the marching flank +has arrived abreast of the rank. In the rear rank the third man from +the right, followed by the second and first in column, moves straight +to the front until on the prolongation of the line to be occupied by +the rear rank; changes direction to the right; moves in the new +direction until in rear of his front-rank man, when all face to the +right in marching, mark time, and glance toward the marching flank. +The fourth man marches on the left of the third to his new position; +as he arrives on the line, both ranks execute =forward, MARCH=, +without command. (121) + +=168.= Being in line, to turn about and halt: =1. Squad right (left) +about, 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT.= + +The third command is given immediately after the second. The turn is +executed as prescribed in the preceding paragraph except that all men, +on arriving on the new line, mark time until the fourth command is +given, when all halt. The fourth command should be given as the last +man arrives on the line. (122) + + +To Follow the Corporal + +[Illustration: (IN LINE)] + +=169.= Being assembled or deployed, to march the squad without +unnecessary commands, the corporal places himself in front of it and +commands: =FOLLOW ME.= + +[Illustration: (AS SKIRMISHERS)] + +If in line or skirmish line, No. 2 of the front rank follows in the +trace of the corporal at about 3 paces; the other men conform to the +movements of No. 2, guiding on him and maintaining their relative +positions. + +[Illustration: (IN COLUMN)] + +If in column, the head of the column follows the corporal. (123) + + +To Deploy as Skirmishers + +[Illustration] + +=170.= Being in any formation, assembled: =1. As skirmishers, 2. +MARCH.= + +The corporal places himself in front of the squad, if not already +there. Moving at a run, the men place themselves abreast of the +corporal at half-pace intervals, Nos. 1 and 2 on his right, Nos. 3 +and 4 on his left, rear rank men on the right of their file leaders, +extra men on the left of No. 4; all then conform to the corporal's +gait. + +[Illustration] + +When the squad is acting alone, skirmish line is similarly formed on +No. 2 of the front rank, who stands fast or continues the march, as +the case may be; the corporal places himself in front of the squad +when advancing and in rear when halted. + +[Illustration] + +When deployed as skirmishers, the men march at ease, pieces at the +trail unless otherwise ordered. + +The corporal is the guide when in the line; otherwise No. 2 front rank +is the guide. (124) + +=171.= The normal interval between skirmishers is one-half pace, +resulting practically in one man per yard of front. The front of a +squad thus deployed as skirmishers is about 10 paces. (125) + + +To Increase or Diminish Intervals + +=172.= If assembled, and it is desired to deploy at greater than the +normal interval; or if deployed, and it is desired to increase or +decrease the internal: =1. As skirmishers, (so many) paces, 2. MARCH.= + +Intervals are taken at the indicated number of paces. If already +deployed, the men move by the flank toward or away from the guide. +(126) + + +The Assembly + +=173.= Being deployed: =1. Assemble. 2. MARCH.= + +The men move toward the corporal and form in their proper places. + +If the corporal continues to advance, the men move in double time, +form, and follow him. + +The assembly while marching to the rear is not executed. (127) + + +Kneeling and Lying Down + +=174.= If standing: =KNEEL.= + +Half face to the right; carry the right toe about 1 foot to the left +rear of the left heel; kneel on right knee, sitting as nearly as +possible on the right heel; left forearm across left thigh; piece +remains in position of order arms, right hand grasping it above lower +band. (128) + +[Illustration] + +=175.= If standing or kneeling: =LIE DOWN.= + +[Illustration] + +Kneel, but with right knee against left heel: + +[Illustration] + +carry back the left foot and lie flat on the belly, inclining body +about 35 deg. to the right + +[Illustration] + +piece horizontal, barrel up, muzzle off the ground and pointed to the +front; elbows on the ground; left hand at the balance, right hand +grasping the small of the stock opposite the neck. This is the +position of order arms, lying down. (129) + +=176.= If kneeling or lying down: =RISE.= + +If kneeling, stand up, faced to the front, on the ground marked by the +left heel. + +If lying down, raise body on both knees; stand up, faced to the front, +on the ground marked by the knees. (130) + +=177.= If lying down: =KNEEL.= + +Raise the body on both knees; take the position of kneel. (131) + +=178.= In double rank, the positions of kneeling and lying down are +ordinarily used only for the better utilization of cover. + +When deployed as skirmishers, a sitting position may be taken in lieu +of the position kneeling. (132) + + +Loadings and Firings + +=179.= The commands for loading and firing are the same whether +standing, kneeling, or lying down. The firings are always executed at +a halt. + +When kneeling or lying down in double rank, the rear rank does not +load, aim, or fire. + +The instruction in firing will be preceded by a command for loading. + +Loadings are executed in line and skirmish line only. (133) + +=180.= Pieces having been ordered loaded are kept loaded without +command until the command =unload=, or =inspection arms=, fresh clips +being inserted when the magazine is exhausted. (To execute with Krag +rifle see par. 700.) (134) + +=181.= The aiming point or target is carefully pointed out. This may +be done before or after announcing the sight setting. Both are +indicated before giving the command for firing, but may be omitted +when the target appears suddenly and is unmistakable; in such case +battle sight is used if no sight setting is announced. (135) + +=182.= The target or aiming point having been designated and the sight +setting announced, such designation or announcement need not be +repeated until a change of either or both is necessary. + +Troops are trained to continue their fire upon the aiming point or +target designated, and at the sight setting announced, until a change +is ordered. (136) + +=183.= If the men are not already in the position of load, that +position is taken at the announcement of the sight setting; if the +announcement is omitted, the position is taken at the first command +for firing. (137) + +=184.= When deployed, the use of the sling as an aid to accurate +firing is discretionary with each man. (138) + + +To Load + +=185.= Being in line or skirmish line at halt: + +=1. With dummy (blank or ball) cartridges, 2. LOAD.= + +[Illustration] + +At the command load each front-rank man or skirmisher faces half right +and carries the right foot to the right, about 1 foot, to such +position as will insure the greatest firmness and steadiness of the +body; raises, or lowers, the piece and drops it into the left hand at +the balance, the left thumb extended along the stock, muzzle at the +height of the breast, and turns the cut-off up. + +[Illustration] + +With the right hand he turns and draws the bolt back, + +[Illustration] + +takes a loaded clip and inserts the end in the clip slots, places the +thumb on the powder space of the top cartridge, the fingers extending +around the piece and tips resting on the magazine floor plate; forces +the cartridges into the magazine by pressing down with the thumb; +without removing the clip, thrusts the bolt home, turning down the +handle; turns the safety lock to the "=safe=," + +[Illustration] + +and carries the hand to the small of the stock. + +[Illustration] + +Each rear rank man moves to the right front, takes a similar position +opposite the interval to the right of his front rank man, muzzle of +the piece extending beyond the front rank and loads. + +A skirmish line may load while moving, the pieces being held as nearly +as practicable in the position of =load=. + +[Illustration] + +If kneeling or sitting, the position of the piece is similar; if +kneeling, the left forearm rests on the left thigh; + +[Illustration] + +if sitting the elbows are supported by the knees. + +[Illustration] + +If lying down, the left hand steadies and supports the piece at the +balance, the toe of the butt resting on the ground, the muzzle off the +ground. + +For reference, these positions (standing, kneeling, and lying down) +are designated as that of =load=. (For Krag rifle as prescribed in +701.) (139) + +=186.= For instruction in loading: =1. Simulate, 2. LOAD.= + +Executed as above described except that the cut-off remains "off" and +the handling of cartridges is simulated. + +The recruits are first taught to =simulate= loading and firing; after +a few lessons dummy cartridges may be used. Later, blank cartridges +may be used. (140) + +The rifle may be used as a single loader by turning the magazine +"off." The magazine may be filled in whole or in part while "off" or +"on" by pressing cartridges singly down and back until they are in the +proper place. The use of the rifle as a single loader is, however, to +be regarded as exceptional. (Explained for Krag rifle in par. 702.) +(141) + + +To Unload + +=187. UNLOAD.= + +Take the position of load, turn the safety lock up and move bolt +alternately back and forward until all the cartridges are ejected. +After the last cartridge is ejected the chamber is closed by first +thrusting the bolt slightly forward to free it from the stud holding +it in place when the chamber is open, pressing the follower down and +back to engage it under the bolt and then thrusting the bolt home; the +trigger is pulled. The cartridges are then picked up, cleaned, and +returned to the belt and the piece is brought to the order. (Explained +in par. 703 for Krag rifle.) (142) + + +To Set the Sight + +=188. RANGE, ELEVEN HUNDRED (EIGHT-FIFTY, etc.)=, or =BATTLE SIGHT=. + +The sight is set at the elevation indicated. The instructor explains +and verifies sight settings. (143) + + +To Fire by Volley + +=189. 1. Ready, 2. AIM, 3. Squad, 4. FIRE.= + +[Illustration] + +At the command =ready= turn the safety lock to the "ready"; + +[Illustration] + +at the command =aim= raise the piece with both hands and support the +butt firmly against the hollow of the right shoulder, right thumb +clasping the stock, barrel horizontal, left elbow well under the +piece, right elbow as high as the shoulder; incline the head slightly +forward and a little to the right, cheek against the stock, + +[Illustration] + +left eye closed, right eye looking through the notch of the rear sight +so as to perceive the object aimed at, second joint of the forefinger +resting lightly against the front of the trigger and taking up the +slack; top of front sight is carefully raised into, and held in, the +line of sight. + +[Illustration] + +Each rear-rank man aims through the interval to the right of his file +leader and leans slightly forward to advance the muzzle of his piece +beyond the front rank. + +[Illustration] + +In aiming kneeling, the left elbow rests on the left knee, point of +elbow in front of kneecap. + +[Illustration] + +In aiming sitting, the elbows are supported by the knees. + +[Illustration] + +In aiming, lying down, raise the piece with both hands; rest on both +elbows and press the butt firmly against the right shoulder. + +At the command =fire= press the finger against the trigger; fire +without deranging the aim and without lowering or turning the piece; +lower the piece in the position of =load= and load. (144) + +To continue the firing: =1. AIM, 2. Squad, 3. FIRE.= + +Each command is executed as previously explained. =Load= (from +magazine) is executed by drawing back and thrusting home the bolt with +the right hand, leaving the safety lock at the "ready." (145) + + +To Fire at Will + +=190. FIRE AT WILL.= + +Each man, independently of the others, comes to the =ready=, aims +carefully and deliberately at the aiming point or target, =fires=, +=loads=, and continues the firing until ordered to =suspend= or =cease +firing=. (146) + +=191.= To increase (decrease) the rate of fire in progress the +instructor shouts: =FASTER (SLOWER).= + +Men are trained to fire at the rate of about three shots per minute at +effective ranges and five or six at close ranges, devoting the minimum +of time to loading and the maximum to deliberate aiming. To illustrate +the necessity for deliberation, and to habituate men to combat +conditions, small and comparatively indistinct targets are designated. +(147) + + +To Fire by Clip + +=192. CLIP FIRE.= + +Executed in the same manner as =fire at will=, except that each man, +after having exhausted the cartridges then in the piece, =suspends +firing=. (For Krag rifle see par. 704.) (148) + + +To Suspend Firing + +=193.= The instructor blows a =long blast= of the whistle and repeats +same, if necessary, or commands: =SUSPEND FIRING.= + +Firing stops; pieces are held, loaded and locked, in a position of +readiness for instant resumption of firing, rear sights unchanged. The +men continue to observe the target or aiming point, or the place at +which the target disappeared, or at which it is expected to reappear. + +This whistle signal may be used as a preliminary to =cease firing=. +(149) + + +To Cease Firing + +=194. CEASE FIRING.= + +Firing stops; pieces not already there are brought to the position of +load; those not loaded, are loaded; sights are laid, pieces are locked +and brought to the order. + +=Cease firing= is used for long pauses, to prepare for changes of +position, or to steady the men. (For Krag rifle see par. 705.) (150) + +Commands for suspending or ceasing fire may be given at any time after +the preparatory command for firing whether the firing has actually +commenced or not. (151) + + +The Use of Cover + +=195. Individual instruction; things to be impressed upon the +recruit.= The recruit should be given careful instruction in the +individual use of cover. (152) + +It should be impressed upon him that, in taking advantage of natural +cover, he must be able to fire easily and effectively upon the enemy; +if advancing on an enemy, he must do so steadily and as rapidly as +possible; he must conceal himself as much as possible while firing and +while advancing. While setting his sight he should be under cover or +lying prone. + +=196. Practice in simulated firing from behind hillocks, trees, etc.; +firing around right side of concealment.= To teach him to fire easily +and effectively, at the same time concealing himself from the view of +the enemy, he is practiced in simulated firing in the prone, sitting, +kneeling, and crouching positions, from behind hillocks, trees, heaps +of earth or rocks, from depressions, gullies, ditches, doorways, or +windows. He is taught to fire around the right side of his concealment +whenever possible, or, when this is not possible, to rise enough to +fire over the top of his concealment. + +When these details are understood, he is required to select cover with +reference to an assumed enemy and to place himself behind it in proper +position for firing. (153) + +=197. Evil of remaining too long in one place; advancing from cover to +cover by running, crawling, etc.= The evil of remaining too long in +one place, however good the concealment, should be explained. He +should be taught to advance from cover to cover, selecting cover in +advance before leaving his concealment. + +It should be impressed upon him that a man running rapidly toward an +enemy furnishes a poor target. He should be trained in springing from +a prone position behind concealment, running at top speed to cover and +throwing himself behind it. He should also be practiced in advancing +from cover to cover by crawling, or by lying on the left side, rifle +grasped in the right hand, and pushing himself forward with the right +leg. (154) + +=198. Action when fired on while acting independently.= He should be +taught that, when fired on while acting independently, he should drop +to the ground, seek cover, and then endeavor to locate his enemy. +(155) + +=199. Proper advance and effectiveness of fire of greater importance +than cover.= The instruction of the recruit in the use of cover is +continued in the combat exercises of the company, but he must then be +taught that the proper advance of the platoon or company and the +effectiveness of its fire is of greater importance than the question +of cover for individuals. He should also be taught that he may not +move about or shift his position in the firing line except the better +to see the target. (156) + + +Observation + +=200. Importance of observation; training of recruit.= The ability to +use his eyes accurately is of great importance to the soldier. The +recruit should be trained in observing his surroundings from positions +and when on the march. + +He should be practiced in pointing out and naming military features of +the ground; in distinguishing between living beings; in counting +distant groups of objects or beings; in recognizing colors and forms. +(157) + +=201. Training in mechanism of firing line and estimating distance.= +In the training of men in the mechanism of the firing line, they +should be practiced in repeating to one another target and aiming +point designations and in quickly locating and pointing out a +designated target. They should be taught to distinguish, from a prone +position, distant objects, particularly troops, both with the naked +eye and with field glasses. Similarly, they should be trained in +estimating distances. (158) + + +SCHOOL OF THE COMPANY + +=202. Captain responsible for instruction of officers and +noncommissioned officers.= The captain is responsible for the +theoretical and practical instruction of his officers and +noncommissioned officers, not only in the duties of their respective +grades, but in those of the next higher grades. (159) + +=203. Formation of company in double rank, according to height; +division into squads.= The company in line is formed in double rank +with the men arranged, as far as practicable, according to height from +right to left, the tallest on the right. + +The original division into squads is effected by the command: =COUNT +OFF=. The squads, successively, from the right, count off as in the +School of the Squad, as explained in par. 153, corporals placing +themselves as Nos. 4 of the front rank. If the left squad contains +less than six men, it is either increased to that number by transfers +from other squads or is broken up and its members assigned to other +squads and posted in the line of file closers. These squad +organizations are maintained, by transfers if necessary, until the +company becomes so reduced in numbers as to necessitate a new division +into squads. No squad will contain less than six men. (160) + +=204. Division of company into platoons.= The company is further +divided into two, three or four platoons, each consisting of not less +than two, nor more than four squads. In garrison or ceremonies the +strength of platoons may exceed four squads. (161) + +=205. Designation of squads and platoons.= At the formation of the +company the platoons or squads are numbered consecutively from right +to left and these designations do not change. + +For convenience in giving commands and for reference, the +designations, =right, center, left=, when in line, and =leading, +center, rear=, when in column, are applied to platoons or squads. +These designations apply to the actual right, left, center, head, or +rear, in whatever direction the company may be facing. The =center +squad= is the middle or right middle squad of the company. + +The designation "So-and-so's" squad or platoon may also be used. +(162) + +=206. Assignment of platoons; assignment of guides.= Platoons are +assigned to the lieutenants and noncommissioned officers, in order of +rank, as follows: 1, right; 2, left; 3, center (right center); 4, left +center. + +[Illustration: Plate II] + +The noncommissioned officers next in rank are assigned as guides, one +to each platoon. If sergeants still remain, they are assigned to +platoons as additional guides. When the platoon is deployed, its +guide, or guides, accompany the platoon leader. + +During battle, these assignments are not changed; vacancies are filled +by noncommissioned officers of the platoon, or by the nearest +available officers or noncommissioned officers arriving with +reenforcing troops. (163) + +=207. Post of first sergeant, quartermaster sergeant and musicians.= +The first sergeant is never assigned as a guide. When not commanding a +platoon, he is posted as a file closer opposite the third file from +the outer flank of the first platoon; and when the company is deployed +he accompanies the captain. + +The quartermaster sergeant, when present, is assigned according to his +rank as a sergeant. + +Enlisted men below the grade of sergeant, armed with the rifle are in +ranks unless serving as guides; when not so armed they are posted in +the line of file closers. + +Musicians, when required to play, are at the head of the column. When +the company is deployed, they accompany the captain, and perform the +duties laid down in par. 272. (164) + +=208. Certain movements executed by company and by platoon as +prescribed in Schools of the Soldier and the Squad.= The company +executes the =halt=, =rests=, =facings=, =steps=, and =marchings=, +=manual of arms=, =loadings=, and =firings=, takes =intervals= and +=distances= and =assembles=, =increases= and =diminishes intervals=, +resumes =attention=, =obliques=, resumes the direct march, preserves +alignments, =kneels=, =lies down=, =rises=, =stacks=, and =takes +arms=, as explained in the Schools of the Soldier and the Squad, +substituting in the commands =company= for =squad=. + +The same rule applies to platoons, detachments, details, etc., +substituting their designation for =squad= in the commands. In the +same manner these execute the movements prescribed for the company, +whenever possible, substituting their designation for =company= in the +commands. (165) + +=209. Depleted company led as platoon.= A company so depleted as to +make division into platoons impracticable is led by the captain as a +single platoon, but retains the designation of company. The +lieutenants and first sergeant assist in fire control; the other +sergeants place themselves in the firing line as skirmishers. (166) + + +CLOSE ORDER + + +Rules + +=210. Platoon guides.= The guides of the right and left, or leading +and rear, platoons, are the right and left, or leading and rear, +guides, respectively, of the company when it is in line or in column +of squads. Other guides are in the line of =file closers=. + +In platoon movements the post of the platoon guide is at the head of +the platoon, if the platoon is in column, and on the guiding flank if +in line. When a platoon has two guides their original assignment to +flanks of the platoon does not change. (167) + +=211. Guides of a column of squads; changing guides and file closers +to opposite flank.= The guides of a column of squads place themselves +on the flank opposite the file closers. To change the guides and file +closers to the other flank, the captain commands: =1. File closers on +left (right) flank; 2. MARCH.= The file closers dart through the +column; the captain and guides change. + +In the column of squads, each rank preserves the alignment toward the +side of the guide. (168) + +=212. File closers do not execute loadings or firings; execution of +manual of arms and other movements.= Men in the line of file closers +do not execute the loadings or firings. + +Guides and enlisted men in the line of file closers execute the manual +of arms during the drill unless specially excused, when they remain at +the order. During ceremonies they execute all movements. (169) + +=213. Action of guides in taking intervals and distances.= In taking +intervals and distances, unless otherwise directed, the right and left +guides, at the first command, place themselves in the line of file +closers, and, with them, take a distance of 4 paces from the rear +rank. In taking intervals, at the command =march=, the file closers +face to the flank and each steps off with the file nearest him. In +assembling the guides and file closers resume their position in line. +(170) + +=214. Repetition of commands by platoon leaders in platoon drill.= In +movements executed simultaneously by platoons (=as platoons right or +platoons, column right=), platoon leaders repeat the preparatory +command (=platoon right=, etc.), applicable to their respective +platoons. The command of execution is given by the captain only. (171) + + +To Form the Company + +=215.= At the sounding of the assembly the first sergeant takes +position 6 paces in front of where the center of the company is to be, +faces it, draws saber, and commands: =FALL IN.= + +The right guide of the company places himself, facing to the front, +where the right of the company is to rest, and at such point that the +center of the company will be 6 paces from and opposite the first +sergeant; the squads form in their proper places on the left of the +right guide, superintended by the other sergeants, who then take their +posts. + +The first sergeant commands: =REPORT.= Remaining in position at the +order, the squad leaders, in succession from right, salute and report: +=All present=; or, =Private(s) ---- absent.= The first sergeant does +not return the salutes of the squad leaders; he then commands: =1. +Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Order, 4. ARMS=, faces about, salutes the +captain, reports: =Sir, all present or accounted for=, or the names of +the unauthorized absentees, and, without command, takes his post. + +If the company can not be formed by squads, the first sergeant +commands: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Right shoulder, 4. ARMS=, and +calls the roll. Each man, as his name is called, answers here and +executes order arms. The sergeant then effects the division into +squads and reports the company as prescribed above. + +The captain places himself 12 paces in front of the center of, and +facing, the company in time to receive the report of the first +sergeant, whose salute he returns, and then draws saber. + +The lieutenants take their posts when the first sergeant has reported +and draw saber with the captain. The company, if not under arms, is +formed in like manner omitting reference to arms. (172) + +=216.= For the instruction of platoon leaders and guides, the company, +when small, may be formed in single rank. In this formation close +order movements only are executed. The single rank executes all +movements as explained for the front rank of a company. (173) + + +To Dismiss the Company + +=217.= Being in line at a halt, the captain directs the first +sergeant: =Dismiss the company.= The officers fall out; the first +sergeant places himself faced to the front, 3 paces to the front and 2 +paces from the nearest flank of the company, salutes, faces toward +opposite flank of the company and commands: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, +3. Port, 4. ARMS, 5. DISMISSED.= (174) + + +Alignments + +=218.= The alignments are executed as prescribed in the School of the +Squad, the guide being established instead of the flank file. The +rear-rank man of the flank file keeps his head and eyes to the front +and covers his file leader. + +At each alignment the captain places himself in prolongation of the +line, 2 paces from and facing the flank toward which the dress is +made, verifies the alignment, and commands: =FRONT.= + +Platoon leaders take a like position when required to verify +alignments. (175) + + +Movements on the Fixed Pivot + +=219.= Being in line, to turn the company: =1. Company right (left), +2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT;= or, =3. Forward, 4. MARCH.= + +At the second command the right-flank man[1] in the front rank faces +to the right in marching and marks time; the other front-rank men +oblique to the right, place themselves abreast of the pivot, and mark +time; in the rear rank the third man from the right, followed in +column by the second and first, moves straight to the front until in +rear of his front-rank man, when all face to the right in marching and +mark time; the remaining men of the rear rank move straight to the +front 4 paces, oblique to the right, place themselves abreast of the +third man, cover their file leaders, and mark time, the right guide +steps back, takes post on the flank, and marks time. + +[Illustration] + +The fourth command is given when the last man is 1 pace in rear of the +new line. + +The command =halt= may be given at any time after the movement begins; +only those halt who are in the new position. Each of the others halts +upon arriving on the line, aligns himself to the right, and executes +=front= without command. (176) + +=220.= Being in line, to form column of platoons, or the reverse: =1. +Platoons right (left), 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT=; or, =3. +Forward, 4. MARCH.= + +[Illustration: FROM LINE TO COLUMN OF PLATOONS.] + +Executed by each platoon as described for the company. + +Before forming line the captain sees that the guides on the flank +toward which the movement is to be executed are covering. This is +effected by previously announcing the guide to that flank. (177) + +=221.= Being in line, to form column of squads, or the reverse; or, +being in line of platoons, to form column of platoons, or the reverse: +=1. Squads right (left), 2. MARCH=; or, =1. Squads right (left), 2. +MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT=. + +[Illustration: FROM LINE TO COLUMN OF SQUADS.] + +[Illustration: FROM LINE OF PLATOONS TO COLUMN OF PLATOONS.] + +Executed by each squad as described in the School of the Squad. + +If the company or platoons be formed in line toward the side of the +file closers, they dart through the column and take posts in rear of +the company at the second command. If the column of squads be formed +from line, the file closers take posts on the pivot flank, abreast of +and 4 inches from the nearest rank. (178) + + +Movements on the Moving Pivot + +=222.= Being in line, to change direction: =1. Right (Left) turn, 2. +MARCH, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +Executed as described in the School of the Squad, except that the men +do not glance toward the marching flank and that all take the full +step at the fourth command. The right guide is the pivot of the front +rank. Each rear-rank man obliques on the same ground as his file +leader. (179) + +=223.= Being in column of platoons, to change direction: =1. Column +right (left), 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +At the first command the leader of the leading platoon commands: +=Right turn.= At the command =march= the leading platoon turns to the +right on moving pivot; its leader commands: =1. Forward, 2. MARCH=, on +completion of the turn. Rear =platoons= march squarely up to the +turning point of the leading platoons =and turn= at command of their +leaders. (180) + +=224.= Being in column of squads, to change direction: =1. Column +right (left), 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +At the second command the front rank of the leading squad turns to the +right on moving pivot as in the School of the Squad; the other ranks, +without command turn successively on the same ground and in a similar +manner. (181) + +=225.= Being in column of squads, to form line of platoons or the +reverse: =1. Platoons, column right (left), 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF SQUADS TO LINE OF PLATOONS.] + +Executed by each platoon as described for the company. (182) + +=226.= Being in line, to form column of squads and change direction: +=1. Squads right (left), column right (left), 2. MARCH=; or, =1. Right +(Left) by squads, 2. MARCH.= + +In the first case the right squad initiates the =column right= as soon +as it has completed the =squad right=. + +[Illustration: SQUADS RIGHT COLUMN RIGHT.] + +In the second case, at the command =march=, the right squad marches +=forward=; the remainder of the company executes =squads right=, +=column left=, and follows the right squad. The right guide, when he +has posted himself in front of the squad, takes four short steps, then +resumes the full step; the right quad conforms. (183) + +[Illustration: RIGHT BY SQUADS.] + +=227.= Being in line, to form line of platoons: =1. Squads right +(left), platoons, column right (left), 2. MARCH=; or, =1. Platoons, +right (left) by squads, 2. MARCH=. + +[Illustration: FROM LINE TO LINE OF PLATOONS.] + +Executed by each platoon as described for the company in the preceding +paragraph. (184) + + +Facing or Marching to the Rear + +=228.= Being in line, line of platoons, or in column of platoons or +squads, to face or march to the rear: =1. Squads right (left) about, +2. MARCH=; or, =1. Squad right (left) about, 2. MARCH; 3. Company, 4. +HALT.= + +Executed by each squad as described in the School of the Squad. + +If the company or platoons be in column of squads, the file closers +turn about toward the column, and take their posts; if in line, each +darts through the nearest interval between squads. (185). + +=229.= To march to the rear for a few paces: =1. About, 2. FACE, 3. +Forward, 4. MARCH.= + +If in line, the guides place themselves in the rear rank, now the +front rank; the file closers, on facing about, maintain their relative +positions. No other movement is executed until the line is faced to +the original front. (186) + + +On Right (Left) Into Line + +=230.= Being in column of platoons or squads, to form line on right or +left: =1. On right (left) into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT, 5. +FRONT.= + +[Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF PLATOONS TO LINE ON RIGHT.] + +At the first command the leader of the leading unit commands: =Right +turn.= The leaders of the other units command: =Forward=, if at a +halt. At the second command the leading unit turns to the right on +moving pivot. The command halt is given when the leading unit has +advanced the desired distance in the new direction; it halts; its +leader then commands: =Right dress.= + +[Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF SQUADS TO LINE ON RIGHT.] + +The units in rear continue to march straight to the front; each, when +opposite the right of its place in line, executes right turn at the +command of its leader; each is halted on the line at the command of +its leader, who then commands: =Right dress.= All dress on the first +unit in line. + +If executed in double time, the leading squad marches in double time +until halted. (187) + + +Front Into Line + +=231.= Being in column of platoons or squads, to form line to the +front: =1. Right (Left) front into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. +HALT, 5. FRONT.= + +At the first command the leaders of the units in rear of the leading +one command: =Right oblique.= If at a halt, the leader of the leading +unit commands: =Forward.= At the second command the leading unit moves +straight forward; the rear units oblique as indicated. The command +=halt= is given when the leading unit has advanced the desired +distance; it halts; its leader then commands: =Left dress.= Each of +the rear units, when opposite its place in line, resumes the original +direction at the command of its leader; each is halted on the line at +the command of its leader, who then commands: =Left dress.= All dress +on the first unit in line. (188) + +=232.= Being in column of squads to form column of platoons, or being +line of platoons, to form the company in line: =1. Platoons, right +(left) front into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT, 5. FRONT.= + +[Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF SQUADS TO LINE TO THE FRONT.] + +[Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF PLATOONS TO LINE TO THE FRONT.] + +Executed by each platoon as described for the company. In forming the +company in line, the dress is on the left squad of the left platoon. +If forming column of platoons, platoon leaders verify the alignment +before taking their posts; the captain commands =front= when the +alignments have been verified. + +When =front into line= is executed in double time the commands for +halting and aligning are omitted and the guide is toward the side of +the first unit in line. (189) + + +At Ease and Route Step + +=233.= The column of squads is the habitual column of route, but +=route step= and =at ease= are applicable to any marching formation. +(190) + +To march at route step: =1. Route step, 2. MARCH.= + +Sabers are carried at will or in the scabbard; the men carry their +pieces at will, keeping the muzzles elevated; they are not required to +preserve silence, nor to keep the step. The ranks cover and preserve +their distance. If halted from route step, the men stand =at rest=. +(191) + +To march at ease: =1. At ease, 2. MARCH.= + +The company marches as in route step, except that silence is +preserved; when halted, the men remain =at ease=. (192) + +Marching at route step or at ease: =1. Company, 2. ATTENTION.= + +At the command =attention= the pieces are brought to the right +shoulder and the cadenced step in quick time is resumed. (193) + + +To Diminish The Front of A Column of Squads + +=234.= Being in column of squads: =1. Right (left) by twos, 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +At the command =march= all files except the two right files of the +leading squad execute =in place halt=; the two left files of the +leading squad oblique to the right when disengaged and follow the +right files at the shortest practicable distance. The remaining squads +follow successively in like manner. (194) + +=235.= Being in column of squads or twos: =1. Right (Left) by file, 2. +MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +At the command =march=, all files execute =in place halt= except the +right file of the leading two or squad. The left file or files of the +leading two or squad oblique successively to the right when disengaged +and each follows the file on its right at the shortest practicable +distance. The remaining twos or squads follow successively in like +manner. (195) + +Being in column of files or twos, to form column of squads; or, being +in column of files, to form column of twos: =1. Squads (Twos), right +(left) front into line, 2. MARCH.= + +At the command =march=, the leading file or files halt. The remainder +of the squad, or two, obliques to the right and halts on line with the +leading file or files. The remaining squads or twos close up and +successively form in rear of the first in like manner. + +[Illustration] + +This diagram illustrates a squad executing =LEFT= front into line. + +The movement described in this paragraph will be ordered =right= or +=left=, so as to restore the files to their normal relative positions +in the two or squad. (196) + +The movements prescribed in the three preceding paragraphs are +difficult of execution at attention and have no value as disciplinary +exercises. (197) + + +EXTENDED ORDER + + +Rules for Deployment + +=236. Designation of base squads.= The command =guide right= (=left= +or =center=) indicates the base squad for the deployment; if in line +it designates the actual =right= (=left= or =center=) squad; if in +column the command =guide right (left)= designates the =leading= +squad, and the command =guide center= designates the =center= squad, +as laid down in par. 205. After the deployment is completed, the guide +is =center= without command, unless otherwise ordered. (199) + +=237. Action of squad leaders at preparatory command for forming +skirmish line.= At the preparatory command for forming skirmish line, +from either column of squads or line, each squad leader (except the +leader of the base squad, when his squad does not advance) cautions +his squad, =follow me= or =by the right (left) flank=, as the case may +be; at the command march, he steps in front of his squad and leads it +to its place in line, as explained in par. 169. (200) + +=238. Point on which base squad marches.= Having given the command for +forming skirmish line, the captain, if necessary, indicates to the +corporal of the base squad the point on which the squad is to march; +the corporal habitually looks to the captain for such directions. +(201) + +=239. Deployment of the squads.= The base squad (par. 199) is deployed +as soon as it has sufficient interval. The other squads are deployed +as they arrive on the general line; each corporal halts in his place +in line and commands or signals, as =skirmishers= (executed as +prescribed in par. 170); the squad deploys and halts abreast of him. + +If tactical considerations demand it, the squad is deployed before +arriving on the line. (202) + +=240. Alignment of deployed lines; deployed line faces to front on +halting.= Deployed lines preserve a general alignment toward the +guide, as prescribed in par. 65. Within their respective fronts, +individuals or units march so as best to secure cover or to facilitate +the advance, but the general and orderly progress of the whole is +paramount. + +On halting, a deployed line faces to the front (direction of the +enemy) in all cases and takes advantage of cover, the men lying down +if necessary. (203) + +=241. Certain movements in extended order executed by same commands as +in close order.= The company in skirmish line =advances, halts=, moves +=by the flank=, or =to the rear, obliques=, resumes =the direct +march=, passes from =quick to double time= and the reverse by the same +commands and in a similar manner as in close order; if at a halt, the +movement by =the flank= or =to the rear= is executed by the same +commands as when marching. =Company right (left, half right, half +left)= is executed as explained for the front rank (in par. 165) +skirmish intervals being maintained. (See par. 171.) (204) + +=242. Deployment of platoons and detachments.= A platoon or other part +of the company is deployed and marched in the same manner as the +company, substituting in the commands, =platoon= (=detachments=, +etc.), for =company=. (205) + + +Deployments (See pars. 170-172.) + +=243.= Being in line, to form skirmish line to the front: =1. As +skirmishers, guide right (left or center), 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +If marching, the corporal of the base squad moves straight to the +front; when that squad has advanced the desired distance, the captain +commands: =1. Company, 2. HALT.= If the guide be =right (left)=, the +other corporals move to the =left (right)= front, and, in succession +from the base, place their squads on the line; if the guide be center, +the other corporals move to the right or left front, according as they +are on the right or left of the center squad, and in succession from +the center squad place their squads on the line. + +If at a halt, the base squad is deployed without advancing; the other +squads may be conducted to their proper places by the flank; interior +squads may be moved when squads more distant from the base have gained +comfortable marching distance. (206) + +=244.= Being in column of squads, to form skirmish line to the front: +=1. As skirmishers, guide right (left or center), 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration: GUIDE RIGHT.] + +[Illustration: GUIDE CENTER (MARCHING).] + +[Illustration: GUIDE CENTER (AT A HALT).] + +If marching, the corporal of the base squad deploys it and moves +straight to the front; if at a halt, he deploys his squad without +advancing. If the guide be =right (left)=, the other corporals move to +the =left (right) front=, and, in succession from the base, place +their squads on the line; if the guide be =center=, the corporals in +front of the center squad move to the right (if at a halt, to the +right rear), the corporals in rear of the center squad move to the +left front, and each, in succession from the base, places his squad on +the line. + +The column of twos or files is deployed by the same commands and in +like manner. (207) + +=245. Deployment in an oblique direction.= The company in line or in +column of squads may be deployed in an oblique direction by the same +commands. The captain points out the desire direction; the corporal of +the base squad moves in the direction indicated; the other corporals +conform. (208) + +=246. Deployment to flank or rear.= To form skirmish line to the flank +or rear the line or the column of squads is turned by squads to the +flank or rear and then deployed as described. (209) + +=247. Increasing or decreasing intervals.= The intervals between men +are increased or decreased as described in the School of the Squad, as +explained in par. 172, adding to the preparatory command, =guide right +(left or center)= if necessary, as explained in par. 236. (210) + + +The Assembly + +=248.= The captain takes his post in front of, or designates, the +element on which the company is to assemble and commands: =1. +Assemble, 2. MARCH.= + +If in skirmish line the men move promptly toward the designated point +and the company is reformed in line. If assembled by platoons, these +are conducted to the designated point by platoon leaders, and the +company is reformed in line. + +Platoons may be assembled by the command: =1. Platoons, assemble, 2. +MARCH.= + +Executed by each platoon as described for the company. + +One or more platoons may be assembled by the command: =1. Such platoon +(s), assemble, 2. MARCH.= + +Executed by the designated platoon or platoons as described for the +company. (211) + + +The Advance + +=249. Methods of advancing.= The advance of a company into an +engagement (whether for attack or defense) is conducted in close +order, preferably column of squads, until the probability of +encountering hostile fire makes it advisable to deploy. After +deployment, and before opening fire, the advance of the company may be +continued in skirmish line or other suitable formation, depending upon +circumstances. The advance may often be facilitated, or better +advantage taken of cover, or losses reduced by the employment of the +=platoon= or =squad columns=, as laid down in pars. 250-251, or by the +use of a =succession of thin lines=, as explained in par. 255. The +selection of the method to be used is made by the captain or major, +the choice depending upon conditions arising during the progress of +the advance. If the deployment is found to be premature, it will +generally be best to assemble the company and proceed in close order. + +Patrols are used to provide the necessary security against surprise. +(212) + +=250.= Being in skirmish line: =1. Platoon columns, 2 MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +The platoon leaders move forward through the center of their +respective platoons; men to the right of the platoon leader march to +the left and follow him in file; those to the left march in like +manner to the right; each platoon leader thus conducts the march of +his platoon in double column of files; platoon guides follow in rear +of their respective platoons to insure prompt and orderly execution of +the advance. (213) + +=251.= Being in skirmish line: =1. Squad columns, 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +Each squad leader moves to the front; the members of each squad +oblique toward and follow their squad leader in single file at easy +marching distances. (214) + +=252.= Platoon columns are profitably used where the ground is so +difficult or cover so limited as to make it desirable to take +advantage of the few favorable routes; no two platoons should march +within the area of burst of a single shrapnel[2]. =Squad columns= are +of value principally in facilitating the advance over rough or +brush-grown ground; they afford no material advantage in securing +cover. (215) + +=253.= To deploy platoon or squad columns: =1. As skirmishers, 2. +MARCH.= + +Skirmishers move to the right or left front and successively place +themselves in their original positions on the line. (216) + +[Illustration] + +=254.= Being in platoon or squad columns: =1. Assemble, 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration: ASSEMBLY MADE ON RIGHT PLATOON.] + +[Illustration: ASSEMBLY MADE ON RIGHT SQUAD.] + +The platoon or squad leaders signal =assemble=. The men of each +platoon or squad, as the case may be, advance and, moving to the right +and left, take their proper places in line, each unit assembling on +the leading element of the column and re-forming in line. The platoon +or squad leaders conduct their units toward the element or point +indicated by the captain, and to their places in line; the company is +reformed in line. (217) + +=255.= Being in skirmish line, to advance by a succession of =thin +lines=: =1. (Such numbers), forward, 2. MARCH.= + +The captain points out in advance the selected position in front of +the line occupied. The designated number of each squad moves to the +front; the line thus formed preserves the original intervals as nearly +as practicable; when this line has advanced a suitable distance +(generally from 100 to 250 yards, depending upon the terrain and the +character of the hostile fire), a second is sent forward by similar +commands, and so on at irregular distances until the whole line has +advanced. Upon arriving at the indicated position, the first line is +halted. Successive lines, upon arriving, halt on line with the first +and the men take their proper places in the skirmish line. + +Ordinarily each line is made up of one man per squad and the men of a +squad are sent forward in order from right to left as deployed. The +first line is led by the platoon leader of the right platoon, the +second by the guide of the right platoon, and so on in order from +right to left. + +The advance is conducted in quick time unless conditions demand a +faster gait. + +The company having arrived at the indicated position, a further +advance by the same means may be advisable. (218) + +=256. Use and purpose of advance in succession of thin lines.= The +advance in a succession of thin lines is used to cross a wide stretch +swept, or likely to be swept, by artillery fire or heavy, long-range +rifle fire which cannot profitably be returned. Its purpose is the +building up of a strong skirmish line preparatory to engaging in a +fire fight. This method of advancing results in serious (though +temporary) loss of control over the company. Its advantage lies in the +fact that it offers a less definite target, hence is less likely to +draw fire. (219) + +=257. Improvised formations.= The above are suggestions. Other and +better formations may be devised to fit particular cases. The best +formation is the one which advances the line farthest with the least +loss of men, time, and control. (220) + + +The Fire Attack + +=258. Advance of firing line; advance by rushes.= The principles +governing the advance of the firing line in attack are considered in +the School of the Battalion. (See par. 342-356.) + +When it becomes impracticable for the company to advance as whole by +ordinary means, it advances by rushes. (221) + +=259. Advancing by rushes.= Being in skirmish line: =1. By platoon +(two platoons, squad, four men, etc.), from the right (left), 2. +RUSH.= + +The platoon leader on the indicated flank carefully arranges the +details for a prompt and vigorous execution of the rush and puts it +into effect as soon as practicable. If necessary, he designates the +leader for the indicated fraction. When about to rush, he causes the +men of the fraction to cease firing and to hold themselves flat, but +in readiness to spring forward instantly. The leader of the rush (at +the signal of the platoon leader, if the latter be not the leader of +the rush) commands: Follow me, and running at top speed, leads the +fraction to the new line, where he halts it and causes it to open +fire. The leader of the rush selects the new line if it has not been +previously designated. + +The first fraction having established itself on the new line, the next +like fraction is sent forward by its platoon leader, without further +command of the captain, and so on successively, until the entire +company is on the line established by the first rush. + +If more than one platoon is to join in one rush, the junior platoon +leader conforms to the action of the senior. + +A part of the line having advanced, the captain may increase or +decrease the size of the fractions to complete the movement. (222) + +=260. Rush of company as whole led by captain.= When the company forms +a part of the firing line, the rush of the company as a whole is +conducted by the captain, as described for a platoon in the preceding +paragraph. The captain leads the rush; platoon leaders lead their +respective platoons; platoon guides follow the line to insure prompt +and orderly execution of the advance. (223) + +=261. Advance by crawling or otherwise.= When the foregoing method of +rushing, by running, becomes impracticable, any method of advance that +=brings the attack closer to the enemy=, such as crawling, should be +employed. + +For regulations governing the charge, see paragraphs 355 and 356. +(224) + + (All rushes should be made with life and ginger, and all the men + should start together. All rushes should be made under covering + fire, and when a unit rushes forward the adjoining unit or units + make up for the loss of fire thus caused by increasing the rate of + their fire. + + A unit commander about to rush forward, will not do so until he + sees that the adjoining unit or units have started to give him the + protection of their covering fire and, if necessary, he will call + to them to do so. Each unit must be careful not to advance until + the last unit that rushed forward has had time to take up an + effective fire. When sights have to be adjusted at the conclusion + of a rush, the men should do so in the prone position even though + it be necessary for the men to kneel for firing. The same as the + men who rush should start simultaneously from the prone position, + so should they stop simultaneously, all men dropping down to the + ground together, wherever they may be, at the command "Down," + given by the unit commander when the leading men have reached the + new position. The slower members who drop down in rear will crawl + up to the line after the halt. So that the slower members may not + be crowded out of the line, and also to prevent bunching, the + faster men should leave room for them on the line.--Author.) + + +The Company in Support + +(Being part of a battalion) + +=262. Formations adopted by support.= To enable it to follow or reach +the firing line, the support adopts suitable formations, following the +principles explained in paragraphs 249-255. + +The support should be kept assembled as long as practicable. If after +deploying a favorable opportunity arises to hold it for some time in +close formation, it should be reassembled. It is redeployed when +necessary. (225) + +=263. Support controlled by major: size of reenforcement; captain on +look out for major's signals.= The movements of the support as a whole +and the dispatch of reenforcements from it to the firing line are +controlled by the major. + +A reenforcement of less than one platoon has little influence and will +be avoided whenever practicable. (See par. 353.) + +The captain of a company in support is constantly on the alert for the +major's signals or commands. (226) + +=264. Reenforcement to join firing line deployed as skirmishers and +occupy existing intervals.= A reenforcement sent to the firing line +joins it deployed as skirmishers. The leader of the reenforcement +places it in an interval in the line, if one exists, and commands it +thereafter as a unit. If no such suitable interval exists, the +reenforcement is advanced with increased intervals between +skirmishers; each man occupies the nearest interval in the firing +line, and each then obeys the orders of the nearest squad leader and +platoon leader. (227) + +=265. Promptness in reenforcing firing line.= A reenforcement joins +the firing line as quickly as possible without exhausting the men. +(228) + +=266. Original platoon divisions to be maintained; duties of officers +and sergeants upon joining firing line.= The original platoon division +of the companies in the firing line should be maintained and should +not be broken up by the mingling of reenforcements. + +Upon joining the firing line, officers and sergeants accompanying a +reenforcement take over the duties of others of like grade who have +been disabled, or distribute themselves so as best to exercise their +normal functions. Conditions will vary and no rules can be prescribed. +It is essential that all assist in mastering the increasing +difficulties of control. (229) + + +The Company Acting Alone + +=267. Employed according to principles of battalion acting alone.= In +general, the company, when acting alone, is employed according to the +principles applicable to the battalion acting alone as laid down in +pars. 327-363; the captain employs platoons as the major employs +companies, making due allowance for the difference in strength. + +The support may be smaller in proportion or may be dispensed with. +(230) + +=268. Protection against surprise.= The company must be well protected +against surprise. Combat patrols on the flanks are especially +important as explained in par. 410. Each leader of a flank platoon +details a man to watch for the signals of the patrol or patrols on his +flank. (231) + + +FIRE + +=269. Issuing of ammunition and loading of pieces before deployment; +firings in close order.= Ordinarily pieces are loaded and extra +ammunition is issued before the company deploys for combat. + +In close order the company executes the firings, as prescribed in +pars. 179-194, at the command of the captain, who posts himself in +rear of the center of the company. + +Usually the firings in close order consist of saluting volleys only. +(See par. 189 for volley firing.) (232) + +=270. Firing controlled by platoon leaders.= When the company is +deployed, the men execute the firings at the command of their platoon +leaders; the latter give such commands as are necessary to carry out +the captain's directions, and, from time to time, add such further +commands as are necessary to continue, correct, and control, the fire +ordered. (233) + +=271. Use of signals during firing.= The voice is generally inadequate +for giving commands during fire and must be replaced by signals of +such character that proper fire direction and control is assured. (See +par. 92 for signals; pars. 285-286 for fire direction and pars. +287-290 for fire control.) To attract attention, signals must usually +be preceded by the whistle signal (short blast). A fraction of the +firing line about to rush should, if practicable, avoid using the long +blast signal as an aid to cease firing. (See par. 91.) Officers and +men behind the firing line can not ordinarily move freely along the +line, but must depend on mutual watchfulness and the proper use of the +prescribed signals. All should post themselves so as to see their +immediate superiors and subordinates. (234) + +=272. Duties of musicians.= The musicians assist the captain by +observing the enemy, the target, and the fire-effect, by transmitting +commands or signals, and by watching for signals. (For posts of +musicians see par. 207.) (235) + +=273. Blank Cartridges.= Firing with blank cartridges at an outlined +or represented enemy (par. 7) at distances less than 100 yards is +prohibited. (236) + +=274. Effect of fire and influence of ground.= The effect of fire and +the influence of the ground in relation thereto, and the individual +and collective instruction in marksmanship, are treated in the +Small-Arms Firing Manual. (237) + + +Ranges + +=275. Classification.= For convenience of reference, ranges are +classified as follows: + + 0 to 600 yards, close range. + 600 to 1,200 yards, effective range. + 1,200 to 2,000 yards, long range. + 2,000 yards and over, distant range. (238) + +=276. Determination of distance to target.= The distance to the target +must be determined as accurately as possible and the sights set +accordingly. Aside from training and morale, this is the most +important single factor in securing effective fire at the longer +ranges. (239) + +=277. Method of determining the range; estimators.= + +Except in a deliberately prepared defensive position, the most +accurate and only practicable method of determining the range will +generally be to take the mean of several estimates. + +Five or six officers or men, selected from the most accurate +estimators in the company, are designated as _range estimators_ and +are specially trained in estimating distances. + +Whenever necessary and practicable, the captain assembles the range +estimators, points out the target to them, and adopts the mean of +their estimates. The range estimators then take their customary posts. +(240) + + +Classes of Firing + +=278. Volley firing=, as explained in par. 189, has limited +application. In defense it may be used in the early stages of the +action if the enemy presents a large compact target. It may be used by +troops executing =fire of position=, as set forth in par. 438. When +the ground near the target is such that the strike of bullets can be +seen from the firing line, =ranging volleys= may be used to correct +the sight setting. + +In combat, volley firing is executed habitually by platoon. (241) + +=279. Fire at will=, as explained in par. 190, is the class of fire +normally employed in attack or defense. (242) + +=280. Clip fire= (see par. 192.) has limited application. It is +principally used: 1. In the early stages of combat, to steady the men +by habituating them to brief pauses in firing. 2. To produce a short +burst of fire. (243) + + +The Target + +=281. Assignment of target by major; change of target to be avoided; +hostile firing line usual target.= Ordinarily the major will assign to +the company an objective in attack or sector in defense; the company's +target will lie within the limits so assigned. In the choice of +target, tactical considerations are paramount; the nearest hostile +troops within the objective or sector will thus be the usual target. +This will ordinarily be the hostile firing line; troops in rear are +ordinarily proper targets for artillery, machine guns, or, at times, +infantry employing fire of position, as set forth in par. 438. + +Change of target should not be made without excellent reasons +therefor, such as the sudden appearance of hostile troops under +conditions which make them more to be feared than the troops +comprising the former target. (244) + +=282. Distribution of fire; allotment of target to platoon leaders.= +The distribution of fire over the entire target is of special +importance. + +The captain allots a part of the target to each platoon, or each +platoon leader takes as his target that part which corresponds to his +position in the company. Men are so instructed that each fires on +that part of the target which is directly opposite him. (245) + +=283. All Parts of target equally important.= All parts of the target +are equally important. Care must be exercised that the men do not +slight its less visible parts. A section of the target not covered by +fire represents a number of the enemy permitted to fire coolly and +effectively. (246) + +=284. Use of aiming points in case of invisible targets.= + +If the target can not be seen with the naked eye, platoon leaders +select an object in front of or behind it, designate this as the +_aiming target_, and direct a sight setting which will carry the cone +of fire into the target. (247) + + +Fire Direction[3] + +=285. Impracticability in combat of commanding company directly.= When +the company is large enough to be divided into platoons, it is +impracticable for the captain to command it directly in combat. His +efficiency in managing the firing line is measured by his ability to +enforce his will through the platoon leaders. Having indicated clearly +what he desires them to do, he avoids interfering except to correct +serious errors or omissions. (248) + +=286. Captain directs the fire.= The captain =directs= the fire of the +company or of designated platoons. He designates the target, and, when +practicable, allots a part of the target to each platoon, as +prescribed in par. 340. Before beginning the fire action he determines +the range, as explained in par. 277, announces the sight setting, as +prescribed in par. 188, and indicates the class of fire to be employed +(See par. 278) and the time to open fire. Thereafter, he observes the +fire effect (See pars. 428-429), corrects material errors in sight +setting, prevents exhaustion of the ammunition supply, as explained in +par. 432-433, and causes the distribution of such extra ammunition as +may be received from the rear. (249) + + +Fire Control + +=287. Platoon the fire unit.= In combat, the platoon is the fire unit. +From 20 to 35 rifles are as many as one leader can control +effectively. (250) + +=288. Special duties of platoon leaders.= Each platoon leader puts +into execution the commands or directions of the captain, having first +taken such precautions to insure correct sight setting and clear +description of the target or aiming target as the situation permits or +requires; thereafter, he gives such additional commands or directions +as are necessary to exact compliance with the captain's will. He +corrects the sight setting when necessary. He designates an aiming +target when the target can not be seen with the naked eye. (251) + +=289. General duties of platoon leaders; duties of platoon guides and +squad leaders.= In general, =platoon leaders= observe the target and +the effect of their fire and are on the alert for the captain's +commands or signals; they observe and regulate the rate of fire, as +laid down in par. 191. The =platoon guides= watch the firing line and +check every breach of fire discipline. (See pars. 291-294.) =Squad +leaders= transmit commands and signals when necessary, observe the +conduct of their squads and abate excitement, assist in enforcing fire +discipline and participate in the firing. (252) + +=290. Importance of fire control.= The best troops are those that +submit longest to fire control. Loss of control is an evil which robs +success of its greatest results. To avoid or delay such loss should be +the constant aim of all. + +Fire control implies the ability to stop firing, change the sight +setting and target, and resume a well directed fire. (253) + + +Fire Discipline + +=291. What fire discipline implies.= "Fire discipline implies, besides +a habit of obedience, a control of the rifle by the soldier, the +result of training, which will enable him in action to make hits +instead of misses. It embraces taking advantage of the ground; care in +setting the sight and delivery of fire; constant attention to the +orders of the leaders, and careful observation of the enemy; an +increase of fire when the target is favorable, and a cessation of fire +when the enemy disappears; economy of ammunition." (See pars. +432-433.) (Small-Arms Firing Manual.) + +In combat, shots which graze the enemy's trench or position and thus +reduce the effectiveness of his fire have the approximate value of +hits; such shots only, or actual hits, contribute toward fire +superiority. + +Fire discipline implies that, in a firing line without leaders, each +man retains his presence of mind and directs effective fire upon the +proper target. (254) + +=292. Rate of fire.= To create a correct appreciation of the +requirements of fire discipline, men are taught that the rate of fire, +as prescribed in par. 191, should be as rapid as is consistent with +accurate aiming; that the rate will depend upon the visibility, +proximity, and size of the target; and that the proper rate will +ordinarily suggest itself to each trained man, usually rendering +cautions or commands unnecessary. + +In attack the highest rate of fire is employed at the halt preceding +the assault, and in pursuing fire. (See pars. 490-494.) (255) + +=293. Position fire in advance by rushes.= In an advance by rushes, as +explained in par. 259, leaders of troops in firing positions are +responsible for the delivery of heavy fire to cover the advance of +each rushing fraction. Troops are trained to change slightly the +direction of fire so as not to endanger the flanks of advanced +portions of the firing line. (256) + +=294. Action in defense, when target disappears.= In defense, when the +target disappears behind cover, platoon leaders suspend fire, as +prescribed in par. 193, prepare their platoons to fire upon the point +where it is expected to reappear, and greet its reappearance instantly +with vigorous fire. (257) + + +SCHOOL OF THE BATTALION + +=295. Battalion a tactical unit; duties and responsibilities of +major.= The battalion being purely a tactical unit, the major's duties +are primarily those of an instructor in drill and tactics and of a +tactical commander. He is responsible for the theoretical and +practical training of the battalion. He supervises the training of +the companies of the battalion with a view to insuring the +thoroughness and uniformity of their instruction. + +In the instruction of the battalion as a whole, his efforts will be +directed chiefly to the development of tactical efficiency, devoting +only such time to the mechanism of drill and to the ceremonies as may +be necessary in order to insure precision, smartness, and proper +control. (258) + +=296. Movements explained for battalion of four companies.= The +movements explained herein are on the basis of a battalion of four +companies; they may be executed by a battalion of two or more +companies, not exceeding six. (259) + +=297. Arrangement of companies in formations.= The companies are +generally arranged from right to left according to the rank of the +captains present at the formation. The arrangement of the companies +may be varied by the major or higher commander. + +After the battalion is formed, no cognizance is taken of the relative +order of the companies. (260) + +=298. Designation of companies.= In whatever direction the battalion +faces, the companies are designated numerically from right to left in +line, and from head to rear in column, =first company=, =second +company=, etc. + +The terms =right= and =left= apply to actual right and left as the +line faces; if the about by squads be executed when in line, the right +company becomes the left company and the right center becomes the left +center company. + +The designation center company indicates the right center or the +actual center company according as the number of companies is even or +odd. (261) + +=299. Post of special units.= The band and other special units, when +attached to the battalion, take the same post with respect to it as if +it were the nearest battalion. (262) + + +CLOSE ORDER + + +Rules + +=300. Repetition of commands by captains.= Captains repeat such +preparatory commands as are to be immediately executed by their +companies, as =forward=, =squads right=, etc.; the men execute the +commands =march=, =halt=, etc., if applying to their companies, when +given by the major. In movements executed in route step or at ease the +captains repeat the command of execution, if necessary. Captains do +not repeat the major's commands in executing the manual of arms, nor +those commands which are not essential to the execution of a movement +by their companies, as =column of squads=, =first company=, =squads +right=, etc. + +In giving commands or cautions captains may prefix the proper letter +designations of their companies, as =A Company, HALT=; =B Company, +squads right=, etc. (263) + +=301. Captains repeating command for guide.= At the command =guide +center (right or left)=, captains command: =Guide right or left=, +according to the positions of their companies. =Guide center= +designates the left guide of the center company, as explained in 3d +Sec. par. 298. (264) + +[Illustration: Plate III] + +=302. Position of captains in dressing companies; action of guides in +dressing.= When the companies are to be dressed, captains place +themselves on that flank toward which the dress is to be made, as +follows: + +The battalion in line: Besides the guide (or the flank file of the +front rank, if the guide is not in line) and facing to the front. + +The battalion in column of companies: Two paces from the guide, in +prolongation of and facing down the line. + +Each captain, after dressing his company, commands: =FRONT=, and takes +his post. + +The battalion being in line and unless otherwise prescribed, at the +captain's command =dress= or at the command =halt=, when it is +prescribed that the company shall dress, the guide on the flank away +from the point of rest with his piece at right shoulder, dresses +promptly on the captain and the companies beyond. During the dress he +moves, if necessary, to the right and left only; the captain dresses +the company on the line thus established. The guide takes the position +of order arms at the command =front=. (265) + +=303. Certain movements executed as in Schools of the Soldier, Squad +and Company.= =The battalion executes the halt= (See par. 116), +=rests= (See pars. 100-101), =facings= (See par. 104), =steps= and +=marchings= (See pars. 107-109), =manual of arms= (See pars. 120-147), +resumes =attention= (See par. 102), =kneels= (See pars. 174-177), +=lies down= (See par. 175), =rises= (See par. 176), =stacks= and +=takes arms= (See pars. 160-161), as explained in the Schools of the +Soldier and Squad, substituting in the commands =battalion= for +=squad=. + +The battalion executes =squads right (left)= (See par. 221), =squads +right (left) about= (See par. 228), =route step= and =at ease= (See +par. 233), and =obliques= and resumes the =direct march= (See pars. +162-163), as explained in the School of the Company. (266) + +=304. Certain movements executed as in School of the Company.= The +battalion in column of platoons, squads, twos, or files changes +direction. (See pars. 223-224); in column of squads, forms column of +twos or files and re-forms columns of twos or squads, as explained in +the School of the Company. (See pars. 234-235.) (267) + +=305. Simultaneous execution by companies or platoons of movements in +School of the Company.= When the formation admits of the simultaneous +execution by companies or platoons of movements in the School of the +Company the major may cause such movement to be executed by prefixing, +when necessary, =companies (platoons)= to the commands prescribed +therein: As =1. Companies, right front into line, 2. MARCH.= To +complete such simultaneous movements, the commands =halt= or =march=, +if prescribed, are given by the major. The command =front=, when +prescribed, is given by the captains. (See par. 302.) (268) + +=306. Execution of loadings and firings by battalion.= The battalion +as a unit executes the loadings and firings only in firing saluting +volleys. The commands are as for the company, substituting =battalion= +for =company=. At the first command for loading, captains take post in +rear of the center of their respective companies. At the conclusion of +the firing, the captains resume their posts in line. + +On other occasions, when firing in close order is necessary, it is +executed by company or other subdivision, under instructions from the +major, as prescribed in pars. 179-194. (269) + + +To Form the Battalion + +=307. For purposes other than ceremonies:= The battalion is formed in +column of squads. The companies having been formed, the adjutant posts +himself so as to be facing the column, when formed, and 6 paces in +front of the place to be occupied by the leading guide of the +battalion; he draws saber; =adjutant's call= is sounded or the +adjutant signals =assemble=. + +The companies are formed, at attention, in column of squads in their +proper order. Each captain, after halting his company, salutes the +adjutant; the adjutant returns the salute and, when the last captain +has saluted, faces the major and reports: =Sir, the battalion is +formed.= He then joins the major. (270) + +=308. For ceremonies or when directed:= The battalion is formed in +line. + +The companies having been formed, the adjutant posts himself so as to +be 6 paces to the right of the right company when line is formed, and +faces in the direction in which the line is to extend. He draws saber; +=adjutant's call= is sounded; the band plays if present. + +The right company is conducted by its captain so as to arrive from the +rear, parallel to the line; its right and left guides precede it on +the line by about 20 paces, taking post facing to the right at order +arms, so that their elbows will be against the breasts of the right +and left files of their company when it is dressed. The guides of the +other companies successively prolong the line to the left in like +manner and the companies approach their respective places in line as +explained for the right company. The adjutant, from his post, causes +the guides to cover. + +When about 1 pace in rear of the line, each company is halted and +dressed to the right against the arms of the guides. (See par. 302.) + +The band, arriving from the rear, takes its place in line when the +right company is halted; it ceases playing when the left company has +halted. + +When the guides of the left company have been posted, the adjutant, +moving by the shortest route, takes post facing the battalion midway +between the post of the major and the center of the battalion. + +The major, staff, noncommissioned staff, and orderlies take their +posts, as prescribed in pars. 73; 76-78. + +When all parts of the line have been dressed, and officers and others +have reached their posts, the adjutant commands: =1. Guides, 2. POSTS, +3. Present, 4. ARMS.= At the second command guides take their places +in the line. (Plate II, page 69.) The adjutant then turns about as +explained in par. 74, and reports to the major: =Sir, the battalion is +formed=, as prescribed in par. 75; the major directs the adjutant: +=Take your post, Sir=; draws saber and brings the battalion to the +=order=. The adjutant takes his post, passing to the right of the +major. (271) + + +To Dismiss the Battalion + +=309. Dismiss your companies.= + +Staff and noncommissioned staff officers fall out; each captain +marches his company off and dismisses it, as laid down in par. 217. +(272) + + +To Rectify the Alignment + +=310.= Being in line at a halt, to align the battalion: =1. Center +(right or left), 2. DRESS.= + +The captains dress their companies successively toward the center +(right or left) guide of the battalion, each as soon as the captain +next toward the indicated guide commands: =FRONT.= The captains of the +center companies (if the dress is =center=) dress them without waiting +for each other. (273) + +=311.= To give the battalion a new alignment: =1. Guides center (right +or left) company on the line, 2. Guides on the line, 3. Center (right +or left), 4. DRESS, 5. Guides, 6. POSTS.= + +At the first command, the designated guides place themselves on the +line, as prescribed in par. 308, facing the center (right or left). +The major establishes them in the direction he wishes to give the +battalion. + +At the second command, the guides of the other companies take posts, +facing the center (right or left), so as to prolong the line. + +At the command =dress=, each captain dresses his company to the flank +toward which the guides of his company face, taking the positions +prescribed in par. 302. + +At the command =posts=, given when all companies have completed the +dress, the guides return to their posts. (Plate II, page 69.) (274) + + +To Rectify the Column + +=312.= Being in column of companies, or in close column, at a halt, if +the guides do not cover or have not their proper distances, and it is +desired to correct them, the major commands: =1. Right (left), 2. +DRESS.= + +Captains of companies in rear of the first place their right guides so +as to cover at the proper distance; each captain aligns his company to +the right and commands: =FRONT.= (See par. 302.) (275) + + +On Right (Left) Into Line + +=313.= Being in column of squads or companies: =1. On right (left) +into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Battalion, 4. HALT.= + +Being in column of squads: At the first command, the captain of the +leading company commands; =Squads right.= If at a halt each captain in +rear commands: =Forward.= At the second command, the leading company +marches in line to the right; the companies in rear continue to march +to the front and form successively on the left, each, when opposite +its place, being marched in line to the right. + +[Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF SQUADS TO LINE ON RIGHT.] + +[Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF COMPANIES TO LINE ON RIGHT.] + +The fourth command is given when the first company has advanced the +desired distance in the new direction; it halts and is dressed to the +right by its captain (par. 265); the others complete the movement, +each being halted 1 pace in rear of the line established by the first +company, and then dressed to the right. + +Being in column of companies: At the first command, the captain of the +first company commands: =Right turn.= If at a halt, each captain in +rear commands: =Forward.= Each of the captains in rear of the leading +company gives the command: =1. Right turn=, in time to add, =2. +MARCH=, when his company arrives opposite the right of its place in +line. + +The fourth command is given and the movement completed as explained +above. + +Whether executed from column of squads or column of companies, each +captain places himself so as to march beside the right guide after his +company forms line or changes direction to the right. + +If executed in double time, the leading company marches in double time +until halted. (276) + + +Front into Line + +=314.= Being in column of squads or companies: =1. Right (left) front +into line, 2. MARCH.= + +Being in column of squads: At the first command, the captain of the +leading company commands: =Column right=; the captain of the companies +in rear: =column half right.= At the second command the leading +company executes =column right=, and, as the last squad completes the +change of direction, is formed in line to the left, as prescribed in +par. 221, halted and dressed to the left. (See par. 302.) Each of the +companies in rear is conducted by the most convenient route to the +rear of the right of the preceding company, thence to the right, +parallel to and 1 pace in rear of the new line; when opposite its +place, it is formed in line to the left, halted, and dressed to the +left. + +[Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF SQUADS TO LINE TO THE FRONT.] + +[Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF COMPANIES TO LINE TO THE FRONT.] + +Being in column of companies: If marching, the captain of the leading +company gives the necessary commands to halt his company at the second +command; if at a halt the leading company stands fast. At the first +command, the captain of each company in rear commands: =Squads right=, +or =Right by squads=, and after the second command conducts his +company by the most convenient route to its place in line, as +described above. + +Whether executed from column of squads or column of companies, each +captain halts when opposite, or at the point, where the left of his +company is to rest. (277) + + +To Form Column of Companies Successively to the Right or Left + +=315.= Being in column of squads: =1. Column of companies, first +company, squads right (left), 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +The leading company executes =squads right= and moves forward. The +other companies move forward in column of squads and successively +march in line the right on the same ground as the leading company and +in such manner that the guide covers the guide of the preceding +company. (278) + + +To Form Column of Squads Successively to the Right or Left + +=316.= Being in column of companies (Plate III, page 90): =1. Column +of squads, first company, squads right (left), 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +The leading company executes =squads right= and moves forward. The +other companies move forward in column of companies and successively +march in column of squads to the right on the same ground as the +leading company. (279) + + +To Change Direction + +=317.= Being in column of companies or close column. (Plate III, page +90); =1. Column right (left), 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration] + +The captain of the first company commands: =Right turn.= + +The leading company turns to the right on moving pivot, the captain +adding: =1. Forward, 2. MARCH=, upon its completion. + +The other companies march squarely up to the turning point; each +changes direction by the same commands and means as the first and in +such manner that the guide covers the guide of the preceding company. +(280) + +=318.= Being in line of companies or close line. (Plate III, page 90): +=1. Battalion right (left), 2. MARCH, 3. Battalion, 4. HALT.= + +[Illustration] + +The right company changes direction to the right, as prescribed in +par. 224; the other companies are conducted by the shortest line to +their places abreast of the first. + +The fourth command is given when the right company has advanced the +desired distance in the new direction; that company halts; the others +halt successively upon arriving on the line. (281) + +=319.= Being in column of squads, the battalion changes direction by +the same commands and in the manner prescribed for the company, as +explained in par. 224. (282) + + +Mass Formations + +[Illustration: FROM LINE.] + +=319a.= Being in column of squads, to form a line of columns of +companies or company subdivisions, facing in any desired direction, at +any desired interval, on the right or left of the leading element of +the battalion: =1. Line of companies (half companies, platoons), at +(so many) paces, guide right (left), 2. MARCH, 3. Battalion, 4. HALT.= + +[Illustration: FROM LINE OF COMPANIES.] + +The leading company (or subdivision) marches in the direction +previously indicated by the major until the command halt is given and +then halts. Each succeeding company (or subdivision) marches by the +most direct route to its place at the prescribed intervals on the left +(right) of the next preceding company (or subdivision), halting when +it is abreast of the leading element of the battalion. + +[Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF SQUADS.] + +If the battalion be in any formation other than column of squads, the +major indicates the desired direction to the leading element. The +entire command forms column of squads and executes a movement in +conformity with the principles indicated above. (282-1/2) + +[Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF COMPANIES.] + +=320.= Being in line, line of companies, or column of companies. +(Plate III, page 90): =1. Close on first (fourth) company, 2. MARCH.= + +If at a halt, the indicated company stands fast; if marching, it is +halted; each of the other companies is conducted toward it and is +halted in proper order in close column. + +If the battalion is in line, companies form successively in rear of +the indicated company; if in column of squads, companies in rear of +the leading company form on the left of it. + +In close column formed line on the first company, the left guides +cover; formed on the fourth company, right guides cover. If formed on +the leading company, the guide remains as before the formation. In +close line, the guides are halted abreast of the guide of the leading +company. + +The battalion in column closes on the leading company only. (283) + + (In closing from line of companies and in extending from close + line, the companies other than the base one, may be moved either + by the commands, (a) =1. Squads, right (left), 2. MARCH=; (b) =1. + Right (left) oblique, 2. MARCH=; (c) =1. Forward, 2. MARCH=; (d) + =1. Squads left (right) 2. MARCH=; (e) =1. Company, 2. HALT=; or, + (a) =1. By the right (left) flank, 2. MARCH=; (b) =1. Company, 2. + HALT=; (c) =1. Left (right), 2. FACE=; or if at a halt by the + commands, (a) =1. Right (left), 2. FACE=; (b) =1. At Trail, 2. + Forward, 3. MARCH=; (c) =1. Company, 2. HALT=; (d) =1. Left + (right), 2. FACE.= In some commands it is customary to use one + method while in other commands another is used. For the sake of + uniformity all companies of a given command should use the same + method.--Author.) + + +To Extend the Mass + +=321.= Being in close column or in close line; =1. Extend on first +(fourth) company, 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration: FROM CLOSE COLUMN.] + +Being in close line: if at a halt, the indicated company stands fast; +if marching, it halts; each of the other companies is conducted away +from the indicated company and is halted in its proper order in line +of companies. + +Being in close column, the extension is made on the fourth company +only. If marching, the leading company continues to march; companies +in rear are halted and successively resume the march in time to follow +at full distance. If at halt, the leading company marches; companies +in rear successively march in time to follow at full distance. + +Close column is not extended in double time. (See author's note, par. +320.) (284) + +=322.= Being in close column: =1. Right (left) front into line, 2. +MARCH.= Executed as from column of companies, as explained in par. +314. (285) + +=323.= Being in close column: =1. Column of squads, first (fourth) +company, squads right (left), 2. MARCH.= + +The designated company marches in column of squads to the right. Each +of the other companies executes the same movement in time to follow +the preceding company in column. (286) + +=324.= Being in close line: =1. Column of squads, first (fourth) +company, forward, 2. MARCH.= + +[Illustration: FROM CLOSE LINE.] + +The designated company moves forward. The other companies (halting if +in march) successively take up the march and follow in column. (287) + + +Route Step and at Ease + +=325.= The battalion marches in =route step= and =at ease= as +prescribed in the School of the Company. (See par. 233.) When marching +in column of companies or platoons, the guides maintain the trace and +distance. + +In route marches the major marches at the head of the column; when +necessary, the file closers may be directed to march at the head and +rear of their companies. (288) + + +Assembly + +=326.= The battalion being wholly or partially deployed, or the +companies being separated: =1. Assemble, 2. MARCH.= + +The major places himself opposite to or designates the element or +point on which the battalion is to assemble. Companies are assembled, +as explained in par. 248, and marched to the indicated point. As the +companies arrive the major or adjutant indicates the formation to be +taken. (289) + + +COMBAT PRINCIPLES + + +Orders + +=327.= The following references to orders are applicable to attack or +defense: (290) + +=328. Use of prescribed commands; "tactical orders," "orders" and +"commands."= In extended order, the company is the largest unit to +execute movements by prescribed commands or means. The major, +assembling his captains if practicable, directs the disposition of the +battalion by means of =tactical orders=. He controls its subsequent +movements by such =orders= or =commands= as are suitable to the +occasion. (291) + +=329. Major's order making disposition of battalion for combat; base +company in attack.= In every disposition of the battalion for combat +the major's order should give subordinates sufficient information of +the enemy, of the position of supporting and neighboring troops, and +of the object sought to enable them to conform intelligently to the +general plan. + +The order should then designate the companies which are to constitute +the =firing line= and those which are to constitute the =support=. In +attack, it should designate the direction or the objective, the order +and front of the companies on the firing line, and should designate +the right or left company as base company. In defense, it should +describe the front of each company and, if necessary, the sector to be +observed by each, as prescribed in 281-284. (292) + +=330. Reconnaissance and protection of flanks.= When the battalion is +operating alone, the major provides for the reconnaissance and +protection of his flanks; if part of a larger force, the major makes +similar provisions, when necessary, without orders from higher +authority, unless such authority has specifically directed other +suitable reconnaissance and protection. (293) + +=331. Issue of extra ammunition when battalion is deployed.= When the +battalion is deployed upon the initiative of the major, he will +indicate whether extra ammunition shall be issued; if deployed in +pursuance of orders of higher authority, the major will cause the +issue of extra ammunition, unless such authority has given directions +to the contrary. (For ammunition supply see pars. 569-575.) (294) + + +Deployment + +(See pars. 456-462; 463-466.) + +=332.= The following principles of deployment are applicable to attack +or defense. (295) + +=333. Avoiding premature deployment.= A premature deployment involves +a long, disorganizing and fatiguing advance of the skirmish line, and +should be avoided. A greater evil is to be caught by heavy fire when +in dense column or other close order formation; hence advantage should +be taken of cover in order to retain the battalion in close order +formation until exposure to heavy hostile fire may reasonably be +anticipated. (296) + +=334. Depth of deployment and density of firing line; companies and +detachments conducted to their places by their commanders.= The major +regulates the depth of the deployment and the extent and density of +the firing line, subject to such restrictions as a senior may have +imposed. + +Companies or designated subdivisions and detachments are conducted by +their commanders in such manner as best to accomplish the mission +assigned to them under the major's orders. Companies designated for +the firing line march independently to the place of deployment, form +skirmish line, and take up the advance. They conform, in general, to +the base company, as prescribed in Par. 329. (297) + +=335. Division of battalion into firing line and support.= The +commander of a battalion, whether it is operating alone or as part of +a larger force, should hold a part of his command out of the =firing +line=. By the judicious use of this force, the major can exert an +influence not otherwise possible over his firing line and can control, +within reasonable limits, an action once begun. So, if his battalion +be assigned to the =firing line=, the major will cause one, two, or +three companies to be deployed on the firing line, retaining the +remaining companies or company as a support for that firing line. The +division of the battalion into firing line and support will depend +upon the front to be covered and the nature and anticipated severity +of the action. (298) + +=336. Size of support.= If the battalion be part of a larger command, +the number of companies in the firing line will generally be +determinable from the regimental commander's order; the remainder +constitutes the support, as prescribed in par. 335. If the battalion +is acting alone, the support must be strong enough to maintain the +original fire power of the firing line, to protect the flanks, and to +perform the functions of a reserve, whatever be the issue of the +action, as explained in par. 445. (299) + +=337. Position of support.= If the battalion is operating alone, the +support may, according to circumstances, be held in one or two bodies +and placed behind the center, or one or both flanks of the firing +line, or echeloned beyond a flank. If the battalion is part of a +larger force, the support is generally held in one body. (300) + +=338. Distance between firing line and support.= The distance between +the firing line and the supporting group or groups will vary between +wide limits; it should be as short as the necessity for protection +from heavy losses will permit. When cover is available, the support +should be as close as 50 to 100 yards; when such cover is not +available, it should not be closer than 300 yards. It may be as far as +500 yards in rear if good cover is there obtainable and is not +obtainable at a lesser distance. (301) + +=339. Placing entire battalion or regiment in firing line at +beginning.= In exceptional cases, as in a meeting engagement, it may +be necessary to place an entire battalion or regiment in the firing +line at the initial deployment, the support being furnished by other +troops. Such deployment causes the early mingling of the larger units, +thus rendering leadership and control extremely difficult. The +necessity for such deployment will increase with the inefficiency of +the commander and of the service of information. (302) + + +Fire + +=340. Major apportions target.= Fire direction and fire control are +functions of company and platoon commanders, as laid down in pars. +285-290. The major makes the primary apportionment of the target--in +defense, by assigning sectors of fire, in attack, by assigning the +objective. In the latter case each company in the firing line takes as +its target that part of the general objective which lies in its front. +(303) + +=341. Major indicates where or when fire fight begins.= The major +should indicate the point or time at which the fire fight is to open. +He may do this in his order for deployment or he may follow the firing +line close enough to do so at the proper time. If it be impracticable +for him to do either, the senior officer with the firing line, in each +battalion, selects the time for opening fire. (304) + + +Attack + +(See pars. 456-502.) + +=342. Battalion the attack unit.= The battalion is the =attack unit=, +whether operating alone or as part of a larger unit. (305) + +=343. Advance of battalion acting as one of several in firing line.= +If his battalion be one of several in the firing line, the major, in +executing his part of the attack, pushes his battalion forward as +vigorously as possible within the front, or section, assigned to it. +The great degree of independence allowed to him as to details demands, +in turn, the exercise of good judgment on his part. Better leadership, +better troops, and more favorable terrain enable one battalion to +advance more rapidly in attack than another less fortunate, and such a +battalion will insure the further advance of the others. The leading +battalion should not, however, become isolated; isolation may lead to +its destruction. (306) + +=344. Close in on enemy as much as possible before opening fire.= The +deployment having been made, the firing line advances without firing. +The predominant idea must be to close with the enemy as soon as +possible without ruinous losses. The limited supply of ammunition and +the uncertainty of resupply, the necessity for securing fire +superiority in order to advance within the shorter ranges, and the +impossibility of accomplishing this at ineffective ranges, make it +imperative that fire be not opened as long as the advance can be +continued without demoralizing losses. The attack which halts to open +fire at extreme range (over 1,200 yards) is not likely ever to reach +its destination. Every effort should be made, by using cover or +inconspicuous formations, or by advancing the firing line as a whole, +to arrive within 800 yards of the enemy before opening fire. (For +expenditure of ammunition see pars. 432-433; for advancing the attack +see par. 467.) (307) + +=345. Fire to be directed against the hostile infantry.= Except when +the enemy's artillery is able to effect an unusual concentration of +fire, its fire upon deployed infantry causes losses which are +unimportant when compared with those inflicted by his infantry; hence +the attacking infantry should proceed to a position as described +above, and from which an effective fire can be directed against the +hostile infantry with a view to obtaining fire superiority. The +effectiveness of the enemy's fire must be reduced so as to permit +further advance. The more effective the fire to which the enemy is +subjected the less effective will be his fire. (308) + +=346. The further advance of the firing line; size of rushing units.= +Occasionally the fire of adjacent battalions, or of infantry employing +fire of position, as explained in par. 438, or of supporting +artillery, as explained in pars. 434-438, will permit the further +advance of the entire firing line from this point, but it will +generally be necessary to advance by rushes, as laid down in par. 259, +of fractions of the line. + +The fraction making the rush should be as large as the hostile fire +and the necessity for maintaining fire superiority will permit. +Depending upon circumstances, the strength of the fraction may vary +from a company to a few men. + +The advance is made as rapidly as possible without losing fire +superiority. The smaller the fraction which rushes, the greater the +number of rifles which continue to fire upon the enemy. On the other +hand, the smaller the fraction which rushes the slower will be the +progress of the attack. (309) + +=347. Size of rushing units.= Enough rifles must continue in action to +insure the success of each rush. Frequently the successive advances of +the firing line must be effected by rushes of fractions of decreased +size; that is, advances by rushes may first be made by company, later +by half company or platoon, and finally by squads or files; but no +=subsequent opportunity= to =increase= the rate of advance, such as +better cover or a decrease of the hostile fire, should be overlooked. +(310) + +=348. The rush begun by a flank unit.= Whenever possible, the rush is +begun by a flank fraction of the firing line. In the absence of +express directions from the major, each captain of a flank company +determines when an advance by rushes (par. 222) shall be attempted. A +flank company which inaugurates an advance by rushes becomes the base +company, if not already the base. An advance by rushes having been +inaugurated on one flank, the remainder of the firing line conforms; +fractions rush successively from that flank and halt on the line +established by the initial rush. + +The fractions need not be uniform in size; each captain indicates how +his company shall rush, having due regard to the ground and the state +of the fire fight. (311) + +=349. Fractions to advance under covering fire.= A fraction about to +rush is sent forward when the remainder of the line is firing +vigorously; otherwise the chief advantage of this method of advancing +is lost. + +The length of the rush will vary from 30 to 80 yards, depending upon +the existence of cover, positions for firing, and the hostile fire. +(312) + +=350. Subsequent advances.= When the entire firing line of the +battalion has advanced to the new line, fresh opportunities to advance +are sought as before. (313) + +=351. Prearranged methods of advancing by rushes prohibited.= Two +identical situations will never confront the battalion; hence at drill +it is prohibited to arrange the details of an advance before the +preceding one has been concluded, or to employ a fixed or prearranged +method of advancing by rushes. (314) + +=352. Post of the major.= The major posts himself so as best to direct +the reenforcing of the firing line from the support. When all or +nearly all of the support has been absorbed by the firing line, he +joins, and takes full charge of, the latter. (315) + +=353. Size of reenforcements.= The reenforcing of the firing line by +driblets of a squad or a few men has no appreciable effect. The firing +line requires either reenforcement or a strong one. Generally one or +two platoons will be sent forward under cover of a heavy fire of the +firing line. (316) + +=354. Two methods of reenforcing the firing line.= To facilitate +control and to provide intervals in which reenforcements may be +placed, the companies in the firing line should be kept closed in on +their centers as they become depleted by casualties during the +advance. + +When this is impracticable reenforcements must mingle with and thicken +the firing line. In battle the latter method will be the rule rather +than the exception, and to familiarize the men with such conditions +the combat exercises of the battalion should include both methods of +reenforcing. Occasionally, to provide the necessary intervals for +reenforcing by either of these methods, the firing line should be +thinned by causing men to drop out and simulate losses during the +various advances. Under ordinary conditions the depletion of the +firing line for this purpose will be from one-fifth to one-half of its +strength. (317) + +=355. Fixing bayonets.= The major or senior officer in the firing line +determines when bayonets shall be fixed and gives the proper command +or signal. It is repeated by all parts of the firing line. Each man +who was in the front rank prior to deployment, as soon as he +recognizes the command or signal, suspends firing, quickly fixes his +bayonet, and immediately resumes firing; after which the other men +suspend firing, fix bayonets, and immediately resume firing. The +support also fixes bayonets. The concerted fixing of the bayonet by +the firing line at drill does not simulate battle conditions and +should not be required. It is essential that there be no marked pause +in the firing. Bayonets will be fixed generally before or during the +last, or second last, advance preceding the charge. (318) + +=356. The charge.= Subject to orders from higher authority, the major +determines the point from which the charge is to be made. (See Pars. +478-489 regarding the charge.) The firing line having arrived at that +point and being in readiness, the major causes the =charge= to be +sounded. The signal is repeated by the musicians of all parts of the +line. The company officers lead the charge. The skirmishers spring +forward shouting, run with bayonets at charge, and close with the +enemy. + +The further conduct of the charging troops will depend upon +circumstances; they may halt and engage in bayonet combat or in +pursuing fire, as explained in par. 486; they may advance a short +distance to obtain a field of fire or to drive the enemy from the +vicinity; they may assemble or reorganize, etc. If the enemy vacates +his position every effort should be made to open fire at once on the +retreating mass, reorganization of the attacking troops being of +secondary importance to the infliction of further losses upon the +enemy and to the increase of his confusion, as set forth in pars. +490-494. In combat exercises the major will assume a situation and +terminate the assault accordingly. (319) + + +Defense + +=357. Tactical unit best suited to defensive action.= In defense, as +in attack, the battalion is the tactical unit best suited to +independent assignment. Defensive positions are usually divided into +sections and a battalion assigned to each. (320) + +=358. Trenches.= The major locates such fire, communicating, and cover +trenches and obstacles as are to be constructed. He assigns companies +to construct them and details the troops to occupy them. (See "Field +Fortifications," Chapter XVI, Part III.) (321) + +=359. Reenforcement of firing line.= The major reenforces the firing +line in accordance with the principles applicable to and explained in +connection with, the attack, in pars. 352-354, maintaining no more +rifles in the firing line than are necessary to prevent the enemy's +advance. (322) + +=360. Opening fire.= The supply of ammunition being usually ample, +fire is opened as soon as it is possible to break up the enemy's +formation, stop his advance or inflict material loss, but this rule +must be modified to suit the ammunition supply. (323) + +=361. Fixing bayonets.= The major causes the firing line and support +to fix bayonets when an assault by the enemy is imminent. Captains +direct this to be done if they are not in communication with the major +and the measure is deemed advisable. + +Fire alone will not stop a determined, skillfully conducted attack. +The defender must have equal tenacity; if he can stay in his trench or +position and cross bayonets, he will at least have neutralized the +hostile first line, and the combat will be decided by reserves. (324) + +=362. Support to cover withdrawal.= If ordered or compelled to +withdraw under hostile infantry fire or in the presence of hostile +infantry, the support will be posted so as to cover the retirement of +the firing line (325) + +=363. Support in case of battalion acting alone.= When the battalion +is operating alone, the support must be strong and must be fed +sparingly into the firing line, especially if a counter-attack is +planned. Opportunities for counter-attack should be sought at all +times, as explained in pars. 525-530. (326) + + +COMBAT + + +INTRODUCTION + +=364. Scope of subject of combat tactics in this book.= Part II of +these regulations treats only of the basic principles of combat +tactics as applied to infantry and to the special units, such as +machine guns and mounted scouts, which form a part of infantry +regiments and battalions. + +The combat tactics of the arms combined are considered in Field +Service Regulations. (350) + +=365. Demands of modern combat upon infantry; complicated maneuvers +impracticable; success dependent upon leadership, etc.= Modern combat +demands the highest order of training, discipline, leadership, and +morale on the part of the infantry. Complicated maneuvers are +impracticable; efficient leadership and a determination to win by +simple and direct methods must be depended upon for success. (351) + +=366. Duties and quality of infantry.= The duties of infantry are many +and difficult. All infantry must be fit to cope with all conditions +that may arise. Modern war requires but one kind of infantry--good +infantry. (352) + +=367. Offensive necessary for decisive results; use of ground, fire +efficiency, etc.; local success.= The infantry must take the offensive +to gain decisive results. Both sides are therefore likely to attempt +it, though not necessary at the same time or in the same part of a +long battle line. + +In the local combats which make up the general battle the better +endurance, use of ground, fire efficiency, discipline, and training +will win. It is the duty of the infantry to win the local successes +which enable the commanding general to win the battle. (356) + +=368. Requisites of infantry; trained to bear heaviest burdens; good +infantry can defeat vastly superior infantry of poor quality.= The +infantry must have the tenacity to hold every advantage gained, the +individual and collective discipline and skill needed to master the +enemy's fire, the determination to close with the enemy in attack, and +to meet him with the bayonet in defense. Infantry must be trained to +bear the heaviest burdens and losses, both of combat and march. + +Good infantry can defeat an enemy greatly superior in numbers, but +lacking in training, discipline, leadership, and morale. (354) + +=369. Fixed forms and instructions covering all cases impossible; +study and practice necessary; purposes of practical and theoretical +instruction.= It is impossible to establish fixed forms or to give +general instructions that will cover all cases. Officers and +noncommissioned officers must be so trained that they can apply +suitable means and methods to each case as it arises. Study and +practice are necessary to acquire proper facility in this respect. +Theoretical instruction can not replace practical instruction; the +former supplies correct ideas and gives to practical work an interest, +purpose, and definiteness not otherwise obtainable. (355) + +=370. Exercises in extended order to be in nature of combat exercises; +all combat exercises to be conducted under assumed tactical +situations.= After the mechanism of extended order drill has been +learned with precision in the company, every exercise should be, as +far as practicable, in the nature of a maneuver (combat exercise) +against an =imaginary=, =outlined=, or =represented= enemy. + +Company extended order drill may be conducted without reference to a +tactical situation, but a combat exercise, whatever may be the size of +the unit employed, should be conducted under an assumed tactical +situation. (356) + +=371. Effective method of conducting combat exercises.= An effective +method of conducting a combat exercise is to outline the enemy with a +few men equipped with flags. The umpire or inspector states the +situation, and the commander leads his troops with due regard to the +assumptions made. + +Changes in situation, the results of reconnaissance, the character of +artillery fire, etc., are made known to the commander when necessary +by the umpire or inspector, who, in order to observe and influence the +conduct of the exercise, remains in rear of the firing line. From this +position he indicates, with the aid of prearranged signals, the +character of the fire and movements of the hostile infantry. These +signals are intended for the men outlining the enemy. These men repeat +the signals; all officers and men engaged in the exercise and in sight +of the outlined enemy are thus informed of the enemy's action, and the +exercise is conducted accordingly. + +Assistant umpires, about one for each company in the firing line, may +assist in indicating hostile fire and movements and in observing the +conduct of the exercise. + +An outlined enemy may be made to attack or defend. + +Situations should be simple and natural. During or after the exercise +the umpire or inspector should call attention to any improper +movements or incorrect methods of execution. He will prohibit all +movements of troops or individuals that would be impossible if the +enemy were real. The slow progress of events to be expected on the +battlefield can hardly be simulated, but the umpire or inspector will +prevent undue haste and will attempt to enforce a reasonably slow rate +of progress. + +The same exercise should not be repeated over the same ground and +under the same situation. Such repetitions lead to the adoption of a +fixed mode of attack or defense and develop mere drill masters. Fixed +or prearranged systems are prohibited. (357) + + +LEADERSHIP + + +General Considerations + +=372. What constitutes art of leadership.= The art of leadership +consists of applying sound tactical principles to concrete cases on +the battlefield. + +Self-reliance, initiative, aggressiveness, and a conception of +team-work are the fundamental characteristics of successful +leadership. (358) + +=373. Basis of success; adherence to original plan.= A correct grasp +of the situation and a definite plan of action form the soundest basis +for a successful combat. + +A good plan once adopted and put into execution should not be +abandoned unless it becomes clear that it can not succeed. +Afterthoughts are dangerous, except as they aid in the execution of +details in the original plans. (359) + +=374. Avoid combats offering no chance of valuable results.= Combats +that do not promise success or some real advantage to the general +issue should be avoided; they cause unnecessary losses, impair the +morale of one's own troops, and raise that of the enemy. (360) + +=375. Avoid complicated maneuvers.= Complicated maneuvers are not +likely to succeed in war. All plans and the methods adopted for +carrying them into effect must be simple and direct. (361) + +=376. Order and cohesion necessary.= Order and cohesion must be +maintained within the units if success is to be expected. (362) + +=377. Officers to be true leaders.= Officers must show themselves to +be true leaders. They must act in accordance with the spirit of their +orders and must require of their troops the strictest discipline on +the field of battle. (363) + +=378. Units not to be broken up.= The best results are obtained when +leaders know the capacity and traits of those whom they command; hence +in making detachments units should not be broken up, and a deployment +that would cause an intermingling of the larger units in the firing +line should be avoided. (364) + +=379. Leading deployed troops difficult; necessity for training, +discipline and close order.= Leading is difficult when troops are +deployed. A high degree of training and discipline and the use of +close order formations to the fullest extent possible are therefore +required. (365) + +=380. Avoidance of unnecessary hardship; limit of endurance exacted +when necessary.= In order to lighten the severe physical strain +inseparable from infantry service in campaign, constant efforts must +be made to spare the troops unnecessary hardship and fatigue; but when +necessity arises, the limit of endurance must be exacted. (366) + +=381. Fighting troops not to carry back wounded.= When officers or men +belonging to fighting troops leave their proper places to carry back, +or to care for, wounded during the progress of the action, they are +guilty of skulking. This offense must be repressed with the utmost +vigor. (367) + +=382. Complete equipment usually carried into action.= The complete +equipment of the soldier is carried into action unless the weather or +the physical condition of the men renders such measure a severe +hardship. In any event, =only the pack[4] will be laid aside=. The +determination of this question rests with the regimental commander. +The complete equipment affords to men lying prone considerable +protection against shrapnel. (368) + +=383. Post of commander; use of reserve in case of victory; when +firing line is controlled by commander.= The post of the commander +must be such as will enable him to observe the progress of events and +to communicate his orders. Subordinate commanders, in addition, must +be in position to transmit the orders of superiors. + +Before entering an action, the commander should be as far to the front +as possible in order that he personally may see the situation, order +the deployment, and begin the action strictly in accordance with his +own wishes. + +During the action, he must, as a rule, leave to the local leaders the +detailed conduct of the firing line, posting himself either with his +own reserve or in such a position that he is in constant, direct, and +easy communication with it. + +A commander takes full and direct charge of his firing line only when +the line has absorbed his whole command. + +When their troops are victorious, all commanders should press forward +in order to clinch the advantage gained and to use their reserves to +the best advantage. (369) + +=384. Latitude allowed subordinates.= The latitude allowed to officers +is in direct proportion to the size of their commands. Each should see +to the general execution of his task, leaving to the proper +subordinates the supervision of details, and interfering only when +mistakes are made that threaten to seriously prejudice the general +plan. (370) + + +Teamwork + +=385. Latitude allowed subordinates; success depends on cooerdination +of subordinates.= The comparatively wide fronts of deployed units +increase the difficulties of control. Subordinates must therefore be +given great latitude in the execution of their tasks. The success of +the whole depends largely upon how well each subordinate cooerdinates +his work with the general plan. + +A great responsibility is necessarily thrown upon subordinates, but +responsibility stimulates the right kind of an officer. (371) + +=386. Initiative of subordinates; general plan to be furthered.= In a +given situation it is far better =to do any intelligent thing= +consistent with the aggressive execution of the general plan, than to +search hesitatingly for the ideal. This is the true rule of conduct +for subordinates who are required to act upon their own initiative. + +A subordinate who is reasonably sure that his intended action is such +as would be ordered by the commander, were the latter present and in +possession of the facts, has enough encouragement to go ahead +confidently. He must possess the loyalty to carry out the plans of his +superior and the keenness to recognize and to seize opportunities to +further the general plan. (372) + +=387. But one supreme will in a battle; subordinates to cooeperate.= +Independence must not become license. Regardless of the number of +subordinates who are apparently supreme in their own restricted +spheres, there is but one battle and but one supreme will to which all +must conform. + +Every subordinate must therefore work for the general result. He does +all in his power to insure cooeperation between the subdivisions under +his command. He transmits important information to adjoining units or +to superiors in rear and, with the assistance of information received, +keeps himself and his subordinates duly posted as to the situation. +(373) + +=388. Deviation from orders.= When circumstances render it +impracticable to consult the authority issuing an order, officers +should not hesitate to vary from such order when it is clearly based +upon an incorrect view of the situation, is impossible of execution, +or has been rendered impracticable on account of changes which have +occurred since its promulgation. In the application of this rule the +responsibility for mistakes rests upon the subordinate, but +unwillingness to assume responsibility on proper occasions is +indicative of weakness. + +Superiors should be careful not to censure an apparent disobedience +where the act was done in the proper spirit and to advance the general +plan. (374) + +=389. Intermingling of units; duties of officers and guides.= When the +men of two or more units intermingle in the firing line, all officers +and men submit at once to the senior. Officers and platoon guides seek +to fill vacancies caused by casualties. Each seizes any opportunity to +exercise the functions consistent with his grade, and all assist in +the maintenance of order and control. + +Every lull in the action should be utilized for as complete +restoration of order in the firing line as the ground or other +conditions permit. (375) + +=390. Separated officers and noncommissioned officers placing +themselves under nearest higher commander.= Any officer or +noncommissioned officer who becomes separated from his proper unit and +can not rejoin must at once place himself and his command at the +disposal of the nearest higher commander. (376) + +Anyone having completed an assigned task must seek to rejoin his +proper command. Failing in this, he should join the nearest troops +engaged with the enemy. + +=391. Duty of separated soldiers.= Soldiers are taught the necessity +of remaining with their companies, but those who become detached must +join the nearest company and serve with it until the battle is over or +reorganization is ordered. (377) + + +Orders + +=392. Orders for deployment; combat orders of divisions and brigades +usually written.= Commands are deployed and enter the combat by the +orders of the commander to the subordinate commanders. + +The initial combat orders of the division are almost invariably +written; those of the brigade are generally so. The written order is +preferable and is used whenever time permits. + +If time permits, subsequent orders are likewise written, either as +field orders or messages. (378) + +=393. Combat orders of regiments and smaller units; verbal messages.= +The initial combat orders of regiments and smaller units are given +verbally. For this purpose the subordinates for whom the orders are +intended are assembled, if practicable, at a place from which the +situation and plan can be explained. + +Subsequent orders are verbal or in the form of verbal or written +messages. Verbal messages should not be used unless they are short and +unmistakable. (379) + +=394. Initial combat orders; personal reconnaissance.= The initial +combat order of any commander or subordinate is based upon his +definite plan for executing the task confronting him. + +Whenever possible the formation of the plan is preceded by a personal +reconnaissance of the terrain and a careful consideration of all +information of the enemy. (380) + +=395. Composition of combat orders.= The combat order gives such +information of the enemy and of neighboring or supporting friendly +troops as will enable subordinates to understand the situation. + +The general plan of action is stated in brief terms, but enough of the +commander's intentions is divulged to guide the subsequent actions of +the subordinates. + +Clear and concise instructions are given as to the action to be taken +in the combat by each part of the command. In this way the commander +assigns tasks, fronts, objectives, sectors or areas, etc., in +accordance with his plan. If the terms employed convey definite ideas +and leave no loopholes, the conduct of subordinates will generally be +correspondingly satisfactory. + +Such miscellaneous matter relating to special troops, trains, +ammunition, and future movements of the commander is added as concerns +the combat itself. + +Combat orders should prescribe communication, reconnaissance, flank +protection, etc., when some special disposition is desired or when an +omission on the part of a subordinate may reasonably be feared. (381) + +=396. Encroaching upon functions of subordinates prohibited; orders to +be definite.= When issuing orders, a commander should indicate clearly +=what= is to be done by each subordinate, but not =how= it is to be +done. He should not encroach upon the functions of a subordinate by +prescribing details of execution unless he has good reason to doubt +the ability or judgment of the subordinate, and cannot substitute +another. + +Although general in its terms, an order must be definite and must be +the expression of a fixed decision. Ambiguity or vagueness indicates +either a vacillation or the inability to formulate orders. (382) + +=397. Orders generally given subordinates through their immediate +superiors.= Usually the orders of a commander are intended for, and +are given to, the commanders of the next lower units, but in an +emergency commander should not hesitate to give orders directly to +any subordinate. In such case he should promptly inform the +intermediate commander concerned. (383) + + +Communication + +=398. Communication, how maintained.= Communication is maintained by +means of staff officers, messengers, relay systems, connecting files, +visual signals, telegraph, or telephone. (384) + +=399. Lines of communication established by signal corps.= The signal +corps troops of the division establish lines of information from +division to brigade headquarters. The further extension of lines of +information in combat by signal troops is exceptional. (385) + +=400. Lines of communication established by regiment; orderlies carry +signal flags.= Each regiment, employing its own personnel, is +responsible for the maintenance of communication from the colonel back +to the brigade and forward to the battalions. For this purpose the +regiment uses the various means which may be furnished it. The staff +and orderlies, regimental and battalion, are practiced in the use of +these means and in messenger service. Orderlies carry signal flags. +(386) + +=401. Communication between firing line and major or colonel; company +musicians carry signal flags.= Connection between the firing line and +the major or colonel is practically limited to the prescribed flag, +arm, and bugle signals. Other means can only be supplemental. Company +musicians carry company flags and are practiced in signaling. (387) + +=402. Communication by artillery with firing line by means of staff +officers or through agents.= The artillery generally communicates with +the firing line by means of its own staff officers or through an agent +who accompanies some unit in or near the front. The infantry keeps him +informed as to the situation and affords any reasonable assistance. +When the infantry is dependent upon the artillery for fire support, +perfect cooerdination through this representative is of great +importance. (388) + + +COMBAT RECONNAISSANCE + +=403. Importance of combat reconnaissance; avoidance of deployment on +wrong lines.= Combat reconnaissance is of vital importance and must +not be neglected. By proper preliminary reconnaissance, deployments on +wrong lines, or in a wrong direction, and surprises may generally be +prevented. (389) + +=404. Protection of troops by proper reconnaissance.= Troops deployed +and under fire can not change front, and thus they suffer greatly when +enfiladed. Troops in close order formation may suffer heavy losses in +a short time if subjected to hostile fire. In both formations troops +must be protected by proper reconnaissance and warning. (390) + +=405. Difficulty of reconnaissance depends on extent of enemy's +screen; strength of reconnoitering parties.= The difficulty of +reconnaissance increases in proportion to the measures adopted by the +enemy to screen himself. + +The strength of the reconnoitering party is determined by the +character of the information desired and the nature of the hostile +screen. In exceptional cases as much as a battalion may be necessary +in order to break through the hostile screen and enable the commander +or officer in charge to reconnoiter in person. + +A large reconnoitering party is conducted so as to open the way for +small patrols, to serve as a supporting force or rallying point for +them, and to receive and transmit information. Such parties maintain +signal communication with the main body if practicable. (391) + +=406. Each separate column to protect itself by reconnaissance.= Each +separate column moving forward to deploy must reconnoiter to its front +and flank and keep in touch with adjoining columns. The extent of the +reconnaissance to the flank depends upon the isolation of the columns. +(392) + +=407. Reconnaissance before attacking.= Before an attack a +reconnaissance must be made to determine the enemy's position, the +location of his flanks, the character of the terrain, the nature of +the hostile field works, etc., in order to prevent premature +deployment and the resulting fatigue and loss of time. + +It will frequently be necessary to send forward a thin skirmish line +in order to induce the enemy to open fire and reveal his position. +(393) + +=408. Extent of reconnaissance.= It will frequently be impossible to +obtain satisfactory information until after the action has begun. The +delay that may be warranted for the purpose of reconnaissance depends +upon the nature of the attack and the necessity for promptness. For +example, in a meeting engagement, and sometimes in a holding attack, +the reconnaissance may have to be hasty and superficial, whereas in an +attack against an enemy carefully prepared for defense there will +generally be both time and necessity for thorough reconnaissance. +(394) + +=409. Reconnaissance in defense.= In defense, reconnaissance must be +kept up to determine the enemy's line of advance, to ascertain his +dispositions, to prevent his reconnaissance, etc. + +Patrols or parties posted to prevent hostile reconnaissance should +relieve the main body of the necessity of betraying its position by +firing on small bodies of the enemy. (395) + +=410. Duration of reconnaissance; protection of flanks.= +Reconnaissance continues throughout the action. + +A firing or skirmish line can take care of its front, but its flanks +are especially vulnerable to modern firearms. The moral effect of +flanking fire is as great as the physical effect. Hence, combat +patrols to give warning or covering detachments to give security are +indispensable on exposed flanks. This is equally true in attack or +defense. (396) + +=411. Responsibility of infantry commanders for reconnaissance; +surprise unpardonable.= The fact that cavalry patrols are known to be +posted in a certain direction does not relieve infantry commanders of +the responsibility for reconnaissance and security. + +To be surprised by an enemy at short range is an unpardonable offense. +(397) + +=412. Commander of flank battalion responsible for security of his +flank.= The commander of a battalion on a flank of a general line +invariably provides for the necessary reconnaissance and security on +that flank unless higher authority has specifically ordered it. In +any event, he sends out combat patrols as needed. + +Where his battalion is on a flank of one section of the line and a +considerable interval lies between his battalion and the next section, +he makes similar provision. (398) + +=413. Patrols established by battalion commanders.= Battalion +commanders in the first line establish patrols to observe and report +the progress or conduct of adjoining troops when these can not be +seen. (399) + + +FIRE SUPERIORITY + + +PURPOSE AND NATURE + +(See par. 427) + +=414. Success in battle dependent upon fire superiority.= In a +decisive battle success depends on gaining and maintaining fire +superiority. Every effort must be made to gain it early and then to +keep it. + +Attacking troops must first gain fire superiority in order to reach +the hostile position. Over open ground attack is possible only when +the attacking force has a decided fire superiority. With such +superiority the attack is not only possible, but success is probable +and without ruinous losses. + +Defending troops can prevent a charge only when they can master the +enemy's fire and inflict heavy losses upon him. (400) + +=415. Volume and accuracy necessary to obtain fire superiority.= To +obtain fire superiority it is necessary to produce a heavy volume of +accurate fire. Every increase in the effectiveness of the fire means a +corresponding decrease in the effectiveness of the enemy's fire. + +The volume and accuracy of fire will depend upon several +considerations: + +=(a) The number of rifles employed.= On a given front the greatest +volume of fire is produced by a firing line having only sufficient +intervals between men to permit the free use of their rifles. The +maximum density of a firing line is therefore about one man per yard +of front. + +=(b)= The =rate= of fire affects its volume; an excessive rate reduces +its accuracy. + +=(c) The character of the target influences both volume and accuracy.= +Larger dimensions, greater visibility, and shorter range increase the +rate of fire; greater density increases =the effect=. + +=(d) Training and discipline= have an important bearing on the rate or +volume of fire, but their greatest influence is upon accuracy. + +The firing efficiency of troops is reduced by fatigue and adverse +psychological influences. + +=(e) Fire direction and control improve collective accuracy.= The +importance of fire direction increases rapidly with the range. Control +exerts a powerful influence at all ranges. (401) + + +FIRE DIRECTION AND CONTROL + + +Opening Fire + +=416. Long range fire, when effective.= Beyond effective ranges +important results can be expected only when the target is large and +distinct and much ammunition is used. + +Long range fire is permissible in pursuit on account of the moral +effect of any fire under the circumstances. At other times such fire +is of doubtful value. (402) + +=417. Opening fire in attack.= In attack, the desire to open fire when +losses are first felt must be repressed. Considerations of time, +target, ammunition, and morale make it imperative that the attack +withhold its fire and press forward to a first firing position close +to the enemy. The attacker's target will be smaller and fainter than +the one he presents to the enemy. (403) + +=418. Opening fire in defense.= In defense, more ammunition is +available, ranges are more easily determined, and the enemy usually +presents a larger target. The defender may therefore open fire and +expect results at longer ranges than the attacker, and particularly if +the defenders intend a delaying action only. + +If the enemy has a powerful artillery, it will often be best for the +defending infantry to withhold its fire until the enemy offers a +specially favorable target. Vigorous and well-directed bursts of fire +are then employed. The troops should therefore be given as much +artificial protection as time and means permit, and at an agreed +signal expose themselves as much as necessary and open fire. (404) + +=419. Opening fire in unexpected, close encounters.= In unexpected, +close encounters a great advantage accrues to the side which first +opens rapid and accurate fire with battle sight. (405) + + +Use of Ground + +=420. Requisites of ground for cover.= The position of the firers must +afford a suitable field of fire. + +The ground should permit constant observation of the enemy, and yet +enable the men to secure some cover when not actually firing. + +Troops whose target is for the moment hidden by unfavorable ground, +either move forward to better ground or seek to execute cross fire on +another target. (406) + +=421. Skillful use of ground reduces visibility.= The likelihood of a +target being hit depends to a great extent upon its visibility. By +skillful use of ground, a firing line may reduce its visibility +without loss of fire power. Sky lines are particularly to be avoided. +(407) + + +Choice of Target + +=422. Target to be chosen.= The target chosen should be the hostile +troops most dangerous to the firers. These will usually be the nearest +hostile infantry. When no target is specially dangerous, that one +should be chosen which promises the most hits. (408) + +=423. Target not to be changed except for good reason.= Frequent +changes of target impair the fire effect. Random changes to small, +unimportant targets impair fire discipline and accomplish nothing. +Attention should be confined to the main target until substantial +reason for change is apparent. (409) + +=424. Flanking fire to be delivered when opportunity offers.= An +opportunity to deliver flanking fire, especially against artillery +protected in front by shields, is an example warranting change of +target and should never be overlooked. Such fire demoralizes the +troops subjected to it, even if the losses inflicted are small. In +this manner a relatively small number of rifles can produce important +results. (410) + + +The Range + +=425. Importance of correct sight setting.= Beyond close range, the +correct setting of the rear sight is of primary importance, provided +the troops are trained and well in hand. The necessity for correct +sight setting increases rapidly with the range. Its importance +decreases as the quality of the troops decrease, for the error in +sight setting, except possibly at very long ranges, becomes +unimportant when compared with the error in holding and aiming. (411) + +=426. Determination of ranges.= In attack, distances must usually be +estimated and corrections made as errors are observed. Mechanical +range finders and ranging volleys are practicable at times. + +In defense, it is generally practicable to measure more accurately the +distances to visible objects and to keep a record of them for future +use. (412) + + +Distribution of Fire and Target + +=427. Purpose of fire superiority; distribution of fire and target.= +The purpose of fire superiority is to get hits whenever possible, but +at all events to keep down the enemy's fire and render it harmless. To +accomplish this the target must be covered with fire throughout its +whole extent. Troops who are not fired upon will fire with nearly +peacetime accuracy. + +The target is roughly divided and a part is assigned to each unit. No +part of the target is neglected. In attack, by a system of overlapping +in assigning targets to platoons, the entire hostile line can be kept +under fire even during a rush. (Pars. 400-401.) (413) + + +Observation + +=428. Observation of target.= The correctness of the sight setting and +the distribution of fire over the target can be verified only by +careful observation of the target, the adjacent ground, and the effect +upon the enemy. (414) + +=429. Observation determines whether fire fight is being properly +conducted.= Observation only can determine whether the fire fight is +being properly conducted. If the enemy's fire is losing in accuracy +and effect, the observer realizes that his side is gaining +superiority. If the enemy's fire remains or becomes effective and +persistent, he realizes that corrective measures are necessary to +increase either volume or accuracy, or both. (415) + + +Discipline + +=430. What discipline accomplishes.= Discipline makes good direction +and control possible and is the distinguishing mark of trained troops. +(416) + +=431. Communication on firing line by means of signals.= The +discipline necessary in the firing line will be absent unless officers +and noncommissioned officers can make their will known to the men. In +the company, therefore, communication must be by simple signals which, +in the roar of musketry, will attract the attention and convey the +correct meaning. (417) + + +Expenditure of Ammunition + +=432. Use of ammunition in attack.= In attack the supply is more +limited than in defense. Better judgment must be exercised in +expenditure. Ordinarily, troops in the firing line of an attack can +not expect to have that day more ammunition than they carry into the +combat, except such additions as come from the distribution of +ammunition of dead and wounded and the surplus brought by +reenforcements. (418) + +=433. True economy in expenditure of ammunition.= When a certain fire +effect is required, the necessary ammunition must be expended without +hesitation. Several hours of firing may be necessary to gain fire +superiority. True economy can be practiced only by closing on the +enemy, as explained in par. 344, before first opening fire, and +thereafter suspending fire when there is nothing to shoot at. (419) + + +Supporting Artillery + +=434. Artillery fire principal aid of infantry.= Artillery fire is the +principal aid to the infantry in gaining and keeping fire superiority, +not only by its hits, but by the moral effect it produces on the +enemy. (420) + +=435. Functions of artillery fire in attack and defense.= In attack, +artillery assists the forward movement of the infantry. It keeps down +the fire of the hostile artillery and seeks to neutralize the hostile +infantry by inflicting losses upon it, destroying its morale, driving +it to cover, and preventing it from using its weapons effectively. + +In defense, it ignores the hostile artillery when the enemy's attack +reaches a decisive stage and assists in checking the attack, joining +its fire power to that of the defending infantry. (421) + +=436. Fire of artillery over friendly troops.= Troops should be +accustomed to being fired over by friendly artillery and impressed +with the fact that the artillery should continue firing upon the enemy +until the last possible moment. The few casualties resulting from +shrapnel bursting short are trifling compared with those that would +result from the increased effectiveness of the enemy's infantry fire +were the friendly artillery to cease firing. + +Casualties inflicted by supporting artillery are not probable until +the opposing infantry lines are less than 200 yards apart. (422) + +=437. When no longer safe for artillery to fire over friendly troops.= +When the distance between the hostile infantry lines becomes so short +as to render further use of friendly artillery inadvisable, the +commander of the infantry firing line, using a preconcerted +signal,[5] informs the artillery commander. The latter usually +increases the range in order to impede the strengthening of the +enemy's foremost line, as explained in pars. 345-346. (423) + + +Fire of Position + +=438. Fire of position, when used.= Infantry is said to execute fire +of position when it is posted so as to assist an attack by firing over +the heads, or off the flank, of the attacking troops and is not itself +to engage in the advance; or when, in defense, it is similarly posted +to augment the fire of the main firing line. + +Machine guns serve a like purpose, as set forth in par. 555. + +In a decisive action, fire of position should be employed whenever the +terrain permits and reserve infantry is available. (424) + + +DEPLOYMENT + +=439. Formation of troops before and during deployment.= Troops are +massed preparatory to deployment when the nature of their deployment +can not be foreseen or it is desirable to shorten the column or to +clear the road. Otherwise, in the deployment of large commands, +whether in march column, in bivouac, or massed, and whether forming, +for attack or for defense, they are ordinarily first formed into a +line of columns to facilitate the extension of the front prior to +deploying. + +The rough line or lines of columns thus formed enable troops to take +advantage of the terrain in advancing and shorten the time occupied in +forming the firing line. (425) + +=440. Action of brigade and regimental commanders in deployment of +division.= In deploying the division, each brigade is assigned a +definite task or objective. On receipt of his orders, the brigade +commander conducts his brigade in column or in line of regiments, +until it is advisable that it be broken into smaller columns. He then +issues his order, assigning to each regiment its task, if practicable. +In a similar manner the regimental commanders lead their regiments +forward in column, or in line of columns, until the time arrives for +issuing the regimental order. It is seldom advisable to break up the +battalion before issuing orders for its deployment. (426) + +=441. Personal reconnaissance before deployment.= Each subordinate +commander, after receiving his order for the action, should precede +his command as far as possible, in order to reconnoiter the ground +personally, and should prepare to issue his orders promptly. (427) + +=442. Each commander to guard his command against surprise.= Each +commander of a column directs the necessary reconnaissance to front +and flanks; by this means and by a judicious choice of ground he +guards against surprise. (428) + +=443. Premature formation of firing line to be avoided.= The premature +formation of the firing line causes unnecessary fatigue and loss of +time, and may result in a faulty direction being taken. Troops once +deployed make even minor changes of direction with difficulty, and +this difficulty increases with the length of the firing line. (429) + +=444. Rectification of deployment in wrong direction.= In the larger +units, when the original deployment is found to be in the wrong +direction, it will usually be necessary to deploy the reserve on the +correct front and withdraw and assemble the first line. (430) + +=445. Number of troops to be deployed in beginning.= To gain decisive +results, it will generally be necessary to use all the troops at some +stage of the combat. But in the beginning, while the situation is +uncertain, care should be taken not to engage too large a proportion +of the command. On the other hand, there is no greater error than to +employ too few and to sacrifice them by driblets. (For division of the +battalion in attack see 335-339.) (431) + +=446. Dense, well-directed, and controlled line of heavy fire gives +fire superiority.= When it is intended to fight to a decision, fire +superiority is essential. To gain this, two things are necessary: A +heavy fire and a fire well-directed and controlled. Both of these are +best obtained when the firing line is as dense as practicable, while +leaving the men room for the free use of their rifles. + +If the men are too widely separated, direction and control are very +difficult, often impossible, and the intensity of fire is slight in +proportion to the front occupied. (432) + +=447. Density of 1 man per yard; occupation of only sections of long +lines.= In an attack or stubborn defense the firing line should have a +density of one man per yard of front occupied. + +Where the tactical situation demands the holding of a line too long to +be occupied throughout at this density, it is generally better to +deploy companies or platoons at one man per yard, leaving gaps in the +line between them, than to distribute the men uniformly at increased +intervals. (433) + +=448. Use of thin firing line.= A relatively thin firing line may be +employed when merely covering the movements of other forces; when on +the defensive against poor troops; when the final action to be taken +has not yet been determined; and, in general, when fire superiority is +not necessary. (434) + +=449. Length of firing line employed by whole force; strength of +supports and reserves; density of charging line.= The length of the +firing line that the whole force may employ depends upon the density +of the line and the strength in rear required by the situation. + +Supports and reserves constitute the strength in rear. + +In a decisive attack they should be at least strong enough to replace +a heavy loss in the original firing line and to increase the charging +line to a density of at least one and one-half men per yard and still +have troops in rear for protection and for the other purposes +mentioned above. (435) + +=450. Strength of reserve; troops deployed varying from 1 to 10 men +per yard.= In the original deployment the strength of the reserve held +out by each commander comprises from one-sixth to two-thirds of his +unit, depending upon the nature of the service expected of the +reserve. + +A small force in a covering or delaying action requires very little +strength in rear, while a large force fighting a decisive battle +requires much. Therefore, depending upon circumstances, the original +deployment, including the strength in rear, may vary from 1 to 10 men +per yard. Against an enemy poorly disciplined and trained, or lacking +in morale, a thinner deployment is permissible. (436) + +=451. Density of whole deployment varies with size of command.= The +density of the whole deployment increases with the size of the +command, because the larger the command the greater the necessity for +reserves. Thus, battalion acting alone may attack two men per yard of +front, but a regiment, with three battalions, may only double the +front of the one battalion. (437) + +=452. Division of battle line into battle districts and density of +deployment therein.= By the assignment of divisions or larger units to +parts of a line of battle several miles long, a series of +semi-independent battle, or local combat, districts are created. + +The general deployment for a long line of battle comprising several +battle districts is not directly considered in these regulations. The +deployments treated of herein are those of the infantry within such +districts. + +The density of deployment in these districts may vary greatly, +depending upon the activity expected in each. Within these battle +districts, as well as in smaller forces acting alone, parts of the +line temporarily of less importance may be held weakly, in order to +economize troops and to have more at the decisive point. (438) + +=453. Extent of front occupied by a unit depends upon security of +flanks.= The front that a unit may occupy when deployed depends also +upon whether its flanks are secured. If both flanks are secured by +other troops, the unit may increase its front materially by reducing +its reserve or supports. If only one flank is so secured, the front +may still be somewhat increased, but the exposed flank must be guarded +by posting the supports or reserve toward that flank. + +Natural obstacles that secure the flanks have practically the same +effect upon deployment. (439) + +=454. Regiments, battalions, and companies deployed side by side.= +Except when assigned as supports or reserve, regiments in the brigade, +battalions in the regiment, and companies in the battalion are, when +practicable, deployed side by side. (440) + +=455. Battalions furnish firing line and supports; larger units +furnish reserves; employment of reserve.= In the deployment, +battalions establish the firing line, each furnishing its own support. + +In each unit larger than the battalion a reserve is held out, its +strength depending upon circumstances. In general, the reserve is +employed by the commander to meet or improve conditions brought about +by the action of the firing line. It must not be too weak or too split +up. It must be posted where the commander believes it will be needed +for decisive action, or where he desires to bring about such action. +When necessary, parts of it reenforce or prolong the firing line. +(441) + + +ATTACK + +(For the battalion in Attack, see pars. 342-346) + +=456. Fire superiority means success; how to obtain fire superiority.= +An attack is bound to succeed if fire superiority is gained and +properly used. + +To gain this superiority generally requires that the attack employ +more rifles than the defense; this in turn means a longer line, as +both sides will probably hold a strong firing line. (442) + +=457. When frontal attack may be successful.= With large forces, a +direct frontal attack gives the attacker little opportunity to bring +more rifles to bear. However, if the enemy is unduly extended, a +frontal attack may give very decisive results. (443) + +=458. When turning movements are allowable.= Owing to the difficulty +of control and the danger of the parts being defeated in detail, wide +turning movements are seldom allowable except in large forces. (444) + +=459. Advantages of enveloping attack.= If the attack can be so +directed that, while the front is covered, another fraction of the +command strikes a flank more or less obliquely (an enveloping attack), +the advantages gained are a longer line and more rifles in action; +also a converging fire opposed to the enemy's diverging fire. (445) + +=460. Envelopment of both flanks.= An envelopment of both flanks +should never be attempted without a very decided superiority in +numbers. (446) + +=461. Enveloping attacks result in local frontal attacks; advantage of +envelopment.= The enveloping attack will nearly always result locally +in a frontal attack, for it will be met by the enemy's reserve. The +advantage of envelopment lies in the longer concentric line, with its +preponderance of rifles and its converging fire. (447) + +=462. Cooeperation between frontal and enveloping attacks; the two +attacks to be deployed considerable distance from hostile positions.= +Cooeperation between the frontal and enveloping attacks is essential to +success. Both should be pushed vigorously and simultaneously, and +ordinarily both should move simultaneously to the charge; but at the +final stage of the attack conditions may sometimes warrant one in +charging while the other supports it with fire. + +The envelopment of a flank is brought about with difficulty when made +by troops already deployed in another direction or by their reserves. +The two attacks should be deployed at a suitable distance apart, with +the lines of attack converging in rear of the hostile position. The +troops that are to make the enveloping attack should deploy in the +proper direction at the start and should be given orders which enable +them to gain their point of deployment in the most direct and +practical manner. + +The enveloping attack is generally made the stronger, especially in +small forces. (448) + + +DEPLOYMENT FOR ATTACK + +=463. Distance from hostile position at which deployment is made; +foreground to be cleared of hostile detachments before deployment.= +Where open terrain exposes troops to hostile artillery fire it may be +necessary to make the deployment 2 miles or more from the hostile +position. + +The foreground should be temporarily occupied by covering troops. If +the enemy occupies the foreground with detachments, the covering +troops must drive them back. (449) + +=464. Moving well forward and deploying at night.= To enable large +forces to gain ground toward the enemy, it may sometimes be cheaper +and quicker in the end to move well forward and to deploy at night. In +such case the area in which the deployment is to be made should, if +practicable, be occupied by covering troops before dark. + +The deployment will be made with great difficulty unless the ground +has been studied by daylight. The deployment gains little unless it +establishes the firing line well within effective range of the enemy's +main position. (See Night Operations, par. 580-590.) (450) + +=465. Each unit deploys on its direction line; intervals between +battalions on firing line.= Each unit assigned a task deploys when on +its direction line, or opposite its objective, and when it has no +longer sufficient cover for advancing in close order. In the firing +line, intervals of 25 to 50 yards should be maintained as long as +possible between battalions. In the larger units it may be necessary +to indicate on the map the direction or objective, but to battalion +commanders it should be pointed out on the ground. (451) + +=466. Post of reserve; reserve charged with flank protection.= The +reserve is kept near enough to the firing line to be on hand at the +decisive stage. It is posted with reference to the attack, or to that +part of the attacking line, from which the greater results are +expected; it is also charged with flank protection, but should be kept +intact. + +Supports are considered in paragraphs 262 to 265, inclusive, and 335 +to 339, inclusive. (452) + + +ADVANCING THE ATTACK + +=467. Firing line to advance as far as possible before opening fire.= +The firing line must ordinarily advance a long distance before it is +justified in opening fire. It can not combat the enemy's artillery, +and it is at a disadvantage if it combats the defender's long-range +rifle fire. Hence it ignores both and, by taking full advantage of +cover and of the discipline of the troops, advances to a first firing +position at the shortest range possible, as explained in par. 344. + +Formations for crossing this zone with the minimum loss are considered +in paragraphs 249 to 257, inclusive. These and other methods of +crossing such zones should be studied and practiced. (453) + +=468. Invisibility best protection while advancing.= The best +protection against loss while advancing is to escape the enemy's view. +(454) + +=469. Advance of battalions.= Each battalion finds its own firing +position, conforming to the general advance as long as practicable +and taking advantage of the more advanced position of an adjacent +battalion in order to gain ground. + +The position from which the attack opens fire is further considered in +paragraphs 343-345, inclusive. (455) + +=470. Infantry moving to the attack passing through deployed +artillery.= It will frequently become necessary for infantry moving to +the attack to pass through deployed artillery. This should be done so +as to interfere as little as possible with the latter's fire, and +never so as to cause that fire to cease entirely. As far as +practicable, advantage should be taken of intervals in the line, if +any. An understanding between artillery and infantry commanders should +be had, so as to effect the movement to the best advantage. (456) + +=471. Advanced elements of firing line not to open fire on main +hostile position.= In advancing the attack, advanced elements of the +firing line or detachments in front of it should not open fire except +in defense or to clear the foreground of the enemy. Fire on the +hostile main position should not be opened until all or nearly all of +the firing line can join in the fire. (457) + + +THE FIRE ATTACK + +(See pars. 414-438.) + +=472. Fire superiority sought at first firing position, and to be +maintained until charging point is reached; size of rushing units.= At +the first firing position the attack seeks to gain fire superiority. +This may necessitate a steady, accurate fire a long time. The object +is to subdue the enemy's fire and keep it subdued so that the +attacking troops may advance from this point to a favorable place near +the enemy from which the charge may be made. Hence, in the advance by +rushes, sufficient rifles must be kept constantly in action to keep +down the enemy's fire; this determines the size of the fraction +rushing. (458) + +=473. Futility of advancing without fire superiority.= To advance +without fire superiority against a determined defense would result in +such losses as to bring the attack to a standstill or to make the +apparent success barren of results. (459) + +=474. Signs that fire superiority has been gained.= Diminution of the +enemy's fire and a pronounced loss in effectiveness are the surest +signs that fire superiority has been gained and that a part of the +firing line can advance. (460) + +=475. Retiring under fire in daylight suicidal; intrenching.= The men +must be impressed with the fact that, having made a considerable +advance under fire and having been checked, it is suicidal to turn +back in daylight. + +If they can advance no farther, they must intrench and hold on until +the fall of darkness or a favorable turn in the situation develops. + +Intrenching is resorted to only when necessary. Troops who have +intrenched themselves under fire are moved forward again with +difficulty. (461) + +=476. Supports and reserves occupying trenches vacated by firing line, +to improve same.= Supports and reserves occupying intrenchments +vacated by the firing line should improve them, but they must not be +held back or diverted from their true missions on this account. (462) + +=477. Greater detail of conduct of fire attack.= Paragraphs 346 to +354, inclusive, deal more in detail with the conduct of the fire +attack. (463) + + +THE CHARGE + +(See pars. 355-356) + +=478. What fire superiority accomplishes; psychological moment for +charge determined by tactical instinct.= Fire superiority beats down +the enemy's fire, destroys his resistance and morale, and enables the +attacking troops to close on him, but an actual or threatened +occupation of his position is needed to drive him out and defeat him. + +The psychological moment for the charge can not be determined far in +advance. The tactical instinct of the responsible officer must decide. +(464) + +=479. When, and distance over which charge should be made.= + +The defenders, if subjugated by the fire attack, will frequently leave +before the charge begins. On the other hand, it may be necessary to +carry the fire attack close to the position and follow it up with a +short dash and a bayonet combat. Hence the distance over which the +charge may be made will vary between wide limits. It may be from 25 to +400 yards. + +The charge should be made at the earliest moment that promises +success; otherwise the full advance of victory will be lost. (465) + +=480. Charge to be made with approval of commander of attacking line; +battalion commanders signal commander of line when ready to charge; +charge to be made simultaneously.= The commander of the attacking line +should indicate his approval, or give the order, before the charge is +made. Subordinate commanders, usually battalion commanders, whose +troops are ready to charge, signal that fact to the commander. It may +be necessary for them to wait until other battalions or other parts of +the line are ready or until the necessary reserves arrive. + +At the signal for the charge the firing line and nearby supports and +reserves rush forward. (See pars. 355 and 356.) + +The charge is made simultaneously, if possible, by all the units +participating therein, but once committed to the assault, battalions +should be pushed with the utmost vigor and no restraint placed on the +ardor of charging troops by an attempt to maintain alignment. (466) + +=481. Charge not to be made without sufficient troops; reserves give +impetus; avoiding too dense a mass.= Before ordering the charge the +commander should see that enough troops are on hand to make it a +success. Local reserves joining the firing line in time to participate +in the charge give it a strong impetus. Too dense a mass should be +avoided. (467) + +=482. Line to be strengthened by prolongation.= The line should be +strengthened by prolongation, if practicable, and remaining troops +kept in formation for future use; but rather than that the attack +should fail, the last formed body will be sent in, unless it is very +apparent that it can do no good. (468) + +=483. Additional force for pursuit.= To arrive in the hostile position +with a very compact firing line and a few formed supports is +sufficient for a victory, but an additional force kept well in hand +for pursuit is of inestimable value. (469) + +=484. Premature charge to be avoided; charging without authority from +the rear.= A premature charge by a part of the line should be avoided, +but if begun, the other parts of the line should join at once if there +is any prospect of success. Under exceptional conditions a part of the +line may be compelled to charge without authority from the rear. The +intention to do so should be signaled to the rear. (470) + +=485. Confidence in ability to use bayonet.= Confidence in their +ability to use the bayonet gives the assaulting troops the promise of +success. (471) + +=486. Pursuing fire; disordered units not to pursue.= If the enemy has +left the position when the charging troops reach it, the latter should +open a rapid fire upon the retreating enemy, if he is in sight. It is +not advisable for the mixed and disordered units to follow him, except +to advance to a favorable firing position or to cover the +reorganization of others. (472) + +=487. Pursuing troops; reorganization of charging line; preparations +to meet counter-attack.= The nearest formed bodies accompanying or +following the charge are sent instantly in pursuit. Under cover of +these troops order is restored in the charging line. If the captured +position is a part of a general line or is an advanced post, it should +be intrenched and occupied at once. + +The exhaustion of officers and men must not cause the neglect of +measures to meet a counter-attack. (473) + +=488. Steps to be taken when attack receives temporary setback.= If +the attack receives a temporary setback and it is intended to +strengthen and continue it, officers will make every effort to stop +the rearward movement and will reestablish the firing line in a +covered position as close as possible to the enemy. (474) + +=489. Steps to be taken if attack is abandoned.= If the attack must be +abandoned, the rearward movement should continue with promptness until +the troops reach a feature of the terrain that facilitates the task of +checking and reorganizing them. The point selected should be so far to +the rear as to prevent interference by the enemy before the troops are +ready to resist. The withdrawal of the attacking troops should be +covered by the artillery and by reserves, if any are available. + +(See Night Operations, pars. 580-590.) (475) + + +PURSUIT + +=490. Full fruits of victory reaped by pursuit.= To reap the full +fruits of victory a vigorous pursuit must be made. The natural +inclination to be satisfied with a successful charge must be overcome. +The enemy must be allowed no more time to reorganize than is +positively unavoidable. (476) + +=491. Parts played in pursuit by reserve, artillery, and charging +troops.= The part of the reserve that is still formed or is best under +control is sent forward in pursuit and vigorously attacks the enemy's +main body or covering detachments wherever found. + +The artillery delivers a heavy fire upon the retreating enemy; the +disordered attacking troops secure the position, promptly reform and +become a new reserve. (477) + +=492. Strengthening of position captured, if section of general line.= +If the captured position is a section of the general line, the breach +should be heavily occupied, made wider, and strongly secured by +drawing on all reserves in the vicinity. (478) + +=493. Pursuit by parallel roads.= After the pursuit from the immediate +battlefield, pursuit by parallel roads is especially effective where +large commands are concerned. (479) + +=494. Artillery and cavalry in pursuit.= Artillery and cavalry are +very effective in pursuit. (480) + + +ATTACK OF FORTIFICATIONS + +=495. Modifications of attack in case of fortifications.= Few +modifications enter into the problem of attacking fortifications. Such +as are to be considered relate chiefly to the greater time and labor +of advancing, the more frequent use of darkness and the use of hand +grenades to augment the fire. (481) + +=496. Approaching charging point under cover of darkness.= If the +enemy is strongly fortified and time permits, it may be advisable to +wait and approach the charging point under cover of darkness. The +necessary reconnaissance and arrangements should be made before dark. +If the charge is not to be made at once, the troops intrench the +advanced position, using sand bags if necessary. Before daylight the +foreground should be cleared of obstacles. (482) + +=497. Charging without fire preparation.= If the distance is short and +other conditions are favorable, the charge may be made without fire +preparation. If made, it should be launched with spirit and suddenness +at the break of day. (See Night Operations pars. 580-590.) (483) + +=498. Advancing to charging point by sapping.= In siege operations +troops are usually advanced to the charging point by sapping. This +method, however, presupposes that an early victory is not necessary, +or that it is clearly inadvisable to attempt more direct methods. +(484) + + +HOLDING ATTACK + +=499. Requisites of the holding attack.= The holding attack must be +vigorous enough to hold the enemy in position and must present a front +strong enough to conceal the secondary nature of the attack. + +The holding attack need have comparatively little strength in rear, +but conceals the fact by a firing line not distinguishable from that +of a decisive attack. (485) + +=500. Post and strength of supports and reserves.= Supports and +reserves are kept at short distances. Their strength is less if the +object is merely to hold the enemy fast than if the object is, in +addition, to compel him to use up reserves. (486) + +=501. Holding attacks developing into decisive attacks.= Holding +attacks which may later develop into decisive attacks should be +correspondingly strong in rear. (487) + +=502. Feint attacks.= All feint attacks should employ dense firing +lines. Their weakness is in rear and is concealed. (488) + + +DEFENSE + + +POSITIONS AND INTRENCHMENTS + +=503. Requirements of a good defensive position.= The first +requirement of a good position is a clear field of fire and view to +the front and exposed flanks to a distance of 600 to 800 yards or +more. The length of front should be suitable to the size of the +command and the flanks should be secure. The position should have +lateral communication and cover for supports and reserves. It should +be one which the enemy can not avoid, but must attack or give up his +mission. + +A position having all these advantages will rarely, if ever, be found. +The one should be taken which conforms closest to the description. +(489) + +=504. Utilization of natural cover; construction of fieldworks and +obstacles.= The natural cover of the position should be fully +utilized. In addition, it should be strengthened by fieldworks and +obstacles. + +The best protection is afforded by deep, narrow, inconspicuous +trenches. If little time is available, as much as practicable must be +done. That the fieldworks may not be needed should not cause their +construction to be omitted, and the fact that they have been +constructed should not influence the action of a commander, if +conditions are found to be other than expected. (490) + +=505. Construction of communicating and cover trenches, head cover, +etc.= When time and troops are available the preparations include the +necessary communicating and cover trenches, head cover, bombproofs, +etc. The fire trenches should be well supplied with ammunition. + +The supports are placed close at hand in cover trenches when natural +cover is not available. (491) + +=506. Dummy trenches.= Dummy trenches frequently cause the hostile +artillery to waste time and ammunition and to divert its fire. (492) + +=507. Location, extent, garrison, etc., of fieldworks.= The location, +extent, profile, garrison, etc., of fieldworks are matters to be +decided by the infantry commanders. Officers must be able to choose +ground and properly intrench it. (See "Field Fortifications," Chapter +XVI, Part III.) (493) + +=508. Outlining trace of trenches in combat exercises.= In combat +exercises, when it is impracticable to construct the trenches +appropriate to the exercise, their trace may be outlined by bayonets, +sticks, or other markers, and the responsible officers required to +indicate the profile selected, method and time of construction, +garrisons, etc. (494) + + +DEPLOYMENT FOR DEFENSE + +=509. Density of whole deployment.= The density of the whole +deployment depends upon the expected severity of the action, the +character of the enemy, the condition of the flanks, the field of +fire, the terrain, and the available artificial or natural protection +for the troops. (495) + +=510. Density of firing line.= If exposed, the firing line should be +as dense in defense as in attack. If the firing line is well +intrenched and has a good field of fire, it may be made thinner. + +Weaker supports are permissible. For the same number of troops the +front occupied on the defensive may therefore be longer than on the +offensive, the battalions placing more companies in the firing line. +(496) + +=511. Strength in rear to be increased when change from defensive to +offensive is contemplated.= If it is intended only to delay the enemy, +a fairly strong deployment is sufficient, but if decisive results are +desired, a change to the offensive must be contemplated and the +corresponding strength in rear provided. This strength is in the +reserve, which should be as large as the demands of the firing line +and supports permit. Even in a passive defense the reserve should be +as strong as in the attack; unless the flanks are protected by other +means. (497) + +=512. Post of supports; cover for supports.= Supports are posted as +close to the firing line as practicable and reinforce the latter +according to the principles explained in the attack. When natural +cover is not sufficient for the purpose, communicating and cover +trenches are constructed. If time does not permit their construction, +it is better to begin the action with a very dense firing line and no +immediate supports than to have supports greatly exposed in rear. +(498) + +=513. Post of reserve.= The reserve should be posted so as to be +entirely free to act as a whole, according to the developments. The +distance from firing line to reserve is generally greater than in the +attack. By reason of such a location the reserve is best able to meet +a hostile enveloping attack; it has a better position from which to +make a counter attack; it is in a better position to cover a +withdrawal and permit an orderly retreat. + +The distance from firing line to reserve increases with the size of +the reserve. (499) + +=514. Post of reserve when situation is no longer in doubt.= When the +situation is no longer in doubt, the reserve should be held in rear of +the flank which is most in danger or offers the best opportunity for +counter attack. Usually the same flank best suits both purposes. (500) + +=515. Detaching part of reserve to protect opposite flank.= In +exceptional cases, on broad fronts, it may be necessary to detach a +part of the reserve to protect the opposite flank. This detachment +should be the smallest consistent with its purely protective mission. +(501) + +=516. Assignment of front to units.= The commander assigns to +subordinates the front to be occupied by them. These, in turn, +subdivide the front among their next lower units in the firing line. +(502) + +=517. Division of extended position into sections.= An extended +position is so divided into sections that each has, if practicable, a +field of fire naturally made distinct by the terrain. + +Unfavorable and unimportant ground will ordinarily cause gaps to exist +in the line. (503) + +=518. Size of units occupying sections; battalions to be kept intact.= +The size of the unit occupying each section depends upon the latter's +natural strength, front, and importance. If practicable, battalions +should be kept intact and assigned as units to sections or parts of +sections. (504) + +=519. Adjoining sections or machine guns to cover dead space.= Where +important dead space lies in front of one section, an adjoining +section should be instructed to cover it with fire when necessary, or +machine guns should be concealed for the like purpose. (505) + +=520. Advanced posts and other dispersion to be avoided.= Advanced +posts, or any other form of unnecessary dispersion, should be avoided. +(506) + +=521. Position itself not fully occupied until infantry attack +begins.= Unless the difficulty of moving the troops into the position +be great, most of the troops of the firing line are held in rear of it +until the infantry attack begins. The position itself is occupied by a +small garrison only, with the necessary outguards or patrols in front. +(507) + +=522. Fire alone unable to stop attack.= Fire alone can not be +depended upon to stop the attack. The troops must be determined to +resort to the bayonet, if necessary. (508) + +=523. Steps to be taken if night attack is expected.= If a night +attack or close approach by the enemy is expected, troops in a +prepared position should strengthen the outguards and firing line and +construct as numerous and effective obstacles as possible. Supports +and local reserves should move close to the firing line and should, +with the firing line, keep bayonets fixed. If practicable, the front +should be illuminated, preferably from the flanks of the section. +(509) + +=524. Short range fire and bayonet in night attack.= Only short range +fire is of any value in resisting night attacks. The bayonet is the +chief reliance. (See Night Operations pars. 580-590.) (510) + + +COUNTER ATTACK + +=525. Passive defense; only offensive wins.= The passive defense +should be assumed only when circumstances force it. Only the offensive +wins. (511) + +=526. Active defense seeks favorable decision; counter attack +necessary.= An active defense seeks a favorable decision. A favorable +decision can not be expected without counter attack. (512) + +=527. Protection of flanks by natural obstacles necessary in passive +defense position.= A passive defense in a position whose flanks are +not protected by natural obstacles is generally out of the question. +(513) + +=528. Post of troops for counter attack.= Where the defense is assumed +with a view to making a counter attack, the troops for the counter +attack should be held in reserve until the time arrives for such +attack. The defensive line should be held by as few troops as possible +in order that the force for the offensive may be as large as possible. + +The force for the counter attack should be held echeloned in rear of +the flank which offers it the greatest advantage for the proposed +attack. (514) + +=529. Manner of making counter attack.= The counter attack should be +made vigorously and at the proper time. It will usually be made: + +By launching the reserve against the enemy's flank when his attack is +in full progress. This is the most effective form of counter attack. + +Straight to the front by the firing line and supports after repulsing +the enemy's attack and demoralizing him with pursuing fire. + +Or, by the troops in rear of the firing line when the enemy has +reached the defensive position and is in disorder. (515) + +=530. Minor counter attacks.= Minor counter attacks are sometimes +necessary in order to drive the enemy from important positions gained +by him. (516) + + +DELAYING ACTION + +=531. The important considerations in a delaying action.= When a +position is taken merely to delay the enemy and to withdraw before +becoming closely engaged, the important considerations are: + +The enemy should be forced to deploy early. The field of fire should +therefore be good at distances from 500 to 1,200 yards or more; a good +field of fire at close range is not necessary. + +The ground in rear of the position should favor the withdrawal of the +firing line by screening the troops from the enemy's view and fire as +soon as the position is vacated. (517) + +=532. Thin firing line answers purpose; purposes of supports and +reserve.= A thin firing line using much ammunition will generally +answer the purpose. Supports are needed chiefly to protect the flanks. + +The reserve should be posted well in rear to assist in the withdrawal +of the firing line. (518) + +=533. Value of artillery.= Artillery is especially valuable to a +delaying force. (519) + + +MEETING ENGAGEMENTS + +=534. Characteristics of meeting engagements.= Meeting engagements are +characterized by the necessity for hasty reconnaissance, or the almost +total absence of reconnaissance; by the necessity for rapid +deployment, frequently under fire; and usually by the absence of +trenches or other artificial cover. These conditions give further +advantages to the offensive. (520) + +=535. General action on meeting enemy.= The whole situation will +usually indicate beforehand the proper general action to be taken on +meeting the enemy. (521) + +=536. Meagerness of information; qualities of commander to be relied +upon.= Little fresh information can be expected. The boldness, +initiative, and determination of the commander must be relied upon. +(522) + +=537. Meeting engagement affords ideal opportunity to certain +commanders.= A meeting engagement affords an ideal opportunity to the +commander who has intuition and quick decision and who is willing to +take long chances. His opponent is likely to be overcautious. (523) + +=538. The mission determines method of attack.= The amount of +information that the commander is warranted in awaiting before taking +final action depends entirely upon his mission. One situation may +demand a blind attack; another may demand rapid, partial deployment +for attack, but careful and time-consuming reconnaissance before the +attack is launched. (524) + +=539. Advantage accrues to side deploying the faster.= A great +advantage accrues to the side which can deploy the faster. The +advantage of a close-order formation, favoring rapid deployment, +becomes more pronounced with the size of the force. (525) + +=540. Advantages of first troops to deploy.= The first troops to +deploy will be able to attack with longer firing lines and weaker +supports than are required in the ordinary case. But if the enemy +succeeds in deploying a strong defensive line, the attack must be +strengthened accordingly before it is wasted. (526) + +=541. Things to be done by the leading troops.= If the situation +warrants the advance, the leading troops seek to deploy faster than +the enemy, to reach his flanks, check his deployment, and get +information. In any event, they seek to cover the deployment of their +own troops in rear--especially the artillery--and to seize important +ground. (527) + +=542. Post of commander of long column meeting enemy; function of +advance guard; action of column.= The commander of a long column which +meets the enemy should be with the advance guard to receive +information promptly and to reconnoiter. If he decides to fight, the +advance guard must hold the enemy while the commander formulates a +plan of action, issues the necessary orders, and deploys the main +body. Meantime, the column should be closing up, either in mass or to +form line of columns, so that the deployment, when determined upon, +may be made more promptly. (528) + +=543. Action of advance guard prior to receipt of orders.= The action +of the advance guard, prior to the receipt of orders, depends upon the +situation. Whether to attack determinedly or only as a feint, or to +assume the defensive, depends upon the strength of the advance guard, +the terrain, the character of the hostile force encountered, and the +mission and intentions of the commander of the whole. (529) + +=544. Main body should be used as a whole and not put into action +piecemeal.= If the enemy is beforehand or more aggressive, or if the +advance guard is too weak, it may be necessary to put elements of the +main body into action as fast as they arrive, in order to check him. +This method should be avoided; it prevents the formation and execution +of a definite plan and compels piecemeal action. The best results are +obtained when the main body is used as a whole. (530) + + +WITHDRAWAL FROM ACTION + +=545. Withdrawal generally effected at heavy cost; rear guard and +distance to be placed between enemy and defeated troops.= The +withdrawal of a defeated force can generally be effected only at a +heavy cost. When it is no longer possible to give the action a +favorable turn and the necessity for withdrawal arises, every effort +must be made to place distance and a rear guard between the enemy and +the defeated troops. (531) + +=546. Use of artillery, machine guns, and cavalry.= Artillery gives +especially valuable assistance in the withdrawal. The long-range fire +of machine guns should also be employed. Cavalry assists the +withdrawal by charging the pursuing troops or by taking flank +positions and using fire action. (532) + +=547. Use of reserve to check the pursuit.= If an intact reserve +remains, it should be placed in a covering position, preferably on a +flank, to check the pursuit and thus enable the defeated troops to +withdraw beyond reach of hostile fire. + +The covering position of the reserve should be at some distance from +the main action, but close enough to bring the withdrawing troops +quickly under the protection of its fire. It should have a good field +of fire at effective and long ranges and should facilitate its own +safe and timely withdrawal. (533) + +=548. Part of line to be withdrawn first; retreating troops to be +gotten under control as soon as possible.= If the general line is +divided, by terrain or by organization, into two or more parts, the +firing line of the part in the least danger from pursuit should be +withdrawn first. A continuous firing line, whose parts are dependent +upon one another for fire support, should be withdrawn as a whole, +retiring by echelon at the beginning of the withdrawal. Every effort +must be made to restore the organizations, regain control, and form +column of march as soon as the troops are beyond the reach of hostile +fire. + +As fast as possible without delaying the march, companies, and the +larger units should be reformed, so that the command will again be +well in hand. (534) + +=549. Action taken by commander; selection of rendezvous point.= The +commander of the whole, having given orders for withdrawal, should go +to the rear, select a rendezvous point, and devote himself to the +reorganization of his command. + +The rendezvous point is selected with regard to the natural channels +of movement approximately straight to the rear. It should be distant +from the battlefield and should facilitate the gathering and +protection of the command. (535) + + +SUMMARY + +=550.= 1. Avoid combats that offer no chance of victory or other +valuable results. + +2. Make every effort for the success of the general plan and avoid +spectacular plays that have no bearing on the general result. + +3. Have a definite plan and carry it out vigorously. Do not vacillate. + +4. Do not attempt complicated maneuvers. + +5. Keep the command in hand; avoid undue extension and dispersion. + +6. Study the ground and direct the advance in such a way as to take +advantage of all available cover and thereby diminish losses. + +7. Never deploy until the purpose and the proper direction are known. + +8. Deploy enough men for the immediate task in hand; hold out the rest +and avoid undue haste in committing them to the action. + +9. Flanks must be protected either by reserves, fortifications, or the +terrain. + +10. In a decisive action, gain and keep fire superiority. + +11. Keep up reconnaissance. + +12. Use the reserve, but not until needed or a very favorable +opportunity for its use presents itself. Keep some reserve as long as +practicable. + +13. Do not hesitate to sacrifice the command if the result is worth +the cost. + +14. Spare the command all unnecessary hardship and exertion. (536) + + +MACHINE GUNS + +=551. Machine guns are weapons of emergency.= Machine guns must be +considered as weapons of emergency. Their effectiveness combined with +their mobility renders them of great value at critical, though +infrequent, periods of an engagement. (537) + +=552. Machine guns to be used for short periods, when opportunities +present themselves.= When operating against infantry only, they can be +used to a great extent throughout the combat as circumstances may +indicate, but they are quickly rendered powerless by efficient field +artillery and will promptly draw artillery fire whenever they open. +Hence their use in engagements between large commands must be for +short periods and at times when their great effectiveness will be most +valuable. (538) + +=553. Machine guns attached to advance guard; use in meeting +engagements.= Machine guns should be attached to the advance guard. In +meeting engagements they will be of great value in assisting their own +advance, or in checking the advance of the enemy, and will have +considerable time to operate before hostile artillery fire can silence +them. + +Care must be taken not to leave them too long in action. (539) + +=554. Use of machine guns with rear guard.= They are valuable to a +rear guard which seeks to check a vigorous pursuit or to gain time. +(540) + +=555. Machine guns in attack; fire of position.= In attack, if fire of +position is practicable, they are of great value. In this case fire +should not be opened by the machine guns until the attack is well +advanced. At a critical period in the attack, such fire, if suddenly +and unexpectedly opened, will greatly assist the advancing line. The +fire must be as heavy as possible and must be continued until masked +by friendly troops or until the hostile artillery finds the machine +guns. (541) + +=556. Machine guns in defense.= In the defense, machine guns should be +used in the same general manner as described above for the attack. +Concealment and patient waiting for critical moments and exceptional +opportunities are the special characteristics of the machine-gun +service in decisive actions. (542) + +=557. Machine guns as part of reserve; use in covering withdrawal.= As +part of the reserve, machine guns have special importance. If they are +with the troops told off to protect the flanks, and if they are well +placed, they will often produce decisive results against a hostile +turning movement. They are especially qualified to cover a withdrawal +or make a captured position secure. (543) + +=558. Machine guns not to form part of firing line of attack.= Machine +guns should not be assigned to the firing line of an attack. They +should be so placed that fire directed upon them is not likely to fall +upon the firing line. (544) + +=559. Effectiveness of machine guns against skirmish line, except when +lying down or crawling.= A skirmish line can not advance by walking or +running when hostile machine guns have the correct range and are ready +to fire. Machine-gun fire is not specially effective against troops +lying on the ground or crawling. (545) + +=560. Silencing of machine guns by infantry.= When opposed by machine +guns without artillery to destroy them, infantry itself must silence +them before it can advance. + +An infantry command that must depend upon itself for protection +against machine guns should concentrate a large number of rifles on +each gun in turn and until it has silenced it. (546) + +_In addition to the above, which the Infantry Drill Regulations gives +on the subject of machine guns, the following, based on the use of +machine guns in the European War, is given:_ + +=561. Machine guns essentially automatic rifles.= They are essentially +automatic rifles, designed to fire the ordinary rifle cartridge and +capable of delivering a stream of small bullets at a rate of as high +as 600 per minute. Experience in the European war has determined that +the rate of 400 shots per minute is the desirable maximum. Their +ranges are the same as for the rifle. The fire of a machine gun has +been estimated as equal to that of 30 men. + +=562. Mounts.= Machine guns are usually mounted on tripods or wheels. +The weight of certain types is such that they can readily be carried +by the soldier from one point to another. + +=563. Methods of transportation.= While machine guns are usually +designed to be carried or packed, they are easily adapted to various +methods of transportation. In the European war we find them mounted on +sleds during the winter campaign; on specially designed motor cycles +with side cars and accompanied by other motor cycles carrying +ammunition; on wheels; on wagons; on armored automobiles; aeroplanes; +and finally in the powerful "tanks" of the English. + +=564. Concealment.= Machine guns while usually considered as _weapons +of emergency_ have been used in attack and defense in the European war +in all stages. Their mobility and deadly effect have made them of +great value. Once their position is discovered they are quickly put +out of action by artillery. Owing to this fact the armies in Europe +have used alternative positions and have used every means to conceal +the guns. Hedges, walls, and pits are used and every effort is used to +conceal the flame of discharge. This is usually accomplished by +keeping the muzzle well in rear of its cover or loop hole. Machine +guns almost invariably betray their positions as soon as they enter +into action. The present tendency seems to be to hold them concealed +and place them into position in the trenches or emplacements at the +moment of combat. + +Extraordinary means have been resorted to in hiding the guns until +they are needed. In the German line, dugouts underground were +constructed to conceal the machine guns and crews. Often they +permitted the first line of the attack to pass over them and then +appeared in rear and opened a deadly fire on the backs of the troops. + +=565. Use in villages.= In villages, machine guns were used with +terrible effect, firing from cellars or windows. The only successful +method of destroying them was with hand grenades and even this was +costly. + +=566. Location on the defense.= On the _defense_ machine guns should +be mounted in salients and at points where cross fire can be obtained. +This makes it more difficult for the enemy to locate the guns. Frontal +fire is not so often successful. + +=567. Location in attack.= In the _attack_ it is accepted that machine +guns must cover the Infantry at short and long ranges while other +machine guns must accompany the attacking troops to hold the positions +or trenches gained. + +The second or third line would seem to be the best position for +machine guns when accompanying troops. + +[Illustration: Machine Gun Emplacement: Section aa] + +[Illustration: Machine Gun Emplacement: Plan with Cover Removed] + +=568. Economy of men.= Owing to its rapid and effective fire, and the +comparative ease with which it can be concealed, the machine gun +permits a great economy of men on a front and the concentrating of the +forces thus freed for use in other parts of the field. This was done +on a large scale on the Russian front by the Germans in 1915. They +constructed miles of wire entanglements in front of positions occupied +with an enormous number of machine guns and comparatively few men. The +main forces were thus free to be transported wherever danger +threatened. In this manner the Germans replaced men by machine guns +and wire and were able to cope successfully with the immense Russian +Armies. The above plate shows a typical machine gun emplacement, +constructed in the field. Many elaborate emplacements have been +constructed in the European war, using steel and concrete, but for a +hasty cover in the field the simple emplacement shown in the figure is +recommended. + + (NOTE.--For a more detailed study of machine guns, see Subject XI, + Machine Guns in Action, School of Musketry, Fort Sill, Oklahoma, + and Combined Cavalry and Infantry Drill Regulations for Automatic + Machine Rifle, cal. 30, 1909, War Department, 1915.) + + +AMMUNITION SUPPLY + +=569. Method of supplying ammunition to combat train.= The method of +supply of ammunition to the combat trains is explained in Field +Service Regulations. (547) + +=570. Combat train and the major's responsibility for its proper use; +a rendezvous for each brigade.= The combat train is the immediate +reserve supply of the battalion, and the major is responsible for its +proper use. He will take measures to insure the maintenance of the +prescribed allowance at all times. + +In the absence of instructions, he will cause the train to march +immediately in rear of his battalion, and, upon separating from it to +enter an engagement, will cause the ammunition therein to be issued. +When emptied, he will direct that the wagons proceed to the proper +rendezvous to be refilled. Ordinarily a rendezvous is appointed for +each brigade and the necessary number of wagons sent forward to it +from the ammunition column. (548) + +=571. Destination of combat wagons when refilled.= When refilled, the +combat wagons will rejoin their battalions, or, if the latter be +engaged, will join or establish communication with the regimental +reserve. (549) + +=572. Company commanders' responsibility for ammunition in belts; +ammunition of dead and wounded.= Company commanders are responsible +that the belts of the men in their companies are kept filled at all +times, except when the ammunition is being expended in action. In the +firing line the ammunition of the dead and wounded should be secured +whenever practicable. (550) + +=573. Ammunition in bandoleers and 30 rounds in right pocket section.= +Ammunition in the bandoleers will ordinarily be expended first. Thirty +rounds in the right pocket section of the belt will be held as a +reserve, to be expended only when ordered by an officer. (551) + +=574. Ammunition sent forward with reenforcements; men not to be sent +back from firing line for ammunition.= When necessary to resupply the +firing line, ammunition will be sent forward with reenforcements, +generally from the regimental reserve. (552) + +Men will never be sent back from the firing line for ammunition. Men +sent forward with ammunition remain with the firing line. + +=575. Replenishment of ammunition after engagement.= As soon as +possible after an engagement the belts of the men and the combat +wagons are resupplied to their normal capacities. Ammunition which can +not be reloaded on combat wagons will be piled up in a convenient +place and left under guard. (553) + + +MOUNTED SCOUTS + +=576. Scouts to be trained in patrolling and reconnaissance; their +use.= The mounted scouts should be thoroughly trained in patrolling +and reconnaissance. They are used for communication with neighboring +troops, for patrolling off the route of march, for march outposts, +outpost patrols, combat patrols, reconnaissance ahead of columns, etc. +Their further use is, in general, confined to escort and messenger +duty. They should be freely used for all these purposes, but for these +purposes only. (554) + +=577. Use of mounted scouts for reconnoitering.= When infantry is +acting alone, or when the cavalry of a mixed command has been sent to +a distance, the mounted scouts are of special importance to covering +detachments and should be used to make the reconnaissance which would +otherwise fall to cavalry. (555) + +=578. Scouts to be used in reconnaissance in preference to other +troops; use for dismounted patrolling.= In reconnaissance, scouts +should be used in preference to other troops as much as possible. When +not needed for mounted duty, they should be employed for necessary +dismounted patrolling. (556) + +=579. Training of battalion staff officers in patrolling.= Battalion +staff officers should be specially trained in patrolling and +reconnaissance work in order that they may be available when a mounted +officer's patrol is required. (557) + + +NIGHT OPERATIONS + +=580. Purposes of night operations.= By employing night operations +troops make use of the cover of darkness to minimize losses from +hostile fire or to escape observation. Night operations may also be +necessary for the purpose of gaining time. Control is difficult and +confusion is frequently unavoidable. + +It may be necessary to take advantage of darkness in order to assault +from a point gained during the day, or to approach a point from which +a daylight assault is to be made, or to effect both the approach and +the assault. (558) + +=581. Practice in offensive and defensive operations; simple +formations.= Offensive and defensive night operations should be +practiced frequently in order that troops may learn to cover ground in +the dark and arrive at a destination quietly and in good order, and +in order to train officers in the necessary preparation and +reconnaissance. + +Only simple and well-appointed formations should be employed. + +Troops should be thoroughly trained in the necessary details--e. g., +night patrolling, night marching, and communication at night. (559) + +=582. Ground to be studied by day and night, cleared of hostile +detachments, etc.; preparation of orders; distinctive badges.= The +ground to be traversed should be studied by daylight and, if +practicable, at night. It should be cleared of hostile detachments +before dark, and, if practicable, should be occupied by covering +troops. + +Orders must be formulated with great care and clearness. Each unit +must be given a definite objective and direction, and care must be +exercised to avoid collision between units. + +Whenever contact with the enemy is anticipated, a distinctive badge +should be worn by all. (560) + +=583. Secrecy of preparations; unfriendly guides; fire action to be +avoided, relying upon bayonet.= Preparations must be made with +secrecy. When the movement is started, and not until then, the +officers and men should be acquainted with the general design, the +composition of the whole force, and should be given such additional +information as will insure cooeperation and eliminate mistakes. + +During the movement every precaution must be taken to keep secret the +fact that troops are abroad. + +Unfriendly guides must frequently be impressed. These should be +secured against escape, outcry, or deception. + +Fire action should be avoided in offensive operations. In general, +pieces should not be loaded. Men must be trained to rely upon the +bayonet and to use it aggressively. (561) + +=584. Night marches; advance and rear guards.= Long night marches +should be made only over well-defined routes. March discipline must be +rigidly enforced. The troops should be marched in as compact a +formation as practicable, with the usual covering detachments. Advance +and rear guard distances should be greatly reduced. They are shortest +when the mission is an offensive one. The connecting files are +numerous. (562) + +=585. Night advance followed by attack by day.= A night advance made +with a view to making an attack by day usually terminates with the +hasty construction of intrenchments in the dark. Such an advance +should be timed so as to allow an hour or more of darkness for +intrenching. + +An advance that is to terminate in an assault at the break of day +should be timed so that the troops will not arrive long before the +assault is to be made; otherwise, the advantage of partial surprise +will be lost, and the enemy will be allowed to reenforce the +threatened point. (563) + +=586. Night attacks, when employed; they require trained troops; +compact formations; value of bayonet.= The night attack is ordinarily +confined to small forces, or to minor engagements in a general battle, +or to seizure of positions occupied by covering or advanced +detachments. Decisive results are not often obtained. + +Poorly disciplined and untrained troops are unfit for night attacks or +for night operations demanding the exercise of skill and care. + +Troops attacking at night can advance close to the enemy in compact +formations and without suffering loss from hostile artillery or +infantry fire. The defender is ignorant of the strength or direction +of the attack. + +A force which makes a vigorous bayonet charge in the dark will often +throw a much larger force into disorder. (564) + +=587. Reconnaissance; attack to be a surprise.= Reconnaissance should +be made to ascertain the position and strength of the enemy and to +study the terrain to be traversed. Officers who are to participate in +the attack should conduct this reconnaissance. Reconnaissance at night +is especially valuable. Features that are distinguishable at night +should be carefully noted, and their distances from the enemy, from +the starting point of the troops, and from other important points +should be made known. + +Preparations should have in view as complete a surprise as possible. +An attack once begun must be carried to its conclusion, even if the +surprise is not as complete as was planned or anticipated. (565) + +=588. Time of making attack depends upon object sought.= The time of +night at which the attack should be made depends upon the object +sought. If a decisive attack is intended, it will generally yield the +best results if made just before daylight. If the object is merely to +gain an intrenched position for further operations, an earlier hour is +necessary in order that the position gained may be intrenched under +cover of darkness. (566) + +=589. Formation; use of bayonet; preparations to repel counter +attack.= The formation for attack must be simple. It should be +carefully effected and the troops verified at a safe distance from the +enemy. The attacking troops should be formed in compact lines and with +strong supports at short distances. The reserve should be far enough +in rear to avoid being drawn into the action until the commander so +desires. Bayonets are fixed, pieces are not loaded. + +Darkness causes fire to be wild and ineffective. The attacking troops +should march steadily on the enemy without firing, but should be +prepared and determined to fight vigorously with the bayonet. + +In advancing to the attack the aim should be to get as close as +possible to the enemy before being discovered, then trust to the +bayonet. + +If the assault is successful, preparations must be made at once to +repel a counter attack. (567) + +=590. Measures taken by defense to resist night attacks.= On the +defense, preparations to resist night attacks should be made by +daylight whenever such attacks are to be feared. + +Obstacles placed in front of a defensive position are especially +valuable to the defense at night. Many forms of obstacles which would +give an attacker little concern in the daytime become serious +hindrances at night. + +After dark the foreground should be illuminated whenever practicable +and strong patrols should be pushed to the front. + +When it is learned that the enemy is approaching, the trenches are +filled and the supports moved close to the firing line. + +Supports fix bayonets, but do not load. Whenever practicable and +necessary, they should be used for counter attacks, preferably against +a hostile flank. + +The defender should open fire as soon as results may be expected. This +fire may avert or postpone the bayonet combat, and it warns all +supporting troops. It is not likely that fire alone can stop the +attack. The defender must be resolved to fight with the bayonet. + +Ordinarily fire will not be effective at ranges exceeding 50 yards. + +A white rag around the muzzle of the rifle will assist in sighting the +piece when the front sight is not visible. + +See pars. 464, 496, 497, 523, 524. (568) + + +INFANTRY AGAINST CAVALRY + +=591. Cavalry charge against infantry usually futile.= A cavalry +charge can accomplish little against infantry, even in inferior +numbers, unless the latter are surprised, become panic-stricken, run +away, or can not use their rifles. (569) + +=592. Measures to check charges from front and flank.= A charge from +the front is easily checked by a well directed and sustained fire. + +If the charge is directed against the flank of the firing line, the +supports, reserves, or machine guns should stop it. If this +disposition is impracticable, part of the line must meet the charge by +a timely change of front. If the flank company, or companies, in the +firing line execute =platoons right=, the successive firing lines can +ordinarily break a charge against the flank. If the cavalry line +passes through the firing line, the latter will be little damaged if +the men retain their presence of mind. They should be on the watch for +succeeding cavalry lines and leave those that have passed through to +friendly troops in rear. (570) + +=593. Standing position best to meet charge.= Men standing are in the +best position to meet a charge, but other considerations may compel +them to meet it lying prone. (571) + +=594. Rifle fire main dependence of infantry.= In a melee, the +infantryman with his bayonet has at least an even chance with the +cavalryman, but the main dependence of infantry is rifle fire. Any +formation is suitable that permits the free use of the necessary +number of rifles. + +Ordinarily there will be no time to change or set sights. Fire at will +at battle sight should be used, whatever the range may be. It will +usually be unwise to open fire at long ranges. (572) + +=595. Meeting of cavalry charge by infantry in column.= An infantry +column that encounters cavalry should deploy at once. If attacked from +the head or rear of the column, and if time is pressing, it may form a +succession of skirmish lines. Infantry, by deploying 50 or 100 yards +in rear of an obstacle, may check cavalry and hold it under fire +beyond effective pistol range. + +In any situation, to try to escape the issue by running is the worst +and most dangerous course the infantry can adopt. (573) + +=596. Infantry attacking dismounted cavalry.= In attacking dismounted +cavalry, infantry should close rapidly and endeavor to prevent +remounting. Infantry which adopts this course will not be seriously +checked by delaying cavalry. + +Every effort should be made to locate and open fire on the led horses. +(574) + + +INFANTRY AGAINST ARTILLERY + +=597. Frontal attack against artillery usually futile; use of machine +guns.= A frontal attack against artillery has little chance of +succeeding unless it can be started from cover at comparatively short +range. Beyond short range, the frontal fire of infantry has little +effect against the artillery personnel because of their protective +shields. + +Machine guns, because their cone of fire is more compact, will have +greater effect, but on the other hand they will have fewer +opportunities, and they are limited to fire attack only. + +As a rule, one's own artillery is the best weapon against hostile +artillery. (575) + +=598. Flank attack against artillery effective.= Artillery attacked in +flank by infantry can be severely damaged. Oblique or flank fire will +begin to have decisive effect when delivered at effective range from a +point to one side of the artillery's line of fire and distant from it +by about half the range. Artillery is better protected on the side of +the caisson. (576) + +=599. Action against guns out of ammunition.= Guns out of ammunition, +but otherwise secure against infantry attack, may be immobilized by +fire which will prevent their withdrawal, or by locating and driving +off their limbers. Or they may be kept out of action by fire which +will prevent the receipt of ammunition. (577) + +=600. Action against artillery limbering or coming into action; wheel +horses best targets.= Artillery when limbered is helpless against +infantry fire. If caught at effective range while coming into action +or while limbering, artillery can be severely punished by infantry +fire. + +In attacking artillery that is trying to escape, the wheel horses are +the best targets. (578) + + +ARTILLERY SUPPORTS + +=601. Purpose of artillery support, usually consisting of infantry.= +The purpose of the artillery support is to guard the artillery against +surprise or attack. + +Artillery on the march or in action is ordinarily so placed as to be +amply protected by the infantry. Infantry always protects artillery in +its neighborhood. (579) + +=602. Detailing of supports.= The detail of a support is not necessary +except when the artillery is separated from the main body or occupies +a position in which its flanks are not protected. + +The detail of a special support will be avoided whenever possible. +(580.) + +=603. Formation of support on march.= The formation of an artillery +support depends upon circumstances. On the march it may often be +necessary to provide advance, flank, and rear protection. The country +must be thoroughly reconnoitered by patrols within long rifle range. +(581) + +=604. Formation and location of support in action.= In action, the +formation and location of the support must be such as to gain and give +timely information of the enemy's approach and to offer actual +resistance to the enemy beyond effective rifle range of the +artillery's flanks. It should not be close enough to the artillery to +suffer from fire directed at the artillery. In most cases a position +somewhat to the flank and rear best fulfills these conditions. (582) + +=605. Support charged only with protection of artillery.= The support +commander is charged only with the protection of the artillery. The +tactical employment of each arm rests with its commander. The two +should cooeperate. (583) + + +MINOR WARFARE + +=606. What minor warfare embraces; regular operations.= Minor warfare +embraces both regular and irregular operations. + +Regular operations consist of minor actions involving small bodies of +trained and organized troops on both sides. + +The tactics employed are in general those prescribed for the smaller +units. (596) + +=607. Irregular operations.= Irregular operations consist of actions +against unorganized or partially organized forces, acting independent +or semi independent bodies. Such bodies have little or only crude +training and are under nominal and loose leadership and control. They +assemble, roam about, and disperse at will. They endeavor to win by +stealth or by force of superior numbers, employing ambuscades, sudden +dashes or rushes, and hand-to-hand fighting. (597) + +Troops operating against such an enemy usually do so in small units, +such as platoons, detachments, or companies, and the tactics employed +must be adapted to meet the requirements of the situation. Frequently +the enemy's own methods may be employed to advantage. + +In general, such operations should not be undertaken hastily; every +preparation should be made to strike suddenly and to inflict the +maximum punishment. + +=608. March and bivouac formations to admit of rapid action in any +direction.= In general, the service of information will be +insufficient; adequate reconnaissance will rarely be practicable. +March and bivouac formations must be such as to admit of rapid +deployment and fire action in any direction. (598) + +=609. Formation in open country.= In the open country, where surprise +is not probable, troops may be marched in column of squads preceded, +within sight, by a squad as an advance party. (599) + +=610. Formation in close country.= In close country, where surprise is +possible, the troops must be held in a close formation. The use of +flank patrols becomes difficult. Occasionally, an advance party--never +less than a squad--may be sent out. In general, however, such a party +accomplishes little, since an enemy intent on surprise will permit it +to pass unmolested and will fall upon the main body. + +Under such conditions, especially when the road or trail is narrow, +the column of twos or files is a convenient formation, the officers +placing themselves in the column so as to divide it into nearly equal +parts. If rushed from a flank, such a column will be in readiness to +face and fire toward either or both flanks, the ranks being back to +back; if rushed from the front, the head of the column may be +deployed, the rest of the column closing up to support it and to +protect its flanks and rear. In any event, the men should be taught to +take some form of a closed back to back formation. (600) + +=611. Dividing column on march into two or more separate detachments.= +The column may often be broken into two or more approximately equal +detachments separated on the march by distances of 50 to 100 yards. As +a rule the detachments should not consist of less than 25 men each. +With this arrangement of the column, it will rarely be possible for an +enemy to close simultaneously with all of the detachments, one or more +being left unengaged and under control to support those engaged or to +inflict severe punishment upon the enemy when he is repulsed. (601) + +=612. Selection of site for camp or bivouac; protection.= The site for +camp or bivouac should be selected with special reference to +economical and effective protection against surprise. Double sentinels +are posted on the avenues of approach, and the troops sleep in +readiness for instant action. When practicable, troops should be +instructed in advance as to what they are to do in case of attack at +night. (602) + +=613. Night operations frequently advisable.= Night operations are +frequently advisable. With the small forces employed, control is not +difficult. Irregular troops rarely provide proper camp protection, and +they may frequently be surprised and severely punished by a properly +conducted night march and attack. (603) + + +CEREMONIES + + +General Rules for Ceremonies + +=614. Order in which troops are arranged for ceremonies; commander +faces command; subordinates face to front.= The order in which the +troops of the various arms are arranged for ceremonies is prescribed +by Army Regulations. + +When forming for ceremonies the companies of the battalion and the +battalions of the regiment are posted from right to left in line and +from head to rear in column, in the order of rank of their respective +commanders present in the formation, the senior on the right or at the +head. + +The commander faces the command; subordinate commanders face to the +front. (708) + +=615. Saluting by lieutenant colonel and staffs.= At the command +present arms, given by the colonel, the lieutenant colonel, and the +colonel's staff salute; the major's staff salute at the major's +command. Each staff returns to the carry or order when the command +=order arms= is given by its chief. (709) + +=616. Formation of companies, battalion and regiment.= At the +=assembly= for a ceremony companies are formed on their own parades +and informally inspected, as prescribed in par. 646. + +At =adjutant's call=, except for ceremonies involving a single +battalion, each battalion is formed on its own parade, reports are +received, and the battalion presented to the major, as laid down in +par. 308. At the second sounding of adjutant's call the regiment is +formed. (710) + + +REVIEWS + + +General Rules + +=617. Indication of points where column changes direction; flank to +pass 12 paces from reviewing officer; post of reviewing officer and +others.= The adjutant posts men or otherwise marks the points where +the column changes direction in such manner that its flank in passing +will be about 12 paces from the reviewing officer. + +The post of the reviewing officer, usually opposite the center of the +line, is indicated by a marker. + +Officers of the same or higher grade, and distinguished personages +invited to accompany the reviewing officer, place themselves on his +left; their staffs and orderlies place themselves respectively on the +left of the staff and orderlies of the reviewing officer; all others +who accompany the reviewing officer place themselves on the left of +his staff, their orderlies in rear. A staff officer is designated to +escort distinguished personages and to indicate to them their proper +positions, as prescribed in par. 73. (711) + +=618. Riding around the troops; saluting the color; reviewing officer +returns only salute of commanding officer of troops.= While riding +around the troops, the reviewing officer may direct his staff, flag +and orderlies to remain at the post of the reviewing officer, or that +only his personal staff and flag shall accompany him; in either case +the commanding officer alone accompanies the reviewing officer. If the +reviewing officer is accompanied by his entire staff, the staff +officers of the commander place themselves on the right of the staff +of the reviewing officer. + +The reviewing officer and others at the reviewing stand salute the +color as it passes; when passing around the troops, the reviewing +officer and those accompanying him salute the color when passing in +front of it. + +The reviewing officer returns the salute of the commanding officer of +the troops only. Those who accompany the reviewing officer do not +salute. (712) + +=619. Saluting by staffs.= In passing in review, each staff salutes +with its commander. (713) + +=620. Turning out of column by commanding officer of troops and +staff.= After saluting the reviewing officer, the commanding officer +of the troops turns out of the column, takes post on the right of the +reviewing officer, and returns saber; the members of his staff +accompanying him take post on the right of the reviewing officer's +staff and return saber. When the rear element of his command has +passed, without changing his position, the commanding officer of the +troops salutes the reviewing officer; he and the members of his staff +accompanying him then draw saber and rejoin his command. The +commanding officer of the troops and the members of his staff are the +only ones who turn out of the column. (714) + +=621. Turning out of column by commanding officer of troops and +staff.= If the person reviewing the command is not mounted, the +commanding officer and his staff on turning out of the column after +passing the reviewing officer dismount preparatory to taking post. In +such case, the salute of the commanding officer, prior to rejoining +his command, is made with the hand before remounting. (715) + +=622. Salute by regimental color.= When the rank of the reviewing +officer entitles him to the honor, each regimental color salutes at +the command =present arms=, given or repeated by the major of the +battalion with which it is posted; and again in passing in review. +(716) + +=623. The band.= The band of an organization plays while the reviewing +officer is passing in front of and in rear of the organization. + +Each band, immediately after passing the reviewing officer, turns out +of the column, takes post in front of and facing him, continues to +play until its regiment has passed, then ceases playing and follows in +rear of its regiment; the band of the following regiment commences to +play as soon as the preceding band has ceased. + +While marching in review but one band in each brigade plays at a time, +and but one band at a time when within 100 paces of the reviewing +officer. (717) + +=624. The national air, to the color, march, flourishes or +ruffles,--when played.= If the rank of the reviewing officer entitles +him to the honor, the band plays the prescribed =national air=, or the +field music sounds =to the color=, =march=, =flourishes= or =ruffles= +when arms are presented. When passing in review at the moment the +regimental color salutes, the musicians halted in front of the +reviewing officer, sound =to the color=, =march=, =flourishes= or +=ruffles=. (718) + +=625. Modifications of the review.= The formation for review may be +modified to suit the ground, and the =present arms= and the ride +around the line by the reviewing officer may be dispensed with. (719) + +=626. When post of reviewing officer is on left of column.= If the +post of the reviewing officer is on the left of the column, the troops +march in review with the guide left; the commanding officer and his +staff turn out of the column to the left, taking post as prescribed +above, but to the left of the reviewing officer; in saluting, the +captains give the command: =1. Eyes, 2. LEFT.= (720) + +=627. Cadence at which troops pass in review.= Except in the review of +a single battalion, the troops pass in review in quick time only. +(721) + +=628. Reviews of brigades or larger commands; action of battalions +after passing reviewing officer.= In reviews of brigades or larger +commands, each battalion, after the rear has passed the reviewing +officer 50 paces, takes the double time for 100 yards in order not to +interfere with the march of the column in rear; if necessary, it then +turns out of the column and returns to camp by the most practicable +route; the leading battalion of each regiment is followed by the other +units of the regiment. (722) + +=629. Standing "at ease," "rest," etc., in review of brigade or larger +command.= In a brigade or larger review a regimental commander may +cause his regiment to stand =at ease=, =rest=, or =stack arms= and +=fall out= and =resume attention=, so as not to interfere with the +ceremony. (723) + +=630. Review by inspector junior to commanding officer.= When an +organization is to be reviewed before an inspector junior in rank to +the commanding officer, the commanding officer receives the review +and is accompanied by the inspector, who takes post on his left. (724) + + +Battalion Review + +=631. Presenting battalion to reviewing officer; passing around +battalion; battalion passing in review at quick time.= The battalion +having been formed in line, the major faces to the front; the +reviewing officer moves a few paces toward the major and halts; the +major turns about and commands: =1. Present, 2. ARMS=, and again turns +about and salutes. + +The reviewing officer returns the salute; the major turns about, +brings the battalion to order arms, and again turns to the front. + +The reviewing officer approaches to about 6 paces from the major, the +latter salutes, takes post on his right, and accompanies him around, +the battalion. The band plays. The reviewing officer proceeds to the +right of the band, passes in front of the captain to the left of the +line and returns to the right, passing in rear of the file closers and +the band. (See par. 625.) + +On arriving again at the right of the line, the major salutes, halts, +and when the reviewing officer and staff have passed, moves directly +to his post in front of the battalion, faces it, and commands: =1. +Pass in review, 2. Squads right, 3. MARCH.= + +At the first command the band changes direction if necessary, and +halts. + +At the third command, given when the band has changed direction, the +battalion moves off, the band playing; without command from the major +the column changes direction at the points indicated, and column of +companies at full distance is formed successively to the left at the +second change of direction; the major takes his post 20 paces in front +of the band immediately after the second change; the band having +passed the reviewing officer, turns to the left of the column, takes +post in front of and facing the reviewing officer, and remains there +until the review terminates. + +The major and staff salute, turn the head as in =eyes right=, and look +toward the reviewing officer when the major is 6 paces from him; they +return to the carry and turn the head and eyes to the front when the +major has passed 6 paces beyond him. + +Without facing about, each captain or special unit commander, except +the drum major, commands: =1. Eyes=, in time to add, =2. RIGHT=, when +at 6 paces from the reviewing officer, and commands =front= when at 6 +paces beyond him. At the command =eyes= the company officers armed +with the saber execute the first motion of present saber; at the +command =right= all turn head and eyes to the right, the company +officers complete =present saber=, and the noncommissioned officers +armed with the saber execute the first motion of present saber; at the +command =front= all turn head and eyes to the front, and officers and +noncommissioned officers armed with the saber resume the carry saber; +without arms in hand, the first motion of the hand salute is made at +the command =right=, and the second motion not made until the command +=front=. + +Noncommissioned staff officers, noncommissioned officers in command of +subdivisions, and the drum major salute, turn the head and eyes, +return to the front, resume the carry or drop the hand, at the points +prescribed for the major. Officers and dismounted noncommissioned +officers in command of subdivisions, with arms in hand, render the +rifle or saber salute. Guides charged with the step, trace, and +direction do not execute =eyes right=. + +If the reviewing officer is entitled to a salute from the color the +regimental color salutes when at 6 paces from him, and is raised when +at 6 paces beyond him. + +The major, having saluted, takes post on the right of the reviewing +officer, returns saber and remains there until the rear of the +battalion has passed, then salutes and rejoins his battalion. The band +ceases to play when the column has completed its second change of +direction after passing the reviewing officer. (725) + +=632. Passing in review at double time.= When the battalion arrives at +its original position in column, the major commands: =1. Double time, +2. MARCH.= + +The band plays in double time. + +The battalion passes in review as before, except that in double time +the command =eyes right= is omitted and there is no saluting except by +the major when he leaves the reviewing officer. + +The review terminates when the rear company has passed the reviewing +officer: the band then ceases to play, and, unless otherwise directed +by the major, returns to the position it occupied before marching in +review, or is dismissed; the major rejoins the battalion and brings it +to =quick time=. The battalion then executes such movements as the +reviewing officer may have directed, or is marched to its parade +ground and dismissed. + +Marching past in double time may, in the discretion of the reviewing +officer, be omitted; the review terminates when the major rejoins his +battalion. (726) + +=633. Major and staff may be dismounted.= At battalion review the +major and his staff may be dismounted in the discretion of the +commanding officer. (727) + + +PARADES + + +General Rules + +=634. Position assumed by reviewing officer and staff while band is +sounding off.= If dismounted, the officer reviewing the parade, and +his staff, stand at parade rest, with arms folded, while the band is +sounding off; they resume attention with the adjutant. If mounted, +they remain at attention. (732) + +=635. Reports by captains and majors.= At the command =report=, given +by a battalion adjutant, the captains in succession from the right +salute and report: =A= (or =other=) =company=, =present= or =accounted +for=; or =A= (or =other=) =company, (so many) officers= or =enlisted +men absent=, and resume the order saber; at the same command given by +the regimental adjutant, the majors similarly =report= their +battalions. (733) + + +Battalion Parade + +=636. At adjutant's call= the battalion is formed in line, as +explained in par. 308, but not presented. Lieutenants take their posts +in front of the center of their respective platoons at the captain's +command for dressing his company on the line, as explained in par. +302. The major takes post at a convenient distance in front of the +center and facing the battalion. + +The adjutant from his post in front of the center of the battalion, +after commanding: =1. Guides, 2. POSTS=, adds: =1. Parade, 2. REST=; +the battalion executes parade rest. The adjutant directs the band: +=SOUND OFF.= + +The band, playing in quick time, passes in front of the line of +officers to the left of the line and back to its post on the right, +when it ceases playing. At evening parade, when the band ceases +playing, =retreat= is sounded by the field music and, following the +last note and while the flag is being lowered, the band plays the +=Star Spangled Banner=. + +Just before the last note of retreat, the adjutant comes to attention +and, as the last note ends commands: =1. Battalion, 2. Attention, 3. +Present, 4. Arms=, and salutes retaining that position until the last +note of the National Anthem. He then turns about and reports: =Sir, +the parade is formed.= The major directs the adjutant: =Take your +post, Sir.= The adjutant moves at a trot (if dismounted, in quick +time), passes by the major's right, and takes his post. + +The major draws saber and commands: =1. Order, 2. ARMS=, and adds such +exercises in the manual of arms as he may desire. Officers, +noncommissioned officers commanding companies or armed with the saber, +and the color guard, having once executed order arms, remain in that +position during the exercises in the manual. + +The major then directs the adjutant: =Receive the reports, Sir.= The +adjutant, passing by the major's right, advances at a trot (if +dismounted, in quick time) toward the center of the line, halts midway +between it and the major, and commands: =REPORT.= (See par. 635.) + +The reports received, the adjutant turns about, and reports: =Sir, all +are present or accounted for=; or =Sir, (so many) officers or enlisted +men are absent=, including in the list of absentees those from the +band and field music reported to him by the drum major prior to the +parade. + +The major directs: =Publish the orders, Sir.= + +The adjutant turns about and commands: =Attention to orders=; he then +reads the orders, and commands: =1. Officers, 2. CENTER, 3. MARCH.= + +At the command =center=, the company officers carry saber and face to +the center. At the command =march=, they close to the center and face +to the front; the adjutant turns about and takes his post. + +The officers having closed and faced to the front, the senior +commands: =1. Forward, 2. MARCH.= The officers advance, the band +playing; the left officer of the center or right center company is the +guide, and marches on the major; the officers are halted at 6 paces +from the major by the senior, who commands: =1. Officers, 2. HALT.= +They halt and salute, returning to the carry saber with the major. The +major then gives such instructions as he deems necessary, and +commands: =1. Officers, 2. POSTS, 3. MARCH.= + +At the command =posts=, company officers face about. + +At the command =march=, they step off with guide as before, and the +senior commands: =1. Officers, 2. HALT=, so as to halt 3 paces from +the line; he then adds: =1. POSTS, 2. MARCH.= + +At the command =posts=, officers face outward and, at the command +=march=, step off in succession at 4 paces distance, resume their +posts and order saber; the lieutenants march directly to their posts +in rear of their companies. + +The music ceases when all officers have resumed their posts. + +The major then commands: =1. Pass in review, 2. Squads right, 3. +MARCH=, and returns saber. + +The battalion marches according to the principles of review; when the +last company has passed, the ceremony is concluded, as explained in +pars. 617; 631. + +The band continues to play while the companies are in march upon the +parade ground. Companies are formed in column of squads, without +halting, and are marched to their respective parades by their +captains. + +When the company officers have saluted the major, he may direct them +to form line with the staff, in which case they individually move to +the front, passing to the right and left of the major and staff, halt +on the line established by the staff, face about, and stand at +attention. The music ceases when the officers join the staff. The +major causes the companies to pass in review under the command of +their first sergeants by the same commands as before. The company +officers return saber with the major and remain at attention. (734) + + +ESCORTS + + +Escort of the Color + +=637. By a company.= The regiment being in line or line of masses, the +colonel details a company, other than the color company, to receive +and escort the national color to its place. During the ceremony the +regimental color remains with the color guard at its post with the +regiment. + +The band moves straight to its front until clear of the line of field +officers, changes direction to the right, and is halted; the +designated company forms column of platoons in rear of the band, the +color bearer or bearers between the platoons. + +The escort then marches without music to the colonel's office or +quarters and is formed in line facing the entrance, the band on the +right, the color bearer in the line of file closers. + +The color bearer, preceded by the first lieutenant and followed by a +sergeant of the escort, then goes to obtain the color. + +When the color bearer comes out, followed by the lieutenant and +sergeant, he halts before the entrance, facing the escort; the +lieutenant places himself on the right, the sergeant on the left of +the color bearer; the escort presents arms, and the field music sounds +=to the color=; the first lieutenant and sergeant salute. + +Arms are brought to the order; the lieutenant and sergeant return to +their posts; the company is formed in column of platoons, the band +taking post in front of the column; the color bearer places himself +between the platoons; the escort marches in quick time, with guide +left, back to the regiment, the band playing; the march is so +conducted that when the escort arrives at 50 paces in front of the +right of the regiment, the direction of the march shall be parallel to +its front; when the color arrives opposite its place in line, the +escort is formed in line to the left; the color bearer, passing +between the platoons, advances and halts 12 paces in front of the +colonel. + +The color bearer having halted, the colonel, who has taken post 30 +paces in front of the center of the regiment, faces about, commands: +=1. Present, 2. ARMS=, resumes his front, and salutes; the field music +sounds to the color; and the regimental color bearer executes the +color salute at the command =present arms=. + +The colonel then faces about, brings the regiment to the order, at +which the color bearer resumes the carry and takes his post with the +color company. + +The escort presents arms and comes to the order with the regiment, at +the command of the colonel, after which the captain forms it again in +column of platoons, and, preceded by the band, marches it to its +place, passing around the left flank of the regiment. + +The band plays until the escort passes the left of the line, when it +ceases playing and returns to its post on the right, passing in rear +of the regiment. + +The regiment may be brought to a rest when the escort passes the left +of the line. (736) + +=638. By a battalion.= Escort of the color is executed by a battalion +according to the same principles. (737) + + +Escorts of Honor + +=639.= Escorts of honor are detailed for the purpose of receiving and +escorting personages of high rank, civil or military. The troops for +this purpose are selected for their soldierly appearance and superior +discipline. + +The escort forms in line, opposite the place where the personage +presents himself, the band on the flank of the escort toward which it +will march. On the appearance of the personage, he is received with +the honors due to his rank. The escort is formed into column of +companies, platoons or squads, and takes up the march, the personage +and his staff or retinue taking positions in rear of the column; when +he leaves the escort, line is formed and the same honors are paid as +before. + +When the position of the escort is at a considerable distance from the +point where the personage is to be received, as for instance, where a +courtyard or wharf intervenes, a double line of sentinels is posted +from that point to the escort, facing inward; the sentinels +successively salute as he passes and are then relieved and join the +escort. + +An officer is appointed to attend him and bear such communication as +he may have to make to the commander of the escort. (738) + + +Funeral Escort + +=640. Composition and strength, formation, presenting arms, marching, +etc.= The composition and strength of the escort are prescribed in +Army Regulations. + +The escort is formed opposite the quarters of the deceased; the band +on that flank of the escort toward which it is to march. + +Upon the appearance of the coffin, the commander commands: =1. +Present, 2. ARMS=, and the band plays an appropriate air; arms are +then brought to the order. + +The escort is next formed into column of companies, platoons, or +squads. If the escort be small, it may be marched in line. The +procession is formed in the following order: =1. Music, 2. Escort, 3. +Clergy, 4. Coffin and pallbearers, 5. Mourners, 6. Members of the +former command of the deceased, 7. Other officers and enlisted men, 8. +Distinguished persons, 9. Delegations, 10. Societies, 11. Civilians.= +Officers and enlisted men (Nos. 6 and 7), with side arms, are in the +order of rank, seniors in front. + +The procession being formed, the commander of the escort puts it in +march. + +The escort marches slowly to solemn music; the column having arrived +opposite the grave, line is formed facing it. + +The coffin is then carried along the front of the escort to the grave; +arms are presented, the music plays an appropriate air; the coffin +having been placed over the grave, the music ceases and arms are +brought to the order. + +The commander next commands: =1. Parade, 2. REST.= The escort executes +=parade rest=, officers and men inclining the head. + +When the funeral services are completed and the coffin lowered into +the grave, the commander causes the escort to resume attention and +fire three rounds of blank cartridges, the muzzles of the pieces being +elevated. When the escort is greater than a battalion, one battalion +is designated to fire the volley. + +A musician then sounds =taps=. + +The escort is then formed into column, marched in quick time to the +point where it was assembled, and dismissed. + +The band does not play until it has left the inclosure. + +When the distance to the place of interment is considerable, the +escort, after having left the camp or garrison, may march =at ease= in +quick time until it approaches the burial ground, when it is brought +to attention. The music does not play while marching =at ease=. + +In marching at attention, the field music may alternate with the band +in playing. (739) + +=641. Funeral of general officer; playing national air, sounding +ruffles, etc., as honor.= When arms are presented at the funeral of a +person entitled to any of the following honors, the band plays the +prescribed =national air=, or the field music sounds to the =color=, +=march=, =flourishes=, or =ruffles=, according to the rank of the +deceased, after which the band plays an appropriate air. The commander +of the escort, in forming column, gives the appropriate commands for +the different arms. (740) + +=642. Funeral of mounted officer or soldier.= At the funeral of a +mounted officer or enlisted man, his horse, in mourning caparison, +follows the hearse. (741) + +=643. When hearse, cavalry, and artillery are unable to enter +cemetery.= Should the entrance of the cemetery prevent the hearse +accompanying the escort till the latter halts at the grave, the column +is halted at the entrance long enough to take the coffin from the +hearse, when the column is again put in march. The Cavalry and +Artillery, when unable to enter the inclosure, turn out of the column, +face the column, and salute the remains as they pass. (742) + +=644. Escorting remains from quarters to church before funeral +services.= When necessary to escort the remains from the quarters of +the deceased to the church before the funeral service, arms are +presented upon receiving the remains at the quarters and also as they +are borne into the church. (743) + +=645. Instructions to clergyman and pallbearers.= The commander of the +escort, previous to the funeral, gives the clergyman and pallbearers +all needful directions. (744) + + +Company Inspection + +=646.= Being in line at a halt: =1. Open ranks, 2. MARCH.= + +At the command =march= the front rank executes =right dress=; the rear +rank and the file closers march backward 4 steps, halt, and execute +right dress; the lieutenants pass around their respective flanks and +take post, facing to the front, 3 paces in front of the center of +their respective platoons. The captain aligns the front rank, rear +rank, and file closers, takes post 3 paces in front of the right +guide, facing to the left, and commands: =1. FRONT, 2. PREPARE FOR +INSPECTION.= + +At the second command the lieutenants carry saber; the captain returns +saber and inspects them, after which they face about, order saber, and +stand at ease; upon the completion of the inspection they carry saber, +face about, and order saber. The captain may direct the lieutenants to +accompany or assist him, in which case they return saber and, at the +close of the inspection, resume their posts in front of the company, +draw and carry saber. + +Having inspected the lieutenants, the captain proceeds to the right of +the company. Each man, as the captain approaches him, executes +=inspection arms=. + +The captain takes the piece, grasping it with his right hand just +above the rear sight, the man dropping his hands. The captain inspects +the piece, and, with the hand and piece in the same position as in +receiving it, hands it back to the man, who takes it with the left +hand at the balance and executes =order arms=. + +As the captain returns the piece, the next man executes =inspection +arms=, and so on through the company. + +Should the piece be inspected without handling, each man executes +=order arms= as soon as the captain passes to the next man. + +[Illustration: Plate VI] + +The inspection is from right to left in front, and from left to right +in the rear, of each rank and of the line of file closers. + +When approached by the captain, the first sergeant executes +=inspection saber=. Enlisted men armed with the pistol execute +=inspection pistol= by drawing the pistol from the holster and holding +it diagonally across the body, barrel up, and 6 inches in front of the +neck, muzzle pointing up and to the left. The pistol is returned to +the holster as soon as the captain passes. + +Upon completion of the inspection, the captain takes post facing to +the left in front of the right guide and on line with the lieutenants +and commands: =1. Close ranks, 2. MARCH.= + +At the command =march= the lieutenants resume their posts in line; the +rear rank closes to 40 inches, each man covering his file leader; the +file closers close to 2 paces from the rear rank. (745) + +=647. Inspection of quarters or camp.= If the company is dismissed, +rifles are put away. In quarters, headdress and accouterments are +removed, and the men stand near their respective bunks; in camp, they +stand covered, but without accouterments, in front of their tents. + +If the personal field equipment has not been inspected in ranks and +its inspection in quarters or camp is ordered, each man will arrange +the prescribed articles on his bunk, if in quarters or permanent camp, +or in front of his half of the tent, if in shelter tent camp, in the +same relative order as directed in paragraph 648. + +The captain, accompanied by the lieutenants, then inspects the +quarters or camp. The first sergeant precedes the captain and calls +the men to attention on entering each squad room or on approaching the +tents; the men stand at attention, but do not salute. (746) + +=648. When inspection includes examination of equipment.= If the +inspection is to include an examination of the equipment while in +ranks, the captain, after closing ranks, causes the company to stack +arms, to march backward until 4 paces in rear of the stacks and to +take intervals. He then commands: + +=1. UNSLING EQUIPMENT, 2. OPEN PACKS.= + +At the first command each man unslings his equipment and places it on +the ground at his feet, haversack to the front, end of the pack 1 foot +in front of toes. + +At the second command, pack carriers are unstrapped, packs removed and +unrolled, the longer edge of the pack along the lower edge of the +cartridge belt. Each man exposes shelter-tent pins; removes meat can, +knife, fork, and spoon from the meat-can pouch, and places them on the +right of the haversack, knife, fork, and spoon in the open meat can; +removes the canteen and cup from the cover and places them on the left +side of the haversack; unstraps and spreads out haversack so as to +expose its contents; folds up the carrier to uncover the cartridge +pockets; opens same; unrolls toilet articles and places them on the +outer flap of the haversack; places underwear carried in pack on the +left half of the open pack, with round fold parallel with front edge +of pack; opens first-aid pouch and exposes contents to view. Special +articles carried by individual men, such as flag kit, field glasses, +compass, steel tape, notebook, etc., will be arranged on the right +half of the open pack. Each man then resumes the attention. Plate VI +(Page 151) shows the relative position of all articles except +underwear and special articles. + +The captain then passes along the ranks and file closers, as before, +inspects the equipment, returns to the right, and commands: =CLOSE +PACKS.= + +Each man rolls up his toilet articles and underwear, straps up his +haversack and its contents, replaces the meat can, knife, fork, and +spoon, and the canteen and cup; closes cartridge pockets and first-aid +pouch; restores special articles to their proper receptacles; rolls up +and replaces pack in carrier, and, leaving the equipment in its +position on the ground, resumes the attention. + +All equipments being packed, the captain commands: =SLING EQUIPMENT.= + +The equipments are slung and belts fastened. + +The captain then causes the company to assemble and take arms. The +inspection is completed as already explained. (747) + +=649. When the inspector is other than the captain.= Should the +inspector be other than the captain, the latter, after commanding +=front=, adds =REST=, and faces to the front. When the inspector +approaches, the captain faces to the left, brings the company to +attention, faces to the front, and salutes. The salute acknowledged, +the captain carries saber, faces to the left, commands: =PREPARE FOR +INSPECTION=, and again faces to the front. + +The inspection proceeds as before; the captain returns saber and +accompanies the inspector as soon as the latter passes him. (748) + + +Battalion Inspection + +=650. Inspection may precede or follow review; the inspection up to +time the companies are inspected.= If there be both inspection and +review, the inspection may either precede or follow the review. + +The battalion being in column of companies at full distance, all +officers dismounted, the major commands: =1. Prepare for inspection, +2. MARCH.= + +At the first command each captain commands: =Open ranks.= + +At the command =march= the ranks are opened in each company, as in the +inspection of the company, as prescribed in par. 646. + +The field musicians join their companies. + +The drum major conducts the band to a position 30 paces in rear of the +column, if not already there, and opens ranks. + +The major takes post facing to the front and 20 paces in front of the +center of the leading company. The staff takes post as if mounted. The +color takes post 5 paces in rear of the staff. + +Field and staff officers senior in rank to the inspector do not take +post in front of the column, but accompany him. + +The inspector inspects the major, and, accompanied by the latter, +inspects the staff officers. + +The major then commands: =REST=, returns saber, and, with his staff, +accompanies the inspector. + +If the major is the inspector he commands: =REST=, returns saber, and +inspects his staff, which then accompanies him. + +The inspector, commencing at the head of the column, then makes a +minute inspection of the color guard, the noncommissioned staff, and +the arms, accouterments, dress and ammunition of each soldier of the +several companies in succession, and inspects the band. + +The adjutant gives the necessary commands for the inspection of the +color guard, noncommissioned staff, and band. + +The color guard and noncommissioned staff may be dismissed as soon as +inspected. (749) + +=651. Inspection of the companies.= As the inspector approaches each +company, its captain commands: =1. Company, 2. ATTENTION, 3. PREPARE +FOR INSPECTION=, and faces to the front; as soon as inspected he +returns saber and accompanies the inspector. The inspection proceeds +as in company inspection, as explained in pars. 646-649. At its +completion the captain closes ranks and commands: =REST.= Unless +otherwise directed by the inspector, the major directs that the +company be marched to its parade and dismissed. (750) + +=652. When inspection lasts long time.= If the inspection will +probably last a long time the rear companies may be permitted to stack +arms and fall out; before the inspector approaches, they fall in and +take arms. (751) + +=653. The band.= The band plays during the inspection of the +companies. + +When the inspector approaches the band the adjutant commands: =PREPARE +FOR INSPECTION.= + +As the inspector approaches him each man raises his instrument in +front of the body, reverses it so as to show both sides, and then +returns it. + +Company musicians execute inspection similarly. (752) + +=654. Inspection of quarters or camp.= At the inspection of quarters +or camp the inspector is accompanied by the captain, followed by the +other officers or by such of them as he may designate. The inspection +is conducted as described in the company inspection, as laid down in +pars. 646-649. + + +MUSTER + + +Regimental, Battalion, or Company Muster + +=655. Inspection and review; muster rolls; lists of absentees.= Muster +is preceded by an inspection, and, when practicable, by a review. + +The adjutant is provided with the muster roll of the field, staff, and +band, the surgeon with the hospital roll; each captain with the roll +of his company. A list of absentees, alphabetically arranged, showing +cause and place of absence, accompanies each roll. (755) + +=656. Calling the names; verifying presence of absentees.= Being in +column of companies at open ranks, each captain, as the mustering +officer approaches, brings his company to right shoulder arms, and +commands: =ATTENTION TO MUSTER.= + +The mustering officer or captain then calls the names on the roll; +each man, as his name is called, answers =Here= and brings his piece +to order arms. + +After muster, the mustering officer, accompanied by the company +commanders and such other officers as he may designate, verifies the +presence of the men reported in hospital, on guard, etc. (756) + +=657. Muster of company on company parade.= A company may be mustered +in the same manner on its own parade ground, the muster to follow the +company inspection. (757) + + +THE COLOR + +=658. Meaning of "Color;" Army Regulations.= The word "color" implies +the national color; it includes the regimental color when both are +present. + +The rules prescribing the colors to be carried by regiments and +battalions on all occasions are contained in Army Regulations. (766) + +=659. Where the colors are kept; "cased" defined.= In garrison the +colors, when not in use, are kept in the office or quarters of the +colonel, and are escorted thereto and therefrom by the color guard. In +camp the colors, when not in use, are in front of the colonel's tent. +From reveille to retreat, when the weather permits, they are displayed +uncased; from retreat to reveille and during inclement weather they +are cased. + +Colors are said to be cased when furled and protected by the oil cloth +covering. (767) + +=660. Regimental and national colors--salutes by.= The regimental +color salutes in the ceremony of escort of the color, and when +saluting an officer entitled to the honor, but in no other case. + +If marching, the salute is executed when at 6 paces from the officer +entitled to the salute; the carry is resumed when 6 paces beyond him. + +The national color renders no salute. (768) + + +The Color Guard + +=661. Composition of color guard; carrying of regimental and national +colors.= The color guard consists of two color sergeants, who are the +color bearers, and two experienced privates selected by the colonel. +The senior color sergeant carries the national color; the junior color +sergeant carries the regimental color. The regimental color, when +carried, is always on the left of the national color, in whatever +direction they may face. (769) + +=662. Formation and marching of color guard.= The color guard is +formed and marched in one rank, the color bearers in the center. It is +marched in the same manner and by the same commands as a squad, +substituting, when necessary, guard for squad. (770) + +=663. Color company defined; color guard remains with it.= The color +company is the center or right center company of the center or right +center battalion. The color guard remains with that company unless +otherwise directed. (771) + +=664. Post of color guard in various formations.= In line, the color +guard is in the interval between the inner guides of the right and +left center companies. + +In line of columns or in close line, the color guard is midway between +the right and left center companies and on line with the captains. + +In column of companies or platoons, the color guard is midway between +the color company and the company in rear of the color company and +equidistant from the flanks of the column. + +In close column, the color guard is on the flank of the color company. + +In column of squads, the color guard is in the column between the +color company and the company originally on its left. + +When the regiment is formed in line of masses for ceremonies, the +color guard forms on the left of the leading company of the center +(right center) battalion. It rejoins the color company when the +regiment changes from line of masses. (772) + +=665. In battle color guard joins reserve.= The color guard, when with +a battalion that takes the battle formation, joins the regimental +reserve, whose commander directs the color guard to join a certain +company of the reserve. (773) + +=666. Loadings, firings, manual of arms, and movements by color +guard.= The color guard executes neither loadings nor firings; in +rendering honors, it executes all movements in the manual; in drill, +all movements unless specially excused. (774) + + +To Receive the Color + +=667. Receiving the color by color guard.= The color guard, by command +of the senior color sergeant, presents arms on receiving and parting +with the color. After parting with the color, the color guard is +brought to order arms by command of the senior member, who is placed +as the right man of the guard. (775) + +=668. Receiving the color by color company.= At drills and ceremonies, +excepting escort of the color, the color, if present, is received by +the color company after its formation. + +The formation of the color company completed, the captain faces to the +front; the color guard, conducted by the senior sergeant, approaches +from the front and halts at a distance of 10 paces from the captain, +who then faces about, brings the company to the =present=, faces to +the front, salutes, again faces about and brings the company to the +=order=. The color guard comes to the =present= and =order= at the +command of the captain, and is then marched by the color sergeant +directly to its post on the left of the color company. (776) + +=669. Escorting color to office or quarters of colonel.= When the +battalion is dismissed the color guard escorts the color to the office +or quarters of the colonel. (777) + + +Manual of the Color + +=670.= At the =carry=, the heel of the pike rests in the socket of the +sling; the right hand grasps the pike at the height of the shoulder. + +At the =order=, the heel of the pike rests on the ground near the +right toe, the right hand holding the pike in a vertical position. + +At =parade rest=, the heel of the pike is on the ground, as at the +=order=; the pike is held with both hands in front of the center of +the body, left hand uppermost. + +The =order= is resumed at the command =attention=. + +The left hand assists the right when necessary. + +The =carry= is the habitual position when the troops are at a +shoulder, port, or trail. + +The =order= and =parade rest= are executed with the troops. + +=The color salute:= Being at a carry, slip the right hand up the pike +to the height of the eye, then lower the pike by straightening the arm +to the front. (778) + + +Manual of the Saber + +=671. Drawing saber; position of carry saber dismounted; unhooking +scabbard before mounting; on foot carrying scabbard hooked up.= + +=1. Draw, 2. SABER.= + +At the command =draw=, unhook the saber with the thumb and first two +fingers of the left hand, thumb on the end of the hook, fingers +lifting the upper ring; grasp the scabbard with the left hand at the +upper band, bring the hilt a little forward, seize the grip with the +right hand, and draw the blade 6 inches out of the scabbard, pressing +the scabbard against the thigh with the left hand. + +At the command =saber=, draw the saber quickly, raising the arm to its +full extent, to the right front, at an angle of about 45 deg. with the +horizontal, the saber, edge down, in a straight line with the arm; +make a slight pause and bring the back of the blade against the +shoulder, edge to the front, arm nearly extended, hand by the side, +elbow back, third and fourth fingers back of the grip; at the same +time hook up the scabbard with the thumb and first two fingers of the +left hand, thumb through the upper ring, fingers supporting it; drop +the left hand by the side. + +=This is the position of carry saber dismounted.= + +Officers and noncommissioned officers armed with the saber unhook the +scabbard before mounting; when mounted, in the first motion of =draw +saber= they reach with the right hand over the bridle hand and without +the aid of the bridle hand draw the saber as before; the right hand at +the carry rests on the right thigh. + +On foot the scabbard is carried hooked up. (782) + +=672. Holding of saber in publishing orders, etc.; use of saber knot.= +When publishing orders, calling the roll, etc., the saber is held +suspended from the right wrist by the saber knot; when the saber knot +is used it is placed on the wrist before drawing saber and taken off +after returning saber. (783) + +=673. Presenting saber from carry or order; execution of the salute in +rendering honors.= + +Being at the order or carry: =1. Present, 2. SABER= (or =ARMS=). + +At the command =present=, raise and carry the saber to the front, base +of the hilt as high as the chin and 6 inches in front of the neck, +edge to the left, point 6 inches farther to the front than the hilt, +thumb extended on the left of the grip, all fingers grasping the grip. + +At the command =saber=, or =arms=, lower the saber, point in +prolongation of the right foot and near the ground, edge to the left, +hand by the side, thumb on left of grip, arm extended. If mounted, the +hand is held behind the thigh, point a little to the right and front +of the stirrup. + +In rendering honors with troops, officers execute the first motion of +the salute at the command =present=, the second motion at the command +=arms=; enlisted men with the saber execute the first motion at the +command arms and omit the second motion. (784) + +=674. Coming to order from carry; executing order or carry from +present, depending upon command; coming to order saber when arms are +brought to order.= + +Being at a carry: =1. Order, 2. SABER= (or =ARMS=). + +Drop the point of the saber directly to the front, point on or near +the ground, edge down, thumb on back of grip. + +Being at the =present saber=, should the next command be =order arms=, +officers and noncommissioned officers armed with the saber =order +saber=; if the command be other than =order arms=, they execute =carry +saber=. + +When arms are brought to the order, the officers or enlisted men with +saber drawn =order saber=. (785) + +=675. Position of saber in giving commands, etc.; bringing saber to +carry from order.= The saber is held at the carry while giving +commands, marching at attention, or changing position in quick time. + +When at the order, sabers are brought to the carry when arms are +brought to any position except the =present= or =parade rest=. (786) + +=676. Parade rest from order.= Being at the order: =1. Parade, 2. +REST.= + +Take the position of parade rest except that the left hand is +uppermost and rests on the right hand, point of saber on or near the +ground in front of the center of the body, edge to the right. + +At the command =attention=, resume the order saber and the position of +the soldier. (787) + +=677. Position of saber at double time.= In marching in double time +the saber is carried diagonally across the breast, edge to the front; +the left hand steadies the scabbard. (788) + +=678. On duty under arms sabers to be drawn and returned without +command; commands given with saber drawn.= Officers and +noncommissioned officers armed with the saber, on all duties under +arms draw and return saber without waiting for command. All commands +to soldiers under arms are given with the saber drawn. (789) + +=679. Returning saber from carry.= Being at a carry: =1. Return, 2. +SABER.= + +At the command =return=, carry the right hand opposite to and 6 inches +from the left shoulder, saber vertical, edge to the left; at the same +time unhook and lower the scabbard with the left hand and grasp it at +the upper band. + +At the command =saber= drop the point to the rear and pass the blade +across and along the left arm; turn the head slightly to the left, +fixing the eyes on the opening of the scabbard, raise the right hand, +insert and return the blade; free the wrist from the saber knot (if +inserted in it), turn the head to the front, drop the right hand by +the side; hook up the scabbard with the left hand, drop the left hand +by the side. + +Officers and noncommissioned officers armed with the saber, when +mounted, return saber without using the left hand; the scabbard is +hooked up on dismounting. (790) + +=680. Enlisted men with saber drawn at inspection.= At inspection +enlisted men with the saber drawn execute the first motion of =present +saber= and turn the wrist to show both sides of the blade, resuming +the carry when the inspector has passed. (791) + +[Illustration] + + +Shelter Tents + +=681.= Being in line or in column of platoons, the captain commands: +=FORM FOR SHELTER TENTS.= + +The officers, first sergeant, and guides fall out; the cooks form a +file on the flank of the company nearest the kitchen, the first +sergeant and right guide fall in, forming the right file of the +company; blank files are filled by the file closers, or by men taken +from the front rank; the remaining guide, or guides, and file closers +form on a convenient flank. + +Before forming column or platoons, preparatory to pitching tents, the +company may be redivided into two or more platoons, regardless of the +size of each. (792) + +=682.= The captain then causes the company to take intervals as +described in the School of the Squad (See par. 156.), and commands: +=PITCH TENTS.= + +At the command =pitch tents=, each man steps off obliquely to the +right with the right foot and lays his rifle on the ground, the butt +of the rifle near the toe of the right foot, muzzle to the front, +barrel to the left, and steps back into his place; each front-rank man +then draws his bayonet and sticks it in the ground by the outside of +the right heel. + +Equipments are unslung, packs opened, shelter half and pins removed; +each man then spreads his shelter half, small triangle to the rear, +flat upon the ground the tent is to occupy, the rear-rank man's half +on the right. The halves are then buttoned together; the guy loops at +both ends of the lower half are passed through the buttonholes +provided in the lower and upper halves; the whipped end of the guy +rope is then passed through both guy loops and secured, this at both +ends of the tent. Each front-rank man inserts the muzzle of his rifle +under the front end of the ridge and holds the rifle upright, sling to +the front, heel of butt on the ground, beside the bayonet. His +rear-rank man pins down the front corners of the tent on the line of +bayonets, stretching the tent taut; he then inserts a pin in the eye +of the front guy rope and drives the pin at such a distance in front +of the rifle as to held the rope taut; both men go to the rear of the +tent, each pins down a corner, stretching the sides and rear of the +tent before securing; the rear-rank man then inserts an intrenching +tool, or a bayonet in its scabbard, under the rear end of the ridge +inside the tent, the front-rank man pegging down the end of the rear +guy ropes; the rest of the pins are then driven by both men, the +rear-rank man working on the right. + +The front flaps of the tent are not fastened down, but thrown back on +the tent. + +As soon as the tent is pitched each man arranges his equipment and the +contents of his pack in the tent and stands at attention in front of +his own half on line with the front guy-rope pin. + +To have a uniform slope when the tents are pitched, the guy ropes +should all be of the same length. + +In shelter-tent camps, in localities where suitable material is +procurable, tent poles may be improvised and used in lieu of the rifle +and bayonet or intrenching tool as supports for the shelter tent. +(793) + +=683.= When the pack is not carried, the company is formed for shelter +tents, as prescribed in par. 681, intervals are taken, arms are laid +aside or on the ground, the men are dismissed and proceed to the +wagon, secure their packs, return to their places, and pitch tents as +heretofore described, in par. 682. (794) + +=684.= Double shelter tents may be pitched by first pitching one tent +as heretofore described, then pitching a second tent against the +opening of the first, using one rifle to support both tents, and +passing the front guy ropes over and down the sides of the opposite +tents. The front corner of one tent is not pegged down, but is thrown +back to permit an opening into the tent. (795) + + +Single Sleeping Bag + +=685.= Spread the poncho on the ground, buttoned end at the feet, +buttoned side to the left; fold the blanket once across its short +dimension and lay it on the poncho, folded side along the right side +of the poncho; tie the blanket together along the left side by means +of the tapes provided; fold the left half of the poncho over the +blanket and button it together along the side and bottom. (For the +position, number, and length of tapes with which blankets should be +provided, see Par. II, G. O. 11; W. D. '12--Author.) (796) + + +Double Sleeping Bag + +=686.= Spread one poncho on the ground, buttoned end at the feet, +buttoned side to the left; spread the blankets on top of the poncho; +tie the edges of the blankets together with the tapes provided; spread +a second poncho on top of the blankets, buttoned end at the feet, +buttoned side to the right; button the two ponchos together along both +sides and across the end. (797) + + +To Strike Shelter Tents + +=687.= The men standing in front of their tents: =STRIKE TENTS.= + +Equipments and rifles are removed from the tent; the tents are +lowered, packs made up, and equipments slung, and the men stand at +attention in the places originally occupied after taking intervals. +(798) + + +To Pitch All Types of Tents, Except Shelter and Conical Wall + +=688.= To pitch all types of Army tents, except shelter and conical +wall tents: Mark line of tents by driving a wall pin on the spot to be +occupied by the right (or left) corner of each tent. For pyramidal +tents the interval between adjacent pins should be about 30 feet, +which will give a passage of two feet between tents. Spread tripod on +the ground where the center of tent is to be, if tripod is used. +Spread the tent on the ground to be occupied, door to the front, and +place the right (or left) front wall loop over the pin. The door (or +doors, if more than one) being fastened and held together at the +bottom, the left (or right) corner wall loop is carried to the left +(or right) as far as it will go and a wall pin driven through it, the +pin being placed in line with the right (or left) corner pins already +driven. At the same time the rear corner wall loops are pulled to the +rear and outward so that the rear wall of the tent is stretched to +complete the rectangle. Wall pins are then driven through these loops. +Each corner pin should be directly in rear of the corresponding front +corner pin, making a rectangle. Unless the canvas be wet, a small +amount of slack should be allowed before the corner pins are driven. +According to the size of the tent one or two men, crawling under the +tent if necessary, fit each pole or ridge or upright into the ring or +ridge pole holes, and such accessories as hood, fly, and brace ropes +are adjusted. If a tripod be used an additional man will go under the +tent to adjust it. The tent steadied by the remaining men, one at each +corner guy rope, will then be raised. If the tent is a ward or storage +type, corner poles will now be placed at the four corners. The four +corner guy ropes are then placed over the lower notches of the large +pins driven in prolongation of the diagonals at such distance as to +hold the walls and ends of the tent vertical and smooth when the guy +ropes are drawn taut. A wall pin is then driven through each remaining +wall loop and a large pin for each guy rope is driven in line with the +corner guy pins already driven. The guy ropes of the tent are placed +over the lower notches, while the guy ropes of the fly are placed over +the upper notches, and are then drawn taut. Brace ropes when used, are +then secured to stakes or pins suitably placed. (709) + + +Conical Wall Tent + +=689.= Drive the door pin and center pin 8 feet 3 inches apart. Using +the hood lines, with center pin as center, describe two concentric +circles with radii 8 feet 3 inches and 11 feet 3 inches. In the outer +circle drive two door guy pins 3 feet apart. At intervals of about 3 +feet drive the other guy pins. + +In other respects conical tents are erected practically as in the case +of pyramidal tents, as explained in par. 688. (801) + + +To Strike Common, Wall, Pyramidal, and Conical Wall Tents + +=690. STRIKE TENTS.= + +The men first remove all pins except those of the four corner guy +ropes, or the four quadrant guy ropes in the case of the conical wall +tent. The pins are neatly piled or placed in their receptacle. + +One man holds each guy, and when the ground is clear the tent is +lowered, folded, or rolled and tied, the poles or tripod and pole +fastened together, and the remaining pins collected. (802) + + +To Fold Tents + +=691. For folding common, wall, hospital, and storage tents:= Spread +the tent flat on the ground, folded at the ridge so that bottoms of +side walls are even, ends of tents forming triangles to the right and +left; fold the triangular ends of the tent in toward the middle, +making it rectangular in shape; fold the top over about 9 inches; fold +the tent in two by carrying the top fold over clear to the foot; fold +again in two from the top to the foot; throw all guys on tent except +the second from each end; fold the ends in so as to cover about +two-thirds of the second cloths; fold the left end over to meet the +turned-in edge of the right end, then fold the right end over the top, +completing the bundle; tie with two exposed guys. + +=For folding pyramidal tents:= The tent is thrown toward the rear and +the back wall and roof canvas pulled out smooth. This may be most +easily accomplished by leaving the rear corner wall pins in the ground +with the wall loops attached, one man at each rear-corner guy, and one +holding the square iron in a perpendicular position and pulling the +canvas to its limit away from the former front of the tent. This +leaves the three remaining sides of the tent on top of the rear side, +with the door side in the middle. + +Now carry the right-front corner over and lay it on the left-rear +corner. Pull all canvas smooth, throw guys toward square iron, and +pull bottom edges even. Then take the right-front corner and return to +the right, covering the right-rear corner. This folds the right side +of the tent on itself, with the crease in the middle and under the +front side of the tent. + +Next carry the left-front corner to the right and back as described +above; this, when completed, will leave the front and rear sides of +the tent lying smooth and flat and the two side walls folded inward, +each on itself. + +Place the hood in the square iron which has been folded downward +toward the bottom of tent, and continue to fold around the square iron +as a core, pressing all folds down flat and smooth, and parallel with +the bottom of the tent. If each fold is compactly made and the canvas +kept smooth, the last fold will exactly cover the lower edge of the +canvas. Lay all exposed guys along the folded canvas except the two on +the center-width, which should be pulled out and away from bottom edge +to their extreme length for tying. Now, beginning at one end, fold +toward the center on the first seam (that joining the first and second +widths) and fold again toward the center so that the already folded +canvas will come to within about three inches of the middle width. +Then fold over to the opposite edge of middle width of canvas. Then +begin folding from opposite end, folding the first width in half, then +making a second fold to come within about 4 or 5 inches of that +already folded, turn this fold entirely over that already folded. Take +the exposed guys and draw them taut across each other, turn bundle +over on the under guy, cross guys on top of bundle drawing tight. Turn +bundle over on the crossed guys and tie lengthwise. + +When properly tied and pressed together this will make a package 11 by +23 by 34 inches, requiring about 8,855 cubic inches to store or pack. + +Stencil the organization designation on the lower half of the middle +width of canvas in the back wall. (803) + + +Warning Calls + +=692. First call, guard mounting, full dress, overcoats, drill, +stable, water,= and =boots and saddles= precede the =assembly= by such +interval as may be prescribed by the commanding officer. + +=Mess, church, and fatigue=, classed as service calls, may also be +used as warning calls. + +=First call= is the first signal for formation for roll call and for +all ceremonies except guard mounting. + +=Guard mounting= is the first signal for guard mounting. + +The field music assembles at =first call= and =guard mounting=. + +In a mixed command, =boots and saddles= is the signal to mounted +troops that their formation is to be mounted; for mounted guard +mounting or mounted drill, it immediately follows the signal =guard +mounting= or drill. + +When full dress or overcoats are to be worn, the =full dress= or +=overcoat= call immediately follows =first call=, =guard mounting=, or +=boots and saddles=. (804) + + +Formation Calls + +=693. Assembly:= The signal for companies or details to fall in. + +=Adjutant's call:= The signal for companies to form battalion; also +for the guard details to form for guard mounting on the camp or +garrison parade ground; it follows the =assembly= at such interval as +may be prescribed by the commanding officer. + +It is also used as a signal for the battalions to form regiment, +following the first =adjutant's call= at such interval as the +commanding officer may prescribe. + +=To the color:= Is sounded when the color salutes. (805) + + +Alarm Calls + +=694. Fire call:= The signal for the men to fall in, without arms, to +extinguish fire. + +=To arms:= The signal for the men to fall in, under arms, on their +company's parade grounds as quickly as possible. + +=To horse:= The signal for mounted men to proceed under arms to their +horses, saddle, mount and assemble at a designated place as quickly as +possible. In extended order this signal is used to remount troops. +(806) + + +Service Calls + +=695. Tattoo, taps, mess, sick, church, recall, issue, officers', +captains', first sergeants', fatigue, school=, and =the general=. + +=The general= is the signal for striking tents and loading wagons +preparatory to marching. + +=Reveille= precedes the =assembly= for roll call; =retreat= follows +the =assembly=, the interval between being only that required for +formation and roll call, except when there is parade. + +=Taps= is the signal for extinguishing lights; it is usually preceded +by =call to quarters= by such interval as prescribed by Army +Regulations. + +=Assembly, reveille, retreat, adjutant's call, to the color, the +flourishes, ruffles=, and the =marches= are sounded by all the field +music united; the other calls, as a rule, are sounded by the musician +of the guard or orderly musician; he may also sound the =assembly= +when the musicians are not united. + +The morning gun is fired at the first note of =reveille=, or, if +marches be played before =reveille=, it is fired at the commencement +of the first march. + +The evening gun is fired at the last note of =retreat=. (807) + + +APPENDIX A + + War Department, + Office of the Chief of Staff, + Washington, December 2, 1911. + +The Infantry Drill Regulations, 1911, have been prepared for the use +of troops armed with the United States magazine rifle, model 1903. For +the guidance of organizations armed with the United States magazine +rifle, model 1898, the following alternative paragraphs are published +and will be considered as substitute paragraphs for the corresponding +paragraphs in the text: 75 (in part), 96, 98, 99, 134, 139, 141, 142, +148 and 150. + + By order of the Secretary of War: + LEONARD WOOD, + Major General, Chief of Staff. + +=Note.= The paragraph numbers 75, 96, 98, etc., given above, follow +the paragraphs below. + +=696.= * * * Third. + +The cut-off is kept turned down, except when using the magazine. (75) + + * * * * * + +=697.= Being at order arms: =1. Unfix, BAYONET.= + +If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the belt: Take the position of +parade rest, grasp the handle on the bayonet firmly with the right +hand, press the spring with the forefinger of the left hand, raise the +bayonet until the handle is about 6 inches above the muzzle of the +piece, drop the point to the left, back of hand toward the body, and +glancing at the scabbard, return the bayonet, the blade passing +between the left arm and body; regrasp the piece with the right hand +and resume the order. + +If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the haversack: Take the bayonet +from the rifle with the left hand and return it to the scabbard in the +most convenient manner. + +If marching or lying down, the bayonet is fixed and unfixed in the +most expeditious and convenient manner and the piece returned to the +original position. + +Fix and unfix bayonet are executed with promptness and regularity, but +not in cadence. (96) + +=698.= Being at order arms: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS.= + +At the second command, take the position of port arms. (=TWO.=) With +the right hand open the magazine gate, turn the bolt handle up, draw +the bolt back and glance at the magazine and chamber. Having found +them empty, or having emptied them, raise the head and eyes to the +front. (98) + +=699.= Being at inspection arms: =1. Order (Right shoulder, port), 2. +ARMS.= + +At the preparatory command, push the bolt forward, turn the handle +down, close the magazine gate, pull the trigger, and resume port arms. +At the command =arms=, complete the movement ordered. (99) + +=700.= Pieces being loaded and in the position of load, to execute +other movements with the pieces loaded: =1. Lock, 2. PIECES.= + +At the command =pieces= turn the safety lock fully to the right. + +The safety lock is said to be at the "ready" when turned to the left, +and at the "safe" when turned to the right. + +The cut-off is said to be "on" when turned up and "off" when turned +down. (134) + +=701.= Being in line or skirmish line at halt: =1. With dummy (blank +or ball) cartridges, 2. LOAD.= + +At the command =load= each front-rank man or skirmisher faces half +right and carries the right foot to the right, about one foot, to such +position as will insure the greatest firmness and steadiness of the +body; raises or lowers the piece and drops it into the left hand at +the balance, left thumb extended along the stock, muzzle at the height +of the breast. With the right hand he turns and draws the bolt back, +takes a cartridge between the thumb and first two fingers and places +it in the receiver; places palm of the hand against the back of the +bolt handle; thrusts the bolt home with a quick motion, turning down +the handle, and carries the hand to the small of the stock. Each +rear-rank man moves to the right front, takes a similar position +opposite the interval to the right of his front-rank man, muzzle of +the piece extending beyond the front rank, and loads. + +A skirmish line may load while moving, the pieces being held as nearly +as practicable in the position of load. + +If kneeling or sitting, the position of the piece is similar; if +kneeling, the left forearm rests on the left thigh; if sitting, the +elbows are supported by the knees. If lying down, the left hand +steadies and supports the piece at the balance, the toe of the butt +resting on the ground, the muzzle off the ground. + +For reference, these positions (standing, kneeling, and lying down) +are designated as that of =load=. (139) + +=702. FILL MAGAZINE.= + +Take the position of load, if not already there, open the gate of the +magazine with the right thumb, take five cartridges from the box or +belt, and place them, with the bullets to the front, in the magazine, +turning the barrel slightly to the left to facilitate the insertion of +the cartridges; close the gate and carry the right hand to the small +of the stock. + +To load from the magazine the command =from magazine= will be given +preceding that of =load=; the =cut-off= will be turned up on coming to +the position of =load=. + +To resume loading from the belt the command from belt will be given +preceding the command =load=; the =cut-off= will be turned down on +coming to the position of =load=. + +The commands =from magazine= and =from belt=, indicating the change in +the manner of loading, will not be repeated in subsequent commands. + +The words =from belt= apply to cartridge box as well as belt. + +In loading from the magazine care should be taken to push the bolt +fully forward and turn the handle down before drawing the bolt back, +as otherwise the extractor will not catch the cartridge in the +chamber, and jamming will occur with the cartridge following. + +To fire from the magazine, the command =magazine fire= may be given at +any time. The cut-off is turned up and an increased rate of fire is +executed. After the magazine is exhausted the cut-off is turned down +and the firing continued, loading from the belt. + +=Magazine fire= is employed only when, in the opinion of the platoon +leader or company commander, the maximum rate of fire becomes +necessary. (141) + +=703. UNLOAD.= + +All take the position of load, turn the =cut-off= up, if not already +there, turn the safety lock to the left, and alternately open and +close the chamber until all the cartridges are ejected. After the last +cartridge is ejected the chamber is closed and the trigger pulled. The +cartridges are then picked up, cleaned, and returned to the box or +belt, and the piece brought to the order. (142) + +=704. CLIP FIRE.= + +Turn the cut-off up; =fire at will= (reloading from the magazine) +until the cartridges in the piece are exhausted; turn the cut-off +down; fill magazine; reload and take the position of =suspend firing=. +(148) + +=705. CEASE FIRING.= + +Firing stops; pieces not already there are brought to the position of +load, the cut-off turned down if firing from magazine, the cartridge +is drawn or the empty shell is ejected, the trigger is pulled, sights +are laid down, and the piece is brought to the order. + +=Cease firing= is used for long pauses to prepare for changes of +position or to steady the men. (150) + + +APPENDIX B + + War Department, + Office of the Chief of Staff, + Washington, December 2, 1911. + +Paragraphs 747, 792, 793, 794, 795, 796, 797, and 798, Infantry Drill +Regulations, 1911, apply only to troops equipped with the Infantry +Equipment, model 1910. For troops equipped under General Orders, No. +23, War Department, 1906, and orders amendatory thereof, the +alternative paragraphs published herewith will govern. + + By order of the Secretary of War: + LEONARD WOOD, + Major General, Chief of Staff. + +Note. The paragraph numbers 747, 792, etc., given above, follow the +paragraphs below. + +=706.= If the inspection is to include an examination of the blanket +rolls, the captain, before dismissing the company and after +inspecting the file closers, directs the lieutenants to remain in +place, closes ranks, stacks arms, dresses the company back to four +paces from the stacks, takes intervals, and commands: =1. Unsling, 2. +PACKS, 3. Open, 4. PACKS.= + +At the second command, each man unslings his roll and places it on the +ground at his feet, rounded end to the front, square end of shelter +half to the right. + +At the fourth command, the rolls are untied, laid perpendicular to the +front with the triangular end of the shelter half to the front, +opened, and unrolled to the left; each man prepares the contents of +his roll for inspection and resumes the attention. + +The captain then returns saber, passes along the ranks and file +closers as before, inspects the rolls, returns to the right, draws +saber and commands: =1. Close, 2. PACKS.= + +At the second command each man, with his shelter half smoothly spread +on the ground with buttons up and triangular end to the front, folds +his blanket once across its length and places it upon the shelter +half, fold toward the bottom edge one-half inch from the square end, +the same amount of canvas uncovered at the top and bottom. He then +places the parts of the pole on the side of the blanket next the +square end of shelter half, near and parallel to the fold, end of pole +about 6 inches from the edge of the blanket; nests the pins similarly +near the opposite edge of the blanket and distributes the other +articles carried in the roll; folds the triangular end and then the +exposed portion of the bottom of the shelter half over the blanket. + +The two men in each file roll and fasten first the roll of the front +and then of the rear rank man. The file closers work similarly two and +two, or with the front rank man of a blank file. Each pair stands on +the folded side, rolls the blanket roll closely and buckles the +straps, passing the end of the strap through both keeper and buckle, +back over the buckle and under the keeper. With the roll so lying on +the ground that the edge of the shelter half can just be seen when +looking vertically downward, one end is bent upward and over to meet +the other, a clove hitch is taken with the guy rope first around the +end to which it is attached and then around the other end, adjusting +the length of rope between hitches to suit the wearer. + +As soon as a file completes its two rolls each man places his roll in +the position it was in after being unslung and stands at attention. + +All the rolls being completed, the captain commands: =1. Sling, 2. +PACKS.= + +At the second command the rolls are slung, the end containing the pole +to the rear. + +The company is assembled, takes arms, and the captain completes the +inspection as before. (747) + +=707.= Being in line or in column of platoons, the captain commands: +=FORM FOR SHELTER TENTS.= + +The officers, first sergeant, and guides fall out; the cooks form a +file on the flank of the company nearest the kitchen, the first +sergeant and right guide fall in, forming the right file of the +company; blank files are filled by the file closers or by men taken +from the front rank; the remaining guide or guides, and file closers +form on a convenient flank. + +Before forming column of platoons, preparatory to pitching tents, the +company may be redivided into two or more platoons, regardless of the +size of each. (792) + +=708.= The captain then causes the company to take intervals as +described in the School of the Squad, and commands: =PITCH TENTS.= + +At the command =pitch tents=, each man steps off obliquely to the +right with the right foot and lays his rifle on the ground, the butt +of the rifle near the toe of the right foot, muzzle to the front, +barrel to the left, and steps back into his place; each front-rank man +then draws his bayonet and sticks it in the ground by the outside of +the right heel. All unsling and open the blanket rolls and take out +the shelter half, poles, and pins. Each then spreads his shelter half, +triangle to the rear, flat upon the ground the tent is to occupy, +rear-rank man's half on the right. The halves are then buttoned +together. Each front-rank man joins his pole, inserts the top in the +eyes of the halves, and holds the pole upright beside the bayonet +placed in the ground; his rear-rank man, using the pins in front, pins +down the front corners of the tent on the line of bayonets, stretching +the canvas taut; he then inserts a pin in the eye of the rope and +drives the pin at such distance in front of the pole as to hold the +rope taut. Both then go to the rear of the tent; the rear-rank man +adjusts the pole and the front-rank man drives the pins. The rest of +the pins are then driven by both men, the rear-rank man working on the +right. + +As soon as the tent is pitched each man arranges the contents of the +blanket roll in the tent and stands at attention in front of his own +half on line with the front guy rope pin. + +The guy ropes, to have a uniform slope when the shelter tents are +pitched, should all be of the same length. (793) + +=709.= When the blanket roll is not carried, intervals are taken as +described above; the position of the front pole is marked with a +bayonet and equipments are laid aside. The men then proceed to the +wagon, secure their rolls, return to their places, and pitch tents as +heretofore described. (794) + +=710.= To pitch double shelter tent, the captain gives the same +commands as before, except =Take half interval= is given instead of +=Take interval=. In taking interval, each man follows the preceding +man at 2 paces. The captain then commands: =PITCH DOUBLE TENTS.= + +The first sergeant places himself on the right of the right guide and +with him pitches a single shelter tent. + +Only the odd numbers of the front rank mark the line with the bayonet. + +The tent is formed by buttoning together the square ends of two single +tents. Two complete tents, except one pole, are used. Two guy ropes +are used at each end, the guy pins being placed in front of the corner +pins. + +The tents are pitched by numbers 1 and 2, front and rear rank; and by +numbers 3 and 4, front and rear rank; the men falling in on the left +are numbered, counting off if necessary. + +All the men spread their shelter halves on the ground the tent is to +occupy. Those of the front rank are placed with the triangular ends to +the front. All four halves are then buttoned together, first the +ridges and then the square ends. The front corners of the tent are +pinned by the front-rank men, the odd number holding the poles, the +even number driving the pins. The rear-rank men similarly pin the rear +corners. + +While the odd numbers steady the poles, each even number of the front +rank takes his pole and enters the tent, where, assisted by the even +number of the rear rank, he adjusts the pole to the center eyes of the +shelter halves in the following order: (1) The lower half of the front +tent; (2) the lower half of the rear tent; (3) the upper half of the +front tent; (4) the upper half of the rear tent. The guy ropes are +then adjusted. + +The tents having been pitched, the triangular ends are turned back, +contents of the rolls arranged, and the men stand at =attention=, each +opposite his own shelter half and facing out from the tent. (795) + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] No. 1 of the first squad. + +[2] Ordinarily about 20 yards wide. + +[3] By Fire Direction is meant prescribing and generally directing the +firing.--Author. + +[4] The "pack" includes blanket, poncho, and shelter tent. + +[5] With a 4-foot white and red regimental signal flag. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +MANUAL OF THE BAYONET + + (The numbers following the paragraphs are those of the Manual of + the Bayonet, U. S. Army.) + + +=711.= The infantry soldier relies mainly on fire action to disable +the enemy, but he should know that personal combat is often necessary +to obtain success. Therefore, he must be instructed in the use of the +rifle and bayonet in hand-to-hand encounters. (1) + +=712.= The object of this instruction is to teach the soldier how to +make effective use of the rifle and bayonet in personal combat; to +make him quick and proficient in handling his rifle; to give him an +accurate eye and a steady hand; and to give him confidence in the +bayonet in offense and defense. When skill in these exercises has been +acquired, the rifle will still remain a most formidable weapon at +close quarters should the bayonet be lost or disabled. (2) + +=713.= Efficiency of organizations in bayonet fighting will be judged +by the skill shown by individuals in personal combat. For this purpose +pairs or groups of opponents, selected at random from among recruits +and trained soldiers, should engage in assaults, using the fencing +equipment provided for the purpose. (3) + +=714.= Officers and specially selected and thoroughly instructed +noncommissioned officers will act as instructors. (4) + +=715.= Instruction in bayonet combat should begin as soon as the +soldier is familiar with the handling of his rifle and will progress, +as far as practicable, in the order followed in the text. (5) + +=716.= Instruction is ordinarily given on even ground, but practice +should also be had on uneven ground, especially in the attack and +defense of intrenchments. (6) + +=717.= These exercises will not be used as a calisthenic drill. (7) + +=718.= The principles of the commands are the same as those given in +paragraphs 58, 64, and 87. Intervals and distances will be taken as in +paragraphs 156 and 158, except that, in formations for bayonet +exercises, the men should be at least four paces apart in every +direction. (8) + +=719.= Before requiring soldiers to take a position or execute a +movement for the first time, the instructor executes the same for the +purpose of illustration, after which he requires the soldiers to +execute the movement individually. Movements prescribed in this manual +will not be executed in cadence as the attempt to do so results in +incomplete execution and lack of vigor. Each movement will be executed +correctly as quickly as possible by every man. As soon as the +movements are executed accurately, the commands are given rapidly, as +expertness with the bayonet depends chiefly upon quickness of motion. +(9) + +=720.= The exercises will be interrupted at first by short and +frequent rests. The rests will be less frequent as proficiency is +attained. Fatigue and exhaustion will be specially guarded against as +they prevent proper interest being taken in the exercises and delay +the progress of the instruction. Rests will be given from the position +of order arms in the manner prescribed in Infantry Drill Regulations. +(10) + + +THE BAYONET + + +NOMENCLATURE AND DESCRIPTION + +=721.= The bayonet is a cutting and thrusting weapon consisting of +three principal parts, viz, the blade, guard, and grip. (11) + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +=722.= The blade has the following parts: Edge, false edge, back, +grooves, point, and tang. The length of the blade from guard to point +is 16 inches, the edge 14.5 inches, and the false edge 5.6 inches. +Length of the rifle, bayonet fixed, is 59.4 inches. The weight of the +bayonet is 1 pound; weight of rifle without bayonet is 8.69 pounds. +The center of gravity of the rifle, with bayonet fixed, is just in +front of the rear sight. (12) + + +I. INSTRUCTION WITHOUT THE RIFLE + +=723.= The instructor explains the importance of good footwork and +impresses on the men the fact that quickness of foot and suppleness of +body are as important for attack and defense as is the ability to +parry and deliver a strong point or cut. (13) + +=724.= All foot movements should be made from the position of _guard_. +As far as practicable, they will be made on the balls of the feet to +insure quickness and agility. No hard and fast rule can be laid down +as to the length of the various foot movements; this depends entirely +on the situations occurring in combat. (14) + +=725.= The men having taken intervals or distances, the instructor +commands: + +=1. Bayonet exercise, 2. GUARD.= + +At the command =guard=, half face to the right, carry back and place +the right foot about once and a half its length to the rear and about +3 inches to the right, the feet forming with each other an angle of +about 60 deg., weight of the body balanced equally on the balls of the +feet, knees slightly bent, palms of hands on hips, fingers to the +front, thumbs to the rear, head erect, head and eyes straight to the +front. (15) + +=726.= To resume the attention, =1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION.= The men take +the position of the soldier and fix their attention. (16) + +=727. ADVANCE.= Advance the left foot quickly about once its length +follow immediately with the right foot the same distance. (17) + +=728. RETIRE.= Move the right foot quickly to the rear about once its +length, follow immediately with the left foot the same distance. (18) + +=729. 1. Front, 2. PASS.= Place the right foot quickly about once its +length in front of the left, advance the left foot to its proper +position in front of the right. (19) + +=730. 1. Rear, 2. PASS.= Place the left foot quickly about once its +length in rear of the right, retire the right foot to its proper +position in rear of the left. + +The passes are used to get quickly within striking distance or to +withdraw quickly therefrom. (20) + +=731. 1. Right, 2. STEP.= Step to the right with the right foot about +once its length and place the left foot in its proper relative +position. (21) + +=732. 1. Left, 2. STEP.= Step to the left with the left foot about +once its length and place the right foot in its proper relative +position. + +These steps are used to circle around an enemy, to secure a more +favorable line of attack, or to avoid the opponent's attack. Better +ground or more favorable light may be gained in this way. In bayonet +fencing and in actual combat the foot first moved in stepping to the +right or left is the one which at the moment bears the least weight. +(22) + + +II. INSTRUCTION WITH THE RIFLE + +=733.= The commands for and the execution of the foot movements are +the same as already given for movements without the rifle. (23) + +=734.= The men having taken intervals or distances, the instructor +commands: + +=1. Bayonet exercise, 2. GUARD.= + +At the second command take the position of guard (see par. 15); at the +same time throw the rifle smartly to the front, grasp the rifle with +the left hand just below the lower band, fingers between the stock and +gun sling, barrel turned slightly to the left, the right hand grasping +the small of the stock about 6 inches in front of the right hip, +elbows free from the body, bayonet point at the height of the chin. +(24) (See Fig. 2) + +=735. 1. Order, 2. ARMS.= + +Bring the right foot up to the left and the rifle to the position of +order arms, at the same time resuming the position of attention. (25) + +=736.= During the preliminary instruction, attacks and defenses will +be executed from guard until proficiency is attained, after which they +may be executed from any position in which the rifle is held. (26) + + +ATTACKS + +=737. 1. THRUST.= + +Thrust the rifle quickly forward to the full length of the left arm, +turning the barrel to the left, and direct the point of the bayonet +at the point to be attacked, butt covering the right forearm. At the +same time straighten the right leg vigorously and throw the weight of +the body forward and on the left leg, the ball of the right foot +always on the ground. Guard is resumed immediately without command. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +The force of the thrust is delivered principally with the right arm, +the left being used to direct the bayonet. The points at which the +attack should be directed are, in order of their importance, stomach, +chest, head, neck, and limbs. (27) + +=738. 1. LUNGE.= + +Executed in the same manner as the thrust, except that the left foot +is carried forward about twice its length. The left heel must always +be in rear of the left knee. Guard is resumed immediately without +command. Guard may also be resumed by advancing the right foot if, for +any reason, it is desired to hold the ground gained in lunging. In the +latter case, the preparatory command =forward= will be given. Each +method should be practiced. (28) + +=739. 1. Butt, 2. STRIKE.= + +Straighten right arm and right leg vigorously and swing butt of rifle +against point of attack, pivoting the rifle in the left hand at about +the height of the left shoulder, allowing the bayonet to pass to the +rear on the left side of the head. Guard is resumed without command. + +The points of attack in their order of importance are, head, neck, +stomach, and crotch. (29) + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +=740. 1. Cut, 2. DOWN.= + +Execute a quick downward stroke, edge of bayonet directed at point of +attack. Guard is resumed without command. (30) + +=741. 1. Cut, 2. RIGHT (LEFT).= + +With a quick extension of the arms execute a cut to the right (left), +directing the edge toward the point attacked. Guard is resumed without +command. + +The cuts are especially useful against the head, neck, and hands of an +enemy. In executing left cut it should be remembered that the false, +or back edge, is only 5.6 inches long. The cuts can be executed in +continuation of strokes, thrusts, lunges, and parries. (31) + +=742.= To direct an attack to the right, left, or rear the soldier +will change front as quickly as possible in the most convenient +manner, for example: =1. To the right rear, 2. Cut, 3. DOWN;= =1. To +the right, 2. LUNGE;= =1. To the left, 2. THRUST=, etc. + +Whenever possible the impetus gained by the turning movement of the +body should be thrown into the attack. In general this will be best +accomplished by turning on the ball of the right foot. + +These movements constitute a change of front in which the position of +guard is resumed at the completion of the movement. (32) + +=743.= Good judgment of distance is essential. Accuracy in thrusting +and lunging is best attained by practicing these attacks against rings +or other convenient openings, about 3 inches in diameter, suitably +suspended at desired heights. (33) + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.] + +=744.= The thrust and lunges at rings should first be practiced by +endeavoring to hit the opening looked at. This should be followed by +directing the attack against one opening while looking at another. +(34) + +=745.= The soldier should also experience the effect of actual +resistance offered to the bayonet and the butt of the rifle in +attacks. This will be taught by practicing attacks against a dummy. +(35) + +=746.= Dummies should be constructed in such a manner as to permit the +execution of attacks without injury to the point or edge of the +bayonet or to the barrel or stock of the rifle. A suitable dummy can +be made from pieces of rope about 5 feet in length plaited closely +together into a cable between 6 and 12 inches in diameter. Old rope is +preferable. Bags weighted and stuffed with hay, straw, shavings, etc., +are also suitable. (36) + +[Illustration: Fig. 7.] + + +DEFENSES + +=747.= In the preliminary drills in the defenses the position of guard +is resumed, by command, after each parry. When the men have become +proficient, the instructor will cause them to resume the position of +guard instantly without command after the execution of each parry. +(37) + +=748. 1. Parry, 2. RIGHT.= + +Keeping the right hand in the guard position, move the rifle sharply +to the right with the left arm, so that the bayonet point is about 6 +inches to the right. (38) + +=749. 1. Parry, 2. LEFT.= + +Move the rifle sharply to the left front with both hands so as to +cover the point attacked. (39) + +=750. 1. Parry, 2. HIGH.= + +Raise the rifle with both hands high enough to clear the line of +vision, barrel downward, point of the bayonet to the left front. + +When necessary to raise the rifle well above the head, it may be +supported between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand. This +position will be necessary against attacks from higher elevations, +such, as men mounted or on top of parapets. (40) + +[Illustration: Fig. 8] + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +=751. 1. Low parry, 2. RIGHT (LEFT).= + +Carry the point of the bayonet down until it is at the height of the +knee, moving the point of the bayonet sufficiently to the right (left) +to keep the opponent's attacks clear of the point threatened. + +=752.= These parries are rarely used, as an attack below the waist +leaves the head and body exposed. (41) + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +=753.= Parries must not be too wide or sweeping, but sharp, short +motions, finished with a jerk or quick catch. The hands should, as far +as possible, be kept in the line of attack. Parries against =butt +strike= are made by quickly moving the guard so as to cover the point +attacked. (42) + +=754.= To provide against attack from the right, left, or rear the +soldier will change front as quickly as possible in the most +convenient manner, for example, =1. To the left rear, 2. Parry, 3. +HIGH;= =1. To the right, 2. Parry, 3. RIGHT=, etc. + +These movements constitute a change of front in which the position of +guard is resumed at the completion of the movement. + +In changing front for the purpose of attack or defense, if there is +danger of wounding a comrade, the rifle should first be brought to a +vertical position. (43) + + +III. INSTRUCTION WITHOUT THE BAYONET + +=755. 1. Club rifle, 2 SWING.= + +Being at order arms at the preparatory command quickly raise and turn +the rifle, regrasping it with both hands between the rear sight and +muzzle, barrel down, thumbs around the stock and toward the butt; at +the sane time raise the rifle above shoulder farthest from the +opponent, butt elevated and to the rear, elbows slightly bent and +knees straight. Each individual takes such position of the feet, +shoulders, and hands as best accords with his natural dexterity. +=SWING.= Tighten the grasp of the hands and swing the rifle to the +front and downward, directing it at the head of the opponent and +immediately return to the position of =club rifle= by completing the +swing of the rifle downward and to the rear. Repeat by the command. +=SWING.= + +The rifle should be swung with sufficient force to break through any +guard or parry that may be interposed. + +Being at =club rifle=, order arms is resumed by command. + +The use of this attack against dummies or in fencing is prohibited. +(44) + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +=756.= The position of club rifle may be taken from any position of +the rifle prescribed in the Manual of Arms. It will not be taken in +personal combat unless the emergency is such as to preclude the use of +the bayonet. (45) + + +IV. COMBINED MOVEMENTS + +=757.= The purpose of combined movements is to develop more vigorous +attacks and more effective defenses than are obtained by the single +movements; to develop skill in passing from attack to defense and the +reverse. Every movement to the front should be accompanied by an +attack, which is increased in effectiveness by the forward movement of +the body. Every movement to the rear should ordinarily be accompanied +by a parry and should always be followed by an attack. Movements to +the right or left may be accompanied by =attacks= or =defenses=. (46) + +=758.= Not more than three movements will be used in any combination. +The instructor should first indicate the number of movements that are +to be combined as =two movements= or =three movements=. The execution +is determined by one command of execution, and the position of guard +is taken upon the completion of the last movement only. + +EXAMPLES + + =Front pass and LUNGE.= + =Right step and THRUST.= + =Left step and low parry RIGHT.= + =Rear pass, parry left and LUNGE.= + =Lunge and cut RIGHT.= + =Parry right and parry HIGH.= + =Butt strike and cut DOWN.= + =Thrust and parry HIGH.= + =Parry high and LUNGE.= + =Advance, thrust and cut RIGHT.= + =Right step, parry left and cut DOWN.= + =To the left, butt strike and cut DOWN.= + =To the right rear, cut down and butt STRIKE.= (47) + +=759.= Attacks against dummies will be practiced. The approach will be +made against the dummies both in quick time and double time. (48) + + +V. PRACTICAL BAYONET COMBAT + +=760.= The principles of practical bayonet combat should be taught as +far as possible during the progress of instruction in bayonet +exercises. (49) + +=761.= The soldier must be continually impressed with the extreme +importance of the offensive due to its moral effect. Should an attack +fail, it should be followed immediately by another attack before the +opponent has an opportunity to assume the offensive. Keep the opponent +on the defensive. If, due to circumstances, it is necessary to take +the defensive, constantly watch for an opportunity to assume the +offensive and take immediate advantage of it. (50) + +=762.= Observe the ground with a view to obtaining the best footing. +Time for this will generally be too limited to permit more than a +single hasty glance. (51) + +=763.= In personal combat watch the opponent's eyes if they can be +plainly seen, and do not fix the eyes on his weapon nor upon the +point of your attack. If his eyes can not be plainly seen, as in +night attacks, watch the movements of his weapon and of his body. (52) + +=764.= Keep the body well covered and deliver attacks vigorously. The +point of the bayonet should always be kept as nearly as possible in +the line of attack. The less the rifle is moved upward, downward, to +the right, or to the left, the better prepared the soldier is for +attack or defense. (53) + +=765.= Constantly watch for a chance to attack the opponent's left +hand. His position of guard will not differ materially from that +described in paragraph 24. If his bayonet is without a cutting edge, +he will be at a great disadvantage. (34) + +=766.= The butt is used for close and sudden attacks. It is +particularly useful in riot duty. From the position of port arms a +sentry can strike a severe blow with the butt of the rifle. (55) + +=767.= Against a man on foot, armed with a sword, be careful that the +muzzle of the rifle is not grasped. All the swordsman's energies will +be directed toward getting past the bayonet. Attack him with short +stabbing thrusts, and keep him beyond striking distance of his weapon. +(56) + +=768.= The adversary may attempt a greater extension in the thrust and +lunge by quitting the grasp of his piece with the left hand and +advancing the right as far as possible. When this is done, a sharp +parry may cause him to lose control of his rifle, leaving him exposed +to a counter-attack, which should follow promptly. (57) + +=769.= Against odds a small number of men can fight to best advantage +by grouping themselves so as to prevent their being attacked from +behind. (58) + +=770.= In fighting a mounted man armed with a saber every effort must +be made to get on his near or left side, because here his reach is +much shorter and his parries much weaker. If not possible to disable +such an enemy, attack his horse and then renew the attack on the +horseman. (59) + +=771.= In receiving night attacks the assailant's movements can be +best observed from the kneeling or prone position, as his approach +generally brings him against the sky line. When he arrives within +attacking distance rise quickly and lunge well forward at the middle +of his body. (60) + + +VI. FENCING EXERCISES + +=772.= Fencing exercises in two lines consist of combinations of +thrusts, parries, and foot movements executed at command or at will, +the opponent replying with suitable parries and returns. (61) + +=773.= The instructor will inspect the entire fencing equipment before +the exercise begins and assure himself that everything is in such +condition as will prevent accidents. (62) + +=774.= The men equip themselves and form in two lines at the order, +facing each other, with intervals of about 4 paces between files and a +distance of about 2 paces between lines. One line is designated as +number 1; the other, number 2. Also as attack and defense. (63) + +=775.= The opponents being at the order facing each other, the +instructor commands: =SALUTE.= + +Each man, with eyes on his opponent, carries the left hand smartly to +the right side, palm of the hand down, thumb and fingers extended and +joined, forearm horizontal, forefinger touching the bayonet. (Two) +Drop the arm smartly by the side. + +This salute is the fencing salute. + +All fencing exercises and all fencing at will between individuals will +begin and terminate with the formal courtesy of the fencing salute. +(64) + +=776.= After the fencing salute has been rendered the instructor +commands: =1. Fencing exercise, 2. GUARD.= + +At the command =guard= each man comes to the position of =guard=, +heretofore defined, bayonets crossed, each man's bayonet bearing +lightly to the right against the corresponding portion of the +opponent's bayonet. The position is known as the engage or engage +right. (65) + +=777.= Being at the =engage right: ENGAGE LEFT=. + +The attack drops the point of his bayonet quickly until clear of his +opponent's rifle and describes a semicircle with it upward and to the +right; bayonets are crossed similarly as in the engaged position, each +man's bayonet bearing lightly to the left against the corresponding +portion of the opponent's bayonet. (66) + +=778.= Being at =engage left: ENGAGE RIGHT=. + +The attack quickly drops the point of his bayonet until clear of his +opponent's rifle and describes a semicircle with it upward and to the +left and =engages=. (67) + +=779.= Being =engaged: ENGAGE LEFT AND RIGHT=. + +The attack =engages left= and then immediately =engages right=. (68) + +=780.= Being =engaged left: ENGAGE RIGHT AND LEFT=. + +The attack =engages right= and then immediately =engages left=. (69) + +=781. 1. Number one, ENGAGE RIGHT (LEFT); 2. Number two, COUNTER.= + +Number one executes the movement ordered, as above; number two quickly +drops the point of his bayonet and circles it upward to the original +position. (70) + +=782.= In all fencing while maintaining the pressure in the engage, a +certain freedom of motion of the rifle is allowable, consisting of the +play, or up-and-down motion, of one bayonet against the other. This is +necessary to prevent the opponent from divining the intended attack. +It also prevents his using the point of contact as a pivot for his +assaults. In changing from one engage to the other the movement is +controlled by the left hand, the right remaining stationary. (71) + +=783.= After some exercise in =engage=, =engage left=, and =counter=, +exercises will be given in the =assaults=. (72) + + +ASSAULTS + +=784.= The part of the body to be attacked will be designated by name +as head, neck, chest, stomach, legs. No attacks will be made below the +knees. The commands are given and the movements for each line are +first explained thoroughly by the instructor; the execution begins at +the command =assault=. Number one executes the attack, and number two +parries; conversely, at command, number two attacks and number one +parries. (73) + +=785.= For convenience in instruction assaults are divided into +=simple attacks=, =counter-attacks=, =attack on the rifle=, and +=feints=. (74) + + +SIMPLE ATTACKS + +=786.= Success in these attacks depends on quickness of movement. +There are three simple attacks--the =straight=, the =disengagement=, +and the =counter disengagement=. They are not preceded by a feint. +(75) + +=787.= In the =straight= the bayonet is directed straight at an +opening from the engaged position. Contact with the opponent's rifle +may, or may not, be abandoned while making it. If the opening be high +or low, contact with the rifle will usually be abandoned on commencing +the attack. If the opening be near his guard, the light pressure used +in the engage may be continued in the attack. + +Example: Being at the =engage right=, =1. Number one=, at neck (head, +chest, right leg, etc.), =thrust; 2. Number two, parry right; 3. +ASSAULT.= (76) + +=788.= In the =disengagement= contact with the opponent's rifle is +abandoned and the point of the bayonet is =circled under= or =over= +his bayonet or rifle and directed into the opening attacked. This +attack is delivered by one continuous spiral movement of the bayonet +from the moment contact is abandoned. + +Example: Being at the =engage right=, =1. Number one=, at stomach +(left chest, left leg, etc.), =thrust, 2. Number two, parry left= +(etc.); =3. ASSAULT.= (77) + +=789.= In the =counter disengagement= a swift attack is made into the +opening disclosed while the opponent is attempting to change the +engagement of his rifle. It is delivered by one continuous spiral +movement of the bayonet into the opening. + +Example: Being at the =engage right=, =1. Number two, engage left; 2. +Number one=, at chest, =thrust; 3. Number two, parry left; 4. +ASSAULT.= + +Number two initiates the movement, number one thrusts as soon as the +opening is made, and number two then attempts to parry. (78) + +=790.= A =counter-attack= or =return= is one made instantly after or +in continuation of a parry. The parry should be as narrow as possible. +This makes it more difficult for the opponent to recover and counter +parry. The counter-attack should also be made at, or just before, the +full extension of the opponent's attack, as when it is so made, a +simple extension of the arms will generally be sufficient to reach the +opponent's body. + +Example: Being at =engage=, =1. Number two=, at chest, =lunge; 2. +Number one, parry right=, and at stomach (chest, head, etc.), =thrust; +3. ASSAULT.= (79) + + +ATTACKS ON THE RIFLE + +=791.= These movements are made for the purpose of forcing or +disclosing an opening into which an attack can be made. They are the +=press=, the =beat=, and the =twist=. (80) + +=792.= In the =press= the attack quickly presses against the +opponent's bayonet or rifle with his own and continues the pressure as +the attack is delivered. + +Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, press=, and at chest, +=thrust; 2. Number two, parry right; 3. ASSAULT.= (81) + +=793.= The attack by =disengagement= is particularly effective +following =the press=. + +Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, press=, and at +stomach, =thrust; 2. Number two, low parry left; 3. ASSAULT.= (82) + +=794.= The =beat= is an attack in which a sharp blow struck against +the opponent's rifle for the purpose of forcing him to expose an +opening into which an attack immediately follows. It is used when +there is but slight opposition or no contact of rifles. + +Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, beat= and at stomach +(chest, etc.), =thrust; 2. Number two, parry left; 3. ASSAULT.= (83) + +=795.= In the =twist= the rifle is crossed over the opponent's rifle +or bayonet and his bayonet forced downward with a circular motion and +a straight attack made into the opening. It requires superior strength +on the part of the attack. + +Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, twist=, and at +stomach, =thrust; 2. Number two, low parry, left; 3. ASSAULT.= (84) + + +FEINTS + +=796.= Feints are movements which threaten or simulate attacks and are +made with a view to inducing an opening or parry that exposes the +desired point of attack. They are either single or double, according +to the number of such movements made by the attack. (85) + +=797.= In order that the attack may be changed quickly, as little +force as possible is put into a feint. + +Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, feint= head =thrust= +at stomach, =lunge; 2. Number two, parry right and low parry right; 3. +ASSAULT.= + +Number one executes the feint and then the attack. Number two executes +both parries. (86) + +=798.= In double feints first one part of the body and then another is +threatened and a third attacked. + +Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, feint straight thrust= +at chest; =disengagement= at chest; at stomach, =lunge; 2. Number two, +parry right, parry left,= and =low parry left; 3. ASSAULT.= (87) + +=799.= An opening may be offered or procured by opposition, as in the +=press= or =beat=. (88) + +=800.= In fencing exercises every feint should at first be parried. +When the defense is able to judge or divine the character of the +attack the feint is not necessarily parried, but may be nullified by a +counter feint. (89) + +=801.= A =counter feint= is a feint following the opponent's feint or +following a parry of his attack and generally occurs in combined +movements. (90) + + +COMBINED MOVEMENTS + +=802.= When the men have become thoroughly familiar with the various +foot movements, parries, guards, attacks, feints, etc., the instructor +combines several of them and gives the commands in quick succession, +increasing the rapidity and number of movements as the men become more +skillful. Opponents will be changed frequently. + +1. Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, by disengagement= +at chest, =thrust; 2. Number two, parry left, right step= (left foot +first), and =lunge; 3. ASSAULT.= + +2. Example: Being at =engage left=, =1. Number one, press and lunge; +2. Number two, parry right, left step,= and =thrust; 3. ASSAULT.= + +3. Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, by disengagement= +at chest, =thrust; 2. Number two, parry left, front pass=, and at head +=butt strike; 3. Number one, right step; 4. ASSAULT.= (91) + +=803.= Examples 1 and 2 are typical of movements known as =cross +counters=, and example No. 3 of movements known as =close counters=. +(92) + +=804.= A =chancery= is an attack by means of which the opponent is +disarmed, which causes him to lose control of his rifle, or which +disables his weapon. (93) + +=805.= When the different combinations are executed with sufficient +skill the instructor will devise series of movements to be memorized +and executed at the command assault. The accuracy and celerity of the +movements will be carefully watched by the instructor, with a view to +the correction of faulty execution. (94) + +=806.= It is not intended to restrict the number of movements, but to +leave to the discretion of company commanders and the ingenuity of +instructors the selection of such other exercises as accord with the +object of the drill. (95) + + +VII. FENCING AT WILL + +=807.= As satisfactory progress is made the instructor will proceed to +the exercises at will, by which is meant assaults between two men, +each endeavoring to hit the other and to avoid being hit himself. +Fencing at will should not be allowed to degenerate into random +attacks and defenses. (96) + +=808.= The instructor can supervise but one pair of combatants at a +time. Frequent changes should be made so that the men may learn +different methods of attack and defense from each other. (97) + +=809.= The contest should begin with simple, careful movements, with a +view to forming a correct opinion of the adversary; afterwards +everything will depend on coolness, rapid and correct execution of the +movements and quick perception of the adversary's intentions. (98) + +=810.= Continual retreat from the adversary's attack and frequent +dodging to escape attacks should be avoided. The offensive should be +continually encouraged. (99) + +=811.= In fencing at will, when no commands are given, opponents +facing each other at the position of order arms, salute. They then +immediately and simultaneously assume the position of guard, rifles +engaged. Neither man may take the position of guard before his +opponent has completed his salute. The choice of position is decided +before the salute. (100) + +=812.= The opponents being about two paces apart and the fencing +salute having been rendered, the instructor commands, =1. At will, 2. +ASSAULT=, after which either party has the right to attack. To +interrupt the contest the instructor will command =HALT=, at which the +combatants will immediately come to the order. To terminate the +contest the instructor will command, =1. Halt, 2. SALUTE=, at which +the combatants will immediately come to the order, salute, and remove +their masks. (101) + +=813.= When men have acquired confidence in fencing at will, one +opponent should be required to advance upon the other in quick time at +=charge bayonet=, from a distance not to exceed 10 yards, and deliver +an attack. As soon as a hit is made by either opponent the instructor +commands, =HALT=, and the assault terminates. Opponents alternate in +assaulting. The assailant is likewise required to advance at double +time from a distance not exceeding 20 yards and at a run from a +distance not exceeding 30 yards. (102) + +=814.= The instructor will closely observe the contest and decide +doubtful points. He will at once stop the contest upon the slightest +indication of temper. After conclusion of the combat he will comment +on the action of both parties, point out errors and deficiencies and +explain how they may be avoided in the future. (103) + +[Illustration: Fig. 13] + +=815.= As additional instruction, the men may be permitted to wield +the rifle left handed, that is on the left side of the body, left hand +at the small of the stock. Many men will be able to use this method +to advantage. It is also of value in case the left hand is wounded. +(104) + +=816.= After men have fenced in pairs, practice should be given in +fencing between groups, equally and unequally divided. When +practicable, intrenchments will be used in fencing of this character. + +In group fencing it will be necessary to have a sufficient number of +umpires to decide hits. An individual receiving a hit is withdrawn at +once from the bout, which is decided in favor of the group having the +numerical superiority at the end. The fencing salute is not required +in group fencing. (105) + + +RULES FOR FENCING AT WILL + +=817.= 1. Hits on the legs below the knees will not be counted. No hit +counts unless, in the opinion of the instructor, it has sufficient +force to disable. + +2. Upon receiving a hit, call out "hit." + +3. After receiving a fair hit a counter-attack is not permitted. A +position of engage is taken. + +4. A second or third hit in a combined attack will be counted only +when the first hit was not called. + +5. When it is necessary to stop the contest--for example, because of +breaking of weapons or displacement of means of protection--take the +position of the order. + +6. When it is necessary to suspend the assault for any cause, it will +not be resumed until the adversary is ready and in condition to defend +himself. + +7. Attacks directed at the crotch are prohibited in fencing. + +8. Stepping out of bounds, when established, counts as a hit. (106) + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR FENCING AT WILL + +=818.= When engaging in an assault, first study the adversary's +position and proceed by false attacks, executed with speed, to +discover, if possible, his instinctive parries. In order to draw the +adversary out and induce him to expose that part of the body at which +the attack is to be made, it is advisable to simulate an attack by a +feint and then make the real attack. (107) + +=819.= Return attacks should be frequently practiced, as they are +difficult to parry, and the opponent is within easier reach and more +exposed. The return can be made a continuation of the parry, as there +is no previous warning of its delivery, although it should always be +expected. Returns are made without lunging if the adversary can be +reached by thrusts or cuts. (108) + +=820.= Endeavor to overcome the tendency to make a return without +knowing where it will hit. Making returns blindly is a bad habit and +leads to instinctive returns--that is, habitual returns with certain +attacks from certain parries--a fault which the skilled opponent will +soon discover. (109) + +=821.= Do not draw the rifle back preparatory to thrusting and lunging +(110) + +=822.= The purpose of fencing at will is to teach the soldier as many +forms of simple, effective attacks and defenses as possible. +Complicated and intricate movements should not be attempted. (111) + + +HINTS FOR INSTRUCTORS + +=823.= The influence of the instructor is great. He must be master of +his weapon, not only to show the various movements, but also to lead +in the exercises at will. He should stimulate the zeal of the men and +arouse pleasure in the work. Officers should qualify themselves as +instructors by fencing with each other. (112) + + +LESSONS OF THE EUROPEAN WAR + +=824. Modification of our system of bayonet combat suggested.= The +above gives, in toto, the system of bayonet exercises and combat at +present prescribed by the War Department in the =Manual of the +Bayonet=. However, the use of the bayonet in the present European war, +which has given that weapon an importance and prominence heretofore +unheard of, suggests, as indicated below, certain modifications of our +system. + +(a) _Attack not to be directed against chest._ The attack should be +directed at the adversary's neck or stomach, and not against his +chest; for, if the bayonet is driven into the chest, there will +probably be difficulty in withdrawing it, and while your bayonet is +being so held, imbedded in your adversary's chest, you are at the +mercy of any other enemy soldier free to strike you. + +(b) _Melee on parapet._ When the first wave of an attacking line +reaches the enemy's trench, it is usually met outside the trench, the +melee taking place on the parapet, and fortunate is the man who is +skilled in handling his bayonet. Such a man has a much greater chance +to live through the melee than the one who is not skillful in using +his bayonet. In the excitement and confusion of this melee the +greatest possible care must be taken not to stab some of your own men +in the back. + +(c) _Position of feet._ The British have been teaching their men to +keep both feet pointing toward the enemy instead of having the right +foot turned to the right, as in our system. Note the position of the +feet in Figs. 15-18. + +(d) _The "Short point" (or "Short thrust") and the "Jab."_ There are +two attacks used by European troops which we might learn with profit. +They are the "Short point" (or "Short thrust") and the "Jab." + + +POSITION OF GUARD + +[Illustration: Fig. 14] + +(e) _The short point (or short thrust)._ The _short point_ (or _short +thrust_) is taken from the position of guard (Fig. 14), by slipping +the left hand up to the grip of the bayonet, grasping it and the +barrel, as shown in this figure: + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +The rifle is then drawn back to the fullest extent of the right arm, +thus: + +[Illustration: Fig. 16] + +and a vigorous thrust is made at the objective (Fig. 15), immediately +after which the bayonet is withdrawn vigorously, the left hand relaxed +and the position of guard (Fig. 14) is resumed by pushing the rifle +smartly forward until the left hand is in its proper place. + +It should be practiced on sand bags or other targets in positions at +the height of the rifle, above it and below it. + +(f) _The jab._ The jab is taken from the first position of the "Short +point" (Fig. 15), by slipping the right hand up to the left as the +rifle is drawn back to make the "Short thrust" (Fig. 17). + +[Illustration: Fig. 17] + +Then make a vigorous _upward_ thrust (Fig. 18) which should be aimed +at the adversary's throat. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18] + +This may be practiced combined with the short thrust or the ordinary +thrust. It may also be practiced with a run toward the target. It is a +useful attack at close quarters. + +(g) _The butt._ The rifle butt is used with great effect at close +quarters, the blows being directed against an adversary's jaw or in +the region of the heart. + +(h) _Tripping adversary._ The men are taught how to trip up an enemy +and how to use their knees in throwing their opponents off their +balance. + +(i) _Withdrawing the bayonet._ After driving the bayonet into an +opponent, then the first consideration is to get it out of his body. +This may be done by slipping the left hand up to the bayonet grip and +exerting a _vigorous_ pull, which is immediately followed by a return +to the position of guard. + +(j) _Points in training._ In the first stages of training, special +attention is paid to a firm grip and proper handling of arms; then the +greatest attention is given to "direction" when thrusting, lunging, +and parrying. + +Until these essentials have been thoroughly mastered, quickness should +not be insisted upon. + +Confidence comes after continued practice, and quickness and vigor +will come with confidence. + +After the men are taught to make all the attacks as individuals they +should be given practice in them as groups. + +Sandbags with discs marked on them to provide targets are used in +instructing the British armies. + +These bags are suspended from trees or trestles, or are put into +trenches or pits, and are also placed on the ground. + +An excellent scheme is used in teaching the men what the shock of a +charge is like. The men are divided into two or more groups and are +equipped with fencing outfits. One group is designated as the defense +and is placed in trenches. The other groups are the attackers. They +may be sent forward in waves or in one line. To make their advance +more realistic they have to get over or around obstacles. To take in +all phases the attackers are made stronger than the defense and the +defense retires--whereupon the attackers endeavor to disable them by +thrusting at the kidneys. Likewise the defense is made strong enough +to drive off the offense. + +In the charge the men are taught to run at the "High Port" (the rifle +is held as in "Port arms," but is carried well above the head). The +rifle is brought down to guard just before the enemy is met. + + +APPENDIX D + +SEPTEMBER 15, 1917 + +INFANTRY DRILL REGULATIONS, 1911. + +Paragraphs 120, 143, 146, 185, 187, 189, 194, 646, Infantry Drill +Regulations, 1911, apply only to troops armed with the United States +rifle, Model 1903. For troops armed with the United States rifle, +Model 1917 (Enfield), the alternative paragraphs published herewith +will govern. + +By order of the Secretary of War: + +=120.= The following rules govern the carrying of the piece: + +First. The piece is not carried with cartridges in either the chamber +or the magazine except when especially ordered. When so loaded, or +supposed to be loaded, it is habitually carried locked; that is, with +safety lock turned to the "=Safe.=" At all other times it is carried +unlocked, with the trigger pulled. + +Second. Whenever troops are formed under arms, pieces are immediately +inspected at the commands: =1. INSPECTION, 2. ARMS, 3. ORDER (Right +shoulder port), 4. ARMS.= + +A similar inspection is made immediately before dismissal. + +If cartridges are found in the chamber or magazine they are removed +and placed in the belt. + +Third. The bayonet is not fixed except in bayonet exercise, on guard, +or for combat. + +Fourth. =Fall in= is executed with the piece at the order arms. =Fall +out=, =rest=, and =at ease= are executed as without arms. On resuming +attention the position of order arms is taken. + +Fifth. If at the order, unless otherwise prescribed, the piece is +brought to the right shoulder, at the command =MARCH=, the three +motions corresponding with the first three steps. Movements may be +executed at the trail by prefacing the preparatory command with the +words =at trail=; as =1. AT TRAIL, FORWARD, 2. MARCH.= The trail is +taken at the command =MARCH=. + +When the facings, alignments, open and close ranks, taking interval or +distance, and assemblings are executed from the order, raise the piece +to the trail while in motion and resume the order on halting. + +Sixth. The piece is brought to the order on halting. The execution of +the order begins when the halt is completed. + +Seventh. A disengaged hand in double time is held as when without +arms. + +=143.= Being at order arms: =1. UNFIX, 2. BAYONET.= + +If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the belt: Execute parade rest; +grasp the handle of the bayonet firmly with the right hand, pressing +the spring with the forefinger of the left hand; raise the bayonet +until the handle is about 12 inches above the muzzle of the piece; the +point to the left, back of the hand toward the body, and glancing at +the scabbard, return the bayonet, the blade passing between the left +arm and the body; regrasp the piece with the right hand and resume the +order. + +If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the haversack: Take the bayonet +from the rifle with the left hand and return it to the scabbard in the +most convenient manner. + +If marching or lying down, the bayonet is fixed and unfixed in the +most expeditious and convenient manner and the piece returned to the +original position. + +Fix and unfix bayonet are executed with promptness and regularity, but +not in cadence. + +=146.= Being at inspection arms: =1. ORDER (Right shoulder, port), 2. +ARMS.= + +At the preparatory command press the follower down with the fingers of +the left hand, then push the bolt forward just enough to engage the +follower, raise the fingers of the left hand, push the bolt forward, +turn the handle down, pull the trigger, and resume =port arms=. At the +command =ARMS=, complete the movement ordered. + + +To Load + +=185.= Being in line or skirmish line at halt: =1. WITH DUMMY (Blank +or ball) CARTRIDGES, 2. LOAD.= + +At the command =load= each front rank man or skirmisher faces half +right and carries the right foot to the right, about 1 foot, to such a +position as will insure the greatest firmness and steadiness of the +body; raises or lowers the piece and drops it into the left hand at +the balance, left thumb extended along the stock and muzzle at the +height of the breast. With the right hand he turns and draws the bolt +back, takes a loaded clip and inserts the end in the clip slots, +places the thumb on the powder space at the top cartridge, the fingers +extending around the piece and tips resting on the magazine floor +plate; forces the cartridges into the magazine by pressing down with +the thumb; without removing the clip, thrusts the bolt home, turning +down the handle; turns the safety lock to the "Safe" and carries the +hand to the small of the stock. Each rear rank man moves to the right +front, takes a similar position opposite the interval to the right of +his front rank man, muzzle of the piece extending beyond the front +rank, and loads. + +A skirmish line may load while moving, the pieces being held as nearly +as practicable in the position of load. + +If kneeling or sitting, the position of the piece is similar; if +kneeling, the left forearm rests on the left thigh; if sitting, the +elbows are supported by the knees. If lying down, the left hand +steadies and supports the piece at the balance, the toe of the butt +resting on the ground, the muzzle off the ground. + +For reference, these positions (standing, kneeling, and lying down) +are designated as that of =load=. + +=186.= For purposes of simulating firing, =1. SIMULATE, 2. LOAD=, +raise the bolt handle as in the preceding paragraph, draw the bolt +back until the cocking piece engages, then close the bolt, and turn +the bolt handle down. + +The recruits are first taught to simulate loading and firing; after a +few lessons dummy cartridges are used. Later, blank cartridges may be +used. + +Omit last paragraph. + +=187. Unload:= Take the position of load, turn the safety lock up and +move the bolt alternately backward and forward until all the +cartridges are ejected. After the last cartridge is ejected the +chamber is closed by pressing the follower down with the fingers of +the left hand, to engage it under the bolt, and then thrusting the +bolt home. The trigger is pulled. The cartridges are then picked up, +cleaned, and returned to the belt and the piece is brought to the +order. + +=189.= [Last paragraph]. To continue the firing: =1. AIM, 2. SQUAD, 3. +FIRE.= + +Each command is executed as previously explained. =Load= is executed +by drawing back and thrusting home the bolt with the right hand, +leaving the safety lock at the "Ready." + +=194. Cease firing:= Firing stops; pieces are loaded and locked; the +sights are laid down and the piece is brought to the order. Cease +firing is used for long pauses to prepare for changes of position or +to steady the men. + + +Company Inspection + +=646.= Being in line at halt: =1. OPEN RANKS, 2. MARCH.= + +At the command =march= the front rank executes right dress; the rear +rank and the file closers march backward 4 steps, halt, and execute +right dress; the lieutenants pass around their respective flanks and +take post, facing to the front, 3 paces in front of the center of +their respective platoons. The captain aligns the front rank, rear +rank, and file closers, takes post 3 paces in front of the right +guide, facing to the left and commands: =1. FRONT, 2. PREPARE FOR +INSPECTION.= + +At the second command the lieutenants carry saber; the captain returns +saber and inspects them, after which they face about, order saber, and +stand at ease; upon the completion of the inspection they carry saber, +face about, and order saber. The captain may direct the lieutenants to +accompany or assist him, in which case they return saber and, at the +close of the inspection, resume their posts in front of the company, +draw and carry saber. + +Having inspected the lieutenants, the captain proceeds to the right of +the company. Each man, as the captain approaches him executes +=inspection arms=. + +The captain takes the piece, grasping it with his right hand just +below the lower band, the man dropping his hands; the captain inspects +the piece, and, with the hand and piece in the same position as in +receiving it, hands it back to the man, who takes it with the left +hand at the balance and executes =order arms=. + +As the captain returns the piece the next man executes =inspection +arms=, and so on through the company. + +Should the piece be inspected without handling, each man executes +=order arms= as soon as the captain passes to the next man. + +The inspection is from right to left in front, and from left to right +in rear of each rank and of the line of file closers. + +When approached by the captain the first sergeant executes =inspection +saber=. Enlisted men armed with the pistol execute =inspection pistol= +by drawing the pistol from the holster and holding it diagonally +across the body, barrel up, and 6 inches in front of the neck, muzzle +pointing up and to the left. The pistol is returned to the holster as +soon as the captain passes. + +Upon completion of the inspection the captain takes post facing to the +left in front of the right guide and on line with the lieutenants and +commands: =1. CLOSE RANKS, 2. MARCH.= + +At the command march the lieutenants resume their posts in line; the +rear rank closes to 40 inches, each man covering his file leader; the +file closers close to 2 paces from the rear rank. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +MANUAL OF PHYSICAL TRAINING + +(EXTRACTS) + + +METHODS + +=825.= In the employment of the various forms of physical training it +is necessary that well-defined methods should be introduced in order +that the object of this training may be attained in the most thorough +and systematic manner. Whenever it is possible this work should be +conducted out of doors. In planning these methods the following +factors must be considered: + + (_a_) The condition and physical aptitude of the men. + + (_b_) The facilities. + + (_c_) The time. + +The question of the _physical aptitude_ and _general condition_, etc., +of the men is a very important one, and it should always determine the +nature and extent of the task expected of them; never should the work +be made the determining factor. In general, it is advisable to divide +the men into three classes, viz., the recruit class, the intermediate +class, and the advanced class. The work for each class should fit the +capabilities of the members of that class and in every class it should +be arranged progressively. + +_Facilities_ are necessarily to be considered in any plan of +instruction, but as most posts are now equipped with better than +average facilities the plan laid down in this Manual will answer all +purposes. + +_Time_ is a decidedly important factor, and no plan can be made unless +those in charge of this work know exactly how much time they have at +their disposal. During the suspension of drills five periods a week, +each of 45 minutes duration, should be devoted to physical training; +during the drill period a 15-minute drill in setting-up exercises +should be ordered on drill days. The time of day, too, is important. +_When possible, these drills should be held in the morning about two +hours after breakfast, and at no time should they be held immediately +before or after a meal._ + +Insist upon accurate and precise execution of every movement. By doing +so those other essential qualities, besides strength and +endurance--activity, agility, gracefulness, and accuracy--will also be +developed. + +Exercises which require activity and agility, rather than those that +require strength only, should be selected. + +It should be constantly borne in mind that these exercises are the +means and not the end; and if there be a doubt in the mind of the +instructor as to the effect of an exercise, it is always well to err +upon the side of safety. _Underdoing is rectifiable; overdoing is +often not._ The object of this work is not the development of expert +gymnasts, but the development of physically sound men by means of a +system in which the chances of bodily injury are reduced to a minimum. +When individuals show a special aptitude for gymnastics they may be +encouraged, within limits, to improve this ability, but never at the +expense of their fellows. + +The drill should be made as attractive as possible, and this can best +be accomplished by employing the mind as well as the body. The +movements should be as varied as possible, thus constantly offering +the men something new to make them keep their minds on their work. A +movement many times repeated presents no attraction and is executed in +a purely mechanical manner, which should always be discountenanced. + +Short and frequent drills should be given in preference to long ones, +which are liable to exhaust all concerned, and exhaustion means lack +of interest and benefit. All movements should be carefully explained, +and, if necessary, illustrated by the instructor. + +The lesson should begin with the less violent exercises, gradually +working up to those that are more so, then gradually working back to +the simpler ones, so that the men at the close of the drill will be in +as nearly a normal condition as possible. + +When one portion of the body is being exercised, care should be taken +that the other parts remain quiet as far as the conformation of the +body will allow. The men must learn to exercise any one part of the +body independent of the other part. + +Everything in connection with physical training should be such that +the men look forward to it with pleasure, not with dread, for the mind +exerts more influence over the human body than all the gymnastic +paraphernalia that was ever invented. + +Exercise should be carried on as much as possible in the open air; at +all times in pure, dry air. + +Never exercise the men to the point of exhaustion. If there is +evidence of panting, faintness, fatigue, or pain, the exercise should +be stopped at once, for it is nature's way of saying "too much." + +By constant practice the men should learn to breathe slowly through +the nostrils during all exercises, especially running. + +A fundamental condition of exercise is unimpeded respiration. Proper +breathing should always be insisted upon; "holding the breath" and +breathing only when it can no longer be held is injurious. Every +exercise should be accompanied by an unimpeded and, if possible, by an +uninterrupted act of respiration, the inspiration and respiration of +which depends to a great extent upon the nature of the exercise. +Inhalation should always accompany that part of an exercise which +tends to elevate and distend the thorax--as raising arms over head +laterally, for instance; while that part of an exercise which exerts a +pressure against the walls of the chest should be accompanied by +exhalation, as for example, lowering arms laterally from shoulders or +overhead. + +If after exercising, the breathing becomes labored and distressed, it +is an unmistakable sign that the work has been excessive. Such +excessiveness is not infrequently the cause of serious injury to the +heart and lungs or to both. In cases where exercise produces +palpitation, labored respiration, etc., it is advisable to recommend +absolute rest, or to order the execution of such exercises as will +relieve the oppressed and overtaxed organ. Leg exercises slowly +executed will afford great relief. By drawing the blood from the upper +to the lower extremities they equalize the circulation, thereby +lessening the heart's action and quieting the respiration. + +_Never exercise immediately after a meal_; digestion is more important +at this time than extraneous exercise. + +_Never eat or drink immediately after exercise_; allow the body to +recover its normal condition first, and the most beneficial results +will follow. If necessary, pure water, not too cold, may be taken in +small quantities, but the exercise should be continued, especially if +in a state of perspiration. + +Never, if at all possible, allow the underclothing to dry on the body. +Muscular action produces an unusual amount of bodily heat; this should +be lost gradually, otherwise the body will be chilled; hence, after +exercise, never remove clothing to cool off, but, on the contrary, +wear some wrap in addition. In like manner, be well wrapped on leaving +the gymnasium. + +Cold baths, especially when the body is heated, as in the case after +exercising violently, should be discouraged. In individual instances +such baths may appear apparently beneficial, or at least not +injurious; in a majority of cases, however, they can not be used with +impunity. Tepid baths are recommended. When impossible to bathe, the +flannels worn while exercising should be stripped off; the body +sponged with tepid water, and then rubbed thoroughly with coarse +towels. After such a sponge the body should be clothed in clean, warm +clothing. + +Flannel is the best material to wear next to the body during physical +drill, as it absorbs the perspiration, protects the body against +drafts and, in a mild manner, excites the skin. When the conditions +permit it the men may be exercised in the ordinary athletic costume, +sleeveless shirt, flappers, socks, and gymnasium shoes. + + +COMMANDS--SETTING-UP EXERCISES + + +COMMANDS + +=826.= There are two kinds of commands: + +The preparatory indicates the movement to be executed. + +The command of execution causes the execution. + +In the command: =1. Arms forward, 2. RAISE=, the words =Arms forward= +constitute the preparatory command, and =RAISE= the command of +execution. Preparatory commands are printed in =bold face=, and those +of execution in =CAPITALS=. + +The tone of command is animated, distinct, and of a loudness +proportioned to the number of men for whom it is intended. + +The various movements comprising an exercise are executed by commands +and, unless otherwise indicated, the continuation of an exercise is +carried out by repeating the command, which usually takes the form of +numerals the numbers depending upon the number of movements, that an +exercise comprises. Thus, if an exercise consists of two movements, +the counts will be one, two; or if it consists of eight movements, the +counts will be correspondingly increased; thus every movement is +designated by a separate command. + +Occasionally, especially in exercises that are to be executed slowly, +words rather than numerals are used, and these must be indicative of +the nature of the various movements. + +In the continuation of an exercise the preparatory command is +explanatory, the command of execution causes the execution and the +_continuation is caused by a repetition of numerals_ denoting the +number of movements required, or of words describing the movements if +words are used. The numerals or words preceding the command =halt= +should always be given with a rising inflection on the first numeral +or word of command of the last repetition of the exercise in order to +prepare the men for the command =halt=. + +For example: + +=1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. Thrust arms upward, 4. EXERCISE, ONE, +TWO, ONE, TWO, ONE, HALT=; the rising inflection preparatory to the +command halt being placed on the "one" preceding the "=halt=." + +Each command must indicate, by its tone, how that particular movement +is to be executed; thus, if an exercise consists of two movements, one +of which is to be energized, the command corresponding to that +movement must be emphasized. + +Judgment must be used in giving commands, for rarely is the cadence of +two movements alike; and a command should not only indicate the +cadence of an exercise, but also the nature of its execution. + +Thus, many of the arm exercises are short and snappy; hence the +command should be given in a smart tone of voice, and the interval +between the commands should be short. + +The leg exercises can not be executed as quickly as those of the arms; +therefore, the commands should be slightly drawn out and follow one +another in slow succession. + +The trunk exercises, owing to the deliberateness of execution, should +be considerably drawn out and follow one another in slow succession. + +The antagonistic exercises, where one group of muscles is made to +antagonize another, tensing exercises, the commands are drawn still +more. In these exercises words are preferable to numerals. In fact it +should be the object of the instructor to convey to the men, by the +manner of his command, exactly the nature of the exercise. + +All commands should be given in a clear and distinct tone of voice, +articulation should be distinct, and an effort should be made to +cultivate a voice which will inspire the men with enthusiasm and tend +to make them execute the exercises with willingness, snap, and +precision. It is not the volume, but the quality, of the voice which +is necessary to successful instruction. + + +THE POSITION OF ATTENTION + +=827.= This is the position an unarmed dismounted soldier assumes when +in ranks. During the setting-up exercises, it is assumed whenever the +command attention is given by the instructor. + +Having allowed his men to rest, the instructor commands: =1. Squad, 2. +ATTENTION.= Figs. A and B. + +[Illustration: Fig. A] + +[Illustration: Fig. B] + +The words =class=, =section=, or =company= may be substituted for the +word "squad." + +At the command =attention=, the men will quickly assume and retain the +following position: + +Heels on same line and as near each other as the conformation of the +man permits. + +Feet turned out equally and forming an angle of about 45 degrees. + +Knees straight without stiffness. + +The body erect on the hips, the spine extended throughout its entire +length. + +The shoulders falling naturally, are forced back until they are +square. + +Chest arched and slightly raised. + +The arms hang naturally; thumbs along seams of trousers; back of hands +out and elbows turned back. + +Head erect, chin drawn in so that the axis of the head and neck is +vertical; eyes straight to the front and, when the nature of the +terrain permits it, fixed on an object at their own height. + +Too much attention can not be given to this position, and instructors +are cautioned to insist that the men accustom themselves to it. As a +rule, it is so exaggerated that it not only becomes ridiculous, but +positively harmful. The men must be taught to assume a natural and +graceful position, one from which all rigidity is eliminated and from +which action is possible without first relaxing muscles that have been +constrained in an effort to maintain the position of attention. In +other words, cooerdination rather than strength should be depended +upon. + +In the position described the weight rests principally upon the balls +of the feet, the heels resting lightly upon the ground. + +The knees are extended easily, but never locked. + +The body is now inclined forward until the front of the thighs is +directly over the point of the toes; the hips are square and the waist +is extended by the erection of the entire spine, but never to such a +degree that mobility of the waist is lost. + +In extending the spine, the chest is naturally arched and the abdomen +is drawn in, but never to the extent where it interferes with +respiration. + +In extending the spinal column, the shoulders must not be raised, but +held loosely in normal position and forced back until the points of +the shoulders are at right angles with an anterior-posterior plane +running through the shoulders. + +The chin should be square; i. e., horizontal and forced back enough to +bring the neck in a vertical plane; the eyes fixed to the front and +the object on which they are fixed must be at their own height +whenever the nature of the terrain permits it. + +When properly assumed, a vertical line drawn from the top of the head +should pass in front of the ear, just in front of the shoulder and of +the thigh, and find its base at the balls of the feet. + +All muscles should be contracted only enough to maintain this +position, which at all times should be a lithesome one, that can be +maintained for a long period without fatigue--one that makes for +activity and that is based upon a correct anatomical and physiological +basis. + +Instructors will correct the position of attention of every man +individually and they will ascertain, when the position has been +properly assumed, whether the men are "on their toes," i. e., carrying +the weight on the balls of the feet, whether they are able to respire +properly, and whether they find a strain across the small of the back, +which should be as flat as possible. This should be repeated until the +men are able to assume the position correctly without restraint or +rigidity. + +At the command =rest= or =at ease= the men, while carrying out the +provisions of the drill regulations, should be cautioned to avoid +assuming any position that has a tendency to nullify the object of the +position of attention; standing on leg for instance; allowing the +shoulders to slope forward; drooping the head; folding arms across +chest, etc. The weight should always be distributed equally upon both +legs; the head, trunk, and shoulders remain erect and the arms held in +a position that does not restrict the chest or derange the shoulders. +The positions illustrated here have been found most efficacious. Figs. +C. and D. + +[Illustration: Fig. C] + +[Illustration: Fig. D] + + +FORMATIONS + +=828.= The men form in a single or double rank, the tallest men on the +right. + +The instructor commands: =1. Count off.= + +At this command, all except the right file execute "=eyes right=" and, +beginning on the right, the men in each rank count 1, 2, 3, 4; each +man turns his head and eyes to the front as he counts. + +The instructor then commands: =1. Take distance, 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, +4. HALT.= + +At the command =march=, No. 1 of the front rank moves straight to the +front; Nos. 2, 3, and 4 of the front and Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 of the +rear rank in the order named move straight to the front, each stepping +off, so as to follow the preceding man at four paces; the command halt +is given when all have their distances. + +If it is desired that a less distance than four paces be taken, the +distance desired should be indicated in the preparatory command. The +men of the squad may be caused to cover No. 1 front rank by command +cover. + +The instructor then commands: =1. Right (left), 2. FACE, 3. COVER.= + +At these commands the men face in the direction indicated and cover in +file. + +To assemble the squad the instructor commands: =1. Right (left), 2. +FACE, 3. Assemble, 4. MARCH.= + +After facing and at command march, No. 1 of the front rank stands +fast, the other members of both ranks resuming their original +positions, or for convenience in the gymnasium they may be assembled +to the rear, in which case the assemblage is made on No. 4 of the rear +rank. + +Unless otherwise indicated, the guide is =always right=. + + +SPECIAL TRAINING + +=829.= In addition to the regular squad or class work instructors +should, when they notice a physical defect in any man, recommend some +exercise which will tend to correct it. + +The most common physical defects and corresponding corrective +exercises are noted here. + + +DROOPING HEAD + +=830.= Exercise the muscles of the neck by bending, turning, and +circling the head, muscles tense. + + +ROUND AND STOOPED SHOULDERS + +=831.= Stretch arms sideward from front horizontal, turning palms +upward, muscles tense. + +Swing arms forward and backward, muscles relaxed. + +Circle arms forward and backward slowly, energize backward motion, +muscles tense; forward motion with muscles relaxed. + +Circle shoulders backward, move them forward first, then raise them, +then move them backward as far as possible in the raised position, +muscles tense, and then lower to normal position, muscles relaxed. + + +WEAK BACK + +=832.= Bend trunk forward as far as possible and erect it slowly. + +Bend trunk forward, back arched and head thrown back. + +Bend trunk sideward, without moving hips out of normal position, right +and left. + +Lie on floor, face down, and raise head and shoulders. + + +WEAK ABDOMEN + +=833.= Circle trunk right or left. + +Bend trunk backward or obliquely backward. + +Bend head and trunk backward without moving hips out of normal plane. + +Lie on floor, face up, and raise head and shoulders slightly; or to +sitting position or raise legs slightly; or to a vertical position. + + +_To increase depth and width of chest_ + +Arm stretchings, sideward and upward, muscles tense. + +Same, with deep inhalations. + +Arm swings and arm circles outward, away from the body. + +Raise extended arms over head laterally and cross them behind the +head. + +Breathing exercises in connection with arm and shoulder exercises. + + +STARTING POSITIONS + +=834.= In nearly all the arm exercises it is necessary to hold the +arms in some fixed position from which the exercises can be most +advantageously executed, and to which position the arms are again +returned upon completing the exercise. These positions are termed +=starting positions=; and though it may not be absolutely necessary to +assume one of them before or during the employment of any other +portion of the body, it is advisable to do so, since they give to the +exercise a finished, uniform, and graceful appearance. + +In the following positions, at the command =down=, resume the +=attention=. Practice in assuming the starting position may be had by +repeating the commands of execution, such as =raise, down=. + +=835.= While the exercises given below have been grouped for +convenient reference, into arm exercises, trunk exercises, leg +exercises, etc., one entire group _must not_ be given and then the +next and so on. + +_Always bear in mind that the best results are obtained when those +exercises which affect the extensor muscles chiefly are followed by +those affecting the flexors; i. e., flexion should always be followed +by extension, or vice versa. It is also advisable that a movement +requiring a considerable amount of muscular exertion should be +followed by one in which this exertion is reduced to a minimum. As a +rule, especially in the setting-up exercises, one portion of the body +should not be exercised successively; thus, arm exercises should be +followed by a trunk exercise, and that in turn by a leg, shoulder, and +neck exercise._ + + +ARM EXERCISES + +=836.= Intervals having been taken and attention assumed, the +instructor commands: + +=1. Arms forward, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN.= Fig. 1. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +At the command =raise=, raise the arms to the front smartly, extended +to their full length, till the hands are in front of and at the height +of the shoulders, palms down, fingers extended and joined, thumbs +under forefingers. At =Arms, DOWN=, resume position of attention. + +=1. Arms upward 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN.= Fig. 2. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +At the command =raise=, raise the arms from the sides, extended to +their full length, with the forward movement, until they are +vertically overhead, backs of hands turned outward, fingers as in 1. + +This position may also be assumed by raising the arms laterally until +vertical. The instructor cautions which way he desires it done. + +=1. Arms backward, 2. CROSS, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN.= Fig. 3. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +At the command =cross=, the arms are folded across the back; hands +grasping forearms. + +=1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN.= Fig. 4. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +At the command =raise=, raise the forearms to the front until +horizontal, elbow forced back, upper arms against the chest, hands +tightly closed, knuckles down. + +=1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN.= Fig. 5. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +At the command =place=, place the hands on the hips, the finger tips +in line with trouser seams; fingers extended and joined, thumbs to the +rear, elbows pressed back. + + +_Combination of arm exercises_ + +=1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. THRUST ARMS FORWARD; SWING THEM +SIDEWARD, FORWARD, AND BACK TO POSITION.= + +Four counts; repeat 8 to 10 times. + +The arms are thrust forward, then relaxed and swung sideward, then +forward and finally brought back to position, pressing elbows well to +the rear; execute moderately fast; exhale on the first and third and +inhale on the second and fourth counts. + + +SETTING-UP EXERCISES + +=837.= As has been stated previously, the setting-up exercises form +the basis upon which the entire system of physical training in the +service is founded. Therefore too much importance can not be attached +to them. Through the number and variety of movements they offer it is +possible to develop the body harmoniously with little if any danger of +injurious results. They develop the muscles and impart vigor and tone +to the vital organs and assist them in their functions; they develop +endurance and are important factors in the development of smartness, +grace, and precision. They should be assiduously practiced. The fact +that they require no apparatus of any description makes it possible to +do this out of doors or even in the most restricted room, proper +sanitary conditions being the only adjunct upon which their success is +dependent. No physical training drill is complete without them. They +should always precede the more strenuous forms of training, as they +prepare the body for the greater exertion these forms demand. + +At the discretion of instructors these exercises may be substituted by +others of a similar character. Instructors are cautioned, however, to +employ all the parts of the body in every lesson and to suit the +exercise as far as practicable to the natural function of the +particular part of the body which they employ. + +In these lessons only the preparatory command is given here; the +command of execution, which is invariably =Exercise=, and the commands +of continuance, as well as the command to discontinue, having been +explained are omitted. + +Every preparatory command should convey a definite description of the +exercise required; by doing so long explanations are avoided and the +men will not be compelled to memorize the various movements. + + +RECRUIT INSTRUCTION + +_First Series_ + +Position of attention, from =at ease= and =rest=. + +Starting position, Figs. 1 to 5. + + +TRUNK EXERCISES + +=838. 1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. QUARTER BEND TRUNK FORWARD.= + +Two counts; repeat 8 to 10 times, Fig. 6. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + +The trunk is inclined forward at the waist about 45 deg. and then extended +again; the hips are as perpendicular as possible; execute slowly; +exhale on first and inhale and raise chest on second count. + +By substituting the words _half_ or _full_ for the word quarter in +the command, the half bend, Fig. 7, and full bend exercise can be +given. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +=1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. BEND TRUNK BACKWARD.= + +Two counts; repeat 6 to 8 times, Fig. 8. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8] + +The trunk is bent backward as far as possible; head and shoulders +fixed; knees extended; feet firmly on the ground; hips as nearly +perpendicular as possible; in recovering care should be taken not to +sway forward; execute slowly; inhale on first and exhale on second +count. + +=1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. BEND TRUNK SIDEWARD, RIGHT OR LEFT.= + +Two counts; repeat 6 to 8 times, Fig. 9. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +The trunk, stretched at the waist, is inclined sideward as far as +possible; head and shoulders fixed; knees extended and feet firmly on +the ground; execute slowly; inhale on first and exhale on second +count. + +If an additional exercise is desired, by commanding: =CIRCLE TRUNK +RIGHT or LEFT= a combination of the above trunk exercises is obtained. + + +LEG EXERCISES + +=839. 1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. QUARTER BEND KNEES.= + +Two counts; repeat 8 to 10 times, Fig. 10. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +The knees are flexed until the point of the knee is directly over the +toes; whole foot remains on ground; heels closed; head and body erect; +execute moderately fast, emphasizing the extension; breathe naturally. + +By substituting the words _half_ or _full_ for the word quarter in the +command the half bend and full bend, Fig. 11, exercises can be given. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +=1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. RAISE KNEE.= + +Two counts; repeat 10 to 12 times. Fig. 12. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +The thigh and knee are flexed until they are at right angles, thigh +horizontal: toes depressed; the right knee is raised at =one= and the +left at =two=; trunk and head erect; execute in cadence of quick time; +breathe naturally. + + +SHOULDER EXERCISE + +=840. 1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. MOVE SHOULDERS FORWARD, UP, +BACK, AND DOWN.= + +Four counts; repeat 8 to 10 times. + +The shoulders are relaxed and brought forward; in that position they +are raised: then they are forced back without lowering them; and then +they are dropped back to position; execute slowly; exhale on the +first; inhale on the second and third and exhale on the last count. + + +NECK EXERCISE + +=841. 1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. TURN HEAD RIGHT, OR LEFT.= + +Two counts; repeat 6 to 10 times, Fig. 13. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13] + +The head, chin square, is turned to the right, or left as far as +possible, muscles of the neck being stretched; shoulders remain +square; execute slowly: breathe naturally. + +To vary this exercise the head may be _bent forward and to the rear_ +by substituting the proper commands. + + +BREATHING EXERCISE + +=842. 1. Breathing exercise, 2. INHALE, 3. EXHALE.= + +At =inhale= the arms are stretched forward overhead and the lungs are +inflated; at =exhale= the arms are lowered laterally and the lungs +deflated; execute slowly; repeat four times. + + +TOE EXERCISE + +=843. 1. Arms backward, 2. CROSS, 3. RISE ON TOES.= + +Two counts; repeat 8 to 10 times, Fig. 14. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14] + +The body is raised smartly until the toes and ankles are extended as +much as possible; heels closed; head and trunk erect; in recovering +position heels are lowered gently; breathe naturally. + + +COMBINATION EXERCISE + +=844.= This exercise brings into play practically all of the muscles +that have been used in the preceding exercises. + +=1. LEANING REST IN FOUR COUNTS.= + +Repeat 6 to 8 times, Figs. 15, 16. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +[Illustration: Fig. 16] + +At =one= knees are bent to squatting position, hands on the ground +between knees; at =two= the legs are extended backward to the leaning +rest; at =three= the first position is resumed, and at =four= the +position of attention; hands should be directly under shoulders; back +arched; knees straight; head fixed; execute moderately fast; breathe +naturally. + + +WALKING AND MARCHING + +=845.= The length of the full step in quick time is 30 inches, +measured from heel to heel, and the cadence is at the rate of 120 +steps per minute. + +Proper posture and carriage have ever been considered very important +in the training of soldiers. In marching, the head and trunk should +remain immobile, but without stiffness; as the left foot is carried +forward the right forearm is swung forward and inward obliquely across +the body until the thumb, knuckles being turned out, reaches a point +about the height of the belt plate. The upper arm does not move beyond +the perpendicular plane while the forearm is swung forward, though the +arm hangs loosely from the shoulder joint. The forearm swing ends +precisely at the moment the left heel strikes the ground; the arm is +then relaxed and allowed to swing down and backward by its own weight +until it reaches a point where the thumb is about the breadth of a +hand to the rear of the buttocks. As the right arm swings back, the +left arm is swung forward with the right leg. The forward motion of +the arm assists the body in marching by throwing the weight forward +and inward upon the opposite foot as it is planted. The head is held +erect; body well stretched from the waist; chest arched; and there +should be no rotary motion of the body about the spine. + +As the leg is thrown forward the knee is smartly extended, the heel +striking the ground first. + +The instructor having explained the principles and illustrated the +step and arm swing, commands: =1. Forward, 2. MARCH=--and to halt the +squad he commands: =1. Squad, 2. HALT.= + +In executing the setting-up exercises on the march the cadence should +at first be given slowly and gradually increased as the men become +more expert; some exercises require a slow and others a faster pace; +it is best in these cases to allow the cadence of the exercise to +determine the cadence of the step. + +The men should march in a single file at proved intervals. The command +that causes and discontinues the execution should be given as the left +foot strikes the ground. + +On the march, to discontinue the exercise, command: =1. Quick time, 2. +MARCH=, instead of =HALT=, as when at rest. + +All of the arm, wrist, finger, and shoulder exercises, and some of the +trunk and neck, may be executed on the march by the same commands and +means as when at rest. + +The following leg and foot exercises are executed at the command +march; the execution always beginning with the left leg or foot. + + 1. =1. On toes, 2. MARCH.= + 2. =1. On heels, 2. MARCH.= + 3. =1. On right heel and left toe, 2. MARCH.= + 4. =1. On left heel and right toe, 2. MARCH.= + 5. =1. On toes with knees stiff, 2. MARCH.= + 6. =1. Swing extended leg forward, ankle high, 2. MARCH.= + 7. =1. Swing extended leg forward, knee high, 2. MARCH.= + 8. =1. Swing extended leg forward, waist high, 2. MARCH.= + 9. =1. Swing extended leg forward, shoulder high, 2. MARCH.= + 10. =1. Raise heels, 2. MARCH.= + 11. =1. Raise knees, thigh horizontal, 2. MARCH.= + 12. =1. Raise knees, chest high, 2. MARCH.= + 13. =1. Circle extended leg forward, ankle high, 2. MARCH.= + 14. =1. Circle extended leg forward, knee high, 2. MARCH.= + 15. =1. Circle extended leg forward, waist high, 2. MARCH.= + 16. =1. Swing extended leg backward, 2. MARCH.= + 17. =1. Swing extended leg sideward, 2. MARCH.= + 18. =1. Raise knee and extend leg forward, 2. MARCH.= + 19. =1. Raise heels and extend leg forward, 2. MARCH.= + + +DOUBLE TIMING + +=846.= The length of the step in double time is 36 inches; the cadence +is at the rate of 180 steps per minute. To march in double time the +instructor commands: =1. Double time, 2. MARCH.= + +If at a halt, at the first command shift the weight of the body to the +right leg. At the command =march= raise the forearms, fingers closed; +to a horizontal position along the waist line; take up an easy run +with the step and cadence of double time, allowing a natural swinging +motion to the arms inward and upward in the direction of the opposite +shoulder. + +In marching in quick time, at the command =march=, given as either +foot strikes the ground, take one step in quick time, and then step +off in double time. + +When marching in double time and in running the men breathe as much as +possible through the nose, keeping the mouth closed. + +A few minutes at the beginning of the setting-up exercises should be +devoted to double timing. From lasting only a few minutes at the start +it may be gradually increased, so that daily drills should enable the +men at the end of five or six months to double time 15 or 20 minutes +without becoming fatigued or distressed. + +After the double time the men should be marched for several minutes at +quick time; after this the instructor should command: + +=1. Route step, 2. MARCH.= + +In marching at route step, the men are not required to preserve +silence nor keep the step; if marching at proved intervals, the latter +is preserved. + +To resume the cadence step in quick time, the instructor commands: =1. +Squad, 2. ATTENTION.= + +Great care must be exercised concerning the duration of the double +time and the speed and duration of the run. The demands made Upon the +men should be increased gradually. + +When exercise rather than distance is desired, the running should be +done on the balls of the feet, heels raised from the ground. + + +DOUBLE TIMING EXERCISES + +While the men are double timing the instructor may vary the position +of the arms by commanding: + + 1. =1. Arms forward, 2. RAISE.= + 2. =1. Arms sideward, 2. RAISE.= + 3. =1. Arms upward, 2. RAISE.= + 4. =1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE.= + 5. =1. Hands on shoulders, 2. PLACE.= + 6. =1. Arms forward, 2. CROSS.= + 7. =1. Arms backward, 2. CROSS.= + +At the command =down=, the double-time position for the arms and hands +is resumed. + + +RIFLE EXERCISES + +=847.= The object of these exercises, which may also be performed with +wands or bar bells, is to develop the muscles of the arms, shoulders, +and back so that the men will become accustomed to the weight of the +piece and learn to wield it with that "handiness" so essential to its +successful use. When these exercises are combined with movements of +the various other parts of the body, they serve as a splendid, though +rather strenuous, method for the all-round development of the men. As +the weight of the piece is considerable, instructors are cautioned to +be reasonable in their demands. Far better results are obtained if +these exercises are performed at commands than when they are grouped +and performed for spectacular purposes. + +All the exercises start from the starting position, which is the low +extended arm horizontal position in front of the body, arms straight; +the right hand grasping the small of the stock and the left hand the +barrel; the knuckles turned to the front and the distance between the +hands slightly greater than the width of the shoulders. Fig. 17. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17] + +This position is assumed at the command: =1. Starting, 2. POSITION=; +at the command =position= the piece is brought to the port and lowered +to the front horizontal snappily. + +To recover the position of order, command: =1. Order, 2. Arms=; the +piece is first brought to the port and then to the order. + + +RIFLE DRILL COMBINATION + +The following exercises consist of four movements, the third position +always corresponding to the first position and the fourth to the +starting position. When performed as a musical drill, the instructions +laid down in that lesson are applicable here. + +All exercises begin and end with the first or starting position. Fig. +17. + +The form of command is, for example: + +(Being at the starting position) + +=1. First group, 2. FIRST, EXERCISE=; + +=1. Second group, 2. THIRD, EXERCISE=; + + Etc., Etc. + + +FIRST GROUP + +=848.= _First Exercise_ + +Counts + +1-2. Raise piece to bent arm front horizontal, shoulder high, and +stride forward right, Fig. 18; + +[Illustration: Fig. 18] + +3-4. Face to the left on both heels and extend piece upward, Fig. 19; + +[Illustration: Fig. 19] + +5-6. Resume first position; + +7-8. Resume starting position. + +Repeat left, right, left. + + +=849.= _Second Exercise_ + +1-2. Raise piece to extended high horizontal, and stride sideward +right, Fig. 20; + +[Illustration: Fig. 20] + +3-4. Bend right knee and lower piece to left horizontal, Fig. 21; + +[Illustration: Fig. 21] + +5-6. Resume first position; + +7-8. Resume starting position. + +Repeat left, right, left. + + +=850.= _Third Exercise_ + +1-2. Raise piece to high side perpendicular on the left, left hand up, +and stride backward right, Fig. 22; + +[Illustration: Fig. 22] + +3-4. Face about on heels and swing piece down and up to high side +perpendicular on the right, Fig. 23; + +[Illustration: Fig. 23] + +5-6. Resume first position; + +7-8. Resume starting position. + +Repeat left, right, left. + + +=851.= _Fourth Exercise_ + +1-2. Raise piece to extended high horizontal, and stride obliquely +forward right, Fig. 24; + +[Illustration: Fig. 24] + +3-4. Face about on heels and lower piece to horizontal on shoulders; +Fig. 25; + +[Illustration: Fig. 25] + +5-6. Resume first position; + +7-8. Resume starting position. + +Repeat left, right, left. + + +SECOND GROUP + +=852.= _First Exercise_ + +1-2. Lower piece to front extended horizontal and bend trunk forward, +Fig. 26; + +[Illustration: Fig. 26] + +3-4. Lunge obliquely forward right and raise piece to right oblique, +left hand at shoulder, Fig. 27; + +[Illustration: Fig. 27] + +5-6. Resume first position; + +7-8. Resume starting position. + +Repeat left, right, left. + +=853.= _Second Exercise_ + +1-2. Raise piece to high perpendicular on the left, left hand up, and +bend trunk sideward right, Fig. 28; + +[Illustration: Fig. 28] + +3-4. Lunge sideward right and swing piece down and up to right high +perpendicular, right hand up, Fig. 29; + +[Illustration: Fig. 29] + +5-6. Resume first position; + +7-8. Resume starting position. + +Repeat left, right, left. + +=854.= _Third Exercise_ + +1-2. Raise piece to high extended arm horizontal and bend trunk +backward, Fig. 30; + +[Illustration: Fig. 30] + +3-4. Lunge forward right, and swing piece to side horizontal, left +hand to the rear, Fig. 31; + +[Illustration: Fig. 31] + +5-6. Resume first position; + +7-8. Resume starting position. + +Repeat left, right, left. + +=855.= _Fourth Exercise_ + +1-2. Raise piece to right high perpendicular and side step position +left, Fig. 32; + +[Illustration: Fig. 32] + +3-4. Lunge sideward left and swing piece to left high perpendicular, +Fig. 33; + +[Illustration: Fig. 33] + +5-6. Resume first position; + +7-8. Resume starting position. + +Repeat left, right, left. + + +THIRD GROUP + +=856.= _First Exercise_ + +1-2. Raise piece to front bent horizontal, arms crossed, left over +right; lunge sideward right and bend trunk sideward right, Fig. 34; + +[Illustration: Fig. 34] + +3-4. Extend right knee and bend trunk to the left, bending left knee +and recrossing arms, left over right, Fig. 35; + +[Illustration: Fig. 35] + +5-6. Resume first position; + +7-8. Resume starting position. + +Repeat left, right, left. + +=857.= _Second Exercise_ + +1-2. Raise piece to bent arm horizontal; face right and lunge forward +right and bend trunk forward, Fig. 36; + +[Illustration: Fig. 36] + +3-4. Raise trunk and turn to the left on both heels and extend piece +overhead, Fig. 37; + +[Illustration: Fig. 37] + +5-6. Resume first position; + +7-8. Resume starting position. + +Repeat left, right, left. + +=858.= _Third Exercise_ + +1-2. Raise piece to left high horizontal; lunge forward right, Fig. +38; + +[Illustration: Fig. 38] + +3-4. Bend trunk forward and swing piece to extended low horizontal, +Fig. 39; + +[Illustration: Fig. 39] + +5-6. Resume first position; + +7-8. Resume starting position. + +Repeat left, right, left. + +=859.= _Fourth Exercise_ + +1-2. Raise piece to high extended horizontal and hop to side straddle +position, Fig. 40; + +[Illustration: Fig. 40] + +3-4. Bend trunk forward and swing piece to extended low horizontal, +left hand between legs, right hand forward, Fig. 41; + +[Illustration: Fig. 41] + +5-6. Resume first position; + +7-8. Resume starting position. + +Repeat left, right, left. + + +GYMNASTIC CONTESTS + +=860.= These exercises are those in which the benefits are lost sight +of in the pleasure their attainment provides, which in the case of +these contests is the vanquishing of an opponent. The men are pitted +against each other in pairs; age, height, weight, and general physical +aptitude being the determining factors in the selection. + +In the contests in which superiority is dependent upon skill and +agility no restrictions need be placed upon the efforts of the +contestants; but in those that are a test of strength and endurance it +is well to call a contest a "draw," when the men are equally matched +and the contest is likely to be drawn out to the point of exhaustion +of one or both contestants. + +It is recommended that these contests be indulged in once or twice a +month and then at the conclusion of the regular drill. + +Contests that require skill and agility should alternate with those +that depend upon force and endurance. In order to facilitate the +instruction a number of pairs should be engaged at the same time. + +1. Cane wrestling: The cane to be about an inch in diameter and a yard +long, ends rounded. It is grasped with the right hand at the end, +knuckles down, and with the left hand, knuckles up, inside of and +close to the opponent's right hand. Endeavor is then made to wrest the +cane from the opponent. Loss of grip with either hand loses the bout. + +2. Cane twisting. Same cane as in 1. Contestants grasp it as in 1, +only the knuckles of both hands are up, and the arms are extended +overhead. Object: The contestants endeavor to make the cane revolve in +their opponent's hand without allowing it to do so in their own. The +cane must be forced down. + +3. Cane pulling: Contestants sit on the ground, facing each other, +legs straight and the soles of the feet in contact. The cane is +grasped as in 2 but close to the feet. Object: To pull the opponent to +his feet. The legs throughout the contest must be kept rigid. + +4. "Bucked" contest: Contestants sit on the ground "bucked"; i. e., +the cane is passed under the knees, which are drawn up, and the arms +passed under the cane with the fingers laced in front of the ankles. +Object: To get the toes under those of the opponent and roll him over. + +5. Single pole pushing: Contestants grasp end of pole, 6 feet long and +2 inches thick, and brace themselves. Object: To push the opponent out +of position. + +6. Double pole pushing: The poles are placed under the arms close to +the arm pits, ends projecting. Object: Same as in 5. + +7. Double pole pulling: Position as in 6 but standing back to back. +Object: To pull the opponent out of position. + +8. "Cock fight": Contestants hop on one leg with the arms folded +closely over the chest. Object: by butting with the fleshy part of the +shoulder without raising the arms, or by dodging to make the opponent +change his feet or touch the floor with his hand or other part of his +body. + +9. One-legged tug of war: Contestants hop on one leg and grasp hands +firmly. Object: To pull the opponent forward or make him place the +raised foot on the floor. + +10. The "siege": One contestant stands with one foot in a circle 14 +inches in diameter, the other foot outside, and the arms folded as in +8. Two other contestants, each hopping on one leg, endeavor to +dislodge the one in the circle by butting him with the shoulder. The +besieged one is defeated in case he raises the foot in the circle, or +removes it entirely from the circle. The besiegers are defeated in +case they change feet or touch the floor as in 8. As soon as either of +the latter is defeated his place is immediately filled, so that there +are always two of them. The besieged should resort to volting, +ducking, etc., rather than to depend upon his strength. + +11. One-armed tug: Contestants stand facing each other; right hands +grasped, feet apart. Object: Without moving feet, to pull the opponent +forward. Shifting the feet loses the bout. + +12. "Tug royal": Three contestants stand facing inward and grasp each +other's wrists securely with their feet outside a circle about three +feet in diameter. Object: by pulling or pushing to make one of the +contestants step inside of the circle. + +13. Indian wrestling: Contestants lie upon the ground face up, right +shoulders in close contact, right elbows locked; at one the right leg +is raised overhead and lowered, this is repeated at two, and at three +the leg is raised quickly and locked with the opponent's right leg. +Object: to roll him over by forcing his leg down. + +14. Medicine ball race. Teams of five or six men are organized and a +track for each team is marked out. This track consists of marks on the +floor or ground at distances of 4 yards. On each of these marks stands +a man with legs apart, the team forming a column of files. At "ready," +"get set," the contestants prepare for the race, and at "go," the +first man in the column rolls a medicine ball, which he has on the +floor in front of him, through his legs to No. 2, he in turn rolls it +to 3, etc., when it reaches the last man he picks it up and runs to +the starting place with it and, the others all having shifted back one +mark, the rolling is repeated. This continues until the first man +brings the ball back to the starting place and every man is in his +original position. The ball should be kept rolling: each man, as it +comes to him, pushing it on quickly. Any ball about 9 inches in +diameter will answer; it may be made of strong cloth and stuffed with +cotton waste. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +SIGNALING + +Signals and Codes + + +_General Service Code. (International Morse Code.)_ + +=861.= Used for all visual and sound signaling, radiotelegraphy, and +on cables using siphon recorders, used in communicating with Navy. + + A . - + B - . . . + C - . - . + D - . . + E . + F . . - . + G - - . + H . . . . + I . . + J . - - - + K - . - + L . - . . + M - - + N - . + O - - - + P . - - . + Q - - . - + R . - . + S . . . + T - + U . . - + V . . . - + W . - - + X - . . - + Y - . - - + Z - - . . + + NUMERALS + + 1 . - - - - + 2 . . - - - + 3 . . . - - + 4 . . . . - + 5 . . . . . + 6 - . . . . + 7 - - . . . + 8 - - - . . + 9 - - - - . + 0 - - - - - + + PUNCTUATION + + Period . . . . . . + Comma . - . - . - . + Interrogation . . - - . . + + +THE MORE IMPORTANT CONVENTIONAL FLAG SIGNALS + +For communication between the firing line and the reserve or commander +in rear. In transmission, their concealment from the enemy's view +should be insured. In the absence of signal flags the headdress or +other substitute may be used. + +(See par. 96 for the signals.) + + +Wigwag + +_Signaling by flag, torch, hand lantern, or beam of searchlight +(without shutter)_[6] + +=862.= 1. There is one position and there are three motions. The position is +with flag or other appliance held vertically, the signalman facing +directly toward the station with which it is desired to communicate. +The first motion (the dot) is to the right of the sender, and will +embrace an arc of 90 deg., starting with the vertical and returning to it, +and will be made in a plane at right angles to the line connecting +the two stations. The second motion (the dash) is a similar motion to +the left of the sender. The third motion (front) is downward directly +in front of the sender and instantly returned upward to the first +position. This is used to indicate a pause or conclusion. + +2. The beam of the searchlight, though ordinarily used with the +shutter like the heliograph, may be used for long-distance signaling, +when no shutter is suitable or available, in a similar manner to the +flag or torch, the first position being a vertical one. A movement of +the beam 90 deg. to the right of the sender indicates a dot, a similar +movement to the left indicates a dash; the beam is lowered vertically +for front. + +3. To use the torch or hand lantern, a footlight must be employed as a +point of reference to the motion. The lantern is more conveniently +swung out upward to the right of the footlight for a dot, to the left +for a dash, and raised vertically for front. + +4. To call a station, make the call letter until acknowledged, at +intervals giving the call or signal of the calling station. If the +call letter of a station is unknown, wave flag until acknowledged. In +using the searchlight without shutter throw the beam in a vertical +position and move it through an arc of 180 deg. in a plane at right angles +to the line connecting the two stations until acknowledged. To +acknowledge a call, signal "Acknowledgment (or) I understand +(----front)" followed by the call letter of the acknowledging station. + + +_Notes on Wig-wagging_ + +5. In order to avoid the flag wrapping itself about the staff, stand +facing the receiving station, with feet apart. Hold the staff with the +left hand at butt and right hand 24 inches from end. In moving flag to +the right, bring it down with an outward and inward sweep, and then +return it to the vertical. When the tip is farthest down the staff +inclines to the right front and as the flag is brought upward it is +swept inward and upwards and as it approaches the vertical position it +sweeps forward slightly. In moving to the left the motion is +similar,--at the lowest point the staff inclines to the left front. A +combination of right and left is made with a figure-of-eight motion. + +In making "front" the flag is lowered and moved very slightly to the +left front and then swept slightly to the right front, making a +figure-of-eight. + +The body should be twisted and bent at the waist in making the light +and left motions. + +Care should be exercised in keeping the flag in front of the body in +making "front," the figure-of-eight is necessarily very flat. + +Do not make letters in a careless slipshod manner. + + +The Two-arm Semaphore Code + +(See Plates I and II) + +=863.= Semaphore signaling may be done with or without flags. Without +flags it is rarely dependable beyond 600 yards. + +In sending stand with feet apart, squarely facing the receiver. + +In making letters which require the use of both arms on the same side +of body, twist the body to that side and bend at waist, so as to +throw both arms well away from body. But be careful to keep arms in +plane of original position of body. + +When a letter repeats--bring both hands (if a two-armed letter) to +chest after first, then make second. + +Do not try to send rapidly so as to exhibit your ability. Remember +that the receiver's ability determines the speed to be used. Anyone +can send faster than he himself can receive. If you want to display +your skill have some one send rapidly to you. + +In receiving, if you miss a letter--let it go and get the others. If +you miss a word signal--"O" (waving flags or arms) and signal the last +word you have received. + +_Rapidity_ is secondary to _accuracy_. + +Take the positions for the various letters _accurately_. The +horizontal position should not incline upward nor downward. In making +an "L," for example, if the left arm is midway between its proper +position and the horizontal it is difficult to tell whether it is L or +M. + +In making D, J, K, P, T, and V, the arm in the vertical position +should be brought exactly in front of the body by carrying the +shoulder in almost under the chin, twisting the elbow in until it is +directly before the eyes, and the forearm held in the vertical +position with the palm to the rear. When so done there is no +possibility of this position being mistaken for any other. + +"Manila Milkman" may be sent without changing the position of the +right hand. In making I, be sure to twist body well to the right in +order that the left arm may be seen in the upper slanting position to +the right. City and similar words may be so made. + +D may be made with either hand. + +Be sure how next letter is made before moving hands. Make no false +motions. + +Acquire accuracy; then try for speed. + +"CHOP-CHOP." The "chop-chop" signal is made by placing _both_ arms at +the right horizontal (that is, by bringing the _left_ arm up to the +position of the _right_ arm as in the figure for letter "B"), and then +moving each up and down, several times, in opposite direction, making +a cutting motion. + +END OF WORD. After each word the "Interval" signal is made. + +END OF SENTENCE. After each sentence the chop signal is made twice. + +END OF MESSAGE. At the end of a message the chop signal is made three +times. + +ERROR. Signal "A" several times quickly, followed by interval; then +repeat the word. + +TO BREAK IN. Signal "Attention." + +NUMERALS. Numbers are always preceded by the signal, "Numerals." After +"Numerals" has been signaled, everything that follows will be numbers +until "Interval" is signaled, after which what follows will be +letters. + +[Illustration: The Two-arm Semaphore Code + +Plate I] + +[Illustration: The Two-arm Semaphore Code + +Plate II] + + +_Signaling with heliograph, flash lantern, and searchlight (with +shutter)_[7] + +=864.= 1. The first position is to turn a steady flash on the +receiving station. The signals are made by short and long flashes. Use +a short flash for dot and a long steady flash for dash. The elements +of a letter should be slightly longer than in sound signals. + +2. To call a station, make the call letter until acknowledged, at +intervals the call or signal of the calling station. + +3. If the call letter of a station be unknown, signal a series of dots +rapidly made until acknowledged. Each station will then turn on a +steady flash and adjust. When the adjustment is satisfactory to the +called station, it will cut off its flash, and the calling station +will proceed with its message. + +4. If the receiver sees that the sender's mirror needs adjustment, he +will turn on a steady flash until answered by a steady flash. When the +adjustment is satisfactory, the receiver will cut off his flash and +the sender will resume his message. + +5. To break the sending station for other purposes, turn on a steady +flash. + + +_Sound Signals_[7] + +=865.= 1. Sound signals made by the whistle, foghorn, bugle, trumpet, +and drum may be used in a fog, mist, falling snow, or at night. They +may be used with the dot and dash code. + +2. In applying the code to whistle, foghorn, bugle, or trumpet, one +short blast indicates a dot and one long blast a dash. With the drum, +one tap indicates a dot and two taps in rapid succession a dash. +Although these signals can be used with a dot and dash code, they +should be so used in connection with a preconcerted or conventional +code. + +_Morse Code. (American Morse Code)_[7] + +=866.= Used only by the army on telegraph lines, on short cables, and +on field lines, and on all commercial lines in the United States. + + A . - + B - . . . + C . . . + D - . . + E . + F . - . + G - - . + H . . . . + I . . + J - . - . + K - . - + L -- + M - - + N - . + O . . + P . . . . . + Q . . - . + R . . . + S . . . + T - + U . . - + V . . . - + W . - - + X . - . . + Y . . . . + Z . . . . + & . . . . + + NUMERALS + + 1 . - - . + 2 . . - . . + 3 . . . - . + 4 . . . . - + 5 - - - + 6 . . . . . . + 7 - - . . + 8 - . . . . + 9 - . . - + 0 --- + + PUNCTUATION + + Period . . - - . . + Comma . - . - + Interrogation - . . - . + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[6] Extracts from Signal Book, United States Army. + +[7] Extracts from Signal Book, United States Army. + + + + +PART II + +COMPANY COMMAND + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF A COMPANY + + +=867. The proper performance of the duty of COMPANY COMMANDER, like +the proper performance of any other duty, requires work and attention +to business.= + +The command of a company divides itself into two kinds of duty: +government and administration. + +The government includes the instruction, discipline, contentment, and +harmony of the organization, involving, as it does, esprit de corps, +rewards, privileges, and punishments. + +The administration includes the providing of clothing, arms, +ammunition, equipage, and subsistence; the keeping of records, +including the rendition of reports and returns; and the care and +accountability of Government and company property, and the +disbursement of the company fund. + +System and care are prerequisites of good administration. + +The efficient administration of a company greatly facilitates its +government. + + +THE CAPTAIN + +=868.= With regard to his company the captain stands in the same light +as a father to a large family of children. It is his duty to provide +for their comfort, sustenance, and pleasure; enforce strict rules of +obedience, punish the refractory and reward the deserving. + +He should be considerate and just to his officers and men and should +know every soldier personally and make him feel that he so knows him. + +He should by word and act make every man in the company feel that the +captain is his protector. + +The captain should not be indifferent to the personal welfare of his +men, and when solicited, being a man of greater experience, education, +and information, he should aid and counsel them in such a way as to +show he takes an interest in their joys and sorrows. + +When any men are sick he should do everything possible for them until +they can be taken care of by the surgeon. He can add much to the +comfort and pleasure of men in the hospital by visiting them from time +to time and otherwise showing an interest in their condition. + +In fact, one of the officer's most important duties is to look after +the welfare of his men--to see that they are well fed, well clothed +and properly cared for in every other way--to see that they are happy +and contented. The officer who does not look after the welfare of his +men to the best of his ability, giving the matter his earnest personal +attention, neglects one of the principal things that the Government +pays him to do. + +The soldier usually has a decided feeling for his captain, even though +it be one of hatred. With regard to the higher grade of officers, he +has respect for them according to regulations; otherwise, for the most +part, he is indifferent. At the very most, he knows whether his post +or regimental commander keeps him long at drill, and particularly +whether he has any peculiar habits. The average soldier looks upon his +captain as by far the most important personage in the command. + +There is no other position in the Army that will give as much +satisfaction in return for an honest, capable and conscientious +discharge of duty, as that of captain. There is a reward in having +done his full duty to his company that no disappointment of +distinction, no failure, can deprive him of; his seniors may overlook +him in giving credits, unfortunate circumstances may defeat his +fondest hopes, and the crown of laurel may never rest upon his brow, +but the reward that follows upon the faithful discharge of his duty to +his company he can not be deprived of by any disaster, neglect or +injustice. + +He is a small sovereign, powerful and great, within his little domain. + +=869. Devolution of Work and Responsibility.= The company commander +should not attempt to do all the work--to look after all the details +in person--he should not try to command directly every squad and every +platoon. The successful company commander is the one who distributes +work among his subordinates and organizes the help they are supposed +to give him. By War Department orders, Army Regulations and customs of +the service, the lieutenants and noncommissioned officers are charged +with certain duties and responsibilities. Let every one of them carry +the full load of their responsibility. The company commander should +not usurp the functions of his subordinates--he should not relieve +them of any of their prescribed or logical work and responsibility. On +the contrary, he should give them more, and he should see that they +"deliver the goods." Skill in distributing work among subordinates is +one of the first essentials of leadership, as is the ability to get +work out of them so that they will fill their functions to the full +within the limits of their responsibility. Not only does devolution of +work and responsibility cause subordinates to take more interest in +their work (it makes them feel less like mere figure-heads), but it +also teaches them initiative and gives them valuable experience in the +art of training and handling men. Furthermore, it enables the company +commander to devote more time to the larger and more important matters +connected with the discipline, welfare, training, instruction and +administration of the company. + +The captain who allows his lieutenants to do practically nothing makes +a mistake--he is doing something that will rob his lieutenants of all +initiative, cause them to lose interest in the company, and make them +feel like nonentities--like a kind of "fifth wheel"--it will make them +feel they are not, in reality, a part of the company--it will prevent +them from getting a practical, working knowledge of the government and +administration of a company. + +By allowing his lieutenants to participate to the greatest extent +possible in the government and administration of the company, and by +not hampering and pestering them with unnecessary instructions about +details, the captain will get out of his lieutenants the very best +that there is in them. + +The captain should require RESULTS from his lieutenants, and the mere +fact that a lieutenant is considered inefficient and unable to do +things properly, is no reason why he should not be required to do +them. The captain is by Army Regulations responsible for the +efficiency and instruction of his lieutenants regarding all matters +pertaining to the company, and he should require them to perform all +their duties properly, resorting to such disciplinary measures as may +be considered necessary. The lieutenant who can not, or who will not, +perform his duties properly is a drag on the company, and such a man +has no business in the Army, or in the Organized Militia. + + +THE LIEUTENANT + +=870.= To be able to perform well the duties of captain when the +responsibility falls upon him, should be the constant study and +ambition of the lieutenant. + +He is the assistant of the captain and should be required by the +captain to assist in the performance of all company duties, including +the keeping of records and the preparation of the necessary reports, +returns, estimates and requisitions. The captain should give him lots +to do, and should throw him on his own responsibility just as much as +possible. He should be required to drill the company, attend the daily +inspection of the company quarters, instruct the noncommissioned +officers, brief communications, enter letters in the Correspondence +Book, make out ration returns, reports, muster and pay rolls, etc., +until he shows perfect familiarity therewith. + +Whenever told to do a thing by your captain, do it yourself or see +personally that it is done. Do not turn it over to some +noncommissioned officer and let it go at that. If your captain wants +some noncommissioned officer to do the thing, he himself will tell him +to do it--he will not ask you to do it. + +It is customary in the Army to regard the company as the property of +the captain. Should the lieutenant, therefore, be in temporary command +of the company he should not make any changes, especially in the +reduction or promotion of noncommissioned officers without first +having consulted the captain's wishes in the matter. + +It is somewhat difficult to explain definitely the authority a +lieutenant exercises over the men in the company when the captain is +present. In general terms, however, it may be stated the lieutenant +can not make any changes around the barracks, inflict any punishment +or put men on, or relieve them from, any duty without the consent of +the captain. It is always better if there be a definite understanding +between the captain and his lieutenants as to what he expects of them, +how he wishes to have certain things done and to what extent he will +sustain them. + +If the lieutenant wants anything from the company in the way of +working parties, the services of the company artificer or company +clerk, the use of ordnance stores or quartermaster articles, he should +always speak to the captain about the matter. + + +THE CAPTAIN AND THE LIEUTENANTS + +=871.= The company officers should set an example to their men in +dress, military bearing, system, punctuality and other soldierly +qualities. It should be remembered that the negligence of superiors is +the cue for juniors to be negligent. + +If the men of a company are careless and indifferent about saluting +and if they are shabby and lax in their dress, the company commander +is to blame for it--company officers can always correct defects of +this kind, if they will only try. + +The character and efficiency of officers and the manner in which they +perform their duties are reflected in the conduct and deportment of +their men. + +Of course, courage is a prerequisite quality for a good officer, and +every officer should seek to impress his men that he would direct them +to do nothing involving danger that he would not himself be willing to +do under similar circumstances. + +If a company officer be ignorant of his duties, his men will soon find +it out, and when they do they will have neither respect for, nor +confidence in, him. + +Company officers should take an active interest in everything that +affects the amusement, recreation, happiness and welfare of their men. + +An officer just joining a company should learn without delay the names +of all the men. A roll of the organization should be gotten and +studied. + +While an officer can gruffly order a soldier to do a thing and have +his orders obeyed, it should be remembered that, as a rule, human +nature, especially American human nature, responds best to an appeal +to pride, fairness, justice, reason, and the other nobler instincts of +man. It is only in rare instances that the average man will give the +best there is in him under coercion or pressure of authority. + +There are but few men who have not some good in them, and this good +can generally be gotten at, if one only goes about it in the right +way. Study your men and try to arouse in them pride and interest in +their work. + +The soldier first learns to respect, then to honor and finally to love +the officer who is strict but just; firm but kind--and this is the +officer who will draw out of his men the very best there is in them. + +=872.= Treat your men like men, and remember there is nothing that +will so completely take the spirit out of a man as to find fault with +him when he is doing his best. + +Young officers sometimes run to one of two extremes in the treatment +of their men--they either, by undue familiarity, or otherwise, +cultivate popularity with the men; or they do not treat them with +sufficient consideration--the former course will forfeit their esteem; +the latter, ensure their dislike, neither of which result is +conducive to commanding their respect. + +Treat your soldiers with proper consideration, dignity, and +justice--remember they are members of your profession, the difference +being one of education, rank, command, and pay--but they are men, like +yourself, and should be treated as such. + +Under no circumstances should you ever swear at a soldier--not only is +this taking a mean, unfair advantage of your position, but it is also +undignified, ungentlemanly, and unmilitary. It is even more improper +for you to swear at a soldier than it is for a superior to swear at +you--in the latter case the insult can be properly resented; in the +former, it must be borne in humiliating silence. + +Remember, that if by harsh or unfair treatment you destroy a man's +self-respect, you at the same time destroy his usefulness. + +Familiarity is, of course, most subversive of discipline, but you can +treat your men with sympathetic consideration without being familiar +with them. + +In dealing with enlisted men, do not use the same standard of +intellect and morals that apply in the case of officers. And remember, +too, that a thing that may appear small and trivial to an officer may +mean a great deal to an enlisted man--study your men, learn their +desires, their habits, their way of thinking, and then in your +dealings with them try to look at things from their standpoint also. +In other words in your treatment of your men be just as human as +possible. + +The treatment of soldiers should be uniform and just, and under no +circumstances should a man be humiliated unnecessarily or abused. +Reproof and punishment must be administered with discretion and +judgment, and without passion; for the officer who loses his temper +and flies into a tantrum has failed to obtain his first triumph in +discipline. He who can not control himself can not control others. + +Every officer should study himself carefully, he should analyze +himself, he should place himself under a microscopic glass, so as to +discover his weak points--and he should then try with his whole might +and soul to make these weak points strong points. If, for instance, +you realize that you are weak in applied minor tactics, or that you +have no "bump of locality," or that you have a poor memory, or that +you have a weak will, do what you can to correct these defects in your +make-up. Remember "Stonewall" Jackson's motto: "A man can do anything +he makes up his mind to do." + +The Progress Company, Chicago, Ill., publishes "Mind Power," "Memory," +"The Will," "The Art of Logical Thinking" (all by W. W. Atkinson), and +several other books of a similar nature, that are both interesting and +instructive. "The Power of the Will," by Haddock, for sale by Albert +Lewis Pelton, Meriden, Conn., is an excellent book of its kind. + + +THE FIRST SERGEANT + +=873.= It has been said the captain is the proprietor of the company +and the first sergeant is the foreman. + +Under supervision of the captain, he has immediate charge of all +routine matters pertaining to the company. + +In some companies in the Regular Army, it is customary for soldiers, +except in cases of emergency, to get permission from the first +sergeant to speak to the company commander at any time. In other +organizations soldiers who wish to speak to the company commander away +from the company quarters must first obtain the first sergeant's +permission, but it is not necessary to get this permission to speak to +the company commander when he is at the barracks. + +The first sergeant is sometimes authorized to place noncommissioned +officers in arrest in quarters and privates in confinement in the +guardhouse, assuming such action to be by order of the captain, to +whom he at once reports the facts. However, with regard to the +confinement of soldiers by noncommissioned officers, attention is +invited to the Army Regulations on the subject. + + +THE NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS + +=(The status, duties, etc., of noncommissioned officers are covered in +greater detail in Noncommissioned Officers' Manual, by the author. +General agents: George Banta Publishing Co., Menasha, Wis.)= + +=874.= The efficiency and discipline of a company depend to such an +extent on the noncommissioned officers that the greatest care and +judgment should be exercised in their selection. They should be men +possessing such soldierly qualities as a high sense of duty, cheerful +obedience to orders, force of character, honesty, sobriety and +steadiness, together with an intelligent knowledge of drills, +regulations, and orders. + +They should exact prompt obedience from those to whom they give +orders, and should see that all soldiers under them perform their +military duties properly. They must not hesitate to reprove them when +necessary, but such reproof must not be any more severe than the +occasion demands. + +The company officers must sustain the noncommissioned officers in the +exercise of their authority, except, of course, when such authority is +improperly or unjustly exercised. If they do wrong, they should be +punished the same as the privates, but if it be simply an error of +judgment they should merely be admonished. A noncommissioned officer +should never be admonished in the presence of privates. + +Judicious praising of noncommissioned officers in the presence of +privates is not only gratifying to the noncommissioned officer, but it +also tends to enhance the respect and esteem of the privates for him. + +In addition to dividing the company into squads, each squad being +under a noncommissioned officer as required by the Army Regulations, +the company should also be divided into sections, each section being +in charge of a sergeant. The squads and sections should, as far as +possible, be quartered together in barracks, and the chiefs of squads +and the chiefs of sections should be held strictly responsible for the +conduct, dress, cleanliness, and the care of arms of the members of +their respective squads and sections. Not only does this throw the +corporals and the sergeants upon their own responsibility to a certain +extent, but it also impresses upon them the importance of their +position, and gets the privates in the habit of realizing and +appreciating the authority exercised by noncommissioned officers. + +When practicable, the noncommissioned officers should have separate +rooms or tents, and should mess together at tables separate from the +privates; for, everything that conduces to familiarity with inferiors +tends to lower the dignity of the noncommissioned officers' position. + +Throw your noncommissioned officers upon their own +responsibility--throw them into deep water, so to speak, where they +will either have to swim or sink. You can never tell what a man can +really do until you have given him a chance to show you--until you +have put him on his mettle--until you have tried him out. And very +often men who seem to have nothing in them, men who have never before +been thrown upon their own responsibility, will surprise you. + +Do all you can to make your noncommissioned officers realize and +appreciate the importance of their position. Consult them about +different matters--get their opinions about various things. When going +through the barracks at Saturday morning inspection, for instance, as +you come to the different squads, have the squad leaders step to the +front and follow you while you are inspecting their respective squads. +If you find anything wrong with a man's bunk, speak to the squad +leader about it. Also ask the squad leaders various questions about +their squads. + +Not only does such treatment of noncommissioned officers make them +appreciate the importance, responsibility and dignity of their +position, but it also gives them more confidence in themselves and +raises them in the eyes of the privates. + +Noncommissioned officers should always be addressed by their titles, +by both officers and soldiers. + +Noncommissioned officers are forbidden by regulations to act as +barbers, or as agents for laundries, or in any other position of a +similar character. + +Everything possible should be done by the company officers to instruct +the noncommissioned officers properly in their duties.[8] + +So far as the company is concerned, the noncommissioned officers are +expected to assist the company commander in carrying out his own +orders and those of his superiors--they should see that all company +orders are obeyed and that the known wishes of the captain are carried +out. If, for instance, the captain should tell the first sergeant that +the men in the company may play cards among themselves, but that +noncommissioned officers are not to play with privates and that men +from other companies are not allowed to take part in, or to be present +at the games, then it is the duty of the first sergeant to see that +these instructions are carried out--it is his duty to make frequent +inspections of the tables at which the men may be playing to see that +no noncommissioned officers are playing and that no outsiders are +present. The first sergeant who confined himself to publishing the +order to the company and then doing nothing more, would be neglectful +of his proper duty. + +Noncommissioned officers clothed in the proper uniform of their grade +are on duty at all times and places for the suppression of disorderly +conduct on the part of members of the company in public places. Men +creating disorder will be sent to their quarters in arrest and the +facts reported to the company commander without delay. + +Noncommissioned officers can do much to prevent the commission of +offenses by members of their commands, both when on and when off duty, +and such prevention is as much their duty as reporting offenses after +they are committed; in fact, it is much better to prevent the offense +than to bring the offender to trial. + +Company commanders should drill their noncommissioned officers +thoroughly in the principles of discipline. + +=875. Noncommissioned Officers Authorized to Confine Enlisted Men.= A +company or detachment commander may delegate to his noncommissioned +officers the authority to confine enlisted men in the guardhouse and +to place them in arrest in quarters, provided the case is immediately +reported to the company or detachment commander, who confirms the act +of the noncommissioned officer and adopts it as his own.--W. D. +decision, December, 1905. + +=876. Reduction and Resignation.= A noncommissioned officer should +never be reduced to ranks, except for grave and sufficient reasons. +Nothing demoralizes the noncommissioned officers of a company so much +and upsets discipline to such an extent as the feeling that upon the +slightest pretext or fancy one is to be sent back to the ranks, to +associate with the privates he has been required to discipline. + +In some regiments noncommissioned officers are permitted to send in +formal resignations, while in other regiments they are not, but, with +the approval of the company commander, they may ask for reduction, +giving proper, satisfactory and specific reasons. Of course, +resignations submitted in a spirit of accepted insubordination or +pique should not be considered, nor should they ever be in +substitution for deserved disciplinary punishment. If a +noncommissioned officer has good reasons for requesting reduction and +the granting of the request would not result in detriment to the +company, there is no reason why his application should not be +favorably considered. However, in such a case, the noncommissioned +officer should consult his company commander before submitting his +request in writing. It is thought the preponderance of custom is +against considering formal resignations. + + +Contentment and Harmony + +=877.= The officers of the company should do everything possible to +make the organization contented and harmonious. Contentment and +harmony are not only conducive to good discipline and efficiency, but +they also make the government of the company easy and reduce +desertions to a minimum. + +The showing of favoritism on the part of the captain is always a cause +of great dissatisfaction amongst the soldiers in the company. Soldiers +do not care how strict the captain is, just so he is fair and +impartial, treating all men alike. + +=878. The Mess.= The captain should give the mess his constant +personal attention, making frequent visits to the kitchen and +dining-room while the soldiers are at meals so as to see for himself +what they are getting, how it is served, etc. + +It is not saying too much to state that, in time of peace, a good mess +is the real basis of the contentment of a company. + +Ascertain what the soldiers like to eat and then gratify their +appetites as far as practicable. + +Be careful that the cook or the mess sergeant doesn't fall into a rut +and satiate the soldiers day after day with the same dishes. + +Give the ration your personal attention--know yourself what the +company is entitled to, how much it is actually getting, what the +savings amount to, etc. + +=879. Library and Amusement Room.= A library and an amusement room, +supplied with good books, magazines, papers, a billiard or pool table, +and a phonograph, are a source of much pleasure and contentment. + +=880. Athletic Apparatus.= A judicious investment of the company fund +in baseballs, bats, dumb bells, Indian clubs, boxing gloves and other +athletic goods, and the encouragement of baseball, basketball, quoits, +etc., are in the interest of harmony and happiness. + + +Rewards and Privileges + +=881.= 1. Deny all passes and requests for privileges of men whose +conduct is not good, and on the other hand grant to men whose conduct +is good, as many indulgences as is consistent with discipline. + +2. Judicious praise in the presence of the first sergeant, a few +noncommissioned officers, or the entire company, depending upon +circumstances, very often accomplishes a great deal. After the +according of such praise, let your action toward the man show that his +good conduct is appreciated and that it has raised him in your +estimation, and make him feel you are keeping your eye on him to see +whether he will continue in his well doing. + +3. Publication of commendatory orders, desirable special duty details, +etc. + +4. Promotion, and extra duty details which carry extra pay. + +5. Meritorious conduct of importance should be noted in the soldier's +military record and also on his discharge. + +6. At the weekly company inspection, each chief of squad picks out the +neatest and cleanest man in his squad--the captain then inspects the +men so selected, the neatest and cleanest one being excused from one +or two tours of kitchen police, or some other disagreeable duty; or +given a two days' pass. + + NOTE: Some officers do not think that good conduct should be + especially rewarded, but that if all soldiers be held strictly + accountable for their actions by a system of strict discipline, + good conduct attains its own reward in the immunities it enjoys. + +=882. Company punishment.= It is neither necessary nor desirable to +bring every dereliction of duty before a court-martial for trial. In +fact, the invariable preferring of charges for minor[9] offenses will, +as a rule, injure rather than help the discipline of a command. The +104th Article of War states, "The commanding officer of any +detachment, company, or higher command may, for minor offenses not +denied by the accused, impose disciplinary punishments upon persons of +his command without the intervention of a court-martial, unless the +accused demands trial by court-martial." The disciplinary punishments +authorized may include admonition, reprimand, withholding of +privileges, extra fatigue, and restriction to certain specified +limits, but shall not include forfeiture of pay or confinement under +guard. (Par. 333, Manual for Courts-Martial.) + + +Some Efficacious Forms of Company Punishment + +=883.= 1. Extra fatigue under the Company Supply Sergeant or the +noncommissioned officer in charge of quarters, cleaning up around and +in the company quarters, scrubbing pots, scouring tin pans, polishing +stoves, cutting wood, policing the rears, cutting grass, pulling +weeds, polishing the brass and nickel parts in the water closets and +bath rooms, washing and greasing leather, cleaning guns, boiling +greasy haversacks, and in camp, digging drains and working around slop +holes. + +If the work be done well the offender may be let off sooner--if the +work be not done well, he may be tried for it. + +2. Men may not be allowed to leave the immediate vicinity of the +barracks for periods ranging from one to ten days, during which time +they are subject to all kinds of disagreeable fatigue, and required to +report to the N. C. O. in charge of quarters at stated hours. + +3. Breaking rocks for a given number of days. For every man so +punished, a private of the same company is detailed as a sentinel and +for every four men a corporal is detailed in addition--the idea being +to cause every man in each organization to take an interest in +preventing his own comrades from violating rules and regulations. + +4. When two soldiers get into a row that is not of a serious nature, a +good plan is to set them at work scrubbing the barrack windows--one on +the outside and one on the inside, making them clean the same pane at +the same time. They are thus constantly looking in each other's faces +and before the second window is cleaned they will probably be laughing +at each other and part friends rather than nursing their wrath. + +5. Confinement to barracks, reporting to the noncommissioned officer +in charge of quarters once every hour, from reveille to, say, 9 P. M. + + NOTE: Some company commanders follow, for moral effect, the + practice of publishing to their companies all summary court + convictions of soldiers belonging to the organization. + + +Withholding of Privileges + +1. Withholding of passes and of credit at the post exchange. + +2. Withholding of furloughs. + +=884. Control of Drunken and Obscene Men.= In order to control drunken +and obscene men, they have been bucked and gagged until sufficiently +sober to regain self-control and quiet down. The use of a cold water +hose in such cases has been known to accomplish good results. Great +care and judgment, however, should be exercised and no more force used +than is absolutely necessary. + +It may also be said that persistently filthy men have been washed and +scrubbed. + +=885.= Saturday morning and other company inspections are intended to +show the condition of the organization regarding its equipment, +military appearance and general fitness for service, and the +condition of the quarters as regards cleanliness, order, etc. Usually +everyone except the guard, one cook, and others whose presence +elsewhere can not be spared, are required to attend inspections, +appearing in their best clothes, their arms and accouterments being +shipshape and spick and span in every respect. + +A man appearing at inspection with arms and equipments not in proper +shape, especially if he be a recruit or if it be his first offense, +may be turned out again several hours later, fully armed and equipped, +for another inspection, instead of being tried by summary court. + + +Property Responsibility + +=886.= Special attention should be given to the care and +accountability of all company property. + +1. All property (tents, axes, spades, chairs, hatchets, etc.) should +be plainly marked with the letter of the company. + +2. Keep a duplicate copy of every memorandum receipt given for +property, and when such property is turned in or another officer's +memorandum receipt is given covering the property, don't fail to get +your original memorandum from the quartermaster. + +3. See that the quartermaster gives you credit for all articles turned +in, or property accounted for on statement of charges, proceedings of +a surveying officer or otherwise. + +4. Have a settlement with the quartermaster at the end of every +quarter as required by Army Regulations, taking an inventory of all +property held on memorandum receipt and submitting to the +quartermaster a statement of charges and a certified list of the china +and glassware unavoidably broken during the quarter. + +5. Keep an account of all articles issued to the men, turned in to the +quartermaster, condemned, expended, lost, stolen or destroyed. + +6. Worn out and unserviceable, property that is beyond repair in the +company should be submitted to the action of a surveying officer, the +Survey Reports (Form No. 196, A. G. O.) being prepared in triplicate, +and submitted to the commanding officer, who will appoint a surveying +officer. No property that can be repaired in the company should ever +be submitted to the action of a surveying officer or inspector. In +this connection company commanders and supply sergeants should be +thoroughly familiar with Ordnance Department pamphlet No. 1965 and G. +O. 26, 1917, the two covering the care, repair and disposition of +unserviceable Ordnance equipment. + +7. Property that is to be submitted to the action of a surveying +officer or an inspector should always first be carefully examined by +the responsible officer in person, who should be prepared to give all +necessary information in regard to it. + +The property should be arranged in the order of enumeration in the +survey or the inventory report, and should be arranged in rows of +five, ten, or some other number, so that the numbers of the various +articles can be counted at a glance. + +The Army Regulations require that the responsible officer shall be +present at the inspection of property by a regular inspector. He +should also be present when property is acted on by a surveying +officer. + +8. All company property (Ordnance, Quartermaster, Signal and Engineer) +except the litter (Medical Department) is gotten from the unit supply +officer on memorandum receipt. The litter is gotten from the surgeon +on memorandum receipt. Settlements are required to be made quarterly +with the officers concerned, and also when relinquishing command. + + +Company Paperwork + +=887. Scope of subject.= To cover in full the subject of company +paperwork would require more space than it is practicable to spare in +a manual of this nature, and consequently only brief reference is made +herein to the principal books, records and papers connected with the +administration of a company. + +The subject of company paperwork, as well as Army administration in +general, is covered in full in _Army Paperwork_, published by Geo. +Banta Publishing Co., Menasha, Wis. Price $2.00, postpaid. + +In connection with company paperwork, it may be remarked that +now-a-days no company office is complete without a typewriter. For +all-around field and garrison work the CORONA, which is used +throughout the Army, is recommended. Not only is it less bulky and +lighter than other machines, but it is simpler of construction and +will stand harder usage. The Corona Folding Stand adds very much to +the convenience of the machine for field use. + +=888. Morning Report.= Which shows, at the hour the report is +submitted, the exact condition of the company as to the number of +officers and men present for duty, sick, absent, etc. All changes +since the last report (the day before) are shown by name, under +"Remarks," on the right-hand page, and by number on the left-hand +page. In case of no change since last report, note, "No change," +under, "Remarks," and also on the left-hand page. (See model given +below.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +NOTE. The numbers 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, etc., entered by hand on the left in +model, and which show the number of days from each printed number +(date) to the end of the month, are entered the beginning of each +month, and are a convenience in showing at once the number of rations +to be added or deducted in the case of men joining or leaving the +company. + +=889. Daily Sick Report.= On which are entered the names of all +enlisted men requiring medical attention and such of the company +officers as may be excused from duty because of illness. The report is +signed each day by the surgeon and the company commander, and shows +whether or not the sickness was incurred in line of duty. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +=890. Duty Roster.= On which is kept a record of all details for guard +duty, kitchen police, and other details for service in garrison and in +the field, except the authorized special and extra duty details. For +instructions regarding the keeping of roster, see, "Details and +Rosters," Manual of Interior Guard Duty and the Model and instructions +on the form itself. + +=891. Files of Orders.= A file will be kept of all orders issued by +the company commander. Files will also be kept of all orders and +instructions received from higher authority. + +=892. Company Fund Book.= In which are entered all receipts to, and +expenditures from, the company fund, together with the monthly +proceeding of the Company Council of Administration, and a list of +property, with cost thereof, purchased from the company fund. The +model in the front of the book shows how the account is to be kept. + +=893. Correspondence Book, with index.= In which is entered a brief of +each item of correspondence in respect to which a record is necessary, +and a notation of the action taken thereon. + +=894. Document File=, being the original documents or communications +when these are retained, and carbon, letter press, or other copies of +letters, indorsements, or telegrams sent in regard to the same, all of +which are filed according to serial numbers. + +=895. Delinquency Record=, in which are noted the disciplinary +punishments awarded by the company commander in compliance with the +provisions of Army Regulations. + +=896. Property Responsibility.= Two loose-leaf books in which are +listed, in one all articles of quartermaster property, and in the +other, all articles of ordnance property, issued each soldier for his +personal use. + +=897. Service Record.= (Formerly known as "Descriptive List.") One for +each member of the company, in which is kept a full description of +him, including date of enlistment, personnel description, record of +deposits, trial by court-martial, record of vaccination, clothing +account, etc. + +=898. Descriptive Card of Public Animals.= To be kept in organizations +supplied with public animals. + +=899. Retained Copies of Rolls, Returns, etc.= Retained copies of the +various rolls, reports, and returns (property and other) that are +required by orders and regulations. + +=900. Memorandum Receipts=, showing all articles of ordnance +quartermaster, and other property that may be held on memorandum +receipt, with date of receipt, from whom received, etc. The company +commander has a quarterly settlement with the staff officers +concerned. + +=901. Abstract Record of Memorandum Receipts.= For keeping a record of +property issued on memorandum receipt, in connection with the unit +accountability equipment. + +=902. Record of Rifles=, showing the number of the rifle, the Arsenal +where made, date of receipt, to whom issued, and number of shots fired +each target season. (Note. Geo. Banta Publishing Co., Menasha, Wis., +print an excellent card for this purpose.) + +=903. Summary Court Records.= Commanding officers are required to +furnish organization commanders with true copies of all summary court +records relating to men of their organizations, which papers form a +part of the records of the organization. + +=904. Statement of Clothing Charged to Enlisted Men.= When clothing is +drawn individually from the quartermaster, the Individual Clothing +Slips are entered on the Statement of Clothing Charged to Enlisted +Men, which is filed with the requisition to which it pertains. + +=905. Abstract of Clothing.= All individual clothing slips are entered +on this abstract as the issues are made, the total quantities and +money values being determined and the abstract completed at the end of +month or when the organization leaves the vicinity of the issuing +quartermaster for an extended period. At the close of period covered, +the organization commander compares his copy of the abstract with the +quartermaster's copy, and it is then filed with the Individual +Clothing Slips and Statement of Clothing Charged to Enlisted men. + +=906. Record of Size of Clothing.= A record of the sizes of clothing +of every man in the company as ascertained by measurement. + +=907. Company Target Records.= An individual record is kept for each +man of the company and for every officer firing, on which are entered +the record rifle practice and the qualification for each target +season. A similar record is kept in the case of those required to fire +with the pistol. Records are also kept of the company combat firing +and the proficiency test, and of the combat practice. The combat +practice records are kept until the close of the following target +season, when they may be destroyed. + +=908. Company Return.= On the first day of each month a Company Return +for the preceding month is submitted to regimental headquarters. The +return gives by name all changes since rendition of last return in the +case of officers, and by number all changes in the case of enlisted +men, and shows the condition of the company at midnight of the last +day of the month for which rendered. All officers, present and absent, +are accounted for by name, and under "Record of Events," is given a +brief statement of the duties performed by the company during the +month, including marches made, actions in which engaged, etc. See next +page for a "Model" Company Return. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +=909. Ration return.= In addition to rations, on this form are +obtained soap, candles, matches, toilet paper, rock salt, vinegar for +animals, flour for paste in target practice, towels, and ice, the +allowances of which are prescribed in the Army Regulations. + +The best way to show how a ration return is prepared is to give a +"model" and then explain how the figures thereon were obtained. + +The figures in the above "model" were obtained as follows: + + (a) The enlisted strength of Co. "H," 50th Inf., present + and absent according to the morning report of Feb. 29/16, + was 97 + + (b) Deduct from the above the number of men absent + according to the morning report of Feb. 29/16, and for + whom rations will not, therefore, be drawn for any part + or for the whole of the month of March, the number of men + absent being (assumed) as follows: + + On furlough 3 + On detached service 2 + Absent sick 2 + Absent in confinement 1 + Present sick in hospital 4 + Attached to and rationed with the band 2 14 + --------- + Balance 83 + + (c) Add the number of men attached to the company for + rations, which (it is assumed) consists of two general + prisoners 2 + --------- + TOTAL 85 + + That is to say, we have 85 men for whom one ration per + day must be drawn for the month of March, that is to + say, 31 days. + + Hence, the total number of rations will be, + 85 x 31 = 2635 rations. + + (d) Additions and deductions must be made as follows: + + _Additions_ + + For the men who were attached to the company for + rations and who joined during the month of February, + from absent sick, furlough, detached service, etc., and + which (let us assume) the "Plus" column of "Rations" on + the company morning report for February shows to be 150 + + _Deductions_ + + For the men who left the company during the month of + February, on account of being sent to the hospital sick, + going on furlough, etc., and which (let us assume) the + "Minus" column of "Rations" on the company morning + report for February shows to be 200 + + Leaving us (a "Net correction") to be _added_ of 50 + --------- + And making the total number due the company for the + month of March 2585 + + +EXTRA ISSUES + +The Army Regulations fixes the maximum allowance of soap, toilet +paper, matches, etc., the commanding officer being authorized, if he +so desires, to determine the allowances, with the prescribed maximum. +The allowances are based either on so much per ration, per so many +rations, or per organization. In the case of candles and matches the +allowance is left entirely to the commanding officer. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6: "Model" Ration Return] + + _Example_ + + (See "model" ration return above) + + _Soap._ Allowance is 0.64 for each ration or 4 lbs. to 100 + rations. 25.85 x 4 = 103.40, i. e., the company is entitled to 103 + lbs. of soap for the month of March. + + _Toilet paper._ Allowance is 1000 sheets for every 60 rations, + 2585 / 60 = 43+, that is, the company is entitled to 43 packages + of toilet paper. + + _Matches._ Allowance of matches for lighting fires and lights, for + which fuel and the illumination supplies are issued, is such as + the commanding officer may order as necessary. + + _Flour._ Allowance of flour for paste used in target practice is + 50 lbs. for each troop or company for the practice season. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[8] Silicate Roll Blackboards, which are perfectly flexible and can be +rolled tightly, like a map, without injury, may be obtained from the +New York Silicate Book Slate Co., 20 Vesey St., New York. They are +made in various sizes, about the most convenient for use in +noncommissioned officers' schools is No. 3, three by four feet--price +$2. + +[9] For example, noisy or disorderly conduct in quarters, failure to +salute officers, slovenly dressed at formations, rifle equipments not +properly cleaned at inspection or other formations, overstaying pass, +short absences without leave and absences from formations (especially +for first offense). + + + + +CHAPTER II + +DISCIPLINE + + +=910. Definition.= Discipline is not merely preservation of order, +faithful performance of duty, and prevention of offenses--in other +words, discipline is not merely compliance with a set of rules and +regulations drawn up for the purpose of preserving order in an +organization. This is only one phase of discipline. In its deeper and +more important sense discipline may be defined as the habit of +instantaneous and instinctive obedience under any and all +circumstances--it is the habit whereby the very muscles of the soldier +instinctively obey the word of command, so that under whatever +circumstances of danger or death the soldier may hear that word of +command, even though his mind be too confused to work, his muscles +will obey. It is toward this ultimate object that all rules of +discipline tend. In war, the value of this habit of instantaneous and +instinctive obedience is invaluable, and during the time of peace +everything possible should be done to ingrain into the very blood of +the soldier this spirit, this habit, of instantaneous, instinctive +obedience to the word of command. + +=911. Methods of Attaining Good Discipline.= Experience shows that +drill, routine, military courtesy, attention to details, proper +rewards for good conduct, and invariable admonition or punishment of +all derelictions of duty, are the best methods of attaining good +discipline--that they are the most effective means to that end. + +=912. Importance.= History shows that the chief factor of success in +war is discipline, and that without discipline no body of troops can +hold their own against a well-directed, well-disciplined force. + +=913. Sound System.= We must bear in mind that what may be considered +a sound system of discipline at one epoch or for one nation, may be +inapplicable at another epoch or for another nation. In other words, +sound discipline depends upon the existing state of civilization and +education, the political institutions of the country, the national +trait and the national military system. For example, the system of +discipline that existed in the days of Frederick the Great, and which, +in modified form, exists today in certain European armies, whereby the +soldier was so inured to a habit of subjection that he became a sort +of machine--a kind of automaton. Such a system of discipline, while +answering admirably well its purpose at that time and for those +nations, would not do at all in this day and generation, and with a +people like ours, in whom the spirit of personal freedom and +individual initiative are born. Of course, the discipline that will +insure obedience under any and all conditions--the discipline that +will insure prompt and unhesitating obedience to march, to attack, to +charge--is just as important today as it was a thousand years ago, but +we can not attain it by the machine-making methods of former times. +The system we use must be in keeping with the national +characteristics of our people and the tactical necessities of the day, +the latter requiring individual initiative. According to the old +system, the company commander imposed his will upon a body of +submissive units; under the new system the company commander, backed +by authority and greater knowledge, leads obedient, willing units, +exacting ready obedience and loyal cooeperation. The company commander +used to drive; now he leads. + +=914. Means of attaining and maintaining such discipline.= + +1. Explain to the men the importance of discipline and its value on +the field of battle, and give the reasons that makes it necessary to +subject soldiers to restrictions that they were not subjected to in +civil life. + +2. Do not impose unnecessary restrictions or hardships on your men, +nor issue orders that have no bearing on their efficiency, health, +cleanliness, orderliness, etc. + +3. Demand a high standard of excellence in the performance of all +duties whatsoever, and exact the utmost display of energy. + +A system of discipline based on the above principles develops habits +of self-control, self-reliance, neatness, order, and punctuality, and +creates respect for authority and confidence in superiors. + +=915. Punishment.= In maintaining discipline, it must be remembered +the object of punishment should be two-fold: (a) To prevent the +commission of offenses, and (b) to reform the offender. Punishment +should, therefore, in degree and character depend upon the nature of +the offense. Punishment should not be debasing or illegal, and the +penalty should be proportionate to the nature of the offense. If too +great, it tends to arouse sympathy, and foster friends for the +offender, thus encouraging a repetition of the offense. A distinction, +therefore, should be made between the deliberate disregard of orders +and regulations, and offenses which are the result of ignorance or +thoughtlessness. In the latter case the punishment should be for the +purpose of instruction and should not go to the extent of inflicting +unnecessary humiliation and discouragement upon the offender. + + +General Principles + +=916.= In the administration of discipline the following principles +should be observed. + +1. Everyone, officers and soldiers, should be required and made to +perform their full duty. If the post commander, for instance, requires +the company commanders to do their full duty, they will require their +noncommissioned officers to do their full duty, and the +noncommissioned officers will in turn require the men to do the same. + +2. Subordinates should be held strictly responsible for the proper +government and administration of their respective commands, and all +changes or corrections should be made through them. + +3. Subordinates should have exclusive control of their respective +commands, and all orders, instructions and directions affecting their +commands should be given through them. + +4. If, in case of emergency, it be not practicable to make certain +changes or corrections, or to give certain orders, instructions or +directions, through the subordinates, they should be notified at once +of what has been done. + +5. After a subordinate has been placed in charge of a certain duty, +all instructions pertaining thereto should be given through him, and +all meddling and interfering should be avoided. Interference by +superiors relieves the subordinate of responsibility, and causes him +to lose interest, become indifferent, and do no more than he is +obliged to do. + +6. The certainty of reward for, and appreciation of, meritorious +conduct, should equal the certainty of punishment for dereliction of +duty. + +7. It is the duty of an officer or noncommissioned officer who gives +an order to see that it is obeyed; carrying out orders received by him +does not end with their perfunctory transmission to subordinates--this +is only a small part of his duty. He must personally see that the +orders so transmitted are made effective. + +8. The treatment of soldiers should be uniform and just, and under no +circumstances should a man be humiliated unnecessarily or abused. +Reproof and punishment must be administered with discretion and +judgment, and without passion; for an officer or noncommissioned +officer who loses his temper and flies into a tantrum has failed to +obtain his first triumph in discipline. He who can not control himself +can not control others. + +9. Punishment should invariably follow dereliction of duty, for the +frequency of offenses depends, as a general rule, on the degree of +certainty with which their commission is attended with punishment. +When men know that their derelictions and neglects will be observed +and reproved, they will be much more careful than they would be +otherwise--that's human nature. + +A strict adherence to the above general principles will instill into +the minds of those concerned, respect for authority and a spirit of +obedience. + + + + +PART III + +MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS PERTAINING TO COMPANY TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION + + + + +CHAPTER I + +GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COMPANY TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION[10] + + +=917. Object of Training and Instruction.= The object of training and +instructing a company is to thoroughly knit together its different +parts, its various elements (individuals, squads and platoons), into a +complete, homogeneous mass, a cohesive unit, that will under any and +all conditions and circumstances respond to the will of the captain--a +cohesive unit that knows how to march, that knows how to live properly +in camp, that knows how to fight and that can be readily handled +tactically on the field of battle. In short, the object of training +and instruction is to make out of the company an efficient, wieldy +fighting weapon, to be manipulated by the captain. There is but one +way this object can be obtained, and that is by work, work, work--and +then more work--by constant care, attention and pains--by cooeperation, +by team work, among the officers, the noncommissioned officers and the +privates. + +=918. Method and Progression.= Arrangement is an essential of sound +teaching. Training and instruction in order to be easily understood +and readily assimilated--in order to give the greatest results in the +shortest time--must be carried on according to a methodical and +progressive plan. Each subject or subjects upon a knowledge of which +depend the proper understanding and mastering of another, should be +studied and mastered before taking up the other subject, and the +elementary and simpler aspects of a given subject must be mastered +before taking up the higher and more difficult phases of the subject, +which means that individual training and instruction must precede, and +provide a sound foundation for, collective training and +instruction--that is to say, for the higher tactical training and +instruction of the company as a unit. These basic, fundamental +principles of successful training and instruction apply to practical +as well as theoretical training. For instance, in the subject of +entrenchments we would first instruct the men individually in the use +of the tools and in the construction and use of the trenches, after +which we would pass on to the tactical use of entrenchments by the +company. Also, in training and instructing the company in fire +discipline, we would first explain to the men the power and tactical +value of the rifle, and instruct them in their duties on the firing +line as regards adjustment of sights, attention to commands, economy +of ammunition, etc.; we would explain to the platoon commanders and +guides their duties as regards control of fire, enforcement of fire +discipline, etc., after which we would practice the company as a unit +in fire action, and fire control, ending up with an exercise showing +the tactical application of the rules and principles explained. And +again, in the training and instruction of the company in the attack, +we would first train and instruct the company in all the formations +and operations that naturally precede an attack (patrolling, outposts, +advance guard, rear guard), and also in those that form an inherent +part of an attack (extended order, field firing, use of cover, etc.). + +=919. Program.= The training and instruction of a company, whether +practical or theoretical, should be carried on in accordance with a +fixed, definite program, in which the subjects are arranged in a +natural, progressive order. + +=920. Simultaneous Instruction and Training.= The next question that +presents itself is: Should instruction and training in each branch be +completed before proceeding to the next, or should instruction and +training be carried on simultaneously in two or more different +subjects, as one, for example, are taught mathematics, French and +history at the same time, a different hour of the day being devoted to +each subject? In other words, should we, for instance, devote one hour +of the day to attack, one hour to defense, and one hour to the service +of security, thus preventing the soldier from getting weary of doing +the same thing that whole day? Our answer is: + +1st. If the instruction and training is being given on the ground +where the application of the principles of any given subject is varied +so much by the type of the ground and the nature of the situation, +each type of ground affording a different solution of the problem, it +is thought the best results can be obtained by finishing each subject +before proceeding to the next, thus not losing the "atmosphere" of one +subject by switching to the next, and also confusing the minds of the +men with different principles. + +2nd. However, if the instruction and training be theoretical and the +time available each day be several hours, better results can be +obtained by studying two or more subjects simultaneously. This would +also be the case if the work be practical, but if it be such that the +type of the ground and the nature of the situation will not of +themselves afford variety in the application of the same principles. + +=921. Responsibility.= The Army Regulations and War Department orders +hold the company commander responsible for the training and +instruction of the company. The subject is a most important one and +should receive serious thought and study. Before admonishing one of +your men for not knowing a subject, always ask yourself, "Have I made +an effort to teach it to him?" + +=922. Interest.= Special effort should be made to make the training +and instruction of the company interesting, so that the work will not +become monotonous and irksome, and thus cause the men to lose interest +and get stale. To accomplish this, these points should be borne in +mind: + +_Variety._ Inject variety into the work. Do not keep the men too long +at one thing. + +_Clearness._ Every exercise, lesson or lecture should have in view a +well-defined object, the meaning and importance of which must be +explained to, and understood by, the men at the beginning of the +exercise, lesson or lecture. In other words, at the beginning, explain +the main, governing idea of the subject, and then take pains to +explain in a simple, conversational way each phase as you come to it. +Give the reasons for everything. You can not expect men to take an +interest in things the meaning of which they do not understand and the +reason for which they do not see. Make sure by asking questions of +different ones as you go along that your explanations are understood. + +_Thoroughness._ Every lecture, talk, drill or exercise should be +carefully planned and arranged beforehand. Remember, that the men who +are going to listen to your talk--the men who are going to go through +the exercise--have the right to expect this of you, and you have no +right to compel them to listen to lots of disconnected, half-baked +statements, or make them go through a disjointed exercise or drill. In +the case of tactical exercises always, if practicable, visit and +examine the terrain beforehand. Of course, all this will mean +work--additional work--but remember the government pays you to work. + +_Reality._ Make all practical work as real as possible--do not permit +the commission of absurdities--do not let men do things which +manifestly they would not be able to do in actual practice--and you +yourself be sure to make your exercises and tactical scheme as like +real conditions of warfare as possible. + +=923. Individual Initiative.= The effective range and great power of +modern firearms cause troops in battle to be spread out over large +areas, thus decentralizing control over men and operations, and +consequently increasing the value and importance of individual +initiative. The company commander should, therefore, practice, +accustom and encourage the privates, noncommissioned officers and +lieutenants in the development and exercise of individual initiative +and responsibility. This should be borne in mind in all training and +instruction. + +Officers, noncommissioned officers and privates must not "lay down" +just because they have no specific orders. Remember, the one thing +above all others that counts in war, is =action, initiative=. Indeed, +'tis better to have acted and lost than never to have acted at all. +Listen to what the Chief of Staff of the Army has to say about this in +the preface to the Field Service Regulations: "Officers and men of all +ranks and grades are given a certain independence in the execution of +the tasks to which they are assigned and are expected to show +initiative in meeting the different situations as they arise. Every +individual, from the highest commander to the lowest private, must +always remember that inaction and neglect of opportunities will +warrant more severe censure than an error in the choice of means." + +=924. Determination and Individual Intelligence.= While the value of +discipline can hardly be overestimated, there are two other factors in +battle that are fully as important, if not more so, and they are, +=determination= to win, and =individual intelligence=, which, in war, +as in all other human undertakings, almost invariably spell success. +Therefore, make these two factors one of the basic principles of the +instruction and training of the company, and do all you can to instill +into your men a spirit of determination, and to develop in them +individual intelligence. Every human being has in his soul a certain +amount of determination, even though it be only enough to determine +upon the small things of life. Some people are born with more +determination than others, but it is a mistake to suppose that a man +must remain through life with the same amount of determination that he +brought into it. The attributes of the human mind, such as +determination, bravery, ambition, energy, etc., are all capable of +improvement and also of deterioration. It is essential therefore, for +us to endeavor by all means in our power to improve our strength of +character--our determination. It is, of course, useless for us to +learn the art of war if we have not sufficient determination, when we +meet the enemy, to apply the principles we have studied. There is no +reason, however, why every officer, noncommissioned officer and +private should not improve his determination of character by careful +training in peace. It can only be done by facing the difficulties, +thoroughly understanding the dangers, and asking ourselves repeatedly +whether we are prepared to face the ordeal in war. Let us not think, +in a vague sort of a way, that in war we shall be all right and do as +well as most people. We know that we are not gifted with tremendous +personal courage, and we know that, whatever happens, we shall not run +away. But that is not enough. We must train ourselves to understand +that in the hour of trial we can harden our hearts, that we can assume +the initiative, and retain it by constant advance and constant attack; +unless we can fill our hearts with the determination to win, we can +not hope to do our full duty on the field of battle and acquit +ourselves with credit. + +=925. The Human Element.= No system of training and instruction that +does not take into account human nature, can be thoroughly effective. +The human element probably enters into war more than it does into any +other pursuit. The old idea of turning a human being into a machine, +by means of discipline, and making him dread his captain more than the +enemy, died long ago, especially with the American people. In modern +war success depends to a great extent upon the initiative, the +individual action of the soldier and this action is greatly influenced +by the soldier's state of mind at the moment, by the power that can be +exercised over his mind by his comrades and those leading him. The +company commander should, therefore, study the characteristics of the +human mind with the object of ascertaining how he can influence the +men under his command, so that in battle those human attributes which +are favorable to success, may be strengthened and those which are +favorable to defeat may be weakened. Of the former, courage, +determination, initiative, respect, cheerfulness, comradeship, +emulation and esprit de corps, are the principal ones; of the latter, +fear, surprise, disrespect, and dejection, are the leading ones. By +means of good, sound discipline, we can create, improve and foster the +qualities mentioned that are favorable to success, and we can +eliminate to a considerable extent, if not entirely, those that are +detrimental to success. + +=926. Fear.= The emotion of fear acts more powerfully upon the +feelings of the individual soldier than any other emotion, and it is +also probably the most infectious. Fear in a mild form is present in +every human being. Nature wisely put it there, and society could not +very well get along without it. For example, we stop and look up and +down a crowded street before starting to cross, for fear of being run +over; in going out in the cold we put on our overcoats, for fear of +catching cold. In fact, we hardly do anything in life without taking +a precaution of some kind. These are all examples of reasonable fear, +which, within bounds is a perfectly legitimate attribute of a soldier +in common with other human beings. For example, we teach the men to +take advantage of cover when attacking, and we dig trenches when on +the defense, in both cases for fear of being shot by the enemy. It is +the unreasoning type of fear that plays havoc in war, and the most +deadly and common form of it is a vague, indefinite, nameless dread of +the enemy. If the average man was to analyze his feelings in war and +was to ask himself if he were actually afraid of being killed, he +would probably find that he was not. The ordinary soldier is prepared +to take his chance, with a comfortable feeling inside him, that, +although no doubt a number of people will be killed and wounded, he +will escape. If, then, a man is not unreasonably afraid of being +killed or wounded, is it not possible by proper training and +instruction to overcome this vague fear of the enemy? Experience shows +that it is. If a soldier is suffering from this vague fear of the +enemy, it will at least be a consolation to him to know that a great +many other soldiers, including those belonging to the enemy, are +suffering in a similar manner, and that they are simply experiencing +one of the ordinary characteristics of the human mind. If the soldier +in battle will only realize that the enemy is just as much afraid of +him as he is of the enemy, reason is likely to assert itself and to a +great extent overcome the unpleasant feelings inside him. General +Grant, in his Memoirs, relates a story to the effect that in one of +his early campaigns he was seized with an unreasonable fear of his +enemy, and was very much worried as to what the enemy was doing, when, +all at once, it dawned upon him that his enemy was probably worrying +equally as much about what he, Grant, was doing, and was probably as +afraid as he was, if not even more so, and the realization of this +promptly dispelled all of his, Grant's, fear. Confidence in one's +ability to fight well will also do much to neutralize fear, and if a +soldier knows that he can shoot better, march better, and attack +better, than his opponent, the confidence of success that he will, as +a result, feel will do much to dispel physical fear. By sound and +careful training and instruction make your men efficient and this +efficiency will give them confidence in themselves, confidence in +their rifles, confidence in their bayonets, confidence in their +comrades and confidence in their officers. + +The physical methods of overcoming fear in battle are simply to direct +the men's minds to other thoughts by giving them something for their +bodies and limbs to do. It is a well-known saying that a man in battle +frequently regains his lost courage by repeatedly firing off his +rifle, which simply means that his thoughts are diverted by physical +movements. This is no doubt one of the reasons why the attack is so +much more successful in war than the defense, because in the attack +the men are generally moving forward and having their minds diverted +by physical motion from this vague dread of the enemy. + +=927. Courage.= Courage, like all other human characteristics, is very +infectious, and a brave leader who has no fear of the enemy will +always get more out of his men than one who is not so well equipped in +that respect. However, it is a well-known fact that a man may be +brave far above his fellows in one calling or occupation, and +extremely nervous in another. For example, a man may have greatly +distinguished himself in the capture of a fort, who would not get on a +horse for fear of being kicked off. Courage of this kind is induced +chiefly by habit or experience--the man knows the dangers and how to +overcome them, he has been through similar experiences before and he +has come out of them with a whole skin. This type of courage can be +developed by careful training during peace, and it can be increased by +self-confidence--by so training the soldier that he knows and feels he +will know what to do in any emergency which may arise, and how to do +it; he will not be surprised by the unexpected event, which invariably +occurs, and he will understand others besides himself are being +troubled by unpleasant feelings, which it is his duty as a man and a +soldier to overcome. + +=928. Surprise.= Surprise may be said to be the mother of a panic, +which is the worst form of fear. In such a case unreasoning fear +sometimes turns into temporary insanity. Panic is most infectious, +but, on the other hand, a panic can often be averted or stayed by the +courageous action of one or more individuals, who can thus impose +their will on the mass and bring the people to a reasonable state of +mind. =Teach every man in the company that when surprised the only +hope of success is to obey at once and implicitly the orders of his +immediate commander.= + +Surprises in war are not limited to the ordinary acceptance of the +term, such as a sudden attack from an unexpected direction. The +soldier who goes into battle, for instance, and hears the whiz of a +bullet, or sees a shell burst in front of him, is surprised if he has +not been taught in peace that these things have to be faced, and that +for one bullet that hurts anyone thousands have to be fired. +Similarly, a man sees a comrade knocked over; the horrors of war are +immediately brought to him, and his courage begins to ebb--he has been +surprised, because he has not realized in peace that men are bound to +be killed in war. The whole atmosphere of the battlefield is a +surprise to the average soldier with no previous experience--the enemy +is everywhere, behind every bush, and lurking in every bit of cover, +the air is full of bullets, and any advance towards the +formidable-looking position held by the enemy is suicidal. However, if +the soldier is properly trained and instructed in peace, he will not +be greatly surprised at his novel surroundings; he will know that the +enemy is not everywhere, and that one bullet sounds much more +dangerous than it really is. A bullet sounds quite close when it is +fifty yards away, and there is a popular saying that a man's weight in +lead is fired for every man that is killed in war. + +=929. Respect.= It is a mistake to imagine that all that is required +from a soldier is respect to his officers and noncommissioned +officers. Self-respect is fully as important. A soldier is a human +being; if he possesses self-respect he will respect all that is good +in his comrades, and they will respect all that is good in him. A man +who respects himself knows how to respect other people. These are the +men that form the backbone of the company, and are the best material +on which to work in order to raise the general standard of courage in +Battle. From a purely military point of view, it is absolutely +necessary for an officer, noncommissioned officer, or private to +possess some marked military qualifications in order to gain respect +from others. + +This respect engenders confidence in others. Self-respect in the +individual can be encouraged, not by fulsome praise, but by a quiet +appreciation of the good military qualities displayed by him, and by +making use of those qualities whenever an opportunity occurs. For +example, if a soldier is seen to do a good piece of scouting or +patrolling, the first opportunity should be taken to give him a +similar task, if possible in a more responsible position or on a more +important occasion. Knowledge is a powerful factor in creating +respect, and is probably second only to determination of character. It +is essential, therefore, that all officers and noncommissioned +officers should have a thorough knowledge of their duties--that they +should be "on to their jobs." + +=930. Cheerfulness.= Cheerfulness is a valuable military asset in war, +and like all other characteristics of the human being, is very +infectious, and in times of depression, such as during a long siege, +or after the failure of an attack, it does more than anything else to +restore the fighting power of the men. + +=931. Contentment.= Contentment amongst troops in war is dependent +upon these main factors: good leading, good food, and sufficient +shelter and sleep. Of these, good leading is by far the most +important, because it has been proved time and again that badly fed +and badly quartered troops, who have suffered great hardships, will +still be content and will fight in the most gallant and vigorous +manner, provided they are well led. Although good leading emanates in +the first instance from the highest military authorities, a great deal +depends upon the company officers and noncommissioned officers. A good +leader as a rule is careful of the comforts of his men; he obtains the +best food and best shelter available, he does not wear out the men by +unnecessary movements or unnecessary work, either in the field or in +camp, and consequently when he does order them to do anything they +know at once that it is necessary and they do it cheerfully. + +=932. Comradeship.= Comradeship is a very valuable military +characteristic. What a world of meaning there is in the words, "Me and +my bunkie." A soldier may have many acquaintances and a number of +friends, but he has but one "bunkie." In times of great danger two men +who are "bunkies" will not shirk so easily as two independent men. The +best in one man comes out to the surface and dominates any bad +military points in the other. They can help each other in countless +ways in war, and if one is unfortunately killed or wounded, the other +will probably do his best to get even with the enemy at the earliest +possible opportunity. This spirit may not be very Christianlike, but +it is very human and practical, and helps to win battles, and to win +battles is the only reason why soldiers go to war. + + +ART OF INSTRUCTION ON THE GROUND + +=933. Advantages.= Whenever practicable, training and instruction +should, in whole or in part, be imparted on the ground, as this gives +the instruction a practical aspect that is most valuable, and enables +the soldier to grasp and apply principles that he would not otherwise +understand. Knowledge that a man can not apply has no value. + +=934. Different Methods.= Instruction on the ground may be given +according to one of these three methods: + +_1st Method._ By means of a talk or lecture prepare the minds of the +men for the reception and retention of the subject to be explained +later on the ground. In other words, first explain the principles of +the subject and then put a "clincher" on the information thus imparted +by taking the men to some suitable ground, assuming certain situations +and then by quizzing different men see how they would apply the +principles just explained in the talk or lecture. For example, after a +lecture on the selection of fire-positions take the men to some +suitable nearby place and explain to them that the company is +attacking toward that house and is being fired upon from that +direction. Then continue: + +=Captain:= Remember what I told you about the selection of good +fire-positions during the advance. We want to use our rifles with +effect, so we must be able to see the position of the enemy. On the +other hand, we want to avoid being hit ourselves, if possible; so, we +would like to get as much cover as possible. Now, Smith, do you think +where we are at present standing is a good place for a fire-position? + +=Smith:= No, sir. + +=Captain:= Why not? + +=Smith:= We can see the enemy from here, but he can see us better than +we can see him, and can hit us easier than we can hit him. + +=Captain:= Jones, can you choose a better place, either to the front +or rear of where we are now standing? + +=Jones:= I would choose a position along that row of bushes, about +fifty yards to the front. + +=Captain:= Why? + +=Jones:= Because, etc., etc. + +Twenty minutes' instruction in this manner, after a lecture, will +firmly fix in the brains of the men the principles explained in the +lecture. + +It is a good plan to repeat the salient points of the lecture in the +questions, as was done in the first question asked above, or to do so +in some other way. + +If a man can not give an answer, or choose a suitable place, explain +the requirements again and help him to use his common sense. + +_2d Method._ By practicing the men on the ground in the subject about +which the talk or lecture was delivered. + +_3d Method._ This may be called the ocular demonstration method, which +consists in having a part of the company go through the exercise or +drill, while the rest of the company observes what is being done. This +method is illustrated by the following example: + +=935. Attack.= The company commander has just delivered a talk to the +company on the second stage of the attack, and has marched the company +to a piece of ground suitable for practicing this particular +operation, and which the company commander has himself visited +beforehand (The ground should always be visited beforehand by the +company commander, who should be thoroughly familiar with it. If +possible, ground suitable for practicing the operation in question +should always be selected.) The operation should begin about 1200 +yards from the enemy's position. After pointing out the enemy's +position to the company, the particular part of his line it is +intended to assault and the direction the company is to advance, the +company commander would then proceed something like this: "We are part +of a battalion taking part in a battle, and there are companies to our +right and left, with a support and reserve in our rear. So far we have +been advancing over ground that is exposed to hostile artillery fire +(or not exposed to hostile artillery fire, according to the actual +country). We have just come under the enemy's infantry fire also, and +consequently we must change our method of advancing. Our immediate +object is to get forward, without expending more ammunition than is +absolutely necessary, to a position close enough to the enemy to +enable us to use our rifles with such deadly effect that we will be +able to gain a superiority of fire. Now, is this place sufficiently +close for the purpose? No, it is not--it's entirely too far away. Is +that next ridge just in front of us close enough? No, it is not; it is +at least 1,000 yards from the enemy's position. As a rule, we must get +from eight to six hundred yards from the enemy's position before the +real struggle for superiority of fire begins. + +"The following are the main points to which attention must be paid +during this part of the advance: + +"1. We must halt in good fire position from which we can see and fire +at the enemy, and from which we can not be seen very clearly. + +"2. We must advance very rapidly over any open ground that is exposed +to the enemy's artillery or rifle fire. + +"3. We must find halting places, if possible under cover, or under the +best cover available, so as to avoid making our forward rushes so long +that the men will get worn out, and begin to straggle long before they +get close enough to the enemy to use their rifles with deadly effect. + +"4. Whenever possible, company scouts should be sent on ahead to +select fire-positions." + +Of course, the above points will have been explained already in the +lecture, but this short summary is given in order to focus the minds +of the men upon the action that must be taken by the privates, and +squad leaders and the platoon commanders. + +We now take one platoon and the remainder of the company looks on. The +platoon commander is reminded that he is under artillery and infantry +fire, and is then directed to advance, in proper formation, to the +first fire-position available. + +We will suppose there is a gentle slope up to the next ridge or +undulation of the ground, and that there are no obstructions to the +view except those afforded by the ground itself. The platoon now +advances, the captain remaining with the rest of the company, pointing +out mistakes as well as good points, and asking the men questions, +such as: + +=Captain:= Corporal Smith, should the whole platoon have gone forward +together, or would it have been better to advance by squads? + +=Corporal Smith:= I think it should have advanced by squads. + +=Captain:= No, it was all right to advance as they did. At this +distance the enemy's infantry fire would not be very deadly, the +platoon is well extended as skirmishers, it would take considerably +longer to go forward to the next position by successive squads and we +want to advance at this stage as rapidly as possible; for, the longer +we took, the longer would the men be exposed to fire, and consequently +the greater would be the number of casualties. + +=Captain:= Sergeant Jones, why did the platoon advance at a run when +moving down the slope, and begin to walk just before reaching the foot +of the slope? + +=Sergeant Jones:= Because the slope is exposed and it was necessary to +get over it as quickly as possible. They began to walk just before +reaching the foot of the slope, because they struck dead ground and +were covered from the enemy's fire by the ridge in front. + +=Captain:= Corporal Adams, shouldn't the platoon have halted when it +reached cover, so as to give the men a rest? + +=Corporal Adams:= No, sir; the men had not run very far and walking +gave them sufficient rest. It would have been an unnecessary loss of +time to halt. + +=Captain:= Harris, why did that man run on ahead as soon as the +platoon halted? + +=Pvt. Harris:= So he could creep up the crest of the ridge and lie +down in exactly the spot that is the best fire-position--that is, +where he can just see to fire over the crest and where the enemy can +not see him. + +=Captain:= Yes, that's right. All the men in the platoon might not +stop at the best fire-position and in the hurry and excitement of the +moment the platoon commander might also fail to do so, but if a man +goes forward and lies down, the whole platoon knows that they must not +go beyond him. Individual men who, owing to slight undulations of +ground, may not be able to fire when they halt in line with this man, +can creep up until they can see. Others who, for the same reason as +regards the ground, find that if they get up on a line with the man +they will be unduly exposed, will halt before that time. + +=Captain:= Sergeant Roberts, is it necessary for another platoon to +provide covering fire during the advance of the platoon? + +=Sergeant Roberts:= No sir. At this range the enemy's infantry fire +would not be very effective, and it is important to husband our +ammunition for the later stages of the attack. + +Having asked any other questions suggested by the situation or the +ground, the captain will then take the rest of the company forward +over the ground covered by the platoon, halting at the place where the +platoon changed its pace from a rush to a walk, so that the men can +see for themselves that cover from fire has been reached. He will then +move the rest of the company forward and tell them to halt and lie +down in what each man considers to be the best fire-position, not +necessarily adopting the same position as that chosen by the leading +platoon. The platoon commanders will then go along their platoons and +point out any mistakes. + +The leading platoon will now join the company and another platoon will +be deployed in the fire position, the platoon commander being directed +to advance to the next fire-position. + +As we are now about 1,000 yards from the enemy's position the question +will again arise as to whether covering fire is necessary. + +If the enemy's rifle fire were heavy and accurate it might be +necessary, but it should be avoided if possible, on account of the +expenditure of ammunition. + +We will suppose that the ground falls gently towards the enemy and is +very exposed to view for about 300 yards, and half this distance away +there is a low bank running parallel to the front of the attack and +with a small clump of three or four trees on the bank directly in +front of the platoon. Four hundred yards away is the bottom of the +valley covered with bushes and shrubs. On the far side the ground +rises with small undulations and low foot hills to the high ground +occupied by the enemy. + +There appears to be no marked fire-position which will afford any +cover except the bank 150 yards away. The second platoon advances in +the same manner as did the first and the captain with the commanders +of the remaining platoons will continue to ask questions and point out +what has been done right or wrong by the leading platoon. The first +question which will arise is whether the platoon can reach the fire +position offered by the bank in one rush, and secondly, whether the +bank is a good fire-position. A former question will again crop up as +to whether the whole platoon should go forward at once or whether the +advance should be made by squads. + +A hundred and fifty yards is a long way to advance without a halt, and +if a halt is made on such exposed ground fire must be opened. Probably +three advances, each of about fifty yards, would be made, covering +fire being provided by the other platoons, which will be occupying the +fire-position which the leading platoon has just left. This covering +fire would not endanger the leading platoon as it would be delivered +from just behind the crest and the leading platoon would be over the +crest and out of sight and therefore out of fire from the platoon in +rear. + +The selection of a fire-position during this advance would depend upon +very minute folds of the ground, or very low bushes, grass, etc., +which might give a certain amount of cover from view, and therefore +make it difficult for the enemy to aim or range accurately. We will +suppose that the leading platoon has halted to fire about fifty yards +in front, the remaining platoons, in turn, should then be taken +forward, examining the ground very carefully as they go, and each +platoon commander asked to halt his platoon in what he considers to be +the best place. + +The possibility of using a scout to select a fire-position would be +considered, and a fire-position selected by one platoon would be +compared with that selected by another. + +The third platoon would then lead during the advance to the next +fire-position, and so on with the fourth platoon, if necessary, until +the bank was reached. The bank will afford a good deal of material for +discussion. Is it a good fire-position or is it not, should it be +occupied as such or should it be avoided altogether? + +If we ask an artillery officer his opinion about the matter, he will +tell us that by means of the clump of trees the defenders' artillery +will be able to range with absolute accuracy on that bank. The +direction of the bank is parallel to their front, and therefore they +can fire at any part of it for some distance right and left of the +clump without materially altering their range, and if any infantry +occupy the bank they can bring a very deadly fire to bear against +them. + +There appears to be no doubt, from an artillery point of view, that +our platoon should avoid occupying it and get out of its neighborhood +as rapidly as possible. + +There is another drawback as regards the bank: it is some 850 yards +from the enemy's position and may be expected to be under an effective +rifle fire. It is no doubt a good mark for the enemy, and, now we come +to the crux of the whole matter; his artillery and infantry fire might +not do us much damage so long as we remain behind the bank, but they +might make it very unpleasant for us directly we try to leave this +cover and advance further. + +Before finally deciding what to do we must consider human nature, +which is entirely in favor of halting behind the bank, and if allowed +to remain there long, will be opposed to leaving it. We cannot hope to +gain superiority of fire over the enemy at a range of 850 yards, so +that a long halt at the bank is out of the question. But it appears to +be an extraordinary thing, when we are searching everywhere for cover, +that we should be doubtful about occupying such good cover when we +find it. + +If we decide not to occupy it, the logical conclusion is that, when +preparing a position for defense, we should construct a good +fire-position for the attack some 850 yards away, which is the last +thing we should think of doing. + +There is no doubt about it, that with badly-trained troops such a +fire-position would be liable to become a snare, and that if they once +occupied it, there would be great difficulty in getting them forward +again, and probably the attack would be brought to a standstill at a +critical time. + +The answer appears to be found in the simple solution of good +training. We must teach our men that when they get into such positions +they must use the cover afforded, but for no longer than any other +fire-position, and that they must get into the habit in peace of +looking upon such localities with suspicion, and with the knowledge +that they are not suitable for lengthy occupation in war, if the +battle is to be won. + +We now come to a still more difficult question of training, namely, +how far can the company get forward from the bank without being +compelled to stop in order to gain superiority of fire over the +defense? In war we want to get as close as possible; the moral effect +on the defense is greater, our fire is more effective, and we are +likely to gain our object more rapidly. In peace there is no fire to +stop us, and we move forward to ridiculous positions which we could +not possibly reach in war without first gaining superiority of fire. +The result of this is that we try to do the same thing when first we +go to war, and we are stopped, probably much further back than we +should have been if we had studied the question in peace. + +Even on the most open ground we must get to within 600 yards of the +enemy, and if the ground affords any cover in front, the exposed space +must be rushed and the more forward position gained. Having pointed +out this difficulty to the company during the previous lecture, and +reminded them of it on the ground, we can now extend the whole company +and move forward from the bank, using covering fire and letting each +platoon commander decide how far he can get to the front after a +series of rushes, the company acting as a whole. + +The captain can then go down the line and discuss with each platoon +the position it has reached. Whilst he is doing this, the remaining +platoons can be trained in fire direction and control, which should be +carefully watched and criticized by the platoon commanders. One +platoon, owing to the nature of the ground in front of it, can get +forward further than other platoons, and this should be brought home +to each platoon, so as to avoid the possibility of playing the game of +follow your leader, and one platoon halting merely because another has +halted. + +If there is still time available, and the ground is suitable, the +company can be moved to a flank to choose a similar fire-position +where the ground is more favorable to an advance, and where the +company could get within 300 yards of the enemy, or even less, before +it would be absolutely necessary to stop in order to gain superiority +of fire. + +If there is still time available, and the ground is suitable, the +whole operation can be carried out in the opposite direction or in +some other direction, and the platoons can thus be trained to +appreciate that fire-positions which are good in one place are bad in +another. + +=936. Defense.= Demonstrations in defense can be carried out in a +similar manner, the captain explaining to the company the general line +of defense to be taken up, the portion allotted to the company, and +the probable direction of the enemy's attack. + +The cooeperation of the artillery and infantry will have been pointed +out in the previous lecture: how some part of the enemy's advance will +be dealt with by artillery alone, some part by both artillery and +infantry, and some part by infantry alone. + +This can now be pointed out to the men on the ground. Having +considered the assistance provided by the artillery, the next point to +decide upon is the exact position of the fire trench. The best way to +proceed is to allot a certain portion of the front occupied by the +company to each platoon and to let the platoon commanders take charge +of the operations. The platoon commander can direct one of his squads +to select a position for the trench, and that squad can lie down +there. The remaining squads will then select a position in turn. If +two squads select the same they can lie down together. The platoon +commander will then fall in his platoon, and make them lie down in the +most retired position chosen; he will ask the squad leader why the +squad chose that locality in preference to any other, why they did not +go ten yards further forward or ten yards further back; and he will +explain to the whole platoon the advantages and disadvantages of +selecting this locality. He will then move the whole platoon forward +to the next position chosen by another squad and deal with that +locality. Finally, he will select the position he thinks the best, +giving his reasons why he has decided upon it, and place the whole +platoon on it. When all the platoons have decided upon their line of +defense, the captain will move the whole company in turn from the +ground occupied by one platoon to that occupied by another, asking the +platoon commander in each case to explain why the position was chosen +in preference to any other. + +He will give his decision as regards each platoon, and he will finally +arrange for the position to be occupied by the whole company. One +platoon, for some good reason, may have chosen a place which it would +not be safe to occupy, owing to the fire of another platoon on the +flank. Another platoon may have chosen a place which was very good as +regards the field of fire in a direction which was already adequately +defended by another platoon, but which had a bad field of fire over +ground which no other platoon could fire upon. The company commander +would adjust all these matters, and in the end one or more platoons +might not be placed in the best position as regards their own +particular front, but in the best as regards the whole company. + +Having decided upon the exact site of the trenches and the general +distribution of fire, the next matter to consider is the amount of +clearing that is necessary, and the position and nature of any +obstacles which may be required. Each platoon commander having been +allotted a definite fire zone, can point out to his platoon what +clearance is necessary; he can then ask each squad, as before, to +choose the position for the obstacle. The company commander can then +take the whole company to the position occupied by each platoon and +tell the platoon commander to explain what ground they propose to +clear, where they propose to place their obstacle, the material +available for its construction, and in every case the reason why the +decision has been arrived at. If digging is permitted, the trenches +will now be constructed, and care will be taken that they are actually +finished. It is far better to work overtime than to construct trenches +which would be of little use in war and could not be properly +defended. It is the exception rather than the rule to see trenches +properly finished, fit for occupation, and capable of resisting a +heavy attack. If the trenches cannot be dug the company can be taken +to another part of the same position, where the ground in front is +totally different, and the exercise can be repeated, the platoon and +company commanders pointing out why a fire trench which was well sited +in the first case would be badly sited if a similar position was +selected in the second case. + +=937. Outpost.= We can now turn to the method of training the company +in outpost duty, making use of the same system of demonstration. +Having pointed out to the company the locality where the main body is +bivouacked, the fighting position which the main body will occupy in +case a heavy attack is made against the outposts, and the general line +of the outposts, the company commander will indicate on the ground the +extent of front which is to be guarded by his company, stating whether +imaginary companies continue the position on one or both flanks. He +will point out the possible avenues of approach from the direction of +the enemy to that portion of the position to be occupied by the +company, and state from which direction the enemy is most likely to +advance and why. + +The first point to decide is the number of outguards and their exact +position. In war this would always be done by the company commander, +but if it is desired to give the junior officers of the company some +instruction in this important detail, they should be sent out before +the company arrives on the ground to reconnoiter the position and make +their decisions. The exact siting of the trenches for the outguards, +the construction of obstacles, and the clearance of the foreground +having been decided upon and the positions selected for each outguard +discussed, and a definite site selected, the next question to decide +is the number and position of the sentries. + +The platoon commander would then take each scheme in turn, visit with +the whole platoon each position selected for the sentry, and decide +finally what it would be best to do, giving, as usual, his reasons. + +Having decided upon the positions of the sentries, and their line of +retreat, so as not to mask the fire of the outguard, the next matter +to consider would be the number of patrols that are required, and the +particular areas of ground that must be examined by them periodically. +The necessary trenches, obstacles, etc., would then be constructed. + +Finally, the whole company should be assembled, marched to the +position chosen for each outguard and the reasons for selecting the +position explained by the company commander. The company should then +be told off as an outpost company, and divided into outguards, +supports, if any, and the necessary sentries over arms, patrols, etc., +and marched to their respective posts. + +If there is still time available each platoon commander can +reconnoiter the ground for suitable positions for his outguards by +night, take the outguards there, explain why the change of position is +desirable, and direct the outguard commanders with their outguards to +select positions for the sentries, following the same procedure as by +day. + +Although it is quite correct to select positions for night outposts +during daylight, when possible, they should never be definitely +occupied by the company before dark, when the forward movement could +not be observed by the enemy. To practice night outposts by day is bad +instruction, outguards and sentries are placed in positions which +appear ridiculous to the ordinary mind, and the men get confused ideas +on the subject. When it is desired to practice day and night outposts +as an advanced exercise it is advisable to commence work in the +afternoon, establish the day outposts, reconnoiter for the night +outposts, make the change after dark and construct the necessary +trenches, obstacles, etc., after dark. + +It is, however, extremely important that the patrols should get to +know their way about the country in front during the daylight, when +possible, so that they will have some practice in recognizing land +marks by night. + +It frequently occurs, when training the company in outpost duties, +that periods elapse during which the outguards are doing nothing. +These opportunities should be taken to instruct the men in their +duties when ordered to patrol to the front, the same system of +demonstration being employed. For instance, the officer or +noncommissioned officer commanding a piquet can select three men, +point out certain ground in front which the sentries cannot see and +which must be examined by a patrol, and proceed to instruct the whole +picket in the best manner of carrying out this work. We will suppose +that the patrol is working by day and that the ground to be visited is +behind a small hill some 500 yards in front of the sentry. The +commander of the picket will then explain to the men that the first +object of the patrol is to reach the ground to be examined without +being seen by any hostile patrols which may be moving about in front. +Before proceeding further it is necessary for the patrol to decide +upon the best line of advance. The various lines of advance will be +discussed and the patrol asked to decide which they would select. +Three other men can then be asked to give their opinion, and so on +until all the men of the picket have expressed their views. The +commander of the picket will then state which he considers the best +line and give his reasons. + +The next matter to decide is the method of advance to be adopted by +the patrol. Are the three men to march past the sentry in one body and +walk straight over the hill in front? If they do this there may be a +hostile patrol hiding just behind the crest, watching the movements of +our patrol, and directly the latter reach the hill they will be +covered by the rifles of the hostile patrol at a few yards' range and +will be captured or shot. + +If the patrol is not to advance in one body how is it to act? There is +plenty of time available, so that there are no objections to +deliberate methods. The patrol should advance from cover to cover with +one man always going forward protected by the rifles of the remaining +two men who have halted in a good position to fire on any enemy that +can fire on the leading man. The leading man having readied the cover +in front will signal back all clear, and the two men in the rear will +join him. They will then make their next advance in a similar manner. + +By looking at the hill the patrol can make a good guess at the +locality which a hostile patrol would select if it was on the hill. It +would be a place where it could get a good view towards our outpost +line, and where the patrol could not be seen itself from the outpost +line. If the hill was quite bare with nothing but grass on it and flat +round top, the best place for the enemy's patrol would be exactly on +the top just behind the crest. In such a position he could not be seen +by any sentry to the right or left of our picket. For example, if the +hostile patrol chose a place on the side of the bare slope of the hill +and looked over the crest line it would not be seen by our sentry, but +it might be seen by another one on the flank. + +The object of our patrol would be to approach the hill, not direct +from the outguard, but either from the left or right of the hill and +thus come on the flank of the enemy's patrol if he was there. + +The whole picket can then be taken out to the front and follow the +movements of the patrol from cover to cover until the hill is reached. + +The next step will be to ascertain if there is any one on the top of +the hill. If the hill is perfectly bare with a somewhat convex slope, +it would be best for the three men to extend to about twenty yards +interval and move forward together, prepared to drop on the first sign +of the enemy, so that they can creep up and open fire on him without +exposing themselves. Three men with magazine rifles extended in this +manner, opposed to a hostile patrol collected in one party, should be +able to deal with the latter without much difficulty. Their fire would +be converging, and coming from different directions would confuse the +hostile patrol, especially if the advance was made from a flank. The +men of the patrol when creeping up the hill should avoid exposing +themselves in the direction of the ground behind the hill, if +possible, because they want to examine that ground later on, and if +seen by the enemy they might fall into an ambuscade. If it is +impossible to avoid being seen from the ground beyond, it would be +best for the patrol to retire as though they were going back to the +outposts, and then move round the flank of the hill and advance to the +ground beyond from an unexpected direction. All this would be +considered by the officer or noncommissioned officer commanding the +picket, together with many other points. + +Sufficient has been said to explain how this system of demonstration +can be worked in connection with any class of operation in the field. +It is certainly slow, and takes a long time, but no one is ever idle +and every one is constantly learning something fresh, for the simple +reason that, although one may know every detail of the subject, the +ground constantly differs and requires to be dealt with in a common +sense and skillful manner. The men are interested throughout, and one +morning spent on this kind of work is worth several days of practice +in the ordinary manner. + +It should be remembered that this system of demonstration is only +required to teach the men their work; when they have once learned it +and thoroughly understand the necessary details they must be practiced +in it, the company or platoon commander indicating what has been well +done, what has been badly done, and what requires improvement. (See +"Outposts," Par. 1051.) + + +OTHER EXAMPLES OF THE OCULAR DEMONSTRATION METHOD + +=938.= The following illustrations will suggest other examples of the +employment of the ocular demonstration method of instruction: + +=The advantages and disadvantages of close and extended order.= Send a +lieutenant or a noncommissioned officer with two or three squads of +the older soldiers some distance to the front of the company, and have +them advance toward the company, first in close order and then in +extended order. + +By =ocular demonstration= show the men who are watching the approach +of the company how easy it would be even for the poorest shots to land +bullets in the thick of a closed body, but how much of a less distinct +target the extended order offers and how many spaces there are in the +skirmish line for the bullets to pass through; also, how much more +easily cover can be employed and the rifle used in the extended order. +Let them see also how much more difficult it is for the officers and +noncommissioned officers to maintain control over the movements of +troops in extended order, and the consequent necessity and duty of +every soldier, when in extended order, doing all he can, by attention +and exertion, to keep order and help his officers and noncommissioned +officers to gain success. + +=939. The Use of Cover.= Send a lieutenant or noncommissioned officer +with a couple of squads of old soldiers a few hundred yards to the +front and have them advance on the company as if attacking, first +without taking advantage of cover and then taking advantage of all +available cover, the part of the company that is supposed to be +attacked lying down and aiming and snapping at the approaching +soldiers. Then reverse the operation--send the defenders out and have +them advance on the former attackers. Explain that the requisites of +good cover are: Ability to see the enemy; concealment of your own +body; ability to use the rifle readily. Then have a number of men take +cover and snap at an enemy in position, represented by a few old +soldiers. Point out the defects and the good points in each case. + +=940. Practice in Commanding Mixed Squads.= In order to practice +noncommissioned officers in commanding mixed firing squads, and in +order to drill the privates in banding themselves together and obeying +the orders of anyone who may assume command, it is good training for +two or more companies to practice reenforcing each other by one +company assuming a given fire-position and the other sending up +reenforcements by squads, the men being instructed to take positions +anywhere on the firing line where they may find an opening. However, +explain to the men that whenever possible units should take their +positions on the firing line as a whole, but that in practice it is +very often impossible to do this, and that the drill is being given so +as to practice the noncommissioned officers in commanding mixed units +on the firing line and also to give the privates practice in banding +themselves into groups and obeying the command of any noncommissioned +officer who may be over them. + +=941. Operating Against Other Troops.= There is no better way of +arousing interest, enthusiasm, and pride in training troops than by +creating a feeling of friendly rivalry and competition amongst the +men, and the best way to do this is to have one part of the company +operate against the other in all such practical work as scouting, +patrolling, attacking, etc. Whenever practicable, blank ammunition +should be used. One of the sides should wear a white handkerchief +around the hat or some other distinguishing mark. =The troops that are +sent out must be given full and explicit instructions as to just +exactly what they are to do, so that the principles it is intended to +illustrate may be properly brought out.= + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[10] This chapter is based on "Company Training," by General Haking, +British Army, which is the best book the author has ever seen on the +subject of company training. "Field Training of a Company of +Infantry," by Major Craufurd, British Army, an excellent little book, +was also consulted. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +GENERAL COMMON SENSE PRINCIPLES OF APPLIED MINOR TACTICS[11] + + +=942.= To begin with, you want to bear in mind that there is nothing +difficult, complicated or mysterious about applied minor tactics--it +is just simply the application of plain, every-day, common horse +sense--the whole thing consists in familiarizing yourself with certain +general principles based on common sense and then applying them with +common sense. Whatever you do, don't make the mistake of following +blindly rules that you have read in books. + +=943.= One of the ablest officers in the Army has recently given this +definition of the Art of War: + + One-fifth is learned from books; + One-fifth is common sense; + Three-fifths is knowing men and how to lead them. + +The man who would be successful in business must understand men and +apply certain general business principles with common sense; the man +who would be a successful hunter must understand game and apply +certain general hunting principles with common sense, and even the man +who would be a successful fisherman must understand fish and apply +certain general fishing principles with common sense. And so likewise +the man who would lead other men successfully in battle must +understand men and apply certain general tactical principles with +common sense. + +Of course, the only reason for the existence of an army is the +possibility of war some day, and everything the soldier does--his +drills, parades, target practice, guard duty, schools of instruction, +etc.--has in view only one end: The preparation of the soldier for the +field of battle. + +=944.= While the responsibilities of officers and noncommissioned +officers in time of peace are important, in time of battle they are +much more so: for then their mistakes are paid for in human blood. + +What would you think of a pilot who was not capable of piloting a boat +trying to pilot a boat loaded with passengers; or, of an engineer who +was not capable of running a locomotive trying to run a passenger +train? You would, of course, think him a criminal--but do you think he +would be more criminal than the noncommissioned officer who is not +capable of leading a squad in battle but who tries to do so, thereby +sacrificing the lives of those under him? + +You can, therefore, appreciate the importance, the necessity, of every +officer and noncommissioned officer doing everything that he possibly +can during times of peace to qualify himself for his duties and +responsibilities during times of war. + +If we are going to have a good army we must have good regiments; to +have good regiments we must have good battalions; to have good +battalions we must have good companies--but to have good companies we +must have efficient company officers and noncommissioned officers. + +As stated before, everything in the life of the soldier leads to the +field of battle. And so it is that in the subject of minor tactics all +instruction leads to the battle. First we have map problems; then +terrain exercises; next the war game; after that maneuvers, and +finally the battle. + +=945. Map Problems and Terrain Exercises.= In the case of map problems +you are given tactical problems to solve on a map; in the case of +terrain exercises you are given problems to solve on the ground. (The +word "Terrain," means earth, ground.) These are the simplest forms of +tactical problems, as you have only one phase of the action, your +information is always reliable and your imaginary soldiers always do +just exactly what you want them to do. + +=946. War Game.= Next comes the war game, which consists of problems +solved on maps, but you have an opponent who commands the enemy--the +phases follow one another rapidly and the conditions change--your +information is not so complete and reliable. However, your men being +slips of cardboard or beads, they will, as in the case of your +imaginary soldiers in the map problems and terrain exercises, go where +you wish them to and do what you tell them to do--they can't +misunderstand your instructions and go wrong--they don't straggle and +get careless as real soldiers sometimes do. + +Map problems, terrain exercises and war games are but aids to +maneuvers--their practice makes the maneuvers better; for you thus +learn the principles of tactics and in the simplest and quickest way. + +=947. Maneuvers.= In the case of the maneuver the problem is the same +as in the war game, except that you are dealing with real, live men +whom you can not control perfectly, and there is, therefore, much +greater chance for mistakes. + +=948. The battle.= A battle is only a maneuver to which is added great +physical danger and excitement. + + +General rules and principles that must be applied in map problems, +terrain exercises, the war game and maneuvers + +=949.= Everything that is done must conform in principle to what +should be done in battle--otherwise your work is wasted--your time is +thrown away. + +In solving map problems and in the war game, always form in your mind +a picture of the ground where the action is supposed to be taking +place--imagine that you see the enemy, the various hills, streams, +roads, etc., that he is firing at you, etc.--and don't do anything +that you would not be able to do if you were really on the ground and +really in a fight. + +Whether it be a corporal in command of a squad or a general in command +of an army, in the solution of a tactical problem, whether it be a map +problem, a terrain exercise, a war game, maneuver or battle, he will +have to go through the same operation: + + 1st. Estimate the situation; + 2d. Decide what he will do; + 3d. Give the necessary orders to carry out his decision. + +At first these three steps of the operation may appear difficult and +laborious, but after a little practice the mind, which always works +with rapidity in accustomed channels, performs them with astonishing +quickness. + +The child beginning the study of arithmetic, for example, is very slow +in determining the sum of 7 and 8, but later the answer is announced +almost at sight. The same is true in tactical problems--the process +may be slow at first, but with a little practice it becomes quick and +easy. + +=950. Estimating the Situation.= This is simply "sizing up the +situation," finding out what you're "up against," and is always the +first thing to be done. It is most important, and in doing it the +first step is to determine your MISSION--what you are to do, what you +are to accomplish--the most important consideration in any military +situation. + +Consider next your own forces and that of the enemy--that is, his +probable strength and how it compares with yours. + +Consider the enemy's probable MISSION[12] and what he will probably do +to accomplish it. + +Consider the geography of the country so far as it affects the +problem--the valleys to cross, defiles to pass through, shortest road +to follow, etc. + +Now, consider the different courses open to you with the advantages +and disadvantages of each. + +You must, of course, in every case know what you're up against before +you can decide intelligently what you're going to do. + +In making your plan always bear in mind not only your own MISSION, but +also the general mission of the command of which you form a part, and +this is what nine men out of ten forget to do. + +=951. The Decision.= It is important that you should come to a clear +and correct decision--that you do so promptly and then execute it +vigorously. + +The new Japanese Field Service Regulations tell us that there are two +things above all that should be avoided--inaction and hesitation. "To +act resolutely even in an erroneous manner is better than to remain +inactive and irresolute"--that is to say do something. + +You are now ready to come to a decision, which is nothing more or less +than a clear, concise determination of what you're going to do and how +you're going to do it. Frederick the Great, expressed the same idea +in fewer words: "Don't haggle." + +Having settled on a plan, push it through--don't vacillate, don't +waver. Make your plan simple. No other has much show. Complicated +plans look well on paper, but in war they seldom work out. They +require several people to do the right thing at the right time and +this under conditions of excitement, danger and confusion, and, as a +result, they generally fail. + +=952. The Order.= Having completed your estimate of the situation and +formed your plan, you are now ready to give the orders necessary to +carry it out. + +You must first give your subordinates sufficient information of the +situation and your plan, so that they may clearly understand their +mission. + +The better everyone understands the whole situation the better he can +play his part. Unexpected things are always happening in war--a +subordinate can act intelligently only if he knows and understands +what his superior wants to do. + +Always make your instructions definite and positive--vague +instructions are sometimes worse than none. + +Your order, your instructions, must be clear, concise and +definite--everyone should know just exactly what he is to do. + + +A Few General Principles + +=953.= The man who hunts deer, moose, tigers and lions, is hunting big +game, but the soldier operating in the enemy's territory is hunting +bigger game--he's hunting for human beings--but you want to remember +that the other fellow is out hunting for you, too; he's out "gunning" +for you. So, don't fail to be on the alert, on the lookout, all the +time, if you do he'll "get the drop" on you. Remember what Frederick +the Great said: "It is pardonable to be defeated, but never to be +taken by surprise." + +Do not separate your force too much; if you do, you weaken +yourself--you take the chance of being "defeated in detail"--that is, +of one part being defeated after another. Remember the old saying: "In +union there is strength." Undue extension of your line (a mistake, by +the way, very often made) is only a form of separation and is equally +as bad. + +While too much importance can not be attached to the proper use of +cover, you must not forget that sometimes there are other +considerations that outweigh the advantages of cover. Good sense alone +can determine. A certain direction of attack, for instance, may afford +excellent cover but it may be so situated as to mean ruin if defeated, +as where it puts an impassable obstacle directly in your rear. And +don't forget that you should always think in advance of what you would +do in case of defeat. + +What is it, after all, that gives victory, whether it be armies or +only squads engaged? It's just simply inflicting on the enemy a loss +which he will not stand before he can do the same to you. Now, what is +this loss that he will not stand? What is the loss that will cause him +to break? Well, it varies; it is subject to many +conditions--different bodies of troops, like different timbers, have +different breaking points. However, whatever it may be in any +particular case it would soon come if we could shoot on the +battlefield as we do on the target range, but we can not approximate +it. + +There are many causes tending to drag down our score on the +battlefield, one of the most potent being the effect of the enemy's +fire. It is cited as a physiological fact that fear and great +excitement cause the pupil of the eye to dilate and impair accuracy in +vision and hence of shooting. It is well established that the +effectiveness of the fire of one side reduced proportionately to the +effectiveness of that of the other. + +Bear in mind then these two points--we must get the enemy's breaking +point before he gets ours, and the more effective we make our fire the +less effective will be his. + +Expressed in another way--to win you must gain and keep a fire +superiority. + +This generally means more rifles in action, yet a fire badly +controlled and directed, though great in volume, may be less effective +than a smaller volume better handled. + +The firing line barring a few exceptional cases, then, should be as +heavy as practicable consistent with the men's free use of their +rifles. + +This has been found to be about one man to the yard. In this way you +get volume of fire and the companies do not cover so much ground that +their commanders lose their power to direct and control. + +If it becomes necessary to hold a line too long for the force +available, it is then better to keep the men close together and leave +gaps in the line. The men are so much better controlled, the fire +better directed, the volume the same, and the gaps are closed by the +cross fire of parties adjacent. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[11] In the preparation of the first part of this chapter, extracts of +words and of ideas, were made from a paper on Applied Minor Tactics +read before the St. Louis convention of the National Guard of the +United States in 1910, by Major J. F. Morrison, General Staff, U. S. +Army. + +[12] The word "_mission_" is used a great deal in this text. By your +"_mission_" is meant your business, what you have been told to do, +what you are trying to accomplish. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +GENERAL PLAN OF INSTRUCTION IN MAP PROBLEMS FOR NONCOMMISSIONED +OFFICERS AND PRIVATES--INSTRUCTION IN DELIVERING MESSAGES + + +=(The large wall map to be used for this instruction can be obtained +from the George Banta Publishing Co., Menasha, Wis., at a cost of +$1.50.)= + +[Illustration: Elementary Map] + +=954.= The noncommissioned officers and the privates of the squad, +section, platoon or company are seated in front of the instructor, +who, with pointer in hand, is standing near the map on the wall. + +The instructor assumes certain situations and designates various +noncommissioned officers to take charge of squads for the purpose of +accomplishing certain missions; he places them in different +situations, and then asks them what they would do. He, or the +noncommissioned officer designated to perform certain missions, +designates certain privates to carry messages, watch for signals, take +the place of wounded noncommissioned officers, etc. For example, the +instructor says: "The battalion is marching to Watertown (see +Elementary Map in pocket at back of book) along this road (indicating +road): our company forms the advance guard; we are now at this point +(indicating point). Corporal Smith, take your squad and reconnoiter +the woods on the right to see if you can find any trace of the enemy +there, and rejoin the company as soon as you can. Corporal Jones, be +on the lookout for any signals that Corporal Smith may make." + +Corporal Smith then gives the command, "=1. Forward, 2. March=," and +such other commands as may be necessary. + +=Instructor:= Now, when you reach this point (indicating point), what +do you see? + +(Corporal Smith holds his rifle horizontally above his head.) + +=Corporal Jones:= Captain, Corporal Smith signals that he sees a small +body of the enemy. + +=Corporal Smith:= =Lie down. Range, 700. 1. Ready; 2. AIM; 3. Squad; +4. FIRE. 1. Forward; Double time; 2. MARCH=, etc. + +The noncommissioned officers and the privates who are thus designated +to do certain things must use their imagination as much as possible. +They must look at the map and imagine that they are right on the +ground, in the hostile territory; they must imagine that they see the +streams, hills, woods, roads, etc., represented on the map, and they +must not do anything that they could not do if in the hostile +territory, with the assumed conditions actually existing. + +=955.= The general idea of this system of instruction is to make the +noncommissioned officers and the privates think, to make them use +common sense and initiative in handling men in various situations, in +getting out of difficulties. By thus putting men on their mettle in +the presence of their comrades and making them bring into play their +common sense and their powers of resourcefulness, it is comparatively +easy to hold the attention of a whole squad, section, platoon or +company, for those who are not actually taking part in the solution of +a particular problem are curious to see how those who are taking part +will answer different questions and do different things--how they will +"pan out." + +=956.= Everything that is said, everything that is done, should, as +far as practicable, be said and done just as it would be said and done +in the field. The commands should be actually given, the messages +actually delivered, the reports actually made, the orders and +instructions actually given, the signals actually made, etc., just the +same as they would be if the operations were real. Of course, +sometimes it is not practicable to do this, and again at other times +it would be advisable not to do so. If, for instance, in the solution +of a problem there were a great many opportunities to give commands to +fire, to make signals, to deliver messages, etc., and if these things +were actually done every time, it would not only become tiresome but +it would also delay the real work and instruction. Common sense must +be used. Just bear this in mind: In the solution of map problems the +noncommissioned officers and the privates are to be given proper and +sufficient instruction in giving commands, making signals, sending and +delivering messages, making reports, etc., the instructor using his +common sense in deciding what is proper and sufficient instruction. In +carrying out this feature of the instruction it would be done thus, +for instance: + +Instead of a platoon leader saying, "I would give the order for the +platoon (two, three or four squads) to fire on them," he would say, +for instance, "I would then give the command, '=AT LINE OF MEN. RANGE, +600. FIRE AT WILL=,' and would continue the firing as long as +necessary." Should the instructor then say, for instance, "Very well; +the enemy's fire has slackened; what will you do now?" The platoon +leader would answer, for instance, "I would signal: =1. By squads from +the right; 2. RUSH.=" + +Instead of saying, for instance, "I would advance my squad to the top +of this hill at double time," the squad leader should say, "I would +give the command: '=1. Forward, double time; 2. MARCH=,' and upon +reaching the top of this hill, I would command, '=1. Squad; 2. HALT=,' +cautioning the men to take advantage of cover." + +Instead of saying, "I would signal back that we see the enemy in +force," the squad leader should take a rifle and make the signal, and +if a man has been designated to watch for signals, the man would say +to the captain (or other person for whom he was watching for signals): +"Captain, Corporal Smith has signaled that he sees the enemy in +force." + +Instead of saying, "I would send a message back that there are about +twenty mounted men just in rear of the Jones' house; they are +dismounted and their horses are being held by horseholders," say, +"Smith, go back and tell the captain (or other person) there are +about twenty mounted men just in rear of the Jones' house. They are +dismounted and their horses are being held by horseholders." Private +Smith would then say to the captain (or other person), "Captain, +Corporal Harris sends word there are about twenty men just in the rear +of the Jones' house. They are dismounted and their horses are being +held by horse holders." + +=957.= For problems exemplifying this system of instruction, see Par. +1017. + +The instruction may be varied a little by testing the squad leaders in +their knowledge of map reading by asking, from time to time during the +solution of the problem, such questions as these: + +=Captain:= Corporal Smith, you are standing on Lone Hill (See +Elementary Map), facing north. Tell me what you see? + +=Corporal:= The hill slopes off steeply in front of me, about eighty +feet down to the bottom land. A spur of the hill runs off on my right +three-fourths of a mile to the north. Another runs off on my left the +same distance to the west. Between these two spurs, down in front of +me, is an almost level valley, extending about a mile to my right +front, where a hill cuts off my view. To my left front it is level as +far as I can see. A quarter of a mile in front of me is a big pond, +down in the valley, and I can trace the course of a stream that drains +the pond off to the northwest, by the trees along its bank. Just +beyond the stream a railroad runs northwest along a fill and crosses +the stream a mile and a half to the northwest, where I can see the +roofs of a group of houses. A wagon road runs north across the valley, +crossing the western spur of this hill 600 yards from Lone Hill. It is +bordered by trees as far as the creek. Another road parallels the +railroad, the two roads crossing near a large orchard a mile straight +to my front. + +=Captain:= Can you see the Chester Pike where the railroad crosses it? + +=Corporal:= No, sir. + +=Captain:= Why? + +=Corporal:= Because the hill "62," about 800 yards from Lone Hill, is +so high that it cuts off my view in that direction of everything +closer to the spur "62" than the point in the Salem-Boling road, where +the private lane runs off east to the Gray house. + +=Captain:= Sergeant Jones, in which direction does the stream run that +you see just south of the Twin Hills? + +=Sergeant:= It runs south through York, because I can see that the +northern end starts near the head of a valley and goes down into the +open plain. Also it is indicated by a very narrow line near the Twin +Hills which becomes gradually wider or heavier the further south it +goes. Furthermore, the fact that three short branch streams are shown +joining together and forming one, must naturally mean that the +direction of flow is towards the one formed by the three. + +=Captain:= Sergeant Harris, does the road from the Mason farm to the +Welsh farm run up or down hill? + +=Sergeant:= It does both, sir. It is almost level for the first half +mile west of the Mason farm; then, as it crosses the contour marked +20 and a second marked 40, it runs up hill, rising to forty feet +above the valley, 900 yards east of the Mason farm. Then, as it again +crosses a contour marked 40 and a second marked 20, it goes down hill +to the Welsh farm. That portion of the road between the points where +it crosses the two contours marked 40, is the highest part of the +road. It crosses this hill in a "saddle," for both north and south of +this summit on the road are contours marked 60 and even higher. + +=Captain:= Corporal Wallace, you are in Salem with a patrol with +orders to go to Oxford. There is no one to tell you anything about +this section of the country and you have never been there before. You +have this map and a compass. What would you do? + +=Corporal:= I would see from my map and by looking around me that +Salem is situated at the crossing of two main roads. From the map I +would see that one leads to Boling and the other was the one to take +for Oxford. Also, I would see that the one to Boling started due north +out of Salem and the other, the one I must follow, started due west +out of Salem. Taking out my compass, I would see in what direction the +north end of the needle pointed; the road running off in that +direction would be the one to Boling, so I would start off west on the +other. + +=Captain:= Suppose you had no compass? + +=Corporal:= I would look and see on which side of the base of the +trees the moss grew. That side would be north. Or, in this case, I +would probably not use a compass even if I had it; for, from the map, +I know that the road I wish to start off on crosses a railroad track +within sight of the crossroads and on the opposite side of the +crossroads from the church shown on the map; also, that the Boling +road is level as far as I could see on the ground, while the Chester +Pike crosses the spur of Sandy Ridge, about a half mile out of the +village. + +=Captain:= Go ahead, corporal, and explain how you would follow the +proper route to Oxford. + +=Corporal:= I would proceed west on the Chester Pike, knowing I would +cross a good sized stream, on a stone bridge, about a mile and a half +out of Salem; then I would pass a crossroad and find a swamp on my +right, between the road and the stream. About a mile and a half from +the crossroad I just mentioned, I would cross a railroad track and +then I would know that at the fork of the roads one-quarter of a mile +further on I must take the left fork. This road would take me straight +into Oxford, about a mile and three-quarters beyond the fork. + +=Captain:= Sergeant Washington, do the contours about a half mile +north of the Maxey farm, on the Salem-Boling road, represent a hill or +a depression? + +=Sergeant:= They represent a hill, because the inner contour has a +higher number 42, than the outer, marked 20. They represent sort of a +leg-of-mutton shaped hill about 42 feet higher than the surrounding +low ground. + +Variety and interest may be added to the instruction by assuming that +the squad leader has been killed or wounded and then designate some +private to command the squad; or that a man has been wounded in a +certain part of the body and have a soldier actually apply his first +aid packet; or that a soldier has fainted or been bitten by a +rattlesnake and have a man actually render him first aid. + +=958.= The privates may be given practical instruction in delivering +messages by giving them messages in one room and having them deliver +them to someone else in another room. It is a good plan to write out a +number of messages in advance on slips of paper or on cards, placing +them in unsealed envelopes. An officer or a noncommissioned officer in +one room reads one of the messages to a soldier, then seals it in an +envelope and gives it to the soldier to hand to the person in another +room to whom he is to deliver the message. The latter checks the +accuracy of the message by means of the written message. Of course, +this form of instruction should not be given during the solution of +map problems by the men. (For model messages, see par. 980.) + +The same slips or cards may be used any number of times with different +soldiers. A soldier should never start on his way to deliver a message +unless he understands thoroughly the message he is to deliver. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE SERVICE OF INFORMATION + +(Based on the Field Service Regulations.) + + +PATROLLING + +=959. Patrols= are small bodies of infantry or cavalry, from two men +up to a company or troop, sent out from a command at any time to gain +information of the enemy and of the country, to drive off small +hostile bodies, to prevent them from observing the command or for +other stated objects, such as to blow up a bridge, destroy a railroad +track, communicate or keep in touch with friendly troops, etc. Patrols +are named according to their objects, reconnoitering, visiting, +connecting, exploring, flanking patrols, etc. These names are of no +importance, however, because the patrol's orders in each case +determine its duties. + +=960.= The size of a patrol depends upon the mission it is to +accomplish; if it is to gain information only, it should be as small +as possible, allowing two men for each probable message to be sent +(this permits you to send messages and still have a working patrol +remaining); if it is to fight, it should be strong enough to defeat +the probable enemy against it. For instance, a patrol of two men might +be ordered to examine some high ground a few hundred yards off the +road. On the other hand, during the recent war in Manchuria a Japanese +patrol of 50 mounted men, to accomplish its mission marched 1,160 +miles in the enemy's country and was out for 62 days. + +=961. Patrol Leaders.= (=a=) Patrol leaders, usually noncommissioned +officers, are selected for their endurance, keen eyesight, ability to +think quickly and good military judgment. They should be able to read +a map, make a sketch and send messages that are easily understood. +Very important patrols are sometimes lead by officers. The leader +should have a map, watch, field glass, compass, message blank and +pencils. + +(=b=) The ability to lead a patrol correctly without a number of +detailed orders or instructions, is one of the highest and most +valuable qualifications of a noncommissioned officer. Since a +commander ordering out a patrol can only give general instructions as +to what he desires, because he cannot possibly forsee just what +situations may arise, the patrol leader will be forced to use his own +judgment to decide on the proper course to pursue when something of +importance suddenly occurs. He is in sole command on the spot and must +make his decisions entirely on his own judgment and make them +instantly. He has to bear in mind first of all his mission--what his +commander wants him to do. + +Possibly something may occur that should cause the patrol leader to +undertake an entirely new mission and he must view the new situation +from the standpoint of a higher commander. + +(=c=) More battles are lost through lack of information about the +enemy than from any other cause, and it is the patrols led by +noncommissioned officers who must gather almost all of this +information. A battalion or squadron stands a very good chance for +defeating a regiment if the battalion commander knows all about the +size, position and movements of the regiment and the regimental +commander knows but a little about the battalion; and this will all +depend on how efficiently the patrols of the two forces are led by the +noncommissioned officers. + +=962.= Patrols are usually sent out from the advance party of an +advance guard, the rear party of a rear guard, the outguards of an +outpost, and the flank (extreme right or left) sections, companies or +troops of a force in a fight, but they may be sent out from any part +of a command. + +The commander usually states how strong a patrol shall be. + +=963. Orders or Instructions=--(=a=) The orders or instructions for a +patrol must state clearly whenever possible: + +1. Where the enemy is or is supposed to be. + +2. Where friendly patrols or detachments are apt to be seen or +encountered and what the plans are for the body from which the patrol +is sent out. + +3. What object the patrol is sent out to accomplish; what information +is desired; what features are of special importance; the general +direction to be followed and how long to stay out in case the enemy is +not met. + +4. Where reports are to be sent. + +(=b=) It often happens that, in the hurry and excitement of a sudden +encounter or other situation, there is no time or opportunity to give +a patrol leader anything but the briefest instructions, such as "Take +three men, corporal, and locate their (the enemy's) right flank." In +such a case the patrol leader through his knowledge of the general +principles of patrolling, combined with the exercise of his common +sense, must determine for himself just what his commander wishes him +to do. + +=964. Inspection of a Patrol Before Departure.= Whenever there is time +and conditions permit, which most frequently is not the case, a patrol +leader carefully inspects his men to see that they are in good +physical condition; that they have the proper equipment, ammunition +and ration; that their canteens are full, their horses (if mounted) +are in good condition, not of a conspicuous color and not given to +neighing, and that there is nothing about the equipment to rattle or +glisten. The patrol leader should also see that the men have nothing +with them (maps, orders, letters, newspapers, etc.) that, if captured, +would give the enemy valuable information. This is a more important +inspection than that regarding the condition of the equipment. + +Whenever possible the men for a patrol should be selected for their +trustworthiness, experience and knack of finding their way in a +strange country. + +=965. Preparing a Patrol for the Start.= The patrol leader having +received his orders and having asked questions about anything he does +not fully understand, makes his estimate of the situation (See Par. +950.) He then selects the number of men he needs, if this has been +left to him, inspects them and carefully explains to them the orders +he has received and how he intends to carry out these orders, making +sure the men understand the mission of the patrol. He names some +prominent place along the route they are going to follow where every +one will hasten if the patrol should become scattered. + +For example: An infantry company has arrived at the town of York (See +Elementary Map). Captain A, at 2 P. M., calls up Corporal B and three +men of his squad. + +=Captain A:= Corporal, hostile infantry is reported to be at Oxford. +Nothing else has been heard of the enemy. The company remains here +tonight. You will take these three men and reconnoiter about two miles +north along this road (indicates the Valley Pike) for signs of a +hostile advance in this direction. + +Stay out until dusk. + +Corporal C has been sent out that road (points east along the county +road). + +Send messages here. Do you understand? + +=Corporal B:= Yes, sir; I am to--(here he practically repeats Captain +A's orders, the three men listening). Is Corporal C to cover that hill +(points toward Twin Hills)? + +=Captain A:= No; you must cover that ground. Move out at once, +corporal. (Corporal B quickly glances at the men and sees that they +have their proper equipment.) + +=Corporal B= (to his men): You heard the captain's orders. We will +make for that hill (points to Twin Hills). Jones, I want you to go 150 +yards in advance of me; Williams, follow me at 100 yards; Smith, +you'll stay with me. Jones, you'll leave this road after crossing the +creek and march on that clump of trees. I want both you and Williams +to be on the alert and watch me every minute for signals. In case we +become scattered, make for that hill (points to Twin Hills). + +=Private Jones:= Corporal, shall I keep 150 yards from you or will you +keep the correct distance? + +=Corporal B:= You keep the correct distance from me. Forward, Jones. + +Of course, the patrol leader makes all these preparations if he has +time; but, as we have said before, there will be a great many +occasions when he is required to start out so promptly that he will +not have any time for the inspection described and he will have to +make an estimate of the situation and give his detailed orders to the +members of his patrol as they start off. + +=966. Co-ordination Before Departure.= Every member of a patrol should +notice for himself the direction taken and all landmarks that are +passed, and every man should keep his eyes and ears open all the time. +Before leaving an outpost position or other place to which it is to +return, the patrol commander should "co-ordinate" himself--he should +see where he is with respect to certain mountains, high buildings and +other prominent objects, and after the patrol has left, he should +frequently turn his head around and see what the starting point looks +like from where he is. This will help him to find his way back without +difficulty. + + +THE PRINCIPLES OF PATROLLING + +=967.= Paragraphs 967 to 1015 describe the methods of leading a +patrol--the points a patrol leader should fully understand. In other +words, they state the principles of patrolling. When you first study +this chapter, simply read over these principles without trying to +memorize any of them. Whenever one of the principles is applied in the +solution of any of the problems on patrolling given in this book you +will generally find the number of the paragraph which states that +principle enclosed in brackets. Turn back and study the paragraph +referred to until you thoroughly understand its meaning and you feel +sure that you know how to apply that principle whenever the occasion +might arise in actual patrolling. Try to impress its common sense +meaning (never the mere words) on your mind, so that when a situation +arises requiring the sort of action indicated in the principle, YOU +WILL NOT FAIL TO RECOGNIZE IT. + +[Illustration: Figure 1] + +=968. Formation of Patrols.= + +(=a=) Figure 1 gives some examples of various ways of forming patrols. +These are merely examples for the purpose of giving a general idea of +the arrangement of the men. In practice common sense must dictate to +the patrol leader the best formation in each case. + +(=b=) In very small patrols the leader is usually in advance where he +can easily lead the patrol, though not always (See E, Figure 1.) The +distance between men depends upon the character of the country and the +situation. In L, Figure 1, it might be anywhere from 150 to 400 yards +from the leading man to the last, the distance being greater in level +or open country. Some such formation as G, Figure 1, could be used in +going through high brush, woods, or over very open country. + +(=c=) The men must be so arranged that each man will be within +signaling distance of some member of the patrol and the escape of at +least one man, in case of surprise, is certain. + +It must be remembered that the patrol may have to march a long +distance before it is expected that the enemy will be encountered, or +it may have a mission that requires it to hurry to some distant point +through very dangerous country. In such cases the patrol will probably +have to follow the road in order to make the necessary speed, and it +will not be possible for flankers to keep up this rate marching off +the road. The formation in such cases would be something like those +shown in F, II and O. + +Marching off the road is always slow work, so when rapidity is +essential, some safe formation for road travel is necessary, as in F, +L and O. + +If, from the road the country for, say one-half mile on each side, can +be seen, there is absolutely no use in sending out flankers a few +hundred yards from the road. Use common sense. + +=969. Rate of March.= (=a=) Patrols should advance quickly and +quietly; be vigilant and make all practicable use of cover. If rapid +marching is necessary to accomplish the mission, then little attention +can be paid to cover. + +(=b=) Returning patrols, near their own lines, march at a walk, unless +pressed by the enemy. A patrol should not, if possible, return over +its outgoing route, as the enemy may have observed it and be watching +for its return. + +=970. Halts.= A patrol should be halted once every hour for about ten +minutes, to allow the men to rest and relieve themselves. Whenever a +halt is made one or two members of the patrol must advance a short +distance ahead and keep a sharp lookout to the front and flanks. + +=971. Action Upon Meeting Hostile Patrol.= If a patrol should see a +hostile patrol, it is generally best to hide and let it go by, and +afterwards look out for and capture any messenger that may be sent +back from it with messages for the main body. And when sent back +yourself with a message, be careful that the enemy does not play this +trick on you--always keep your ears and eyes open. + +=972. Scattered Patrols.= A scattered patrol reassembles at some point +previously selected; if checked in one direction, it takes another; if +cut off, it returns by a detour or forces its way through. As a last +resort it scatters, so that at least one man may return with +information. + +Occasionally it is advisable for the leader to conceal his patrol and +continue the reconnaissance with one or two men; in case of cavalry +the leader and men thus detached should be well mounted. If no point +of assembly was previously agreed upon, it is a good general rule to +reassemble, if possible, at the last resting place. + +=973. Return by Different Route.= A patrol should always make it a +rule to return by a different route, as this may avoid its being +captured by some of the enemy who saw it going out and are lying in +wait for it. + +=974. Guard Against Being Cut off.= When out patrolling always guard +against being cut off. Always assume that any place that affords good +cover is held by the enemy until you know that it is not, and be +careful not to advance beyond it without first reconnoitering it; for, +if you do, you may find yourself cut off when you try to return. + +=975. Night Work.= Patrols far from their commands or in contact with +the enemy, often remain out over night. In such cases they seek a +place of concealment unknown to the inhabitants, proceeding thereto +after nightfall or under cover. Opportunities for watering, feeding +and rest must not be neglected, for there is no assurance that further +opportunities will present themselves. When necessary the leader +provides for subsistence by demand or purchase. + +=976. Civilians:= In questioning civilians care must be taken not to +disclose information that may be of value to the enemy. Strangers must +not be allowed to go ahead of the patrol, as they might give the enemy +notice of its approach. Patrol leaders are authorized to seize +telegrams and mail matter, and to arrest individuals, reporting the +facts as soon as possible. + +=977. Patrol Fighting.= (=a=) A patrol sent out for information never +fights unless it can only get its information by fighting or is forced +to fight in order to escape. This principle is the one most frequently +violated by patrol leaders, particularly in peace maneuvers. They +forget their mission--the thing their commander sent them out to +do--and begin fighting, thus doing harm and accomplishing no important +results. + +(=b=) A patrol sent out to drive off hostile detachments has to fight +to accomplish its mission. Sometimes a patrol has orders both to gain +information and to drive back hostile patrols. In this case it may be +proper to avoid a fight at one moment and to seek a fight at another. +The patrol leader must always think of his mission when deciding on +the proper course to follow, and then use common sense. + +=978. Signals.= The following should be clearly understood by members +of a patrol: + +=Enemy in sight in small numbers:= Hold the rifle above the head +horizontally. + +=Enemy in force:= Same as preceding, raising and lowering the rifle +several times. + +=Take cover:= A downward motion of the hand. + +Other signals may be agreed upon before starting, but they must be +simple and familiar to the men; complicated signals must be avoided. +Signals must be used cautiously, so as not to convey information to +the enemy. + +The patrol leader should see that all his men thoroughly understand +that whenever they are away from the center of the patrol they must +look to the nearest man for signals at least once every minute. It +should never be necessary for the patrol leader to call to a man in +order to get his attention. All movements of men at a distance should +be regulated by signals and the men should constantly be on the +lookout for these signals. + +=979. Messages.= (=a=) The most skillful patrol leading is useless +unless the leader fully understands when to send a message and how to +write it. + +(=b=) A message, whether written or verbal, should be short and clear, +resembling a telegram. If it is a long account it will take too much +time to write, be easily misunderstood, and if verbal, the messenger +will usually forget parts of it and confuse the remainder. + +(=c=) Always state when and where things are seen or reported. If +haste is required, do not use up valuable moments writing down the day +of the month, etc. These data are essential as a matter of future +record for formal telegrams and should be put in patrol messages only +when time is abundant, but never slight the essential points of +information that will give valuable help to your chief. Always try to +put yourself in his place--not seeing what you see and read your +message--and then ask yourself, What will he want to know? + +(=d=) The exact location of the enemy should be stated; whether +deployed, marching or in camp, his strength, arm of the service +(cavalry, infantry or artillery), and any other detail that you think +would be valuable information for your chief. In giving your location +do not refer to houses, streets, etc., that your chief in the rear has +no knowledge of. Give your direction and distance from some point he +knows of or, if you have a map like his, you can give your map +location. + +(=e=) Be sure your message is accurate. This does not mean that +something told you should not be reported, but it should be reported, +not as a fact, but as it is--a statement by somebody else. It is well +to add any information about your informant, such as his apparent +honesty, the probability of his having correct information, etc.--this +may help your chief. + +(=f=) A message should always end with a short statement of what you +are going to do next. For example: "Will remain in observation," "Will +continue north," "Will work around to their rear," etc. Time +permitting, the bearer of a verbal message should always be required +to repeat it before leaving. + +(=g=) The following is a reproduction of a message blank used in field +service. The instructions on the envelope are also given. A patrol +leader will usually be furnished with a pad of these blanks: + +[Illustration] + +The heading "From" is filled in with the _name_ of the detachment +sending the information, as "Officer's Patrol, 7th Cav". Messages sent +on the same day from the same source to the same person are numbered +consecutively. The address is written briefly, thus, "Commanding +Officer, Outpost, 1st Brigade". In the signature the writer's surname +only and rank are given. + +This blank is four and a half by eight inches, including the margin on +the left for binding. The back is ruled in squares and provided with +scales for use in making simple sketches explanatory of the message. +It is issued by the Signal Corps in blocks of forty with duplicating +sheets. The regulation envelope is three by five and one fourth inches +and is printed as follows: + +[Illustration] + + +MODEL MESSAGES + +=980. 1. Verbal.= "Four hostile infantrymen one mile north of our +camp, moving south. I will continue north." + +=2. Verbal.= "About one hundred hostile infantrymen two miles north of +our camp at two o'clock, marching south. Will observe them." + +=3. Verbal.= "Long column of troops marching west in Sandy Creek +Valley at two o'clock. Will report details later." + +=4. Verbal.= "Just fired on by cavalry patrol near Baker's Pond. Will +work to their rear." + +=5. Written.= + + Patrol from Support No 2. + Lone Hill, + 26 Mch. 11, 8-15 A. M., No. 1. + + C. O., + Support No. 2. + + See hostile troop of cavalry halted at x-roads, one mile S. of our + outguards. Nothing else in sight. Will remain here in observation. + + James, + Corporal. + +=6. Written= (very hurriedly). + + Lone Hill, 8-30, No 2. + + C. O., + Support No. 2. + + Column of about 300 hostile cavalry trotting north towards hostile + troop of cavalry now halted at x-roads one mile south of our + outguards. Will remain here. + + James, + Cpl. + +=7. Written.= + + Patrol from 5th Inf., + S. E. corner Boling Woods, + 3 Apl. 11, 2-10 P. M., No. 2. + + Adjutant, + 5th Inf., near Baker House. + + Extreme right of hostile line ends at R. R. cut N. E. of BAKER'S + POND. Entrenchments run S. from cut along crest of ridge. Line + appears to be strongly held. Can see no troops in rear of line. + Will reconnoiter their rear. + + Smith, + Sergeant. + +=8. Written= (from cavalry patrol far to front). + + Patrol from Tr. B, 7th Cav., + Boling, + 14 June, 12, 10 A. M., No. 3. + + To C. O., + Tr. B, 7th Cav., + S. on Chester Pike. + + No traces of enemy up to this point. Telegraph operator here + reports wires running north from Boling were cut somewhere at 8-30 + A. M. Inhabitants appear friendly. Will proceed north. + + Jones, + Sergeant. + +=9. Written= (from cavalry patrol far to front). + + Patrol from Tr B, 7th Cav., + Oxford, + 8 July, 12, 10-15 A. M., No. 2. + + To C. O., + 1st Sq. 7th Cav., + On Valley Pike, S. of York. + + Bearer has canteen found in road here, marked "85 CAV.--III + CORPS." Inhabitants say no enemy seen here. They appear hostile + and unreliable. No telegraph operator or records remain here. + Roads good macadam. Water and haystacks plentiful. Will move + rapidly on towards CHESTER. + + Lewis, + Sergeant. + + Patrol from Support No. 3, + On Ry. 3/4 mi. N. of County Road, + 2 Aug. 12, 9-15 P. M., No. 1. + + C. O., + Support No. 2, + Near Maxey House. + + R. R. crosses creek here on 80-foot steel trestle. Hostile + detachment is posted at N. end. Strength unknown. Creek 5 ft. deep + by 60 ft. wide, with steep banks, 5 ft. high. Flows through meadow + land. Scattered trees along banks. R. R. approaches each end of + trestle on 10-foot fill. R. R. switch to N. E. 700 yds. S. of + bridge. (See sketch on back.) I will cross creek to N. of bridge. + + Brown, + Corporal. + +=981.= A message should be sent as soon as the enemy is first seen or +reported. Of course, if the enemy is actually known to be in the +vicinity and his patrols have been seen, etc., you must by all means +avoid wasting your men by sending them back with information about +small hostile patrols or other things you know your chief is already +aware of and did not specifically tell you to hunt for. + +If you have properly determined in your own mind what your mission is +then you will have no trouble in deciding when to send messages. For +example, suppose your orders are "To reconnoiter along that ridge and +determine if the enemy is present in strength," and you sight a patrol +of eight men. You would waste no time or men sending back any message +about the patrol, for your mission is to find out if strong bodies of +the enemy are about. But suppose that while working under the above +orders you located a hostile battalion of infantry--a large body of +troops. In this case you would surely send a detailed message, as your +mission is to determine if the enemy was present in strength. + +Again, suppose that while moving towards the ridge indicated by your +chief in his orders, you saw his force suddenly and heavily fired on +from a new and apparently unexpected quarter, not a great distance +from you, but not on the ridge referred to. You know or believe none +of your patrols are out in that neighborhood. In this case you should +realize instantly, without any order, that your mission had changed +and you should hasten to discover the size and position of this new +enemy and send the information back to your chief, first notifying him +of your intended change of direction. + +Never forget your mission in the excitement of leading your own little +force. + +=982. Absence of the Enemy.= It is frequently just as important to +send a message to your chief that the enemy is not in a certain +locality as it is to report his actual whereabouts. You must determine +from your mission when this is the case. For example, if you were +ordered "To patrol beyond that woods and see if any hostile columns +are moving in that direction," and on reaching the far side of the +woods you had a good view of the country for some distance beyond, it +would be very important to send a message back telling your chief that +you could see, say, one-half mile beyond the woods and there was no +enemy in sight. This information would be of the greatest importance +to him. He might feel free to move troops immediately from that +vicinity to some more dangerous place. You would then continue your +reconnaissance further to the front. + + +Suggestions for Gaining Information About the Enemy + +=983. Enemy on the March.= (=a=) The patrol should observe the march +of the column from a concealed position that hostile patrols or +flankers are not apt to search (avoid conspicuous places). Always try +to discover if one hostile detachment is followed by another--if what +can be seen appears to be an advance guard of a larger body not yet in +view. The distance between the detachments, their relative size, etc., +is always important. + +(=b=) =Estimating Strength of Column.= The strength of a column may be +estimated from the length of time it takes to pass a selected point. +As infantry in column of squads occupies half a yard per man, cavalry +one yard per horse and artillery in single file twenty yards per gun +or caisson (ammunition wagon), a selected point would be passed in one +minute by 175 infantry; 110 cavalry (at a walk); 200 cavalry at a trot +and 5 guns or caissons. If marching in columns of twos, take one-half +of the above figures. + +(=c=) =Dust.= The direction of march, strength and composition +(infantry, cavalry or artillery) of a column can be closely estimated +from the length and character of the cloud of dust that it makes. Dust +from infantry hangs low; from cavalry it is higher, disperses more +quickly, and, if the cavalry moves rapidly, the upper part of the +cloud is thinner; from artillery and wagons, it is of unequal height +and disconnected. The effect of the wind blowing the dust must be +considered. + +(=d=) =Trail of Column.= Evenly trodden ground indicates infantry; +prints of horseshoes mean cavalry and deep and wide wheel tracks +indicate artillery. If the trail is fresh, the column passed recently; +if narrow, the troops felt secure and were marching in column of +route; if broad they expected an action and were prepared to deploy. A +retreating army makes a broad trail across fields, especially at the +start. + +Always remember that the smallest or most insignificant things, such +as the number of a regiment or a discarded canteen or collar ornament, +may give the most valuable information to a higher commander. For +example, the markings on a discarded canteen or knapsack might prove +to a general commanding an army that a certain hostile division, +corps, or other force was in front of him when he thought it had not +been sent into the field. The markings on the canteen would convey +little or no meaning to the patrol leader, but if he realized his duty +he would take care to report the facts. Cavalry patrols working far +ahead of the foot troops should be most careful to observe and report +on such details. + +(=e=) =Reflection of Weapons.= If brilliant, the troops are marching +toward you, otherwise they are probably marching away from you. + +=Enemy in Position.= (=a=) If an outpost line, the patrol locates the +line of sentinels, their positions, the location and strength of the +outguards and, as far as possible, all troops in rear. The location of +the flanks of the line, whether in a strong or weak position, is of +the utmost importance. Places where the line may be most easily +penetrated should be searched for and the strength and routes of the +hostile patrols observed. + +As outposts are usually changed at dawn this is the best time to +reconnoiter their positions. + +(=b=) A hostile line of battle is usually hard to approach, but its +extent, where the flanks rest and whether or not other troops are in +rear of these flanks, should be most carefully determined. + +Information as to the flanks of any force, the character of the +country on each flank, etc., is always of the greatest importance, +because the flanks are the weakest portions of a line. In attacking an +enemy an effort is almost always made to bring the heaviest fire or +blow to bear on one of his flanks. Naturally all information about +this most vulnerable part of an enemy is of great importance. + +=984. Prisoners.= When a patrol is ordered to secure prisoners they +should be questioned as soon as captured, while still excited and +their replies can in a way be verified. Their answers should be +written down (unknown to them) and sent back with them as a check on +what they may say on second thought. + +Prisoners should always be questioned as to the following points: What +regiment, brigade, division, etc., they belong to; how long they have +been in position, on the march, etc.; how much sickness in their +organization; whether their rations are satisfactory; who commands +their troops, etc. Always try to make the prisoners think the +questions are asked out of mere curiosity. + +=985. Camp Noises.= The rumble of vehicles, cracking of whips, +neighing of horses, braying of mules and barking of dogs often +indicate the arrival or departure of troops. If the noise remains in +the same place and new fires are lighted, it is probable that +reenforcements have arrived. If the noise grows more indistinct, the +troops are probably withdrawing. If, added to this, the fires appear +to be dying out, and the enemy seems to redouble the vigilance of the +outposts, the indications of retreat are strong. + +=986. Abandoned Camps.= (=a=) Indications are found in the remains of +camp fires. They will show, by their degree of freshness, whether much +or little time elapsed since the enemy left the place, and the +quantity of cinders will give an indication of the length of time he +occupied it. They will also furnish a means of estimating his force +approximately, ten men being allowed to each fire. + +(b) Other valuable indications in regard to the length of time the +position was occupied and the time when it was abandoned may be found +in the evidence of care or haste in the construction of huts or +shelters, and in the freshness of straw, grain, dung or the entrails +of slaughtered animals. Abandoned clothing, equipments or harness will +give a clue to the arms and regiments composing a retreating force. +Dead horses lying about, broken weapons, discarded knapsacks, +abandoned and broken-down wagons, etc., are indications of the fatigue +and demoralization of the command. Bloody bandages lying about, and +many fresh graves, are evidences that the enemy is heavily burdened +with wounded or sick. + +=987. Flames or Smoke.= If at night the flames of an enemy's camp +fires disappear and reappear, something is moving between the observer +and the fires. If smoke as well as flame is visible, the fires are +very near. If the fires are very numerous and lighted successively, +and if soon after being lighted they go out it is probable the enemy +is preparing a retreat and trying to deceive us. If the fires burn +brightly and clearly at a late hour, the enemy has probably gone, and +has left a detachment to keep the fires burning. If, at an unusual +time, much smoke is seen ascending from an enemy's camp, it is +probable that he is engaged in cooking preparatory to moving off. + +If lines of smoke are seen rising at several points along a railway +line in the enemy's rear, it may be surmised that the railroad is +being destroyed by burning the crossties, and that a retreat is +planned. + +=988. Limits of vision.= (a) On a clear day a man with good vision can +see: + + At a distance of 9 to 12 miles, church spires and towers; + At a distance of 5 to 7 miles, windmills; + At a distance of 2-1/2 miles, chimneys of light color; + At a distance of 2,000 yards, trunks of large trees; + At a distance of 1,000 yards, single posts; + At 500 yards the panes of glass may be distinguished in a window. + +(b) Troops are visible at 2,000 yards, at which distance a mounted man +looks like a mere speck; at 1,200 yards infantry can be distinguished +from cavalry; at 1,000 yards a line of men looks like a broad belt; at +600 yards the files of a squad can be counted, and at 400 yards the +movements of the arms and legs can be plainly seen. + +(c) The larger, brighter or better lighted an object is, the nearer it +seems. An object seems nearer when it has a dark background than when +it has a light one, and closer to the observer when the air is clear +than when it is raining, snowing, foggy or the atmosphere is filled +with smoke. An object looks farther off when the observer is facing +the sun than when he has his back to it. A smooth expanse of snow, +grain fields or water makes distances seem shorter than they really +are. + + +Suggestions for the Reconnaissance of Various Positions and Localities + +=989.= Cross roads should be reconnoitered in each direction for a +distance depending on how rapidly the patrol must continue on, how far +from the main road the first turn or high point is, etc. The main body +of the patrol usually remains halted near the crossroads, while +flankers do the reconnoitering. + +=990. Heights.= In reconnoitering a height, if the patrol is large +enough to admit of detaching them, one or two men climb the slope on +either flank, keeping in sight of the patrol, if possible. In any +case, one man moves cautiously up the hill, followed by the others in +the file at such distance that each keeps his predecessor in view. + +=991. Defiles.= On approaching a defile, if time permits, the heights +on either side are reconnoitered by flankers before the patrol enters. +If the heights are inaccessible or time is urgent, the patrol passes +through, in single file at double time. The same method is adopted in +reconnoitering a railroad cut or sunken road. + +=992. Bridges and Fords.= At a bridge or ford, the front of the patrol +is contracted so as to bring all the men to the passage. The leading +patrolers cross first and reconnoiter the far side to prevent the +possibility of the enemy surprising the main body of the patrol as it +is crossing the bridge. The patrol then crosses rapidly, and takes up +a proper formation. A bridge is first examined to see that it is safe +and has not been tampered with by the enemy. + +=993. Woods.= The patrol enters a wood in skirmishing order, the +intervals being as great as may be consistent with mutual observation +and support on the part of the members of the patrol. On arriving at +the farther edge of the wood, the patrol remains concealed and +carefully looks about before passing out to open ground. When there is +such a growth of underbrush as to make this method impracticable, and +it is necessary to enter a wood by a road, the road is reconnoitered +as in case of defile, though not usually at double time. + +=994. Enclosures.= In reconnoitering an enclosure, such as a garden, +park or cemetery, the leading patrolers first examine the exterior, to +make sure that the enemy is not concealed behind one of the faces of +the enclosure. They then proceed to examine the interior. Great care +is taken in reconnoitering and entering an enclosure to avoid being +caught in a confined or restricted space by the enemy. + +=995. Positions.= In approaching a position, but one man advances (one +is less liable to be detected than two or more), and he crawls +cautiously toward the crest of the hill or edge of the wood or opening +of the defile, while the others remain concealed in the rear until he +signals them to advance. + +=996. Houses.= When a house is approached by a patrol, it is first +reconnoitered from a distance, and if nothing suspicious is seen, it +is then approached by one or two men, the rest of the party remaining +concealed in observation. If the patrol is large enough to admit of +it, four men approach the house, so as to examine the front and back +entrances at the same time. Only one man enters the door, the others +remaining outside to give the alarm, should a party of the enemy be +concealed in the house. The patrol does not remain in the vicinity of +the house any longer than necessary, as information relative to its +numbers and movements might be given to the enemy, if a hostile party +should subsequently visit the place. Farmhouses are searched for +newspapers and the inhabitants questioned. If necessary to go up to a +building, wood or hill, where an enemy is likely to be concealed, run +for the last couple of hundred yards, having your rifle ready for +instant use, and make for some point that will afford you cover when +you get close up. In the case of a building, for instance, you would +make for one of the corners. Such a maneuver would probably be +disconcerting to anyone who might be lying in wait for you, and would +be quite likely to cause them to show themselves sooner than they +intended, and thus give you a chance to turn around and get away. If +they fired on you while you were approaching at a run, they would not +be very likely to hit you. + +=997. Villages.= (=a=) In approaching a small village one or two men +are sent in to reconnoiter and one around each flank, but the main +body does not enter until the scouts have reported. In small patrols +of three to six men so much dispersion is not safe and only one +section of the village can be reconnoitered at a time. + +(=b=) If the presence of the enemy is not apparent, the patrol enters +the village. A suitable formation would be in single file at proper +distance, each man being on the opposite side of the street from his +predecessor, thus presenting a more difficult target for hostile fire +and enabling the men to watch all windows. + +(=c=) If the patrol is strong enough, it seizes the postoffice, +telegraph office and railroad stations, and secures all important +papers, such as files of telegrams sent and received, instructions to +postmasters, orders of town mayor, etc., that may be there. If the +patrol is part of the advance guard, it seizes the mayor and +postmaster of the place and turns them over to the commander of the +vanguard with the papers seized. + +(=d=) While searching a village sentinels are placed at points of +departure to prevent any of the inhabitants from leaving. Tall +buildings and steeples are ascended and an extensive view of the +surrounding country obtained. + +(=e=) At night a village is more cautiously approached by a small +party than by day. The patrol glides through back alleys, across +gardens, etc., rather than along the main street. If there are no +signs of the enemy, it makes inquiry. If no light is seen, and it +seems imprudent to rouse any of the people, the patrol watches and +captures one of the inhabitants, and gets from him such information as +he may possess. + +(=f=) The best time for the patrol to approach a village is at early +dawn, when it is light enough to see, but before the inhabitants are +up. It is dangerous in the extreme for a small patrol to enter a +village unless it is certain that it is not occupied by the enemy, for +the men could be shot down by fire from the windows, cellarways, etc., +or entrapped and captured. As a rule large towns and cities are not +entered by small patrols, but are watched from the outside, as a small +force can not effectively reconnoiter and protect itself in such a +place. + + +Facts Which Should Be Obtained by Patrols Regarding Certain Objects + +=998. Roads.= Their direction, their nature (macadamized, corduroy +plank, dirt, etc.), their condition of repair, their grade, the nature +of crossroads, and the points where they leave the main roads; their +borders (woods, hedges, fences or ditches), the places at which they +pass through defiles, cross heights or rivers, and where they +intersect railroads, their breadth (whether suitable for column of +fours or platoons, etc.). + +=999. Railroads.= Their direction, gauge, the number of tracks, +stations and junctions, their grade, the length and height of the +cuts, embankments and tunnels. + +=1000. Bridges.= Their position, their width and length, their +construction (trestle, girder, etc.), material (wood, brick, stone or +iron), the roads and approaches on each bank. + +=1001. Rivers and Other Streams.= Their direction, width and depth, +the rapidity of the current, liability to sudden rises and the highest +and lowest points reached by the water, as indicated by drift wood, +etc., fords, the nature of the banks, kinds, position and number of +islands at suitable points of passage, heights in the vicinity and +their command over the banks. + +=1002. Woods.= Their situation, extent and shape; whether clear or +containing underbrush; the number and extent of "clearings" (open +spaces); whether cut up by ravines or containing marshes, etc.; nature +of roads passing through them. + +=1003. Canals.= Their direction, width and depth; condition of +tow-paths; locks and means of protecting or destroying them. + +=1004. Telegraphs.= Whether they follow railroads or common roads; +stations, number of wires. + +=1005. Villages.= Their situation (on a height, in a valley or on a +plain); nature of the surrounding country; construction of the houses, +nature (straight or crooked) and width of streets; means of defense. + +=1006. Defiles.= Their direction; whether straight or crooked; whether +heights on either side are accessible or inaccessible; nature of +ground at each extremity; width (frontage of column that can pass +through). + +=1007. Ponds and Marshes.= Means of crossing; defensive use that might +be made of them as obstacles against enemy; whether the marshy grounds +are practicable for any or all arms. + +=1008. Springs and Rivulets.= Nature of approaches; whether water is +drinkable and abundant. + +=1009. Valleys.= Extent and nature; towns, villages, hamlets, streams, +roads and paths therein; obstacles offered by or in the valley, to the +movement of troops. + +=1010. Heights.= Whether slopes are easy or steep; whether good +defensive positions are offered; whether plateau is wide or narrow; +whether passages are easy or difficult; whether the ground is broken +or smooth, wooded or clear. + + +Suggestions for Patrols Employed in Executing Demolition + +(Destruction or blocking of bridges, railroads, etc.) + +=1011. Patrols never execute any demolition unless specifically +ordered to do so.= Demolition may be of two different characters: +Temporary demolition, such as cutting telegraph wires in but a few +places or merely burning the flooring of bridges, removing a few rails +from a track, etc., and permanent demolition, such as cutting down an +entire telegraph line, completely destroying bridges, blowing in +tunnels, etc. Only temporary demolition will be dealt with in this +book. + +=1012. Telegraph Line.= To temporarily disable telegraph lines, +connect up different wires close to the glass insulators, wrap a wire +around all the wires and bury its ends in the ground (this grounds or +short circuits the wire), or cut all the wires in one or two places. + +=1013. Railroads.= To temporarily disable railroads remove the fish +plates (the plates that join the rails together at the ends) at each +end of a short section of track, preferably upon an embankment, then +have as many men as available raise the track on one side until the +ties stand on end and turn the section of track so that it will fall +down the embankment; or, cut out rails by a charge of dynamite or gun +cotton placed against the web and covered up with mud or damp clay. +Eight to twelve ounces of explosive is sufficient. Or blow in the +sides of deep cuts or blow down embankments. Bridges, culverts, +tunnels, etc., are never destroyed except on a written order of the +commander-in-chief. + +=1014. Wagon Road.= (=a=) Bridges can be rendered temporarily useless +by removing the flooring, or, in the case of steel bridges, by burning +the flooring (if obtainable, pour tar or kerosene on flooring), +particularly if there is not time to remove it. + +Short culverts may sometimes be blown in. + +A hastily constructed barricade across a bridge or in a cut of trees, +wagons, etc, may be sufficient in some cases where only the temporary +check of hostile cavalry or artillery is desired. + +(=b=) The road bed may be blocked by digging trenches not less than +thirty feet wide and six feet deep, but as this would take a great +deal of time patrols would rarely be charged with such work. + +=1015. Report on Return of Patrol.= On returning the patrol leaders +should make a short verbal or written report, almost always the +former, briefly recounting the movements of the patrol, the +information obtained of the enemy, a description of the country passed +over and of friendly troops encountered. Of course, this is not +practicable when the situation is changing rapidly and a returning +patrol is immediately engaged in some new and pressing duty. + + +Model Reports of Patrol Leaders + +=1016. 1. Verbal.= + +=Patrol Leader= (Corporal B): Sir, Corporal B reports back with his +patrol. + +=Captain A:= I received two messages from you, corporal. What else did +you discover? + +=Corporal B:= That was a regiment of infantry, sir, with one battalion +thrown out as advance guard. The main body of two battalions went into +bivouac at the crossroads and the advance guard formed an outpost line +along the big creek two miles south of here. + +=Captain A:= Give me an account of your movements. + +=Corporal B:= We followed this main road south to the creek, where we +avoided a mounted patrol moving north on the road at 1-45 P. M., and +then reconnoitered the valley from a ridge west of the road. We +followed the ridge south for half a mile to a point where we could see +a road crossing the valley and the main road at right angles, three +miles south of here. There we halted, and at 2:20 what seemed to be +the point and advance party (about forty men) of an infantry advance +guard appeared, marching north up this road, the head at the +crossroad. I then sent you message No. 1 by Private Brown. + +In fifteen minutes three companies had appeared 600 yards in rear of +the advance party, and I could see a heavy, low column of dust about +one-half mile further to the rear. Message No. 2 was then sent in by +Privates Baker and Johnson, and to avoid several hostile patrols, I +drew off further to the northwest. + +The advance guard then halted and established an outpost line along +the south of the creek, two miles from here. The cloud of dust proved +to be two more battalions and a wagon train. These two battalions went +into bivouac on opposite sides of this road at the crossroads and sent +out strong patrols east and west on the crossroad. Five wagons went +forward to the outpost battalion and the reserve built cook fires. + +As Private Rush, here, was the only man I had left, we started back, +sketching the valley, ridge and positions of the main body and +outpost. Here is the sketch, sir. The fields are all cut crops or +meadow. + +We sighted two foot patrols from the outpost, moving north about a +mile from here, one following the road and one further east. + +I did not see any of our patrols. + +That is all, sir. + +=2. Written.= + + =Report of Sergeant Wm. James' Patrol of Five Men= + + Support No. 1, + Outpost of 6th Inf., Near Dixon, + 22 Aug. 12, 2-30 to 5 P. M. + + The patrol followed the timber along the creek for one mile S. + from our outguards and leaving the creek bottom moved 1/2 mile S. + E. to the wooded hill (about 800 ft. high), visible from our + lines. + + From this hill top the valley to the east (about one mile wide) + could be fairly well observed. No signs of the enemy were seen and + a message, No. 1, was sent back by Private Russel. + + A wagon road runs N. and S. through the valley, bordered by four + or five farms with numerous orchards and cleared fields. Both + slopes of the valley are heavily wooded. + + The patrol then moved S. W., until it struck the macadam pike + which runs N. and S., through our lines. Proceeding S. 400 yds. on + this pike to a low hill a farmer, on foot, was met. Said he lived + one mile further S.; was looking for some loose horses; that four + hostile cavalrymen, from the east, stopped at his farm at noon, + drank some milk, took oats for their horses, inquired the way to + Dixon and rode off in that direction within fifteen minutes. He + said they were the first hostiles he had seen; that they told + nothing about themselves, and they and their horses looked in good + condition. Farmer appeared friendly and honest. + + The patrol then returned to our lines following the pike about two + miles. Road is in good condition, low hedges and barbed wire + fences, stone culverts and no bridges in the two miles. Bordering + country is open and gently rolling farming country and all crops + are in. A sketch is attached to this report. None of our patrols + was seen. + + Respectfully submitted, + Wm. James, + Sergeant, Co. A, 6th Infy. + + +Problem in Patrol Leading and Patrolling + +=1017.= In studying or solving tactical problems on a map you must +remember that unless you carefully work out your own solution to the +problem before looking at the given solution, you will practically +make no progress. + +It is best, if your time permits, to write out your solutions, and +when you read over the given solutions, compare the solution of each +point with what you thought of that same point when you were solving +the problem, and consider why you did just what you did. Without this +comparison much of the lasting benefit of the work is lost. + +In some of these problems both the problem and solutions are presented +in dialogue form so as to give company officers examples of the best +method of conducting the indoor instruction of their men in minor +tactics. It also gives an example of how to conduct a tactical walk +out in the country, simply looking at the ground itself, instead of a +map hanging on the wall. The enlarged Elementary Map referred to in +Par. 954, is supposed to be used in this instruction as well as in the +war games. + + +Problem No. 1. (Infantry) + +=1018.= The Elementary Map (scale 12 inches to the mile) being hung on +the wall, about two sergeants and two squads of the company are seated +in a semicircle facing it, and the captain is standing beside the map +with a pointer (a barrack cleaning rod makes an excellent pointer). + +=Captain:= We will suppose that our company has just reached the +village of York. The enemy is reported to be in the vicinity of Boling +and Oxford (he points out on the map all places as they are +mentioned). We are in the enemy's country. + +Corporal James, I call you up at 3 P. M. and give you these orders: +"Nothing has been seen of the enemy yet. Our nearest troops are three +miles south of here. Take four men from your squad and reconnoiter +along this road (County Road) into the valley on the other side of +that ridge over there (points to the ridge just beyond the cemetery), +and see if you can discover anything about the enemy. Report back here +by 5 o'clock. I am sending a patrol out the Valley Pike." Now, +Corporal, state just what you would do. + +=Corporal James:= I would go to my squad, fall in Privates Amos, +Barlow, Sharp and Brown; see that they had full canteens; that their +arms were all right; that they were not lame or sick and I would have +them leave their blanket rolls, haversacks and entrenching tools with +the company. (Par. 964.) + +I would then give these orders (Par. 963); "We are ordered out on +patrol duty. Nothing has been seen of the enemy yet. Our nearest +troops are three miles south of here. We are ordered to reconnoiter +along this road into the valley on the other side of that ridge, and +see if we can discover anything about the enemy. Another patrol is +going up the Valley Pike. Reports are to be sent here. In case we are +scattered we will meet at the woods on the hill over there (indicates +the clump of trees just west of Mills' farm). + +"I will go ahead. Amos, follow about fifty yards behind me. Barlow, +you and Sharp keep about 100 yards behind Amos, and Brown will follow +you at half that distance. All keep on the opposite side of the road +from the man ahead of you." (Par. 968.) + +=Captain:= All right, Corporal, now describe what route you will +follow. + +=Corporal James:= The patrol will keep to the County Road until the +crest of the ridge near the stone wall is reached, when what I see in +the valley beyond will decide my route for me. + +=Captain:= How about the woods west of the stone walls? + +=Corporal James:= If I did not see anyone from our patrol on the +Valley Pike reconnoitering there, I would give Barlow these orders +just after we have examined the cemetery, when the patrol would have +temporarily closed up somewhat: "Barlow, take Sharp and examine that +little woods over there. Join us at the top of this hill." I would +then wave to Brown to close up and would proceed to the hill top. + +=Captain:= Barlow what do you do? + +=Private Barlow:= I would say, "Sharp, out straight across for that +woods. I will follow you." I would follow about 100 yards behind him. +When he reached the edge of the woods I would signal him to halt by +holding up my left hand. After I had closed up to about fifty yards I +would say to him, "Go into the woods and keep me in sight." I would +walk along the edge of the woods where I could see Sharp and the +corporal's patrol on the road at the same time. + +=Captain:= That is all right, Barlow. Corporal, you should have +instructed Amos or Brown to keep close watch on Barlow for signals. + +=Corporal James:= I intended to watch him myself. + +=Captain:= No, you would have enough to do keeping on the alert for +what was ahead of you. Now describe how you lead the patrol to the top +of the hill, by the stone wall. + +=Corporal James:= When I reached the crest I would hold up my hand for +the patrol to halt and would cautiously advance and look ahead into +the valley. If I saw nothing suspicious I would wave to the men to +close up and say, "Amos, go to that high ground about 250 yards over +there (indicates the end of the nose made by the 60-foot contour just +north of the east end of the stone wall), and look around the +country." I would keep Brown behind the crest, watching Barlow's +movements. + +=Captain:= Now, Corporal, Amos reaches the point you indicated and +Barlow and Sharp join you. What do you do? + +=Corporal James:= Can I see the Steel Bridge over Sandy Creek? + +=Captain:= No, it is three-fourths of a mile away and the trees along +the road by Smith's hide it. You can see the cut in the road east of +the bridge and the Smith house, but the crossroads are hidden by the +trees bordering the roads. You see nothing suspicious. It is a clear, +sunny afternoon. The roads are dusty and the trees in full foliage. +The valley is principally made up of fields of cut hay, corn stubble +and meadow land. + +=Corporal James:= Does Private Amos give me any information? + +=Captain:= No, he makes you no signals. You see him sitting behind a +bush looking northwest, down the valley. + +=Corporal James:= I would say, "Barlow, head straight across to where +that line of trees meets the road (indicates the point where the lane +from Mills' farm joins the Chester Pike). Sharp, keep about fifty +yards to my right rear." I would follow Barlow at 150 yards and when I +had reached the bottom land I would wave to Amos to follow us. + +=Captain:= How about Brown? + +=Corporal James:= I had already given him his orders to follow as rear +guard and he should do so without my telling him. + +=Captain:= Amos, what do you do when you see the corporal wave to you? + +=Private Amos:= I would go down the hill and join him. + +=Captain:= No, you could do better than that. You are too far from the +corporal for him to signal you to do much of anything except stay +there or join him. You should join him, but you should not go straight +down to him. You should head so as to strike the Mills' Lane about 100 +yards east of the house and then go down the lane, first looking along +the stone wall. In this way you save time in reconnoitering the ground +near the Mills' farm and protect the patrol against being surprised by +an enemy hidden by the line of trees, or the wall along the lane. You +are not disobeying your orders but just using common sense in +following them out and thinking about what the corporal is trying to +do. + +Now, Corporal, why didn't you go to the Smith house and find out if +the people there had seen anything of the enemy? + +=Corporal James:= You said we were in the enemy's country, sir, so I +thought it best to avoid the inhabitants until I found I could not get +information in any other way. I intended first to see if I could +locate any enemy around here, and if not, to stop at houses on my +return. In this way I would be gone before the people could send any +information to the enemy about my patrol. + +=Captain:= Barlow reaches the Chester Pike where the Mills' lane +leaves it. You are about 150 yards in his rear. Sharp is 50 yards off +to your right rear, Amos 100 yards to your left rear and Brown 50 +yards behind you. Just as Barlow starts to climb over the barbed wire +fence into the Chester Pike you see him drop down on the ground. He +signals, "Enemy in sight." Tell me quickly what would you do? + +=Corporal James:= I would wave my hand for all to lie down, and I +would hasten forward, stooping over as I ran, until I was about twenty +yards from him, when I would crawl forward to the fence, close by him. +Just before I reached him I would ask him what he saw. + +=Captain:= He replies, "There are some hostile foot soldiers coming up +this road." + +=Corporal James:= I would crawl forward and look. + +=Captain:= You see three or four men, about 500 yards north of you, +coming up the Chester Pike. They are scattered out. + +=Corporal James:= I would say, "Crawl into the lane, keep behind the +stone wall, watch those fellows, and work your way to that farm" +(indicates the Mills' farm). I would start towards the Mills' farm +myself, under cover of the trees along the lane and would wave to the +other men to move rapidly west, towards the hills. + +=Captain:= Why didn't you try to hide near where you were and allow +the hostile men to pass? + +=Corporal James:= There does not seem to be any place to hide near +there that a patrol would not probably examine. + +=Captain:= What is your plan now? + +=Corporal James:= I want to get my patrol up to that small woods near +the Mills' farm, but I hardly expect to be able to get them up to that +point without their being seen. In any event, I want them well back +from the road where they can lie down and not be seen by the enemy +when he passes. + +=Captain:= You succeed in collecting your patrol in the woods without +their being seen, and you see four foot soldiers in the road at the +entrance to the land. One man starts up the lane, the others remaining +on the road. + +=Corporal James:= I say, "Brown, go through these woods and hurry +straight across to York. You should be able to see the village from +the other side of the woods. Report to the captain that a hostile +patrol of four foot men is working south up the valley, two miles +northeast of York. We will go further north. Repeat what I have told +you." (Par. 979.) + +=Captain:= Why didn't you send this message before? + +=Corporal James:= Because we were moving in the same direction that +the messenger would have had to go, and, by waiting a very few +minutes, I was able to tell whether it was a mere patrol or the point +of an advance guard. + +=Captain:= Do you think it correct to send a messenger back with news +about a small patrol? + +=Corporal James:= Ordinarily it would be wrong, but as nothing has +been seen of the enemy until now, this first news is important because +it proves to the Captain that the enemy really is in this +neighborhood, which it seems to me is a very important thing for him +to know and what my mission required me to do. (Par. 981.) + +=Captain:= What are you going to do now, Corporal? + +=Corporal James:= We have traveled about two miles and stopped +frequently, so it must be about 4 o'clock. It is one and one-third +miles back to York, where I should arrive about 5 o'clock. It would +take me twenty-five minutes to go from here to York, so I have about +thirty-five minutes left before 5 o'clock. This will permit me to go +forward another mile and still be able to reach York on time. It is +two-thirds of a mile to the Mason farm, and if the hostile patrol +appears to be going on, I will start for that point. Did anyone at the +Mills' farm see us? + +=Captain:= No, but tell me first why you do not go along this high +ground that overlooks the valley? + +=Corporal James:= Because our patrol that started out the Valley Pike +is probably near Twin Hills and I want to cover other country. The +orchard at Mason's would obstruct my view from the hills. + +=Captain:= The hostile patrol goes on south. Describe briefly your +next movements. + +=Corporal James:= I lead my patrol over to Mason's and, concealing two +of the men so that both roads and the house can be watched, I take one +man and reconnoiter around the farm yard and go up to the house to +question the inhabitants. (Par. 996.) + +=Captain:= You find one woman there who says some other soldiers, on +foot, passed there a few minutes ago, marching south. She gives you no +other information about the enemy or country. + +=Corporal James:= I would send Amos over to see how deep and wide +Sandy Creek is (Par. 1001.) When he returned I would take the patrol +over to Twin Hills, follow the ridge south to the stone wall on the +County Road, watching the valley for signs of the hostile patrol, and +follow the road back to York; then make my report to the Captain, +telling him where I had gone, all I had seen, including a description +of the country. If I had not been hurried, I would have made a sketch +of the valley. I can make a rough one after I get in. (Par. 1015.) + +=Captain:= Suppose on your way back you saw hostile troops appearing +on the County Road, marching west over Sandy Ridge. Would you stay out +longer or would you consider that you should reach Oxford by 5 +o'clock? + +=Corporal James:= I would send a message back at once, and remain out +long enough to find out the strength and probable intention of the new +enemy. + +=Captain (to one platoon of his troop of cavalry):= We will suppose +that this troop has just (9 A. M.) arrived in Boling (Elementary Map) +on a clear, dry, summer day. The enemy is supposed to be near Salem +and we have seen several of his patrols this morning on our march +south to Boling. Sergeant Allen, I call you up and give you these +instructions: "Take Corporal Burt's squad (eight men) and reconnoiter +south by this road (indicates the Boling-Morey house road) to Salem. I +will take the troop straight south to Salem and you will join it +there about 10:15. It is four and one-half miles to Salem. Start at +once." (You have no map.) + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would like to know just what the Captain wishes my +patrol to do. (Par. 965.) + +=Captain:= We will suppose that this is one of the many occasions in +actual campaign where things must be done quickly. Where there is no +time for detailed orders. You know that the troop has been marching +south towards Salem where the enemy is supposed to be. You also know +we have seen several of his patrols. I have told you what the troop is +going to do, and from all this you should be able to decide what your +mission is in this case. We will, therefore, consider that there is no +time to give you more detailed orders, and you have to decide for +yourself. Of course, if you had failed to hear just what I said, then, +in spite of the necessity for haste, I would repeat my instructions to +you. (Par. 963.) + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would ride over to Corporal Burt's squad and lead +it out of the column to the road leading to the Morey house, and say, +"The troop is going on straight south to Salem, four and one-half +miles away. This squad will reconnoiter south to Salem by this road, +joining the troop there about 10:15. In case we become separated, make +for Salem. Corporal, take Brown and form the point. I will follow with +the squad about 300 yards in rear. Regulate your gait on me after you +get your distance. Move out now at a trot." (Par. 963.) + +After Corporal Burt had gotten 150 yards out I would say, "Carter, +move out as connecting file." I would then say, "Downs, you will +follow about 150 yards behind us as rear guard." When Carter had gone +150 yards down the road I would order, "=1. Forward; 2. Trot; 3. +March=," and ride off at the head of the four remaining men (in column +of twos.) (Par. 968.) + +=Captain:= Sergeant, tell me briefly what is your estimate of the +situation--that is, what sort of a proposition you have before you and +how you have decided to handle it. + +=Sergeant Allen:= As the enemy is supposed to be near Salem and we +have already seen his patrols, I expect to encounter more patrols and +may meet a strong body of the enemy, on my way to Salem. As I have no +map, I cannot tell anything about the road, except that it is about +four and one-half miles by the direct road the troop will follow, +therefore my route will be somewhat longer. I have been given an hour +and fifteen minutes in which to make the trip, so, if I move at a trot +along the safer portions of the road. I will have time to proceed very +slowly and cautiously along the dangerous portions. My patrol will be +stretched out about 500 yards on the road, which should make it +difficult for the enemy to surprise us and yet should permit my +controlling the movements of the men. (Par. 968.) + +I consider that my mission is to start out on this road and find my +way around to Salem in about an hour and, particularly, to get word +across to the Captain on the other road of anything of importance +about the enemy that I may learn. + +=Captain:= Very well. When you reach the cut in the road across the +south nose of Hill 38, your point has almost reached the Morey house. +Do you make any change in your patrol? + +=Sergeant Allen:= I order, "=1. Walk, 2. MARCH=," and watch to see if +the connecting file observes the change in gait and comes to a walk. + +=Captain:= Suppose he does not come to a walk? + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would say, "Smith, gallop ahead and tell Carter to +walk and to keep more on the alert." + +=Captain:= Corporal Burt, you reach the road fork at Morey's. What do +you do? + +=Corporal Burt:= I say, "Brown, wait here until Carter is close enough +to see which way you go and then trot up to me." I would walk on down +the road. + +=Captain:= Wouldn't you make any inspection of the Morey house? + +=Corporal Burt:= Not unless I saw something suspicious from the road. +I would expect the main body of the patrol to do that. + +=Captain:= Don't you make any change on account of the woods you are +passing? + +=Corporal Burt:= No, sir. It has very heavy underbrush and we would +lose valuable time trying to search through it. A large force of the +enemy would hardly hide in such a place. + +=Captain:= Sergeant Allen, you reach the road fork. What do you do? + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would have two men go into the Morey house to +question anyone they found there. I would order one of the other two +men to trot up (north) that road 200 yards and wait until I signaled +to him to return. With the other man I would await the result of the +inspection of the Morey house. Corporal Burt should have gone ahead +without orders to the cut in the road across Long Ridge, leaving Brown +half way between us. (Pars. 987 to 996.) + +=Captain:= You find no one at the Morey house. + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would signal the man to the north to come in. I +would then order two men to "find a gate in the fence and trot up on +that hill (indicating Long Ridge), and look around the country and +join me down this road." (Par. 968.) I would then start south at a +walk, halting at the cut to await the result of the inspection on the +country from the hill. + +=Captain:= Foster, you and Lacey are the two men sent up on Long +Ridge. When you reach the hilltop you see four hostile cavalrymen +trotting north on the Valley Pike, across the railroad track. + +=Private Foster:= I signal like this (enemy in sight), and wait to see +if they go on north. (Par. 978.) Do I see anything else behind or +ahead of them? + +=Captain:= You see no other signs of the enemy on any road. Everything +looks quiet. The hostile cavalrymen pass the Baker house and continue +north. + +=Private Foster:= I would then take Lacey, trot down the ridge to +Sergeant Allen, keeping below the crest and report, "Sergeant, We saw +four hostile mounted men trotting north on the road about +three-quarters of a mile over there (pointing), and they kept on +north, across that road (pointing to the Brown-Baker-Oxford road). +There was nothing else in sight." I would then tell him what the +country to the south looked like, if he wanted to know. + +=Captain:= Sergeant Allen, what do you do now? + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would continue toward the Brown house at a trot. I +would send no message to you as you already know there are hostile +patrols about and therefore this information would be of little or no +importance to you. (Par. 981.) + +=Captain:= You arrive at Brown's house. + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would send two men in to question the people and I +would continue on at a walk. I would not send any one up the road +towards Oxford as Foster has already seen that road. + +=Captain:= You should have sent a man several hundred yards out the +Farm Lane. (Par. 989.) If he moved at a trot it would only have taken +a very short time. Continue to describe your movements. + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would halt at the railroad track until I saw my +two men coming on from the Brown house. I would then direct the other +two men who were with me to go through the first opening in the fence +to the west and ride south along that ridge (62--Lone Hill--Twin +Hills' ridge) until I signaled them to rejoin. I would tell them to +look out for our troop over to the east. If there were a great many +fences I would not send them out until we were opposite the southern +edge of that woods ahead of us. There I would send them to the high +ground to look over the country, and return at once. + +=Captain:= There are a great many fences west of the road and +practically none east of the road to Sandy Creek. Just as you arrive +opposite the southern edge of those woods and are giving orders for +the two men to ride up the hill, you hear firing in the direction of +Bald Knob. In the road at the foot of the south slope of Bald Knob, +where the trail to the quarry starts off, you can see quite a clump of +horses. You see nothing to the west of your position or towards +Mason's. What do you do? + +=Sergeant Allen:= I signal "RALLY" to Carter and Downs. If there is a +gate nearby I lead my men through it. If not, I have them cut or break +an opening in the fence and ride towards the railroad fill at a fast +trot, having one man gallop ahead as point. + +When we reach the fill, the point having first looked beyond it, I +order, "=DISMOUNT=. Lacey, hold the horses. =1. As skirmishers along +that fill, 2. MARCH.=" When Corporal Burt, Brown, Carter and Downs +come up Lacey takes their horses and they join the line of +skirmishers. Captain, what do I see from the fill? + +=Captain:= There appear to be about twenty or thirty horses in the +group. The firing seems to come from the cut in the road just north of +the horses and from the clump of trees by the Quarry. You can also +hear firing from a point further north on the road, apparently your +troop replying to the fire from Bald Knob. You see nothing in the road +south of the horses as far as Hill 42, which obstructs your view. What +action do you take? + +=Sergeant Allen:= I order, "=AT THE FEET OF THOSE HORSES. RANGE, 850. +CLIP FIRE.=" + +=Captain:= What is your object in doing as you have done? + +=Sergeant Allen:= I know the captain intended to go to Salem with the +troop. From the fact that he is replying to the hostile fire I judge +he still wishes to push south. I was ordered to reconnoiter along this +road, but now a situation has arisen where the troop is being +prevented or delayed in doing what was desired and I am in what +appears to be a very favorable position from which to give assistance +to the troop and enable them to push ahead. I am practically in rear +of the enemy and within effective range of their lead horses. I +therefore think my mission has at least temporarily changed and I +should try and cause the twenty or thirty hostile troopers to draw off +(Par. 1011). Besides, I think it is my business to find out what the +strength of this enemy is and whether or not he has reinforcements +coming up from Salem, and send this information to the captain. From +my position I can still watch the Chester Pike. + +=Captain:= After you have emptied your clips you see the enemy running +down out of the cut and from among the trees mount their horses and +gallop south. What do you do? + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would send Foster across the creek above the +trestle (south of trestle), to ride across to that road (pointing +towards the cut on Bald Hill) and tell the captain, who is near there, +that about thirty men were on the hill and they have galloped south, +and that I am continuing towards Salem. I would have Foster repeat the +message that I gave him. I would then trot back to the Chester Pike +and south to Mason's, taking up our old formation. + +=Captain:= You see nothing unusual at Mason's and continue south until +you reach the cross roads by the Smith farm. Corporal Burt and Private +Brown are near the stone bridge south of Smith's; Private Carter is +half way between you and Corporal Burt; and Private Downs is 100 yards +north of Smith's. You have three men with you. What do you do? + +=Sergeant Allen:= What time is it now? + +=Captain:= It is now 9:45 A. M. + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would say, "Lacey, take Jackson and gallop as far +as that cut in the road (points east) and see if you can locate the +enemy or our troop in the valley beyond. I will wave my hat over my +head when I want you to return." I would then say to Private Moore, +"Gallop down to Corporal Burt and tell him to fall back in this +direction 100 yards, and then you return here bringing the other two +men with you." I would then await the result of Private Lacey's +reconnaissance, sending Carter to the turn in the road 200 yards west +of the cross roads. + +=Captain:= Lacey, what do you do? + +=Private Lacey:= I order Jackson, "Follow 75 yards behind me and watch +for signals from Sergeant Allen," and I then gallop across the steel +bridge and half way up the hill. I then move cautiously up to the cut +and, if the fences permit, I ride up on the side of the cut, +dismounting just before reaching the crest of the ridge, and walk +forward until I can see into the valley beyond. + +=Captain:= You see no signs of the enemy in the valley, but you see +your own troop on the road by the Gibbs farm with a squad in advance +in the road on Hill 42. + +=Private Lacey:= I look towards Sergeant Allen to see if he is +signaling. I make no signals. + +=Captain:= What do you do, Sergeant? + +=Sergeant Allen:= I wave my hat for Private Lacey to return. I wave to +Private Downs to join me and when Private Lacey arrives I signal +"ASSEMBLE" to Corporal Burt and then say, "Lacey, join Corporal Burt +and tell him to follow me as rear guard. Martin, join Carter and tell +him to trot west. We will follow. You stay with him." After he got +started I would order, "Follow me. =1. Trot; 2. MARCH.=" + +=Captain:= When Private Carter reaches the crest of the ridge about +one-half mile west of Smith's he signals, "Enemy in sight in large +numbers," and he remains in the road with Martin fifty yards in rear. +(Par. 978.) + +=Sergeant Allen:= I order, "=1. Walk; 2. MARCH.= =1. Squad; 2. HALT=," +and gallop up to Private Carter, dismount just before reaching the +crest, give my horse up to Private Martin, and run forward. + +=Captain:= Carter points out what appears to be a troop of cavalry +standing in the road leading north out of York, just on the edge of +the town. You see about four mounted men 200 yards out of York on your +road, halted, and about the same number on the Valley Pike near where +it crosses the first stream north of York. What do you do? + +=Sergeant Allen:= I wait about three minutes to see if they are going +to move. + +=Captain:= They remain halted, the men at York appear to be +dismounted. + +=Sergeant Allen:= I write the following message: + + Hill 1/2 mile N. E. of York, + 10 A. M. + + Captain X: + + A hostile troop of cavalry is standing in road at YORK (west of + SALEM) with squads halted on N. and N. E. roads from YORK. Nothing + else seen. Will remain in observation for the present. + + Allen, + Sgt. (Pars. 979 and 981.) + +I would give the message to Martin, who had previously brought my +horse up close in rear of the crest, and would say to him, "Take this +message to the captain, straight across to the road the troop is on, +and turn south towards Salem if you do not see them at first. Take +Lacey with you. Tell him what you have seen. He knows where the troop +is." I would have Carter hold my horse, and watch the remainder of the +patrol for signals, while I observed the enemy. + +=Captain:= At the end of five minutes the hostile troop trots north on +the Valley Pike, the patrol on your road rides across to the Valley +Pike and follows the troop. + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would wait until the troops had crossed the creek +north of York and would then face my patrol east and trot to the cross +roads at Smith's, turn south and continue to Salem, sending one man to +ride up on Sandy Ridge, keeping the patrol in sight. + +=Captain:= We have carried out the problem far enough. It furnishes a +good example of the varying situations a patrol leader has to meet. +Good judgment or common sense must be used in deciding on the proper +course to follow. You must always think of what your chief is trying +to do and then act in the way you think will best help him to +accomplish his object. If you have carefully decided just what mission +you have been given to accomplish, you cannot easily go wrong. In +handling a mounted patrol you must remember that if the men become +widely separated in strange country, or even in country they are +fairly familiar with, they are most apt to lose all contact with each +other or become lost themselves. + + +Problem No. 2. (Infantry) + +=1019. Captain (to one platoon of his company):= We will suppose it is +about half an hour before dawn. One platoon of the company is deployed +as skirmishers, facing north, in the cut where the County Road crosses +Sandy Ridge. It is the extreme right of a line of battle extending +west along the line of the County Road. The fight was not commenced. +This platoon is resting in a wheat field between the railroad and the +foot of the slope of Sandy Ridge, 200 yards south of the County Road. +Sergeant Allen, I call you up and give you these instructions: "The +enemy's line is off in that direction (pointing northwest). Take six +men and work north along the railroad until it is light enough to see; +then locate the hostile line and keep me informed of their movements. +I will be in this vicinity. You have a compass. Start at once." +Describe briefly the formation of your patrol while it is moving in +the dark. + +=Sergeant Allen:= One man will lead. A second man will follow about +fifteen yards in rear of him. I will follow the second man at the same +distance with three more men, and the last man will be about twenty +yards in rear of me. All will have bayonets fixed, loaded and pieces +locked. One short, low whistle will mean, =Halt=, two short whistles +will mean, =Forward=, and the word "Sandy" will be the countersign by +which we can identify each other. + +=Captain:= Very well. We will suppose that you reach the steel trestle +over Sandy Creek just at dawn and have met no opposition and heard +nothing of the enemy. On either side of Sandy Creek are fields of +standing corn about six feet tall. In the present dim light you can +only see a few hundred yards off. + +=Sergeant Allen:= The patrol being halted I would walk forward to the +leading man (Brown) and say, "Brown, take Carter and form the point +for the patrol, continuing along this railroad. We will follow about +150 yards in rear." I would then rejoin the main body of the patrol +and order the man in rear to follow about 75 yards in rear of us. When +the point had gained its distance I would move forward with the main +body, ordering one man to move along the creek bank (west bank), +keeping abreast of us until I signaled to him to come in. + +=Captain:= Just as you reach the northern end of the railroad fill +your point halts and you detect some movement in the road to the west +of you. It is rapidly growing lighter. + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would move the main body by the left flank into +the corn, signaling to the man following the creek to rejoin, and for +the rear guard to move off the track also. I would expect Brown to do +the same, even before he saw what we had done. I would then close up +on the point until I could see it and, halting all the patrol, I would +order Foster to take Lacey and work over towards the road to see what +is there and to report back to me immediately. + +=Captain:= In a few minutes Foster returns and reports, "The enemy is +moving south in the road and in the field beyond, in line of squads or +sections. A hostile patrol is moving southeast across the field behind +us. We were not seen." + +(Note: This situation could well have been led up to by requiring +Private Foster to explain how he conducted his reconnaissance and +having him formulate his report on the situation as given.) + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would then work my patrol closer to the road, +keeping Foster out on that flank, and prepare to follow south in rear +of the hostile movement. + +=Captain:= The information you have gained is so important that you +should have sent a man back to me with a verbal message, particularly +as you are in a very dangerous position, and may not be able to send a +message later. While you have not definitely located the left of the +enemy's line, you have apparently discovered what appears to be a +movement of troops forward to form the left of the attacking line. +Your action in turning south to follow the troops just reported, is +proper, as you now know you are partly in rear of the hostile movement +and must go south to locate the hostile flank that your mission +requires you to report on. + +You men must picture in your minds the appearance of the country the +sergeant is operating through. His patrol is now in a field of high +standing corn. Unless you are looking down between the regular rows of +corn you can only see a few yards ahead of you. The road has a wire +fence and is bordered by a fairly heavy growth of high weeds and +bushes. The ground is dry and dusty. Sergeant, how do you conduct your +movement south? + +=Sergeant Allen:= As my patrol is now in a very dangerous neighborhood +and very liable to be caught between two hostile lines, with a deep +creek between our present position and our platoon, I think it best to +move cautiously southeast until I reach the creek bank (I cannot see +it from where I now am), and then follow the creek south. I think I am +very apt to find the enemy's left resting on this creek. Besides, if I +do not soon locate the enemy, I can hold the main body of my patrol +close to the creek and send scouts in towards the road to search for +the enemy. It will also be much easier to send information back to the +platoon from the creek bank, as a messenger can ford it and head +southeast until he strikes the railroad and then follow that straight +back to our starting point. It would thus be very difficult for him to +get lost. + +=Captain:= You move southeast and strike the creek bank just south of +the railroad trestle. You now hear artillery fire off to the west and +a rifle fire to the southwest which gradually increases in volume. You +see a high cloud of dust hanging over the road on the hill west of +Mason's and south of this road on the north slope of the northern-most +knoll of the Twin Hills, you can occasionally see the flash of a gun, +artillery being discharged. There seems to be no rifle firing directly +in your front. + +=Sergeant Allen:= I hurriedly write the following message: + + At Ry. trestle 1 mi. N. of Platoon, + 5:15 A. M. + + Captain X: + + Can see arty. firing from position on N. slope of knoll on high + ridge to W. of me, and 1/4 mi. S. of E. and W. road. Hostile line + is S. of me. Have not located it. Will move S. + + Allen, + Sgt. (Par. 474.) + +I hand this to Private Smith and say to him. "Carry this quickly to +the captain. Follow the railroad back until you cross a wagon road. +Our platoon should be to the west of the track just beyond the road." +I also read the message to Smith and point out the hostile artillery. +I have considered that I sent a message before telling about the +hostile advance. + +I then continue south, moving slowly and with great caution. I +instruct the remaining four men that in case we are surprised to try +to cross the creek and follow the railroad back to the platoon. + +=Captain:= Your information about the hostile artillery position was +important and should have been sent in, provided you think your +description of the hostile position was sufficiently clear to be +understood by an observer within your own lines. + +There is some question as to the advisability of your remaining on the +west bank of the creek. Still you would not be able to tell from where +you were what direction the creek took, so you probably would remain +on the west bank for the present. + +You continue south for about 150 yards and your leading man halts, +comes back to you, and reports that the corn ahead is broken and +trampled, showing it has been passed over by foot troops. About the +same time you hear rifle fire to your immediate front. It sounds very +close. + +=Sergeant Allen:= I say, "Cross this creek at once," and when we reach +the other bank and the patrol forms again, we move slowly south, all +the men keeping away from the creek bank, except myself, and I march +opposite the two men constituting the main body. + +=Captain:= About this time you detect a movement in the corn across +the creek in rear of the place you have just left. You think it is a +body of troops moving south. The firing in front seems to be delivered +from a point about two or three hundred yards south of you and you can +hear heavy firing from off in the direction of your company, a few +bullets passing overhead. There are scattered trees along the creek +and some bushes close to the edge. + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would conceal myself close to the bank, the patrol +being back, out of sight from the opposite bank, and await +developments. + +=Captain:= Sergeant, your patrol is in a dangerous position. The enemy +will very likely have a patrol or detachment in rear and beyond his +flank. This patrol would probably cross the railroad trestle and take +you in rear. You should have given the last men in your patrol +particular instructions to watch the railroad to the north. It would +have been better if you had sent one man over to the railroad, which +is only a short distance away, and had him look up and down the track +and also make a hurried survey of the country from an elevated +position on the fill. + +I also think it would be better not to await developments where you +now are, but to push south and make sure of the position of the left +of the enemy's firing line, later you can devote more time to the +movements in rear of the first line. You are taking too many chances +in remaining where you are. I do not mean that you should leave merely +because you might have some of your men killed or captured, but +because if this did occur you would probably not be able to accomplish +your mission. Later you may have to run a big chance of sacrificing +several of your men, in order to get the desired information, which +would be entirely justifiable. Tell me how your men are arranged and +what your next movement would be. + +=Sergeant Allen:= I have four men left, I am close to the stream's +bank, under cover; two men are about 25 yards further away from the +stream; Private Brown is up stream as far off as he can get and still +see the other two men, and Private Foster is down stream the same +distance. Both Brown and Foster are well back from the stream. The two +men in the middle, the main body of the patrol, make their movements +conform to mine, and Brown and Foster regulate their movements on the +main body. I will move south until I can locate the enemy's advance +line. + +=Captain:= When you are opposite the Mason house, Brown comes back to +you, having signaled halt, and reports he can see the enemy's firing +line about 100 yards ahead on the other side of the stream, and that a +small detachment is crossing the stream just beyond where he was. What +do you do? + +=Sergeant Allen:= I creep forward with Brown to verify his report. The +remainder of the patrol remains in place. + +=Captain:= You find everything as Brown reported. You see that the +firing line extends along the southern edge of the cornfield, facing +an uncultivated field covered with grass and frequent patches of weeds +two or three feet high. You cannot determine how strong the line is, +but a heavy fire is being delivered. You cannot see the detachment +that crossed the creek south of you because of the standing corn. + +=Sergeant Allen:= I crawl back to the main body, leaving Brown, and +write the following message: + + 5/6 mi. N. of Platoon, + 5:32 A. M. + + Captain X: + + Enemy's left rests on creek 3/4 mile to your front, along S. edge + of cornfield. Creek is 5 ft. deep by 60 ft. wide. Hostile patrols + have crossed the creek. Will watch their rear. + + Allen, + Sgt. + +I give this to Private James and say, "Go over to the railroad +(pointing), then turn to your right and follow the track until you +cross a wagon road. Our platoon is just beyond that, on this side of +the track. Give this message to the captain. Hurry." + +=Captain:= You should have either read the message to James or had him +read it. You should also have cautioned him to watch out for that +hostile detachment. It might be better to send another man off with a +duplicate of the message, as there is quite a chance that James may +not get through and the message is all-important. James, you get back +to the wagon road here (pointing) and find yourself in the right of +your battle line, but cannot locate me or the company right away. + +=Private James:= I would show the note to the first officer I saw in +any event, and in this case, I would turn it over to the officer who +appeared to be in command of the battalion or regiment on the right of +the line, telling him what company the patrol belonged to, when we +went out, etc. + +=Captain:= What do you do, sergeant? + +=Sergeant Allen:= I start to move north a short distance in order to +find out what reenforcements are in rear of the hostile line. + +=Captain:= After you have moved about 75 yards you are suddenly fired +into from across the creek, and at the same time from the direction of +the railroad trestle. Your men break and run east through the corn and +you follow, but lose sight of them. When you cross the railroad fill +you are fired on from the direction of the bridge. You finally stop +behind the railroad fill on the quarry switch, where two of your men +join you. + +=Sergeant Allen:= I would start south to rejoin the company and +report. + +=Captain:= That would be a mistake. It would require a long time for a +second patrol to make its way out over unknown ground, filled with +hostile patrols, to a point where they could observe anything in rear +of the hostile flank. You are now fairly familiar with the ground, you +also know about where the hostile patrols are and you have two men +remaining. After a brief rest in some concealed place nearby, you +should start out again to make an effort to determine the strength of +the troops in rear of the hostile flank near you, or at least remain +out where you could keep a sharp lookout for any attempted turning +movement by the enemy. Should anything important be observed you can +send back a message and two of you remain to observe the next +developments before returning. The information you might send back and +the additional information you might carry back, would possibly enable +your own force to avoid a serious reverse or obtain a decided victory. + +Your work would be very hazardous, but it is necessary, and while +possibly resulting in loss of one or two of your men, it might prevent +the loss of hundreds in your main force. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE SERVICE OF SECURITY + +(Based on the Field Service Regulations.) + + +General Principles + +=1020. The Service of Security= embraces all those measures taken by a +military force to protect itself against surprise, annoyance or +observation by the enemy. On the march, that portion of a command +thrown out to provide this security is called an advance, flank or +rear guard, depending on whether it is in front, to the flank or in +rear of the main command; in camp or bivouac, it is called the +outpost. + +The principal duties of these bodies being much the same, their +general formations are also very similar. There is (1) the cavalry +covering the front; next (2) a group (4 men to a platoon) or line of +groups in observation; then (3) the support, or line of supports, +whose duty is to furnish the men for the observation groups and check +an enemy's attempt to advance until reinforcements can arrive; still +farther in rear is (4) the reserve. + +In small commands of an infantry regiment or less there usually will +not be any cavalry to cover the front, and the reserve is generally +omitted. Even the support may be omitted and the observation group or +line of groups be charged with checking the enemy, in addition to its +regular duties of observation. But whatever the technical designation +of these subdivisions, the rearmost one is always in fact a reserve. +For example, if the command is so small that the subdivision formally +designated as the reserve is omitted, the rear element (squad or +platoon or company, etc.) is used as a reserve. As this text deals +principally with small commands and only those larger than a regiment +usually have the subdivision termed the reserve, this distinction +between the element in the Field Service Regulations called the +reserve and the actual reserve, must be thoroughly understood. + +The arrangements or formations of all detachments thrown out from the +main force to provide security against the enemy, are very flexible, +varying with every military situation and every different kind of +country. The commander of such a detachment must, therefore, avoid +blindly arranging his men according to some fixed plan and at certain +fixed distances. Acquire a general understanding of the principles of +the service of security and then with these principles as a foundation +use common sense in disposing troops for this duty. + + +ADVANCE GUARD + +=1021. Definition and Duties.= An advance guard is a detachment of a +marching column thrown out in advance to protect the main column from +being surprised and to prevent its march from being delayed or +interrupted. (The latter duty is generally forgotten and many +irritating, short halts result, which wear out or greatly fatigue the +main body, the strength of which the advance guard is supposed to +conserve.) + +In detail the duties of the advance guard are: + +1. To guard against surprise and furnish information by reconnoitering +to the front and flanks. + +2. To push back small parties of the enemy and prevent their +observing, firing upon or delaying the main body. + +3. To check the enemy's advance in force long enough to permit the +main body to prepare for action. + +4. When the enemy is met on the defenses, seize a good position and +locate his lines, care being taken not to bring on a general +engagement unless the advance guard commander is authorized to do so. + +5. To remove obstacles, repair the road, and favor in every way +possible the steady march of the column. + +=1022. Strength:= The strength of the advance guard varies from +one-ninth to one-third of the total command. The larger the force the +larger in proportion is the advance guard, for a larger command takes +relatively longer to prepare for action than a small one. For example, +a company of 100 men would ordinarily have an advance guard of from +one to two squads, as the company could deploy as skirmishers in a few +seconds. On the other hand, a division of 20,000 men would ordinarily +have an advance guard of about 4,500 men, all told, as it would +require several hours for a division to deploy and the advance guard +must be strong enough to make a stubborn fight. + +=1023. Composition.= The advance guard is principally composed of +infantry, preceded if possible, by cavalry well to the front. When +there is only infantry, much more patrolling is required of the front +troops than when cavalry (called "Advance cavalry") is out in advance. +This book does not deal with large advance guards containing artillery +and engineers. Machine guns, however, will be frequently used in small +advance guards to hold bridges, defiles, etc. + +=1024. Distance From Main Body.= The distance at which the advance +guard precedes the main body or the main body follows the advance +guard depends on the military situation and the ground. It should +always be great enough to allow the main body time to deploy before it +can be seriously engaged. For instance the advance guard of a company, +say 1 squad, should be 350 to 500 yards in advance of the company. The +distance from the leading man back to the principal group of the squad +should generally be at least 150 yards. This, added to the distance +back to the main body or company, makes a distance of from 500 to 650 +yards from the leading man to the head of the main body. + +Examples: + + Command. Advance Guard. Distance (yds.). + + Patrol of 1 squad 2 men 100 to 300 + Section of 3 squads 4 men 200 to 400 + Inf. platoon of 50 men 1 squad 300 to 450 + Cav. platoon of 20 men 4 men 300 to 450 + Inf. company of 108 men 1 to 2 squads 350 to 500 + Cav. troop of 86 men 1/2 platoon 450 to 600 + Inf. battalion 1/2 to 1 company 500 to 700 + Cav. squadron 1/2 to 1 troop 600 to 800 + +These are not furnished as fixed numbers and distances, but are merely +to give the student an approximate, concrete idea. + +=1025. Connecting Files.= It should be remembered that between the +advance guard and the main body, and between the several groups into +which the advance guard is subdivided, connecting files are placed so +as to furnish a means of communicating, generally by signals, between +the elements (groups) of the column. There should be a connecting file +for at least ever, 300 yards. For example, suppose the advance guard +of a platoon is 300 yards in front of the main body. In ordinary +rolling country, not heavily wooded, a connecting file would be placed +half way between the two elements--150 yards from each one. + +It is generally wiser to use two men together instead of one, because +this leaves one man free to watch for signals from the front while the +other watches the main body. However, in very small commands like a +company, this is not practicable, as the extra man could not be +spared. + + +FORMATION OF ADVANCE GUARDS. + +=1026. Subdivisions.= The advance guard of a large force like a +brigade or division is subdivided into a number of groups or elements, +gradually increasing in size from front to rear. The reason for this +is that, as has already been explained, a larger group or force +requires longer to deploy or prepare to fight than a smaller one, +therefore the small subdivisions are placed in front where they can +quickly deploy and hold the enemy temporarily in check while the +larger elements in rear are deploying. The number of these +subdivisions decreases as the strength of the advance guard decreases, +until we find the advance guard of a company consists of one or two +squads, which naturally cannot be subdivided into more than two +groups; and the advance guard of a squad composed of two men, which +admits of no subdivision. + + =Distance to next + element in rear.= + + =Advance Cavalry= 1 to 5 miles + {=Advance party= {=Point= 150 to 300 yds. + =Support= {(=furnishes patrols=) {=Advance party proper= 300 to 600 yds. + {=Support proper= 400 to 800 yds. + =Reserve= (usually omitted in small commands) 500 yds. to + 1 mile + +The distances vary principally with the size of the command--slightly +with the character of the country. + +The advance cavalry is that part of the advance guard going in front +of all the foot troops. It is generally one to five miles in advance +of the infantry of the advance guard, reconnoitering at least far +enough to the front and flanks to guard the column against surprise by +artillery fire--4,500 yards. + +=1027. Support.= (=a=) The support constitutes the principal element +or group of all advance guards. It follows the advance cavalry, when +there is any, and leads the advance guard when there is no cavalry. +The support of a large command is subdivided within itself in much the +same manner as the advance guard as a whole is subdivided. It varies +in strength from one-fourth to one-half of the advance guard. + +=1028. (b) Advance Party.= As the support moves out it sends forward +an advance party several hundred yards, the distance varying with the +nature of the country and size of the command. For example, the +advance party of a support of one company of 108 men, would ordinarily +be composed of one section of three squads, and would march about 300 +yards in advance of the company in open country, and about 200 yards +in wooded country. + +The advance party sends out the patrols to the front and flanks to +guard the main body of the support from surprise by effective rifle +fire. Patrols are only sent out to the flanks to examine points that +cannot be observed from the road. As a rule they will have to rejoin +some portion of the column in rear of the advance party. As the +advance party becomes depleted in strength in this manner, fresh men +are sent forward from the main body of the support to replace those +who have fallen behind while patrolling. When there is advance +cavalry, much less patrolling is required of the infantry. + +(=c=) The point is a patrol sent forward by the advance party 150 to +300 yards. When the advance party is large enough the point should +ordinarily consist of a complete squad, commanded by an officer or +experienced noncommissioned officer. It is merely a patrol in front of +the column and takes the formation described for patrols. + +(=d=) The commander of the support ordinarily marches with the advance +party. He should have a map and control of the guide, if any is +present. He sees that the proper road is followed; that guides are +left in towns and at crossroads; that bridges, roads, etc., are +repaired promptly so as not to delay the march of the column and that +information of the enemy is promptly sent back to the advance guard +commander; he verifies the correctness of this information, if +possible. + +=1029.= (=a=) A thorough understanding of the arrangement of the +support and the duties of the leaders of its subdivisions--point, +flank patrols, advance party and main body (of the support)--is of the +greatest importance to a noncommissioned officer. For example, the +ignorance of one noncommissioned officer leading the advance party of +a column of troops six miles long can cause the entire column to be +delayed. If he halts because a few shots are fired at his men, and +conducts a careful reconnaissance before attacking (instead of pushing +right in on the enemy, forcing him to fall back quickly, if a weak +detachment; or, to disclose his strength, if strong), the entire +column, six miles long, is halted, the march interrupted, valuable +time lost, and what is more important, the men irritated and tired +out. + +(=b=) The leader of the point must understand that as the principal +duty of an advance guard is to secure the safe and uninterrupted march +of the main body, he is the first man to discharge this duty. If, for +example, his squad receives a volley of shots from some point to the +front, he cannot take the time and precautions the commander of a +large body would take to reconnoiter the enemy's position, determine +something about his strength, etc., before risking an attack. If he +did he would not be securing the uninterrupted march of the main body. +He has to deploy instantly and press the enemy hard until the hostile +opposition disappears or the advance party comes up and its commander +takes charge. The point will lose men in this way, but it is +necessary, for otherwise one small combat patrol could delay the march +time after time. + +(=c=) The same problem must be met in much the same manner by the +leader of the advance party. In this case there is more time to think, +as the point, being in advance, will have begun the fight before the +advance party arrives; but the leader of the advance party must use +his men freely and quickly to force the enemy to "show his hand," thus +preventing small harassing or combat detachments from delaying the +march. + +(=d=) As the subdivisions of the advance guard become larger their +leaders act with increasing caution, for as soon as it develops that +the enemy in front is really present in some strength, then a halt +becomes obligatory and a careful reconnaissance necessary. + +(=e=) The leader of every subdivision must always start a +reconnaissance the instant the enemy develops. He may, as in the case +of the point, only send one man around to discover the enemy's +strength; or, if the leader of the main body of the support, he may +send an entire squad. In almost every case the instant he has given +his orders for deploying and firing at or rushing the enemy, he sends +out his man or men to work around to a position permitting a view of +the hostile force. Every noncommissioned officer should impress this +on his memory so that he will not forget it in the excitement of a +sudden engagement. + +(=f=) No attempt should be made to subdivide the advance guard of a +small force into all the elements previously described. For example, +the advance guard of a squad is simply a point of one or two men; the +advance guard of a company is usually no more than a squad acting as a +point, the squad actually having several men from 100 to 150 yards in +advance, who really constitute a point for the squad; the advance +guard of a battalion would usually consist of a company or less +distributed as an advance party proper and a point. The advance guard +of a regiment would have no reserve--if, for example, a battalion were +used as the advance guard of a regiment, there would be only a +support, which would be distributed about as follows: A support proper +of about three companies and an advance party (point included) of +about one company. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +=1030. Reserve.= An advance guard large enough to have a reserve would +be distributed as follows: + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +The distance Z would be greater than Y and Y would be greater than X. +For example, a regiment acting as the advance guard of a brigade +would, under ordinary conditions, be distributed about as follows: + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +As only large commands have a reserve, which would always be commanded +by an officer, noncommissioned officers need not give this much +consideration, but it must be understood that while this fourth +subdivision of the advance guard is the only one officially termed +reserve, the last subdivision of any advance guard actually is a +reserve, no matter what its official designation. + +The advance guard of a cavalry command adopts formations similar to +those described above, except that the distances are increased because +of the rapidity with which the command can close up or deploy. An +advance party with a few patrols is usually enough for a squadron, and +precedes it from 600 to 1,000 yards. + +=1031. Reconnaissance.= In reconnaissance the patrols are, as a rule, +small (from two to six men). + +The flanking patrols, whether of the advance cavalry or of the advance +party, are sent out to examine the country wherever the enemy might be +concealed. If the nature of the ground permits, these patrols march +across country or along roads and trails parallel to the march of the +column. For cavalry patrols this is often possible; but with infantry +patrols and even with those that are mounted, reconnaissance is best +done by sending the patrols to high places along the line of march to +overlook the country and examine the danger points. These patrols +signal the results of their observations and, unless they have other +instructions, join the columns by the nearest routes, other patrols +being sent out as the march proceeds and as the nature of the country +requires. + +Deserters, suspicious characters and bearers of flags of truce (the +latter blindfolded), are taken to the advance guard commander. + +=1032. Advance Guard Order.= On receipt of the order for a march +designating the troops for the advance guard, the commander of the +latter makes his estimate of the situation; that is, he looks at the +map or makes inquiries to determine what sort of a country he must +march through and the nature of the roads; he considers what the +chances are of encountering the enemy, etc., and then how he should +best arrange his advance guard to meet these conditions, and what time +the different elements of his advance guard must start in order to +take their proper place in the column. He then issues his order at the +proper time--the evening before if possible and he deems it best, or +the morning of the march. + +The order for a large advance guard would ordinarily be written; for a +small command it would almost invariably be verbal, except that the +commander or leader of each element should always make written notes +of the principal points, such as the road to be followed, time to +start, distances, etc. + + +ADVANCE GUARD PROBLEMS + +Problem No. 1. (Infantry) + +=1033. Captain (to one platoon of his company):= We will assume that +our battalion camped last night at Oxford (Elementary Map) in the +enemy's country. It is now sunrise, 5:30 A. M.; camp has been broken +and we are ready to march. The officers have returned from reporting +to the major for orders and I fall in the company and give the +following orders: + +"A regiment of the enemy's cavalry is thought to be marching towards +Salem from the south. Our battalion will march at once towards Salem +to guard the railroad trestle over Sandy Creek, following this road +(pointing southeast along the road out of Oxford) and the Chester Pike +Which is one and three-quarters miles from here. + +"This company will form the advance guard. + +"Sergeant Adams, you will take Corporal Baker's squad and form the +point, followed by the remainder of the company at about 400 yards. +Patrols and connecting files will be furnished by the company. + +"The company wagon will join the wagons of the battalion. + +"I will be with the company. + +"Move out at once." + +The weather is fine and the roads are good and free from dust. It is +August and nearly all the crops are harvested. Bushes and weeds form a +considerable growth along the fences bordering the road. + +Sergeant, give your orders. + +=Sergeant Adams:= 1st squad, =1. Right, 2. FACE, 1. Forward, 2. +MARCH.= Corporal Baker, take Carter (Baker's rear rank man) and go +ahead of the squad about 200 yards. Move out rapidly until you get +your distance and then keep us in sight. + +I would then have the two leading men of the rest of the squad follow +on opposite sides of the road, as close to the fence as possible for +good walking. This would put the squad in two columns of files of +three men each, leaving the main roadway clear and making the squad as +inconspicuous as possible, without interfering with ease of marching +or separating the men. [Par. 1028 (c).] What sort of crops are in the +fields on either side of the road? + +=Captain:= The field on the right (south) is meadow land; that on the +left, as far as the railroad, is cut hay; beyond the railroad there is +more meadow land. + +=Sergeant Adams:= I would have told Corporal Baker to wait at the +cross roads by the Baker house for orders and-- + +=Captain:= If you were actually on the ground you probably could not +see the cross roads from Oxford. In solving map problems like these do +not take advantage of seeing on the map all the country that you are +supposed to go over, and then give orders about doing things at places +concerning which you would not probably have any knowledge if actually +on the ground without the map. + +Besides, in this particular case, it was a mistake to have your point +wait at the cross roads. If there was any danger of their taking the +wrong road it would be a different matter, but here your mission +requires you to push ahead. (Par. 1029.) The major is trying to get +south of the trestle towards Salem before the cavalry can arrive and +destroy it. + +=Sergeant Adams:= I would march steadily along the road, ordering the +last man to keep a lookout to the rear for signals from the connecting +file (Par. 511a), and I would direct one of the leading men to watch +for signals from Corporal Baker. + +=Captain:= You should have given the direction about watching for +signals earlier, as this is very important. You also should have +ordered two men to follow along the timber by the creek to your south +until you signaled for them to come in. The trees along the creek +would obstruct your view over the country beyond the creek. + +=Sergeant Adams:= But I thought, Captain, that the patrolling was to +be done by the company. + +=Captain:= Yes, the patrolling is to be done by the company, but the +creek is only a quarter of a mile, about 400 yards, from the road you +are following and the men sent there are merely flankers, not a +patrol. You have eight men under your command and you are responsible +for the ground within several hundred yards on either side of your +route of march. Long Ridge is almost too far for you to send your men, +because they would fall far behind in climbing and descending its +slopes, but it would not be a great mistake if you sent two men there. +As Long Ridge affords an extended view of the valley through which the +Chester Pike runs, a patrol should go up on it and remain there until +the battalion passes, and this would be more than the leading squad +could be expected to attend to. The creek is almost too far from the +road in places, but as it is open meadow land you can keep the men +within easy touch of you and recall them by signal at any moment you +desire. In this work you can see how much depends on good judgment and +a proper understanding of one's mission. + +Corporal Baker, explain how you would move out with Carter. + +=Corporal Baker:= We would alternate the walk and double time until we +had gotten about 200 yards ahead of the squad. I would then say, +"Carter, walk along this side of the road (indicates side), keeping on +the lookout for signals from the squad. I will go about fifty yards +ahead of you." I would keep to the opposite side of the road from +Carter, trying to march steadily at the regular marching gait, and +keeping a keen watch on everything in front and to the flanks. + +=Captain:= Very good. When you arrive at the cross roads you see a man +standing in the yard of the Baker house. + +=Corporal Baker:= I would not stop, but would continue on by the cross +roads, as I have no time to question the man and the Sergeant will +want to do that. I would call to him and ask him if he had seen any of +the enemy about and how far it was to the Chester Pike. If anything +looked suspicious around the house or barnyard, I would investigate. + +=Captain:= Sergeant, you arrive at the cross roads, and see the +Corporal and Carter going on ahead of you. + +=Sergeant Adams:= I would have already signaled to the two men +following the creek to come in and would send a man to meet them with +the following order: "Tell Davis to move along the railroad fill with +Evans, keeping abreast of us. Then you return to me." I would then +say, "Fiske, look in that house and around the barn and orchard and +then rejoin me down this road (pointing east)." I would have the +civilian join me and walk down the road with me while I questioned +him. + +=Captain:= Do you think you have made careful arrangements for +searching the house, etc., by leaving only one man to do the work? + +=Sergeant Adams:= I have not sufficient men nor time enough to do much +more. I simply want to make sure things are reasonably safe and I +thought that a couple of men from the main body of the advance guard +would do any careful searching, questioning, etc., that might be +deemed necessary. I must not delay the march. + +=Captain:= That is right. You learn nothing from the civilian and he +does not arouse any suspicion on your part. You continue along the +road. The fields to the north of the road are in wheat stubble; the +ground to the south, between your road and the railroad, is rough, +rocky grass land with frequent clumps of bushes. Davis and Evans, your +right flankers on the railroad fill, are just approaching the cut; +Fiske has rejoined; Corporal Baker and his men are about 200 yards +from the road forks at Brown's, and you and your four men are 200 +yards in their rear, at the turn of the road. At this moment a half +dozen shots are fired down the road in your direction from behind the +wall along the edge of the orchard on the Brown farm. This firing +continues and your two leading men are lying down at the roadside +returning the fire. Tell me quickly just what you are going to do? + +=Sergeant Adams:= I order my four men to deploy as skirmishers in that +field (pointing to the rough ground south of the road); I go under the +fence with the men and lead them forward at a fast run, unless the +fire is very heavy. + +=Captain= (interrupting the Sergeant): Davis, you had just reached the +cut on the railroad when this happened. What do you do? + +=Private Davis:= I take Evans forward with me at a run through the +cut. What do I see along the Chester Pike or Sandy Creek? + +=Captain:= You see no sign of the enemy any place, except the firing +over the wall. + +=Private Davis:= I run down the south side of the fill and along +towards the road with Evans to open fire on the enemy from their +flank, and also to see what is in the orchard. I will probably cross +the road so that I can see behind the stone wall. + +=Captain:= That's fine and shows how you should go ahead at such a +time without any orders. There is usually no time or opportunity at +such a moment for sending instructions and you must use common sense +and do something. Generally it would have been better to have tried to +signal or send word back that there was nothing in sight along the +road or in the valley, but in this particular case you could probably +do more good by going quickly around in rear as you did, to discover +what was there and assist in quickly dislodging whatever it was. If +there had been no nose of the ridge to hide you as you came up and a +convenient railroad fill to hurry along behind as you made for the +road, your solution might have been quite different. + +Sergeant, continue with your movements. + +=Sergeant Adams:= I would attempt to rush the wall. If the fire were +too heavy, I would open fire (at will) with all my men, and, if I +seemed to get a little heavier fire than the enemy's, I would start +half of my men forward on a rush while the others fired. I would try +to rush in on the enemy with as little delay as possible, until it +developed that he had more than a small detachment there. I assumed it +was a delaying patrol in front of me, and as my mission requires me to +secure the uninterrupted march of the main body, I must not permit any +small detachment to delay me. If, however, it proves to be a larger +force, for instance, the head of an advance guard, I will lose some +men by plunging in, but as I understand it, that is the duty of the +point. Then again, if it be the head of a hostile advance guard, I +will want to rush them out of their favorable position under cover of +the stone wall, buildings and orchard, before any more of their force +can come up. This would give the favorable position to our force; by +acting too cautiously we would lose the valuable moments in which the +enemy's reenforcements (next elements of the advance guard) were +coming up, with this desirable position being weakly held by a small +part of the enemy. + +=Captain:= That is all correct. What messages would you have sent? + +=Sergeant Adams:= Up to the present time I would not have sent any. I +could not have sent any. I could not afford to take the time to send a +man back, nor could I spare the man. Besides, all I could say was that +we were fired on, and you should be able to see and hear that from +where the company is. + +=Captain:= About the time you reached the position of Corporal Baker +the firing ceases, and when you reach the wall you see five mounted +men galloping northeast up Farm Lane. The Brown farm appears to be +deserted. + +=Sergeant Adams:= I would turn to one of the men and say, "Run back to +the Captain and tell him we were fired on from this orchard by a +mounted patrol of five men who are galloping off up a lane to the +northeast. I am going south." When he had repeated the message I would +start south down the Chester Pike, directing Corporal Baker to follow +this road south and to tell Davis to follow the high ridge west of the +road, going through the clump of woods just ahead. I would send one +man as a left flanker to follow the west bank of Sandy Creek. This +would leave me with two men, one watching for signals from the front +and along Sandy Creek, the other from Davis and from the rear. I would +expect to see a patrol from the company moving across towards Boling +Woods. Had I not been mixed up in a fight as I approached the Brown +farm I would have sent two men as left flankers across country to the +cut on the Chester Pike on the western edge of the Boling Woods. + +=Captain:= Very good. That is sufficient for this problem. All of you +should have caught the idea of the principal duties of the point and +flankers of an advance guard. You must watch the country to prevent +being surprised and you must at the same time manage to push ahead +with the least possible delay. The point cannot be very cautious so +far as concerns its own safety, for this would mean frequent halts +which would delay the troops in rear, but it must be cautious about +reconnoitering all parts of the ground near the road which might +conceal large bodies of the enemy. + +The leader of the point must be careful in using his men or he will +get them so scattered that they will become entirely separated and he +will lose all control of them. As soon as the necessity for flankers +on one side of the line of march no longer exists, signal for them to +rejoin and do not send them out again so long as you can see from the +road all the country you should cover. + + +Problem No. 2. (Infantry) + +=1034. Captain (to one platoon of his company):= Let us assume that +this platoon is the advance party of an advance guard, marching +through Salem along the Chester Pike [Par. 1028 (b)]. One squad is 350 +yards in front, acting as the point. The enemy is thought to be very +near, but only two mounted patrols have been seen during the day. The +command is marching for Chester. The day is hot, the roads are good +but dusty, and the crops are about to be harvested. + +Sergeant Adams, explain how you would conduct the march of the advance +party, beginning with your arrival at the cross roads in Salem. + +=Sergeant Adams:= The platoon would be marching in column of squads +and I would be at the head. Two pairs of connecting files would keep +me in touch with the point. (Par. 1025.) I would now give this order: +"Corporal Smith, take two men from your squad and patrol north along +this road (pointing up the Tracy-Maxey road) for a mile and then +rejoin the column on this road (Chester Pike), to the west of you." I +would then say to Private Barker, "Take Carter and cut across to that +railroad fill and go along the top of that (Sandy) ridge, rejoining +the column beyond the ridge. Corporal Smith with a patrol is going up +this road. Keep a lookout for him." When we reached the point where +the road crosses the south nose of Sandy Ridge and I saw the valley in +front of me with the long high ridge west of Sandy Creek, running +parallel to the Chester Pike and about 800 yards west of it, I would +give this order: "Corporal Davis, take the three remaining men in +Corporal Smith's squad, cross the creek there (pointing in the +direction of the Barton farm) go by that orchard, and move north along +that high ridge, keeping the column in sight. Make an effort to keep +abreast of the advance guard, which will continue along this road." + +I gave Corporal Davis the remaining men out of Corporal Smith's squad +because I did not want to break up another squad and as this is, in my +opinion, a very important patrol, I wanted a noncommissioned officer +in charge of it. Unless something else occurs this will be all the +patrols I intend sending out until we pass the steel railroad trestle +over Sandy Creek. + +=Captain:= Your point about not breaking up a squad when you could +avoid it by using the men remaining in an already broken squad, is a +very important one. Take this particular case. You first sent out two +pairs of connecting files between the advance party and your +point--four men. This leaves a corporal and three men in that squad. +If we assume that no patrols were out when we passed through Salem, +this corporal and two of his men could have been sent up the +Tracy-Maxey road, leaving one man to be temporarily attached to some +squad. From the last mentioned squad you would pick your two men for +the Sandy Ridge patrol and also the corporal and three men for the +Barton farm, etc., patrol. This would leave three men in this squad +and you would have under your immediate command two complete squads +and three men. As the patrols return, organize new squads immediately +and constantly endeavor to have every man attached to a squad. This is +one of your most important duties, as it prevents disorder when some +serious situation suddenly arises. Also it is one of the duties of the +detachment commander that is generally overlooked until too late. + +The direction you sent your three patrols was good and their orders +clear, covering the essential points, but as you have in a very short +space of time, detached nine men, almost a third of your advance +party, don't you think you should have economized more on men? + +=Sergeant Adams:= The Sandy Ridge patrol is as small as you can make +it--two men. I thought the other two patrols were going to be detached +so far from the column that they should be large enough to send a +message or two and still remain out. I suppose it would be better to +send but two men with Corporal Davis, but I think Corporal Smith +should have two with him. + +=Captain:= Yes, I agree with you, for you are entering a valley which +is, in effect, a defile, and the Tracy-Maxey road is a very dangerous +avenue of approach to your main body. But you must always bear in mind +that it is a mistake to use one more man than is needed to accomplish +the object in view. The more you send away from your advance party, +the more scattered and weaker your command becomes, and this is +dispersion, which constitutes one of the gravest, and at the same +time, most frequent tactical errors. + +To continue the problem, we will suppose you have reached the stone +bridge over Sandy Creek; the point is at the cross roads by the Smith +house; you can see the two men moving along Sandy Ridge; and Corporal +Davis' patrol is just entering the orchard by the Barton farm. Firing +suddenly commences well to the front and you hear your point reply to +it. + +=Sergeant Adams:= I halt to await information from the point. + +=Captain:= That is absolutely wrong. You command the advance party of +an advance guard; your mission requires you to secure the +uninterrupted march of the main body; and at the first contact you +halt, thus interrupting the march (Par. 1021). The sooner you reach +the point, the better are your chances for driving off the enemy if he +is not too strong, or the quicker you find out his strength and give +your commander in the rear the much desired information. + +=Sergeant Adams:= Then I push ahead with the advance party, sending +back the following message-- + +=Captain= (interrupting): It is not time to send a message. You know +too little and in a few minutes you will be up with the point where +you can hear what has happened and see the situation for yourself. +Then you can send back a valuable message. When but a few moments +delay will probably permit you to secure much more detailed +information, it is generally best to wait for that short time and thus +avoid using two messengers. When you reach the cross roads you find +six men of the point deployed behind the fence, under cover of the +trees along the County Road, just west of the Chester Pike, firing at +the stone wall along the Mills' farm lane. The enemy appears to be +deployed behind this stone wall, from the Chester Pike west for a +distance of fifty yards, and his fire is much heavier than that of +your point. You think he has at least twenty rifles there. You cannot +see down the Chester Pike beyond the enemy's position. Your patrol on +Sandy Ridge is midway between the 68 and 66 knolls, moving north. The +ground in your front, west of the road, is a potato field; that east +of the road as far as the swamp, is rough grass land. + +=Sergeant Adams:= I give order, "Corporal Gibbs, deploy your squad to +the right of the Pike and push forward between the Pike and the swamp. +Corporal Hall (commands the point), continue a heavy fire. Here are +six more men for your squad." I give him the four connecting files and +two of the three men in the advance party whose squad is on patrol +duty. "Corporal Jackson, get your squad under cover here. Lacey, run +back to the major and tell him the point has been stopped by what +appears to be twenty of the enemy deployed behind a stone wall across +the valley 500 yards in our front. I am attacking with advance party." + +=Captain:= Corporal Davis (commands patrol near Barton farm), you can +hear the firing and see that the advance is stopped. What do you do? + +=Corporal Davis:= I would head straight across for the clump of woods +on the ridge just above the Mills' farm, moving as rapidly as +possible. + +=Captain:= That is all right. Sergeant, Corporal Hall's squad keeps up +a heavy fire; Corporal Gibb's squad deploys to the right of the pike, +rushes forward about 75 yards, but is forced to lie down by the +enemy's fire, and opens fire. Corporal Gibbs, what would your command +for firing be? + +=Corporal Gibbs:= =AT THE BOTTOM OF THAT WALL. BATTLE SIGHT. CLIP +FIRE.= + +=Captain:= Why at the bottom of the wall? + +=Corporal Gibbs:= The men are winded and excited and will probably +fire high, so I gave them the bottom of the wall as an objective. + +=Captain:= The enemy's fire seems as heavy as yours. Sergeant, what do +you do? + +=Sergeant Adams:= I give this order. "Corporal Jackson, deploy your +squad as skirmishers on the left of Corporal Hall's squad and open +fire." What effect does this additional fire have on the enemy? + +=Captain:= His bullets seem to go higher and wider. You appear to be +getting fire superiority over him. + +=Sergeant Adams:= If I do not see any signs of the enemy being +reenforced, dust in the road behind his position, etc., I take +immediate command of the squads of Corporals Hall and Jackson, and +lead them forward on a rush across the potato field. + +=Captain:= Corporal Gibbs, what do you do when you see the other two +squads rush? + +=Corporal Gibbs:= I order, =FIRE AT WILL=, and urge the men to shoot +rapidly in order to cover the advance. + +=Captain:= Sergeant Adams' squads are forced to halt after advancing +about 150 yards. + +=Corporal Gibbs:= I keep up a hot fire until they can resume their +firing, when I lead my squad forward in a rush. + +=Captain:= What do you do, Sergeant? + +=Sergeant Adams:= I would have the Corporals keep up a heavy fire. By +this time I should think the support would be up to the cross roads. + +=Captain:= It is, but have you given up your attack? + +=Sergeant Adams:= If it looks as if I could drive the enemy out on my +next rush, I do so, but otherwise I remain where I am, as I have no +reserve under my control and the action has gotten too serious for me +to risk anything more when my chief is practically on the ground to +make the next decision. He should have heard something about what is +on the Pike behind the enemy, from the patrol on Sandy Ridge. + +=Captain:= Your solution seems correct to me. Why did you send +Corporal Gibbs' squad up between the pike and the swamp? + +=Sergeant Adams:= It looked as if he would strike the enemy from a +better quarter; there appeared to be better cover that way, afforded +by the turn in the road, which must have some weeds, etc., along it, +and the swamp would prevent him from getting too far separated from +the remainder of the advance party. + +=Captain:= The Sergeant's orders for the attack were very good. He +gave his squad leaders some authority and attached his extra men to a +squad. He did not attempt to assume direct control of individual men, +but managed the three squads and made the squad leaders manage the +individual men. This is the secret of successful troop leading. His +orders were short, plain and given in proper sequence. + + +Problem No. 3 (Infantry) + +(See Fort Leavenworth map in pocket at back of book.) + +[Illustration: MAP of FORT LEAVENWORTH, KAS. and VICINITY] + +=1035.= Situation. + +A Blue battalion, in hostile country, is in camp for the night, August +5-6, at Sprong (ja'). At 9:00 P. M., August 5th, Lieutenant A, +Adjutant gives a copy of the following order to Sergeant B: + + 1st Battalion, 1st Infantry, + Sprong, Kansas, + 5 Aug., '09. + + Field Orders No. 5. + + 1. The enemy's infantry is six miles east of FORT LEAVENWORTH. His + cavalry patrols were seen at F (qg') today. + + Our regiment will reach FRENCHMAN'S (oc') at noon tomorrow. + + 2. The battalion will march tomorrow to seize the ROCK ISLAND + BRIDGE (q) at FORT LEAVENWORTH. + + 3. (a) The advance guard, consisting of 1st platoon Co. A and + mounted orderlies B, C, and D, under Sergeant B, will precede the + main body at 400 yards. + + (b) The head of the main body will march at 6:30 A. M., from 19 + via the 17 (jc')--15 (jg') 1--5 (lm')--FORT LEAVENWORTH (om') + road. + + 4. The baggage will follow close behind the main body under escort + of Corporal D and one squad, Co. B. + + 5. Send reports to head of main body. + + C, + Major, Comdg. + + Copies to the company commanders, to Sergeant B and Corporal D. + +=A. Required, 1.= Give Sergeant B's estimate of the situation. (The +estimate of the military situation includes the following points: + + 1. His orders or mission and how much discretion he is allowed. + 2. The ground as it influences his duty. + 3. The position, strength and probable intentions of the enemy. + 4. Sergeant B's decision.) + +=Answer.= 1. The size of the advance guard, its route and the distance +it is to move in front of the main body are prescribed by Major C. +Sergeant B is free to divide up the advance as he sees fit, to use the +various parts so as to best keep open the way of the main body, +maintain the distance of 400 yards in front of it, and protect it from +surprise by the enemy. + +2. The ground may be such as to make easy or to hinder reconnaissance, +such as hills or woods; to impede or hasten the march, such as roads, +streams, defiles; to offer good or poor defensive positions; to offer +good or poor opportunities for an attack. Sergeant B sees from his map +that the ground is rolling and open as far as Kern (ji') with good +positions for reconnaissance and for defense or attack. There is a +bridge over Salt Creek (ig') which has steep banks and will be a +considerable obstacle if the bridge has been destroyed. From this +creek to Kern the advance would be under effective fire from Hancock +Hill (ki'), so that these heights must be seized before the main body +reaches 15 (jg'). + +Beyond Kern the heavy woods make reconnaissance difficult and must be +treated somewhat like a defile by the point. (Par. 991.) + +3. There is little to fear from the main body of the enemy which is +1-1/2 miles farther from the Rock Island bridge than we are, but we +know the enemy has cavalry. The size of the cavalry force is not +known, and may be sufficient to cause us considerable delay, +especially in the woods. The enemy's evident intention is to keep us +from seizing the bridge. + +4. Having considered all these points, Sergeant B comes to the +following decision: ... (Before reading the decision as contained in +the following paragraph, make one of your own.) + +=Answer:= To have only an advance party with which to throw forward a +point of 5 men 200 yards to the front and send out flankers, as needed +(Par. 983); to send the three mounted orderlies well to the front of +the point to gain early information of the enemy, especially on +Hancock Hill (ji') and the ridge to the north of 11 (jj'). + +=Required, 2.= Sergeant B's order. (Par. 963.) + +=Answer.= Given verbally to the platoon and mounted orderlies, at 9:30 +P. M. + +"The enemy's cavalry patrols were seen at F (qh') today; no hostile +infantry is on this side of the Missouri river. The battalion will +move tomorrow to Fort Leavenworth, leaving 19 (ja') at 6:30 A. M. + +"This platoon and orderlies B, C, and D will form the advance guard, +and will start from the hedge 400 yards east of 19 at 6:30 A. M. via +the 17 (jc')--15 (jg')--5 (lm') road. + +"The point, Corporal Smith and 4 men of his squad, will precede the +remainder of the advance guard at 200 yards. + +"I will be with the advance party. Privates X and Y will act as +connecting files with the main body." + +The flankers will be sent out from time to time by Sergeant B as +necessary. + +=Required, 3.= The flankers sent out by Sergeant B between 19 (ja') +and 15 (jg'). + +=Answer.= A patrol of 3 men is sent to Hill 900 southeast of 19 (ja'), +thence by Moss (kc') and Taylor (lc') houses to Hill 840 east of +Taylor, thence to join at 15 (jg'). + +Two men are sent from the advance party as it passes Hill 875.5 (ie') +to the top of this hill to reconnoiter to the front and northeast. +These men return to the road and join after the advance party has +reached Salt Creek. Two men are sent ahead of the advance party at a +double time take position on "Hill 875 northeast of J. E. Daniels" +place (jf') and reconnoiter to the northeast and east. + +=Reasons.= The patrol sent out on the south moves out far enough to +get a good view from the hills which an enemy could observe or fire +into the column. There is no necessity of sending out flankers north +of the road at first, because from the road itself a good view is +obtained. Hills 875.5 and 875 give splendid points for observing all +the ground to the north and east. (Don't send flankers out unless they +are necessary.) + +=Required, 4.= When the advance party reaches J. E. Daniels' house +(je') a civilian leaves the house and starts toward 15. What action +does Sergeant B take? + +=Required, 5.= When the advance party reaches Salt Creek bridge (jg') +the point signals "enemy in sight," and Private H reports that he saw +about 6 or 8 mounted men ride up to the edge of the woods at Kern, +halt a moment, and disappear. What action does Sergeant B take? + +=Answer.= He at once sends a message back by Private H stating the +facts. He then orders the advance party to move forward, hastens up to +the point and directs it to continue the march, seeking cover of +fences and ravines and hill top. + +=Required, 6.= When the point reaches Schroeder (jh') it receives fire +from the orchard at Kern. What action is taken? + +=Answer.= The men in the point are moved rapidly down the hill and +gain shelter in the ravines leading toward Kern. Two squads are +rapidly placed in line along the ridge west of Schroeder and under +cover of their fire the remainder of the advance party run down the +hill at 10 yards distance to join the point. A squad of this force is +then hurried forward to the Kern house. Here the squad is stopped by +fire and Sergeant B deploys two more squads which advance by rushes +and drive out the enemy, found to be 10 cavalrymen. The squads left at +Schroeder now join at double time and the advance party moves forward, +without having delayed the march of the main body. + + +Problem No. 4 (Infantry) + +=1036. Situation:= + +A Blue force of one regiment of infantry has outposts facing south on +the line Pope Hill (sm')--National cemetery (pk')--E (qh'). A Red +force is reported to have reached Soldiers' Home (3 miles south of +Leavenworth) from the south at 7:00 o'clock this morning. Corporal A +is directed by Sergeant B, in command of the left support at Rabbit +Point (tn'), to take out a patrol toward the waterworks and south +along the Esplanade (xo') to the Terminal bridge. + +=Required, 1.= Give Sergeant B's orders to Corporal A. + +=Answer.= "The enemy, strength unknown, was at Soldiers' Home at 7:00 +o'clock this morning. Another patrol will advance along Grant avenue +(tm'). + +"Our outposts will remain here for the day. + +"Select from the first section a patrol and reconnoiter this road +(Farragut avenue) as far as the waterworks (vn'), thence by Esplanade +to the Terminal bridge, and report on the ground in our front. When +you reach the Terminal bridge return if no enemy is seen. + +"Send reports here." + +=Required, 2.= How many men does Corporal A select, and why? (Par. +456.) + +=Answer.= Five men are taken because the patrol is to reconnoiter, not +to fight, and on account of the distance to go and lack of information +of the enemy, 2 or 3 messages may have to be sent. + +=Required, 3.= What equipment should Corporal A have? (Par. 457.) + +=Required, 4.= State the points to be noted by Corporal A in selecting +his patrol and what inspection does he make? (Par. 964.) + +=Answer.= He selects Privates C, D, E, F and G, on account of their +bravery, attention to duty and discretion. He directs them to carry +one meal in their haversacks, full canteen and fifty rounds of +ammunition. He then inspects them as to their physical condition, sees +that they have proper equipment and that nothing to rattle or glisten +is carried. + +=Required, 5.= What does Corporal A next do? (Par. 965.) + +=Answer.= He gives them their instructions as follows: "The enemy, +strength unknown, was at Soldiers' Home (about three miles south of +Leavenworth) at 7 o'clock this morning. There will be a friendly +patrol along that road (pointing to Grant avenue). We are to +reconnoiter along this road and down toward that bridge (pointing). Be +very careful not to be seen, take advantage of all cover, and keep in +touch with C and myself on this road at the point of the patrol. In +case we get separated meet at the waterworks (vn')." + +He then explains the signals to be used, and moves the patrol in, +close order out along the road until it passes the sentinel at the +bridge XV (un'), to whom he gives the direction to be taken by the +patrol. + +=Required, 6.= Upon leaving XV, what formation would the patrol take, +and reasons for same. (Par. 968.) + +=Answer.= Corporal A and Private C form the point on the road leading +southwest of the waterworks; Private D moves on the left overlooking +the railroad; Private E moves promptly up Corral creek (um') to the +top of Grant Hill (um') to observe the country toward the southwest; +Private F moves about 50 yards in rear of the point, followed at 50 +yards by Private G. + +Corporal A forms his patrol as stated because of the necessity of +getting a view from the hill on each side. Only one man is sent out on +each side because they can be plainly seen by the patrol on the road, +and no connecting file is necessary. The distances taken along the +road assure at least one man's escape, and Corporal A is in front to +get a good view and to signal the flankers. + + +Problem No. 5 (Infantry) + +=1037. Situation:= + +The head of the patrol is now at the bridge, XVI (un') northwest of +the waterworks. + +Private E has reached the top of Grant Hill and signals the enemy in +sight; the patrol halts and Corporal A moves out to meet Private E who +is coming down toward the patrol. He says he saw three mounted men +ride up to Grant and Metropolitan avenues (wm') from the south and +after looking north a moment move west. + +=Required, 1.= Corporal A's action. (Pars. 979 and 981.) + +=Answer.= Corporal A at once writes the following message and sends it +back by Private E: + + "No. 1 Patrol, Company B, + Farragut Avenue, + Northwest of Waterworks, + 10 May, '09, 8:30 A. M. + + To Commander Blue Left Support, + Rabbit Point. + + Three mounted Reds, seen by Private E, just now reconnoitered at + Grant and Metropolitan avenues; they are moving west on + Metropolitan avenue; the patrol will continue toward the Terminal + bridge. + + A, + Corporal." + +=Reasons.= The message is sent because this is the first time the +enemy has been seen, and they have not been reported north of +Soldiers' Home before. The message should state who saw the enemy, and +the man seeing them should always carry the message telling of the +facts. The patrol would not allow this small hostile patrol to stop +its advance, but would proceed on its route cautiously to avoid being +seen, and to see if the Red cavalrymen are followed by others of the +enemy. + +=Required, 2.= Give the method of reconnoitering the buildings at the +waterworks and coal mine. (Par. 996.) + +=Answer.= Private D carefully examines the east side of the enclosures +and buildings, while Private C examines the west side. The remainder +of the patrol halts concealed in the cut west of the north enclosure, +until C and D signal no enemy in sight, whereupon the patrol moves +forward along the road (XV--3rd St.), C and D advancing rapidly +between the buildings to the town where they join the patrol. + +=Required, 3.= Give the route followed by E from Grant Hill to edge of +Leavenworth. + +=Answer.= He moves down the east slope of Grant Hill to the ravine +just east of the old R. R. bed (um'), being careful to keep concealed +from the direction of Leavenworth. He moves up the ravine, keeping a +sharp lookout to the front, and moving rapidly until abreast, if he +has fallen behind. He takes the branch ravine lying just west of +Circus Hill (vm'), and moves up to its end. Here he halts and makes +careful inspection of Metropolitan avenue and the street south into +the city. Being sure the coast is clear, he darts across the narrow +ridge south of Circus Hill to the ravine to the east and then joins +the patrol. He reports to Corporal A any indication of the enemy he +may have seen. + + +Problem No. 6 (Infantry) + +=1038. Situation:= + +A Blue force holds Fort Leavenworth (om') in hostile country. Outposts +occupy the line Salt Creek Hill (gh')--13 (ij')--Sheridan's Drive, +(mi') against the Reds advancing from the northwest. + +At 4:30 P. M., June 25th, Sergeant A is given the following orders by +Captain B, commanding the support: + +"The enemy will probably reach Kickapoo late today. Our outposts +extend as far north as Salt Creek Hill. There were six of our men +prisoners at 45 (de') this afternoon at 1 o'clock, being held by 15 +home guards at Kickapoo. Take ---- men from the company and move to +Kickapoo, recapture the prisoners and gain all the information you can +of the enemy north of there." + +=Required, 1.= How many men does Captain B name, and why? (Par. 960.) + +=Answer.= Thirty men are assigned. + +=Reason.= This is twice as many as the enemy holding the prisoners, +and to secure secrecy no larger force than is absolutely necessary +should be taken. This force will allow men to surround the enemy while +the remainder rush them. + +=Required, 2.= Give the order of Sergeant A to his patrol. (See 6th +requirement. Problem 4.) + +=Required, 3.= What route will the patrol take? + +=Answer, 11= (jj')--13 (ij')--Salt Creek Hill (gh')--and along the +edge of the woods east of the M. P. R. R. (fg') as far as the bridge +opposite Kickapoo Hill--thence up Kickapoo Hill toward 45 (de'). + +=Reasons.= Since the patrol's orders do not require any reconnaissance +before reaching Kickapoo the shortest and most practical route is +chosen. The route as far as Salt Creek Hill lies behind our outpost +line and is thus protected. The main roads are avoided because they +will be carefully watched by the enemy. The edge of the woods east of +the M. P. Ry. (beginning about ff') gives good cover and by moving to +the bridge the patrol can probably sneak close in on the enemy and +capture them by surprise. + + +Problem No. 7 (Infantry) + +=1039. Situation:= + +The patrol reaches the top of Kickapoo Hill (cd'). Sergeant A and +Private C move cautiously to the top and see the six prisoners in the +cemetery (cd') just west of Kickapoo Hill, and a Red sentinel at each +corner. Just west of the cemetery are about 10 more Reds. No others +are visible. + +=Required, 1.= What decision does Sergeant A make and what does he do? + +=Answer.= He decides to capture the enemy by surprise. He leaves +Private C to watch and, moving cautiously back to his patrol, makes +the following dispositions: Corporal D with 10 men to move up to +Private C and cover the enemy, remaining concealed. He takes the +remainder of the patrol with fixed bayonets around the northeast slope +of Kickapoo Hill in the woods and moves up the ravine toward 29. When +his detachment arrives within about 100 yards of the enemy, they +charge bayonet and rush them. Corporal D's party at the same time rush +in from the opposite side. (Note: The enemy are demoralized by the +surprise and are captured without a shot being fired.) + +=Required, 2.= What action does Sergeant A now take? + +=Answer.= He causes the enemy to be kept apart while he and his +noncommissioned officers question them separately. He then questions +the Blue prisoners, and furnishing them the guns taken from the Reds, +sends them and the captured Reds back to our line under Corporal D, +with a written message giving the information secured from his +questions. (Par. 984.) + +=Required, 3.= What does he then do? + +=Answer.= Places his main body in concealment at the Cemetery (cd') +and sends a patrol under Corporal H via 35-41-43 and one under +Corporal F via 29-27-23 west to learn further of the enemy in +execution of the second part of his orders. + +The patrol under Corporal H sends back the following message: + + "No.1 Patrol, Company A, 1st Infantry, + 21 June, '09; 5:30 P. M. + + Commander Expeditionary Patrol at 45: + + A column of infantry is moving east about 1 mile west of + Schweizer (aa'); about 800 yards in front of this body is another + small body with 8 to 10 men 300 yards still farther east. It took + the main body 2 min., 45 sec. to pass a point on the road. I + remain in observation. + + H, + Corporal." + +=Required, 3.= The size of the command reported by Corporal H and its +formation. (Par. 983.) + +=Answer.= One battalion infantry (512 men), preceded by 1 section at +advance guard. The advance guard having only advance party and point, +2-3/4 minutes x 175 = 481 men in the main body, leaving about 32 men +for the advance men for the advance guard. + + +Problem No. 8 (Infantry) + +=1040. General Situation:= + +A Blue force of one regiment of infantry has outposts facing south on +the line Pope Hill (sm'), National Cemetery (qk')--E (qi'). A Red +force moving north reached Soldiers' Home at 7 o'clock this morning. + +=Special Situation:= + +Corporal B is chosen by Sergeant A, commander of the right support at +the National Cemetery, to take a patrol south as far as 20th street +(yf') and Metropolitan avenue (wh'), to report on the ground along the +route, and to reconnoiter the enemy. A friendly patrol moves along +Sheridan's Drive (i)--Atchison Hill (rg')--Southwest Hill (ue'), and +one on Prison Lane (rk'). + +=Required, 1.= Sergeant A's orders, verbatim (that is, word for word). + +=2.= Give the various details attended to by Corporal B before he +moves out with his patrol. + +=3.= What is the formation of the patrol when its point is at E (qh')? + +=4.= When the patrol reaches 14 (ug'), how are the intersecting roads +reconnoitered? + +=5.= Four mounted men are seen riding west at a walk at 64 (wb'). What +action does Corporal A take? + +=6.= Describe the ground passed over by the patrol. + + +Problem No. 9 (Infantry) + +=1041. Situation:= + +The enemy is moving east toward Frenchman (oc') and is expected to +reach there early tomorrow. A company at 72 (uj') forms the left +support of an outpost in hostile country, on the line 70 +(vj')--National Cemetery (qj'). At 4 P. M. Sergeant A is ordered to +take a patrol of 12 men and go to Frenchman and destroy the bridge +there, and remain in observation in that vicinity all night. + +=Required, 1.= His orders to the patrol. + +=2.= The route the patrol will follow, and its formation crossing the +Atchison Hill--Government Hill ridge. + +=3.= Give the conduct of the patrol from Atchison Hill +(rg')--Government Hill (tf') to its position at the bridge at +Frenchman. + +=General Situation:= + +A Blue squadron is camped for the night at Waterworks (vn'), Fort +Leavenworth, and has outposts on the line XIV (un')--Grant Hill +(um')--Prison Hill (wk'). A Red force is reported to be advancing from +the north on Kickapoo (cb'). + + +Problem No. 10 (Cavalry) + +=1042. Special Situation:= + +Lieutenant A, commanding the left support on Prison Hill, at 5 P. M., +directs Sergeant Jones to take a patrol of 5 men from his platoon and +move via Atchison Cross (ug') to the vicinity of Kickapoo and secure +information of any enemy that may be in that locality. Another patrol +is to go via Fort Leavenworth (ol'). + +=Required, 1.= The order given by Lieutenant A, verbatim. (Pars. 963 +and 965.) + +=Answer.= "Sergeant Jones, the enemy is north of Kickapoo, moving on +that place. This squadron will remain here tonight; Sergeant B will +take a patrol through Fort Leavenworth. + +"Select a patrol of 5 men from your platoon and move out via +Frenchman's (oc') toward Kickapoo. + +"Secure any information you can of the enemy in that locality. + +"Report on the condition of the bridges between here and 47 (fd'). + +"You may have to stay out over night. + +"Send messages here." + +Sergeant Jones selects five good men, directs them to take one cooked +ration each and canteen full of water. He inspects the men and horses +carefully; sees that no horse of conspicuous color or that neighs is +taken. Explains the orders to his men, etc., as was done in the +infantry patrol. + +=Required, 2.= What route does the patrol take, and why? + +=Answer.= Metropolitan avenue (w)--70 (vj')--72 (vj')--14 +(ug')--Frenchman (oc')--17 (jc')--47 (ec'). + +=Reasons.= The enemy is distant and Kickapoo, the objective of the +patrol, is seen from the map, which Sergeant Jones has, to be over an +hour's ride at a walk and trot. It is not at all probable that the +enemy will be met until the patrol reaches the vicinity of Kickapoo +and Sergeant Jones decides to take the shortest and best road though +it is a main highway, instead of Sheridan's Drive (j) of the F +(qg')--15 (jg') lane. + +It is always well for a patrol to avoid main highways when the enemy +is near, especially in hostile country, but here the time saved more +than justifies the use of the direct route. + + +Problem No. 11 (Cavalry) + +=1043.= Same situation as Problem 1. + +=Required, 1.= The formation and conduct of the patrol as far as +Frenchman's. + +=Answer.= Sergeant Jones determines to move at a walk and trot (5 +miles per hour) in order to reach the vicinity of Kickapoo and take up +a position of observation before night. Sergeant Jones and Private B +are in the lead, 2 men about 100 yards to the rear, the remaining 2 +men about 75 yards in the rear of these. They move out at a trot along +the road until Atchison Cross is reached. The two cross roads are +reconnoitered without halting the patrol, inasmuch as from the cross +roads a good view is had north and south. + +From Atchison Cross to 16 (sf') the patrol moves at a walk, being up a +slope from 4 to 6 degrees. Usually such a place would be rushed +through, but the distance of the enemy makes this unnecessary. No +scouting is done off the road through the woods, because of the +distance of the enemy. On reaching the top of the hill the patrol is +halted while Sergeant Jones moves up to the high ground south of the +road at the crest, and in concealment searches with his glasses the +road as far as Frenchman's, especially the village beyond G (qf'). +Seeing no signs of the enemy he moves the patrol down the hill at a +walk until the cut is passed and there takes a fast trot, so as to +avoid being long in a position where they could be seen from the +direction of Kickapoo. The same formation and gait are maintained as +far as Gauss' (pd'), where a walk is taken to rest the horses and to +gain opportunity to see if any enemy are holding the bridge at +Frenchman's. + +=Situation:= + +Just as the patrol comes to a walk Sergeant Jones sees what appears to +be a dismounted patrol moving south over the ridge about 650 yards +north of Frenchman's. He can see three men. + +=Required, 2.= Action taken by Sergeant Jones. + +=Answer.= The patrol is moved into the orchard just off the road, +while Sergeant Jones moves quickly to the top of the hill and, +concealed by the trees, examines the road north to see if the 3 men +are followed by others forming a part of a larger patrol or column. +He finds the three men are not followed. + +=Required, 3.= What does he do next? + +=Answer.= He determines to capture the patrol by surprise. He has the +horses led over south of the orchard hill so as not to be visible to +the enemy. He then distributes his men along the north edge of the +orchard, himself nearest the bridge, 2 men 75 yards back along the +road toward G (qf'), then 2 men 75 yards farther along toward G. As +the third man comes opposite him, Sergeant Jones cries "Halt," which +is the signal for the other parties to similarly hold up their men. + +=Reasons.= Sergeant Jones might either capture the hostile patrol or +let it pass, and then proceed on his road. Since they are the first +enemy seen and there is such a good chance to capture them, and as +they may furnish definite information of the enemy's main force, he +decides as stated. There is an objection in capturing them that he +will have to send one or two men to take them to camp. The patrol is +placed as described above so as to have the two men opposite each of +the enemy, except for Sergeant Jones, who is alone. By thus covering +each man of the hostile patrol by two of our men, they will at once +see the folly of an effort to escape and no shot need be fired. One +man is holding the horses. + + +Problem No. 12 (Cavalry) + +=1044.= Same situation as Problem 10. + +=Required:= + +1. What action does Sergeant Jones take before leaving the vicinity of +Frenchman's? + +2. Give the formation and conduct of the patrol after leaving here. + +3. Give the report submitted by Sergeant Jones under his instructions +in regard to bridges. (Par. 1000.) + +At 6:30 P. M. (it is dark at 7:30) the patrol reaches 17 (jc'). + +4. Give the route followed from here and the disposition of the patrol +made for the night. + + +Problem No. 13 (Cavalry) + +=1045. Situation:= + +The Missouri river is the boundary between hostile countries. + +A Blue separate brigade (3 regiments infantry, 1 squadron cavalry, 1 +battery field artillery) is moving from Winchester (19 miles west of +Leavenworth) to seize the Rock Island bridge (q) across the Missouri +river at Fort Leavenworth. The cavalry squadron is camped at Lowemont, +8 miles west of Leavenworth, for night June 4-5. At 3 P. M. Sergeant +Jones is directed to take a patrol of six men and move via the Rock +Island bridge into Missouri and gain information of the enemy reported +to be now just east of the river. + +=Required, 1.= Give the formation of the patrol when it first comes on +the map. + +=Required, 2.= Give the conduct of the patrol from Mottin's (oa') to G +(qf'). + +At Frenchman's, Sergeant Jones met a farmer coming from Fort +Leavenworth, who said about 200 hostile cavalry were seen just east of +the Missouri about 2 P. M., moving towards the Terminal Bridge (z). + +=Required, 3.= Action of Sergeant Jones. (Does he hold the man? Does +he send a message? Does he change his plans or direction of march?) + +The patrol reaches the top of the hill, Sheridan's Drive--Government +Hill (tf'). + +=Required, 4.= What action does Sergeant Jones take before proceeding +east? + + +FLANK GUARDS + +=1046.= The flanks of a column are ordinarily protected by the advance +guard, which sends out patrols to carefully examine the country on +both sides of the line of march. In some cases, however, the direction +of march of the column is such that there is a great danger of the +enemy's striking it in flank and some special provision is necessary +to furnish additional security on the threatened flank. This is done +by having a detachment, called a flank guard, march off the exposed +flank. The flank guard usually follows a road, parallel to the one on +which the column is marching and at least 1,000 yards (effective rifle +range) beyond it. If hostile artillery is feared this distance is much +greater. + +The flank guard regulates its march so as to continue abreast of the +advance guard of the main column. It takes a formation similar to an +advance guard, does most of its patrolling to the front and on the +exposed flank, and keeps in constant touch with the main column by +means of mounted or dismounted messengers. + +In case the enemy is encountered the flank guard drives him off if +practicable or takes up a defensive position, protecting the march of +the main column, and preventing the enemy from disturbing the latter's +march. + + +REAR GUARD + +=1047. Definition and Duties.= A rear guard is a detachment of a +marching column following in rear to protect the main column from +being surprised and to prevent the march from being delayed or +interrupted. + +When the main column is marching toward the enemy the rear guard is +very small and its duties relatively unimportant. It is principally +occupied in gathering up stragglers. + +When the main column is marching away from the enemy (retreating) the +rear guard is all important. It covers the retreat of the main body, +preventing the enemy from harassing or delaying its march. + +=1048. Strength.= The strength of a rear guard is slightly greater +than that of an advance guard, as it cannot expect, like the latter, +to be reinforced in case it is attacked, as the main column is +marching away from it and avoiding a fight. + +=1049. Form of Order.= The rear guard commander, on the receipt of the +retreat order, issues a rear guard order, according to the form given +in the Field Service Regulations. + +The distance of a rear guard from the main body and its formation are +similar to those of an advance guard. The elements corresponding to +the advance cavalry, the point, and the advance party of an advance +guard are termed the rear cavalry, rear point and rear party, +respectively. The support and reserve retain the same designations. + +A rear guard formed during an engagement to cover the withdrawal or +retreat of the main body, may first be compelled to take up a +defensive position behind which the main body forms up and moves off. +It may be forced to withdraw from this position by successive skirmish +lines, gradually forming up in column on the road as it clears itself +from fighting contact with the enemy. + +The rate of march of the rear guard depends upon that of the main +body. The main body may be much disorganized and fatigued, +necessitating long halts and a slow marching rate. + +=1050. Action of the Rear Guard.= The withdrawal of defeated troops is +delayed, if possible, until night. If it becomes necessary to begin a +retreat while an engagement is in progress, the rear guard is +organized and takes up a defensive position generally behind the +fighting line; the latter then falls back and assembles under cover of +the rear guard. + +The rear cavalry gives away before the enemy's pursuit only when +absolutely necessary, maintains communication with and sends +information to the rear guard commander, and pays special attention to +the weak points in the retreat, namely, the flanks. It makes use of +every kind of action of which it is capable, according to the +situation, and unless greatly outnumbered by hostile cavalry, it +causes considerable delay to the enemy. + +When the enemy is conducting an energetic pursuit the rear guard +effects its withdrawal by taking up a succession of defensive +positions (that is, where the nature of the ground enables the rear +guard to defend itself well) and compelling the enemy to attack or +turn them. (It should be understood that these successive defensive +positions must, in the case of a large force, be from two to four +miles apart and in the case of a small force at least one-half mile +apart--not a few hundred yards as is frequently attempted in peace +maneuvers.) + +When the enemy's dispositions for attack are nearly completed, the +rear guard begins to fall back, the cavalry on the flanks being +usually the last to leave. The commander designates a part of the rear +guard to cover the withdrawal of the remainder; the latter then falls +back to a new position in rear, and in turn covers the withdrawal of +the troops in front. These operations compel the enemy continually to +deploy or make turning movements, and constantly retard his advance. + +The pursuit may be further delayed by obstacles placed in the enemy's +path; bridges are burned or blown up; boats removed or destroyed; +fords and roads obstructed; tracks torn up; telegraph lines cut, and +houses, villages, woods and fields fired. Demolitions and obstructions +are prepared by engineers, assisted, if necessary, by other troops +detailed from the reserve, and are completed by the mounted engineers +of the rear party at the last moment. + +The instructions of the supreme commander govern in the demolition of +important structures. + + +OUTPOSTS + +(See "Outpost," Par. 887) + +=1051. Definition and Duties.= Outposts are detachments thrown out to +the front and flanks of a force that is in camp or bivouac, to protect +the main body from being surprised and to insure its undisturbed rest. +In fact, an outpost is merely a stationary advance guard. Its duties, +in general, are to _observe_ and _resist_--to observe the enemy, and +to resist him in case of attack. Specifically its duties are: + +(=a=) To observe toward the front and flanks by means of stationary +sentinels and patrols, in order to locate the enemy's whereabouts and +learn promptly of his movements, thus making it impossible for him to +surprise us. + +(=b=) To prevent the main body from being observed or disturbed. + +(=c=) In case of attack, to check the enemy long enough to enable the +main body to prepare for action and make the necessary dispositions. + +=1052. Size.= The size of the outpost will depend upon many +circumstances, such as the size of the whole command, the nearness of +the enemy, the nature of the ground, etc. A suitable strength for an +outpost may vary from a very small fraction to one-third of the whole +force. However, in practice it seldom exceeds one-sixth of the whole +force--as a rule, if it be greater, the efficiency of the troops will +be impaired. For a single company in bivouac a few sentinels and +patrols will suffice; for a large command, a more elaborate outpost +system must be provided. The most economical form of outpost is +furnished by keeping close contact with the enemy by means of outpost +patrols, in conjunction with resisting detachments on the avenues of +approach. + +Troops at a halt are supposed to be resting, night or day, and the +fewer on outpost the more troops will there be resting, and thus +husbanding their strength for approaching marches and encounters with +the enemy. Outpost duty is about the most exhausting and fatiguing +work a soldier performs. It is, therefore, evident that not a man or +horse more than is absolutely necessary should be employed, and that +the commander should use careful judgment in determining the strength +of the outpost, and the chiefs of the various outpost subdivisions +should be equally careful in disposing their men so as to permit the +greatest possible number to rest and sleep undisturbed, _but at the +same time always considering the safety of the main body as the chief +duty_. + +=1053. Composition.= The composition of the outpost will, as a rule, +depend upon the size and composition of the command, but a mixed +outpost is composed principally of infantry, which is charged with the +duty of local observation, especially at night, and with resisting the +enemy, in case of attack, long enough for the main body to prepare for +action. + +The cavalry is charged with the duty of reconnaissance, and is very +useful in open country during the day. + +Artillery is useful to outposts when its fire can sweep defiles or +large open spaces and when it commands positions that might be +occupied by hostile artillery. + +Machine guns are useful to command approaches and check sudden +advances of the enemy. + +Engineers are attached to an outpost to assist in constructing +entrenchments, clearing the field of fire, opening communication +laterally and to the rear. The outpost should be composed of complete +organizations. For example, if the outpost is to consist of one +company, do not have some of the platoons from one company and the +others from another, and if it is to consist of one battalion, do not +have some of the companies from one battalion and others from another, +etc. + + +FORMATION OF OUTPOSTS + +=1054. Subdivisions.= As in the case of an advance guard, the outpost +of a large force is divided into elements or parts, that gradually +increase in size from front to rear. These, in order from the main +body, are the reserve, the line of supports, the line of outguards, +and the advance cavalry, and their formation, as shown by the drawing +on the preceding page, may be likened to an open hand, with the +fingers apart and extended, the wrist representing the main body, the +knuckles the line of supports, the first joints the line of outguards, +the second joints the line of sentinels and the finger tips the +advance cavalry. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +In case of attack each part is charged with holding the enemy in check +until the larger element, next in rear, has time to deploy and prepare +for action. + +=1055. Distances Between the Subdivisions.= The distances separating +the main body, the line of supports, the line of outguards, the line +of sentries and the advance cavalry, will depend upon circumstances. +There can be no uniformity in the distance between supports and +reserves, nor between outguards and supports, even in the same +outpost. The avenues of approach and the important features of the +ground will largely control the exact positions of the different parts +of the outposts. The basic principle upon which the distances are +based, is: _The distance between any two parts of the outpost must be +great enough to give the one in rear time to deploy and prepare for +action in case of attack, and the distance of the whole outpost from +the main body must, in the case of small commands, be sufficiently +great to hold the enemy beyond effective rifle range until the main +body can deploy, and, in case of large commands, it must be +sufficiently great to hold the enemy beyond effective artillery range +until the main body can deploy._ + +It is, therefore, evident that the distances will be materially +affected not only by the size of the main body, but also by the nature +of the cover afforded by the ground. + +The following is given merely as a very general guide, subject to many +changes: + + Distance to next + element in rear. + + Advance cavalry 2 to 6 miles + Supports {Sentinels (furnished by outguard) 20 to 40 yds. + (Generally {Outguards (furnished by support) 200 to 500 yds. + two or {Support proper furnishes majority 400 to 800 yds. + more) of patrols. + Reserve (usually omitted in small commands) 1/2 to 2 miles + +=1056. Advance Cavalry.= The advance cavalry is that part of the +outpost sent out in front of all foot troops. It generally operates +two to six miles beyond the outpost infantry, reconnoitering far to +the front and flanks in order to guard the camp against surprise by +artillery fire and to give early information of the enemy's movements. + +After dusk the bulk of the cavalry usually withdraws to a camp in rear +of the outpost reserve, where it can rest securely after the day's +hard work and the horses can be fresh for the next day. Several +mounted patrols are usually left for the night at junctions or forks +on the principal roads to the front, from one to four miles beyond the +infantry line of observation. + +=1057. Supports.= The _supports_ constitute a line of _supporting_ and +_resisting_ detachments, varying in size from a half a company to a +battalion. In outposts consisting of a battalion or more the supports +usually comprise about one-half of the infantry. Supports are numbered +numerically consecutively from right to left and are placed at the +more important points on the outpost line, on or near the line on +which resistance is to be made in case of attack. + +As a rule, roads exercise the greatest influence on the location of +supports, and a support will generally be placed on or near a road. + +Each support has assigned to it a definite, clearly-defined section of +front that it is to cover, and the support should be located as +centrally as possible thereto. + +=1058. Outguards.= The outguards constitute the line of small +detachments farthest to the front and nearest to the enemy, and their +duty is to maintain uninterrupted observation of the ground in front +and on the flanks; to report promptly hostile movements and other +information relating to the enemy; to prevent unauthorized persons +from crossing the line of observation; to drive off small parties of +the enemy, and to make temporary resistance to larger bodies. For +convenience outguards are classified as pickets, sentry squads, and +cossack posts. They are numbered consecutively from right to left in +each support. + +=1059.= _A picket_ is a group consisting of two or more squads, +ordinarily not exceeding half a company, posted in the line of +outguards to cover a given sector. It furnishes patrols and one or +more sentinels, double sentinels, sentry, squads, or cossack posts for +observation. + +Pickets are placed at the more important points in the line of +outguards, such as road forks. The strength of each depends upon the +number of small groups required to observe properly its sector. + +=1060.= _A sentry squad_ is a squad posted in observation at an +indicated point. It posts a double sentinel in observation, the +remaining men resting near by and furnishing the reliefs of sentinels. +In some cases it may be required to furnish a patrol. + +=1061.= _A cossack post_ consists of four men. It is an observation +group similar to a sentry squad; but employs a single sentinel. + +At night, it will sometimes be advisable to place some of the +outguards or their sentinels in a position different from that which +they occupy in the daytime. In such case the ground should be +carefully studied before dark and the change made at dusk. However, a +change in the position of the outguard will be exceptional. + +=1062.= _Sentinels_ are generally used singly in daytime, but at night +double sentinels will be required in most cases. Sentinels furnished +by cossack posts or sentry squads are kept near their group. Those +furnished by pickets may be as far as 100 yards away. + +Every sentinel should be able to communicate readily with the body to +which he belongs. + +Sentinel posts are numbered consecutively from right to left in each +outguard. Sentry squads and cossack posts furnished by pickets are +counted as sentinel posts. + +If practicable, troops on outpost duty are concealed and all movements +made so as to avoid observation by the enemy; sentinels are posted so +as to have a clear view to the front and, if practicable (though it is +rarely possible), so as to be able, by day, to see the sentinels of +the adjoining outguards. Double sentinels are posted near enough to +each other to be able to communicate easily in ordinary voice. + +Sentinels are generally on duty two hours out of six. For every +sentinel and for every patrol there should be at least three reliefs; +therefore, one-third the strength of the outguards gives the greatest +number of men that should be on duty as sentinels and patrols at one +time. + +Skillful selection of the posts of sentinels increases their field of +observation. High points, under cover, are advantageous by night as +well as by day; they increase the range of vision and afford greater +facilities for seeing lights and hearing noises. Observers with good +field glasses may be placed on high buildings, on church steeples or +in high trees. + +Glittering objects on uniform or equipment should be concealed. It is +seldom necessary to fix bayonets, except at night, in dense fog, or in +very close country. + +Reliefs, visiting patrols, and inspecting officers, approach sentinels +from the rear, remaining under cover if possible. + +=1063. Reserve.= The reserve forms a general support for the line of +resistance. It is, therefore, centrally located near the junction of +roads coming from the direction of the enemy, and in concealment if +practicable. + +Of the troops detailed for outpost duty, about one-half of the +infantry, generally all of the artillery, and the cavalry not +otherwise employed, are assigned to the reserve. If the outpost +consists of less than two companies the reserve may be omitted +altogether. + +The arms are stacked and the equipments (except cartridge belts) may +be removed. Roads communicating with the supports are opened. + +When necessary, the outpost order states what is to be done in case of +attack, designates places of assembly and provides for interior +guards. Interior guards are posted in the camp of the reserve or main +body to maintain order, and furnish additional security. Additional +instructions may be given for messing, feeding, watering, etc. In the +vicinity of the enemy or at night a portion of the infantry may be +required to remain under arms, the cavalry to hold their horses +(cinches loosened), and the artillery to remain in harness, or take up +a combat position. + +In case of alarm, the reserve prepares for action without delay, and +word is sent to the main body. In combat, the reserve reinforces the +line of resistance, and if unable to check the enemy until the arrival +of the main body, delays him as much as possible. + +The distance of the reserve from the line of resistance varies, but is +generally about half a mile; in outposts of four companies or less +this distance may be as small as 400 yards. + +=1064. Patrols.= Instead of using outguards along the entire front of +observation, part of this front may be covered by patrols only. These +should be used to cover such sections of the front as can be crossed +by the enemy only with difficulty and over which he is not likely to +attempt a crossing after dark. + +In daylight much of the local patrolling may be dispensed with if the +country can be seen from the posts of the sentinels. However, patrols +should frequently be pushed well to the front unless the ground in +that direction is exceptionally open. + +Patrols must be used to keep up connection between the parts of the +outpost except when, during daylight, certain fractions or groups are +mutually visible. After dark this connection must be maintained +throughout the outpost except where the larger subdivisions are +provided with wire communication. + +The following patrols are usually sent out from the main bodies of the +supports: + +(=a=) Patrols of from three men to a squad are sent along the roads +and trails in the direction of the enemy, for a distance of from one +to five miles, depending on how close the enemy is supposed to be, +whether or not there is any advance cavalry out, and how long the +outpost has been in position. The extreme right and left supports send +patrols well out on the roads to the flanks. These patrols generally +operate continuously as soon as one returns from the front, or +possibly even before it returns, another goes out in the same general +direction to cover the same country. Frequently a patrol is sent out +along a road to the front for two or three miles with orders to remain +out until some stated time--for example, 4 P. M., dusk or dawn. It +sends in important information, and remains out near the extremity of +its route, keeping a close watch on the surrounding country. + +An effort should always be made to secure and maintain contact with +the enemy, if within a reasonable distance, in order that his +movements or lack of movement may be constantly watched and reported +on. The usual tendency is towards a failure to send these patrols far +enough to the front and for the patrol leader to overestimate the +distance he has traveled. A mile through strange country with the +ever-present possibility of encountering the enemy seems three miles +to the novice. + +At night the patrols generally confine their movements to the roads, +usually remaining quietly on the alert near the most advanced point of +their route to the front. + +The majority of such patrols are sent out to secure information of the +enemy--reconnoitering patrols--and they avoid fighting and hostile +patrols, endeavoring to get in touch with the enemy's main force. +Other patrols are sometimes sent out to prevent hostile detachments +from approaching the outposts; they endeavor to locate the hostile +patrols, drive them back, preventing them from gaining any vantage +point from which they can observe the outpost line. These are called +combat patrols and have an entirely different mission from +reconnoitering patrols. + +(=b=) Patrols of from two men to a squad, usually two men, are sent +from the support around the line of its outguards, connecting with the +outguards of the adjacent supports, if practicable. These are +"visiting patrols," and they serve to keep the outguards of a support +in touch with it and with each other; to keep the commander of a +support in touch with his outguards and the adjacent supports; and to +reconnoiter the ground between the outguards. Since a hostile force of +any size is practically forced to keep to the roads, there are rarely +ever any supports and very few outguards posted off the roads, the +intervals being covered by patrols, as just described. + +When going out a patrol will always inform the nearest sentinel of the +direction it will take and its probable route and hour of return. + +=1065. Detail for Patrols.= Since for every patrol of four men, twelve +are required (3 reliefs of 4 men each), the importance of sending out +just enough men and not one more than is actually needed, can readily +be understood. As fast as one visiting patrol completes its round, +another should usually be sent out, possibly going the rounds by a +slightly different route or in the reverse direction. The same +generally applies to the reconnoitering and combat patrols, though +frequently they are sent out for the entire day, afternoon or night, +and no 2d and 3d relief is required. Three reliefs are required for +the sentinel or sentinels at the post of the supports, so care should +be taken to establish but one post, if it can do all that is required. +It should not be considered that every man in the support should be on +duty or on a relief for an outguard, a patrol or sentinel post. There +should be as many men as possible in the main body of a support (this +term is used to distinguish this body from the support proper, which +includes the outguards and their sentinels) who only have no duty +other than being instantly available in case of attack. + +=1066. Flags of Truce.= Upon the approach of a flag of truce, the +sentry will at once notify the commander of the outguard, who will in +turn send word to the commander of the outpost and ask for +instructions. One or more men will advance to the front and halt the +party at such distance as to prevent any of them from overlooking the +outposts. As soon as halted, the party will be ordered to face in the +opposite direction. If permission is given to pass the party through +the outpost line, they will be blindfolded and led under escort to the +commander of the outpost. No conversation, except by permission of the +outpost commander, is to be allowed on any subject, under any pretext, +with the persons bearing the flag of truce. + +=1067. Entrenchments and Obstacles.= The positions held by the +subdivisions of an outpost should generally be strengthened by the +construction of entrenchments and obstacles, but conditions may render +this unnecessary. + +=1068. Concealment.= Troops on outpost must keep concealed as much as +is consistent with the proper performance of their duties; especially +should they avoid the sky line. + +=1069. Detached Posts.= In addition to ordinary outguards, the outpost +commander may detail from the reserve one or more detached posts to +cover roads or areas not in general line assigned to the supports. + +In like manner the commander of the whole force may order detached +posts to be sent from the main body to cover important roads or +localities not included in the outpost line. + +Detached posts may be sent out to hold points which are of importance +to the outpost cavalry, such as a ford or a junction of roads; or to +occupy positions especially favorable for observation, but too far to +the front to be included in the line of observation; or to protect +flanks of the outpost position. Such posts are generally established +by the outpost commander, but a support commander might find it +necessary to establish a post practically detached from the rest of +his command. They usually vary in strength from a squad to a platoon. +The number and strength of detached posts are reduced to the absolute +needs of the situation. + +=1070. Examining Posts.= An examining post is a small detachment, +under the command of an officer or a noncommissioned officer, +stationed at some convenient point to examine strangers and to receive +bearers Of flags of truce brought in by the outguards or patrols. + +Though the employment of examining posts is not general in field +operations, there are many occasions when their use is important; for +example: When the outguards do not speak the language of the country +or of the enemy; when preparations are being made for a movement and +strict scrutiny at the outguards is ordered: at sieges, whether in +attack or defense. When such posts, are used, strangers approaching +the line of observation are passed along the line to an examining +post. + +No one except the commander is allowed to speak to persons brought to +an examining post. Prisoners and deserters are at once sent under +guard to the rear. + +=1071. Cavalry Outpost.= Independent cavalry covering a command or on +special missions, and occasionally the advance cavalry of a mixed +command, bivouac when night overtakes them, and in such cases furnish +their own outposts. The outposts are established, in the main, in +accordance with the foregoing principles, care being taken to confine +outpost work to the lowest limits consistent with safety. No +precaution, however, should be omitted, as the cavalry is generally in +close proximity to the enemy, and often in territory where the +inhabitants are hostile. + +The line of resistance is occupied by the supports, the latter sending +out the necessary outguards and patrols. Each outguard furnishes its +own vedettes (mounted sentinels), or sentinels. Due to the mobility of +cavalry, the distances are generally greater than in an outpost for a +mixed command. An outguard of four troopers is convenient for the day +time, but should be doubled at night, and at important points made +even stronger. The sentinels are generally dismounted, their horses +being left with those of the outguards. + +Mounted cavalry at night can offer little resistance; the supports and +outguards are therefore generally dismounted, the horses being under +cover in rear, and the positions are strengthened by intrenchments and +obstacles. By holding villages, bridges, defiles, etc., with +dismounted rifle fire, cavalry can greatly delay a superior force. + +There should always be easy communication along the line of resistance +to enable the cavalry to concentrate at a threatened point. + +A support of one squadron covers with its outposts a section rarely +longer than two miles. + +As such a line is of necessity weak, the principal reliance is placed +on distant patrolling. If threatened by infantry, timely information +enables the threatened point to be reinforced, or the cavalry to +withdraw to a place of safety. If there is danger from hostile +cavalry, the roads in front are blocked at suitable points, such as +bridges, fords, defiles, etc., by a succession of obstacles and are +defended by a few dismounted men. When compelled to fall back these +men mount and ride rapidly to the next obstacle in rear and there take +up a new position. As the march of cavalry at night is, as a rule, +confined to roads, such tactics seriously delay its advance. + +In accordance with the situation and the orders they have received, +the support commanders arrange for feeding, watering, cooking, resting +and patrolling. During the night the horses of the outguards remain +saddled and bridled. During the day time cinches may be loosened, +one-third of the horses at a time. Feeding and watering are done by +reliefs. Horses being fed are removed a short distance from the +others. + +Independent cavalry generally remains in outpost position for the +night only, its advance being resumed on the following day; if stopped +by the enemy, it is drawn off to the flanks upon the approach of its +own infantry. + + +ESTABLISHING THE OUTPOST + +=1072.= The outpost is posted as quickly as possible, so that the +troops can the sooner obtain rest. Until the leading outpost troops +are able to assume their duties, temporary protection, known as the +_march outpost_, is furnished by the nearest available troops. + +Upon receipt of the _halt order_ from the commander of the main +column, the outpost commander issues the _outpost order_ with the +least practicable delay. + +The _halt order_, besides giving the necessary information and +assigning camp sites to the parts of the command, details the troops +to constitute the outpost, assigns a commander therefor, designates +the general line to be occupied, and, when practicable, points out the +position to be held in case of attack. + +The _outpost order_ gives such available information of the situation +as is necessary to the complete and proper guidance of subordinates; +designates the troops to constitute the supports; assigns their +location and the sector each is to cover; provides for the necessary +detached posts; indicates any special reconnaissance that is to be +made; orders the location and disposition of the reserve; disposes of +the train if the same is ordered to join the outpost; and informs +subordinates where information will be sent. In large commands it may +often be necessary to give the order from the map, but usually the +outpost commander will have to make some preliminary reconnaissance, +unless he has an accurate and detailed map. + +Generally it is preferable for the outpost commander to give verbal +orders to his support commanders from some locality which overlooks +the terrain. The time and locality should be so selected that the +support commanders may join their commands and conduct them to their +positions without causing unnecessary delay to their troops. The +reserve commander should, if possible, receive his orders at the same +time as the support commanders. Subordinates to whom he gives orders +separately should be informed of the location of other parts of the +outpost. + +=1073.= After issuing the initial orders, the outpost commander +inspects the outpost, orders the necessary changes or additions, and +sends his superior a report of his dispositions. + +_The reserve_ is marched to its post by its commander, who then sends +out such detachments as have been ordered and places the rest in camp +or bivouac, over which at least one sentinel should be posted. +Connection must be maintained with the main body, the supports, and +nearby detached posts. + +The supports march to their posts, using the necessary covering +detachments when in advance of the march outpost. A support +commander's order should fully explain the situation to subordinates, +or to the entire command, if it be small. It should detail the troops +for the different outguards and, when necessary, define the sector +each is to cover. It should provide the necessary sentinels at the +post of the support, the patrols to be sent therefrom, and should +arrange for the necessary intrenching. + +In posting his command the support commander must seek to cover his +sector (the front that he is to look after) in such manner that the +enemy can not reach, in dangerous numbers and unobserved, the position +of the support or pass by it within the sector intrusted to the +support. On the other hand, he must economize men on observation and +patrol duty, for these duties are unusually fatiguing. He must +practice the greatest economy of men consistent with the requirements +of practical security. + +As soon as the posting of the support is completed, its commander +carefully inspects the dispositions and corrects defects, if any, and +reports the disposition of his support, including the patrolling +ordered, to the outpost commander. This report is preferably made by +means of a sketch. + +By day the outpost will stack arms and the articles of equipment, +except the cartridge belt and canteen, will be placed by the arms. At +night the men will invariably sleep with their arms and equipment near +them. + +In addition to the sentinel posted over the support, a part of the +support, say one-third or one-fourth, should always be awake at night. + +Each outguard is marched by its commander to its assigned station, and +especially in the case of a picket, is covered by the necessary +patrolling to prevent surprise. + +Having reached the position, the commander explains the situation to +his men and establishes reliefs for each sentinel, and, if possible, +for each patrol to be furnished. Besides these sentinels and patrols, +a picket must have a sentinel at its post. + +The commander then posts the sentinels and points out to them the +principal features, such as towns, roads, and streams, and gives their +names. He gives the direction and location of the enemy, if known, and +of adjoining parts of the outpost. + +He gives to patrols the same information and the necessary orders as +to their routes and the frequency with which the same shall be +covered. Each patrol should go over its route once before dark. + +Each picket should maintain connection by patrols with the outguards +on its right and left. + +=1074. Intercommunication.= It is most important that communication +should be maintained at all times between all parts of the outpost, +and between the outpost and the main body. This may be done by +patrols, messengers, wire or signal. + +The commander of the outpost is responsible that proper communication +be maintained with the main body, and the support commanders keep up +communication with the outguards, with the adjoining supports and with +the reserve. The commander of a detached post will maintain +communication with the nearest outguard. + +=1075. Changes for the Night.= In civilized warfare, it is seldom +necessary to draw the outpost closer to the main body at night in +order to diminish the front; nor is it necessary to strengthen the +line of observation, as the enemy's advance in force must be confined +to the roads. The latter are therefore strongly occupied, the +intervening ground being diligently patrolled. + +In very open country or in war with savage or semi-civilized people +familiar with the terrain, special precautions are necessary. + +=1076. Relieving the Outpost.= Ordinarily outposts are not kept on +duty longer than twenty-four hours. In temporary camps or bivouac they +are generally relieved every morning. After a day's advance the +outpost for the night is usually relieved, the following morning when +the support of the new advance guard passes the line of resistance. In +retreat the outpost for the night usually forms the rear guard for the +following day, and is relieved when it passes the line of observation +of the new outpost. + +Outguards that have become familiar with the country during the day +time should remain on duty that night. Sentinels are relieved once in +two hours, or oftener, depending on the weather. The work of patrols +is regulated by the support commander. + +Commanders of the various fractions of an outpost turn over their +instructions and special orders, written and verbal, to their +successors, together with the latest information of the enemy, and a +description of the important features of the country. When practicable +the first patrols sent out by the new outposts are accompanied by +members of the old outpost who are familiar with the terrain. When +relieved the old outguards return to their supports, the supports to +the reserve and the latter to the main body; or, if more convenient, +the supports and reserves return to the main body independently, each +by the shortest route. + +When relieved by an advance guard, the outpost troops ordinarily join +their units as the column passes. + +Evening and shortly before dawn are hours of special danger. The enemy +may attack late in the day in order to establish himself on captured +ground by intrenching during the night; or he may send forward troops +under cover of darkness in order to make a strong attack at early +dawn. Special precaution is therefore taken at those hours by holding +the outpost in readiness, and by sending patrols in advance of the +line of observation. If a new outpost is to be established in the +morning it should arrive at the outpost position at daybreak, thus +doubling the outpost strength at that hour. + + +OUTPOST PROBLEMS + + +Problem No. 1 (Infantry) + +=1077. Lieutenant (to two squads of his company):= Two battalions of +our regiment have camped by Baker's Pond (Elementary Map) for the +night. It is now 3 P. M. on a rainy day in August. The enemy is +thought to be about five miles to the south of us. Our platoon is the +left support of the outpost and is stationed at the road fork on the +Chester Pike, by the Mason house. The Twin Hills-Lone Hill ridge is +taken care of by other troops. Corporal Baker, where do you think I +should place outguards? + +=Corporal Baker:= One at the junction of the Mills farm lane and the +Chester Pike, and one at the steel railroad trestle over Sandy Creek. + +=Lieutenant:= Those positions are both too far from the support, +almost a half mile, but they cover the two main avenues of approach +and there is no good place for a position nearer the support. A +position farther north of the Mill's farm lane would have its view +obstructed by the wall and trees along the lane and the wall would be +a bad thing to leave unoccupied such a short distance to your front. +So in this case, in spite of the excessive distances from the support, +I think the two positions are well chosen. Each should be an outguard +of a squad, for in the day time, in addition to furnishing a sentinel +to observe to the front, they should have some power of resistance, +particularly at the trestle. At night they should each have one double +sentinel post. This requires three reliefs of two men each, which, +with the corporal, only leaves one extra man, who can be used as a +messenger. + +Corporal Baker, I order you to take your squad and post it as Outguard +No. 1, at the junction of this (Chester) pike and that farm lane +(Mills farm) in front. Corporal Davis' squad will be Outguard No. 2, +at the railroad trestle over there (pointing). Friendly troops will be +on the ridge to the east of your position. Your meals will be cooked +here and sent to you. + +Explain how you post your squad. + +=Corporal Baker:= I order Smith to double time 150 yards to the front +and act as point for the squad. I then march the squad down to its +position, keeping Smith about 200 yards in front until I have arranged +everything. I then post Brown under cover of the trees along the lane +where he can look down the road as far as possible and I tell him, +"Brown, you are to take post here, keeping a sharp lookout to the +front and flanks. The enemy is thought to be about five miles south +(pointing) of us. This is the Chester Pike. That creek over there is +Sandy Creek. Salem is about a mile and three-quarters down this pike +in that (S. E.) direction. York is a mile and a half in that (S. W.) +direction. Our troops are on that ridge (Twin Hills) and a squad is at +the trestle over there. It is Outguard No. 2. You are in Outguard No. +1. You know where we left our platoon. It is our support. Signal Smith +to come in." I then have the squad pitch their shelter tents along the +northern side of the wall, where they will be hidden to view from the +front by the trees along the lane and the wall. I want the men to get +shelter from the rain as soon as possible. I then instruct the men of +the squad, in the same manner that I did Brown; I notice the time, +and detail Davis as second relief and Carter as third relief for +Brown's post. + +I then direct two men to take all the canteens and go over to that +farm (Mills) and fill them, first questioning the people about the +enemy and about the country around here. I also direct these two men +to get some straw or hay for bedding in the shelter tents, and +instruct them to return with as little delay as possible. + +I wait until they return and order two other men to go down to the +cross roads, question the people there, look the ground over and +return here. I caution them not to give any information about our +force or the outguard. I would see that the sentinel's position was +the best available and that the men had as comfortable quarters as +possible, without being unduly exposed to view and without interfering +with their movements in case of attack. They would keep their rifles +at their sides at all times and not remove their equipments. After +dark I put two men on post at the same time. To do this I arrange +three reliefs of two men each. They are posted in pairs for two hours +at a time. + +If no patrol from the support appeared within a half hour after I +first took position I would send a messenger back to you to see if +everything was all right and tell you what I had done. + +=Lieutenant:= I think the two men sent to the crossroads should have +been started out before sending anyone to the Mills house as this was +a more important point. The Field Service Regulations state that +outguards do not patrol to the front, but what you did was entirely +correct. You were securing yourself in your position and should be +familiar with your immediate surroundings. You should have told the +crossroads patrol to determine how much of an obstacle Sandy Creek +was. I suppose you assumed the swamp was impassable. + +The sentinel in this case is, I suppose, across the lane from the +outguard about ten or fifteen yards in advance. After dark the double +sentinel post should be posted on the pike about thirty yards in +advance of the outguard. + +Very frequently it would not be wise to put up your shelter tents on +outguard. But here, considering the rain and the protection the trees +and wall furnish, it was wise to do so. + +The noncommissioned officer in charge of an outguard should be very +precise in giving his orders and in making his arrangements, details, +etc. The discipline must be strict; that is, the men must be kept +under absolute control, so that in case of sudden attack there will be +no chance of confusion and the outguard commander will have his men +absolutely in hand and not permit any independent action on their +part. This is often not the case, owing to the familiar relations that +usually exist in our army between a corporal and the members of his +squad. + +We will not have time to go into the arrangements for Outguard No. 2 +other than to say that the conditions there are somewhat different +from those Corporal Baker has had to deal with. The outguard should be +posted on the west bank of Sandy Creek and the sentinel at the +southeastern end of the trestle. A skirmish trench should be dug down +the western slope of the fill west of the creek, and extended across +the track by throwing up a parapet about two and one-half feet high, +slightly bent back towards the northeast so as to furnish cover from +fire from the east bank of the creek, north of the trestle. The +shelter tents could be pitched as "lean tos" against the western slope +of the fill, and hidden by bushes and branches of trees. + +(Note: The details of commanding this outguard, its action in case of +attack, what should be done with a passing countryman, etc., can be +profitably worked out in great detail.) + + +Problem No. 2 + +=1078. Lieutenant (to six squads):= We will take the same situation as +we had in Problem 1, with squad outguards as before. + +Sergeant Adams, you have command of the platoon and have sent out the +two outguards. Explain your arrangements for the support. + +=Sergeant Adams:= I have the men fall out by squads and rest on the +side of the road while I look the ground over. I then tell Sergeant +Barnes, "You will have immediate charge of the guard, cooking, +visiting patrols, etc., here at the support. Detail three men from +Corporal Evan's squad as first, second and third relief for the +sentinel over the support Post your sentinel at the road fork and give +him the necessary instructions as to the outguards, the adjacent +support which is on this road (pointing west) on top of that ridge, +etc. I will give you further instructions later." I then fall in the +remainder of the support (one sergeant, one cook, four corporals and +twenty-seven privates, three squads being intact and one man on duty +as sentinel) and have shelter tents pitched under cover of the orchard +and Mason house. While this is being completed I select a line for a +trench, about thirty-five yards long, behind the fence on the east and +west road and extending east of the Chester Pike about fifteen yards, +slightly bent back towards the northeast. No trench in the road. I +then say to Sergeant Foss, "Take Graves' squad and construct a shelter +trench along this line (indicating) having the parapet concealed. Cut +the fences so as to furnish easy access." + +I then say to Corporal Evans, "Take three men from your squad and, as +a reconnoitering patrol, cross the trestle there (pointing), and +follow that road (pointing to the Boling-Salem road) into Salem, +reconnoitering that village. Then take up a position on that ridge +(pointing to Sandy Ridge) and remain out until dusk. Send me a message +from Sandy Ridge with a sketch and description of the country." + +I assume that Corporal Evans is familiar with the information about +the enemy, the location of our outguards, etc. + +Selecting five men from Corporal Geary's squad and the remaining man +of Corporal Evans' squad (three having been detailed for sentinel +duty, and three sent out on patrol duty with Corporal Evans), I turn +them over to Sergeant Barnes, saying, "Here are six men to furnish +three reliefs for a visiting patrol of two men. Have this patrol visit +Outguard No. 2 and cross the trestle, going south down the east bank +of the creek; thence recross the creek at the road bridge, visiting +Outguard No. 1; thence across to the adjacent outguard of the support +on our left, which is somewhere on that ridge (pointing to the Twin +Hills-Lone Hill Ridge); and thence to the starting point. Have them +locate that support on their first trip. You can reverse the route +and make such minor changes from time to time as you think best. +Report to me after they have completed the first round. Make +arrangements for sending supper to the outguards. Take two men from +Corporal Jackson's squad to carry it out. Be careful that the cook +fire is not visible. I am going out to visit Outguard No. 1 and then +No. 2. You will have charge until I return." + +The men have stacked arms in front of the tents and have removed all +equipment but their belts. + +I would now visit the outguards, taking a man with me, and see if they +are properly located. I would instruct the outguard commanders as to +what to do in case of attack, in case strangers approach, point out +their line of retreat in case of necessity, etc. I would make a sketch +of the position and send it, with a description of my dispositions, to +the commander of the outpost. + +=Lieutenant:= Your arrangements and dispositions appear satisfactory. +You should have been more prompt in sending Corporal Evans out with +his patrol. Why didn't you send a patrol towards York, or south along +the Chester Pike? + +=Sergeant Adams:= I considered that the support on my right would +cover that ridge (Twin Hills-Lone Hill), and that the route I laid out +for Corporal Evans would cover the Chester Pike and the country east +of Sandy Creek at the same time, thus avoiding the necessity for two +patrols. + +=Lieutenant:= That seems reasonable, but you should have given some +specific orders about reporting on the width, depth, etc., of Sandy +Creek, which might prove a very valuable or dangerous obstacle. You +can readily see how quickly a command becomes broken up and depleted +in strength, and how important it is to make only such detachments as +are necessary. It looks as if your outguards might have been made +smaller considering the size of your platoon (6 squads), but I think +the squad outpost is so much better than one not composed of a +complete unit, that it is correct in this case. With Corporal Evans' +patrol of three men, the visiting patrol requiring six men, the +sentinel post requiring three men, Sergeant Barnes, and the two +outguards, you have thirty men actually on duty or detailed for duty, +out of fifty-one. Of course, the men constituting the outguards, the +man detailed for the visiting patrol and support sentinel, have +approximately two hours on duty and four hours off duty, so they get +some rest. Furthermore, you should have a three-man patrol watching +the crossroads at Salem during the night, Corporal Evans' patrol +having returned. This patrol should be relieved once during the night, +at a previously stated hour, which means six more men who do not get a +complete night's rest. + +=Sergeant Adams:= Isn't Salem rather far to the front to send a patrol +at night? + +=Lieutenant:= Yes, it is, but unless you touch the crossroads there +you would have to have two patrols out, one near Maxey's farm and one +on the Chester Pike. As it is you are leaving the road from York to +the crossroads in front of Outguard No. 1 uncovered, but you should +find that this is covered by a patrol from the adjacent support. The +cross roads in front of Outguard No. 1 is the natural place for a +stationary, night patrol, but it is so close to the outguard that the +benefit derived from a patrol there would be too small to justify the +effort. + +(Note: Further details of the duties of this support can be gone into. +The messages should be written, and patrols carried through their tour +of duty with the resulting situations to be dealt with; the sentinels +tested as to their knowledge of their duties, etc. Also note carefully +the manner in which the support commander uses his noncommissioned +officers for carrying out his intentions, and thus avoids the most +objectionable and inefficient practice of dealing directly with the +privates.) + + +Problem No. 3 (Infantry) + +=1079.= (See Fort Leavenworth map in pocket at back of book.) + +=Situation:= + +A Blue force, Companies A and B, 1st Infantry, under Captain A, in +hostile country, is covering the Rock Island Bridge and camped for the +night, April 20-21, on the south slope of Devin ridge (rm'). The enemy +is moving northward from Kansas City (30 miles south of Leavenworth). +At 3:30 P. M. Captain A receives a message from Colonel X at Beverly +(2 miles east of Rock Island Bridge, (qo')), stating that two or three +companies of hostile infantry are reported five miles south of +Leavenworth at 2:30 P. M. No enemy is west of Leavenworth. Captain A +decides to place one platoon on outpost. + +=Required, 1.= Captain A's order. + +=Answer.= Verbally: "Two or three Red companies were five miles south +of Leavenworth at 2:30 P. M. today. No enemy is west of Leavenworth. +We will camp here. 1st Platoon, 'A' company, under Sergeant A, will +form the outpost, relieving the advance guard (2d Platoon Co. A). The +line, Pope Hill (sm')--Rabbit Point (tn') will be held. Detached posts +will be placed on Hill 880, west of Merritt Hill (rl'), and on +Engineer Hill (ql'). In case of attack the outpost line will be held. + +"The baggage will be at the main camp. + +"Messages will reach me on Devin Ridge (rm')." + +Issued verbally to officers and Sergeant A. + +=Required, 2.= Give verbatim (word for word) the order issued by +Sergeant A. + +=Answer.= "Two companies of the enemy were five miles south of +Leavenworth at 2:30 P. M. today. Our camp is to be here. This platoon +will be the outpost on the line, Rabbit Point (im')--Pope Hill (sm'). + +"The right support, 1st section, less 1 squad, under Sergeant B, will +take position north of Pope Hill and cover the following front: the +ravine (XIX--Merritt Hill) west of Grant avenue to the ravine about +midway between Grant Avenue and Rabbit Point (tn'). + +"The left support, 2d section, less 1 squad under Sergeant H, will +take position on north slope of Rabbit Point and will cover the +following front: The ravine midway between Grant Avenue and Rabbit +Point to Missouri River. + +"Corporal D, you will take the eight men of your squad and form a +detached post on Engineer Hill (qk'). + +"Corporal E, take your squad and form a detached post on Hill 880 west +of Merritt Hill (rl'). + +"If attacked hold your front. Each support and detached post will +entrench. + +"Send messages to me at right support." + +The outpost moves out, each support and detached post separately, +without throwing out covering patrols, because the advance guard is +now holding the front. There is no reserve. + +=Required, 3.= What does Sergeant A do now? + +=Required, 4.= What does Sergeant B do as soon as he reaches Pope +Hill? + +(Note: During the remainder of the afternoon one man up in a tree on +Grant Avenue will be the only observing post necessary for this +support. At night an outguard would be placed on Grant Avenue with +continuous patrols along the front, because the open ground furnishes +easy approach to the enemy. A post of four men might also be placed on +the bridge over Corral Creek (um').) + +=Required, 5.= The location of supports and the main body of detached +post on Engineer Hill. + +=Required, 6.= What patrolling would be done from the left support? + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE COMPANY ON OUTPOST + +(Establishing the Outpost) + + +=1080.= We will now apply some of the general principles of outposts +(see Par. 1051) to a company taking up its position on the line of +outposts. + +Let us suppose that our battalion has been detailed for outpost duty. + +In order to understand more fully the duties and functions of the +company commander, we will first consider what the major does. To +begin with, he and the battalion will have been detailed for outpost +duty before the march was completed, and he will have been told, +amongst other things, what is known of the enemy and also what is +known of other bodies of our own troops, where the main body will +halt, the general position to be occupied by the outpost, and what the +commander intends doing in case of attack. + +The major verbally designates, say, two companies, as the reserve, and +the other two companies, including our own, as the support. He places +the senior officer of the reserve companies in command of the reserve +and tells him where he is to go, and he indicates the general line the +outpost is to occupy and assigns the amount of front each of the other +companies is to cover. The limits of the sector so assigned should be +marked by some distinctive features, such as trees, buildings, woods, +streams, etc., as it is important that each company should know the +exact limits of its frontage. He tells the company commanders what he +knows of the enemy and of our own troops so far as they affect the +outposts, he indicates the line of resistance and how much resistance +is to be afforded in case of attack, states whether intrenchments and +obstacles are to be constructed, gives instructions about lighting +fires and cooking, and states where he can be found. + +Upon receiving his orders from the major, the company commander, _with +a proper covering detachment_, moves to the locality allotted him and +as he arrives upon the ground he is to occupy, he sends out, as +temporary security, patrols or skirmishers, or both, a short distance +in front of the general position the outguards will occupy, holding +the rest of the company back under cover. If practicable, the company +commander should precede the company and make a rapid examination of +the ground. He then sends out _observation groups_, varying in size +from four men to a platoon, generally a squad, to watch the country in +the direction of the enemy. These groups constitute the _outguards_, +and are just sufficient in number to cover the front of the supports, +and to connect where necessary with the outguards of adjoining +supports. + +The company commander next selects a defensive position on the general +line of resistance, from which not only can he command the approaches, +but where he can also give assistance to the adjoining supports; he +then gives instructions in regard to the intrenchments and obstacles, +after which he makes a more careful reconnaissance of the section +assigned him; corrects the position, of the outguards, if necessary; +gives them instructions as to their duties in case of attack or when +strangers approach their posts; tells them the number (if any) of +their post, the number of the outguard and support and the numbers of +the adjoining outguards and supports; points out lines of retreat in +case they are compelled to fall back to the support, cautioning the +men not to mask the fire of the support; he tells them the names of +all villages, rivers, etc., in view, and the places to which the wagon +roads and the railroads lead; selects, if necessary, places for +additional posts to be occupied at night and during fog; sees that +suitable connections are made between him and the adjoining outguards, +and between his support and the adjoining supports; and questions +subordinate commanders to test their grasp of the situation and +knowledge of their duties, and on returning to the support he sends a +report with a _sketch_ to the outpost commander, showing the +dispositions made. + +After the line of observation has been established, the support stacks +arms and the men are permitted to remove their equipments, except +cartridge belts. One or more sentinels are posted over these supports, +and they guard the property and watch for signals from the outguards. +Fires are concealed as much as possible and the messing is done by +reliefs. Mounted messengers ordinarily do not unsaddle; they rest, +water and feed as directed. + +After the major has received reports from both company commanders, he +will himself visit the outguards and supports and make such changes as +he may deem necessary, immediately after which he will submit to the +commander of the troops a written report, accompanied by a combined +sketch showing the positions of the different parts of the outpost. +The major might begin his inspection of the line of outguards before +receiving the reports of the company commanders. + +In training and instructing the company in outpost work, it is always +best to send out a few patrols and scouts an hour or two in advance, +with definite instructions as to what they are to do, and have them +operate against the company as hostile scouts and patrols. If the rest +of the company know that patrols and scouts are operating in their +front, and will try to work their way through the outpost line, they +will naturally take a keener interest in their work. Exercises of this +kind create a feeling of rivalry between the scouts and patrols, who, +on the one hand, are trying to work their way through the line of +outposts, and the outguards and patrols, who, on the other hand, are +trying to prevent them from so doing. It makes the work much more +_human_. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE COMPANY IN SCOUTING[13] AND PATROLLING + + +=1081.= The general principles of patrolling are explained in Par. +959; so we need not repeat them here. + +Many of the principles of scouting are, in reality, nothing but the +fundamentals of patrolling, and the main function of scouting, +_reconnoitering_, is also the function of a certain class of patrols. +So, we see that scouting and patrolling are inseparably connected, and +the importance of training the members of the company in the +principles of scouting is, therefore, evident. + +=1082. Requisites of a good Scout.= A man, to make a good scout, +should possess the following qualifications:-- + + Have good eyesight and hearing; + Be active, intelligent and resourceful; + Be confident and plucky; + Be healthy and strong; + Be able to swim, signal, read a map, make a rough sketch, and, + of course, read and write. + +=1083. Eyesight and Hearing.= To be able to use the eye and the ear +quickly and accurately is one of the first principles of successful +scouting. Quickness and accuracy of sight and hearing are to a great +extent a matter of training and practice. The savage, for instance, +almost invariably has quick eyesight and good hearing, simply from +continual practice. + +Get into the habit of seeing, _observing_, things--your eyesight must +never be resting, but must be continually glancing around, in every +direction, and _seeing_ different objects. As you walk along through +the country get into the habit of noticing hoof-prints, wheel-ruts, +etc., and observing the trees, houses, streams, animals, men, etc., +that you pass. + +Practice looking at distant objects and discovering objects in the +distance. On seeing distant signs, do not jump at a conclusion as to +what they are, but watch and study them carefully first. + +Get into the habit of listening for sounds and of distinguishing by +what different sounds are made. + +=1084. Finding your Way in a strange Country.= The principal means of +finding one's way in a strange country are by map reading, asking the +way, the points of the compass and landmarks. + +_Map Reading._ This, of course, presupposes the possession of a map. +The subject of map reading is explained in Pars. 1859 to 1877. + +_Asking the Way._ In civilized countries one has no trouble in finding +his way by asking, provided, of course, he speaks the language. If in +a foreign country, learn as soon as you can the equivalent of such +expressions as "What is the way to ----?" "Where is ----?" "What is +the name of this place?," and a few other phrases of a similar nature. +Remember, however, that the natives may sometimes deceive you in their +answers. + +_Points of the Compass._ A compass is, of course, the best, quickest +and simplest way of determining the directions, except in localities +where there is much iron, in which case it becomes very unreliable. + +For determining the points of the compass by means of the North Star +and the face of a watch, see Par. 1096. + +The points of the compass can also be ascertained by facing the sun in +the morning and spreading out your arms straight from the body. Before +you is east; behind you, west; to your right, south; to your left, +north. + +[Illustration] + +The points of the compass can be determined by noting the limbs and +bark of trees. The bark on the north side of trees is thicker and +rougher than that on the south side, and moss is most generally found +near the roots on the north side. The limbs and branches are generally +longer on the south side of the trees, while the branches on the north +are usually knotty, twisted and drooped. The tops of pine trees dip or +trend to the north. + +=1085. Lost.= In connection with finding your way through strange +country, it may be said, should you find you have lost your way, do +not lose your head. Keep cool--try not to let your brains get into +your feet. By this we mean don't run around and make things worse, and +play yourself out. First of all, sit down and think; cool off. Then +climb a tree, or hill, and endeavor to locate some familiar object you +passed, so as to retrace your steps. If it gets dark and you are not +in hostile territory, build a good big fire. The chances are you have +been missed by your comrades and if they see the fire, they will +conclude you are there and will send out for you. Also, if not in +hostile territory, distress signals may be given by firing your rifle, +but don't waste all your ammunition. + +If you find a stream, follow it; it will generally lead +somewhere--where civilization exists. + +The tendency of people who are lost is to travel in a circle +uselessly. + +Remember this important rule: _Always notice the direction of the +compass when you start out, and what changes of direction you make +afterwards._ + +=1086. Landmarks.= Landmarks or prominent features of any kind are a +great assistance in finding one's way in a strange country. In +starting out, always notice the hills, conspicuous trees, high +buildings, towers, rivers, etc. For example, if starting out on a +reconnaissance you see directly to the north of you a mountain, it +will act as a guide without your having to refer to your compass or +the sun. If you should start from near a church, the steeple will +serve as a guide or landmark when you start to make your way back. + +When you pass a conspicuous object, like a broken gate, a strangely +shaped rock, etc., try to remember it, so that should you desire to +return that way, you can do so by following the chain of landmarks. On +passing such landmarks always see what they look like from the other +side; for, that will be the side from which you will first see them +upon the return, trip. + +_The secret of never getting lost is to note carefully the original +direction in which you start, and after that to note carefully all +landmarks._ Get in the habit of doing this in time of peace--it will +then become second nature for you to do it in time of war. + +It may sometimes be necessary, especially in difficult country, such +as when traveling through a forest, and over broken mountains and +ravines, for you to make your own landmarks for finding your way back +by "blazing" (cutting pieces of bark from the trees), breaking small +branches off bushes, piling up stones, making a line across a +crossroad or path you did not follow, etc. + +=1087. Concealment and Dodging.= Both in scouting and patrolling it +must be remembered not only that it is important you should get +information, but it is also fully as important that the enemy should +not know you have the information--hence, the necessity of hiding +yourself. And remember, too, if you keep yourself hidden, not only +will you probably be able to see twice as much of what the enemy is +doing, but it may also save you from being captured, wounded or +killed. + +Should you find the enemy has seen you, it is often advisable to +pretend that you have not seen him, or that you have other men with +you by signaling to imaginary comrades. + +As far as possible, keep under cover by traveling along hedges, banks, +low ground, etc. If moving over open country, make your way as quickly +as possible from one clump of trees or bushes to another; or, from +rocks, hollows or such other cover as may exist, to other cover. As +soon as you reach new cover, look around and examine your surroundings +carefully. + +Do not have about you anything that glistens, and at night be careful +not to wear anything that jingles or rattles. And remember that at +night a lighted match can be seen as far as 900 yards and a lighted +cigarette nearly 300 yards. In looking through a bush or over the top +of a hill, break off a leafy branch and hold it in front of your face. + +In selecting a tree, tower or top of a house or other lookout place +from which to observe the enemy from concealment, always plan +beforehand how you would make your escape, if discovered and pursued. +A place with more than one avenue of escape should be selected, so +that if cut off in one direction you can escape from the other. For +example, should the enemy reach the foot of a tower in which you are, +you would be completely cut off, while if he reached a house on whose +roof you happened to be, you would have several avenues of escape. + +Although trees make excellent lookout places, they must, for the same +reasons as towers, be used with caution. In this connection it may be +remarked unless one sees foot marks leading to a tree, men are apt not +to look up in trees for the enemy--hence, be careful not to leave foot +marks. When in a tree, either stand close against the trunk, or lie +along a large branch, so that your body will look like a part of the +trunk or branch. + +In using a hill as a lookout place, do not make the common mistake of +showing yourself on the skyline. Reach the top of the hill slowly and +gradually by crouching down and crawling, and raise your head above +the crest by inches. In leaving, lower your head gradually and crawl +away by degrees, as any quick or sudden movement on the skyline is +likely to attract attention. And, remember, just because you don't +happen to see the enemy that is no sign that he is not about. At +maneuvers and in exercises soldiers continually make the mistake of +exposing themselves on the skyline. + +At night confine yourself as much as possible to low ground, ditches, +etc. This will keep you down in the dark and will enable you, in turn, +to see outlined against the higher ground any enemy that may approach +you. + +At night especially, but also during the day, the enemy will expect +you along roads and paths, as it is easier to travel along roads and +paths than across country and they also serve as good guides in +finding your way. As a rule, it is best to use the road until it +brings you near the enemy and then leave it and travel across country. +You will thus be able better to avoid the outposts and patrols that +will surely be watching the roads. + +Practice in time of peace the art of concealing yourself and observing +passers-by. Conceal yourself near some frequented road and imagine the +people traveling over it are enemies whose numbers you wish to count +and whose conversation you wish to overhear. Select a spot where they +are not likely to look for you, and which has one or more avenues of +escape; choose a position with a background that matches your clothes +in color; keep quiet, skin your eyes; stretch your ears. + +A mounted scout should always have wire cutters when operating in a +country where there are wire fences. + +=1088. Tracking.= By "tracking" we mean following up footmarks. The +same as the huntsman tracks his game so should we learn how to track +the enemy. One of the first things to learn in tracking is the pace at +which the man or horse was traveling when the track was made. + +A horse walking makes pairs of footmarks, each hind foot being close +to the impression of the forefoot. At a trot the tracks are similar, +but the pairs of footmarks are farther apart and deeper, the toe +especially being more deeply indented than at the walk. At a canter +there are two single footmarks and then a pair. At a gallop the +footmarks are single and deeply indented. As a rule, the hind feet are +longer and narrower than the forefeet. + +In case of a man walking, the whole flat of the foot comes equally on +the ground, the footmarks usually about 30 inches apart. If running, +the toes are more deeply indented in the ground, and the footmarks are +considerably farther apart than when walking. Note the difference +between footmarks made by soldier's shoes and civilian's shoes, and +those made by men and those made by women and children. + +Study the difference between the tracks by a gun, a carriage, an +escort wagon, an automobile, a bicycle, etc., and the direction in +which they were going. + +In addition to being able to determine the pace of tracks, it is most +important that you should be able to tell how old they are. However, +ability to do this with any degree of accuracy, requires a vast amount +of practice. A great deal depends on the kind and the state of the +ground and the weather. For example, if on a dry, windy day you follow +a certain track over varying ground, you will find that on light sandy +soil, for instance, it will look old in a very short time, because any +damp earth that may have been kicked up from under the surface will +dry very quickly to the same color as the rest of the surface, and the +edge of the footmark will soon be rounded off by the breeze blowing +over the dry dust. The same track in damp ground will look much +fresher, and in damp clay, in the shade of trees, a track which may be +a day old will look quite fresh. + +The following are clues to the age of tracks: Spots of rain having +fallen on them since they were made, if, of course, you know when the +rain fell; the crossing of other tracks over the original ones; the +freshness or coldness of the droppings of horses and other animals +(due allowance being made for the effect of the sun, rain, etc.), and, +in the case of grass that has been trodden down, the extent to which +it has since dried or withered. + +Having learned to distinguish the pace and age of tracks, the next +think to do is to learn how to follow them over all kinds of ground. +This is a most difficult accomplishment and one that requires a vast +amount of practice to attain even fair proficiency. + +In tracking where it is difficult to see the track, such as on hard +ground, or in the grass, note the direction of the last foot-print +that you can see, then look on ahead of you a few yards, say, 20 or +30, in the same direction, and, in grass, you will probably see the +blades bent or trodden, and, on ground, you will probably see stones +displaced or scratched--or some other small sign which otherwise would +not be noticed. These indistinct signs, seen one behind the other, +give a track that can be followed with comparative ease. + +If you should lose the track, try to find it again by placing your +handkerchief, hat, or other object on the last footmark you noticed, +and then work around it in a wide circle, with a radius of, say, 30, +50, or 100 yards, choosing the most favorable ground, soft ground, if +possible. If with a patrol, only one or two men should try to find the +onward track; for, if everyone starts in to find it, the chances are +the track will be obliterated with their footmarks. In trying to find +the continuation of a track this way, always place yourself in the +enemy's position, look around the country, imagine what you would have +done, and then move out in that direction and look for his tracks in +soft ground. + + +PRACTICE + +In order to learn the appearance of tracks, get a suitable piece of +soft ground, and across this have a man walk and then run, and have a +horse walk, trot, canter and gallop. The next day make similar tracks +alongside the first ones and then notice the difference between the +two. Also, make tracks on ordinary ground, grass, sand, etc., and +practice following them up. Finally, practice tracking men sent out +for the purpose. The work will probably be very difficult, even +disheartening at first, but you will gradually improve, if you +persevere. + +Above all things, get into the habit of seeing any tracks that may be +on the ground. When out walking, when going through exercises at +maneuvers, and at other times, always notice what tracks are on the +ground before you, and study them. + +The following exercises in scouting and patrolling afford excellent +practice and training: + +=1089. The Mouse and Cat Contest.= 1. A section of country three or +four miles square, with well-defined limits, is selected. The +boundaries are made known to all contestants and anyone going outside +of them will be disqualified. + +2. Two patrols of eight men each are sent out as "mice." They occupy +any positions they may wish within the boundaries named, and conceal +themselves to watch for hostile patrols. + +3. Half an hour later two other squads, wearing white bands around +their hats, or having other distinguishing marks, are sent out as +"cats" to locate, if possible, and report upon the position of the +"mice." + +4. An hour is fixed when the exercise shall end, and if within the +given time the "cats" have not discovered the "mice," the "mice" win. + +5. The "cats" will write reports of any "mice" patrols they may see. + + +_Rules_ + +1. An umpire (officer or noncommissioned officer) goes with each +patrol and his decisions as to capture and other matters are the +orders of the company commander. The umpires must take every possible +precaution to conceal themselves so as not to reveal the position of +the patrols with which they are. + +Each umpire will carry a watch, all watches being set with that of the +company commander before the exercise commences. + +2. Any "cat" patrol coming within 50 yards of a "mouse" patrol, +without seeing the "mice," is considered captured. + +3. When the time is up, the umpires will bring in the patrols and +report to the company commander. + +=1090. Flag-Stealing Contest.= 1. A section of country of suitable +size, with well-defined limits, is selected, the boundaries being made +known to the contestants. + +2. The contestants are divided into two forces of about 20 men each, +and each side will establish three Cossack posts along a general line +designated by the company commander, the two positions being selected +facing each other and being a suitable distance apart. The men not +forming part of the Cossack posts will be used as reconnoitering +patrols. + +3. About three quarters of a mile in rear of the center of each line +of outposts four flags will be planted, in line, about 30 yards apart. + +4. The scouts and patrols of each force will try to locate the +outposts of the other force, and then to work their way around or +between them, steal the flags and bring them back to their own side. +They will endeavor to prevent the enemy from doing the same. + +5. One scout or patrol will not carry away more than one flag at a +time, and will have to return to their side safely with the flag +before they can come back and capture another. + +6. Scouts may work singly or in pairs. Any scout or patrol coming +within 80 yards of a stronger hostile party, or Cossack post, will be +considered as captured, if seen by the enemy, and if carrying a +captured flag at the time, the flag will not count as having been +captured. Of course, if a scout or patrol can pass within 80 yards of +the enemy without being discovered, it may do so. + +7. An umpire (officer or noncommissioned officer) will be with each +Cossack post, each patrol, and at the position of the flags. + +8. The hour when the exercise ends will be designated in advance and +at that hour the umpires will bring in the Cossack posts and patrols. +The same requirements regarding watches obtains as in the Mouse and +Cat Contest. + +9. At the conclusion of the contest the commander of each side will +hand in to the company commander all sketches and reports made by his +men. + +10. Points will be awarded as follows: + + Each flag captured, 5. + + For each sketch and hostile report of the position of a Cossack + post, 3. + + For each report of movements of a hostile patrol, 2. + + The side getting the greatest number of points will win. + +11. Umpires may penalize the contestants for a violation of the rules. + +The same contest may be carried out at night, substituting lighted +Japanese lanterns for the flags. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[13] The best book on scouting that the author has ever seen, is +Baden-Powell's "Aids to Scouting," which was consulted in the +preparation of this chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +NIGHT OPERATIONS + + +=1091. Importance.= Because of the long range and great accuracy of +modern fire arms, there has been in recent years a marked increase in +the practice of night operations, such operations being of common +occurrence not only for massing troops under cover of darkness in +favorable positions for further action, but also for actually +assaulting positions. + +Read carefully pars. 464, 496, 498, 523, 524, 580-590. + + +TRAINING OF THE COMPANY + +=1092.= Night movements are amongst the most difficult operations of +war, and, therefore require the most careful, painstaking and thorough +training and instruction of troops in all matters pertaining thereto. +The history of night fighting shows that in most cases defeat is due +to disorganization through panic. It is said that in daylight the +moral is to the physical as three is to one. That being the case, it +is hard to say what the ratio is at night, when a general atmosphere +of mystery, uncertainty and fear of surprise envelops the operations, +and, of necessity affects the nerves of the men. The vital importance, +therefore, of accustoming troops as much as we can in peace to the +conditions that will obtain in night fighting, cannot be +overestimated. The following outline shows the subjects in which +individual and collective instruction and training should be given: + + +INDIVIDUAL TRAINING + +=1093. General.= The first thing to be done is to accustom the soldier +to darkness and to teach him to overcome the nervousness which is +natural to the average man in darkness. + +The best way to do this is to begin by training him in the use of his +powers of vision and hearing under conditions of darkness, which are +strange to him. The company should be divided into squads for this +instruction. + +=1094. Vision.= Take several men to ground with which they are +familiar. Have them notice the different appearance which objects +present at night; when viewed in different degrees of light and shade; +the comparative visibility of men under different conditions of dress, +background, etc.; the ease with which bright objects are seen; the +difference between the visibility of men standing on a skyline and +those standing on a slope. Post the men in pairs at intervals along a +line which the instructors will endeavor to cross without being seen. +The instructors should cross from both sides, so as to compel +observation in both directions. Have a man (later, several) walk away +from the rest of the men and when he is about to disappear from view, +halt him, and estimate the distance. Send a man (later, several) +outside the field of vision, to advance on the rest of the men. Halt +him when he enters the field of vision and estimate the distance. Send +a number of men outside the limit of vision and then let them advance +on the rest of the men, using cover and seeing how near they can +approach unobserved. + +=1095. Hearing.= Place a number of men a few yards apart and make them +guess what a noise is caused by, and its approximate position. The +rattle of a meat can, the movement of a patrol, the working of the +bolt of a rifle, the throwing down of accouterments, low talking, +etc., may be utilized. Take special pains to impress upon the men the +penetrating power of the human voice, and the necessity of preserving +absolute silence in night operations. Have blank cartridges fired and +teach the men to judge their direction and approximate distance away. + +=1096. Finding Bearings.= Show the men how to determine the points of +the compass from the North Star. The Big Dipper constellation looks +like this: + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +The North Star is on the prolongation of a line joining the two +"pointing" stars, and at above five times the distance between the two +stars. At another time have those same men individually locate the +North Star. Using this star as a guide, practice the men moving in +different directions, by such commands as, "Smith, move southeast." +"Jones, move northwest," etc. + +To test a man's ability to keep a given direction when moving in the +darkness, choose a spot from which no prominent landmarks are visible, +advance toward it accompanied by a man, from a distance not less than +200 paces. While advancing the soldier must take his bearings. On +arriving at the spot chosen the instructor will turn the soldier +around rapidly two or three times and then have him continue to +advance in the same direction as before. No prominent landmarks should +be visible from the starting point. + +=1097. Moving in the Dark.= Form four or five men in line with about +one pace interval, the instructor being on one of the flanks. Place +some clearly visible mark, such as a lantern, for the instructor to +march on. Impress upon the men the importance of lifting their feet up +high and bringing them to the ground quietly and firmly, and of +keeping in touch with the guide and conforming to his movements +without sound or signal. The pace should be slow and frequent halts +should be made to test the promptness of the men in halting and +advancing together. As the line advances, each man will in turn take +his place on the flank and act as guide. The light on which the men +are marching should be hidden from view at intervals, in order to test +the ability of the men to maintain the original direction. Later on, +the number of men in a line may be increased considerably. The rougher +the ground, the darker the night and the longer the line, the slower +must the pace be and the more frequent the halts. After passing an +obstacle men instinctively line up parallel to it, and consequently if +the obstacle does not lie at right angles to the line of advance, the +direction will be lost; so, be sure to guard against this. + +=1098. Night Fencing.= Practice the men in charging in the dark +against a white cloth or the dummy figure of a man. In the beginning +have the figure in a fixed place, but later have the soldier charge +seeking the figure, and not knowing just exactly where it is +beforehand. + +=1099. Night Entrenching.= It is frequently necessary in time of war +to dig trenches at night in front of the enemy, and while this work is +easy in the moonlight, it is very difficult in the dark. Bear in mind +the following points: + +1. The tendency is to make the trench too narrow; hence, guard against +this. + +2. Be careful not to throw the earth too far or too near. + +3. Do not strike your neighbor's tools in working. + +4. Do not use the pick unless necessary, because it makes considerable +noise. + +5. Do not scrape the tools together in order to get off the dirt; use +a chip of wood or the toe of the shoe. + +6. Make as little noise as possible in digging and handling your +tools. + +7. If discovered by the enemy's searchlights, do not become excited or +confused; simply lie down. + +8. If attacked by the enemy, do not get rattled and throw your tools +away--put them in some fixed place where they can be found again. + +=1100. Equipment.= At first the men should be taken out without arms, +but later on they should be trained to work in full equipment. Teach +every man what parts of his equipment are likely to make a noise under +special circumstances, such as lying down, rising, crossing obstacles, +etc., and instruct him how to guard against it. Bayonets should always +be fixed, but in order to avoid accidents the scabbard should be left +on them. + +From the beginning of the training continually impress upon the men +that it is absolutely criminal to fire without orders during a night +operation and that the bayonet is the only weapon he can use with +advantage to himself and safety to his comrades. + +=1101. Night Firing.= As a rule men fire too high in the dark. They +must, therefore, be cautioned not to raise the rifle above the +horizontal, or incline the upper part of the body to the rear. When +the firing is stopped be sure to turn on the safety-lock. Experience +during the Russo-Japanese War taught the Japanese the kneeling +position is the most suitable for horizontal firing. The following +method, to be conducted in daytime, may be employed in training the +soldier to hold his rifle parallel to the ground while firing in the +dark:--Have each soldier, kneeling, close his eyes and bring his rifle +to the position of aim, barrel parallel to the ground. With the rifle +in this position, let him open his eyes and examine it. Then have this +done by squad, by command. When they become proficient in this +movement, have them close their eyes and while the eyes are closed, +put up a target and have them practice horizontal firing, opening +their eyes each time after pulling the trigger and then examining the +position of the piece. + + +COLLECTIVE TRAINING + +At first practice squads, then the platoons and later the company in +simple movements, such as squads right and left, right and left +oblique, etc., gradually leading up to more complicated ones in close +and extended order, such as right and left front into line, advancing +in platoon and squad columns, charging the enemy, etc. As far as +possible the movements should be executed by simple prearranged +signals from the unit commanders. The signals, which must not be +visible to the enemy, may be made with a white handkerchief or a white +flag, if the night be not too dark; with an electric flashlight, a +dark lantern or luminous disk. The light of the flashlight or lantern +must be screened, so it cannot be seen by the enemy. The following +signals are suggested: + +To advance: Raise vertically the lantern or other object with which +the signal is made. + +To halt: Lower and raise the object several times. + +To lie down: Bring the object down near the ground. + +To form squad columns: Move the object several times to the right and +left. + +To form platoon columns: Describe several circles. + +As skirmishers: Move the object front to rear several times. + +=1102. Night Marches.= In acting as an advance guard to a column, the +company would send out a point a few yards ahead, which would be +followed by the rest of the company. Three or four scouts should be +sent out a hundred yards or so ahead of the point. They should advance +at a quick pace, keeping in the shadow on the side of the road, being +constantly on the alert, using their ears even more than their eyes. +They will halt to listen at crossroads and suspicious places, and move +on again when they hear the company approaching. Should the enemy be +discovered, one of the scouts will return to warn the advance +guard--the others will conceal themselves and watch. Under no +circumstances must the scouts ever fire, unless it be for the purpose +of warning the company and there is no other way of doing so. The +diagram on the opposite page is suggested as a good formation for a +company acting as advance guard at night. A company marching alone +would move in the same formation as when acting as advance guard, +except that it would protect its rear with a few scouts. Of course, +the nature of the country and proximity and activity of the enemy, +will determine the best formation to be used, but whatever the +formation may be, always remember to cover well your front, rear and +flanks, with scouts, whose distance away will vary with the light and +nature of the country. _Don't forget that protection in rear is very +important._ + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +The men must be warned against firing, smoking, talking, striking +matches, making noise, etc. They should also be informed of the object +in view, direction of the enemy, etc. + +In night marches the rests should not exceed five minutes; otherwise, +many men will fall asleep. + + +OUTPOSTS + +Careful training in outpost duty at night is very harassing, but, in +view of its importance, should not be neglected. This instruction +should be given with the greatest thoroughness, strictness and +attention to detail. + +=1103. Sentries Challenging.= In challenging sentries must be careful +to avoid any noise that would disclose their position. In fact, +challenging by voice should be reduced to a minimum by arranging a +system of signals by which the officers of the day, patrols, etc., can +be recognized. The following signals, any one of which may be decided +upon, which would be made first by the sentry and then answered by the +approaching party, are suggested: Clap the hands together twice; +strike the ground twice with the butt of the rifle; strike the butt of +the rifle twice with the hand; whistle softly twice. The replying +signal would be the same as the sentry's signal, except that in case +of the use of the butt of the rifle, an officer would reply by +striking twice on his revolver holster. After repeating the signal +once, if it is not answered, the sentry will challenge with the voice, +but no louder than is necessary. In case of a patrol only one man will +advance to be recognized after the signal has been answered. The +sentry must always allow persons to approach fairly near before +challenging. + +=1104. Sentries Firing.= Anyone who has been through a campaign knows +how nervous green sentries are, and how quick they are about firing. +During the beginning of the Philippine Campaign the author heard of +several cases where sentries fired on fire-flies several hundred +yards away. Never fire unless it be absolutely necessary to give an +alarm, or unless you can clearly distinguish the enemy and are fairly +certain of hitting him. In the French Army in Algeria, there is a rule +that any sentry who fires at night must produce a corpse, or be able +to show by blood marks that he hit the person fired at. If he can do +neither, he is punished for giving a false alarm. + +=1105. Marking of Route from Outguards to Supports.= The route from +the support to the outguards, and from pickets to their sentries, +should, if necessary, be clearly marked with scraps of paper, green +sticks with the bark peeled off, or in any other suitable way. + +=1106. Readiness for Action.= The supports should always be ready for +action. The men must sleep with their rifles beside them and in such +places that they will be able to fall in promptly in case of attack. +Some men have a way of sleeping with their blankets over their heads. +This should not be allowed--the ears must always be uncovered. The +commander, or the second in command, with several men, should remain +awake. When the commander lies down he should do so near the sentry, +which is always posted over the support. + + +GENERAL + +=1107. Connections.= It is of the greatest importance that proper +connection be maintained between the different parts of a command +engaged in night operations. It is astonishing with what facility +units go astray and how difficult it is for them to find their way +back where they belong. + +=1108. Preparation.= It matters not what the nature of the night +operation may be, the most careful preparation is necessary. Success +often depends upon the care and thoroughness with which the plans are +made. + +All possible eventualities should be thought of and provided for as +far as praticable. The first thing to do is to get as much information +as possible about the ground to be covered and the position of the +enemy, and care must be taken to see that the information is accurate. +Reconnaissance must be made by night as well as by day; for, ground +looks very different at night from what it does during the day. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +FIELD ENGINEERING + + +=1109.= The following, from the =Engineer Field Manual=, together with +the elements of field engineering covered in Chapter XI, on +=Obstacles=, will give the company officer a good, working knowledge +of those parts of field engineering for which he is most likely to +have need. + + +Bridges + +=1111. Dimensions and guard rail.= A roadway 9 ft. wide in the clear +should be provided to pass infantry in fours, cavalry two abreast, and +military wagons in one direction; a width of 6 ft. will suffice for +infantry in column of twos, cavalry in single file, and field guns +passed over by hand. + +The _clear width_ of roadway of an ordinary highway bridge should not +be less than 12 ft. for single track, or 20 ft. for double track. + +The _clear head room_ in ordinary military bridges should not be less +than 9 ft. for wagons and cavalry; for highway bridges not less than +14 ft. + +Ramps at the ends of a bridge, if intended for artillery, should not +be steeper than 1 on 7. For animals, slopes steeper than 1 on 10 are +inconvenient. + +If the bridges are high, hand rails should be provided. A single rope +may suffice, or it may have brush placed upon it to form a screen. + +A guard rail should be provided along each side of the roadway, near +the ends of the flooring planks. In hasty bridges it may be secured by +a lashing or lashings through the planking to the stringer underneath. +Otherwise it may be fastened with spikes or bolts. + +=1112. Spar bridges.=--This name is applied to bridges built of round +timbers lashed together. Intermediate points of support are provided +by inclined frames acting as struts to transmit weight from the middle +of the bridge to the banks. The single-lock and double-lock bridges +with two and three spans of 15 ft., respectively, are the ones of most +utility. + +The first step in constructing a spar bridge is to measure the gap to +be bridged and select the position of the footings on either bank. +Determine the distance from each footing to the middle point of the +roadway if a single-lock, or the two corresponding points of a +double-lock bridge. Next determine and mark on each spar except the +diagonals the places where other spars cross it. The marking may be +done with chalk, or with an ax. If possible a convenient notation +should be adopted. As, for example, in marking with chalk, a ring +around the spar where the edge of the crossing spar will come, and a +diagonal cross on the part which will be hidden by the crossing spar. + +A simple way to determine the length of spars is the following: Take +two small lines somewhat longer than the width of the gap, double each +and lash the bights together. Stretch them tightly across the gap so +that the lashing comes at the middle as at _A_, Fig. 8. Release one +end of each and stretch it to the footing on the same side as +indicated by the dotted lines. Mark each line at the footing _C_ or +_C'_, and at the position chosen for the abutment sill, _B_ or _B'_. +Cut the lashing and take each piece of rope to its own side. The +distances _AB_ and _AB'_ are the lengths between the transoms, and +with 2 ft. added give the length of road bearers required. The +distances _AC_ and _AC'_ are the lengths of struts from butt to top of +transom, and with 3 ft added, give the total length of spars required. + +For a double lock bridge, a piece of rope of a length equal to the +length of the middle bay replaces the lashing. If the banks are not +parallel, a measurement should be taken on each side of the bridge. + +If desired, a section of the gap may be laid down on the ground in +full size and the lengths of spars determined by laying them in place. +This method, though given as standard by all authorities, requires +more time and more handling of material than the other and gives no +better results. + +The construction of a frame is shown in Fig. 1, and the system of +marking in Fig. 2. The arrangement of frames to form a single lock +bridge is shown in Figs. 3 and 4, and a double lock bridge in Fig 6. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +[Illustration: Fig. 8] + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +=1113. Construction of single-lock bridges=, Figs. 3, 4, and +5.--Suitable for spans of 30 ft. or less. The two frames lock together +at the center of the span; their slope must not be more than 4 on 7. +The bridge can be erected by two or three noncommissioned officers +and 20 men, one-half on each side of the gap. Heavy spars require more +men. + +The footings at _A_ and _B_ must be firm, horizontal if possible, and +at right angles to the axis of the bridge. In a masonry pier they may +be cut out. In firm soil a simple trench will suffice. In yielding +soil a plank or sill must be laid in the trench. The frames are made +of such length as to give a slight camber to the bridge, which may be +increased to allow for probable settlement of the footings. The inside +dimension of one frame is made slightly greater than the outside +dimension of the other, so that one frame may fall inside of the other +when hauled into position. For a 9 ft. roadway the standards of the +narrow (inside) frame should be 9 ft. 6 ins. apart at the transom and +10 ft. 6 ins. at the ledger, in the clear, and the other (outside) +frame 1 ft. 6 ins. wider throughout. + +A frame is constructed on each bank. The standards are laid on the +ground in prolongation of the bridge, butts toward the bank. The +ledgers are lashed on _above_ and the transoms _beneath_ the standards +at the positions marked. The diagonal braces are lashed to the +standards, two butts and one tip above the latter, and to each other. +Before the braces are lashed the frame must be square by checking the +measurements of the diagonals. + +If necessary, pickets for the foot and guy ropes are driven, the +former about 2 paces from the bank and 4 paces on each side of the +axis of the bridge; the latter about 20 paces from the bank and 10 +paces on each side of the axis. The foot ropes, _CC_, Fig. 5, are +secured by timber hitches to the butts of the standards and the back +and fore guys, _DD_ and _EE_, to the tips the fore guys are passed +across to the opposite bank. The guys of the _narrow_ frame should be +_inside_ the guys and standards of the wide frame. + +The frames are put into position one after the other, or +simultaneously if there are enough men. A man is told off to each foot +rope and one to each back guy to slack off as required, two turns +being taken with each of these ropes around their respective pickets. +The other men raise the frame and launch it forward, assisted by the +men at the fore guys, until the frame is balanced on the edge of the +bank. The frame is then tilted until the butts rest on the footing, by +slacking off the foot ropes and hauling on the fore guys, Fig. 5. +After the head of the frame has been hauled over beyond the +perpendicular, it is lowered nearly into its final position by +slacking off the back guys. When the two frames are in this position +opposite each other, the narrow frame is further lowered until its +standards rest upon the transom of the other. The wider (outer) frame +is then lowered until the two lock into each other, the standards of +each resting upon the transom of the other. + +The center or fork transom, Figs. 3 and 4, is then passed from shore +and placed in the fork between the two frames. This forms the central +support to receive a floor system of two bays, built as already +described. + +The estimated time for construction of such a bridge is about one hour +if the material is available and in position on both sides of the +stream. The construction of the roadway requires about twenty minutes; +forming footings in masonry about one hour. + +=1114. Construction of double-lock bridge=, Fig. 6.--Suitable for +spans not exceeding 45 ft., and consisting of two inclined frames +which lock into a connecting horizontal frame of two or more distance +pieces, with cross transoms, dividing the gap to be bridged into three +equal bays of about 15 ft. The force required is two or three +noncommissioned officers and 25 to 50 men; the time for construction, +except roadway, about two and one-half hours; extra time to be allowed +for difficult footings. + +The width of gap is measured, the position of footings determined, and +the length of standards from butt to transom determined and marked as +before. + +The inclined frames in this case are built of equal widths, launched +as before, and held by guys just above their final position. Two +stringers are launched out from each bank to the main transom. The +distance pieces, Fig. 6, are put into position inside the standards, +using tackle if necessary, and the road transoms are placed and lashed +to the distance pieces at the places marked. Both frames are now +lowered until they jam. + +=1115. Roadway of spar bridge.=--For infantry in fours crowded the +transoms should have a diam. of not less than 9 ins. for a span of 15 +ft. Five stringers 2 ft. 3 ins. c. to c., and 6 ins. diam. at the tip +will suffice. If the sticks vary in size, the larger ones should be +notched down on the transom so as to bring the tops in the same plane. +The stringers should be long enough to overlap the transoms, and +should be lashed together at each tip. The floor is held down by side +rails over the outside stringers and lashed to them. If lumber can not +be obtained, a floor may be made, of small spars, the interstices +filled with brush, and the whole covered with loam or clay; Figs. 7 +and 9. + + +Corduroy Roads + +=1116. Corduroying= is done by laying logs crosswise of the road and +touching each other. The result will be better if the logs are nearly +of the same size. The butts and tips should alternate. If the logs are +large the spaces may be filled with smaller poles. The bottom tier of +logs should be evenly bedded and should have a firm bearing at the +ends and not ride on the middle. The filling poles, if used, should be +cut and trimmed to lie close, packing them about the ends if +necessary. If the soil is only moderately soft the logs need be no +longer than the width of the road. In soft marsh it may be necessary +to make them longer. + +The logs may be utilized as the wearing surface. In fact this is +usually the case. They make a rough surface, uncomfortable for +passengers and hard on wagons and loads, but the resistance to +traction is much less than would be expected, and the roughness and +slightly yielding surface make excellent footing for animals. Surface +corduroy is perishable and can last but a short time. In marshes, +where the logs can be placed below the ground-water level, they are +preserved from decay, and if any suitable material can be found, to +put a thin embankment over them, a good permanent road may be made. + +Any tough, fibrous material may be used to temporarily harden the +surface of a road. Hay or straw, tall weeds, corn and cane stalks +have been used to good advantage. Such materials should be laid with +the fibers crosswise of the road, and covered with a thin layer of +earth, thrown on from the sides; except in sand, when it is better to +dig a shallow trench across the road, fill it with the material and +then dig another trench just in front of and in contact with the first +and throw the sand from it back onto the material in the first trench, +etc. + + +Brush work + +=1117. A fascine= is a cylindrical bundle of brush, closely bound. The +usual length is 18 ft. and the diam. 9 ins. when compressed. Lengths +of 9 and 6 ft., which are sometimes used, are most conveniently +obtained by sawing a standard fascine into 2 or 3 pieces. The weight +of a fascine of partially seasoned material will average 140 lbs. + +Fascines are made in a =cradle= which consists of five trestles. A +=trestle= is made of two sticks about 6-1/2 ft. long and 3 ins. in +diam, driven into the ground and lashed at the intersection as shown +in Fig. 10. In making a cradle, plant the end trestles 16 ft. apart +and parallel. Stretch a line from one to the other over the +intersection, place the others 4 ft. apart and lash them so that each +intersection comes fairly to the line. + +=To build a fascine=, straight pieces of brush, 1 or 2 ins. at the +butt, are laid on, the butts projecting at the end 1 ft. beyond the +trestle. Leaves should be stripped and unruly branches cut off, or +partially cut through, so that they will lie close. The larger +straighter brush should be laid on the outside, butts alternating in +direction, and smaller stuff in the center. The general object is to +so dispose the brush as to make the fascine of uniform size, strength, +and stiffness from end to end. + +When the cradle is nearly filled, the fascine is compressed or +=choked= by the =fascine choker=, Fig. 11, which consists of 2 bars 4 +ft. long, joined at 18 ins. from the ends by a chain 4 ft. long. The +chain is marked at 14 ins. each way from the middle by inserting a +ring or special link. To use, two men standing on opposite sides pass +the chain under the brush, place the short ends of the handles on top +and pass the bars, short end first, across to each other. They then +bear down on the long ends until the marks on the chain come together. +Chokers may be improvised from sticks and rope or wire. + +=Binding= will be done with a double turn of wire or tarred rope. It +should be done in 12 places, 18 ins. apart, the end binders 3 ins. +outside the end trestles. To bind a fascine will require 66 ft. of +wire. + +Improvised binders may be made from rods of live brush, hickory or +hazel is the best. Place the butt under the foot and twist the rod to +partially separate the fibers and make it flexible. A rod so prepared +is called a =withe=. To use a withe, make a half turn and twist at the +smaller end, Fig. 12; pass the withe around the brush and the large +end through the eye. Draw taut and double the large end back, taking 2 +half-hitches over its own standing part, Fig. 13. + +When the fascine is choked and bound, saw the ends off square, 9 ins. +outside the end binders. After a cradle is made, 4 men can make 1 +fascine per hour, with wire binding. Withes require 1 man more. + +=A fascine revetment= is made by placing the fascines as shown in Fig. +14. The use of headers and anchors is absolutely necessary in loose +soils only, but they greatly strengthen the revetment in any case. A +fascine revetment =must always be crowned= with sods or bags. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +[Illustration: Fig. 13] + +[Illustration: Fig. 14] + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +=1118.= In all brush weaving the following terms have been adopted and +are convenient to use: + +=Randing.=--Weaving a single rod in and out between pickets. + +=Slewing.=--Weaving two or more rods together in the same way. + +=Pairing.=--Carrying two rods together, crossing each other in and out +at each picket. + +=Wattling.=--A general term applied to the woven part of brush +construction. + +=1119. A hurdle= is a basket work made of brushwood. If made in +pieces, the usual size is 2 ft. 9 ins. by 6 ft., though the width may +be varied so that it will cover the desired height of slope. + +A hurdle is made by describing on the ground an arc of a circle of 8 +ft. radius and on the arc driving 10 pickets, 8 ins. apart, covering 6 +ft. out to out, Fig. 15. Brush is then woven in and out and well +compacted. The concave side of a hurdle should be placed next the +earth. It wraps less than if made flat. + +=In weaving the hurdle=, begin randing at the middle space at the +bottom. Reaching the end, twist the rod as described for a withe, but +at one point only, bend it around the end picket and work back. Start +a second rod before the first one is quite out, slewing the two for a +short distance. Hammer the wattling down snug on the pickets with a +block of wood and continue until the top is reached. It improves the +hurdle to finish the edges with two selected rods paired, Fig. 16. A +pairing may be introduced in the middle, if desired, to give the +hurdle extra endurance if it is to be used as a pavement or floor. If +the hurdle is not to be used at once, or if it is to be transported, +it must be sewed. The sewing is done with wire, twine, or withes at +each end and in the middle, with stitches about 6 ins. long, as shown +in Fig. 16. About 40 ft. of wire is required to sew one hurdle. No. 14 +is about the right size, and a coil of 100 lbs. will sew 40 hurdles. +Three men should make a hurdle in 2 hours, 2 wattling and the third +preparing the rods. + +=1120. Continuous hurdle.=--If conditions permit the revetment to be +built in place, the hurdle is made continuous for considerable +lengths. The pickets may be larger; they are driven farther apart, 12 +or 18 ins., and the brush may be heavier. The construction is more +rapid. The pickets are driven with a little more slant than is +intended and must be anchored to the parapet. A line of poles with +wire attached at intervals of 2 or 3 pickets will answer. The wires +should be made fast to the pickets after the wattling is done. They +will interfere with the wearing if fastened sooner. Two men should +make 4 yds. of continuous hurdle of ordinary height in one hour. + +=1121. Brush revetment.=--Pickets may be set as above described and +the brush laid inside of them without weaving, being held in place by +bringing the earth up with it. In this case the anchors must be +fastened before the brush laying begins. The wires are not much in the +way in this operation. + +=1122. Gabion making.--A gabion= is a cylindrical basket with open +ends, made of brush woven on pickets or stakes as described for +hurdles. The usual size is 2 ft. outside diam. and 2 ft. 9 ins. height +of wattling. On account of the sharp curvature somewhat better brush +is required for gabions than will do for hurdles. + +=The gabion form=, Fig. 17, is of wood, 21 ins. diam., with +equidistant notches around the circumference, equal in number to the +number of pickets to be used, usually 8 to 14, less if the brush is +large and stiff, more if it is small and pliable. The notches should +be of such depth that the pickets will project to 1 in. outside the +circle. The pickets should be 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 ins. diam., 3 ft. 6 ins. +long and sharpened, half at the small and half at the large end. + +=To make a gabion=, the form is placed on the ground, level or nearly +so, and the pickets are driven vertically in the notches, large and +small ends down, alternately. The form is then raised a foot and held +by placing a lashing around outside the pickets, tightened with a rack +stick, Fig. 18. The wattling is randed or slewed from the form up. The +form is then dropped down, the gabion inverted and the wattling +completed. If the brush is small, uniform, and pliable, pairing will +make a better wattling than randing. If not for immediate use, the +gabion must be sewed as described for hurdles, the same quantity of +wire being required. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16] + +[Illustration: Fig. 17] + +[Illustration: Fig. 18] + +[Illustration: Fig. 19] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20] + +[Illustration: Fig. 21] + +The gabion, when wattled and sewed, is completed by cutting off the +tops of the pickets 1 in. from the web, the bottom 3 ins., the latter +sharpened after cutting, and driving a carrying picket through the +middle of its length and a little on side of the axis. See that the +middle of this picket is smooth. Three men should make a gabion in an +hour. + +Gabions may be made without the forms, but the work is slower and not +so good. The circle is struck on the ground and the pickets driven at +the proper points. The weaving is done from the ground up and the +entire time of one man is required to keep the pickets in proper +position. + +=If brush is scarce=, gabions may be made with 6 ins. of wattling at +each end, the middle left open. In filling, the open part may be lined +with straw, grass, brush cuttings, or grain sacks, to keep the earth +from running out. + +=1123. Gabion revetment.=--The use of gabions in revetments is +illustrated in Fig. 20. If more than two tiers are used, the +separating fascines should be anchored back. Gabion revetments should +be crowned with sods or bags. + +The advantages of the gabion revetment are very great. It can be put +in place without extra labor and faster and with less exposure than +any other. It is self-supporting and gives cover from view and partial +cover from fire quicker than any other form. + +Several forms of gabions of other material than brush have been used. +Sheet iron and iron and paper hoops are some of them. The iron +splinters badly, is heavy, and has not given satisfaction. If any +special materials are supplied the method of using them will, in view +of the foregoing explanation, be obvious. + +=1124. Timber or pole revetment.=--Poles too large for use in any +other way may be cut to length and stood on end to form a revetment. +The lower ends should be in a small trench and have a waling piece in +front of them. There must also be a waling piece or cap at or near the +top, anchored back. Fig. 21 shows this form. + +=1125. Miscellaneous revetments.=--Any receptacles for earth which +will make a stable, compact pile, as =boxes=, =baskets=, =oil or other +cans=, may be used for a revetment. =Barrels= may be used for gabions. +=Canvas= stretched behind pickets is well thought of in a foreign +service. If the soil will make =adobe=, or sun-dried bricks, an +excellent revetment may be made of them, but it will not stand wet +weather. + + +Knots + +=1126.= =Square= or =reef knot=, Fig. 22, commonly used for joining +two ropes of the same size. The standing and running parts of each +rope must pass through the loop of the other in the same direction, i. +e., from above down ward or vice versa; otherwise a _granny_, is made, +which is a useless knot that will not hold. The reef knot can be upset +by taking one end of the rope and its standing part and pulling them +in opposite directions. With dry rope a reef knot is as strong as the +rope; with wet rope it slips before the rope breaks, while a double +sheet bend is found to hold. + +[Illustration: Fig. 22 + +_Square or Reef_] + +=1127. Two half hitches=, Fig. 23, especially useful for belaying, or +making fast the end of a rope round its own standing part. The end may +be lashed down or seized to the standing part with a piece of spun +yarn; this adds to its security and prevents slipping. + +This knot should never be used for hoisting a spar. + +[Illustration: Fig. 23 + +_Two half hitches_] + +=1128. Clove hitch=, Fig. 24, generally used for fastening a rope at +right angles to a spar or at the commencement of a lashing. If the end +of the spar is free, the hitch is made by first forming two loops, as +in Fig. 26, placing the right-hand loop over the other one and +slipping the double loop (Fig. 27) over the end of the spar. If this +can not be done, pass the end of the rope round the spar, bring it up +to the right of the standing part, cross over the latter, make +another turn round the spar, and bring up the end between the spar, +the last turn, and the standing part, Fig. 25. When used for securing +guys to sheer legs, etc., the knot should be made with a long end, +which is formed into two half hitches round the standing part and +secured to it with spun yarn. + +[Illustration: Fig. 24 + +_Clove hitch_] + +[Illustration: Fig. 25] + +[Illustration: Fig. 26] + +[Illustration: Fig. 27] + +=1129. Timber hitch=, Fig. 28, used for hauling and lifting spars. It +can easily be loosed when the strain is taken off, but will not slip +under a pull. When used for hauling spars, a half hitch is added near +the end of the spar, Fig. 29. + +[Illustration: Fig. 28 + +_Timber hitch_] + +[Illustration: Fig. 29 + +_Timber hitch and half hitch_] + +=1130. Bowline=, Fig. 30, forms a loop that will not slip. Make loop +with the standing part of the rope underneath, pass the end from below +through the loop, over the part round the standing part of the rope, +and then down through the loop _c_. The length of bight depends upon +the purpose for which the knot is required. + +[Illustration: Fig. 30 + +_Bowline_] + +=1131. Bowline on a bight=, Fig. 31. The first part is made like the +above, with the double part of a rope; then the bight _a_ is pulled +through sufficiently to allow it to be bent past _d_ and come up in +the position shown. It makes a more comfortable sling for a man than a +single bight. + +[Illustration: Fig. 31 + +_Bowline on a Bight_] + +=1132. Sheep shank=, Fig. 32, used for shortening a rope or to pass by +a weak spot; a half hitch is taken with the standing parts around the +bights. + +[Illustration: Fig. 32 + +_Sheep shank_] + +=1133. Short splice.= To make a _short splice_, Figs. 33, 34, 35, +unlay the strands of each rope for a convenient length. Bring the rope +ends together so that each strand of one rope lies between the two +consecutive strands of the other rope. Draw the strands of the first +rope along the second and grasp with one hand. Then work a free strand +of the second rope over the nearest strand of the first rope and under +the second strand, working in a direction opposite to the twist of the +rope. The same operation applied to all the strands will give the +result shown by Fig. 34. The splicing may be continued in the same +manner to any extent (Fig. 35) and the free ends of the strands may be +cut off when desired. The splice may be neatly tapered by cutting out +a few fibers from each strand each time it is passed through the rope. +Rolling under a board or the foot will make the splice compact. + +[Illustration: Fig. 33 + +_Short splice_] + +[Illustration: Fig. 34] + +[Illustration: Fig. 35] + +=1134. Long splice= (Figs. 36, 37).--Unlay the strands of each rope +for a convenient length and bring together as for a short splice. +Unlay to any desired length a strand, _d_, of one rope, laying in its +place the nearest strand, _a_, of the other rope. Repeat the operation +in the opposite direction with two other strands, _c_ and _f_. Fig. 37 +shows strands _c_ and _f_ secured by tying together. Strands b and e +are shown secured by unlaying half of each for a suitable length and +laying half of the other in place of the unlayed portions, the loose +ends being passed through the rope. This splice is used when the rope +is to run through a block. The diameter of the rope is not enlarged at +the splice. The ends of the strands should not be trimmed off close +until the splice has been thoroughly stretched by work. + +[Illustration: Fig. 36 + +_Long splice_] + +[Illustration: Fig. 37] + +=1135. Eye splice= (Figs. 38, 39, 40, 41).--Unlay a convenient length +of rope. Pass one loose strand, _a_, under one strand of the rope, as +shown in fig. 38, forming an eye of the proper size. Pass a second +loose strand, _b_, under the strand of the rope next to the strand +which secures _a_, Fig. 39. Pass the third strand, _c_, under the +strand next to that which secures _b_, fig. 40. Draw all taut and +continue and complete as for a short splice. + +[Illustration: Fig. 38 + +_Eye splice_] + +[Illustration: Fig. 39] + +[Illustration: Fig. 40] + +[Illustration: Fig. 41] + + +Lashings + +=1136. To lash a transom to an upright spar=, Fig. 42, transom in +front of upright.--A clove hitch is made round the upright a few +inches below the transom. The lashing is brought under the transom, up +in front of it, horizontally behind the upright, down in front of the +transom, and back behind the upright at the level of the bottom of the +transom and above the clove hitch. The following turns are kept +outside the previous ones on one spar and inside on the other, not +riding over the turns already made. Four turns or more are required. A +couple of frapping turns are then taken between the spars, around the +lashing, and the lashing is finished off either round one of the spars +or any part of the lashing through which the rope can be passed. The +final clove hitch should never be made around the spar on the side +toward which the stress is to come, as it may jam and be difficult to +remove. The lashing must be well beaten with handspike or pick handle +to tighten it up. This is called a square shears are laid alongside of +each other with their butts on the ground, lashing. + +[Illustration: Fig. 42] + +=1137. Lashing for a pair of shears=, Fig. 43.--The two spars for the +points below where the lashing is to be resting on a skid. A clove +hitch is made round one spar and the lashing taken loosely eight or +nine times about the two spars above it without riding. A couple of +frapping turns are then taken between the spars and the lashing is +finished off with a clove hitch above the turns on one of the spars. +The butts of the spars are then opened out and a sling passed over the +fork, to which the block is hooked or lashed, and fore and back guys +are made fast with clove hitches to the bottom and top spars, +respectively, just above the each spar the distance from the butt to +the center of the lashing. Lay two of the spars parallel to each other +with an interval a little greater fork, Fig. 44. + +[Illustration: Fig. 43] + +[Illustration: Fig. 44] + +=1138. To lash three spars together as for a gin or tripod.=--Mark on +than the diameter. Rest their tips on a skid and lay the third spar +between them with its butt in the opposite direction so that the marks +on the three spars will be in line. Make a clove hitch on one of the +outer spars below the lashing and take eight or nine loose turns +around the three, as shown in Fig. 45. Take a couple of frapping turns +between each pair of spars in succession and finish with a clove hitch +on the central spar above the lashing. Pass a sling over the lashing +and the tripod is ready for raising. + +[Illustration: Fig. 45] + +=1139. Holdfasts.=--To prepare a fastening in the ground for the +attachment of guys or purchases, stout pickets are driven into the +ground one behind the other, in the line of pull. The head of each +picket except the last is secured by a lashing to the foot of the +picket next behind, Fig. 46. The lashings are tightened by rack +sticks, the points of which are driven into the ground to hold them in +position. The distance between the stakes should be several times the +height of the stake above the ground. + +[Illustration: Fig. 46] + +Another form requiring more labor but having much greater strength is +called a "_deadman_," and consists of a log laid in a transverse +trench with an inclined trench intersecting it at its middle point. +The cable is passed down the inclined trench, takes several round +turns on the log, and is fastened to it by half hitches and marlin +stopping, Figs. 47, 48, 49. If the cable is to lead horizontally or +inclined downward, it should pass over a log at the outlet of the +inclined trench, Fig. 48. If the cable is to lead upward, this log is +not necessary, but the anchor log must be buried deeper. + +[Illustration: Fig. 47] + +[Illustration: Fig. 48] + +[Illustration: Fig. 49] + + + + +CHAPTER X + +FIELD FORTIFICATIONS + + +=1140. Object.= The object of field fortifications is two-fold. + +1. To increase the fighting power of troops by enabling the soldier to +use his weapons with the greatest possible effect. + +2. To protect the soldier against the enemy's fire. + +=1141. How these objects are accomplished.= + +These objects are accomplished: + +1. By means of shelters--trenches, redoubts, splinterproofs, etc., +which protect the soldier from the enemy's fire. + +2. By means of obstacles--wire entanglements, abatis, pits, etc., +which delay the advance of the enemy. + +=1142. Classification.= Field fortifications are usually divided into +three classes, =hasty intrenchments=, =deliberate intrenchments= and +=siege works=. + +=Nomenclature of the Trench.= The following illustration shows the +names of the various parts of the trench. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +=1143. Hasty intrenchments= include trenches dug by troops upon the +battlefield to increase their fighting power. They are usually +constructed in the presence of the enemy and in haste and embrace +three forms viz:--the =lying trench=, the =kneeling trench=, and the +=standing trench=. + +=1144. Lying trench.= (Fig. 2.) This trench gives cover to a man lying +down. When intrenching under fire the rifle trench can be constructed +by a man lying down. He can mask himself from view in about 10 to 12 +minutes and can complete the trench in 40 to 45 minutes. A good method +is to dig a trench 18 inches wide back to his knees, roll into it and +dig 12 inches wide alongside of it and down to the feet, then roll +into the second cut and extend the first one back. Conditions may +require men to work in pairs, one firing while the other uses his +intrenching tool. Duties are exchanged from time to time until the +trench is completed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +[Illustration: Fig. 2a + +_Intrenching under fire_] + +The height of the parapet should not exceed 1 foot. This trench +affords limited protection against rifle fire and less against +shrapnel. + +=1145. Kneeling trench.= (Fig. 3.) Time permitting the lying trench +may be enlarged and deepened until the kneeling trench has been +constructed. The width of the bottom should be 2-1/2 feet--preferably +3 feet--and the relief (distance from bottom of trench to top of +parapet) is 3 feet--the proper height for firing over in a kneeling +position. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +=1146. Standing trench= (Fig. 4) has a bottom width of 3 to 3-1/2 feet +and a relief of 4-1/2 feet which is the proper firing height for men +of average stature. As this trench does not give complete cover to men +standing in it a passage way should be constructed in rear of it not +less than 6 feet below the interior crest. This forms the complete +trench (Fig. 5). Figures 6-7-8 show simple standing trenches used in +the European War. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +[Illustration: Fig. 6 + +Simple Standing Trench, Parapet Suppressed] + +[Illustration: Fig. 7 + +Simple Standing Trench, Rocky Ground] + +[Illustration: Fig. 8 + +Narrow Firing Trench with Parados] + +=1147. Deliberate intrenchments= comprise trenches and works +constructed by troops not in line of battle and are usually intended +to enable a small force to resist a much larger one. It frequently +happens that hasty intrenchments are developed into deliberate +intrenchments and from this stage pass into the domain of siege works. + +=1148. Fire trenches=,--the trenches which shelter the firing +line,--are of different types. No fixed type can be prescribed. The +type must be selected with due regard to the terrain, enemy, time, +tools, soil, etc., but all should conform to the requirements of a +good field of fire, and protection for the troops behind a vertical +wall, preferably with some head or over head cover. + +The simplest form of fire trench is deep and narrow and has a flat +concealed parapet (Fig. 9). When time will permit the simple trench +should be planned with a view to developing it into a more complete +form (Figs. 10 and 11). In all trenches as soon as practicable a +passage way--2 feet wide at the bottom--should be provided, in rear of +the firing step, for the men carrying supplies, ammunition, etc., and +for the removal of the wounded. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +When the excavated earth is easily removed a fire trench without +parapet may be the one best suited to the soil and other conditions +affecting the conditions of profile (Fig. 12). The enemy's infantry as +well as artillery will generally have great difficulty in seeing this +trench. Fig. 13 shows a squad trench. Fig. 14 shows a fire trench +provided with protection against shrapnel. This trench is used in the +European War. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +[Illustration: Fig. 13] + +[Illustration: Fig. 14 + +Protection against Shrapnel] + +In the European War the aim in constructing fire trenches seems to be +to minimize and localize artillery effect as far as possible. The main +excavation along the front is a continuous, very deep, communication, +not in itself prepared for active defense. The actual firing is done +from banquettes or firing steps just to the front of the passage or +from trenches dug as far as 5 or 10 feet in front of the main +excavation and reached by short passages. Figs 15 and 16 show the type +of this construction. Fig. 17 shows a fire trench with parades and +shelter. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15 + +Two Methods for Communication Trenches in rear of Firing Trenches] + +[Illustration: Fig. 16 + +Communication Trenches in rear of Firing Trenches + +Recessed and Traversed Firing Trench] + +[Illustration: Fig. 17 + +Trench Shelter] + +=1149. Traverses.= Fire trenches are divided into sections or bays by +means of traverses which intercept side or enfilade fire and limit the +effect of shells, bombs or grenades, which burst inside of the trench. +The traverses should be wide enough to screen the full width of the +trench with a little to spare. The thickness of the traverse varies +from 3 to 6 feet or more. Six feet is the dimension generally found in +the traverses in the trenches on the European battle fronts. + +=1150. Trench recesses; sortie steps.= It will be noted that in some +of the diagrams of the trenches now being used in the European War the +berm has been eliminated entirely. The object being to bring the firer +closer to the vertical wall thus giving him better protection from +shrapnel fire. There have also been added to the trench, recesses for +hand grenades. These recesses are similar to recesses dug in the front +wall of the trench for ammunition. One form of recess is shown in +(Fig. 18). In order to provide facilities for rapidly mounting from +the trench to charge, sortie steps and stakes have been provided in +some trenches as shown in (Fig. 16). + +[Illustration: Fig. 18 + +_Store Recesses for Water, Hand-Grenades, Reserve Ammunition, Machine +Guns, Range Finders, Blankets, etc._ (From _Field +Entrenchments_--Solano.)] + +=1151. Parados.= Instead of shrapnel, explosive shell is most +frequently used in the European War. This necessitates the addition of +a parados to the fire trench to protect against the back blast of high +explosives. This is shown in (Figs. 8 and 17). + +An interesting development in cover for the firing line is shown in +dugouts constructed in the fire trenches in the European war. These +dugouts are deep underground and shelter from 3 to 8 men each (Fig. +19). These dugouts will be discussed more in length under cover +trenches. + +[Illustration: Fig. 19] + +=1152. Head cover= is the term applied to any horizontal cover which +may be provided above the plane of fire. It is obtained by notching or +loop-holing the top of the parapet so that the bottoms of the notches +or loopholes are in the desired plane of fire. The extra height of +parapet may be 12 to 18 inches and the loopholes may be 3 to 3-1/2 +feet center to center. + +Head cover is of limited utility. It increases the visibility of the +parapet and restricts the field of fire. At close range the loopholes +serve as aiming points to steady the enemy's fire and may do more harm +than good at longer ranges. This is especially the case if the enemy +can see any light through the loophole. He waits for the light to be +obscured, when he fires, knowing there is a man's head behind the +loophole. A background must be provided or a removable screen arranged +so that there will be no difference in the appearance of the loophole +whether a man is looking through it or not. Head cover is advantageous +only when the conditions of the foreground are such that the enemy can +not get close up. + +=1153. Notches and loopholes=, Figs. 20-22, are alike in all respects, +except that the latter have a roof or top and the former have not. The +bottom, also called =floor= or =sole=, is a part of the original +superior slope. The sides, sometimes called =cheeks=, are vertical or +nearly so. The plan depends upon local conditions. There is always a +narrow part, called the =throat=, which is just large enough to take +the rifle and permit sighting. From the throat the sides diverge at an +angle, called the =splay=, which depends upon the field of fire +necessary. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20] + +[Illustration: Fig. 21] + +[Illustration: Fig. 22] + +The position of the throat may vary. If on the outside, it is less +conspicuous but more easily obstructed by injury to the parapet and +more difficult to use, since in changing aim laterally the man must +move around a pivot in the plane of the throat. If the material of +which the loophole is constructed presents hard surfaces, the throat +should be outside, notwithstanding the disadvantages of that position, +or else the sides must be stepped as in Fig. 22. In some cases it may +be best to adopt a compromise position and put the throat in the +middle, Fig. 22. Figs. 23 to 26 show details and dimensions of a +loophole of sand bags. + +[Illustration: Fig. 23] + +[Illustration: Fig. 24] + +[Illustration: Fig. 25] + +[Illustration: Fig. 26] + +A serviceable form of loophole consists of a pyramidal box of plank +with a steel plate spiked across the small end and pierced for fire. +Fig. 27 shows a section of such a construction. It is commonly known +as the =hopper loophole=. The plate should be 3/8 in. thick, if of +special steel; or 1/2 in., if ordinary metal. Fig. 28 shows the +opening used by the Japanese in Manchuria and Fig. 29 that used by the +Russians. + +[Illustration: Fig. 27] + +[Illustration: Fig. 28] + +[Illustration: Fig. 29] + +The construction of a notch requires only the introduction of some +available rigid material to form the sides; by adding a cover the +notch becomes a loophole. Where the fire involves a wide lateral and +small vertical angle, loopholes may take the form of a long slit. Such +a form will result from laying logs or fascines lengthwise on the +parapet, supported at intervals by sods or other material, Fig. 31, or +small poles covered with earth may be used, Fig. 30. + +[Illustration: Fig. 30] + +[Illustration: Fig. 31] + +=1154. Overhead cover.= This usually consists of a raised platform of +some kind covered with earth. It is frequently combined with +horizontal cover in a single structure, which protects the top and +exposed side. The supporting platform will almost always be of wood +and may vary from brushwood or light poles to heavy timbers and plank. +It is better, especially with brush or poles, to place a layer of +sods, grass down, or straw, or grain sacks over the platform before +putting on the earth, to prevent the latter from sifting through. + +[Illustration: Fig. 32] + +[Illustration: Fig. 33] + +[Illustration: Fig. 34] + +[Illustration: Fig. 35] + +=The thickness of overhead cover= depends upon the class of fire +against which protection is desired, and is sometimes limited by the +vertical space available, since it must afford headroom beneath, and +generally should not project above the nearest natural or artificial +horizontal cover. For splinter proofs a layer of earth 6 to 8 ins. +thick on a support of brush or poles strong enough to hold it up will +suffice if the structure is horizontal. If the front is higher than +the rear, less thickness is necessary; if the rear is higher than the +front, more is required. For bombproofs a minimum thickness of 6 ins. +of timber and 3 ft. of earth is necessary against field and siege +guns, or 12 ins. timber and 6 ft. of earth against the howitzers and +mortars of a heavy siege train, not exceeding 6 inches in caliber. + +In determining the area of overhead cover to be provided, allow 6 sq. +ft. per man for occupancy while on duty only, or 12 sq. ft. per man +for continuous occupancy not of long duration. For long occupation 18 +to 20 sq. ft. per man should be provided. + +It is not practicable to give complete cover to rifle positions that +will successfully withstand the heavy artillery of today. The use of +overhead cover is usually limited to that sufficient for protection +against rifle fire, machine gun fire, and shrapnel. + +=1155. Cover trenches= are constructed to provide safe cover for the +supports or reinforcements of the fire trenches or to provide cooking +and resting facilities for the garrison of the neighboring fire +trenches. The important point in cover trenches is safety. They vary +in design from the simple rectangular trenches to elaborately +constructed trenches having overhead cover, kitchens, shelters, +latrines, dressing stations, etc. Cover trenches must not be mistaken +for a secondary position, they are cover for the firing line, supports +and reserves until they are required in the fire trenches. The cover +trench requires a depth of at least 6 feet to protect men standing. +Greater depths may be used when necessary. Fig. 36 is a section of an +open cover trench and Fig. 37 of a closed one. This section may be +used for a communicating trench. Fig. 38 shows a cover trench close to +a fire trench. The character of overhead cover for trenches is shown +in the diagrams under overhead cover. The distance of the cover +trenches varies with the situation. The experience of the European war +places the cover trenches from 15 to 50 yards in rear of the fire +trenches. These trenches furnish shelter for at least 2/3 of the +firing line and supports. + +[Illustration: Fig. 36] + +[Illustration: Fig. 37] + +[Illustration: Fig. 38] + +The reserves are furnished yet more elaborate shelter, with plenty of +room for the men to lie down and rest and when practicable, bathing +facilities are provided. + +=1156. Dugouts.= An elaborate system of dugouts has developed along +the lines occupied by the troops in the European war. These dugouts +are located from 14 to 40 feet below the ground and are reached by +stairs in timbered passage ways. At the foot of the stairs a tunnel or +corridor runs forward and on either side or at the end, rooms have +been dug out varying in size. Most of these rooms have been timbered +and lined. Many are electrically lighted. In some of these underground +shelters, accommodations for several hundred men have been prepared +with all of the necessary facilities for making them comfortable. It +must be understood that such elaborate preparations can only be made +when troops face each other in trenches where operations have +developed into practically a siege. + +=1157. Communicating trenches.= These trenches as the name implies are +for the purpose of providing safe communication between the cover and +fire trenches. They may be also constructed just in rear of a series +of fire trenches to provide a means of communication from one to the +other. Communicating trenches also extend to the rear of the cover +trenches and provide safe passage to fresh troops or supplies. These +trenches are usually laid out in zig zag or curved lines (Fig. 39), to +prevent enfilade fire from sweeping them. As a general rule excavated +earth is placed on both sides of the trench to afford protection, the +depth is usually from 6 to 7 feet. (Fig. 15) shows a typical +communicating trench. + +[Illustration: Fig. 39 + +_Typical Passage Trench from Supports to Firing Line._ + +(From _Field Entrenchments_--Solano)] + +=1158. Lookouts.= To enable the garrison of a trench to get the +greatest amount of comfort and rest, a _lookout_ should be constructed +and a sentinel stationed therein. + +The simplest form would consist of two sandbags placed on the parapet +and splayed so as to give the required view, and carefully concealed. + +Better forms may be constructed, with one side resting on the berm by +using short uprights with overhead cover, a slit on all sides being +provided for observation. + +At night, lookouts are usually posted at listening points located in +or beyond the line of obstacles. These will be discussed under +obstacles. + +=1159. Supporting Points.= In some cases small supporting points may +have to be established close behind the general line of trenches for +the purpose of breaking up a successful attack on the trenches and to +aid in delivering a counter attack. These points are strongly +entrenched and have all around wire entanglements and are garrisoned +by from 20 to 40 picked men or by larger forces if the situation +demand it. In some cases machine guns are added to the force in the +supporting point. + +=1160. Example of trench system.= Having discussed trenches and +obstacles somewhat in detail, let us take a combination of the whole +showing a complete system such as is used today. (Fig. 40) is a good +example. + +[Illustration: Fig. 40 + +FIRST LINE FIRING TRENCH] + +Beginning at the front we have the line of wire entanglements or +obstacles with their listening posts X, for guarding them. Connecting +the listening posts to the fire trenches are the communicating +trenches. The fire trenches are shown by the heavy black line running +about 60 feet in rear of the obstacles. Note the many traverses shown +by the indentations in the line. Points marked M with arrows +projecting to the flanks are machine guns, so located as to sweep the +front of the position with a cross fire. Points marked S are +underground shelters for from 3 to 6 men. Points marked S' are +shelters for 30 men. In rear of the firing trenches at a distance +varying from 100 to 200 feet is the line of cover trenches. This line +is connected with the fire trenches by the zig zagged line of +communicating trenches. Note that the latrines (L) and first aid +stations (F) are just off from the communicating trenches, while the +larger shelter for men (S') are near the cover trenches. As the note +on the diagram shows, the trench requires 250 men to occupy it with +double that number in support. The trench has 108 loopholes with +spaces between provided with a higher banquette so that the whole +parapet may be manned for firing. + +On the battlefields of Europe today there are generally three lines of +fire trenches. This permits the defender to fall back to a 2nd or 3rd +prepared position in case he is driven out of his first trench. On a +hill we find a fire trench near the foot of the slope, one just +forward of the military crest, and the third on the reverse slope of +the hill. + +In many instances the first line trenches consist of as many as four +or five lines of trenches running in a general lateral direction and +connected by deep narrow communicating trenches. The depth between the +first and last of these trenches is, in some instances, not over a +hundred yards. Sign boards are necessary at short intervals to prevent +the soldiers from getting lost. The effect of having so many +alternative firing trenches is to make it extremely difficult for an +enemy to advance from, or even to hold one of them, even when he gains +a footing, as he would be swept by fire from the supporting trenches +in rear and also by flanking fire from the adjacent trenches. + +=1161. Location.= There are two things to be considered in locating +trenches: (1) The tactical situation, and (2) the nature of the +ground. The first consideration requires that the trenches be so +located as to give the best field of fire. Locating near the base of +hills possesses the advantage of horizontal fire, but, as a rule, it +is difficult to support trenches so located and to retreat therefrom +in case of necessity. While location near the crest of hills--on the +"military crest"--does not possess the advantage of horizontal fire, +it is easier to support trenches so located and to retreat therefrom. +Depending upon circumstances, there are times when it will be better +to intrench near the base of hills and there are other times when it +will be better to intrench on the "military crest," which is always in +front of the natural crest. The construction of trenches along the +"military crest" does not give any "dead space"--that is, any space to +the front that can not be reached by the fire of the men in the +trenches. + +Whether we should construct our trenches on high or low ground is a +matter that should always be carefully considered under the particular +conditions that happen to exist at that particular time, and the +matter may be summarized as follows: + +The advantages of the high ground are:-- + +1. We can generally see better what is going on to our front and +flanks; and the men have a feeling of security that they do not enjoy +on low ground. + +2. We can usually reenforce the firing line better and the dead and +wounded can be removed more easily. + +3. The line of retreat is better. + +The disadvantages are:-- + +1. The plunging fire of a high position is not as effective as a +sweeping fire of a low one. + +2. It is not as easy to conceal our position. + +The advantages of low ground, are:-- + +1. The low, sweeping fire that we get, especially when the ground in +front is fairly flat and the view over the greater part of it is +uninterrupted, is the most effective kind of fire. + +2. As a rule it is easier to conceal trenches on low ground, +especially from artillery fire. + +3. If our trenches are on low ground, our artillery will be able to +find good positions on the hill behind us without interfering with the +infantry defense. + +The disadvantages are:-- + +1. As a rule it will be more difficult to reenforce the firing line +and to remove the dead and wounded from the trenches. + +2. On a low position there will usually be an increase of dead space +in our front. + +3. The average soldier acting on the defensive dreads that the enemy +may turn his flank, and this feeling is much more pronounced on low +ground than on high ground. Should the enemy succeed in getting a +footing on our flank with our trenches on top of the hill, it would be +bad enough, but it would certainly be far worse if he got a footing on +top of the hill, on the flank and rear, with our company on low ground +in front. We, therefore, see there are things to be said for and +against both high and low ground, and the most that can be said +without examining a particular piece of ground is: Our natural +inclination is to select high ground, but, as a rule, this choice will +reduce our fire effect, and if there is a covered approach to our fire +trenches and very little dead ground in front of it, with an extensive +field of fire, there is no doubt the lower ground is better. However, +if these conditions do not exist to a considerable degree, the moral +advantage of the higher ground must be given great weight, especially +in a close country. + +The experience of the European war emphasizes the fact that the +location of rifle trenches is today, just as much as ever, a matter of +compromise to be determined by sound judgment on the part of the +responsible officers. The siting of trenches so that they are not +under artillery observation is a matter of great importance, but, it +has yet to be proven that this requirement is more important than an +extensive field of fire. There are many instances where to escape +observation and fire from the artillery, trenches were located on the +reverse slopes, giving only a limited field of fire. This restricted +field of fire permitted the enemy to approach within a few hundred +yards of the trench and robbed them of the concealment they had hoped +to gain. The choice between a site in front, and one in rear of a +crest, is influenced by local conditions which govern the +effectiveness of our own and the enemy's fire. In general, the best +location for effective fire trenches, lies between the military crest +of rising ground and the lowest line from which the foreground is +visible. If the position on the military crest is conspicuous, it is +inadvisable. + +With regard to the nature of the ground, trenches should, if +practicable, be so located as to avoid stony ground, because of the +difficult work entailed and of the danger of flying fragments, should +the parapet be struck by an artillery projectile. + +To locate the trace of the trenches, lie on the ground at intervals +and select the best field of fire consistent with the requirements of +the situation. + +Trenches should be laid out in company lengths, if possible, and +adjoining trenches should afford each other mutual support. The flanks +and important gaps in the line should be protected by fire trenches +echeloned in rear. + +=1162. Concealment of trenches.= Owing to the facilities for +observation that the aeroplanes and other air craft afford, and to the +accuracy and effect of modern artillery fire, every possible means +should be taken to conceal trenches, gun implacements, and other +works. The aim should be to alter the natural surface of the ground as +little as possible and to present a target of the smallest possible +dimensions. Covering the parapet with brush or grass will afford +temporary concealment. If the new earth can be sodded it aids greatly +in concealing the trench. In some cases troops have gone to the extent +of painting canvas to resemble the ground and have placed it over +trenches, guns, etc. Straw and grass placed in the bottom of trenches +make them less conspicuous to air scouts. When trenches are dug on a +fairly steep slope care must be used to conceal the back of the +trench, which, being higher than the parapet, will stand out as a scar +on the hillside. Grass or brush may be used to conceal the back of the +trench. + +=1163. Dummy trenches.= May be constructed which attract the enemy's +attention and draw his fire, or at least a part of it. The extent to +which this method may be used may include the construction of dummy +obstacles and guns, and even hats may be placed on the parapets. + +=1164. Length of trench.= The usual minimum allowance of trench space +is one yard per man, although in some tests, two feet was found +sufficient for men to fire satisfactorily. Ordinarily one squad will +occupy the space between two traverses which experience has shown +should be about 15 feet apart. + +=1165. Preparation of the foreground.= One of the first principles in +improving the foreground is that an enemy attacking the trenches shall +be continually exposed to fire especially in the last 400 or 500 +yards. This requires a clearing of the foreground and a filling in of +depressions or leveling of cover. Dead space may be swept by fire of +trenches specially located for that purpose. Those features of the +ground which obstruct the field of fire, restrict the view, or favor +or the enemy's approach, should be removed as far as possible. On the +other hand, features which favor the concealment of the trenches or +increase the difficulty of the attack would better be left standing, +especially when it is possible to fire through or over them. + +=1166. Revetments.= By a revetment we mean a facing placed against the +front or back wall of a trench to keep the earth in place. + +When trenches are to be occupied for any length of time, they must be +revetted. There are many forms of revetments. Sod revetments, stakes +with brush behind them, stakes with planks, boards, or poles behind +them and a common form seen in the trenches in Europe chicken wire +with brush or canvas behind it. + +=1167. Drainage.= All trenches should be dug so as to drain in case of +rain. In favorable locations the trench may be constructed to drain +automatically, by constructing it with an incline to one end. Under +ordinary circumstances dry standing has to be provided in trenches by +raising the foot level by the use of brush, boards, poles, etc. +Bailing will have to be resorted to in most cases to drain the trench. + +=1168. Water Supply.= At least 1/2 a gallon of water per man per day +should be supplied. The supply is almost invariably liable to be +contaminated, therefore, it should be sterilized by boiling or by +treating. These are usually located just off from the communicating +trenches. Some form of receptacle should be used and all deposits +covered with chemicals. + +=1169. Latrines.= Numerous latrines must be constructed in the +trenches' earth. These receptacles are removed from time to time and +emptied in pits dug for that purpose. Urinal cans must also be +provided and cared for in a similar manner. + +=1170. Illumination of the Foreground.= Battlefield illumination is a +necessity where night attacks may be expected, and also as a +protection to the line of obstacles. Portable searchlights have become +an accepted part of every army. In addition to these, trenches must be +supplied with reflector lights, star bombs, rockets and flares, +arranged so that they can be put into action instantaneously when the +enemy approaches. + +The foreground should be entirely illuminated, leaving the defenders +in the shadow. If the light is too close to the defenders parapet, +they are illuminated and become a good target. Some flares will burn +for 20 minutes and may be thrown to the front as grenades, fired as +rockets, shot from small mortars, or placed well to the front to be +set off by trip wires close to the ground. The best light devised is +one that can be fired well to the front from a small mortar and then +hung suspended from an open parachute above the enemy. Bonfires can be +laid ready for lighting when no other means is at hand. Whatever form +of illumination is adopted, it should withstand bad weather conditions +and prolonged bombardment. + +=1171. Telephones.= When armies have been forced to trench warfare and +time has permitted an elaborate system of trenches to be constructed, +telephone communication is established as soon as possible. The +central station, with the switch-board is located in a shelter in rear +of the cover trenches and lines are run to all trenches, lookout +stations and listening points. + +=1172. Siege works.= Comprise devices used by besiegers and besieged +in attack and defense of strong fortifications and especially those +devices enable troops to advance under continuous cover. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +OBSTACLES + + +=1173. Object.= The main objects in placing obstacles in front of the +trenches are, to protect them from surprise, and to stop the enemy's +advance or to delay him while under the defender's fire. + +=1174. Necessity for obstacles.= It is evident that the present +tendency is to reduce the number of men assigned to constant occupancy +of the first line trenches. This is due to the effectiveness of rifle +fire at close range, the destructive effect of shell and shrapnel, the +infrequency of daylight attack on intrenched positions, and the severe +strain on the men. The aim seems to be the placing here and there of a +lookout or trench guards, who, when necessity demands can call help +from the near by splinterproofs, dugouts, etc., before the enemy can +make his way through the obstacles. It has been found from experience +in the European war that as long as shells are directed at the +trenches no danger of attack is feared but, when the shells are +concentrated against the obstacles the trenches are manned and +preparations are made to resist an assault. + +=1175. Location.= Obstacles must be so located that they will be +exposed to the defenders' fire, and should be sheltered as far as +possible from the enemy's artillery fire. They should be difficult to +remove or destroy, should afford no cover for the enemy, and should +not obstruct counter attacks. No obstacle should be more than 100 +yards from the defender's trench. Care must be taken not to place them +so close to the trench that hand grenades can be thrown into the +trench from beyond the obstacle. Obstacles may be placed in one, two +or three lines. As far as possible they should be concealed so that +they will not betray the location of the trench. + +=1176. Kinds of Obstacles.= The following are the most common kinds of +obstacles:-- + +=Abatis= consisting of trees lying parallel to each other with the +branches pointing in the general direction of approach and interlaced. +All leaves and small twigs should be removed and the stiff ends of +branches pointed. + +Abatis on open ground is most conveniently made of branches about 15 +feet long. The branches are staked or tied down and the butts anchored +by covering them with earth. Barbed wire may be interlaced among the +branches. Successive rows are placed, the branches of one extending +over the trunks of the one in front, so as to make the abatis 5 feet +high and as wide as desired. It is better to place the abatis in a +natural depression or a ditch, for concealment and protection from +fire. If exposed to artillery, an abatis must be protected either as +above or else by raising a glacis in front of it. Fig. 1 shows a +typical form of abatis with a glacis in front. An abatis formed by +felling trees toward the enemy, leaving the butt hanging to the stump, +the branches prepared as before, is called =a slashing=, Fig. 2. It +gives cover, and should be well flanked. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +=1177. A palisade= is a man-tight fence of posts. Round poles 4 to 6 +inches in diameter at the large end are best. If the sticks run 5 to 8 +inches, they may be split. If defended from the rear, palisades give +some shelter from fire and the openings should be made as large as +possible without letting men through. If defended from the flank, they +may be closer, say 3 to 4 inches apart. The top should be pointed. A +strand or two of barbed wire run along the top and stapled to each +post is a valuable addition. + +Palisading is best made up in panels of 6 or 8 feet length, connected +by a waling piece, preferably of plank, otherwise of split stuff. If +the tops are free, two wales should be used, both underground. If the +tops are connected by wires, one will do. + +Palisades should be planted to incline slightly to the front. As +little earth should be disturbed in digging as possible, and one side +of the trench should be kept in the desired plane of the palisade. If +stones can be had to fit between the posts and the top of the trench, +they will increase the stiffness of the structure and save time in +ramming, or a small log may be laid in the trench along the outside of +the posts. Figs. 3 and 4 show the construction and placing of +palisades. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +=1178. A fraise= is a palisade horizontal, or nearly so, projecting +from the scarp or counterscarp. A modern and better form consists of +supports at 3 or 4 feet interval, connected by barbed wire, forming a +horizontal wire fence. Fig. 5. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +=1179. Cheveaux de frise= are obstacles of the form shown in Fig. 6. +They are usually made in sections of manageable length chained +together at the ends. They are most useful in closing roads or other +narrow passages, as they can be quickly opened for friendly troops. +The lances may be of iron instead of wood and rectangular instead of +round; the axial beam may be solid or composite. Figs. 8 and 9 show +methods of constructing cheveaux de frise with dimension stuff. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +[Illustration: Fig. 8] + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +=1180. A formidable obstacle against cavalry= consists of railroad +ties planted at intervals of 10 feet with the tops 4-1/2 feet above +the ground, and connected by a line of rails spiked securely to each, +Fig. 7. The rail ends should be connected by fish plates and bolted, +with the ends of the bolts riveted down on the ends. + +Figs. 10 and 11 show forms of heavy obstacles employed in Manchuria by +the Russians and Japanese, respectively. The former is composed of +timber trestles, made in rear and carried out at night. The latter +appears to have been planted in place. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +=1181. A wire entanglement= is composed of stakes driven in the ground +and connected by wire, barbed is the best, passing horizontally or +diagonally, or both. The stakes are roughly in rectangular or quincunx +order, but slight irregularities, both of position and height should +be introduced. + +In the =high entanglement= the stakes average 4 feet from the ground, +and the wiring is horizontal and diagonal, Fig. 12. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12 + +_High wire entanglement showing method of linking posts head to foot +and foot to head. Wire, plain or barbed, then festooned with barbed +wire. Bind wires where they cross. Use broken bottles, crows feet, +planks with spikes or fishhooks in conjunction with this +entanglement._ (From _Knowledge of War_--Lake.)] + +=The low wire entanglement= has stakes averaging 18 inches above the +ground and the wire is horizontal only. This form is especially +effective if concealed in high grass. In both kinds the wires should +be wound around the stakes and stapled and passed loosely from one +stake to the next. When two or more wires cross they should be tied +together. Barbed wire is more difficult to string but better when +done. The most practicable form results from the use of barbed wire +for the horizontal strands and smooth wire for the rest. + +This is the most generally, useful of all obstacles because of the +rapidity of construction, the difficulty of removal, the comparatively +slight injury from artillery fire, and its independence of local +material supplies. + +=1182. Time and materials.= One man can make 10 sq. yds. of low and 3 +sq. yds. of high entanglement per hour. The low form requires 10 feet +of wire per sq. yd. and the high 30 feet. No. 14 is a suitable size. +The smooth wire runs 58.9 ft. to the lb. A 100-lb. coil will make 600 +sq. yds. of low or 200 sq. yds. of high entanglement. If barbed wire +is used, the weight will be about 2-1/2 times as much. + +=1183. Wire fence.= An ordinary barbed-wire fence is a considerable +obstacle if well swept by fire. It becomes more formidable if a ditch +is dug on one or both sides to obstruct the passage of wheels after +the fence has been cut. The fence is much more difficult to get +through if provided with an apron on one or both sides, inclined at an +angle of about 45 deg., as indicated in Figs. 13 and 14. This form was +much used in South Africa for connecting lines between blockhouses. +When used in this way the lines of fence may be 300 to 600 yds. long, +in plan like a worm fence, with the blockhouse at the reentrant +angles. Fixed rests for rifles, giving them the proper aim to enfilade +the fence, were prepared at the blockhouses for use at night. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13] + +[Illustration: Fig. 14] + +Such a fence may be arranged in many ways to give an automatic alarm +either mechanically or electrically. The mechanical forms mostly +depend on one or more single wires which are smooth, and are tightly +stretched through staples on the posts which hold them loosely, +permitting them to slip when cut and drop a counterweight at the +blockhouse, which in falling explodes a cap or pulls the trigger of a +rifle. + +=1184. Military pits= or =trous de loup= are excavations in the shape +of an inverted cone or pyramid, with a pointed stake in the bottom. +They should not be so deep as to afford cover to the skirmisher. Two +and one-half feet or less is a suitable depth. Fig. 15 shows a plan +and section of such pits. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +They are usually dug in 3 or 5 rows and the earth thrown to the front +to form a glacis. The rear row is dug first and then the next in +front, and so on, so that no earth is cast over the finished pits. + +An excellent arrangement is to dig the pits in a checkerboard plan, +leaving alternate squares and placing a stake in each of them to form +a wire entanglement, Fig. 16. One man can make 5 pits on a 2-hour +relief. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16] + +=1185. Miscellaneous barricades.= Anything rigid in form and movable +may be used to give cover from view and fire and to obstruct the +advance of an assailant. Boxes, bales and sacks of goods, furniture, +books, etc., have been so used. The principles above stated for other +obstacles should be followed, so far as the character of the materials +will permit. The rest ingenuity must supply. Such devices are usually +called barricades and are useful in blocking the streets of towns and +cities. + +=1186. Inundations.= Backing up the water of a stream so that it +overflows a considerable area forms a good obstacle even though of +fordable depth. If shallow, the difficulty of fording may be increased +by irregular holes or ditches dug before the water comes up or by +driving stakes or making entanglements. Fords have frequently been +obstructed by ordinary harrows laid on the bottom with the teeth up. + +The unusual natural conditions necessary to a successful inundation +and the extent and character of the work required to construct the +dams make this defense of exceptional use. It may be attempted with +advantage when the drainage of a considerable flat area passes through +a restricted opening, as a natural gorge, a culvert, or a bridge. + +Open cribs filled with stones, or tighter ones with gravel or earth +may form the basis of the obstruction to the flow of water. The usual +method of tightening cracks or spaces between cribs is by throwing in +earth or alternate layers of straw, hay, grass, earth, or sacks of +clay. Unless the flow is enough to allow considerable leakage, the +operation will not be practicable with field resources. + +When the local conditions permit water to be run into the ditch of a +parapet it should always be done. + +=1187. Obstacles in front of outguards= should be low so they cannot +be seen at night. A very simple and effective obstacle can be made by +fastening a single strand of wire to the top of stout stakes about a +foot high, and then placing another wire a little higher and parallel +to, and about one yard in rear of, the first. The wires must be drawn +tight, and securely fastened, and the stakes fairly close together, so +that if the wire is cut between any two stakes the remainder will not +be cut loose. Any one approaching the enemy will trip over the first +wire, and before he can recover himself he will be brought down by the +second. In the absence of wire, small sapplings may be used instead. +Of course, they are not as good as wire, but it does not take much to +trip up a man in the dark. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17] + + +Lessons from the European War + +What follows is based on reports from the battle fronts in Europe. + +=1188. Wire entanglements.= The war in Europe has proven that the wire +entanglements are the most important and effective obstacle yet +devised. Owing to the intensity of the opposing fire and in many +cases to the short distance between the opposing trenches, it has +become necessary to construct all forms of obstacles in portable +sections which are carried or rolled quickly into place, either by +soldiers rushing out in day light and quickly staking the obstacles +down or by placing the obstacles quietly at night. + +For placing wire entanglements at night, an iron post has been devised +about 1/4 of an inch in diameter, with eyelets for attaching the wire. +The lower 18 inches is made as an auger, so that the posts can be +quietly screwed into the ground at night and the wire attached. +Another method of placing wire entanglements is to make them in +sections and roll them up. These sections are usually about 20 feet +long, the wire firmly fastened to the sharpened stakes. At a favorable +moment the soldiers rush out, unrolling the sections as they go and +with mauls quickly drive the stakes. Loose ends of wire enable the +sections to be bound together as placed. + +Another form of wire entanglement is shown in (Fig. 18). Triangular +pyramids 3 feet 6 inches high are made of poles or timber. The +pyramids are usually arranged in pairs with the wire on three faces so +that, no matter if the obstacle is rolled over, a wire fence is +presented. These obstacles are carried out and placed so as to break +joints and are staked down as soon as possible. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18 + +Substitute for Posts.] + +The wire used for entanglements is found more convenient to handle +when wound on a stake a yard in length, in a sort of figure eight +winding. Special barbed wire of heavier material and barbs placed +close together has been found much more effective than the commercial +barbed wire. + +In some localities electrified wire has been used. In such cases the +obstacle is charged in sections, so that, if one section is grounded +it will not affect the others. + +=1189. Wire cheveaux de frise.= Two forms of this obstacle have +appeared. Both are portable. They consist of two or more wooden +crosses fastened at their centers to a long pole and connected with +each other by barbed wire. This obstacle retains its effectiveness +when rolled over. (Figs. 19 and 20) give an idea of their +construction. The form shown in (Fig. 19) is often made small enough +for individuals to carry. These are prepared in the trenches and used +for throwing into one's own entanglements to make them more complex or +may be carried when making an assault and thrown into the enemy's +trenches to prevent movements from one part of the trench to another. +The long stick projects out of the end to be used as a handle. + +[Illustration: Fig. 19 + +Wire Cheveaux de Frise] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20 + +Wire Cheveaux de Frise] + +=1190. Guarding obstacles.= It has been found necessary to keep a +constant watch over obstacles after they have been placed. + +=1191. Listening posts.= One of the best methods is to post one or +more men in listening posts in or beyond the line of obstacles. These +listening posts are rifle pits with over head cover, fully protected +from fire from the rear as well as front, and loop holes for +observation and fire. They are connected with the fire trenches by +means of a covered communication or even tunnels in some cases and are +provided with some form of prompt communication with the firing +trenches by telephone, bell or other means. The communicating trench +or tunnel is provided with a strong door which may be closed to +prevent an enemy from securing access to the fire trench, in case the +lookout is surprised. Pits with trap doors are also used to prevent an +enemy from creeping up the tunnel to the fire trench. + +These lookouts can give early warning of the approach of an enemy, +either for the purpose of assault or cutting through the obstacles. In +many instances they have detected mining operations of the enemy by +hearing the blows of picks under ground. + +=1192. Automatic alarms.= Many automatic alarms have been used to give +warning of attack on the obstacles. These vary from the simple setting +of a pistol or rifle, which is fired when the enemy attempts to cut +through the entanglement, to intricate electrical alarms. + +=1193. Searchlights.= Searchlights have been provided so that, the +instant an alarm is given the obstacles are flooded by a brilliant +light and the enemy exposed to fire. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +TRENCH AND MINE WARFARE[14] + + +=1194. Asphyxiating gases.= The asphyxiating gases employed may be +divided into three general classes, viz: + +_Suffocating gases_, the most common of which are carbonic and +nitrogen. + +_Poisonous gases_, under which head come carbon monoxide and cyanogen. + +_Gases which affect the throat and bronchial tubes_, such as chlorine +and bromine. The latter class is most commonly employed. + +The methods usually employed for liberating these gases are to have a +plant some distance in rear of the trenches where the gas is stored +under pressure and carried to the trenches through pipes, where it can +be liberated towards the enemy's trenches when there is a favorable +wind to carry it along; or, the gas may be carried in cylinders or +other containers and liberated at the desired points. Hand grenades or +bombs are also employed which, upon bursting, liberate the gas or in +some cases scatter acids or caustic soda. Some of these bombs contain +a chemical which when liberated affects the eyes, causing impaired +vision. The Germans employ several kinds of shell containing gases of +different densities, one of heavy gas fired as a curtain to the rear +to permit reinforcement of the trenches and another of lighter gas to +demolish the trenches and destroy the firing line. As a general rule +these gases are employed when the fire trenches of the opposing forces +are close together though the shell containers may be used at long +ranges. All of these gases being heavier than air lie close to the +ground and flow over and down into the trenches. + +=1195. Protection against gases.= The best protection against these +gases, is a mask of some kind. The commonest form employed is a +flexible mask that conforms to the head, is fitted with glass for +seeing through, and has an arrangement of tubes and valves which +require the wearer to inhale through his nose and exhale through his +mouth. + +These masks have an absorbent composed of hyposulphite of sodium or of +72 per cent of the nitrous thiosulphate and 28 per cent of bicarbonate +of soda. This absorbent placed so that air must be breathed through +it, neutralizes the acids in the gases. Soldiers are provided with +these masks, sometimes with two of them, and are required to have them +renewed every three months. + +Trench sprays may be used to spray neutralizing liquid in the trenches +to kill the gases. + +The _favorable conditions_ for the employment of gases are wind +blowing toward the enemy's trenches and warm weather. _Unfavorable +conditions_ are rain, cold, and adverse winds. + +In some localities weather vanes placed in the direction of the +enemy's trenches and arranged so that they may be watched at night +give an indication of favorable winds and enable the defender to +prepare for a gas attack. + +Before the masks were provided bonfires were prepared of oil soaked +materials which; when ignited, produced an intense heat and the +resulting column of air diverted the gas clouds. + +=1196. Liquid fire.= By use of hand or motor driven pumps, and a light +grade of petroleum, columns of liquid fire may be squirted into the +opposing trenches. If the oil should fail to remain lighted it may be +fired by bursting hand grenades or throwing fire balls into the +trenches. This means of attack is employed when opposing trenches are +close together. + +As a defense measure ditches may be dug in front of the trenches and +filled with a porous material which is then soaked with oil. Heavy +oils, being hard to ignite, are not dangerous to the defense, and will +remain with little loss for a long time. To make sure of prompt +ignition gas lines are laid in the ditches. When turned on the gas +readily ignites and the resulting fire produces great heat. Wire or +barbed wire looped in the ditches and staked down makes this a +formidable obstacle. + +=1197. Grenades and bombs= are containers, designed to be thrown by +hand, by a sling, fired as a rocket or from specially constructed +mortars, or dropped from aerial craft. They burst by time or +percussion fuses and may be improvised in a variety of forms and are +most useful in close attack or defense. Their effect is local but they +are very demoralizing to men's nerves. + +=1198. Hand grenades= are designed to be thrown by the hand and vary +greatly in construction. In general, however, they consist of a +container filled with bullets or pieces of iron or other metal in the +center of which is a charge of high explosive which scatters the +bullets or fragments with deadly effect. The three methods of +discharging a hand grenade are: + +_By time fuse_ which is lighted by hand. About 5 to 9 seconds is the +time from ignition until the grenade bursts. This does not give the +defender time to pick up the bomb and throw it out of the trench. + +_By friction primer and fuse._ In this form of hand grenade a strap on +the wrist with a short line attached with a hook on the end of it +serves, when the hook is engaged in the ring of the grenade, to jerk +the primer when the grenade is thrown. This automatically ignites the +fuse which bursts the grenade in from 4 to 5 seconds. + +_By percussion._ In this form of grenade the charge is fired when the +grenade strikes the ground or object at which it is thrown. In this +form of grenade a safety pin holds the plunger from the cap. When the +grenade is to be thrown the safety pin is withdrawn. + +As a general rule fuse burns at the rate of 1 inch in 1 and 1/4 +seconds; however each lot of fuse should be tested. + +Figs. 1 and 2 show two forms of improvised grenades. Common cans, such +as preserved fruits and vegetables are shipped in commercially, make +good containers. The usual weight of a hand grenade is about 1-1/2 +pounds. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1 + +Hair Brush Bomb] + +[Illustration: Fig. 2 + +Hand Grenade] + +=1199. Other methods of throwing grenades.= Many grenades have been +designed to be fired from the ordinary rifle. This grenade has a rod +which is inserted in the barrel of the rifle. A special charge of +powder is used in the cartridge from which the bullet has been +withdrawn. + +Common slings, catapults, and other devises have been frequently used. + +=1200. Aerial mines.= (Fig. 3.) This form of grenade is very heavy, +often weighing 200 pounds and is fired from a trench mortar. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3 + +_Aerial Mine_] + +=1201. Winged torpedo.= (Fig. 4.) This projectile is fitted with three +winged vanes which steady its flight and greatly increase the +accuracy. A rod fitted into its base enables it to be fired from a +comparatively small trench, mortar. The torpedo weighs about 40 pounds +and the mortar 200 pounds. The mortar, being light, can be carried +from one part of the trench to another by two men. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4 + +_Winged Torpedo_] + +The aerial mine and winged torpedo may be used effectively to beat +down the enemy's defenses, destroying his sand bags and trenches, and +cutting away wire entanglements and other obstacles. The winged +torpedo having a greater range (500 yards) and being more accurate, is +the more effective. + +=1202. Bombs from air-craft= are some form of high explosive bomb +which burst on striking. Another type of bomb used by aeroplanes +consists of a container filled with steel darts. The bursting charge +is fired by a fuse. The operator usually cuts the fuse so that the +bomb will burst at a considerable altitude. The steel darts are +scattered in all directions and have sufficient velocity to pass +through a man or horse. + +=1203. Protection against hand grenades.= (Fig. 5.) For protection +against hand grenades and bombs a screen of wire netting may be +erected in front of the trenches and arranged at such a slope that +most of the grenades passing over the screen will clear the trench +while those striking the netting will roll away from the trench. This +protection is very satisfactory for communications, machine gun +emplacements, etc., but, is of doubtful value in fire trenches as it +does not permit an easy offensive by the defenders. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5 + +_Bomb Screen_] + +=1204. Tanks.= The so-called "tanks," first used by the British armies +in the battle of the Somme in September, 1916, are in reality armored +caterpillar tractors carrying machine guns and capable of traversing +rough ground, smashing down trees and entanglements, and passing +across the ground between the opposing trenches over the shell holes +made by the opposing artillery. + +The machinery, guns and crew are contained in an armored body and the +two tractor belts extend to full length on either side, being so +arranged that the tank can climb a steep slope. From the meager data +obtainable it would appear that the tanks carry from 4 to 6 machine +guns in armored projections built out from the sides. These are +provided with revolving shields permitting two guns to fire in any +direction at one time. + +The principle of the tractor is similar to that of those manufactured +in the United States and used commercially in reclamation work. The +addition of the armored body and guns makes the "military tank." + +These "tanks" have proven of great value in village fighting, by +smashing down barricades and driving machine guns from their positions +in cellars and houses. They have also been used with some success in +destroying obstacles. + +The power of these new engines may be judged from their ability to +smash down trees six inches in diameter and by means of cables to +uproot trees as large as 15 inches in diameter. + +These "tanks" are proof against rifle and machine gun fire, but are +unable to withstand even light artillery. + +=1205. Helmets.= Steel helmets made their appearance in the European +war in 1915, as a protection to the soldier's head against rifle, +machine gun and shrapnel fire. So successful were they that they are +being furnished to all troops on the battlefield. Already several +millions have been supplied. Where heretofore head wounds accounted +for over 20 per cent of the casualties in trench warfare, the +percentage has been reduced by the wearing of helmets to about one +half per cent. While the helmet does not afford complete protection +against rifle and shrapnel fire, it has been found that hits result +only in severe concussion, where before fatal wound resulted. These +helmets are painted khaki color. + +=1206. Masks.= Steel masks for sentinels and snipers have been adopted +by the Germans. This mask covers the head and face with curved +surfaces which deflect bullets. Small eye holes permit a clear view of +the target and a small section is omitted in the lower right side to +permit bringing the rifle against the cheek in firing. + +=1207. Periscopes.= Periscopes have been universally adopted in trench +warfare for observing the enemy while keeping completely under cover. +It is a simple arrangement of two mirrors in a vertical tube. The +upper reflects the image of the object to the lower mirror which in +turn reflects it to the eye of the observer. By raising the top of the +periscope above the parapet the soldier can watch the foreground while +at the same time remaining completely concealed himself. + +A more elaborate periscope for the control of artillery fire has a +collapsible tube which may be extended and elevated to a height of 75 +feet. + +=1208. Sniperscope.= This is a combination of the periscope and rifle +by means of which a soldier can aim and fire his piece at an object +without exposing himself above the parapet. + +=1209. Aids to firing.= Rifles laid in notched boards placed in the +parapet may be sighted and prepared for night firing, or a wire +stretched just outside of the loophole on which the barrel of the +rifle can rest when in the proper firing position to cover certain +points, enables the soldier to fire effectively at night when it is +too dark to aim. + +=1210. Mining.= Military mining consists of digging communications and +chambers underground and placing therein charges of explosives and +firing such charges. Mining is slow and restricted in its application +and therefore this method of attack is used against very strong points +of the enemy's line,--a salient, a building, or other point,--held in +great force. The aim in mine warfare is to make a sudden breach in the +enemy's trench, destroy the flanking supports which could be used to +stop this breach and then to take the trench by assault and organize +it for defense before the enemy's forces, disorganized from the +explosion, can recover. + +Sometimes mines are placed in front of the trenches and exploded +electrically when the enemy reaches them in attempting an assault. + +=1211. Countermining.= The enemy, when mining operations are +suspected, runs out tunnels to meet the opposing mine. Sometimes +listening galleries are driven underground and men posted to detect +the sound of mining operations. Once the direction of the opposing +tunnel is discovered a charge of explosive is laid across its approach +and fired at a moment when it will cause the most damage. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[14] To those desiring to go into the subject of trench warfare in +detail, the author would recommend "Trench Warfare," by himself. +George Banta Publishing Co., Menasha, Wis.; $1.25. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +MARCHES + +(Based on Infantry Drill Regulations and Field Service Regulations) + + +=1212. Marching principal occupation of troops in campaign.= Marching +constitutes the principal occupation of troops in campaign and is one +of the causes of heaviest loss. This loss, however, may be materially +reduced by proper training and by carrying out strictly the rules +regulating the conduct of marches, especially the rules of march +discipline. + +=1213. Physical training; hardening new troops.= By systematic and +progressive physical exercises and actual marching, Infantry can be +accustomed to the fatigue of bearing arms and equipment. + +With new or untrained troops, the process of hardening the men to this +work must be gradual. It should begin with ten-minute periods of +vigorous setting-up exercises three times a day to loosen and develop +the muscles. One march should be made each day with full equipment, +beginning with a distance of 2 or 3 miles and increasing the distance +daily as the troops become hardened, until a full day's march under +full equipment may be made without exhaustion. + +=1214. Long march not to be made with untrained troops.= A long march +should not be made with untrained troops. If a long distance must be +covered in a few days, the first march should be short, the length +being increased each succeeding day. + +=1215. A successful march.= A successful march, whether in peace or +war, is one that places the troops at their destination at the proper +time and _in the best possible physical condition_. Therefore, every +possible effort, by exercising care and judgment, and by enforcing +march discipline, must be made by all officers and noncommissioned +officers to have the troops reach their destination in good physical +condition,--"ready for business." + + +Preparation + +=1216. The commander.= The commander must give such instructions as +will insure that the necessary preparations are made,--that the men +and animals are in fit condition and that the men are properly +equipped; that provision has been made for rations and ammunition; +that the wagons are properly loaded; that the necessary arrangements +have been made for caring for the sick, etc. + +=1217. Organization commanders.= Every organization commander is +responsible that such of the above requirements as apply to his +organization are complied with. + +=1218. Filling canteens.= It is an invariable rule that all canteens +must be filled before the march begins. + + +Starting + +=1219. Time to start.= When practicable, marches begin in the morning, +ample time being allowed for the men to breakfast, animals to feed, +and the wagons or animals to be packed. + +The time for reveille, if different from the usual hour, should be +announced the evening before. + +The exact hour for the start depends, of course, upon circumstances. +However, as a rule, foot troops do not start before broad daylight; +mounted troops, when practicable, about an hour after broad daylight. + +In order to avoid intense heat, especially in the tropics, and also, +in the case of long marches, to avoid reaching destination after dark, +an earlier start than usual must be made. + +Both men and animals rest well in the early morning hours, and should +not, therefore, have this rest interrupted unless there is some real +necessity for it. + +Starting at night or at an hour that will cause a part of the march to +be made at night, should, if possible, be avoided, because of the +difficulties and disadvantages of night marching. + + +Conduct of the march + +=1220. The rate of march.= The rate of march varies with the length of +march, kind of troops, equipment carried, size of command, condition +of troops, state of the weather, condition of roads, and other +circumstances. However, whatever the rate may be it should be +_uniform_, that is most important, as there is nothing that will +irritate and tire a command more than a varying, un-uniform rate of +march. + +The rate of march is regulated by the commander of the leading company +or some one designated by him, who should give the matter special +attention, _the rate being checked from time to time by a watch_. + +On a march of several days' duration the position of companies is +ordinarily changed daily, so that each in turn leads. + +With trained troops, in commands of a regiment or less, marching over +average roads, the rate should be from 2-3/4 to 3 miles per hour. With +larger commands carrying full equipment, the rate will be from 2 to +2-1/2 miles per hour. + +Assuming that the length of step of the average man is 30 inches, the +following rate-of-march table is deduced: + + +------------------------+-------+ + | | Miles | + | Steps per minute | per | + | | hour | + +------------------------+-------+ + | 35 (1/5) | 1 | + | 70 | 2 | + | 88 (in practice, 90) | 2-1/2 | + | 97 (in practice, 100) | 2-3/4 | + | 106 (in practice, 110) | 3 | + +------------------------+-------+ + +[Note. By remembering that 35 (1/5) steps per minute gives 1 mile per +hour, the number of steps per minute necessary to give a rate of 2, +2-1/2, 2-3/4 and 3 miles per hour, is quickly and easily obtained by +multiplying 35 (1/5) by these numbers.] + +In hot, sultry weather, with the men carrying the full pack, the rate +of march would naturally be considerably less than on a cool day, with +the command not carrying the pack. It is most important that these and +other considerations affecting the rate of march be constantly borne +in mind by the officer in command of the column, who should indicate +to the commander of the leading company the number of steps to be +taken per minute. In indicating the number of steps to be taken per +minute, it should be considered whether the men at the head of the +leading company are the average, above the average, or below the +average in height. A short man, for example, would probably have to +take 100 steps a minute to keep up with a tall man walking at the rate +of 90 steps per minute. + +=1221. Marching capacity.= The average marching capacity of Infantry +is about 15 miles a day, but in extensive operations, involving large +bodies of troops, the average is about 12 miles a day. Small commands +of seasoned Infantry marching on good roads in cool weather can +average about 20 miles a day. + +=1222. Halts.= A halt of 15 minutes should be made after the first +half or three quarters of an hour of marching to enable the men to +attend to the calls of nature and adjust their clothing. Judgment must +be exercised in selecting the place for this halt; it should not be +made in a village or other place where its object would be defeated. + +After the first halt a halt of 10 minutes is made in each hour, that +is, the troops march 50 minutes and then halt 10. Of course, the +number and length of halts should be varied according to the weather, +condition of the roads and the equipment carried by the men. In the +tropics the best results are often obtained by marching 45 minutes and +halting 15. + +When the day's march will run well into the afternoon, a halt of about +one hour should be made at noon and the men allowed to eat. + +Places for long halts should be selected with care; woods, water and +shade are desirable features. Arms are stacked and equipments removed. + +Halts should not be made in or near towns or villages unless to +procure water or supplies, and when so made, the men remain in column, +details being sent for whatever is necessary. + +In hot weather, especially in the tropics, it may be advisable in the +case of long marches to halt for three or four hours during the +hottest part of the day and finish the march in the late afternoon or +early evening. As a general proposition, however, it is inadvisable to +arrive at a strange place after nightfall or even late in the +afternoon. + +=1223. Crossing bridges and fords.= When a cause of delay,--for +example, a damaged bridge,--is encountered, the troops in rear are +notified of the minimum length of the delay; they then conduct +themselves as at regular halts. + +In ascending or descending slopes, crossing streams or other +obstacles, or passing through defiles requiring a reduction of front, +every precaution is taken to prevent interruption of the march of the +troops in rear. If the distances are not sufficient to prevent check, +units are allowed to overlap; if necessary, streams are crossed at two +or more places at the same time; in passing through short defiles the +pace is accelerated and the exit cleared at once. + +If a company unit is delayed while crossing an obstacle, the head +slackens the pace or halts until all of that unit has passed; it then +resumes its place in the column, increasing the pace, if necessary. + +Before attempting to cross with bodies of troops, careful examination +is made of fords, boggy places, bridges of doubtful character, ice, +etc., as the case may be. + +Troops must never cross a bridge in cadence,--that is, the men must +not be in step. + +In fording a deep stream with a swift current, the men cross on as +broad a front as possible, marching abreast and holding hands. They +should not look at the water, but at the opposite shore. If the ford +is wide enough, mounted troops may cross at the same time on the +upstream side, thus breaking the force of the current. + +Fords that are at all difficult delay long columns unless the troops +cross at several places at once. + +=1224. Straggling and elongation of column.= The marching efficiency +of an organization is judged by the amount of straggling and +elongation of the column and the condition of the men at the end of +the march. + +An officer of each company marches in its rear to prevent undue +elongation and straggling. If there be only one officer with a +company, the first sergeant performs this duty. + +No man should leave the ranks without permission. If necessary for a +man to fall out on account of sickness, he should be given a permit to +do so by the company commander or the officer at the rear of the +company. This permit is presented to the surgeon, who will admit him +to the ambulance, have him wait for the trains, or follow and rejoin +his company at the first halt. + +It is the duty of all officers and noncommissioned officers to prevent +straggling and elongation of the column. + + +MISCELLANEOUS + +=1225. Forced marches.= A forced march may be said to be a march of +more than average length. + +Forced marches seriously impair the fighting power of even the best +troops, and should be undertaken only in cases of necessity. + +Such marches are generally made by increasing the number of marching +hours. For large columns of Infantry marching long distances, increase +of pace is seldom of value. + +=1226. Night marches.= While night marches are some times made in very +hot weather to avoid the heat of the day, they are generally made for +the purpose of surprising the enemy, escaping observation by +aeroplane, or for securing a favorable position from which to attack +the enemy at dawn. + +Moonlight and good roads are favorable for night marches. + +Precaution must be taken that the proper road is followed and that +contact between units is maintained, men being stationed, if +necessary, to mark changes of direction. If necessary, guides are +secured and charged with the duty of following the right road. When, +due to unfavorable conditions, units cannot be kept well closed, men +will be placed at forks and crossings of roads, especially on very +dark nights. + +When in hostile territory, silence is maintained; articles of +equipment are secured to prevent rattling, and smoking and talking are +not permitted. Also, under certain conditions villages and farmhouses +are avoided on account of warning given by dogs. + +Night marches impair the efficiency of a command and are never +undertaken without good reason. + +=1227. Compliments.= As a rule, troops on the march pay no +compliments; individuals salute when they address, or are addressed +by, a superior officer. + +=1228. Protection on the march.= Protection on the march is furnished +by covering detachments known as advance guards, rear guards and flank +guards. + +=1229. Fitting of shoes and care of feet.= In view of the fact that +the greater part of the Infantry soldier's occupation in the field +consists of marching, too much stress cannot be laid upon the +importance of his paying special attention to the fitting of his shoes +and the care of his feet. + +An Infantryman with sore feet is like a lame duck trying to keep up +with the rest of the flock. + +Keep your feet clean. Dirty feet invite blisters. An excellent +preventative against sore feet is to wash them every night in hot +(preferably salt) water and then dry them thoroughly. If this is not +practicable, then mop them every evening with a wet towel and +invigorate the skin with a good rubbing. + +Keep the nails cut close. + +Rubbing the feet with hard soap, grease, or oil of any kind, and +putting ordinary talcum powder in the shoes before starting on a +march, are very good to prevent sore feet. + +Blisters should be pricked and the water let out, but the skin must +never be removed. Adhesive plaster on top of the blister will prevent +the skin from being pulled off. + +In case of sore or blistered feet, considerable relief can be obtained +by rubbing them with tallow from a lighted candle and a little whiskey +or alcohol in some other form, and putting the socks on at once. + +A little alum in warm water is excellent for tender feet. + +The old soldier has learned from long experience in marching, to turn +his socks inside out before putting them on thus putting the smooth +side next to his skin and possible seams or lumps next to the shoe. +The thickness of the sock protects the skin and helps prevent +blisters. + +_Under no circumstances should a soldier ever start on a march with a +pair of new shoes._ + +Each soldier should have on hand at all times two pair of serviceable +shoes well broken in. + +Remember that it is much better to prevent sore feet by taking the +precautions outlined above, than it is to have to treat your feet +after they have become sore. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +CAMPS + + +=1230. Principles governing selection of camp sites.= The following +basic principles govern in the selection of camp sites: + +(a) The water supply should be sufficient, pure, and accessible. + +(b) The ground should accommodate the command with as little crowding +as possible, be easily drained, and have no stagnant water within 300 +yards. + +(c) There should be good roads to the camp and good interior +communication. + +(d) Camp sites should be so selected that troops of one unit need not +pass through the camp grounds of another to reach their own camp. + +(e) Wood, grass, forage, and supplies must be at hand or obtainable. + +(f) In campaign, tactical considerations come first in the selection +of camp sites, capability of defense being especially considered, and, +as a result, troops may have to camp many nights on objectionable +ground. + +(g) However, sanitary considerations must always be given all the +weight possible consistent with the tactical requirements. Through no +fault of their own, troops occupying an unsanitary site may suffer +greater losses than in the battles of a long campaign. + +=1231. Desirable camp sites.= The following conditions are desirable +for camp sites: + +(a) Porous soil, covered with stout turf and underlaid by a sandy or +gravelly subsoil. + +(b) High banks of rivers, provided no marshes are near. + +(c) In cold weather, a southern exposure, with woods to the north to +break the cold winds. + +(d) In warm weather, an exposure toward the prevailing winds, with +site moderately shaded by trees. + +=1232. Undesirable camp sites.= The following conditions are +undesirable for camp sites: + +(a) Clay soil, or where the ground water approaches the surface, such +sites being damp and unhealthful. + +(b) Alluvial, marshy ground, and ground near the base of hills, or +near thick woods or dense vegetation are also damp. + +(c) Ravines and depressions are likely to be unduly warm and to have +insufficient or undesirable currents. + +(d) Proximity to marshes or stagnant water is usually damp, and has +mosquitoes, which transmit malaria, dengue fever and yellow fever. + +(e) Old camp sites are dangerous, as they are often permeated by +elements of disease which persist for considerable periods. + +(f) Dry beds of streams are subject to sudden freshets. + +(g) In the tropics troops should not camp nearer than 500 yards to +native huts or villages because of danger from malarial infection. + +=1233. Form and dimensions of camps.= The form and dimensions of camps +depend upon the tactical situation and the amount and nature of ground +available. However, in general, the form and dimensions of a +regimental or battalion camp should conform as nearly as practicable +to the diagram on the opposite page, and camps of all sizes should, as +far as possible, conform to the principles, regarding arrangement, +underlying the diagram given on the opposite page, which gives the +general form, dimensions, and interior arrangements of a camp for a +regiment of Infantry at war strength. In certain cases, particularly +in one-night halts in the presence of the enemy, camps must of +necessity be contracted, while in other cases, where a more extended +halt is contemplated and where tactical reasons will permit, better +camp sanitation may be secured, and a more comfortable arrangement +made by the expansion of camp areas. + +=1234. Making camp.= The command should be preceded by the commanding +officer or a staff officer, who selects the camp site, and designates, +by planting stakes, the lines of tents, the positions of the sinks, +guard tent, kitchens, picket line, etc. + +After the companies are marched to their proper positions and arms are +stacked, the details for guard and to bring wood, water, dig sinks, +pitch tents, handle rations, etc., should be made before ranks are +broken. + +Immediately upon reaching camp and before the men are allowed to go +around, patrolling sentinels should be established to prevent men from +polluting the camp site or adjoining ground before the sinks are +constructed. + +Sentinels should be posted over the water supply without delay. + +As soon as the tents have been pitched and the sinks dug, the camp +should be inspected and all unnecessary sentinels relieved. + +The tents should be pitched and the sinks dug simultaneously. + +Should the troops reach camp before the wagons, the companies may be +divided into squads and set to work clearing the ground, gathering +fire wood, collecting leaves, grass, etc., for beds, etc. + +The moment a command reaches camp its officers and men usually want to +go here and there under all sorts of pretexts. No one should be +allowed to leave camp until all necessary instructions have been +given. + +Enlisted men should not be permitted to leave camp without permission +of their company commanders. + +Sick call should be held as soon as practicable after the tents have +been pitched. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1 + +CAMP OF A REGIMENT OF INFANTRY, WAR STRENGTH] + + +MISCELLANEOUS + +=1235. Retreat.= In camp retreat formation should always be under +arms, an officer being present with each company and inspecting the +arms. + +=1236. Parade ground.= In front of every camp of permanent nature, +there should be a parade ground for drills and ceremonies. + +=1237. Camping on fordable stream.= In camping for the night on a +fordable stream that is to be crossed, cross before going into camp, +unless there is some tactical reason for not doing so; for a sudden +rise, or the appearance of the enemy, might prevent the crossing the +next morning. + +=1238. Windstorms.= Whenever windstorms are expected, the tent pegs +should be secured and additional guy ropes attached to the tents. + +Tents may be prevented from blowing down by being made fast at the +corners to posts firmly driven into the ground, or by passing ropes +over the ridge poles and fastening them to pegs firmly set into the +ground. + +=1239. Making tent poles and pegs fast in loose soil.= If the soil be +loose or sandy, stones or other hard material should be placed under +the tent poles to prevent their working into the soil, thus leaving +the tent slack and unsteady. When the soil is so loose that the pegs +will not hold at all, fasten the guy ropes to brush, wood or rocks +buried in the ground. + +=1240. Trees sometimes dangerous.= While trees add very much to the +comfort of a camp, care should be exercised not to pitch tents near +trees whose branches or trunks might fall. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +CAMP SANITATION + + +=1241. Definition.= By "Camp Sanitation" is meant the adoption of +measures to keep the camp in a healthy condition. These measures +comprise: + +(a) The disposal, so as to render them harmless and prevent pollution, +of all wastes, refuse and excreta from men and animals in suitable +places provided therefor; + +(b) The care exercised in handling, preparing and serving food; + +(c) The adequacy of shelter for the men; + +(d) The maintenance of proper drainage; + +(e) The supply of water for bathing and washing, and the maintenance +of a pure supply for drinking. + +=1242. Camp expedients.= "Camp-expedients" is the name given the +mechanical means used to put into effect some of the measures, named +above, connected with camp sanitation, and usually consist of +latrines, kitchen sinks, urinal tubs, rock or earth incinerators, and +drainage ditches. + +=1243. Latrines.= The latrines must be dug immediately upon reaching +camp--their construction must not be delayed until the camps have been +pitched and other duties performed. The exact location of the latrines +should be determined by the commanding officer, or by some officer +designated by him, the following considerations being observed: + +1. They should be so located as not to contaminate the water supply. + +2. They should not be placed where they can be flooded by rain water +from higher ground, nor should they be so placed that they can pollute +the camp by overflow in case of heavy rains. + +3. They should be as far from the tents as is compatible with +convenience--if too near, they will be a source of annoyance; if too +far, some men, especially at night, and particularly if affected with +diarrhoea, will defecate before reaching the latrine. Under ordinary +circumstances, a distance of about 50 yards is considered sufficient. + +Latrines for the men are always located on the opposite side of the +camp from the kitchens, generally one for each company unit and one +for the officers of a battalion or squadron. They are so placed that +the drainage or overflow can not pollute the water supply or camp +grounds. + +When the camp is for one night only, straddle trenches suffice. In +camp of longer duration, and when it is not possible to provide +latrine boxes, as for permanent camps, deeper trenches should be dug. +These may be used as straddle trenches or a seat improvised. When open +trenches are used the excrement must be kept covered at all times with +a layer of earth. In more permanent camps the trenches should be 2 +feet wide, 6 feet deep, and 15 feet long, and suitably screened. Seats +with lids are provided and covered to the ground to keep flies from +reaching the deposits; urinal troughs discharging into trenches are +provided. Each day the latrine boxes are thoroughly cleaned, outside +by scrubbing and inside by applying, when necessary, a coat of oil or +whitewash. The pit is burned out daily with approximately 1 gallon oil +and 15 pounds straw. When filled to within 2 feet of the surface, such +latrines are discarded, filled with earth, and their position marked. +All latrines and kitchen pits are filled in before the march is +resumed. In permanent camps and cantonments, urine tubs may be placed +in the company streets at night and emptied after reveille. + +All latrines must be filled before marching. The following +illustration shows a very simple and excellent latrine seat which can +be made and kept in the company permanently for use in camps on the +march: + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +Urinal troughs, made of muslin and coated with oil or paint, should +discharge into the trenches. + +=1244. Urinal tubs.= When obtainable, urinal tubs or cans should be +placed in the company streets at night, their location being indicated +by lighted lanterns, the tubs or cans being removed at reveille. + +=1245. Kitchens.= Camp kettles can be hung on a support consisting of +a green pole lying in the crotches of two upright posts of the same +character. A narrow trench for the fire, about 1 foot deep, dug under +the pole, not only protects the fire from the wind but saves fuel. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +A still greater economy of fuel can be effected by digging a similar +trench in the direction of the wind and slightly narrower than the +diameter of the kettles. The kettles are then placed on the trench and +the space between the kettles filled in with stones, clay, etc., +leaving the flue running beneath the kettles. The draft can be +improved by building a chimney of stones, clay, etc., at the leeward +end of the flue. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +Four such trenches radiating from a common central chimney will give +one flue for use whatever may be the direction of the wind. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +A slight slope of the flue, from the chimney down, provides for +drainage and improves the draft. + +The lack of portable ovens can be met by ovens constructed of stone +and covered with earth to better retain the heat. If no stone is +available, an empty barrel, with one head out, is laid on its side, +covered with wet clay to a depth of 6 or more inches and then with a +layer of dry earth equally thick. A flue is constructed with the clay +above the closed end of the barrel, which is then burned out with a +hot fire. This leaves a baked clay covering for the oven. + +A recess can be similarly constructed with boards or even brushwood, +supported on a horizontal pole resting on upright posts, covered and +burnt out as in the case of the barrel. + +When clay banks are available, an oven may be excavated therein and +used at once. + +To bake in such ovens, first heat them and then close flues and ends. + +Food must be protected from flies, dust, and sun. Facilities must be +provided for cleaning and scalding the mess equipment of the men. +Kitchens and the ground around them must be kept scrupulously clean. + +Solid refuse should be promptly burned, either in the kitchen fire or +in an improvised crematory. + +In temporary camps, if the soil is porous, liquid refuse from the +kitchens may be strained through gunny sacking into seepage pits dug +near the kitchen. Flies must not have access to these pits. Boards or +poles, covered with brush or grass and a layer of earth may be used +for this purpose. The strainers should also be protected from flies. +Pits of this kind, dug in clayey soil, will not operate successfully. +All pits should be filled with earth before marching. + +As a precautionary measure against setting the camp on fire, all dry +grass, underbrush, etc., in the immediate vicinity of the kitchen +should be cut down. + +In case of a fire in camp, underbrush, spades, shovels, blankets, +etc., are used to beat it out. + +Gunny sacks dipped in water are the best fire fighters. + +Burning away dried grass and underbrush around exterior of camp is a +great protection against fire from outside. + +=1246. Kitchen pits.= Pits of convenient size should be constructed +for the liquid refuse from the kitchens. Solid refuse should be burned +either in the kitchen fire or at some designated place, depending upon +whether the camp is of a temporary or permanent nature. Unless the +camp be of a very temporary nature, the pits should be covered with +boards or other material in order to exclude the flies. + +All pits should be filled in with earth before breaking camp. + +=1247. Incinerators.= The incineration pit shown in the following +diagram, affords an excellent, simple and economical way of disposing +of camp waste and offal, tin cans and dish-water included: + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +=Description:= + +The pit is about 4-1/2 feet long, 1-1/2 feet wide and 2 feet deep at +one end and 2-1/2 at the other. It is partially filled with stones, +the larger ones on the bottom and the smaller on the top. At one end +of the pit the stones extend a little above the surface, and slope +gradually toward the other end until the fire pit is reached ten +inches below the surface of the trench. Over the fire pit, about five +inches above the ground, is placed a crab or a piece of boiler iron, +on which is boiled all the water for washing dishes, etc. The fire pit +is only about one-half of the stone surface, as the radiated heat +keeps the rest of the stones hot, causing all dish and slop water to +evaporate quickly. + +Any tin cans that may be thrown into the fire pit are removed after a +short exposure to the heat and placed in a trench especially dug for +the purpose. + +The company incinerator shown below was used with great success by +some of our troops at Texas City, Texas. The rocks should not be too +large. The men should be instructed to drop all liquid on the sides +of the incinerator and throw all solid matter on the fire--the liquids +will thus be evaporated and the solids burned. Until the men learn how +to use the incinerator properly, a noncommissioned officer should be +detailed to supervise its use. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + +=1248. Drainage.= When camp is established for an indefinite period, +drainage should be attended to at once. Each tent should have a +shallow trench dug around it and the company and other streets ditched +on both sides, all the trenches and ditches connecting with a ditch +that carries the water from the camp. All surface drainage from higher +ground should be intercepted and turned aside. + +=1249. Avoiding old camp sites.= The occupation of old camp sites is +dangerous, since these are often permeated by elements of disease +which persist for considerable periods. + +=1250. Changing camp sites.= Camp sites must be changed promptly when +there is evidence of soil pollution or when epidemic disease +threatens. Also, a change of camp site is often desirable in order to +secure a change of surroundings and to abandon areas that have become +dusty and cut up. + +=1251. Bunks.= Place a number of small poles about seven feet long +close together, the upper ends resting on a cross pole about six +inches in diameter and the lower ends resting on the ground; or, the +poles may be raised entirely off the ground by being placed on cross +poles supported by forked stakes at the corners; on the poles place +grass, leaves, etc. + +=1252. Wood.= The firewood should be collected, cut and piled near the +kitchen. Dry wood is usually found under logs or roots of trees. + +If wagons are not heavily loaded it is sometimes a good plan to bring +a few sticks of dry wood from the preceding camp, or to pick up good +wood en route. + +=1253. Water.= Precautionary measures should always be taken to +prevent the contamination of the water, and a guard from the first +troops reaching camp should at once be placed over the water supply. + +If the water is obtained from a stream, places should be designated as +follows for getting water: + + (1) For drinking and cooking; + (2) For watering animals; + (3) For bathing and for washing clothing. + +The first designated place should be farthest up the stream; the +others, in the order named, downstream. + +Where two bodies of troops are to camp on the same stream one must not +pollute the water to be used by the other. This can be arranged by the +commanders agreeing upon a point where both commands will obtain their +drinking water, upon a second point where animals will be watered, +etc. + +If the stream be small, the water supply may be increased by building +a dam. + +Small springs may be dug out and each lined with a gabion, or a barrel +or box with both ends removed, or with stones, the space between the +lining and the earth being filled with puddled clay. A rim of clay +should be built to keep out surface drainage. The same method may be +used near swamps, streams, or lakes to increase or clarify the water +supply. + +Water that is not known to be pure should be boiled 20 minutes; it +should then be cooled and aerated by being poured repeatedly from one +clean container to another, or it may be purified by apparatus +supplied for the purpose. + +Arrangements should be made for men to draw water from the authorized +receptacles by means of a spigot or other similar arrangement. The +dipping of water from the receptacles, or the use of a common drinking +cup, should be prohibited. + +In the field it is sometimes necessary to sterilize or filter water. +The easiest and surest way of sterilizing water is by boiling. Boiled +water should be aerated by being poured from one receptacle to another +or by being filtered through charcoal or clean gravel. Unless boiled +water be thus aerated it is very unpalatable and it is with difficulty +that troops can be made to drink it. + +Filtration merely clarifies--it does not purify. The following are +simple methods of filtration: + +1. Dig a hole near the source of supply so that the water may +percolate through the soil before being used. + +2. Sink a barrel or box into the ground, the water entering therein +through a wooden trough packed with clean sand, gravel or charcoal. + +3. Place a box or barrel in another box or barrel of larger size, +filling the space between with clean sand, gravel, moss or charcoal, +and piercing holes near the bottom of the outer barrel and near the +top of the inner. The filter thus constructed is partly submerged in +the water to be filtered. + +4. Bore a small hole in the bottom of a barrel or other suitable +receptacle, which is partly filled with layers of sand, gravel, and, +if available, charcoal and moss. The water is poured in at the top and +is collected as it emerges from the aperture below. + +The amount of water used by troops is usually computed at the rate of +five gallons for each man and ten gallons for each animal per day. + +=1254. Rules of sanitation.= The following rules of sanitation are to +be observed: + +Men should not lie on damp ground. In temporary camps and in bivouac +they raise their beds if suitable material, such as straw, leaves, or +boughs can be obtained, or use their ponchos or slickers. In cold +weather and when fuel is plentiful the ground may be warmed by fires, +the men making their beds after raking away the ashes. + +When troops are to remain in camp for some time all underbrush is +cleared away and the camp made as comfortable as possible. Watering +troughs, shelter in cold weather, and shade in hot, are provided for +the animals, if practicable. + +The camp is policed daily after breakfast and all refuse matter +burned. + +Tent walls are raised and the bedding and clothing aired daily, +weather permitting. + +Tents must be kept clean and in order. + +The company street and the ground around the tents must be kept clean. + +Food, slop water, rags, paper, empty tin cans, and other trash and +refuse must not be thrown on the ground, but should be put in the box, +can or other receptacle provided for the purpose or thrown into the +incinerator. + +The food must be protected from flies, dust and sun. + +Under no circumstances must the company street or any other part of +the camp grounds be defiled by urinating or deficating thereon. The +urinal tub and the latrine must invariably be used. + +When an open trench is used as a sink, each individual must always +cover his excrement with dirt. + +If the sink is inclosed by a box with stool-covers, the covers must +always be put down as soon as one is through using them so as to keep +out the flies. However it is found in practice that men will not do +this therefore it is a good plan to construct the covers so that they +will close automatically when a man rises from the seat. + +Kitchen garbage must be burned in a pit or incinerator, or put into +_covered_ cans and hauled away. _The covers must be kept on the cans +at all times_, so as to keep out the flies. + +Horses are not to be ridden through camp except on the roadways. + +As soon as a tent is pitched it should be ditched. + +When it rains the guy ropes must be loosened to prevent the tent pegs +from pulling out and the tent falling down. + +The body and the clothes should be cleaned daily as thoroughly as the +means at hand will permit. + +In the morning wash the face and neck and don't fail to use your tooth +brush afterward. + +In the continued absence of opportunity for bathing it is well to take +an air bath and a moist or dry rub before getting into fresh +underclothes. + +If the lack of opportunity to wash clothes continues for any length of +time, soiled clothes and bedding must be frequently exposed to the sun +and air. Sunshine is a good germ killer. + +If there are mosquitoes in camp, mosquito bars must be used by men +when asleep, and headnets by men on guard and other duty. Also, if in +a malarial country, about five grains of quinine should be taken +daily, preferably just before supper. In localities where a pernicious +form of malaria prevails, daily doses of ten grains of quinine should +be given. + +In the tropics troops are require to camp at least 500 yards away from +all native huts or villages as a preventative measure against malaria. +Men are also prohibited from visiting these places at night for the +same reason. + +Clean your mess kit thoroughly after every meal, if practicable, +washing same with soap and boiling water. + +The company cooks must keep everything in the kitchen and mess tent +clean with hot water and soap. Boil the utensils and dish rags, and be +sure to throw all slops and garbage into the kitchen incinerator. + +Rest and sleep are most important to preserve the health, so, keep the +body rested by plenty of sleep. Do not join idle parties going to walk +the streets of the nearest town at nights, nor sit up late playing +cards. + +Observe in camp even with greater care than when in barracks the rules +of health and personal hygiene. (See pars. 1451-1477.) + +=1255. Your camp, your home.= A soldier should always look upon his +camp as his home, which it is for the time being. Your tent is your +bedroom; the company street, your sitting-room; the latrine, your +toilet; the mess tent, your dining-room; the camp kitchen, your +kitchen; the bathing facilities, your bathroom. And as you are careful +about keeping your bedroom and the other rooms of your home in a clean +and orderly condition, so should you do your share to keep your tent +and the other parts of camp in a clean, sanitary condition. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +INDIVIDUAL COOKING + + +=1256. Importance of individual cooking.= It often happens in campaign +that it is impossible to have the field ranges and cooking utensils +accompany the troops, and in such case each man must cook his own food +in his mess kit. Also, it frequently happens that detachments +operating away from their companies must do individual cooking. + +All food we eat should be properly cooked, if not, stomach or +intestinal trouble will result. Hence, the importance of every soldier +learning how to cook in his mess kit the main components of the +ration. + +=1257. Fire.= Remember that the best fire for cooking is a small, +clear one, or better yet, a few brisk coals. Dig a hole in the ground +with your bayonet and make your fire in it with dry wood, starting it +with paper, shavings, dry leaves or dry grass. + +If preferred the fire may be made between two small flat stones or +bricks, care being taken to so place the stones that the draft will +pass between them. The mess pan can be placed on the stones, across +the fire, and the cup for boiling the coffee at the end away from the +draft where it will get the most heat. + +This method will, as a rule, be necessary on rocky or stony ground. + +=1258. Recipes.= The following recipes, which are based on the War +Department publication, "Manual for Army Cooks," require the use of +only the soldier's mess kit,--knife, fork, spoon, cup, and mess pan: + + +Meats + +=1259. Bacon.= Cut side of bacon in half lengthwise. Then cut slices +about five to the inch, three of which should generally be sufficient +for one man for one meal. Place in a mesa pan with about one-half inch +of cold water. Let come to a boil and then pour the water off. Fry +over a brisk fire, turning the bacon once and quickly browning it. +Remove the bacon to lid of mess pan, leaving the grease for frying +potatoes, onions, rice flapjacks, etc., according to recipe. + +=1260. Fresh meat.= _To fry._--To fry, a small amount of grease (1 to +2 spoonfuls) is necessary. Put grease in mess pan and let come to a +smoking temperature, then drop in the steak and, if about one-half +inch thick, let fry for about one minute before turning--depending +upon whether it is desired it shall be rare, medium, or well done. +Then turn and fry briskly as before. Salt and pepper to taste. + +Applies to beef, veal, pork, mutton, venison, etc. + +=1261. Fresh meat.= _To broil._--Cut in slices about 1 inch thick, +from half as large as the hand to four times that size. Sharpen a +stick or branch of convenient length, say from 2 to 4 feet long, and +weave the point of the stick through the steak several times so that +it may be readily turned over a few brisk coals or on the windward +side of a small fire. Allow to brown nicely, turning frequently. Salt +and pepper to taste. Meat with considerable fat is preferred, though +any meat may be broiled in this manner. + +=1262. Fresh meat.= _To stew._--Cut into chunks from one-half inch to +1 inch cubes. Fill cup about one-third full of meat and cover with +about 1 inch of water. Let boil or simmer about one hour or until +tender. Add such fibrous vegetables as carrots, turnips, or cabbage, +cut into small chunks, soon after the meat is put on to boil, and +potatoes, onions, or other tender vegetables when the meat is about +half done. Amount of vegetables to be added, about the same as meat, +depending upon supply and taste. Salt and pepper to taste. Applies to +all fresh meats and fowls. The proportion of meat and vegetables used +varies with their abundance and fixed quantities can not be adhered +to. Fresh fish can be handled as above, except that it is cooked much +quicker, and potatoes, onions, and canned corn are the only vegetables +generally used with it, thus making a chowder. A slice of bacon would +greatly improve the flavor. May be conveniently cooked in mess pan or +tin cup. + + +Fresh Vegetables + +=1263. Potatoes, fried.= Take two medium-sized potatoes or one large +one (about one-half pound), peel and cut into slices about one-fourth +inch thick and scatter well in the mess pan in which the grease +remains after frying the bacon. Add sufficient water to half cover the +potatoes, cover with the lid to keep the moisture in, and let come to +a boil from fifteen to twenty minutes. Remove the cover and dry as +desired. Salt and pepper to taste. During the cooking the bacon +already prepared may be kept on the cover, which is most conveniently +placed bottom side up over the cooking vegetables. + +=1264. Onions, fried.= Same as potatoes. + +=1265. Potatoes, boiled.= Peel two medium-sized potatoes or one large +one (about one-half pound), and cut in coarse chunks of about the same +size--say 1-1/2-inch cubes. Place in mess pan and three-fourths fill +with water. Cover with lid and let boil or simmer for fifteen or +twenty minutes. They are done when easily penetrated with a sharp +stick. Pour off the water and let dry out for one or two minutes over +hot ashes or light coals. + +=1266. Potatoes, baked.= Take two medium-sized potatoes or one large +one cut in half (about one-half pound.) Lay in a bed of light coals, +cover with same and smother with ashes. Do not disturb for thirty or +forty minutes, when they should be done. + +=1267. Rice.= Take two-thirds of a cup of water and bring to a boil. +Add 4 spoonfuls of rice and boil until soft, that is, until it can be +mashed by the fingers with but little resistance. This will require +about 15 minutes. Add 2 pinches of salt and, after stirring, pour off +the water and empty the rice out on the lid of the mess pan. + +=1268. Canned Tomatoes.= One 2-pound can is generally sufficient for +five men. + +_Stew._ Pour into the mess pan one man's allowance of tomatoes, add +about two large hardtacks broken into small pieces, and let come to a +boil. Add salt and pepper to taste, or add a pinch of salt and +one-fourth spoonful of sugar. + +_Or_, having fried bacon, pour the tomatoes into the mess pan, the +grease remaining, and add, if desired, two broken hardtacks. Set over +a brisk fire and let come to a boil. + +_Or_, heat the tomatoes just as they come from the can, adding two +pinches of salt and one-half spoonful of sugar if desired. + +_Or_, especially in hot weather, eaten cold with hard bread they are +very palatable. + + +Hot Breads + +=1269. Flapjack.= Take 6 spoonfuls of flour and one-third spoonful of +baking powder and mix thoroughly (or dry mix in a large pan before +issue, at the rate of 25 pounds of flour and three half-pound cans of +baking powder for 100 men). Add sufficient cold water to make a batter +that will drip freely from the spoon, adding a pinch of salt. Pour +into the mess pan, which should contain the grease from fried bacon, +or a spoonful of butter or fat, and place over medium hot coals +sufficient to bake so that in from five to seven minutes the flapjack +may be turned over by a quick toss of the pan. Fry from five to seven +minutes longer or until, by examination, it is found to be done. + +=1270. Hoecake.= Hoecake is made exactly the same as a flapjack by +substituting _corn meal_ for _flour_. + + +Drinks + +=1271. Coffee.= Fill cup about two-thirds full of water and when it +boils add, 1 heaping spoonful of coffee, and let boil 5 minutes. Stir +grains well when adding. Add 1 spoonful of sugar, if desired. Let +simmer ten minutes after boiling. Settle with a dash of cold water or +let stand for a few minutes. + +=1272. Tea.= Fill cup about two-thirds full of water and when it boils +add 1/2 spoonful of tea, and let boil 5 minutes. Add 1 spoonful of +sugar, if desired. Let stand or "draw" 8 minutes. If allowed to stand +longer, the tea will get bitter, unless separated from the grounds. + +=1273. Cocoa.= Fill cup about two-thirds full of water and when it +boils add 1 heaping spoonful of cocoa and let boil 5 minutes. Stir +when adding until dissolved. Add 1-1/2 spoonful of sugar, if desired. +Let cool. (If available, milk should be used instead of water, and +should be kept somewhat below the boiling point. A 1-pound can of +evaporated milk with 3-1/2 quarts of water will make 1 gallon of milk +of the proper consistency for making cocoa or chocolate.) + +=1274. Chocolate.= Same as cocoa, using 1 cubic inch of chocolate. + + +Emergency Ration + +=1275. Emergency Rations.= Detailed instructions as to the manner of +preparing the emergency ration are found on the label with each can. +Remember that even a very limited amount of bacon or hard bread, or +both, taken with the emergency ration makes it far more palatable, and +greatly extends the period during which it can be consumed with +relish. For this reason it would be better to husband the supply of +hard bread and bacon to use with the emergency ration when it becomes +evident that the latter must be consumed, rather than to retain the +emergency ration to the last extremity to be used exclusively for a +longer period than two or three days. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +CARE AND PRESERVATION OF CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT + + +=1276. General.= A soldier's clothing and equipment are issued to him +by his government for certain purposes, and he has, therefore, no +right to be in any way careless or neglectful of them. + +The importance that the Government attaches to the proper care and +preservation of the soldier's clothing and equipment, is shown by the +fact that the matter is made the subject of one of the Articles of +War, the 84th, which prescribes that any soldier who, through neglect, +loses or spoils his arms, clothing or accouterments shall suffer such +punishment as a court-martial may direct. + + +Clothing + +=1277.= Every article of clothing in your hands should receive as much +care and attention as you give your person. + +Not only will your clothes last longer if properly cared for, but you +will look neater and better dressed, which will add much to your +military appearance. + +Every soldier should have an A-1 whisk broom and no article of +clothing should ever be worn without first being thoroughly brushed. + +=1278. Pressing.= Occasional pressing helps to preserve and freshen +clothes,--it puts new life into the cloth. + +Blue clothing and woolen olive drab when worn regularly should be +pressed about once a week. + +In a company where there is an iron for general use there is no reason +why every soldier should not press his own clothes. + +=1279. Chevrons and stripes= can be cleaned by moistening a clean +woolen rag with gasoline and rubbing the parts and then pressing with +a hot iron. + +=1280. Leggins.= When soiled, leggins must be washed. If the leggins +are allowed to dry without being rung out, they will look better. + +=1281. Service hat and the caps= require nothing but brushing. + +Shirts, underwear, socks, etc., should be carefully folded and put +away neatly. + +=1282. A special suit of clothing for inspections, parades, etc.= Set +aside your best suit of clothes for inspections, parades and other +ceremonies. The uniform worn at these formations should not be worn +around in the barracks,--every man has sufficient "second best" +garments for barrack use. + +=1283. Putting away.= Uniforms should be dried thoroughly, brushed and +properly folded before being put away. The number of folds should be +reduced to a minimum. + +Before uniforms are put away they should be carefully examined and any +missing buttons, tears or stains should be attended to at once. + +Lockers and other places in which clothing is kept must be free from +dust. They should be wiped off occasionally with a cloth wrung out of +soap suds. + +=1284. Stains.= Tailors usually remove stains with a rubber made by +rolling tightly a piece of woolen cloth of some kind, about 2 inches +wide, until the roll is about an inch in diameter. + +Rings in removing stains may be avoided by rubbing until very nearly +dry. + +=1285. Grease spots.= Ordinarily benzine is a good stain remover in +case of grease spots, but its use is more or less dangerous. It should +be used in an open room or out of doors and never near a fire or +lights. + +"Carbona," which can be purchased in almost any drug store, is +excellent for removing stains and it is perfectly safe. + +Carbon tetrachloride (Merck's) is much cheaper than "Carbona" and +about equally as good. It retails at 45c a pint at nearly all drug +stores. + +Grease spots can also be removed by placing a piece of brown paper, +newspaper, blotting paper or other absorbent paper over the stain, and +pressing with a hot iron. + +=1286. Rust or ink stains= can be removed with a solution of oxalic +acid. Apply rapidly and rinse at once with plenty of fresh water; this +is most important--otherwise it will probably discolor the material. + +=1287. Sweat stains= can not be removed. However, the color can be +partially restored and the material cleaned with a solution of ammonia +and water--1/3 liquid ammonia, 2/3 water. + +=1288. The shine= that is sometimes left from pressing is caused by +leaving the iron on too long or using an iron that is too hot. + +This shine, if the cloth is not scorched, can be removed by +"sponging," i. e., by placing a piece of damp muslin cloth on the +material and then applying the iron only long enough to steam the +surface of the garment. + +=1289. Grease and oil stains= on white trouser stripes can be removed +with benzine, naptha or gasoline, applied with a stiff nail brush. +Stains of rust and ink can be removed by means of oxalic acid (2 +ounces of oxalic acid to 1 pint of water--dissolves quickest in warm +water) applied with cloth or brush, then rinsed thoroughly with plain +water and sponge. After the stripes have dried, apply English +pipe-clay, rubbing with the cake itself; then rub in uniformly with +woolen cloth rubber--rub vigorously--then brush off surplus pipe-clay. + +=1290. Paint spots.= Turpentine will take out paint spots. + +=1291. Gilt ornaments and gilt buttons= should be polished as often as +necessary in order to keep them fresh and bright. Use a button stick +in cleaning buttons, so as not to soil the cloth. + + +Shoes + +(_Instructions issued by the Quartermaster General's Office, June 16, +1899._) + +=1292. General care.= Shoes should at all times be kept polished. By +being so kept they are made more pliable and wear longer. + +Shoes must withstand harder service than any other article worn, and +more shoes are ruined through neglect than by wear in actual service. + +Proper care should be taken in selecting shoes to secure a proper fit, +and by giving shoes occasional attention much discomfort and complaint +will be avoided. + +=1293. Selection.= A shoe should always have ample length, as the foot +will always work forward fully a half a size in the shoe when walking, +and sufficient allowance for this should be made. More feet are +crippled and distorted by shoes that are too short than for any other +reason. A shoe should fit snug yet be comfortable over ball and +instep, and when first worn should not lace close together over the +instep. Leather always stretches and loosens at instep and can be +taken up by lacing. The foot should always be held firmly, but not too +tightly in proper position. If shoes are too loose, they allow the +foot to slip around, causing the foot to chafe; corns, bunions, and +enlarged joints are the result. + +=1294. Repairs.= At the first sign of break, shoes should be repaired, +if possible. Always keep the heels in good condition. If the heel is +allowed to run down at the side, it is bad for the shoe and worse for +the foot; it also weakens the ankle and subjects the shoe to an uneven +strain, which makes it more liable to give out. Shoes, if kept in +repair, will give double the service and comfort. + +=1295. Shoe dressing.= The leather must not be permitted to become +hard and stiff. If it is impossible to procure a good shoe +dressing[15], neat's-foot oil or tallow are the best substitutes; +either will soften the leather and preserve its pliability. Leather +requires oil to preserve its pliability, and if not supplied will +become brittle, crack, and break easily under strain. Inferior +dressings are always harmful, and no dressing should be used which +contains acid or varnish. Acid burns the leather as it would the skin, +and polish containing varnish forms a false skin which soon peels off, +spoiling the appearance of the shoe and causing the leather to crack. +Paste polish containing turpentine should also be avoided. + +=1296. Perspiration.= Shoe becoming damp from perspiration should be +dried naturally by evaporation. It is dangerous to dry leather by +artificial heat. Perspiration contains acid which is harmful to +leather, and shoes should be dried out as frequently as possible. + +=1297. Wet shoes.= Wet or damp shoes should be dried with great care. +When leather is subjected to heat, a chemical change takes place, +although no change in appearance may be noted at the time. Leather +when burnt becomes dry and parched and will soon crack through like +pasteboard when strained. This applies to leather both in soles and +uppers. When dried the leather should always be treated with dressing +to restore its pliability. Many shoes are burned while on the feet +without the knowledge of the wearer by being placed while wet on the +rail of a stove or near a steam pipe. Care should be taken while shoes +are being worn never to place the foot where there is danger of their +being burned. + +(Note. To dry wet shoes, the last thing at night take a few handfuls +of dry clean pebbles, heat them in meat can, kettle or campfire until +very hot; place them in the shoes,--they will dry them out thoroughly +in a few hours,--shake once in awhile. Oats or corn may also be used, +but they are not available always and pebbles usually are. Now is an +excellent time to grease or oil the shoes.--Author.) + +=1298. Keep shoes clean.= An occasional application of soap and water +will remove the accumulation of old dressings and allow fresh dressing +to accomplish its purpose. + +=1299. Directions for polishing.= Russet leather should be treated +with great care. Neither acid, lemon juice, nor banana peel should be +used for cleaning purposes. Only the best liquid dressing should be +used and shoes should not be rubbed while wet. + +=1300. Liquid dressing.= Care should be taken in using liquid +dressing. Apply only a light coat and _allow this to dry into the +leather before rubbing_ with a cloth. Too much dressing is wasteful. + + +EQUIPMENT + +(_Instructions issued by the Ordnance Department in Pamphlet No. 1965, +July 12, 1915._) + + +Cloth Equipment + +=1301. General.= All cloth equipment should be brushed frequently with +a stiff bristle brush. A dry scrub brush may be used. + +It should be washed only under the direction and supervision of an +officer. + +During ordinary garrison duty it should rarely be necessary to wash +the equipment. + +When the equipment becomes soiled a light local washing will +frequently be sufficient, but when dirty it should unhesitatingly be +given a good thorough washing,--otherwise it may be expected that it +will become unsanitary and rot. + +During field service it is to be expected that the equipment will +become soiled much more rapidly. Always on return to garrison from +field service and as opportunity offers in the field, equipment should +be thoroughly washed. + +=1302. Instructions for washing cloth equipment.= + +(a) _Preparation of soap solution._ Dissolve in nine cups of hot water +one cake of H. & H. soap or a substitute which is issued by the +Ordnance Department. + +One cup of this solution is sufficient to clean the entire cloth and +web equipment of one man. One cake per squad is a liberal allowance. + +The H. & H. soap issued by the Ordnance Department is made especially +for washing cloth fabrics liable to fade. If for any reason this soap +is not obtainable, a good laundry soap (Ivory or equal) may be used, +but in no case should the yellow soap issued by the Quartermaster +Corps be used. + +(b) _Brushing._ Brush the equipment thoroughly to remove all dust and +mud before washing. + +(c) _Washing._ Spread the belt, haversack, etc., on a clean board or +rock and apply the soap solution with a scrub brush. When a good +lather appears, wash off with clear water. + +In the case of a bad grease spot the direct application of soap to the +brush will ordinarily be sufficient to remove it. + +(d) _Drying. Always dry washed equipment in the shade._ The sun will +bleach the fabric. + +On return from a march in the rain, dry the equipment in the shade, if +practicable. + +=1303. Shelter tent.= The shelter tent is cleaned and cared for as +prescribed above for the cloth equipment. + +When practicable always dry your shelter tent before folding and +packing it. (Author.) + + +Mess Outfit + +=1304. Knife.= The knife blade is made of tempered steel, and when put +away for a long period should be covered with a light coating of oil +to prevent rust. + +Keep your knife clean by washing in soap and water after every meal. + +Do not use the blade as a pry. + +If the point is broken, grind the blade down to a new point. + +=1305. Fork.= Keep your fork clean by washing with hot water and soap +after every meal. + +Never use the prongs of your fork for prying open tops of cans, +extracting corks, etc. + +Don't permit your knife, fork or spoon to remain in vinegar or other +foodstuffs for a long period, as verdigris will form. This corrodes +the metal and is poisonous. + +=1306. Spoon.= Keep your spoon clean by washing with soap and water +after every meal. + +=1307. Meat can.= Do not carry meat of any kind or other greasy +substance in the meat can for a long period, as it will corrode the +aluminum. + +If the rivets securing the hinge to the meat can become loose, a few +blows with a hammer or hand ax on the outside ends of the rivets, the +heads of the rivets being backed up on a piece of metal, will tighten +them. + +If the hinge pin becomes loose, a nail can be used to replace it, the +nail being cut with a service wire cutter and the ends of the nail +headed over slightly with a few blows of a hammer. + +=1308 Bacon can.= The interior of the bacon can should always be kept +clean and free from hardened grease or dirt by frequent washings with +soar and water. + +If the cover becomes loose on the body of the can, the upper half of +the body may be bent out until the cover is again tight. + +If the cover is too tight, a slight amount of flattening with a hammer +on the edge of the cover, resting on a wooden block, will usually +extend the cover sufficiently. + +=1309. Condiment can.= When not in use, always remove the contents. +Many cans have been ruined by neglecting to do this. + +See that the threaded ends do not become rusty. + +The can should be disassembled at all inspections, so that the +inspecting officer may see that no rust is present. + +=1310. Cup.= The cup is made of aluminum and excessive heat damages +aluminum. + +In using the cup for cooking never allow the contents to evaporate +entirely. In other words, never hold an empty cup over a fire. + +Keep your cup clean with hot water and soap,--preferably H & H soap. + +=1311. Canteen.= Although as a rule, only soap and water should be +used in cleaning aluminum, a little sand can be used to advantage in +cleaning the canteen. + +Particular attention must be taken to see that canteens are properly +cleaned after they have been filled with coffee, milk or any other +fluid containing organic matter. + +Being made of aluminum the canteen is easily dented, and care must be +taken to prevent this. + +When not actually in use the canteen should habitually be emptied and +the cup left off to dry. + + +Intrenching Tools + +=1312. Pick mattock.= If the blade of the mattock is deformed, it +should be straightened in a vise. + +In the field, cracked handles of pick mattocks, shovels, and hand axes +should be wrapped with cord. + +=1313. Shovel.= Do not use the side edges of the shovel blade as a +mattock, for this will deform the blade. + +If the blade becomes bent, straighten it with a hammer on a block of +wood. + +Keep your intrenching tool free from rust, being especially careful +that no rust gets into the sockets. + + +Leather Equipment + +=1314. General.= Because of the value of leather equipment and its +rapid deterioration if neglected, the proper care of leather is most +important. + +=1315. Materials.= Two agents are necessary to the proper cleaning of +leather,--a _cleaning agent_ and an _oiling agent_. + +The _cleaning agent_ issued by the Ordnance Department is castile +soap; the _oiling agents_ are neat's-foot oil and harness soap.[16] + +The soap cleans the surface of the leather, and removes from the +surface pores of the leather, dirt, sweat, and other foreign matter, +so that the oil can more readily penetrate the pores and saturate the +fibers, thus making the leather pliable and elastic. + +=1316. Cleaning.= Daily, or as often as used, leather equipment should +be wiped off with a cloth slightly dampened in water, merely to remove +mud, dust or other foreign substances. + +This daily care will do much to maintain the appearance of the +equipment, but it is, however, insufficient of itself to properly +preserve it. + +Leather should never be cleaned by immersing in water or holding under +a hydrant. + +At intervals of from one to four weeks, depending upon the +circumstances, it is essential that the equipment be thoroughly +cleaned in accordance with the following instructions: + +(a) Separate all parts, unbuckle straps, remove all buckles, loops, +etc., where possible. + +(b) Wipe off all surface dust and mud with a damp (not wet) sponge. +After rinsing out the sponge, a lather is made by moistening the +sponge in clear water, squeezing it out until nearly dry, and rubbing +it vigorously upon castile soap. When a thick, creamy lather is +obtained, thoroughly clean each piece of the equipment without +neglecting any portion. Each strap should be drawn its entire length +through the lathered sponge so as to actually remove the salt, sweat, +and dirt from each leather piece. + +(c) After again rinsing the sponge make a thick lather as described +above with the saddle soap. Go over each separate piece, thoroughly +working the lather well into every part of the equipment, remembering +that its action is that of a dressing. + +(d) After the leather has been allowed to become partially dry, it +should be rubbed vigorously with a soft cloth to give it the neat, +healthy appearance that is desired. + +=1317. Oiling.= If the foregoing instructions have been carefully +followed, the appearance should now be perfect, and if the leather is +soft and pliable nothing further is required. It will be found, +however, that it will be necessary from time to time to apply a little +oil. It is not practicable, owing to different conditions of climate +and service, to prescribe definitely the frequency of oiling. It has +been found that during the first few months of use a set of new +equipment should be given at least two applications of oil per month. +Thereafter it is entirely a matter of judgment, as indicated by the +appearance and pliability of the leather. Frequent, light applications +are of more value than infrequent heavy applications. + +=1318. New equipment.= Before using, perfectly new equipment should in +all cases be given a light application of neat's-foot oil; soap is +unnecessary because the leather is clean. The application of oil is +important because leather equipment frequently remains a considerable +time in an arsenal or depot and in spite of periodical inspections and +dubbing it is probably too dry for severe service. + +=1319. How to apply oil.= The quantity of oil to be used can not be +definitely prescribed. If not enough oil is used, the leather will be +stiff and brittle; if too much is used, it will soil the clothing and +accumulate dirt. The leather should, therefore, be saturated with +sufficient oil to be soft and pliable without excess sufficient to +cause it to exude. + +In applying the oil the following general instructions should govern: + +(a) The oil should be applied to the flesh side of the equipment where +practicable when the leather is clean and still damp after washing +(about half dry), because it penetrates more uniformly when applied +from the flesh side, and when the leather is damp. If the leather is +dry it will absorb the oil like blotting paper, preventing proper +distribution. + +(b) The oil should be applied with an oiled rag or cotton waste by +long, light, quick strokes--light strokes, so that the pressure +applied may not squeeze out an excess of oil; quick strokes, so that +the leather may not absorb an undue amount of oil. The endeavor should +be to obtain a light, even distribution. + +(c) After applying the oil the leather equipment should be allowed to +stand for 24 hours, if practicable, in a warm dry place. It should +then be rubbed with a dry cloth to remove any unabsorbed oil. + + +Points to Be Remembered + +=1320.= Therefore, from what has been said, the following points must +be remembered: + +(a) Keep leather clean. + +(b) Keep leather pliable by frequent applications of oil. + +(c) Use only materials furnished by the Ordnance Department. _Shoe +polishes_, etc., are almost invariably injurious. + +(d) _Dry all leather wet from whatever cause, in the shade_; never in +the sun or close to a steam radiator, furnace, or boiler. + +(e) Leather should habitually be stored in a cool, dry place, _without +artificial heat_. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[15] "Viscol" is the best oil for softening all kinds of leather that +the author knows of. It is made by The Viscol Co, East Cambridge, +Mass., and can be obtained from the post exchange. + +[16] Propert's Harness Soap is excellent. However, since the European +War its issue has been discontinued by the Ordnance Department. +"Viscol," obtainable from the post exchange, is the best oil for +softening all kinds of leather that the author knows of. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +CARE AND DESCRIPTION OF THE RIFLE + + +Care + +=1321. Importance.= The care of his rifle should be the soldier's +first thought; for, if he would have it take care of him in time of +danger, he must take care of it at all times. + +_It is a generally recognized fact that more rifles become inaccurate +and unserviceable by the lack of care than by firing._ + +The instructions for taking care of the rifle are few and simple. +Learn them well and _apply them constantly_--it only requires a little +care and patience. You will be well repaid for it. It may some day +save your life. + +=1322. Care of bore requires work.= The bore of the rifle is +manufactured with the greatest care in order that a high degree of +accuracy may be obtained, and it should, therefore, be properly cared +for. + +The proper care of the bore requires conscientious, careful work, but +it pays well in reduced labor of cleaning and in prolonged accuracy +life of the rifle, and better results in target practice. + +=1323. How to clean the bore.= With the cleaning rod the bore must +always be cleaned from the breech--never from the muzzle. Cleaning +from the muzzle is liable to wear and otherwise injure the mouth of +the barrel, which is easily injured and thus the piece rendered +inaccurate. + +First, remove the bolt from the rifle, place the muzzle on the floor, +a board, or piece of canvas, and do not remove it therefrom while the +cleaning rod is in the bore. Never place the muzzle on the bare +ground, lest dirt should get into it. (Note. Of course, if a rack is +provided for cleaning rifles, it should be used instead of placing the +muzzle on the floor.) + +To clean the bore use patches of rag, preferably canton flannel, +cutting them into squares of such size that they may easily run +through the barrel. + +=1324. What care of the bore consists of.= Briefly stated, the care of +the bore consists of removing the fouling resulting from firing to +obtain a chemically clean surface, and then coating this surface with +a film of oil to prevent rusting. + +=1325. Kinds of fouling.= The fouling which results from firing is of +two kinds--the _powder fouling_, from the burning of the powder; and +the _metal fouling_, from the nickel scraped off the bullet as it +passes through the bore. + +The _powder fouling_ is highly corrosive, that is, it causes rust and +eats into the metal, and it must, therefore, be removed as soon as +possible. + +The _metal fouling_ itself will not cause rust, but it may cover the +powder fouling and thus prevent the cleaning material from getting at +the powder fouling, which, as stated before, will eat into the metal. +When metal fouling accumulates in noticeable quantities it reduces the +accuracy of the rifle. + +=1326. How to remove powder fouling.= Powder fouling may be readily +removed by scrubbing the bore with the soda solution (hot) furnished +by the Ordnance Department, but this solution has no effect on the +metal fouling. + +It is, therefore, necessary to remove all metal fouling before we are +sure that all powder fouling has been removed and that the bore may be +safely oiled. + +Ordinarily, after firing a barrel in good condition, the metal fouling +is so slight as to be hardly perceptible, and is easily removed by +solvents. + +However, due to the accumulation of metal fouling, pitting (little +hollows in the metal) or the presence of dust, or other abrasives +(substances that cause the metal to wear away by rubbing), the fouling +may occur in clearly visible flakes or patches and be much more +difficult to remove. + +=1327. How to remove metal fouling.= After scrubbing out the bore with +the soda solution, plug it from the breech with a cork at the front +end of the chamber or where the rifling begins. + +Slip one of the 2-inch sections of rubber hose over the muzzle down to +the sight and fill with the standard Ordnance Department solution to +at least one-half inch above the muzzle of the barrel. + +Let it stand for 30 minutes, then pour out the solution, remove the +hose and breech plug, and swab out thoroughly with soda solution to +neutralize and remove all trace of ammonia and powder fouling. + +Wipe the barrel clean, dry, and oil. + +With few exceptions, one application is sufficient, but if all fouling +is not removed, repeat the operation. + +Hoppe's Nitro Solvent No. 9 will accomplish the same result even +better and quicker and with much less labor. + +=1328. How to proceed in cleaning the bore.= + +To clean the bore after firing, proceed as follows: + +Swab out the bore with soda solution to remove powder fouling. A +convenient way to do this is to insert the muzzle of the rifle into +the can containing the solution and with the cleaning rod inserted +from the breech, pump the barrel full a few times. + +Remove and dry with a couple of patches of cloth. Examine to see +whether any patches of metal fouling are in evidence, and if so, then +remove same as explained above. If no metal fouling is in evidence, +then swab out with the swabbing solution. The amount of swabbing +required with the swabbing solution can be determined only by +experience assisted by the color of the patches of cloth. Ordinarily a +couple of minutes' work is sufficient. Dry thoroughly, and oil with +3-in-One. + +As a measure of safety a patch should _always_ be run through the bore +on the next day and the bore examined to insure that cleaning has been +properly done. The bore should then be oiled again with 3-in-One. + +=1329. Necessity for preventing formation of pits.= It is a fact +recognized by all that a highly polished steel surface rusts much less +easily than one which is roughened; also that a barrel which is +pitted fouls much more rapidly than one which is smooth. Every effort, +therefore, should be made to prevent the formation of pits, which are +merely enlarged rust spots, and which not only affect the accuracy of +the piece but also increase the labor of cleaning. + +=If swabbing solution or standard metal fouling solution is not +available=, the barrel should be scrubbed as already described, with +the soda solution, dried, and oiled with a light oil. At the end of 24 +hours it should again be cleaned, when it will usually be found to +have "sweated." Usually a second cleaning is sufficient, but to insure +safety it should be again examined at the end of a few days, before +final oiling. + +Of course, the swabbing solution should always be used, if available, +for it must be remembered that =each "puff" when the bore "sweats" is +an incipient rust pit=. + +What has just been said contemplates the use of the solutions +furnished by the Ordnance Department. However, the same result will be +obtained with less labor by using Hoppe's Nitro Powder Solvent No. 9, +which is sold by all post and camp exchanges, and which the Author, as +the result of experience, highly recommends. + +=1330. How to oil a barrel.= The proper method of oiling a barrel is +as follows: + +Wipe the cleaning rod dry; select a clean patch of cloth and smear it +well with sperm or warmed cosmic oil, being sure that the cosmic has +soaked into the patch well; scrub the bore with patch, finally drawing +the patch smoothly from the muzzle to the breech, allowing the +cleaning rod to turn with the rifling. The bore will be found now to +be smooth and bright so that any subsequent rust or "sweating" can be +easily detected by inspection. (By "sweating" is meant, rust having +formed under the coating of metal fouling where powder fouling was +present, the surface is puffed up.) + +=1331. Care of the chamber.= The chamber of the rifle is often +neglected because it is not readily inspected. Care should be taken to +see that it is cleaned as thoroughly as the bore. A roughened chamber +delays greatly the rapidity of fire, and not infrequently causes +shells to stick. + +=1332. The bolt.= To clean the bolt, remove; clean all parts +thoroughly with an oily rag; dry, and before assembling _lightly_ oil +the firing pin, the barrel of the sleeve, the striker, the well of the +bolt, and all cams. + +=1333. The sights.= Both the front and rear sights should be cared for +just as you would care for the works of your watch. If the sights are +injured, the rifle will not shoot as aimed. + +The front sight cover issued by the Ordnance Department protects the +front sight. + +=1334. The magazine.= The magazine should be kept clean and covered +with a thin coat of oil. + +=1335. The stock.= The stock should receive a light coat of raw +linseed oil once a month, or after any wetting from rain, dew, etc. +The oil should be thoroughly rubbed in with the hand. + +=1336. Care of the mechanism.= When the rifle has been wet or exposed +to unfavorable climatic conditions, the bolt should be withdrawn and +all working parts carefully wiped with a dry cloth, and then gone +over with an oily rag. + +The same thing should be done after firing. + +All working parts should habitually be _lightly_ oiled with a +thin-bodied oil, such as "3-in-One." + +=1337. The care of all metal parts.= All metal parts of the rifle +should be kept clean and free from rust. + +=1338. Cams and bearings.= All cams and bearings must be kept +constantly oiled. + +=1339. How to apply oil.= Do not pour or squirt oil on the rifle. + +Put a few drops on a piece of clean cloth, preferably cotton, and rub +with the cloth, thereby avoiding the use of an unnecessary amount. + +Cams and bearings can be oiled this way. However, if the oiler is used +instead because of greater ease in reaching them, oil them _lightly_. +To soak with oil accomplishes no more than to cover with a light +coating--it merely results in excessive, undesirable smearing and a +waste of oil. + + +Remember + +=1340.= 1. It is easier to prevent than to remove rust. + +2. To remove rust, apply oil with a rag, and let it stand for a while +so as to soften the rust; then wipe with a dry rag. + +3. Emery paper or a burnisher must never be used in removing rust, for +it also removes the bluing. + +However, an ordinary rubber eraser will be found very serviceable for +removing rust. + +4. To prevent rust and dirt in the bore, run a rag through at least +once each day. + +5. Never, under any circumstances, put away a rifle that has been +fired or exposed to bad weather, without first cleaning it. + +6. Never lay your rifle flat on the ground. Not only is there danger +of dirt or other foreign matter getting into the bore, but a vehicle +may run over it, or some one may step on the sight. Always rest it up +_securely_ against something. On the target range it is well for every +soldier to have a short wood or metal fork, on which to rest his +rifle. + +7. In coming to the order from any position, always bring the rifle to +the ground _gently_. + + +Army Regulations Regarding the Rifle + +=1341.= _Are enlisted men allowed to take their arms apart?_ + +No; not unless they have the permission of a commissioned officer, and +even then only under proper supervision and in the manner prescribed +in the descriptive pamphlet issued by the Ordnance Department. (A. R. +292.) + +(Except when repairs are needed, the following named parts should +never be dismounted by the soldier, and whenever they are taken apart +they should be removed only by the company mechanic, or someone else +familiar with the handling of tools and delicate mechanism: Bolt stop, +cut off, safety lock, sleeve lock, front sight, front sight movable +stud, lower band, upper band, and stacking swivel screws.) + +(Unless the screw driver is handled carefully and with some skill the +screws are sure to be injured either at the head or thread. The +soldier may dismount the bolt and magazine mechanism for the purpose +of cleaning them, but he is not permitted to do any further +dismounting without the authority of a commissioned officer.) + +_Is the polishing of blued and browned parts permitted?_ + +No, and rebluing, rebrowning, putting any portion of an arm in fire, +removing a receiver from a barrel, mutilating any part by fire or +otherwise, and attempting to beautify or change the finish, are +prohibited. However, the prohibition of attempts to beautify or change +the finish of arms is not construed as forbidding the application of +raw linseed oil to the wood parts of arms. This oil is considered +necessary for the preservation of the wood, and it may be used for +such polishing as can be given when rubbing in one or more coats when +necessary. The use of raw linseed oil only is allowed for redressing +and the application for such purpose of any kind of wax or varnish, +including heelball, is strictly prohibited. (Army Regulations 292.) + +_Is the use of tompions[17] in small arms permitted?_ + +No, it is prohibited by regulations. (Army Regulations 292.) + +_Should pieces be unloaded before being taken to quarters or tents?_ + +Yes, unless it is otherwise ordered. They should also be unloaded as +soon as the men using them are relieved from duty. (Army Regulations +292.) + +_Should a loaded or unloaded rifle or revolver ever be pointed at +anyone in play?_ + +No, under no circumstances whatsoever. _A soldier should never point a +rifle or revolver at a person unless he intends to shoot him._ + + +Description + +=1342. Nomenclature of the rifle.= The illustrations on this page and +those on the two following pages give the nomenclature of the rifles, +with which every soldier should be familiar. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +The bolt (Fig. 2) consists of the _handle_, A; _sleeve_, B; _safety +lock_, C; _Cocking piece_, D; _safety lug_, E; _extractor_, F; +_extractor collar_, G; _locking lugs_, H; _extractor tongue groove_, +I; and _gas escape hole_, J. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +=1343. Rear-sight leaf; drift slide; wind gauge.= The illustration on +the opposite page shows the _rear sight leaf_ (raised), the _drift +slide_ (E), and the _wind gauge_ (F, L.). It is most important that +the soldier be thoroughly familiar with the use of these parts, for +otherwise it is impossible for him to sight correctly and use his +rifle properly. + +The leaf is graduated from 100 to 2850 yards. The lines that extend +the whole way across the two branches of the leaf, mark 100 yard +divisions; those that extend about half way across, mark 50 yard +divisions, and the shorter lines mark 25 yard divisions. + +The _even_ numbers (4, 6, 8, etc.) on the _left_ branch of the leaf, +indicate 400, 600, 800, etc, yards. + +The _odd_ numbered hundreds of yards (300, 500, 700, etc.) are on the +_right_ branch of the leaf. + +_The numbers rest on top of the lines to which they refer._ + +So, if you want to fire at a target 800 yards away, set the rear sight +at 8; 1,000 yards, at 10; 1,200 yards, at 12, etc. + +With the fly leaf up, ranges from 100 to 2350 yards can be obtained +through the _peep hole_, K; from 100 to 2450 through the lower _peep +notch_, J; and from 1400 to 2750 yards through the upper _peep notch_, +G. + +There is a horizontal line on the drift slide, across the _peep hole_, +K. If the _peep hole_ sight is used the sight is set by this +horizontal line, which is set opposite the proper graduation (line +across branch of leaf). + +If the _peep notch_, J, is used, the sight is set by the short +horizontal line--that is, on a line with the top of the notch. + +If the _peep notch_, G, is used, the sight is set by the top of the +_slide_, C, which is set on the proper graduation. + +Care must be taken not to use one of the _peep notches_ when the sight +has been set for the _peep hole_, or not to do the reverse, without +first changing the sight. + +The _sighting notch_, A, used when the range is 2850 yards, is hardly +ever used, because the rifle is very, very seldom, if ever, fired at +that range. + +By _battle sight_ we mean the position of the rear sight with the leaf +down, and it corresponds to a sight setting of 530 yards. The notch, +H, that is used when the leaf is down is called the _battle sight +notch_. The battle sight is the only one used in _rapid fire_. In +unexpected, close encounters the side that first opens a rapid and +accurate fire has a great advantage over the other. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[17] Wooden stoppers or plugs that are put into the muzzles of rifles +and other arms to keep out dirt and water. + + + + +PART IV + + + + +RIFLE TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION + +(Based on Small-Arms Firing Manual) + + +=1344. Object of system of instruction.= The object of the system of +rifle training and instruction employed in our Army is two-fold: + + 1. _To make of INDIVIDUALS, shots who in battle will make hits + instead of misses._ + + 2. _To make of ORGANIZATIONS, pliable, manageable MACHINES, + capable of delivering in battle a volume of EFFECTIVE fire._ + +=1345. To make of INDIVIDUALS shots who in battle will make hits +instead of misses.= This is accomplished by INDIVIDUAL training and +instruction whereby the skill of the soldier as a rifleman is so +developed as to be up to the capabilities of his rifle, which is +probably the best and most accurate rifle in the world,--that is to +say-- + + _Effort is made to so develop the shooting skill of the soldier + that he will be able to make his rifle do the things that it is + capable of doing._ + +To accomplish this end the soldier is put through a course of +individual instruction that divides itself into three main phases or +stages, viz:-- + + 1. _Preliminary drills._ By means of preliminary drills in the + form of sighting drills; position and aiming drills; and + deflection and correction elevation drills, he is taught the + theoretical, fundamental principles of shooting. + + 2. _Gallery practice._ Having been taught the theoretical, + fundamental principles of shooting by means of the preliminary + drills mentioned in the proceeding paragraph, the soldier is then + shown how to apply them in a simple, elementary way by being put + through a course of gallery practice with the .22 Cal. Gallery + Practice Rifle, using reduced charges. This practice may be called + the _transitory_ phase or period of individual instruction, during + which The soldier passes from his acquisition of the theoretical, + fundamental principles of shooting to their application to actual + firing, on the target range, with the regulation Army rifle. + + 3. _Range practice._ Having gone through the course in gallery + practice, the soldier then fires on the target range, applying and + putting into practice, with the regulation Army rifle; the + theoretical principles of shooting taught him during the + preliminary drills, and in the application and practice of which + he was also instructed during the gallery practice. + +=1346. Other Instruction.= While the above phases embody the principal +subjects in which a soldier is trained and instructed in developing +his skill in shooting, he is also instructed in other matters that +are necessary to round out and complete his skill in +marksmanship,--for example, the care of the rifle, estimating +distances, the effect of light, wind, and temperature, etc. + +=1347. To make of ORGANIZATIONS pliable, manageable MACHINES, capable +of delivering in battle a volume of EFFECTIVE fire.= This is +accomplished by _collective_ training and instruction, in which a +number of soldiers (for example, a squad, platoon, or company), under +command of a leader, fire, under assumed tactical situations, at +targets which simulate the appearance of an enemy under conditions +approaching those found in war. This kind of training and instruction +is called, "Combat practice." + +In combat practice the individual is trained in firing as part of a +tactical unit,--that is to say, in cooeperation with others,--and the +commanders of the tactical units are taught how to direct and control +the fire of their units,[18] obtaining the maximum efficiency of fire +by cooerdination of the skill and efforts of all the individuals of the +unit. + + +PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTION + +=1348.= The following outline of the program of instruction gives a +sort of bird's-eye view of the system: + + +1. INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION + + { (a) Theory of sighting. (The trajectory; + { The line of sight; Sighting or aiming.) + 1. Sights and Sighting. { (b) Kinds of sights. (Open; Peep; Battle.) + { (c) Kinds of sight. (That is, amount of + { front sight taken.) (Normal; Fine; Full.) + + { (a) Sighting drills. (Importance and purpose; + { Point of aim; Triangle of sighting.) + { (Verifying the triangle; causes of errors.) + { (b) Position and aiming drills. (Objects + 2. Preliminary drills. { [3]; Position exercise; Aiming exercise; + { Trigger-squeeze exercise; Rapid-fire exercise; + { Kneeling, sitting down, and prone.) + { (c) Deflection and elevation correction + { drills. + + 3. Gallery practice. (Object and importance.) + + 4. Range practice. (Instruction practice; Range practice.) + + 5. Other Instruction. (Use of sling; Designation of winds; Zero + of rifle; Estimating distances [with the eye, by trial shots, and by + trial volleys]; Wind; Temperature; Light; Mirage; Care of rifle, etc.) + + +INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION + +Sights and Sighting + +_Theory of Sighting_ + +=1349. The trajectory.= As the bullet passes through the air it makes +a curved line something like this: + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +This curved line is called the _trajectory_. + +The resistance of the air and the force of gravity (the force that +pulls all bodies toward the earth) are the two things that make the +path of the bullet a curved line, just the same as they make the path +of the baseball thrown by the player a curved line. + +The resistance of the air holds the bullet back and the force of +gravity pulls it down, so that the two acting together make the +bullet's path curved. + +The longer the range the more will the path of the bullet (the +trajectory) be curved, as shown by the following drawing: + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +=1350. Sighting or aiming.= Now, on the rifle there are two +"sights,"--the _front sight_ and the _rear sight_,--which enable the +rifleman to regulate the path of the bullet, as the ball player +regulates the path of the ball. + +If the ball player wants distance, he throws the ball high (raises the +path, the trajectory), using his eye and guesswork, and likewise if +the rifleman wants to shoot at a distant target, he, too, shoots the +bullet high (that is, he raises the muzzle of his rifle), but he +doesn't have to depend upon guesswork. It is all worked out for him by +experts and all he need do is to set the _rear sight_ for the proper +range,--that is, for the distance the object is from him. + +Aiming or sighting a rifle consists in bringing into line three +objects: _The target_, A, _the front sight_, B, and _the rear sight_, +C. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +The rifle is so made and the sights placed on it in such a way that +when the piece is held in such a position that the _target_, the +_front sight_ and the _rear sight_ are in line, and the trigger is +pulled (squeezed) the bullet will strike the _target_. + +You raise the muzzle of the piece by raising the rear sight,--that is, +raising the rear sight has the effect of raising the muzzle, for the +higher you raise the rear sight the higher must you raise the muzzle +in order to see the front sight and get it in line with the object +aimed at and the rear sight. + +This is shown in the following illustrations: + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +[Illustration: Fig. 4a] + +The rear sight, C, the front sight, B, and the bull's eye, A, are all +on a line with the eye, D, the rear sight being set for 200 yards. + +Suppose we wanted to shoot at 2000 instead of 200 yards. We would +raise the slide up to 20 (2000 yards) on the sight leaf. + +In order to see the bull's eye through the notch sight at 2000, we +must raise the eye to the position, D. We now have the rear sight, the +bull's eye and the eye in line, but we must bring the front sight in +line with them, which is done by raising the muzzle of the piece, +giving the result shown in Fig. 4a. + +=1351. Line of sight.= With the open sight the line of sight is +determined by a point on the middle line of the notch of the rear +sight and the top of the front sight. + +With the peep sight, the line of sight is determined by the _center_ +of the peep and the top of the front sight. + + +Kinds of sights + +=1352.= (See Fig. 3, par. 1343, giving rear sight leaf in detail.) + +The different kinds of sights are as follows: + +(a) =Open sight.= By _open sight_ is meant the use of any one of the +_sighting notches_. + +To use the open sight: + +1. Look through the sighting notch at the target. (Fig. 5.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + +2. Bring the top of the front sight _on a line with the top and in the +center_ of the sight notch, _the top of the front sight being just +under the bull's eye_. + +Because of its wide field of view and its readiness in getting a quick +aim with it, the open sight is the one that is generally used in the +later stages of battle, or when fire is to start immediately. + +(b) =Peep Sight.= By _peep sight_ is meant the use of the _peep hole_ +in the drift slide. + +To use the peep sight: + +1. Look through the peep hole at the target. (Fig. 7.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +2. Bring the top of the front sight to the _center_ of the peep hole, +_the top of the front sight being just under the bull's eye_. (Fig. 8) + +[Illustration: Fig. 8 + +_Correct_] + +_Be sure to get the top of front sight_, as in Fig. 8, _and not the +bull's eye_, as in Fig. 9, _in center of the peep hole_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9 + +_Incorrect_] + +=Advantage of the peep sight.= The advantage of the peep sight over +the open sight is due to the fact that it is easier to center the top +of the front sight in the peep hole and thus get the same amount of +front sight each time. + +For example you know at once, without measuring, that the dots in the +circles, Fig. 10, are not centered, and that the one in the circle in +Fig. 11, is. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +After a little practice, in looking through the peep hole the eye +almost automatically centers the top of the front sight. + +=Disadvantage of the peep sight.= The disadvantage of the peep sight +is that its limited field of view and lack of readiness in getting a +quick aim with it limit its use to those stages of the combat when +comparative deliberation will be possible. + +(c) =Battle sight.= By _battle sight_ we mean the position of the rear +sight with the leaf down. There is a sighting notch on the top of the +leaf, or rather on top of the leaf slide which works up and down the +leaf. + +The battle sight is the only sight used in _rapid fire_. In +unexpected, close encounters the side that first opens a rapid and +accurate fire has a great advantage over the other. Again, a soldier +on patrol generally has no time to set his sight, if suddenly attacked +at close range. The battle sight, may, therefore be called the +_emergency sight_,--the _handy_, _quick sight_. The soldier should, +therefore, become thoroughly familiar with the use of this sight. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12 + +_Battle sight_] + +The _sighting notch_ in the slide with the rear sight leaf down, is +the same height as is the sighting in the drift slide when the rear +sight leaf is raised and set at 530 yards. + +That is to say, _battle sight_ is equivalent to a sight setting of 530 +yards. Therefore, in shooting with battle sight at objects nearer than +530 yards you must aim lower. + + +Kinds of Sight + +=1353.= (Amount of front sight taken) + +(a) =Normal sight.= The amount of front sight taken in Figs. 6 and 8, +is called the _normal_ sight and is the one that the soldier should +always use, either with the open notch or peep sight, as it is the +only sight which assures the taking of the same amount of front sight +every time. In other words it assumes a greater degree of _uniformity_ +in sighting, which is one of the most important factors in shooting. +By uniformity in sighting is meant taking the same amount of sight +each time. + +If you take _less_ than the amount of front sight used in the normal +sight, it will, of course, have the effect of _lowering_ the muzzle of +the piece, and consequently you will hit a point _lower_ than if you +had used the normal sight. + +On the other hand, if you take _more_ than the amount of front sight +used in the normal sight, it will, of course, have the effect of +raising the muzzle and consequently you will hit a point _higher_ than +if you had used the normal sight. + +(b) =Fine sight.= Although occasionally a man will be found who can +get good results by using the fine sight, the average man cannot, and +this form of sighting is, therefore, to be avoided. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13 + +_Fine sight_] + +(c) =Full sight.= The so-called _full sight_ must be avoided under all +circumstances. It is merely mentioned and shown here to point out a +fault that must be carefully avoided. + +The objections to its use are the same as in the case of the fine +sight,--that is, lack of uniformity in the amount of sight taken. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14 + +_Full sight_] + +=1354. What the rifleman looks at when he fires.= The eye can be +focused accurately upon objects at only one distance at a time; all +other objects we see will be more or less blurred and fuzzy looking, +depending upon their distance from the object upon which our eye is +focused. + +The rifleman who attains proficiency _focuses his eye on the target +while aiming_, but he glances at one sight and then the other to see +that they are aligned properly, then back at the target, and at the +instant of discharge _his eye is on the target_. + + +Preliminary Drills + +=1355. Sighting, Position and Aiming Drills.= The importance of the +following sighting, position and aiming drills cannot be +overestimated. If they are carefully practiced, before firing a single +shot at a target, you will have learned how to aim your piece +correctly, hold your rifle steadily, squeeze the trigger properly, +assume that position best adapted to the particular conformation of +your body, and you will also have acquired the quickness and manual +skill required for handling the piece in rapid fire. + +The sighting, position and aiming drills teach the fundamental +principles of shooting, which are the foundation upon which +marksmanship is built. + +_Do not confine yourself to going through these drills only during +drill hours, but go through them frequently at other times. The extent +to which it will improve your shooting will more than repay you for +your trouble._ + + +Sighting Drills + +=1356. Object.= The objects of the sighting drill are: + +1. To show how to bring the rear sight, the front sight and the target +into the same line,--that is, to show how to sight properly. + +2. To discover and point out errors in sighting.--in other words, to +discover the errors you make in sighting and show the reasons for +same, so that you may be able to correct them properly. + +3. To teach uniformity in sighting,--that is, to teach you how to take +the same amount of sight each time,--to see every time the same amount +of front sight when you look through the rear sight. + +=Sighting rest for rifle.= A good sighting rest for a rifle may be +made by removing the top from an empty pistol ammunition box, or a +similar box, and then cutting notches in the ends of the box to fit +the rifle closely. (Fig. 15.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +[Illustration: Fig. 16] + +Place the rifle in these notches with the trigger guard close to and +outside one end. + +At a convenient distance above the ground fasten a blank sheet of +paper on a wall or on a plank nailed to a stake driven into the +ground. + +Three legs are fastened to the rest (or it may be placed on the ground +without any legs), which is placed 20 or 30 feet from the blank sheet +of paper. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17] + +Make sure that the piece is canted neither to the right nor left, and +without touching the rifle or rest, sight the rifle near the center of +the blank sheet of paper (Fig. 17.) + +Changes in the line of sight are made by changing the elevation and +windage. + +A soldier acting as marker is provided with a pencil and a small rod +bearing at one end a small piece of white cardboard, with a black +bull's eye pierced in the center with a hole just large enough to +admit the point of a lead pencil. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18] + +The soldier sighting directs the marker to move the disk to the right, +left, higher, or lower, until the line of aim is established when he +commands, "Mark," or "Hold." + +At the command "Mark," being careful not to move the disk, the marker +records through the hole in the center the position of the disk and +then withdraws it. + +At the command "Hold," the marker holds the disk carefully in place +without marking, until the position is verified by the instructor, and +the disk is not withdrawn until so directed. + +=1357. Point of Aim.= Always be sure to aim at a point just below the +black bull's-eye,--that is, aim so that there will be a fine line of +light between the bottom of the bull's-eye and the-top of the front +sight (Fig. 19). This is important to insure uniformity in +sighting,--that is, in order to make sure that you aim at the same +place on the target each time. If the top of the front sight touches +the bottom of the bull's-eye it is impossible to say just how much of +the front sight is seen, and how far up into the bull's-eye you are. + +[Illustration: Fig. 19] + + +First Sighting Exercise + +=1358.= Using the sighting rest for the rifle (Fig. 17) require each +man to direct the marker to move the disk until the rifle is directed +on the bull's-eye with the _normal_ sight and command, "Hold." If +aiming correctly the rear sight, the front sight and the bull's-eye +will look as shown in Fig. 19, above. + +The instructor then verifies this line of sight. Errors, if any, will +be pointed out to the soldier and another trial made. If he is still +unable to sight correctly, he will be given as many more trials as may +be necessary. + +Sometimes a man does not know how to place the eye in the line of +sight; he will look over or along one side of the notch of the rear +sight and believe that he is aiming through the notch because he sees +it at the same time that he does the front sight. Again some men in +sighting will look at the front sight and not at the object. + +Repeat the above exercise, using the _peep_ sight. If aiming +correctly, the rear sight, the front sight and the bull's-eye will +look as shown in Fig. 20. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20] + + +Second Sighting Exercise + +=1359. The triangle of sighting.= Using the sighting rest for the +rifle as before (Fig. 17), direct the marker to move the disk until +the rifle is directed on the bull's-eye with the _normal_ sight and +command "Mark," whereupon the marker, being careful not to move the +disk, records through the hole in its center, the position of the +disk, and withdraws it. Then, being careful not to move the rifle or +sights repeat the operation until three marks have been made. + +Join the three points by straight lines. The shape and size of the +triangle will indicate the nature of the variations made in sighting. + +[Illustration: Fig. 21] + +For example, if you have taken the same aim each time, you will get a +very small triangle something like this: [Illustration: triangle] +which resulted from taking each time this aim, for instance: + +[Illustration: Fig. 22] + +A triangle like Fig. 22 results from not taking the same amount of +front sight each time, as shown in Fig. 23. + +[Illustration: Fig. 23] + +[Illustration: Fig. 24] + +A triangle like Fig. 24 shows that the front sight was not in the +middle of the notch each time, as shown in Fig. 25. + +[Illustration: Fig. 25] + +A triangle like Fig. 26 results from a combination of the two errors +mentioned above,--that is, not taking the same amount of front sight +each time and not having the front sight in the middle of the notch +each time, as shown in Fig. 27. + +[Illustration: Fig. 26] + +[Illustration: Fig. 27] + +If any one of the sides of the triangle is longer than one-half inch, +the exercise is repeated, each sight being verified by the instructor, +who will call the soldier's attention to his errors, if any. + +The smaller the triangle, the better the sighting. + +=1360. Verifying the triangle.= If the sides of the triangle are so +small that they indicate regularity in sighting, mark the center of +the triangle and then place the center of the bull's-eye on this mark. +The instructor then examines the position of the bull's-eye with +reference to the line of sight. If the bull's-eye is properly placed +with reference to the line of sight, the soldier aims correctly and +with uniformity. + +If the bull's-eye is not properly placed with reference to the line of +sight, the soldier aims in a regular manner but with a constant error. + +=1361. Causes of errors.= If the bull's-eye is directly above its +proper position, the soldier has aimed high,--that is, he has taken +too little front sight. + +If the bull's-eye is directly below its proper position, the soldier +has aimed low,--that is, he has taken too much front sight. + +If the bull's-eye is directly to the right or left of its proper +position, the soldier has not sighted through the center of the rear +notch and over the top of the front sight. If to the _right_, the +soldier has either sighted along the _left_ of the rear sight notch or +the _right_ side of the front sight, or has committed both of these +errors. + +If the bull's-eye is to the _left_ of its proper place, the soldier +has probably-sighted along the _right_ of the rear sight notch, or to +the _left_ of the front sight, or has committed both of these errors. + +If the bull's eye is diagonally above and to the right, the soldier +has probably combined the errors which placed it too high and too far +to the right. + +Any other diagonal position would be produced by a similar combination +of vertical and horizontal errors. + +After the above instruction has been given to one man, the line of +sight will be slightly changed by moving the sighting rest or by +changing the elevation and windage, and the exercises similarly +repeated with other men. + +Repeat the exercise, using the _peep_ sight. + + +Third Sighting Exercise + +=1362.= This exercise shows the effect of canting the piece. + +It is most important that in aiming the sights be kept vertical and +the piece not be canted,--that is, that the barrel be not tilted over +to the right or left. + +If the piece is canted to the right, the sights are lowered to the +right and consequently the bullet will strike to the right and below +the point aimed at, even though the rifle be otherwise correctly aimed +and the sights correctly set. + +Similarly if the piece is canted to the left the sights are lowered to +the left, and consequently the bullet will strike to the left and low. + +This effect of canting the piece may be shown as follows: Use the +sighting rest with the rifle firmly held in the notches, the bolt +removed. + +Paste a black paster near the center of the bottom line of the target. +Sight the rifle on this mark, using about 2000 yards' elevation. Then, +being careful not to move the rifle, look through the bore and direct +the marker to move the disk until the bull's-eye is in the center of +the field of view and command, "Mark." + +Next, turn the rest (with the rifle) over 90 deg. to the right, on its +side, and with the same elevation, sight on the same paster as above. +Then, being careful not to move the rifle, look through the bore and +again direct the marker to move the disk until the bull's-eye is in +the center of the field of view and command, "Mark." + +Not considering the fall of the bullet, the first mark represents the +point struck with the sight vertical, the second mark represents the +point struck, low and to the right, using the same elevation and the +same point of aim, when the piece is canted 90 deg. to the right. + +Different degrees of canting the piece can be represented by drawing +an arc of a circle through the two marks with the paster as a center. +The second mark will be at a point on this arc corresponding to the +degree of canting the piece. + +It is important to know that this effect of canting increases with the +distance from the target. + + +Fourth Sighting Exercise + +=1363.= This exercise is to show the advantage of blackened sights. + +In strong sunlight, make a triangle of sighting, using a rifle having +sights worn bright. Then, being careful not to move the rifle, blacken +the sights and make another triangle. + +Use dotted lines for the triangle with bright sights and full lines +for the triangle made with blackened sights. + +The position and size of the two triangles will plainly show the +advantage of using blackened sights. + + +Fifth Sighting Exercise + +=1364.= This exercise is to illustrate the importance of knowing the +effects of varying degrees of light. + +In strong sunlight make a triangle of sighting. Then, being careful +not to move the piece, make another triangle, the target and the man +sighting having first been shaded. + +The relative positions of the triangles will show the importance of +knowing the effects of varying degrees of light. + + +Position and Aiming Drills + +=1365. Object.= The object of the position and aiming drills are: + +1. To so educate the muscles of the arm and body that the piece, +during the act of aiming, shall be held without restraint, and during +the operation of firing shall not be deflected from the target by any +convulsive or improper movement of the trigger finger or of the body, +arms, or hands. + +2. They also establish between the hand and eye such prompt and +intimate connection as will insure that the finger shall act upon the +trigger, giving the final pressure at the exact moment when the top of +the front sight is seen to be directed upon the mark. + +3. If at the moment the piece is discharged, it is properly supported +and correctly aimed, the mark will surely be hit. + +Since any fairly intelligent man can be taught to aim correctly and to +hold the sights aligned upon the mark with a fair amount of +steadiness, it follows that bad shooting must necessarily arise from +causes other than bad aiming. The chief of these causes is known to be +the deflection given to the rifle when it is discharged, due to the +fact that the soldier, at the moment of firing, instead of SQUEEZING +the trigger, _jerks_ it. This convulsive action is largely due to lack +of familiarity with the methods of firing and to a constrained +position of the muscles of the body, arm, and hands, which constrained +position it is the object of the position and aiming drills to +correct. + +=1366. General.= In order to correct any tendency to cant the piece, +the rear sight is raised in all the exercises. + +Place a black paster at which to aim on the wall opposite each man. + +The squad being formed in single rank, with an interval of one yard +between files, the instructor directs the men to take the position of +"Ready," except that the position of the feet is such as to insure the +greatest firmness and steadiness of the body. + +The instructor then cautions, "Position and aiming drill." + +The exercise which is being taught should be repeated frequently and +made continuous. The instructor prefaces the preparatory command by, +"Continue the motion," or "At will," and gives the command "Halt" at +the conclusion of the exercise, when the soldier returns to the +position of "Ready." Or the soldier may be made to repeat the first +and second motions by the command "One," "Two," the exercise +concluding with the command "Halt." + +Care must be taken by the instructor not to make the position and +aiming drills tedious. Thirty minutes daily should be spent in this +practice during the period of preliminary instruction. After gallery +practice is taken up, however, five or ten minutes daily should be +sufficient for these exercises. + +In order that the instructor may readily detect and correct errors the +squads for these drills should not consist of more than eight men. + +The instructor should avoid holding the squad in tiresome positions +while making explanations or corrections. + + +Position Exercise + +=1367.= The instructor commands: =1. Position, 2. EXERCISE.= At the +command, "_Exercise_" without moving the body or eyes, raise the rifle +smartly to the front of the right shoulder to the full extent of the +left arm, elbow inclined downward, the barrel nearly horizontal, +muzzle slightly depressed, heel of the butt on a line with the top of +the shoulder. (Fig. 28.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 28] + +(Two.) Bring the piece smartly against the hollow of the shoulder, +without permitting the shoulder to give way, and press the rifle +against it, mainly with the right hand, only slightly with the left, +the forefinger of the right hand resting lightly against the trigger, +the rifle inclined neither to the right nor left. + +(Three.) Resume the position of ready. (Fig. 30.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 29] + +=Remarks.= The instructor should especially notice the position of +each soldier in this exercise, endeavoring to give to each man an +easy and natural position. He should see that the men avoid drawing in +the stomach, raising the breast, or bending the small of the back. The +butt of the piece must be pressed firmly, but not too tightly, into +the hollow of the shoulder and not against the muscles of the upper +arm. If held too tightly, the pulsations of the body will be +communicated to the piece; if too loosely, the recoil will bruise the +shoulder. If only the heel or toe touches the hollow of the shoulder, +the recoil may throw the muzzle down or up, affecting the position of +the hit. While both arms are used to press the piece to the shoulder, +the left arm should be used to direct the piece and the right +forefinger must be left free to squeeze the trigger. + +[Illustration: Fig. 30] + + +Aiming Exercise + +=1368.= The instructor will first direct the sights to be adjusted for +the lowest elevation and subsequently for the different longer ranges. + +The instructor commands: =1. Aiming. 2. EXERCISE.= At the last command +execute the first and second motion of the position exercise. + +(Two.) Bend the head a little to the right, the cheek resting against +the stock, the left eye closed, the right eye looking through the +notch of the rear sight at a point slightly below the mark. (Fig. 31.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 31] + +(Three.) Draw a moderately long breath, let a portion of it escape, +then, with the lungs in a state of rest, slowly raise the rifle with +the left hand, being careful not to incline the sight to either side, +until the line of sight is directly on the mark; hold the rifle +steadily directed on the mark for a moment; then, without command and +just before the power to hold the rifle steadily is lost, drop the +rifle to the position of "Ready" and resume the breathing. + +=1369. Remarks.= Some riflemen prefer to extend the left arm. Such a +position gives greater control over the rifle when firing in a strong +wind or at moving objects. It also possesses advantages when a rapid +as well as accurate delivery of fire is desired. Whatever the +position, whether standing, kneeling, sitting, or prone, the piece +should rest on the palm of the left hand, never on the tips of the +fingers, and should be firmly grasped by all the fingers and the +thumb. + +The eye may be brought to the line of sight either by lowering the +head or by raising the shoulder; it is best to combine somewhat these +methods; the shoulder to be well raised by raising the right elbow and +holding it well to the front and at right angles to the body. + +If the shoulder is not raised, it will be necessary for the soldier to +lower the head to the front in order to bring the eye into the line of +sight. Lowering the head too far to the front brings it near the right +hand, which grasps the stock. When the piece is discharged, this hand +is carried by the recoil to the rear and, when the head is in this +position, may strike against the nose or mouth. This often happens in +practice, and as a result of this blow often repeated many men become +gun-shy, or flinch, or close their eyes at the moment of firing. Much +bad shooting, ascribed to other causes, is really due to this fault. +Raising the right elbow at right angles to the body elevates the right +shoulder, and lifts the piece so that it is no longer necessary to +incline the head materially to the front in order to look along the +sights. + +As the length of the soldier's neck determines greatly the exact +method of taking the proper position, the instructor will be careful +to see that the position is taken without restraint. + +As changes in the elevation of the rear sight will necessitate a +corresponding change in the position of the soldier's head when +aiming, the exercise should not be held with the sight adjusted for +the longer ranges until the men have been practiced with the sights as +the latter would generally be employed for offhand firing. + +The soldier must be cautioned that while raising the line of sight to +the mark he must fix his eyes on the mark and not on the front sight; +the latter can then be readily brought into the line joining the +rear-sight notch and mark. If this plan be not followed, when firing +is held on the range at long distances the mark will generally appear +blurred and indistinct. The front sight will always be plainly seen, +even though the eye is not directed particularly upon it. + +The rifle must be raised slowly, without jerk, and its motion stopped +gradually. In retaining it directed at the mark, care must be taken +not to continue the aim after steadiness is lost; this period will +probably be found to be short at first, but will quickly lengthen with +practice. No effort should be made to prolong it beyond the time that +breathing can be easily restrained. Each soldier will determine for +himself the proper time for discontinuing the aim. + +The men must be cautioned not to hold the breath too long, as a +trembling of the body will result in many cases. + +Some riflemen prefer, in aiming, to keep both eyes open but, unless +the habit is fixed, the soldier should be instructed to close the left +eye. + + +Trigger-Squeeze Exercise + +=1370.= The instructor commands: =1. Trigger squeeze. 2. EXERCISE.= At +the command =Exercise=, the soldier executes the first motion of the +aiming exercise. + +(Two.) The second motion of the aiming exercise. + +(Three.) Draw a moderately long breath, let a portion of it escape, +hold the breath and slowly raise the rifle with the left hand until +the line of sight is on the mark, being careful not to incline the +sights to either side. Contract the trigger finger gradually, slowly +and steadily increasing the pressure on the trigger, while the aim is +being perfected; continue the gradual increase of pressure so that +when the aim has become exact the additional pressure required to +release the point of the sear can be given almost insensibly and +without causing any deflection of the rifle. Continue the aim a moment +after the release of the firing pin, observe if any change has been +made in the direction of the line of sight, and then resume the +position of "Ready," cocking the piece by raising and lowering the +bolt handle. + +=Remarks.= Poor shooting is often the result of lack of proper +cooerdination of holding the breath, the maximum steadiness of aim, and +the squeeze of the trigger. By frequent practice in this exercise, +each man may come to know the exact instant his firing pin will be +released. He must be taught to hold the breath, bring the sights to +bear upon the mark, and squeeze the trigger all at the same time. + +=1371. The Trigger Squeeze.= The trigger should be _squeezed_, not +pulled, the hand being closed upon itself as a sponge is squeezed, the +forefinger sharing in this movement. The forefinger should be placed +as far around the trigger as to _press_ it with the second joint. By +practice the soldier becomes familiar with the trigger _squeeze_ of +his rifle, and knowing this, he is able to judge at any time, within +limits, what additional _pressure_ is required for its discharge. By +constant repetition of this exercise he should be able finally to +_squeeze_ the trigger to a certain point beyond which the slightest +movement will release the sear. Having _squeezed_ the trigger to this +point, the aim is corrected and, when true, the additional pressure is +applied and the discharge follows. + +[Illustration: Fig. 32] + + +Rapid-Fire Exercise + +=1372. Object.= The object of this exercise is to teach the soldier to +aim quickly and at the same time accurately in all the positions he +will be called upon to assume in range practice. + +The instructor commands: =1. Rapid-fire exercise. 2. COMMENCE FIRING.= +At the first command the first and second motions of the +trigger-squeeze exercise are performed. At the second command, the +soldier performs the third motion of the trigger-squeeze exercise, +squeezing the trigger without disturbing the aim or the position of +the piece, but at the same time without undue deliberation. He then +without removing the rifle from the shoulder, holding the piece in +position with the left hand, grasps the handle of the bolt with the +right hand, rapidly draws back the bolt, closes the chamber, aims, and +again squeezes the trigger. This movement is repeated until the +trigger has been squeezed five times, when, without command, the piece +is brought back to the position of "Ready." + +When the soldier has acquired some facility in this exercise, he will +be required to repeat the movement ten times, and finally, by using +dummy cartridges, he may, by degrees, gain the necessary quickness and +dexterity for the execution of the rapid fire required in range +firing. + +=1373 Methods.= The methods of taking position, of aiming, and of +squeezing the trigger, taught in the preceding exercises, should be +carried out in the rapid-fire exercises, with due attention to all +details taught therein; the details being carried out as prescribed +except that greater promptness is necessary. In order that any +tendency on the part of the recruit to slight the movements of aiming +and of trigger squeeze shall be avoided, the rapid-fire exercises will +not be taught until the recruit is thoroughly drilled and familiar +with the preceding exercises. The recruit will be instructed that with +practice in this class of fire the trigger can be squeezed promptly +without deranging the piece. + +=1374. Repetition.= If the recruit seems to execute the exercise +hurriedly or carelessly, the instructor will require him to repeat it +at a slower rate. + +=1375. Manipulation of the Breech Mechanism.= To hold the piece to the +position of the left hand should not be changed, but the left forearm +with the proper facility, are learned only after much practice. Some +riflemen, especially men who shoot from the left shoulder, find it +easier, in rapid firing, to drop the piece to the position of load +after each shot. While at first trial this method may seem easier, it +is believed that, with practice, the advantage of the former method +will be apparent. + + +Position and Aiming Drill, Kneeling + +=1376.= These exercises will be repeated in the kneeling position by +causing the squad to kneel by the commands prescribed in the Drill +Regulations. The exercises will be executed as prescribed for +standing, except that the command "Two" in the position exercise, the +soldier will rest the left elbow on the left knee, the point of the +elbow in front of the kneecap. The pasters for the kneeling exercise +should be at 2-1/2 feet from the floor or ground. + +=Remarks.= Frequent rests will be given during practice in these +exercises kneeling, as the position, if long continued, becomes +constrained and fatigues the soldier unnecessarily. + +In raising the rifle to the mark in the second and third exercises, +the position of the left hand should not be changed, but the left +forearm should be brought toward the body and at the same time the +body bent slightly to the rear. + +When aiming kneeling there is, from the nature of the position, a +tendency to press the butt of the rifle against the upper arm instead +of against the hollow of the shoulder; this will necessitate inclining +the head considerably to the right to get the line of sight, and by +bringing the rifle so far to the rear will, if the thumb is placed +across the stock, cause it to give by the recoil a blow upon the nose +or mouth. + +These difficulties may be avoided by advancing the right elbow well to +the front, at the same time raising it so that the arm is about +parallel with the ground. The hollow of the shoulder will then be the +natural place for the rifle butt, and the right thumb will be brought +too far from the face to strike it in the recoil. + +Some riflemen prefer, by bending the ankle, to rest the instep flat on +the ground, the weight of the body coming more on the upper part of +the heel; this obviates any tendency of the right knee to slip; or, by +resting the right side of the foot on the ground, toe pointing to the +front, to bring the weight of the body on the left side of the foot. +These positions are authorized. + +=1377. Choice of Position.= In firing kneeling, the steadiness +obtained depends greatly upon the position adopted. The peculiarities +of conformation of the individual soldier exert when firing kneeling a +greater influence than when firing either standing, sitting, or prone; +the instructor should, therefore, carefully endeavor, noticing the +build of each soldier, to place him in the position for which he is +best adapted and which will exert the least tension or strain upon the +muscles and nerves. It should be remembered, however, that without the +rest of the left elbow on the knee this position possesses no +advantage of steadiness over the standing position. + +=1378. Kneeling Position; When Taken.= The kneeling position can be +taken more quickly than either the sitting or the prone position. It +is, therefore, the position naturally assumed when a soldier, who is +standing or advancing, has to make a quick shot at a moving or +disappearing object and desires more steadiness than can be obtained +standing. + + +Position and Aiming Drill, Sitting Down + +=1379.= In many cases the men, while able to kneel and hold the piece +moderately steady, can obtain in a sitting position much better +results. All should, therefore, be instructed in aiming sitting down +as well as kneeling. + +To practice the soldier in the preceding exercises in a sitting +position, the squad being formed in a single rank, with an interval of +one pace between files, the rifle should first be brought to "Order +arms"; the instructor then commands: _Sit down._ + +At this command make a half face to the right and, assisted by the +left hand on the ground, sit down, facing slightly to the right, the +left leg directed toward the front, right leg inclined toward the +right, both heels, but not necessarily the bottoms of the feet, on the +ground, the right knee slightly higher than the left; body erect and +carried naturally from the hips; at the same time drop the muzzle of +the piece to the front, and to the position of the first motion of +load, right hand upon the thigh, just in front of the body, the left +hand slightly above, but not resting upon, the left leg. + +The exercise will be executed as heretofore prescribed, except that at +the command "Two" (position exercise) the soldier will rest the left +elbow on the left knee, the point of the elbow in front of the +kneecap, and the right elbow against the left or inside of the right +knee, at the same time inclining the body from the hips slightly +forward. + +For the aiming and trigger-squeeze exercises the pasters, used as +aiming points, will be 2-1/2 feet from the floor or the ground. + +To afford the men rest or on the completion of the kneeling or sitting +down exercises the instructor will command _Rise_, when the men rise, +face to the front, and resume the "Order arms." + +=Remarks.= If the preceding position is carefully practiced, +steadiness is quickly attained. The right leg should not be carried so +far to the right as not to afford a good support or brace for the +right elbow. + +This position may be modified, but, in general, not without impairing +the steadiness of the man, by crossing the legs at the ankle, the +outside of each foot resting upon the ground, body more erect, and the +knees slightly more raised than in the previous position. + + +Position and Aiming Drill, Prone + +=1380.= From the nature of the position it is not practicable to +execute these exercises according to the method followed when standing +or kneeling. Instruction will, however, always be given with reference +to the position, to the manner of assuming it, and to aiming and +squeezing the trigger. + +For this purpose the squad being formed as specified above, in the +position and aiming drill, sitting down (the black plasters therein +mentioned being about 12 inches from the ground), the squad will be +brought to "Order arms." + +Then (the squad either standing or kneeling), the instructor commands: +_Lie down_, which will be executed as prescribed in the Drill +Regulations; the legs may be spread apart and the toes turned out if +found to give a steadier position. + +After the squad has taken the position as prescribed above, the legs +should be inclined well to the left, and either crossed or separated +as the soldier prefers or as his particular conformation appears to +render most desirable, and the body at the same time inclined slightly +to the right. + +With care and practice the soldier may acquire an easy position which +he is able to assume with great facility. + +=1381.= Being at "Ready," the instructor then commands: =1. Trigger +squeeze. 2. EXERCISE.= + +At the latter command carry the left elbow to the front and slightly +to the right, the left hand under the barrel at the balance, weight of +the body mainly supported by the left elbow, the right resting lightly +on the floor or ground. + +(Two.) Slide the rifle with the right hand through the left hand to +the front until the left hand is a little in front of the trigger +guard; at the same time raise the rifle with both hands and press it +against the hollow of the shoulder. + +(Three.) Direct the rifle upon the mark and carry out the further +details of aiming and squeezing the trigger as prescribed in the +trigger-squeeze exercise. + +Then resume the position, lying down. + +As soon as the men have acquired with accuracy the details of the +position, they will be practiced, without the numbers, in aiming and +squeezing the trigger at will; after which the rapid-fire exercise in +the prone position will be practiced, the necessary skill and +dexterity being acquired by degrees. + +To afford the men rest, or on completion of the exercise, the +instructor will command: _Rise_, which is executed as prescribed in +the Drill Regulations. + +=1382. Remarks.= The preceding position for firing lying down +possesses in a greater degree than any other position the merit of +adaptability to the configuration of the ground; it enables the +soldier to deliver fire over low parapets or improvised shelters, thus +making the best use of cover. The importance of training the soldier +in firing from the other positions should not, however, be lost sight +of, since from the prone position it will frequently be impossible to +see the objective. + +Back positions are not authorized. + +In the prone position, when aiming, the left elbow should be well +under the barrel, the other elbow somewhat to the right, but not so +far as to induce any tendency to slip on the floor or ground. + +The greater changes in elevation required in first directing the rifle +on the object should be given by altering the position of the left +hand under the barrel, the slighter changes only by advancing or +withdrawing the shoulder. + +As the body does not yield to the recoil, as when firing standing or +kneeling, the force of recoil, if the rifle is not properly held, may +severely bruise the soldier. It is one of the objects of this exercise +to so teach him that this will be prevented by assuming a correct +position. Care must be exercised that the butt is not brought against +the collar bone. By moving the shoulder slightly to the front or rear, +and by moving the right elbow from the body or toward it, each soldier +may determine the position in which the shoulder gives to the butt of +the rifle the easiest rest. This will probably be the one in which the +force of the recoil will be least felt. + +The soldier should persist in this exercise until he obtains a +position in which he feels no constraint, which will not subject him +to bruises from recoil, and from which the mark appears plainly +through the sights. Having secured such a position, he must not change +it when firing, as a variation in the points of support of the rifle, +the distance of the eye from the rear sight, or the tension of the +hold has a decided effect, especially at the longer ranges, upon the +location of the point struck. + +=Important.= The soldier should be encouraged to go through these +exercises frequently at other than drill hours, care being taken that, +in the aiming and trigger-squeeze exercises, he always has some +definite object for a mark. + + +Deflection and Elevation Correction Drills + +(Sight-Setting Drills) + +=1383. Sight Correction.= You may find when firing at a target that +the first shot has missed the bull's-eye or figure. Now, one of two +things may be done in order to cause the second shot to hit the +bull's-eye or figure: (1) The point of aim may be changed, or (2) the +sights may be moved and the same point as before aimed at. + +In order to do accurate shooting it is necessary to have a +well-defined mark at which to aim; consequently, except for very +slight corrections, the method of moving the sights, involving changes +in elevation and windage, is the one to be used. + +=Exercises.= In order to give the soldier practice in making +corrections in elevation and deflection (windage),--that is, in +sight-setting,--proceed as follows: + +Take an "A" target and rule it off with red vertical lines to +represent range and black or blue horizontal lines to represent +windage deviations, as in Fig. 33. Tell the men to set their sights +(either peep or open) for 200 yards, no windage. Examine the sights +(assisted by the lieutenants, noncommissioned officers and expert +riflemen). + +[Illustration: Fig. 33] + +Then say, for example, "You have fired a shot at 200 yards with your +sights set as you now have them. The shot was marked here (pointing to +'P,' Fig. 33). Change your sights so as to move the next shot into the +bull's-eye,--considering that you take the same hold as you did the +last time." + +(Note. In this case the sight should be lowered 75 yards and 2 points +of left windage should be taken.) + +Repeat with different positions for "P" until the men all understand +the method and the reasons. Do same for 300 yards, 500 yards, and 600 +yards. See Figs. 34, 35, and 36. + +[Illustration: Fig. 34] + +[Illustration: Fig. 35] + +[Illustration: Fig. 36] + +Explain that in firing no change in sights should be made until the +man is sure that his hold was good, and then change without hesitancy. + +The correct use of sights and their proper adjustment can thus be +taught without firing a shot. This exercise will save much time and +work on the range. + +=Elevation.= As previously explained, raising the rear sight increases +the range of the bullet and lowering it decreases the range. + +The amount of change which a given amount of elevation will cause in +the point struck varies with the range and with the rifle and with the +ammunition used. + +For example, generally and approximately, in order, at a range of 500 +yards, to change the point struck 1 foot, the rear sight must be +changed 48 yards, while to change the point struck 1 foot at 1000 +yards it must be changed 12 yards. That is to say, if you fired a shot +at 300 yards, and then with the same aim, hold and other conditions as +before, you _raised_ your rear sight 48 yards, the next shot would +strike the target 1 foot _above_ the first one, and if you _lowered_ +the rear sight 48 yards, the bullet would then strike the target 1 +foot _below_ the first one. If firing at 1000 yards, _raising_ the +rear sight 12 yards would cause the bullet to strike the target 1 foot +_higher_ and _lowering_ the rear sight 12 yards would cause it to +strike 1 foot _lower_. + +The following table gives the approximate changes in the rear sight to +move the point struck 1 foot at ranges from 100 to 1000 yards: + + +-----------------------------------+ + | | Correction in elevation | + | Range | necessary to change the | + | | point struck 1 foot | + +---------+-------------------------+ + | 100 | 415 | + | 200 | 185 | + | 300 | 105 | + | 400 | 70 | + | 500 | 48 | + | 600 | 35 | + | 700 | 25 | + | 800 | 20 | + | 900 | 15 | + | 1,000 | 12 | + +---------+-------------------------+ + +The score-books issued by the Ordnance Department contain elevation +charts and all you have to do is to consult the chart of your +score-book in order to get the amount of elevation necessary at any +particular range in order to raise or lower your shots any desired +distance. + +=1384. Deflection (windage).= Corrections in the deflection (side +movement) of the bullet are made by means of the windage screw that +moves the movable base, each division of the graduations on the rear +end of the movable base being called a "point of windage." + +_One point of windage moves the point struck 4 inches for each 100 +yards of range._ + +That is to say, at 100 yards, 1 point of windage moves the point +struck 4 inches; at 200 yards, 8 inches (2 x 4); at 300 yards, 12 +inches (3 x 4), etc. + +Consequently, if at 100 yards the wind were carrying your bullets 8 +inches to the side, you would take two points of windage to get the +bull's-eye, and if the wind were carrying your bullets 20 inches to +the side, you would take 5 points of windage, irrespective of the rate +at which the wind was blowing. + +Again, if at 200 yards the wind were carrying your bullets 8 inches to +the side, you would take 1 point of windage, and if it were carrying +your bullets 20 inches to the side, you would take 2-1/2 points, +irrespective of the rate at which the wind was blowing. + +In using the wind gauge remember _windage is always taken in the +direction from which the wind is coming (into the wind) and the bullet +moves in the same direction that the rear sight moves,--that is, if +the wind is coming from the right, you take right windage and the +bullet will strike to the right. Likewise if you move the rear sight +to the left (take left windage), the bullet will strike to the left_. + + +GALLERY PRACTICE + +=1385. Object and importance.= After the soldier has been thoroughly +instructed in sighting, and in the position, aiming, deflection, and +elevation correction drills, he is exercised in firing at short ranges +(50 and 75 feet) with the gallery practice rifle (.22 caliber). + +Notwithstanding the value of the position and aiming drills, it is +impossible to keep up the soldier's interest if these exercises are +unduly prolonged. By gallery practice, however, the interest is easily +maintained and further progress, especially in teaching the trigger +squeeze, is made. Many of the external influences, which on the range +affect the firing, being absent, the soldier is not puzzled by results +for which, at this stage of his education, he could not account were +he advanced to firing with full charges. Furthermore, as there is no +recoil to induce nervousness or flinching, the soldier soon finds that +he can make good scores, and this success is the surest stimulus to +interest. + +Not only to the beginner is gallery practice of value; to the good +shot it is a means of keeping, to a certain extent, in practice, and +practice in shooting, as much as in anything else, is essential. Since +it can be carried on throughout the year, gallery practice is of much +value in fixing in the men the _habit of aimed fire_, than which +nothing in his training is of more importance. + + +RANGE PRACTICE + +=1386.= Having completed the gallery practice course, the soldier is +then advanced to known-distance firing on the target range where he +uses the service rifle, with service ammunition. + +This known-distance practice is divided into certain regular courses +and special courses. + +The regular courses and Special Course A are for troops of the Regular +Army. + +There is also a special course for the Organized Militia and +Volunteers and one for Volunteer recruits. + +All the various courses are described in detail in the Small-Arms +Firing Manual and anyone having occasion to use any of them should +familiarize himself thoroughly therewith. + + +OTHER INSTRUCTION + +=1387. Use of sling.= After the soldier has been drilled in the proper +standing, kneeling, sitting, and prone positions in the foregoing +exercises, the use of the sling will be taught. Adjustments and their +advantages will be taught with the idea of noninterference with +quickness and freedom of action. The trigger squeeze exercises will +then be continued in the different positions, using the sling. + +=1388.= _Description and adjustment._ The sling is made up of four +parts: the long strap, A, forming the arm loop; the short strap, B; +and the two keepers, C and D. At one end of each of the straps there +is a metal claw, used for adjusting the straps. At the other end of +the short straps there is a metal loop through which the longer strap +is passed, thus connecting the two straps. + +[Illustration: Fig. 37] + +To adjust the sling for firing, the claw of the short strap is +disengaged and reengaged in the proper holes of the short strap, such +adjustment as may be necessary being also made in the long strap (the +arm loop). + +=1389.= _What the sling does._ It does two things: (1) It steadies the +rifle, and (2) helps to take up the recoil,--that is, to reduce the +"kick." + +_Its use._ There are a number of different methods of using the sling. +Experiment with different ones until you find and decide upon the +method best suited to you. + +The sling should be used in all firing,--combat practice as well as at +target practice. + +Always adjust the sling so that it will be tight. + +Have the arm loop no longer than is necessary to reach the middle of +the small of the stock. When on the arm, have the lower end of the arm +loop well up near the arm pit, with the keeper well pressed down so as +to hold the loop fast. + +Note the proper adjustments of the sling for the different firing +positions,--that is, standing, sitting, kneeling, and prone, and mark +the adjustments on the inside of the arm loop, "St" (standing), "Si" +(Sitting), "K" (kneeling), and "P" (prone). + +It is sometimes advisable to sew a piece of rope to your shirt sleeve +to keep the sling from slipping down. + +=1390. To put on the sling.= 1. Put your left hand in the loop, +twisting the sling to the left, A, Fig. 38, and holding the rifle with +the right hand as shown in the figure. Twisting the sling to the left +causes a flat surface instead of the cutting edge of the sling to rest +against the wrist. + +[Illustration: Fig. 38] + +2. Extend the arm on through the loop, (Fig. 39), bringing the loop +well up near the pit of the arm, grasping the piece with the left +hand, and pressing down keeper, A. + +[Illustration: Fig. 39] + +3. Place left hand between the sling and piece, (Fig. 40), the hand +being pressed well forward toward the upper sling swivel, A. Notice +how the back of the hand is resting against the flat of the sling. + +[Illustration: Fig. 40] + +4. Come to the position of aim, Fig. 41. Pressure is applied to the +sling by pressing forward the left hand, and holding the rifle to the +shoulder with the right hand. Remember that whatever pressure you +apply must be the same for each shot. + +[Illustration: Fig. 41 + +_Right side view_] + +Notice (Figs. 41 and 42) how well forward the left hand is, and how +the flat of the sling is resting against the wrist and back of hand. +See how the short strap, C, (Fig. 41), of the sling is correctly +loose. + +The thumb should be held along the stock as shown (A) in Fig. 42. + +[Illustration: Fig. 42 + +_Left side view_] + +=1391. Designation of winds.= Winds are designated as "12 o'clock," "1 +o'clock," "2 o'clock," etc., winds, depending on the direction _from_ +which they come. + +Imagine the firing point to be in the middle of the face of a clock +and the target to be at 12 o'clock; 3 o'clock will be on your right, 9 +o'clock on your left, 6 o'clock in your rear and 12 in your front. + +A wind blowing _from_ your right to your left is called a 3 o'clock +wind; one blowing _from_ your rear is called a 6 o'clock wind; one +from your front, 12 o'clock wind, etc. + +[Illustration: Fig. 43] + +The score-books issued by the Ordnance Department have windage charts +that have been carefully worked out and all you have to do is this: +Estimate the force of the wind in miles per hour, and determine the +direction from which it comes (whether a 9 o'clock wind, a 2 o'clock +wind, etc.). Then look at the windage chart and see just how much +windage you must take. + +The simplest and best rule for the beginner is for him to make his +estimate and then ask an experienced shot what windage to use, +checking this up with what he found on the windage chart. In this way +he soon learns to estimate for himself. + +Practice estimating the wind. Ask a man who has been making 5's and +4's what windage _he_ used and check up with your own estimate. + +You can find out the direction of the wind by watching smoke, grass or +the limbs of trees. + +Throw up some small straws and watch which way they are blown, or wet +your finger and hold it up. The wind cools the side it strikes. + +A 12 o'clock wind slows up the bullet and a 6 o'clock wind helps it +along,--so, in the first case you would need more elevation and in the +second less elevation. + +=1392. The zero of a rifle.= The twist of the bullet given by the +rifling of the barrel causes the bullet to move to right, which +movement, called "the drift," is compensated by having the slot in the +rear sight for the drift slide, slope to the left. However, in some +rifles the compensation is too great and in others it is not enough. + +That reading of the wind gauge necessary to overcome the drift of a +rifle at a particular range is called the "zero" of that rifle for +that range, and all allowances for wind should be calculated from this +reading. + +The "zero" of a rifle is found by shooting it on a perfectly calm day. + +=1393. Estimating distance.= Ability to estimate distances correctly +is an important part of a soldier's education. + +While it is true that fire on the battlefield will usually be by +groups and the ranges will be given by officers, the battlefield is +reached only after a long series of experiences in scouting, +patrolling, and outpost duty, in which the soldier is frequently +placed in positions where it is necessary that he shall determine for +himself the range to be used in order that his fire may be effective. + +There are different methods of estimating the range (for example, by +sound, trial shots, range-finding instruments, etc.), but the only +ones that the average soldier need know are those of estimating +distance by the eye and by trial shots. + +To estimate distance by the eye with accuracy, it is necessary to be +familiar with the appearance, as to length, of a unit of measure which +can be compared mentally with the distance which is to be estimated. +The most convenient unit of length is 100 yards. To impress upon the +soldier the extent of a stretch of 100 yards two posts 100 yards +apart, with short stakes between to mark each 25 yards, should be +placed near the barracks, or on the drill ground, and the soldier +required to pace off the marked distance several times, counting his +steps. He will thus learn how many of his steps make 100 yards and +will become familiar with the appearance of the whole distance and of +its fractional parts. + +Next a distance of more than 100 yards will be shown him and he will +be required to compare this distance with the 100-yard unit and to +estimate it. Having made his estimate, he will be required to verify +its accuracy by pacing the distance. + +A few minutes each day should be spent in this practice, the soldier +often being required to make his estimate by raising his rear-sight +leaf and showing it to the instructor. After the first drills the +soldier should be required to pace the distance only when the estimate +is unusually inaccurate. + +The soldier should be taught that, in judging the distance from the +enemy, his estimate may be corrected by a careful observation of the +clearness with which details of dress, the movements of limbs or of +the files in a line may be seen. In order to derive the benefit of +this method, the soldier will be required to observe closely all the +details noted above in single men or squads of men posted at varying +distances, which will be measured and announced. + +Although the standing and kneeling silhouettes used in field practice +afford good objects upon which to estimate distances, the instructor +should make frequent use of living figures and natural objects, as +this is the class of targets from which the soldier will be compelled +to estimate his range in active service. + +=1394. Methods of estimating long distances by the eye.= The following +methods are found useful: + +(_a_) The soldier may decide that the object cannot be more than a +certain distance away nor less than a certain distance; his estimates +must be kept within the closest possible limits and the mean of the +two taken as the range. + +(_b_) The soldier selects a point which he considers the middle point +of the whole distance, estimates this half distance and doubles it, or +he similarly divides the distance into a certain number of lengths +which are familiar to him. + +(_c_) The soldier estimates the distance along a parallel line, as a +road on one side, having on it well-defined objects. + +(_d_) The soldier takes the mean of several estimates made by +different persons. This method is not applicable to instruction. + +=1395. Determination of distance by trial shots or volleys.= If the +ground is so dry or dusty that the fall of the bullets is visible to +the naked eye or through a field glass, distance may be determined by +using a number of trial shots or volleys. + +In the case of individual trial shots, the soldier sets his sight at +the estimated range, watching to see where the bullet strikes,--or +some other man, with or without field glasses, may watch to see where +it strikes. If the bullet strikes beyond the target, the estimated +sight setting is decreased; if it falls short, the sight setting is +increased. + +In case of volleys, the sights are set at the estimated range and a +volley is fired. If it appears to strike a little short of the mark, +an increase in elevation of 100 yards is used for the next volley. +When we have the target inclosed between two volleys, we take the mean +of the estimated ranges for the correct range. For example, if the +first estimated range were 1000 and the second 1100, the correct range +would be 1050. + +=1396. Appearance of objects: How modified by varying conditions of +light; difference of level, etc.= During instruction the men should be +taught the effect of varying conditions of light and terrain upon the +apparent distance of an object. + +_Objects seem nearer_-- + +(_a_) When the object is in a bright light. + +(_b_) When the color of the object contrasts sharply with the color of +the background. + +(_c_) When looking over water, snow, or a uniform surface like a wheat +field. + +(_d_) When looking from a height downward. + +(_e_) In the clear atmosphere of high altitudes. + +_Objects seem more distant_-- + +(_a_) When looking over a depression in the ground. + +(_b_) When there is a poor light or a fog. + +(_c_) When only a small part of the object can be seen. + +(_d_) When looking from low ground upward toward higher ground. + +=1397. Effect of heat and cold.= Heat causes shots to strike high, and +cold causes them to strike low. + +Therefore, if you shot on a warm day and made 5's, and recorded +temperature and other conditions in your score-book, you would know on +looking at your score sheets that you should raise your elevation, if +you were firing on a cold day. + +=1398. Effect of moisture.= Dampness causes shots to strike high and +dryness causes them to strike low. Therefore, on damp days take lower +elevations than on dry days. + +=1399. Effect of light.= Light affects the aiming without the beginner +knowing it. It does not, however, affect the travel of the bullet. + +A dark target causes a tendency to aim farther below the bull's-eye +than if the target were bright. Therefore, use higher elevations with +dark targets. As it gets darker, higher elevations should be used. + +If you _always aim carefully and correctly_ the light will have little +effect on your aiming,--that is, if your eyesight is good. + +If you are shooting in a dull light and a bright sun comes out, say on +your right, there is a tendency to move the front sight to the +opposite (left) side of the rear sight notch, since the near (right) +edge is shaded and obscured somewhat. Therefore 1/4 to 1/2 windage +into the sun (right in this case) should be taken to overcome this. + +In using battle sight, hold higher for a bright light. + +We also raise our sights if a strong sun comes out. Therefore, we have +this rule: _Move your rear sight into the sun, just as you do for a +wind,--and raise your elevation._ + +=1400. Mirage= gives a wavering appearance to the target. It is heated +air that is moving. It is sometimes called "heat waves." + +With the wind between 2 and 14 miles an hour on clear, hot days the +waves can be seen moving across the target. + +When there is no wind or a light six o'clock wind, the waves go +straight up, or "boil." _Never fire when the mirage is boiling_,--wait +for it to move from one side to the other and then take windage to +correct for it. + +=1401. Summary of temperature, light and moisture effects:= + + _Raise elevation for_-- + + Dull target + Shooting in the sun + Hot gun + Dirty gun + Cold day + Bright or shining sight + Cloudy day + 12 o'clock wind + + _Lower elevation for_-- + + Bright target + Target in sun + Cold gun + Clean gun + Hot day + Moist day + Full sights + 6 o'clock wind + +=1402. Firing with bayonet fixed.= In firing with bayonet fixed +usually a lower point on the target will be struck, corresponding to a +reduction of about 50 yards in the range. + +=1403. Care of rifle.= Since the accuracy of a soldier's rifle has a +most important bearing on his shooting, and since the proper care of a +rifle affects its accuracy, the care of the rifle is an important +subject in which every soldier should be thoroughly instructed. The +subject is fully covered in the preceding chapter. (Chapter XV, Part +I). + + +COLLECTIVE INSTRUCTION + +(Combat practice) + +=1404. General scheme.= While individual instruction is most +important, it is not everything. The maximum effect of fire in battle +is obtained when a command, as a whole, is a pliable, manageable, +effective instrument in the hands of a commander who can use it +intelligently and efficiently. Therefore, the two objects to be +obtained are: + +1. To make the command a pliable, manageable, effective instrument in +the hands of its commander. + +2. To train and instruct the commander so that he will know how to use +this instrument in an intelligent and efficient manner. + +=1405. To make the fire unit a pliable, manageable, efficient +instrument.= In order that a unit may be a pliable, manageable, +efficient instrument in the hands of its commander, he must be able to +control the unit absolutely,--that is to say, not only must the +individuals composing the unit be so trained that they will respond at +once, even in the din and confusion of battle, to the will of the +commander, as expressed by his orders, but they must also be so +instructed and disciplined that they can, as individual parts of the +unit, perform their functions efficiently. This is accomplished by +_fire discipline_. + +=1406. Fire discipline.= By _fire discipline_ is meant a habit of +obedience, a control of the rifle, and a display of intelligence, all +the result of training, which will enable the soldier in action to +make hits instead of misses. It embraces taking advantage of the +ground; care in setting the sight and delivery of fire, including +proper fire distribution; constant attention to the orders of the +leaders and careful observation of the enemy; an increase of fire when +the target is favorable, and a cessation of fire when the enemy +disappears; economy of ammunition. + +=1407. To train and instruct the commander to use the unit with +intelligence and efficiency.= In order to handle the unit with +intelligence and efficiency, utilizing to the greatest extent possible +the power of all the rifles under his command, not only must the +commander be able to control the unit, having it respond at once to +his every command, but he must also know tactics, and be thoroughly +familiar with the technical principles of infantry fire. + +=1408. Combat exercises.= A combat exercise consists of the +application of tactical principles to certain assumed battle +situation, in the execution of which are employed the appropriate +formations and movements of close and extended order drill, and in +which, as a rule, ball cartridges are used in firing at the targets. + +By means of combat exercises, the unit commanders are trained and +instructed in applying tactical principles, in controlling and +directing the fire of their units and the men are trained and +instructed in fire discipline. + +The tactical principles applicable to combat exercises are covered in +the Infantry Drill Regulations, under the headings of "_Fire_" and +"_Combat_." + +=1409. Technical principles of firing.= The technical principles of +firing are given in detail in the Small-Arms Firing Manual, a summary +of which is given below under the headings of, _The Effect of Fire_, +_The Influence of the Ground_, and _The Adjustment of Fire_. + + +The Effect of Fire + +=1410. Ballistic qualities of the rifle.= The accuracy of a rifle, the +flatness of its trajectory, and its disabling power,--that is, the +power it has to disable the enemy,--are called its _ballistic +qualities_. + +The accuracy of the U. S. Springfield rifle, caliber .30, model of +1903, is very high,--probably superior to that of any other military +rifle. + +The flatness of trajectory is dependent upon the muzzle velocity, and, +to some extent, upon the form of the bullet. Our bullet is pointed and +the muzzle velocity is 2700 feet per second, which is a very high +muzzle velocity. + +Two rifles of different type may be equally accurate, but the accuracy +of the one having the flatter trajectory will, naturally, be less +affected by slight errors in sight setting. + +Again, another advantage of the rifle with the flatter trajectory is +that it holds more ground under its fire. For example, take our +service rifle: At a range of 500 yards, the bullet, at the highest +point in its trajectory or line of flight, is 2 feet above the line of +sight. It is, therefore, apparent that if the bottom of an object 2 +feet or greater, is aimed at, it would be struck if it were anywhere +under 500 yards. Now, take a rifle with a very curved trajectory, say +one whose bullet, at the highest point of the trajectory corresponding +to a range of 500 yards, is 10 feet above the line of sight. There +will be a large extent of ground between the target and the rifle that +is not danger space for a target 2 feet above the line of sight. +Hence, we see that the rifle with the flatter trajectory is better. + +The continuous danger space afforded by the flat trajectory of our +service rifle enables us to adopt a universal sight for all ranges up +to 500 yards,--that is, the battle sight, which is the rear sight +ready for use when the sight leaf is laid down. + +=1411. Cone of fire or cone of dispersion.= If a body of soldiers fire +at the same target the bullets will not, of course, follow the same +path, but will be scattered. This is due to differences in sights, +parts of the rifle, ammunition, and to a greater extent, to the +individual errors of the soldiers in aiming and firing. + +The trajectories or paths of the bullets considered together form a +horn-shaped figure or cone, called the _Cone of fire_ or cone of +dispersion. (See Fig. 44.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 44] + +=1412. Shot group and center of impact.= If the _cone of fire_ be +intercepted by a target (for example, A O, Fig. 44) at right angles to +the axis of the cone, the shot holes will make a pattern or group +called the _shot group_, the holes being the thickest approximately in +the center of the group, called the _center of impact_. From this +point in all directions the density of the grouping decreases +progressively,--at first gradually, then more rapidly, out to the +limits of the group. + +Naturally, the size of the cone of fire and of the shot group vary +with the skill of those firing, good shots making a small cone and +small group, and poor shots a large cone and large group. + +=1413. Beaten zone.= The intersection of the cone of dispersion with +the surface of the ground is called the _beaten zone_. + +If the surface of the ground is horizontal, the form of the _beaten +zone_ is that of an ellipse with its longer axis in the direction of +the line of fire, as shown in Fig. 45. + +[Illustration: Fig. 45] + +In view of the fact that at the long ranges the angle of fall of the +bullets is much greater than at short ranges, it follows that at +short ranges the elliptical figure (beaten zone) is much more +elongated than at long ranges. In other words, the longer the range, +the shorter is the depth of the beaten zone. This is shown in Fig. 45. + +=1414. Uncertainty and ineffectiveness of long-range fire.= It follows +from what has been said, that as the range increases the length of the +beaten zone decreases,--that is, a less depth of ground is held under +fire. That being the case, if an error is made in sight setting due, +for example, to an incorrect estimate of the range, the proportionate +loss of fire effect due to misplacement of the center of impact will +be greater as the beaten zone is less,--that is, as the range is +greater. + +Furthermore, the difficulty of exact range determination increases +with the distance, the two influences combining to make long-range +fire uncertain and usually ineffective. + +=1415. Zone of effective fire.= That portion of the ground which +contains the best 75 per cent of the shots in the beaten zone, is +called the _zone of effective fire_. + + +Effectiveness of Fire + +=1416. Factors involved.= The effectiveness of fire depends upon these +three factors: + + (1) The percentage of hits made; + (2) The number of targets hit; + (3) The time of execution. + +That is to say, the effectiveness of fire is determined by the number +of enemies disabled or targets hit in a given time. + +=1417. Percentage of hits.= By the percentage of hits is meant the +proportion of all the bullets fired that hit the targets. For example, +if 1000 bullets are fired and 750 hit the targets, then the percentage +of hits is 75. + +The percentage of hits depends upon the dispersion, and this is +influenced by the precision of the arm, the range, the visibility of +the target, the atmospheric conditions, the training and instruction +of the troops, and upon their physical and moral state at the time. In +addition, the percentage of hits also depends upon the character of +the ground as favoring ricochet hits, upon the correct estimation of +the range and the proper designation of the target. + +=1418. Number of targets hit.= The number of targets hit,--that is, +the distribution of fire,--may be affected by varying degrees of +visibility, as men instinctively choose the more conspicuous marks as +aiming points. Under any circumstances, a poor distribution of the +hits made will be due to an absence of proper instructions from the +leaders; or, in other words, to poor control, or else to a want of +understanding or lack of obedience on the part of the men. + +=1419. Time of execution.= The time of execution is important in that +the gaining of fire superiority is dependent less upon obtaining high +percentages of hits than upon making an absolutely large number of +hits in a unit of time. There is necessarily a limit to the rapidity +of fire which, if exceeded, will result in some loss of accuracy. With +targets of a fair degree of visibility, the following may be taken as +standard rates of fire for troops who have been given suitable +training in target practice: + + 200 yards } + 300 yards } 10 shots per minute. + 400 yards } + + 500 yards } + 600 yards } 7.5 shots per minute. + 700 yards } + + 800 yards } + 900 yards } 5 shots per minute. + 1,000 yards } + + Greater ranges, 3 shots per minute. + +The rates given should not exclude higher rates of fire in the case of +large and conspicuous targets. On the other hand, when objectives, or +marks used as aiming points, are very indistinct, the requirement of +correct aiming imposes rates of fire somewhat lower than the standard +rates given even for well-instructed men. + +With imperfectly trained men who have not fully acquired the habit of +using aimed fire only, and who are lacking in the manual dexterity +required for executing the standard rates of fire, the maximum rate +can not well exceed six shots per minute without incurring the danger +of lapsing into unaimed fire. + +Fatigue and exhaustion, the results of marches or prolonged firing, +have a detrimental influence and tend to lower the rates of effective +fire. + + +Influence of Ground + +=1420. Defilade.= If we will consider a bullet just grazing the top of +an impenetrable obstacle (like "A," Fig. 46), the space from the top +of such obstacle to where the bullet strikes the ground (space B E, +Fig. 46) will be protected from fire. Such space is called, +"_defiladed space_." Its extent will, of course, depend on the height +of the obstacle, the curvature of the trajectory and the slope of the +ground in rear of the obstacles. + +[Illustration: Fig. 46] + +Between B and D, a soldier standing would be completely protected; +between D and E, he would be only partially protected. To obtain +complete protection between D and E the soldier would have to assume +the kneeling or prone position, depending on how far away from D he +was. + +By cover is meant effective defilade from the enemy's fire. + +By concealment is meant screening from view but not necessarily +protection from fire. + +=1421. Rising and falling ground.= The influence of the ground upon +the effect of fire is at once seen by studying Fig. 44. + +If the ground rises, as shown by B O and A O, the depth of the beaten +zone (and consequently the effect of fire) decreases. On the other +hand, if the ground falls (up to a certain point), the depth of the +beaten zone (and consequently the effect of fire) increases. + +=1422. Depth of beaten zone affects only targets having depth.= It +should be remembered that depth of beaten zone can affect only targets +which have depth. + +On a target in the form of a line,--a line of skirmishers, for +example,--the depth of the beaten zone has no effect one way or the +other. If such a target, however, is backed up by supports and +reserves, the depth of the beaten zone may have a decided effect on +them, depending upon their distance in rear of the line forming the +target and the slope of the ground in rear of such target. + +In this connection, attention is invited to Fig. 47, which shows how +in the case of a fire delivered from a height at a target on a +horizontal plane beneath, the beaten zone is shortened and +consequently the fire effect decreased. + +[Illustration: Fig. 47] + +An example of increasing the depth of beaten zone is seen in Fig. 48, +which shows a fire delivered from low ground at a target on the edge +of a plateau or crest of a ridge from which the ground slopes to the +rear. + +[Illustration: Fig. 48] + +=1423. Grazing fire.= Shots which pass over a crest with an angle of +fall conforming, or nearly conforming, to the slope of the ground +beyond the edge of the crest (as shown in Fig. 48), are called +_grazing shots_ and fire so delivered is called _grazing fire_. + +=1424. Diminution or increase in fire effect due to rising and falling +ground.= In connection with the diminution or increase in fire effect +due to rising and falling ground, attention is invited to the +following: + +1. If the ground slopes upward to the rear from a firing line, the +supports may be placed closer without increasing the danger from fire +aimed at the firing line. + +2. When the ground slopes down and to the rear from the firing line +forming the target, the supports must be posted at a greater distance +in rear, unless the slope is so much greater than the angle of fall of +the hostile bullets that a defiladed space is created in which no +bullets strike, in which case the supports may be brought up close to +the crest. + +3. On ground rising with respect to the line of sight, column targets +(i. e., having depth) will suffer greater losses than lineal targets. + +4. On ground falling with respect to the line of sight, the reverse +slope of hills or the level grounds of plateaus, line targets will +suffer the greater losses. + +=1425. Ricochet shots.= When a bullet strikes any surface and is +deflected it is called a _ricochet shot_. + +Not only do bullets that ricochet usually tumble after striking, but +they are also mutilated, so that wounds inflicted by ricochet hits are +usually severe. + +The most favorable ground for ricochets is a smooth, hard, horizontal +surface, the aim being low, the chance of ricochets in sand is very +slight. + +=1426. Occupation of ground.= The question of the occupation of ground +presents these two aspects: + +1. What firing positions may be chosen which will tend to increase the +losses of the enemy? + +2. What positions may be chosen and formations adopted to minimize our +own losses? + +The selection of a defensive position presents this question: _Shall +it be near the crest or well down the slope?_ + + +A position well down the slope + +_Advantages:_ + +1. The depth of the beaten zone for fire delivered from the position +is increased and the upper portion of the cone of fire will include +the supports and reserves advancing to reenforce the hostile firing +line. That is to say, the fire will be a _grazing fire_. + +2. It eliminates dead spaces that might otherwise exist at the bottom +of the slope. + +3. The hostile fire being directed against a point well down the +slope, the high ground in rear will interpose as a defilade and +intercept the upper portion of the cone of fire which might otherwise +take effect on the supports and reserves behind the crest. + +_Disadvantages:_ + +1. It makes withdrawal difficult in case it becomes necessary to fall +back. + +2. It is difficult to reenforce the firing line. + + +A position near the crest + +_Advantages:_ + +1. It favors observation of the enemy. + +2. It makes withdrawal easy in case it becomes necessary to fall back. + +3. It is easy to reenforce the firing line by the supports advancing +from behind the crest. + +_Disadvantages:_ + +1. The depth of the beaten zone is decreased and consequently the cone +of fire will probably not include the supports and reserves advancing +to reenforce the hostile firing fire. In other words, the fire will be +a _plunging fire_. + +2. It is likely to result in dead spaces at the bottom of the slope. + +3. It affords a good target for the hostile artillery. + +Whether or not a position near the crest or a position down the slope +should be chosen, depends, in each case, upon circumstances. + +For instance in a rear guard action, where a determined stand is not +contemplated, a position near the crest would be occupied. On the +other hand, if a determined stand were contemplated, the terrain +offered good opportunity for the delivery of an effective grazing +fire, and we had reason to believe that we were going to be subjected +to heavy artillery fire, a position at the foot of the slope would be +selected. + +However, it may be said that, in general, a defensive position should +be near the bottom of the slope. + +=1427. Gentle reverse slopes.= From the point of view of avoiding +losses, all gentle reverse slopes are dangerous and are to be avoided +when possible. + +When necessary to traverse or to occupy such ground, precautions must +be taken to protect the reserves or other bodies of troops by placing +them on the flanks; by disposing them in formations with a narrow +front; by causing them to lie down; by the construction of suitable +shelter, and by avoiding useless movements. + + +Adjustment of Fire + +=1428. Fire at stationary targets.= The correct adjustment of fire is +attained by causing the center of impact to fall on the center of the +target. This is the problem constantly presented in combat firing. + +The two important elements entering into this problem are, (1) the +commander and (2) the troops. When a body of troops has aimed +correctly at the target indicated, with the elevation ordered and has +fired with steadiness, it has done all that can be expected of it, but +that is not sufficient; for, if the commander, by giving the wrong +sight-setting, for example, has failed to cause the center of impact +to fall on the center, of the target, the result may be nothing. +Hence the vital importance of knowing and announcing the correct +range. + +It is known that good shots make a small group and poor shots a large +group, average shots making a group of intermediate size. + +It is frequently stated that troops composed of good shots are not so +effective in collective firing as poorer shots. How is this possible? +The explanation is simple. The shot group of the good shots is small +and if misplaced by an error in range estimation few hits result while +the shot group of poorer shots, being larger, is not so much affected +by the same error in range estimation, will cover the ground, and +probably hit more figures. This, of course, is _only true_ when a +considerable error has been made in estimating the range. + +As battle targets are mostly line targets, a displacement to the right +or left does not amount to much, but an error in depth (range), as +stated before, is serious. Thus we, see that the _correct +determination of the range_ is very important. + +=1429. Determination of range.= The range may be determined, with only +a small error, by a range finder. There are several other methods, as, +for instance, by trial shots,--the dust thrown up by the bullet +showing whether the range is too short or too great,--by sound, by the +appearance of objects, etc., but except in deliberately prepared +defensive positions, estimating by eye will be the most practicable +method of estimating the range. For all practical purposes a very +satisfactory result will be obtained by taking the average estimates +of several trained men. + +In observing the effect of the fire the ground may be wet, or covered +with turf, sod or brush in which no signs of striking shots can be +seen. By careful use of good field glasses some indication of the +place where the shots are going, may be obtained. The actions of the +enemy may often indicate whether the fire is effective or not. + +=1430. Combined sights.= All other means failing, _combined sights_ +may be resorted to. By this is meant firing part of the troops with +sights set at one range and part with a range greater or less by 100 +yards or more. This increases the beaten zone and will generally +assure a certain amount of fire effect. This method is seldom used +under 500 yards. + +=1431. Auxiliary aiming points.= It frequently happens that the target +is so well concealed that it is invisible. In this case some well +defined object in front or behind it must be used as an _aiming +target_, and the range given so that the beaten zone will include the +actual target at its center. + +=1432. Fire at moving targets.= In firing at a moving enemy, a beaten +zone must be established immediately in front, his forward movement +into this zone completing the adjustment of fire. Due to the chance of +overestimating the range, a sight-setting must be taken _well under_ +the estimated range (usually about 200 yards against advancing +infantry). + +When the fire becomes effective, as may be judged by the actions and +movements of the enemy, the rate of fire should be quickened in order +to increase the effect of the fire. + +Frequent changes of sight not only cause a loss of time, but they also +multiply chances of error in sight-setting. Changes in sight-setting +against advancing infantry should not be less than 200 yards at a +time, that is to say, when the enemy has passed through the zone of +effective fire, the sight should be lowered 200 yards and the +operation repeated until the battle-sight zone is reached, when the +rear-sight leaf is thrown down and no other sight manipulation is +made. + +Against skirmish lines advancing by rushes, the sight-setting should +not be changed during a rush, but it should be done at the halts, so +that the greater vulnerability of the targets presented during the +rush may be taken advantage of. + +Against retreating infantry, use the estimated range, and when the +target appears to have passed beyond the zone of effective fire, add +200 yards to the sight-setting. + +Against attacking cavalry, due to the rapidity of the advance, there +will not usually be time for sight manipulation other than throwing +down the rear-sight leaf, so that the battle should be resorted to at +all ranges. + +In firing at a target moving across the line of fire it is desirable, +on account of the confusion caused thereby, to hit the head of the +column. It is necessary, therefore, to hold to the front a distance +sufficient to allow for the time of flight and the rate of march. This +will be accomplished by the observance of the following rough rules: + +1. Against infantry, hold against the head of the marching column; + +2. Against cavalry at a trot, hold to the front 1 yard for every 100 +yards of range; and at a gallop, 2 yards for every 100 yards of range. + +=1433. Night firing.= In night firing it is almost impossible to +adjust the fire by ordinary means. + +In night attacks the purpose of the offensive is to gain rapidly and +quietly a position where the issue may be decided in a hand to hand +encounter, or a position from which the superiority of fire may be +gained at daylight. For the offensive, therefore, fire action is a +subordinate consideration. + +On the defensive, when a night attack is apprehended, preparations +should be made to sweep with fire the ground immediately in front over +which the assailant must advance. + +Special arrangements may sometimes be made for resting rifles on the +parapet, so that the ground in front will be suitably covered. A solid +support is necessary for maintaining the proper direction of the +pieces during firing. For this purpose notched boards or timbers are +convenient. The arrangements should be such that the operations of +loading and firing may be performed without removing the rifles from +the support. + +Searchlight illumination may reveal the position and movements of the +enemy sufficiently well to permit the use of the sights. In night +operations of small parties fire may be well directed when a bright, +well-defined light, such as a camp fire, is presented as an aiming +point. In such a case a slight illumination of the front sight is +required. + + +Fire Direction and Control + +=1434. General.= As stated before in substance, the maximum effect of +fire can be gotten only by instructed and disciplined troops under a +commander capable of directing and controlling their fire properly. + +The fire of a company may be likened to spraying water from a hose, +and as the fireman can shift his stream of water from one point to the +other with certainty, being able to direct and control it with +promptness and accuracy, so should the company commander be able to +switch the cone of fire of his company from one target to another, +having it at all times under direction and control. In other words, as +the pliable, manageable hose responds to the will of the fireman, so +should the company be so trained and instructed that it will respond +to the will of the company commander on the firing line, in the midst +of the noise and confusion of battle. No one except a man who has been +in battle can realize how great are the noise and confusion, and how +necessary and important are cooeperation, team-work, discipline, and +communication, in order for a company commander to control and direct +the fire of the company--there must be absolute cooeperation, +team-work, and communication between all parts of the company--between +the captain and the platoon leaders, the platoon leaders and the squad +leaders, and the squad leaders and the members of their squads. Each +and every man must know and do his part and endeavor all he can to +keep in touch with and help the others. Now, the foundation of +team-work and cooeperation, is communication--communication between the +company commander and the men on the firing line--the means by which, +the medium _through_ which he will make known his will to the men on +the firing line. As stated before, because of the noise and confusion +on the firing line this is no easy matter. The ideal way would be for +the company commander to control the company by communicating direct +with every man on the firing line, as graphically shown on the +following page: + +[Illustration: Fig. 49] + +However, in the noise and confusion of battle it would be utterly +impossible for all the men to hear the captain's voice. Experience +shows that from 20 to 35 rifles are as many as one leader can control. +The captain, must, therefore, control the company through the platoon +commanders--that is to say, he _actually directs_ the fire and the +platoon commanders, assisted by the squad leaders, _actually control_ +it. In other words, the captain communicates with the men on the +firing line, he makes his will known to them, through his platoon +commanders, as graphically shown in this diagram: + +[Illustration: Fig. 50] + +However, in order for our system of communication to be successful, +each and every man, as stated above, must know and do his part and +endeavor all he can to help the others. If this is done, then the +different parts and elements of the company will dove-tail and fit +into one another, resulting in a complete, homogeneous whole, in the +form of an efficient, pliable, manageable instrument in the hands of +the company commander. And this is the object, the result, sought by +practice and instruction in field firing, and which will be obtained +if the captain, the platoon leaders, the squad leaders, the file +closers, the musicians, and the privates, will perform the following +duties and functions: + +=1435. The Captain.= (_Fire direction._) + +The captain _directs_ the fire of the company or of designated +platoons. He designates the target, and, when practicable, allots a +part of the target to each platoon. Before beginning the fire action +he determines the range, announces the sight setting, and indicates +the class of fire to be employed, and the time to open fire. +Thereafter, he observes the fire effect, corrects material errors in +sight setting, prevents exhaustion of the ammunition supply, and +causes the distribution of such extra ammunition as may be received +from the rear. (I. D. R. 249.) + +Having indicated clearly what he desires the platoon leaders to do, +the captain avoids interfering, except to correct serious errors or +omissions. (I. D. R. 240.) + +=1436. The Platoon Leaders.= (_Fire direction._) + +In combat the platoon is the _fire unit_. (I. D. R. 250.) + +Each platoon leader puts into execution the commands or directions of +the captain, having first taken such precautions to insure correct +sight setting and clear description of the target or aiming point as +the situation permits or requires; thereafter, he gives such +additional commands or directions as are necessary to exact compliance +with the captain's will. He corrects the sight setting when necessary. +He designates an aiming point when the target cannot be seen with the +naked eye. + +In general, _platoon leaders_ observe the target and the effect of +their fire and are on the alert for the captain's commands or signals; +they observe and regulate the rate of fire. (I. D. R. 252.) + +=1437. The Guides= watch the firing line and check every breach of +fire discipline. + +=1438. The Squad Leaders= transmit commands and signals when +necessary, observe the conduct of their squads and abate excitement, +assist in enforcing fire discipline and participate in the firing. + +Every squad leader should place himself just a little in advance of +the rest of his squad and by occasionally glancing to the right and +left, observe how the men of their squads are doing--whether they are +firing at the proper objective, if the sights are apparently properly +adjusted, if they are firing too rapidly, etc. After each shot the +squad leader should look toward his platoon leader, and then glance to +his right and left to observe his men, and then load and fire again. + +=1439. The Musicians= assist the captain by observing the enemy, the +target, and the fire effect, by transmitting commands or signals, and +by watching for signals. (I. D. R. 235.) + +=1440. The Privates= will take advantage of cover, exercise care in +setting the sights and delivering fire; be on the constant lookout for +orders from their leaders; always aim deliberately; observe the enemy +carefully, increasing the fire when the target is favorable and +ceasing firing when the enemy disappears; not neglect a target because +it is indistinct; not waste ammunition, but be economical with it; if +firing without a leader to retain their presence of mind and direct an +efficient fire upon the proper target. + +=1441. Distribution of Fire.= The distribution of fire over the entire +target is of the greatest importance; for, a section of the target not +covered by fire represents a number of the enemy permitted to fire +coolly and effectively. So, remember that all parts of the target are +equally important, and care must be taken that the men do not neglect +its less visible parts. + +The captain allots a part of the target to each platoon, or each +platoon leader takes as his target that part which corresponds to his +position in the company. Every man is so instructed that he will fire +on that part of the target which is directly opposite him. + +If the target cannot be seen with the naked eye, platoon leaders +select an object in front of or behind it, designate this as the +aiming point, and direct a sight-setting which will carry the fire +into the target. The men aim at the good aiming point or line, but +with such an increased or decreased sight-setting, as the case may be, +that the bullets will fall on the target instead of on the aiming +point. + +Distribution of fire is assured by dividing the whole target assigned +the company into definite parts or sectors, and allotting these parts +or sectors to the various platoons. And, of course, the whole of the +target must be kept under fire while the company is advancing. This +may be accomplished by one of two methods: + +=1442. Overlapping Method.= In this method each sector (target) is +covered by more than one fire unit. For example, in a company of four +platoons the entire company sector would be divided in two parts, the +right part being covered by the first and second platoons and the left +part by the third and fourth platoons. When the first platoon ceases +fire to advance, the second platoon would replace the lost rifles by +firing faster. With three platoons the company sector would be divided +into two parts, one being assigned to each flank platoon and the whole +company sector to the center platoon. When the first platoon advanced, +the center platoon would cover its target, both the center and third +platoons increasing their rate of fire. With two platoons, each would +cover the whole company sector. + +=1443. Switch Method.= The company is divided into a number of parts, +one less than the number of platoons in the company. One platoon is +designated as the "switch," and swings into fire automatically into +that sector from which the fire of its assigned unit is withdrawn. For +example, with four platoons, and platoon rushes to start from the +right, the company sector is divided into three parts assigned to the +first, second and third platoons, the fourth being the "switch." When +number 1 ceases fire to advance, No. 4 fires at No. 1's target; when +No. 2 ceases to fire, No. 4 fires at No. 2's target, then at No. 3's +target, and finally No. 4 advances. + +=1444. Individual instruction in fire distribution.= Every man should +be thoroughly drilled, instructed and trained always to _fire at that +part of the hostile target which corresponds to the position he +occupies in his platoon_. That is to say, if on the right of his +platoon, he fires at the right (as he faces it) of the hostile target; +if in the right center of his platoon, he fires at the right center +(as he faces it) of the target, and so on. This is represented by the +following diagram, the points A', B', C', etc., representing the parts +of the hostile target at which the men occupying the positions A, B, +C, etc., in their platoon, would fire: + +[Illustration: Fig. 51] + +=1445. Designation of target.= It is very important that the +commanders should be able to describe the objectives to be attacked +and the sectors[19] to be defended, and that individual soldiers +should be able to understand and transmit to other soldiers such +descriptions. Within the squad, target designation implies ability on +the part of the squad leader to understand and transmit to his squad +the target designation received from his platoon leader, and also +ability on his own part to designate a target intelligently; within +the platoon, target designation implies ability on the part of the +platoon leader to understand the company commander's designation of +the target and to transmit that designation to his platoon in such +manner as to insure an equal distribution of its fire within the +sector assigned to it; within the company, target designation implies +ability on the part of the company commander to designate the targets +into which the company sector is divided in such manner that the +platoon leaders will have no trouble in understanding him. It also +implies ability on the part of the company commander to change the +objectives or sectors of his platoons, and his ability to cover the +whole target of the company during a forward movement of a part of the +company, by the so-called "switch" or the "overlapping" method, or by +any other method which is practicable and accomplishes the desired +end. Targets should be designated in a concise, prompt, unmistakable +manner, but, as we all know, it is not always an easy matter to +describe the location of an object, especially if the object be not +conspicuous or readily recognized. This is due to two reasons: First, +the unit commander is likely to indulge in vague talk instead of +accurate description, and, second, even if correct terms are used, it +is more than likely that all members of the firing line will not be +able to grasp the idea, because the commander will be using +expressions which, although understood by himself (in some cases +perhaps due to the fact that he is looking at the objective), they +will not be clear to the men. The secret of prompt, accurate and +concise designation of a target lies in the use of simple words and +terms with which both the unit commander and the men on the firing +line are thoroughly familiar. + +Of course, if the target be distinct and clearly defined, it can +easily be designated by name, as for example, "That battery on the +hill just in front of us," "Cavalry to our right front," etc. + +Generally the designation of a target, if not conspicuous nor readily +recognized, will include: + +1. A statement of what the target is, or its appearance (shape, color, +size, etc.) + +2. Where the target is with reference to some easily recognized +reference point. + +3. How wide the company sector is. + +The following systems of target designation are used at the School of +Musketry. Each has its limitations, defects and advantages, under +various conditions of ground, etc. A wise selection of one or a +combination of two or more, is a material factor in efficiency. + +=1446. Horizontal Clock Face System.= (Used with visible, distinct +targets.) + + SYSTEM EXAMPLE + + 1. Announce direction. "At one o'clock." + + 2. Announce range. "Range 1000." + + 3. Announce objective. "A troop of cavalry dismounted." + +[Illustration: Fig. 52] + +PROCEDURE: + +1. All look along the line pointing toward one o'clock of a horizontal +clock face whose center is at the firing point, and whose 12 o'clock +mark is directly perpendicular to the front of the firing line. + +2. All look at a point about 1000 yards away on the one o'clock line, +and + +3. At 1000 yards on the one o'clock line find the objective. + +=1447. Vertical Clock Face System.= (Used with small or indistinct +targets.) + + SYSTEM EXAMPLE + + 1. Announce the general direction "To our right front" (or "At two + of the reference point. o'clock"). + + 2. Designate as a reference point "A stone house with two chimneys." + the most prominent object in the + zone indicated. + + 3. Announce the position of the "At three o'clock." + target with respect to the + reference point. + + 4. Announce the range. "Range 1000." + + 5. Announce the objective. "A hostile patrol of four men." + +[Illustration: Fig. 53] + +PROCEDURE: + +1. All men look to their right front (or along the two o'clock line). + +2. The reference point (stone house) is found in the indicated +direction. + +3. A clock face (vertical) is imagined centered on the reference +point, and the men look along the line leading from the clock center +through three o'clock, and + +4. 1000 yards from the firing point. + +5. Find the hostile patrol. + +=1447a. Finger System.= (Used with indistinct or invisible targets and +to define sectors.) + + (By one "Finger" we mean the amount of frontage that one finger, + held vertically, will cover, the arm being extended horizontally + to its full length. In the average case this amount of frontage + covered is about 1/20 of the range. For instance, at a range of + 1000 yards, one "Finger" will cover fifty yards of the sector The + same result will be obtained by using the rear-sight leaf in the + position of aiming.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 54] + + SYSTEM EXAMPLE + + 1. Announce direction to "To our right front, at 1000 yards." + reference point as in the + vertical clock face system. + + 2. Announce reference point. "A stone house with two chimneys." + + 3. Announce angular distance and "Four o'clock, three fingers." + direction from the reference + point to the target. + + 4. Announce range. "Range 1000." + + 5. Announce objective. "A skirmish line alongside of the + fence, length about two fingers, + right at the dark bush." + +[Illustration: Fig. 55] + +PROCEDURE: + +The reference point is found as explained, and the vertical o'clock +line upon which the target will be found. The soldiers who do not see +the target will extend the aim to its _full extent_ palm of the hand +upward, finger held vertically with one side of the hand "against" the +reference point. The target will be found on the four o'clock line, +and touching the third finger, at 1000 yards distance, its right flank +at the bush and its left flank about 100 yards farther to the right. + +The following case will illustrate more concretely the use of the +"Finger" system: + +There is a red house about 3/4 mile to our front, and to the right of +this house and a hundred yards or so to its rear, there is a line of +trenches that can be seen with the aid of field glasses, but the +trenches are difficult to locate with the unaided eye. There is no +prominent landmark in the direction of this line of trenches, or on +either flank, except the red house mentioned. The company commander +locates the flanks of the line of trenches through his field glasses; +he then extends his arm forward horizontally its full length, palm up, +raises the fingers of his hand and, sighting on the line of trenches, +finds that the trench line has a length of four "finger widths," and +that the flank of the line nearest the red house is three "finger +widths" from it. He decides to divide the line into two sections of +two "fingers" each, and assign one section to each of his two +platoons. He then calls his platoon leaders (and range finders, if +necessary), and says, for instance: "Center of objective, five to the +right of that red house, First Platoon, two fingers; Second Platoon, +two fingers." The two platoon leaders then estimate the range and give +the company commander their estimates independently. The company +commander also estimates the range, and taking the average, then +announces the range, say 1300 yards, after which the platoon leaders +return to their platoons, and give, for instance, these instructions: +"The target is a line of trenches four 'fingers' long, and about 1300 +yards away; the center of the target is five 'fingers' to the right of +that red house, at about 10 o'clock. We are to fire at the two fingers +on the right of the center and the Second Platoon will look after the +two fingers on the left of the center." (The leader of the Second +Platoon gives similar instructions.) + +Every man in the platoon figures out the platoon objective and +endeavors to fix it with respect to some features of the ground so +that he will be able to pick it up promptly after his platoon starts +to advance. After fixing well in his mind the platoon objective, he +figures out what part of it belongs to his squad, and then selects +that portion of the squad objective corresponding to his position in +the squad. If during the advance, his particular portion of the target +should become hidden from view, he will fire on the nearest portion of +the trench line, returning to his own part as soon as it becomes +visible. + +=1447b. Communication.= After the company has been committed to the +fire fight, verbal commands cannot be heard, and it is well nigh +impossible even to secure attention to signals. It is, therefore, most +important that we should train and practice the company as much as +possible during time of peace in the rapid and accurate transmission +of orders and signals along the firing line. + +Matter upon which a commander would need to communicate with his +subordinates, in addition to tactical orders, would generally be +confined to: + +(a) Changes of elevation and deflection. + +(b) Changes in the apportionment of the target among the subdivisions. + +(c) Changes within the limits of the sector, or objective. + +(d) Changes in the rate of fire. + +(e) And rarely change of target from one within to one without the +limits of the objective or sector. + +=1448. Procedure.= The following is given merely as a concrete example +of the procedure that might be followed in certain ring exercises--it +will not, of course, apply to all cases; it is merely given as a +concrete illustration of what might actually be done under certain +conditions. + +_Company Commander._ On receiving his instructions from the officer in +charge of the exercise, the company commander returns to his company, +keeping track of the changing aspect of his target as he does so. +Arriving at the center of his company, he is met by his platoon +leaders, and range finders, who have assembled in his absence. The +company commander says: + +"The target is a line of skirmishers, visible in part. It may be seen +between us and that long line of green bushes which begins one finger +to the right of that red water tower at 11 o'clock and it extends well +beyond the bushes both to the right and to the left." + +(At this point the range finders begin their estimation and the +captain pauses until the senior range finder, or other designated +person automatically announces the average estimate of the range, +saying for example, "range 1100.") + +The captain then resumes, saying: + +"The sector assigned to this company is three fingers long and extends +from that group one finger to the right of the water tower, to a point +four fingers to the right of the tower. Each platoon will cover the +entire company sector. Range ten-fifty and eleven-fifty. Fire at will +at my signal. Posts." + +_Platoon Leaders._ The platoon leaders then hasten to the center of +their platoons and "put into execution the commands and directions of +the captain, having first taken such precautions to insure a correct +sight-setting and clear description of the aiming point as the +situation permits or requires" (Par. 251 I. D. R.), by saying: + +_Target:_ The target is a line of skirmishers about 1100 yards to our +front, only parts of which are visible. + +_Reference point:_ That long line of bushes about 1300 yards to our +left front. The company sector is three fingers long and lies between +us and that reference point, extending one-half finger beyond each end +of the bushes. + +_Aiming point:_ The bottom of the line of bushes. + +_Range:_ 1050 and 1150. + +As soon as the range is announced each front rank man sets his sight +at 1050 and each rear rank man at 1150. Squad leaders assure +themselves that sights are set and that the men of their squads +understand the aiming point and sector and then raise their hand as a +signal that all are ready. Similarly, the platoon leaders raise their +hands to show that all of the squads are ready, and when the captain +sees that all of his platoons are ready, he signals to begin firing. +At the captain's signal, each platoon leader commands: "_Fire at +Will._" + +Firing then begins at a rate of about 3 shots per minute (Par. 14, I. +D. R.). + +=1449. Points To Be Borne in Mind.= Bear in mind the following points +in the solution of field firing problems: + +1. Combine sights should, as a rule, be used where the estimated range +is 1000 yards or more, the two ranges being 50 yards on each side of +the estimated range, the even numbers firing at one range, the odd +numbers at the other. + +2. When aiming points are chosen they should be clearly described. +Bushes, bunches of lines of grass, fence posts, etc., should not be +designated as aiming points when clear and more definite aiming points +are available. The choice of the best of several possible aiming +points is of great importance. + +3. Have some system of simple signals whereby you may know when all +your men are ready to begin firing. Otherwise, you may begin the +firing before some of your men have their sights set and before they +understand the sector and point of aim. For example, let each squad +leader raise his right hand when his squad is ready, and each platoon +leader his right hand when his platoon is ready. + +4. Platoon leaders must always be sure to designate a definite aiming +point. Remember that in the case of an indistinct target, the company +commander describes the TARGET to the platoon leaders, and they in +turn announce the AIMING POINT. Having seen and located the target, +the platoon leader must examine the terrain at, in front of and behind +the target, and choose the aiming point for his men. He must then +determine the proper sight-setting for that particular aiming point. +He then announces both aiming point and range. + +5. Instead of describing a sector as, for example, extending so many +yards (or so many "fingers") north from the reference point, it is +better to describe it as extending from the reference point northward +for a definite distance, as "To that tall red house." + +The last method is the best, because it leaves no room for guessing on +the part of subordinates. So, remember it is always best, when +possible, to define the limits of sectors physically, as, extending, +for example, from "That house to that windmill," etc. + +6. When acting as part of the battalion, always be sure to designate +someone (usually one of the musicians) to watch for signals from the +battalion commander, and don't fail to repeat back all signals. + +[Illustration: Fig. 56] + +7. In advancing by rushes, always allow sufficient time between rushes +to recover the loss in fire caused by the cessation of fire. In other +words, the next rear unit should not start forward until the one that +has just advanced has resumed an effective fire. + +8. Remember that in all field firing problems the distribution of hits +has big weight. Consequently, it should be definitely understood +beforehand, that, in the absence of any target designation by the +company commander, each platoon leader will look after the sector +corresponding to his front, and that each man will fire at the part of +the sector corresponding to his front. Should the targets in a given +sector disappear, then the platoon leader covering that sector will at +once switch his fire to the adjoining sector until the reappearance of +the targets in his own sector. For example, let us suppose the company +sector, A-B (the company being on the defense and not advancing) is +divided into four parts A-B, B-C, C-D and D-E. Platoon No. 1 would +look after everything that appeared in D-E; No. 2, after everything +that appeared in C-D; No. 3, everything that appeared in B-C; and No. +4, after everything that appeared in A-B. + +Should the target suddenly disappear from D-E, then No. 1 would switch +his fire over to C-D, and keep it there until the target reappeared in +D-E, and if the targets disappeared from C-D, before reappearing in +D-E, then both No. 1, and No. 2, would switch their fire cones to A-C. + +=1450. Exercises.= The following exercises for the elementary training +of individuals and squads were used with success by the troops +mobilized on the Texas border: + + +TARGETS + +1. The target will be represented by individual soldiers. + +2. With reference to their visibility, the battlefield will present +three classes of targets: + + (a) Those which are visible throughout. + + (b) Those which are visible in part. + + (c) Those which are invisible, but whose location might be + described. + +Targets will be arranged to simulate one of the classes enumerated. +Instruction will begin with simple exercises in which the target +presented is plainly visible, and represents only the objective of the +unit undergoing instruction. It should progress to the more difficult +exercises in which the target is invisible and the line of figures is +prolonged to include the objective of units on the right or left. + +3. The limits of indistinct targets may be shown to unit commanders by +the use of company flags. These flags, however, will be withdrawn from +sight before a description of the target or estimate of the range is +attempted, and before anyone but the commander of the unit undergoing +instruction sees their location. + +4. At the conclusion of each exercise in which flags are used to mark +the limits of the target or its subdivisions, they should be +displayed, in order that any existing errors may be readily pointed +out. + +5. To determine proficiency in target designation, the instructor will +provide a sufficient number of rifles, placed on sand bags or other +suitable rests, and require those charged with fire direction and +control to sight them at the limits of their objective. An inspection +by the instructor will at once detect errors. Similarly, in those +exercises in which all the members of the firing unit participate, the +percentage of rifles aimed at the correct target may be determined. + +6. In these exercises no method of communication will be permitted +that could not be used under the conditions assumed in the problem. + + +EXERCISE NO. 1--RANGING + +Object: To train the individual to set his sight quickly and +accurately for the announced range and windage; and to accustom +leaders to the giving of windage data. + +Situation: The company is formed in single rank at the ready with rear +sight set at zero and the slide screw normally tight. + +Action: The range and windage are announced, sights are set accurately +in accordance therewith and as rapidly as may be, each man coming to +port arms immediately upon completing the operation. + +Time: Time is taken from the last word of the command. + +Standard: Sights should be correctly set within 15 seconds. + +Note: Of the two elements, time and accuracy, accuracy is the more +important. + +Par. 411, I. D. R., implies complete use of the rear sight, that is, +utilization of the wind gauge, and sight setting to the least reading +of the rear sight leaf, i. e., 25 yards. Sight setting therefore in +this exercise should include, more often than not, "fractional ranges" +and windage data. + + +EXERCISE NO. 2--RANGING + +Object: To familiarize officers and noncommissioned officers in the +use of an auxiliary aiming point. + +Situation: Two men with the company flags are stationed to mark the +enemy's invisible position. This position should be suitably located +with reference to a practicable aiming point. + +Action: The markers are signaled to display their flags. An officer or +noncommissioned officer is called up and the enemy's position is +pointed out. The flags are then withdrawn and the officer or +noncommissioned officer selects an auxiliary aiming point and gives +his commands for firing at that point. + + +EXERCISE NO. 3--TARGET DESIGNATION + +Object: To train the individual soldier to locate a target, from a +description solely. To do so quickly and accurately and fire thereon +with effect, and to train officers and noncommissioned officers in +concise, accurate and clear description of targets. + +Situation: The men are so placed as not to be able to see to the +target. The instructor places himself so as to see the objective. + +Action: The instructor, to one man at a time, describes the objective, +and directs him to fire one simulated round. The man immediately moves +so as to see the target, locates it, estimates the range and fires one +simulated shot. + +Standard: For ranges within battle sight, time 20 seconds; beyond +battle sight, time 30 seconds. Not more than 15% error in the +estimation of the range. Objective correctly located. + +Note: Arrangements made so that the description of the target is heard +by only the man about to fire. After firing the man will not mingle +with those waiting to fire. + + +EXERCISE NO. 4--TARGET DESIGNATION + +Object: To train the squad leader in promptly bringing the fire of his +squad to bear effectively upon the target presented. To train the +individuals of a squad to fire effectively from orders of the squad +leader and automatically to obtain effective dispersion. + +Situation: The squad is deployed, the squad leader being in the firing +line. Position prone. A sighting rest is provided for each rifle. + +Action: Upon the appearance of the target the squad leader gives the +necessary orders for delivering an effective fire. The men under these +orders sight their rifles and then rise. The instructor then examines +the position and sighting of each rifle. + +Time: Time is taken from the appearance of the target until the last +man has risen. + +Target: A squad of men to outline a partially concealed enemy emerges +from cover, advances a short distance and lies down. + +Standard: 90% of the rifles should be sighted in conformity with the +orders of the squad leader and should evenly cover the whole front of +the objective. The squad leader's estimate of the range should not be +in error over 15%. + +Note: The squad leader should not, in general, be allowed to divide +the target into sectors but to obtain distribution by training the men +to fire at that portion of the objective directly related to the +position they occupy in their own line. The exercise should be +repeated with the squad leader in rear of the squad and not firing. As +to this, it is to be noted that Musketry School experiments prove that +in small groups the directed fire of say seven (7) rifles is more +effective than the partially undirected fire of eight rifles obtained +when the group leader is himself firing. + + +EXERCISE NO. 5--COMMUNICATION + +Object: To teach prompt and accurate transmission of firing data +without cessation of fire, and also to teach automatic readjustment of +fire distribution. + +Situation: A squad deployed in the prone position and with sighting +rests, is firing at a designated target. + +Action: A squad with sights set at zero is deployed and brought up at +the double time into the intervals of the firing line and halted. The +firing data is transmitted to them without cessation of fire. At the +command =Rise=, given 20 seconds after the command =Halt=, the first +squad rises and retires a short distance to the rear. At the same +time, the supports cease fire and adjust their rifles in the rests so +as to be aimed at the target as they understand it. They then rise +and their rifles are examined by the instructor for range and +direction. + +Standard: 80% of the rifles should be sighted according to the +transmitted data and aimed according to the principles of fire +distribution. + +Target: One target equal to a squad front, which is increased to two +squads prior to the arrival of the supports in the firing line. + +Note: This exercise should be repeated with the supporting squad +reenforcing on a flank. To determine whether the original squad is +able to keep its assigned sector during an advance, this exercise +should be repeated, the supports being thrown in after a series of +short advances by the original squad. Care should be exercised to +prevent the transmission of firing data in a manner under which +service conditions would be impracticable. (See Exercise No. 6.) + + +EXERCISE NO. 6--COMMUNICATION + +Object: To train the squad leader in receiving and transmitting +instructions by visual signals alone. + +Situation: A squad with its leader in the firing line is deployed in +the prone position firing at will. + +Action: The instructor, without sound or other cautionary means, +signals (visually) to the squad leader at various intervals to, + + First: Change elevation. + Swing the fire to the right or left. + Suspend the firing. + Etc., etc. + +The squad leader, upon receiving a signal, causes his squad to execute +it without verbal command, or exposing himself. + +Time: No specified time limit. + +Standard: The squad leader should fire with his squad, but after each +shot should look towards his platoon leader for any signal, then +observe the fire and conduct of his men, then, after glancing again at +his platoon leader, fire again. This the squad leader should do +without exposing himself. By lying about a head's length ahead of his +men he can see his squad front. In transmitting orders he can +accomplish it by nudging the men on his right and left and signaling +to them with his hand. + +Note: This exercise is essential to prepare men for the deafening +noise of a heavy action when speech or sound signals are largely +futile. + + +EXERCISE NO. 7--FIRE DISCIPLINE + +Object: To train men to carry out strictly the fire orders given them, +and to refrain from starting, repeating or accepting any change +therefrom without direct orders from a superior. + +Situation: A squad deployed in the prone position. + +Action: While the squad is firing at an indistinct but specified +target, another and clearly visible target appears in the vicinity of +the first target but not in the same sector. Upon the appearance of +this second target, the instructor sees that the men continue firing +at the assigned target. The corporal should check any breach of fire +discipline. + +Note: Variations of this exercise should be given to test the fire +discipline of the men in other phases, such as rate of fire (Par. 147, +I. D. R.), etc. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[18] The subjects of fire control and fire direction are coveted in +pars. 285-290; 1434-1436. + +[19] In attack the target is called "objective"; in the defense, +"sector." + + + + +PART V + +CARE OF HEALTH AND KINDRED SUBJECTS + + + + +CHAPTER I + +CARE OF THE HEALTH + + +=1451. Importance of good health.= Good health is just as necessary to +an army as rifles and ammunition. Not only does every sick man take +away one rifle from the firing line, but in addition he becomes a care +and a burden on the hands of the army. Indeed, it is fully as +important for a soldier to take care of his health as it is for him to +take care of his rifle and ammunition. The importance of doing +everything possible to look after one's health is shown by the fact +that in every war so far, many more men have died from disease than +were killed in battle or died from wounds. In our Civil War, for +instance, for every man on the Union side who was killed in battle or +died from wounds, two died from disease. In the Spanish American War +the proportion was 1 to 5-1/2. + +To do all that he can to keep in good health is a duty that the +soldier owes his country. + +=1452. Germs.= Diseases are caused by little, tiny live animals or +plants called _germs_. They are so small that you require a magnifying +glass to see them. + +The following illustrations show the typhoid and malarial germs as +seen through a magnifying glass: + +[Illustration: Fig. 1 + +_Typhoid germs_ + +_Malarial germs_] + + +The Different Ways of Catching Disease + +=1453. Five ways of catching disease.= There are only five ways to +catch disease: + + 1. By breathing in the live germs. + 2. By swallowing the live germs. + 3. By touching the live germs. + 4. By having the live germs stuck into the skin by insects that bite. + 5. By inheritance from parents. + + +Diseases Caught by Breathing in the Germs + +=1454. The more common diseases.= The following are some of the more +common diseases caught by breathing in the germs: Colds, diphtheria, +tonsilitis, grippe, scarlet fever, pneumonia, and consumption. + +The germs that cause these diseases grow well in the dark, warm, moist +lining of the nose, throat, windpipe and lungs, and they are coughed +or sneezed out or blown out and float in tiny bubbles in the air or +fall to dry into dust which is blown about with the wind, and so are +breathed in, or they may be transferred directly by kissing invalids +and sick children. + +=1455. How to avoid breathing in sickness.= Do not visit sick people +or a house where the children are sick. + +Do not let other people cough or sneeze over your food or in your +face. + +Do not allow others to spit on the floor of your squadron or tent. + +Do not do these things yourself. + +Blow your nose into a handkerchief that can be boiled or into a piece +of paper that can be burned. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2 + +_Distributing sickness_] + +Put your hand before your face when you cough or sneeze. + +Rinse out the nose with hot, weak salt water at night and especially +if you have been inhaling dust. + +Brush the teeth after each meal and before going to bed. + +Do not pick the nose with the finger nails; it makes sore spots in +which germs grow. + +On dusty hikes tie a handkerchief across the nose and mouth. + +Never sweep the floor with a dry broom. Use a damp mop and so pick the +germs up and carry them out instead of driving them up in the air as +dust. + + +Diseases Caught by Swallowing the Germs + +=1456. The more common diseases.= The following are some of the more +common diseases caught by swallowing the germs: Typhoid fever, +dysentery, cholera, and ptomaine poisoning. + +=1457. Water as a distributer of disease.= Impure water is one of the +most common distributers of disease that there is. Therefore, water +from sources unknown or soiled by sewage, should be avoided as deadly +and should not be used, _unless boiled_, for drinking, brushing the +teeth or rinsing mess kits. + +You can not always tell polluted water by its appearance, smell or +taste. Unless from a sewer or drain, it may look clear and sparkling, +with no smell and have a pleasant taste, so, water that is not known +to be pure should not be drunk. + +=1458. Vegetables as a distributer of disease.= In some localities the +inhabitants use the streams for all purposes; drinking, washing +clothes, bathing, washing vegetables and table utensils and as a +sewer. When kitchen gardens are irrigated with such water the germs +are to be found on the cabbages, beets, etc. + +=1459. Food, fruit, cigarettes, and drinking cups as distributers of +disease.= Germs may be smeared on the hands and thus transferred to +articles of food, fruit, cigarettes, or drinking cups, especially in +public places, so that he who buys at the public stands may have +disease handed to him with his purchase. + +=1460. The fly as a disease carrier.= The ordinary fly is one of the +worst and filthiest transmitters of disease in existence. + +Flies carry germs from privies, latrines, spitoons, and sick rooms to +the food on your table, by means of their smeared feet, in their spit +or in their specks. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +=1461. The dog as a distributer of disease.= Dogs are often +distributers of disease. They use their tongues for toilet paper and +afterwards lick their coat or the hands of their friends. Petting dogs +or letting them lick your hand is dangerous. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4 + +'_Nice doggie_' + +(And "nice doggie" may be giving him some disease)] + +=1462. How to avoid swallowing disease.= Do not drink water that is +not known to be safe. If you have no one to ask and are traveling, it +is safer to drink tea or coffee, because they have been made from +boiled water, or to drink bottled mineral waters. In the field boil +your drinking water. Boiled germs are dead and will not grow. They +are, therefore, harmless. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5 + +_Boiling water to kill germs_] + +Beware of water from wells, farm pumps ponds, cisterns, water coolers +and barrels, especially in railroad cars, stations, and ferry boats. + +Do not drink lemonade, soft drinks, or milk from peddlers. + +Beware of the public drinking cup. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6 + +_Next!_ + +(What germs will he leave on the cup?)] + +Always wash your hands before going to meals and before putting things +into your mouth, especially after going to the toilet or handling +animals. + +Do not adopt strange dogs and do not pet dogs. + +Before eating fruit or raw vegetables, wash and peel them unless +picked from the tree by yourself. + +Do not eat food that is spoiled, smells or tastes badly or is flyblown +or maggoty or full of bugs. + +Do not eat food which is not sufficiently cooked. All smoked, dried or +salt meats or fish, such as ham, bacon, sausage, dried beef, bloaters, +salt mackerel or codfish, must be well cooked, as they may contain +"Measles" or other worm eggs. Cooking kills the egg. + +Do not eat food exposed on public stands to dust, flies, dirty hands, +dirty water, dirty cans, or dirty glasses and buckets. + +Do not allow flies to breed in dirt or other filth around the house, +nor allow them to walk on your food. This is possible by burning, +burying or otherwise removing the dirt or filth, and by using fly +traps, "swatters" and fly paper. + +Do not wet lead pencils with your spit. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7 + +_Swallowing sickness_] + +Do not wet your fingers with spit when you deal cards or turn over +pages of books or magazines. + +Keep the teeth brushed and the mouth clean. Have decayed teeth +repaired at once. Decayed teeth drop out and they cause abscesses, +which may destroy the jaw bone or cause brain fever. Old snags give +the stomach the germs of rotting, which cause dyspepsia. + + +Diseases Caught by Touching the Germs + +=1463. The more common diseases.= The following are some of the more +common diseases caught by touching the germs: Ringworm, mange, +barber's itch, sore eyes, boils, carbuncles, lockjaw, small pox, +chancroid, syphilis, and gonorrhoea (clap). + +=1464. Ringworm, mange, and barber's itch.= These diseases are carried +from person to person by finger nails and hands and from dirty water +to those who bathe in it or have their underwear washed in it. + +=1465. Lockjaw.= The germs of lockjaw are found in manure and in soil +fertilized with it; hence, a bullet which passes through such soil +before wounding carries these germs into the wound. Any wound soiled +with such dirt will be infected. Also, wounds made by toy pistols and +fire-crackers often contain lockjaw germs. + +=1466. Chancroid, syphilis, and gonorrhoea (clap).= These are diseases +whose germs are usually caught from prostitutes and whores, or from +husbands who have caught the germs from prostitutes and whores. They +are called "Venereal diseases," after Venus, the Roman goddess of +lustful love, but they are very often caught in other ways than in +sexual intercourse, and by innocent persons. + +=The chancroid plant= causes a very nasty sore, the _chancroid_, which +often destroys much flesh and causes buboes. The germ can be carried +on the fingers to any part of the body. When the chancroid is healed +and the bubo becomes a scar the disease is cured. + +The _syphilis_ germ will grow first where it is rubbed in, causing a +hard ulcer, called a chancre, and after that it travels through the +entire body. No place is sacred to its destructive power and it lives +as long as the patient does. It is the cause of much insanity, palsy, +apoplexy, deafness, blindness and early death. In mothers it causes +miscarriages and in children it causes stillbirths, freaks, +deformities, feeble minds and idiots; also, deaf and dumb, palsied, +stunted, sickly and criminal conditions. + +A syphilitic person is always dangerous although apparently well. He +often has a sore mouth and his spit is as dangerous as that of a mad +dog. The bite of such a man will develop a chancre and any pipe, cup, +or tooth pick which he uses, or his kiss, will give syphilis. A +syphilitic tattooer who wets his needles and his India ink with spit +will put a chancre into the skin with the picture. + +The instruments of cheap advertising dentists and of quack doctors or +ignorant nurses can carry these germs from one person to another. So +can the razors and caustic stick of barbers who are careless. + +=The clap plant= likes to grow in the linings of the openings of the +body where it is dark and warm and moist where it causes a catarrhal +discharge called _clap_, which is easily smeared on hands, towels, +handkerchiefs or by actual contact. + +It grows well in the eyelids, causing great damage and often +blindness. Many babies get the clap plant into the eyes during birth, +from the mother, and unless treated within a few minutes after birth, +have sore eyes and go blind,--a terrible calamity to the child and the +family. If you have clap the germs can be carried on your hands to +your eyes. + +The clap plant also grows well in the cavities of the joints, causing +rheumatism and crippling; it grows in the heart, causing valvular +heart disease, which is incurable, and also in the generative organs +of men and women, causing self-made eunuchs and childless wives. It +is the cause of most of the severe abdominal diseases of women +requiring the use of the knife to cut out the diseased part. + +The venereal diseases cause more misery than any others and most of +the doctors would have to go into other professions to earn their +living if these diseases did not exist. + +When a young man is "sowing his wild oats" he is really planting in +his own body the syphilis and clap plants, and the harvest will be +greater than any other crop. He will reap it in days of bedridden +misery, and possible sudden death. He will reap it in bitter hours by +the bedside through the illness and death of his wife or in her long +years of ill health. He will reap it in little white coffins, idiot +babies; blind, deaf and dumb, sickly and stunted children. And it will +cost him lost wages and hospital and doctor fees. + +Yes, the wild oats crop is a bumper crop. King Solomon was wise when +he warned his son against the harlot, "for her end is bitter." + +The best way to avoid venereal diseases is to keep away from lewd +women, and live a clean moral life. It is said by medical authorities +that sexual intercourse is not necessary to preserve health and manly +vigor, and that the natural sexual impulse can be kept under control +by avoiding associations, conversations, and thoughts of a lewd +character. However, persons who will not exercise self-control in this +matter can greatly lessen the risks of indulgence by the prompt use, +immediately upon return to camp or garrison, of the prophylaxis +prescribed by War Department orders and which all soldiers are +required to take after exposing themselves to the danger of venereal +infection. Men who immediately after intercourse urinate and wash the +private parts thoroughly with soap and water will lessen the chances +of infection. Drunkenness greatly increases the risk of infection. + +Should one be so unfortunate as to contract venereal disease, he +should see a first-class, reputable physician AT ONCE, the sooner the +better. It is a fatal mistake to try to conceal venereal disease by +not seeing a doctor, he who does so is taking a most dangerous chance +of ruining himself physically for life. + +=1467. How to avoid diseases caught by touching the germs.= Keep your +skin clean with soap and water. + +Do not bathe or wash your clothes in dirty water, have them boiled +when laundered. + +Do not go barefoot, even in barracks. + +Do not use towels or toilet articles of other people, especially in +public wash-rooms unless they furnish a fresh towel for you. Do not +sleep in houses left empty by the enemy unless ordered to do so. + +Do not sleep in native shacks in the tropics. + +Do not rub the eyes with dirty hands. When dirt gets in have a doctor +get it out. + +If you have clap, do not rub your eyes with your hands, and wash your +hands well with soap and water after taking treatment or passing +water. + +Do not handle dogs or cats, especially strange or sickly ones. + +Do not clean the ears with sticks or straws,--have a doctor do it for +you. + +Do not have cheap, advertising dentists fix your teeth. Have the army +dentist fix them and see him at least once every six months,--or see a +good civilian dentist. + +Do not have pictures tattooed on your skin. + +Do not smoke other men's pipes. + +Do not handle or touch wounds with anything but a first aid package. + +Beware of chipped drinking glasses in cafes, restaurants and other +places. The slightest cut from such a glass whoso clipped part has +been in contact with the mouth of a syphilitic person will give you +syphilis. + +Seek good companions like your mother and sister. Keep away from John +Barleycorn. He always wants to turn you over to a harlot. + +Whores and prostitutes are all diseased and will give you germs that +will live to give diseases to you, your wife and your children, forty +years from now. Keep away from them. + + +Diseases Caught from Biting Insects + +=1468. The more common diseases.= The following are some of the more +common diseases caught from the bites of certain insects: Malaria, +yellow fever, and dengue fever. + +The germs of malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever live in the blood, +and are sucked up into the blood by mosquitoes when they bite. + +Malaria germs, however, will develop only in the mosquito called, +_Anopheles_. + +Yellow fever germs will develop only in the mosquito called, +_Stegomyia_. + +Dengue fever germs will develop in the mosquito called _Culex_ and in +_Anopheles_. + +After a period of development in these mosquitoes the germs will find +their way to the spit glands, and are injected into the person whom +the mosquito bites. (Note. Male mosquitoes cannot bite.) + +_Absolutely the only way that malaria, yellow and dengue fevers can +possibly be caught is from mosquitoes._ + +[Illustration: Fig. 8 + +_The malaria mosquito_ + +(She stands on her head)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 9 + +_Culex the mosquito_ + +(She is humpbacked)] + +=1469. How to avoid malaria, yellow and dengue fevers.= To avoid these +diseases, which are carried by mosquitoes, we screen all houses with +fine wire screens and use mosquito nets on the beds. Also, under +certain conditions we take daily doses of quinine in malarious +regions. + +We kill the mosquitoes. + +To do this we must know their habits. + +Mosquitoes all lay eggs in water. These hatch out as _wigglers_ or +_larvae_, which have to come to the top frequently to breathe. In +about twelve days or longer they turn into _tumblers_ or _pupas_, +which in a few days longer come to the top when their backs split open +and the mosquito comes out and flies away. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10 + +_The eggs_ + +_The larvae_ + +_The pupa_ + +_The mosquito leaving the pupa skin_] + +_The malaria mosquito_ is domestic like the chicken and lives around +in houses hiding in the grass, bushes or dark corners and comes out to +bite at night. When a settlement is abandoned the malaria mosquito +moves away also. She rarely flies far from home and is not found much +beyond 500 yards from a house. She lays her eggs in running clear +water preferably, but she will accept water in hollow trees, between +the leaves of lilies or air plants or in vases of flowers, or in +cisterns and water butts. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11 + +_Catching malaria_] + +[Illustration: Fig. 12 + +_On Guard_ + +(No mosquito bites for him)] + +_The yellow fever mosquito_ is domestic like the house cat. She hangs +around the house and rarely flies as far as the next house even, +preferring to travel on a visitor's coat. She will bite in the day +time and will lay her eggs in any little collection of water in the +house, the eaves trough, the water barrel, old tin cans or bottles, +pitchers, vases or the refrigerator drip. + +_The dengue_ mosquito is a marsh and town mosquito. She flies far and +well and will breed in any sort of water, even brackish. + +_To kill mosquitoes_-- + +Catch them in the house; empty all water from tin cans, old barrels, +etc; cover with wire all cisterns and water barrels; fill in all +puddles and drain off marshes; put oil on all pools and streams to +choke the wrigglers; cut down grass and bushes around houses. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +PERSONAL HYGIENE + + +=1470.= The knowledge of taking care of the body is called _Personal +Hygiene_, the principal rules of which are as follows: + + 1. KEEP THE SKIN CLEAN. + 2. KEEP THE BODY PROPERLY PROTECTED AGAINST THE WEATHER. + 3. KEEP THE BODY PROPERLY FED. + 4. KEEP THE BODY SUPPLIED WITH FRESH AIR. + 5. KEEP THE BODY WELL EXERCISED WITHOUT EXHAUSTION. + 6. KEEP THE BODY RESTED BY SUFFICIENT SLEEP. + 7. KEEP THE BODY FREE OF WASTES. + +Sanitation is the practice of the laws of Hygiene. + +=1471. RULE 1. Keep the Skin clean.= A dirty body invites sickness. +Small troubles such as chafing, sore feet, saddle boils, sore eyes, +felons, whitlows, earache, toothache, carbuncles, fleas, lice and +ringworms, are all caused by lack of cleanliness, and they put men on +sick report. + +Owing to excessive perspiration a daily bath with soap is desirable in +summer and in the tropics, the year around. At least a weekly bath +should always be taken when possible. When not possible to bathe, take +a good rub daily with a dry towel. + +Keep your feet clean with soap and water and put on dry socks before +sleeping at night. Soiled socks should be washed and hung up to dry +over night. + +Keep your finger nails trimmed short with scissors or knife. Never +bite them off. Keep them cleaned and keep your hands washed, +especially at meal times. + +Underwear must be washed in clean water, hot when possible and when +soiled change as soon as possible. + +Do not bathe or wash your clothes in dirty water. Bathing in water +containing much alkali (hard water) or fine sand or mud will make the +skin smart or chafe easily and cause sore eyes. + +The hair of the head should be kept well-trimmed. + +=1472. RULE 2. Keep the body properly protected from the weather.= +Clothing of the soldier is worn as a protection. Too much causes +sweating and exhaustion on the march and too little causes chills and +frost bite. + +Be careful to rebutton the clothing in winter time after attending to +Nature's calls. Cold fingers may make you careless, but the cold is +merciless and may cause a bad frost bite. + +The first feeling of frost bite is numbness and the first sign is a +marble whiteness. Frost attacks first the nose, ears, cheeks, fingers +and toes. + +Sun glare and snow blindness may be prevented by colored goggles or a +handkerchief tied across the face with a small slit for the eyes or by +greasing the face and eyelids and rubbing in charcoal around the eyes. + +=1473. RULE 3. Keep the body properly fed.= Your company mess is +sufficient for your needs and is wholesome, provided it is well +chewed. Large lumps of food take a longer time to digest than small +particles do, and so they tire the stomach and also cause +constipation, gas and indigestion with headache. + +Do not eat food left behind in strange houses or by the enemy, nor +food that smells or looks badly. + +If haversack rations are issued to you, do not eat them all at the +first meal, but make a division for each meal. Stuffing will make you +sick on a hike and later, hunger will drive you to eat things you +would not touch at other times. + +Before starting on the day's hike drink all the water you can and fill +your canteen with water only. + +Be sure your canteen does not leak. + +After starting, do not drink anything until the end of the hike. + +Do not eat ice or snow to quench thirst. It will make you more +thirsty. Do not drink large quantities of cold spring water when +heated,--it will give you a very bad bellyache. + +Do not drink whiskey or beer, especially in the field. It will weaken +you and favor heat exhaustion, sunstroke, frost bite and other serious +troubles. + +Alcohol muddles the mind and clouds thoughts, and so causes a feeling +of carelessness and silliness that may ruin some military plan, or +give the whole thing away to the enemy and with it the lives of +yourself and your comrades. + +The soldier who drinks alcohol will be among the first to fall out +exhausted. + +If you use tobacco, do not chew or smoke while marching. Tobacco is +only a dope and increases the work of the heart. + +A cup of hot coffee is a good stimulant. + +=1474. RULE 4. Keep the body supplied with fresh air.= The brain, +kidneys and other internal organs require oxygen (a part of the air) +continually, and if deprived of it for five minutes, the body will +die. Therefore, it is easy to see that we must continually get plenty +of fresh air into the lungs to supply the blood which carries the +oxygen throughout the body. Except in winter time when steam-heated +barracks are filled with sleeping men, it is not, as a rule, difficult +to get all the fresh air we need. The air in a dormitory should smell +sweet and clean, even though warm. Fresh air should be continually +admitted in a way that will not throw a draft on any of the sleepers. + +It is much better to sleep in a cold room with fresh air than in a hot +stuffy one. + +Fresh air not only prevents consumption, but it will cure mild cases +of consumption without other medicines. + +=1475. RULE 5. Keep the body well exercised without exhaustion.= +Exercise is absolutely necessary to good health. Lack of exercise of +any set of muscles will cause them to grow flabby and weak. Outdoor +sports are the best form of exercise, because they use all the body +muscles, and are in the open clear air. + +Exhaustion, on the other hand, not only weakens the muscles of the +body, but it also lessens the vital forces and powers to resist germs. + +=1476. RULE 6. Keep the body rested by sufficient sleep.= Give the +body enough sleep. Eight hours of uninterrupted sleep are enough for +the average man, and you should always have that much in every +twenty-four hours. Remember your comrades need it also; so, if you +come in after taps, do not make a racket with slamming doors, heavy +tramping, talking or whistling. And in camp be careful not to fall +over tent ropes or step on other sleepers. Do not drink coffee at +night,--it will keep you awake and rob your body of needed rest. + +When on the march take advantage of every halt to rest your body. As +soon as the command is given to fall out, select, if possible, a dry +place on the side of the road to sit or lie on. If carrying the pack, +loosen it and rest back on it, in a sitting or lying position. If the +march has been a long one, lie flat on your back and raise the feet in +the air. This is a quick way to remove the heavy dragged feeling of +the feet and legs and to rest the heart, because the blood runs out of +the legs into the body. + +=1477. RULE 7. Keep the body free of wastes. Get into the habit of +emptying the bowels at a certain hour each day.= Immediately after +breakfast is a good time. This is a habit that can be cultivated just +like any other habit. Cultivate it. It will do much to keep you in +good health. + +Always empty the bowels and bladder, especially the bowels, whenever +you have the least desire to do so. Do not allow a little personal +inconvenience or laziness to prevent you from doing this. The wastes +from the bowels and bladder, especially the bowels, are poisons that +should always be expelled from the body just as soon as possible. + +The free drinking of water flushes the bladder and helps to loosen the +bowels. A glass of hot water soon after reveille will not only help to +loosen the bowels, but it will also benefit the stomach and flush out +the bladder. Some people drink a big glass of water, either hot or +cold, every morning before breakfast. + +Proper physical exercise and eating ripe or cooked fruits will also do +much to keep the bowels open. + +Pressing and rubbing _downward_ with the left hand on the lower _left_ +side of the belly will do much to induce a movement of the bowels. + +Most constipation comes from swallowing food in large chunks, drinking +large quantities of cold liquids with the meals and eating heavy +articles of diet, such as beans, fried pork, hot bread. + +Do not get into the habit of using laxatives to keep the bowels open. +Their continued use is injurious. Use the natural means suggested +above. + +The constant moderate use of alcohol injures the kidneys and when they +become too weak to work and throw off the waste, a deadly disease, +called "Bright's Disease," results. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +FIRST AID TO THE SICK AND INJURED + + +=1478. Object of teaching first aid.= The object of teaching first +aid, or early assistance of the injured or sick, is not only to enable +one person to help another, but also in some measure to help himself, +until a surgeon or other thoroughly trained person can be seen. + +It is a mistake to think you must know many things to be helpful, it +is only necessary to know a few simple things, _but you must +understand them clearly and be able to do them well_. + +=1479. Asphyxiation (suffocation) by Gas.= Asphyxiation by gas is +treated the same as in the case of drowning, omitting, of course, the +operation of getting the water out of the body. + +=1480. Bite of dog.= } Either requires immediate and heroic treatment. + =Bite of snake.= } +_Lose no time._ + +1. Prevent the poison from traveling toward the heart and brain by +putting on at once a tourniquet between the wound and the heart. + +2. Suck the wound and be sure to spit out the poison and rinse the +mouth afterward. It is safe, if you have no cuts or sores on the lips +or in the mouth. + +3. Enlarge the wound with a knife (in the direction of the bone, not +across) to make it bleed more freely, and again suck the wound. + +4. Apply to the wound any strong acid or caustic, such as carbolic +acid, lime, wood ashes or tincture of iodine, or burn it with a hot +iron. Telegraph wire will do. + +5. Wash out the wound with hot water and pack with equal parts of +baking soda and salt, and apply a bandage. + +6. Then, in the case of a snake bite, loosen the tourniquet little by +little, taking about half an hour so as to permit any poison that may +remain in the wound to be _gradually_ absorbed by the blood. In the +case of a dog bite, the tourniquet is loosened at once. + +After the tourniquet has been removed, the patient must rest quietly +for several hours. If he feel faint, he may have a +stimulant,--alcohol, coffee or tea,--_but do not give the stimulant +before the poison has been removed from the wound_, because stimulants +increase the heart beats and thereby hurry the poison into the blood. + +If the dog is not mad (rabid), the wound does not need treatment +different from any other kind of a wound. + +When bitten by a snake, kill it, if possible, and have it shown to a +doctor for examination. + +=1481. Bleeding.= The following comparison between the blood and the +water in a city will enable you to understand easily the question of +bleeding: + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +The {water } flows from a pump called {waterworks} through + {_blood_} {_heart_ } +{rigid pipes } called {watermains}. When there is {a leak } +{_elastic tubes_} {_arteries_} {_bleeding_} +the {plumber } stops the flow of the {water } by + {_doctor_} {_blood_} +{turning a key valve } between the {waterworks} and the +{_pressing the blood tube shut_} {_heart_ } + +{leak } and then proceeds to repair the leak +{_bleeding cut_} +{by soldering }. He then turns on the {water } by +{_by sewing or by bandaging_} {_blood_} +{opening the valve in the water main }. +{_removing pressure on the blood tube_} + +Fig. 2 shows where pressure with the thumb will squeeze the blood tube +between the thumb and the bone. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2 + +_Pressure with thumb at 1 checks bleeding of left side of chin cheek +and jaw._ + +_Pressure at 2 stops bleeding from big blood tube on left side of head +and neck and face._ + +_Pressure at 3 controls bleeding in arm pit and shoulder._ + +_Pressure at 4 checks bleeding in arm pit and anywhere down the arm +and hand._ + +_Pressure at 5 stops bleeding of arm and hand._ + +_Pressure at 6, on either leg, stops bleeding of leg and foot._] + +In addition to the pressure raise the leg or arm or head above the +heart. This will slow the flow of the blood and lessen leakage. + +However, one cannot hold the thumb forever on the blood tube, so we +make an artificial thumb, called a _tourniquet_, which is a pebble or +other hard object wrapped in some soft material (to prevent injury to +flesh), which is pressed down on the blood tube and held in place by a +strip of any material which can be tied so as to keep up the pressure. + +A tourniquet, therefore, is like the valve in a water main. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3 + +_The pebble_ + +_The pebble wrapped to protect the flesh_ + +_The bandage tied around over the pebble_ + +_The bandage twisted tightly by means of a windlass (stick) which is +held by another bandage_ + +_This shows pressure applied by tourniquet (also called Spanish +windlass) instead of the hand and by direct pressure of the First Aid +Packet_] + +The above diagrams show how a tourniquet is applied. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4 + +_Bandage to stop bleeding in arm_] + +[Illustration: Fig. 5 + +_Bandage to stop bleeding in foot_] + +When no one is around to assist you, sometimes it will be possible to +plug the wound in your own body with the first aid packet or with your +thumb or handkerchief. + +When the bleeding is slight, or is from the scalp or palm of the hand, +or sole of the foot, direct pressure upon the wound itself with the +pad of the first aid package will often be sufficient to stop the +leak. + +Nature when left alone stops the leaks with her own solder, called +blood-clot, which forms in the cut ends of blood tubes and corks them +or seals them up until a scar forms a permanent seal. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6 + +_Arm blown off at elbow_ + +NOTICE: + +1. Bandage on stump. + +2. Tourniquet below to check bleeding. + +3. Arm held upright to lessen bleeding. + +4. Strap supports arm and also acts as a tourniquet.] + +=1482.= The dangers from a tourniquet are: + +1. Gangrene,--that is, the death of a limb caused by the lack of +blood, which has been cut off by the tourniquet. By watching the toes +and finger tips and loosening the tourniquet if they are becoming blue +black and remain white when pinched, gangrene may be prevented. +However, the wound should be plugged before loosening the tourniquet. + +2. Injury to nerves from pressure which may cause palsy (paralysis). +However, that will generally pass off in a few days. + +=1483. Broken Bones (Fractures).= A broken bone or fracture is known +by pain in a particular place that hurts on movement or when touched. +Also, by a deformity or a movable lump, caused by the broken end of +the bone. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7 + +_Compound fracture_] + +A broken bone should be handled with the greatest possible care. +Careless handling may cause the broken ends to pierce the flesh and +stick out through the skin. This is called a =compound= fracture, and +is serious, because it adds fuel to the fire by making a doorway for +germs to enter, which may cause death or the loss of the limb. +Furthermore, careless handling may make the bones grow together in a +bad position, causing a deformity. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8 + +_Break of UPPER arm bone. Pulling the broken bones out of flesh and +into place_ + +_Treatment for break of upper arm bone_ + +1. Padding of grass. + +2. Splints put on FRONT and BACK. + +3. Splints extend beyond elbow joint. + +4. Arm is supported by a sling. + +_Treatment for break of both bones of lower arm_ + +1. Plenty of grass padding to protect the flesh. + +2. The splints are put FRONT and BACK and bound snugly. The hand is +included. + +3. The whole dressing is held up by a sling.] + +The best way to treat a broken leg or arm bone is as follows: (Fig. +8.) + +Pull until the ends come together. You can tell this by the relief the +patient feels and by the limb assuming its proper length,--that is, +the same length as the other side. + +=1484.= To keep the ends of the bones in place, fasten to the limb two +boards or any other substance that will not bend. Such boards or other +substance are called splints. They act as artificial bones. All +splints should be well padded with some soft material like raw cotton +waste, grass (be sure the grass contains no biting insects), leaves, +hay or excelsior, to prevent pressure of the soft flesh on the ends of +the bones. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9 + +_Points to note:_ + +Plenty of grass between the legs. + +Plenty of grass between injured leg and splint. + +Splint extends from arm pit to foot. + +The other leg is used for a splint. + +Plenty of strapping to keep leg quiet.] + +When the thigh bone is broken, put a splint from the arm to the ankle +and use the other leg as a splint. Fasten them by bandages, belts, gun +sling, etc., passed around the chest, waist, hips, knees and ankle. + +When an arm is put in a splint, hang the hand and forearm in a sling. +It will give much relief. + +When the jaw is broken, the upper jaw makes a good splint. + +When the collar bone is broken this makes a good treatment: Fig. 10. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10 + +_Broken collar bone_ + +The left collar bone is broken. Therefore, pull BOTH shoulders +backward away from the breast bone (same action as for broken arm +bone) and hold in position with bandage or straps. + +_Broken collar bone (left side)_ + +When the shoulders are pulled back then the hand is bound close to the +chest high up. This prevents it from flopping and so twisting the +broken ends of the collar bone.] + +A broken rib is treated by putting a wide strap or bandage around the +chest and drawing it tight while all the air is breathed out. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11 + +_Treatment for broken ribs, left side_ + +The patient breathes all the air out of the chest and at that moment +the strap is buckled tightly. This prevents the broken ends of the +ribs from tearing the flesh or the lungs. Notice the roll of shirt +which acts as a pad.] + +This keeps the rib quiet and the man will breathe with his belly +instead of his chest. + +A broken skull usually makes a man unconscious and may cause death. It +is recognized by a wound or swelling of the scalp and a dent in the +skull. A doctor should be called at once. Always examine an +unconscious man for injury to the head. + +=1485. Burns.= If clothing sticks to the burn, do not try to remove +it, but cut around it. Prick blisters at both ends with a perfectly +clean needle, and remove the water by gentle pressure, being careful +not to break the skin. + +A good application for a burn is carbolic acid dissolved in water (a +teaspoonful in a pint of water), or tincture of iodine dissolved in +water (one teaspoonful in a pint of water, to which is added as much +salt as will cover a dime), or olive oil, vaseline or butter. + +Lacking the remedies named above, ordinary _baking_ soda or flour may +be dusted on the unbroken skin, or a cloth dampened with salt water +that has been boiled, to which may be added the same amount of whiskey +or brandy as there is water. + +Another application for burns recommended by some, is the scraping of +a raw potato, renewed when it feels hot. + +Different burns should be treated as follows: + +=Sunburn=,--treat with olive oil, vaseline or butter, or with a +glycerine or witchhazel, applying with a dampened cloth. + +=Quicklime or lye=,--treat with vinegar. + +=Carbolic acid=,--treat with alcohol. + +=Other acids=,--treat with baking powder or lime water. + +=1486. Burning clothes=, particularly those of women and children, has +been the unnecessary cause of many horrible deaths, either from +ignorance of the proper means of extinguishing the flames, or from +lack of presence of mind to apply them. A person whose clothing is +blazing should (1) immediately be made to lie down--be thrown if +necessary. The tendency of flames is upward, and when the patient is +lying down, they have not only less to feed upon, but the danger of +their reaching the face, with the possibility of choking and of +ultimate deformity is greatly diminished. (2) The person should then +be quickly wrapped up in a coat, shawl, rug, blanket or any similar +article, preferably woolen, and never cotton, and the fire completely +smothered by pressing and patting upon the burning points from the +outside of the envelope. + +The flames having been controlled in this way, when the wrap is +removed, great care should be taken to have the slightest sign of a +blaze immediately and completely stifled. This is best done by +pinching it but water may be used. Any burns and any prostration by +shock should be treated in the manner prescribed for them. + +=1487. Bruises.= The best treatment for a bruise is heat. + +A hot brick or a bottle of hot water wrapped in cloth, towels wrung +out of hot water, or even an electric light bulb, will give much +relief. + +However, always remember this: Never put the hot object on the bare +skin--always wrap the source of heat in a thick cloth to hold the heat +in and at the same time protect the skin. If not practicable to do +this wrap the source of heat, then spread a towel over the skin before +applying the hot object. + +If you use an electric bulb, watch it closely, as it will char and +possibly set things on fire. + +The above treatment is also excellent for lumbago, stiff neck, and +stiff muscles. + +A tub bath as hot as you can stand it is fine for refreshing tired, +stiff muscles. It is also good for lumbago. + +=1488. Chiggers.= Apply kerosene oil. Bacon is also excellent, and so +is butter or lard with salt. + +=1489. Choking. Foreign body in the throat.= The common practice of +slapping the back often helps the act of coughing to dislodge foreign +bodies in the windpipe. + +If this does not succeed, have the patient lie over a chair with his +head down low or hold him as in the first step to revive a drowning +person and have him cough. When in either of these positions have some +one slap him on the back so as to induce coughing. + +The above failing, give him a large amount of warm water with a little +salt, mustard or baking soda in it, and then have him put his finger +in his throat so as to induce vomiting which will often bring up the +obstruction. + +In children, and even in adults, the expulsion of the body may be +facilitated by lifting a patient up by the heels and slapping his back +in this position. + +If none of the methods above described are successful, summon a +physician, taking care to send him information as to the character of +the accident, so that he may bring with him the instruments needed for +removing the obstruction. + +=1490. Cuts.= Small cuts should be treated with tincture of iodine or +washed with alcohol (bay rum or listerine will do) and bandage up. +Large wounds may be similarly cleaned and then closed by adhesive +plaster. + +=1491. Diarrhoea.= Apply warm bandages to the belly. Some woodsmen +recommend the following: Fire brown a little flour to which two +teaspoonfuls of vinegar and one teaspoonful of salt are added; mix and +drink. They claim this is a cure nine cases out of ten. A +tablespoonful of warm vinegar and teaspoonful of salt will cure most +severe cases. Also, hot ginger ale or hot water containing a +teaspoonful of witch hazel is good. Repeat any of the above drinks +about every hour. + +Take a purgative, which will usually expel the offending cause, +generally too much undigested food. + +=1492. Dislocations.= The place where two bones come together is +called a joint. + +When two bones forming a joint are knocked apart, it is called a +_dislocation_, and the bones are said to be _out of joint_. + +The first sign of a dislocation is the accident. + +The second sign is immediate interference with the motion of the joint +and awkwardness in using the limb. + +The third sign is deformity of the joint,--it looks queer when +compared with the same joint on the other side. + +If you are unsuccessful after trying several times to replace a +dislocation, get a doctor. + +If no doctor is available, make the man sick by having him drink some +warm salt water and then put his finger in his throat. + +When he vomits the muscles and ligaments (tissue connecting the +joints) will relax and you may be able to get the bone back in place. + +After replacing the bones put the joint at rest with a large compress +and bandage. + +When uncertain as to whether you have to deal with a broken bone or a +dislocated joint, give treatment for a broken bone, because rest and +quiet for the injured part are good in either case. + +The following diagrams show the usual methods of replacing +dislocations: + +[Illustration: Fig. 12 + +_To put the arm bone back into the shoulder socket_ + +1ST MOVE + +_Rest your weight at elbow, pulling downward, until the muscles at the +shoulder are tired and will stretch._ + +2ND MOVE + +_Swing the elbow across, close to the chest, and place the hand on +other shoulder._ + +3RD MOVE + +_Keep the elbow close to the chest and bring the hand forward as if +held out for a penny._ + +_This should twist the bone into the socket._ + + +_Relocating the jaw_ + +_When the jaw bone is out of place, the man cannot shut his mouth._ + +_Put both thumbs (protected by a handkerchief) on the lower teeth and +with the forefingers at the angles of the lower jaw push down in the +back of the jaw._ + + +_Relocating thumb_ + +_When the thumb bone is dislocated it must be PUSHED into place--not +pulled._ + + +_Relocating finger_ + +_Pull the finger bone back into place._] + +=1493. Drowning.= _Rescuing._ Approach the drowning man from behind, +seizing him by the coat collar, or a woman by the back hair, and tow +at arms length to boat or shore. Do not let him cling around your neck +or arms to endanger you. Duck him until unconscious if necessary to +break a dangerous hold upon you; but do not strike to stun him. + +A drowning person _does not_ come to the top three times before giving +up. + +_Reviving._ When a person is apparently drowned he is unconscious and +not breathing because his lungs are full of water and his skin is blue +and cold because no air is getting into his blood to redden it and +warm it; _remember_ the heart does not stop until some time after the +breathing stops. If we can get air into the blood and start breathing +again before the heart stops we can save the patient's life. If we +cannot get the breath started in time the heart stops and the patient +is then dead. + +Our problem then is this: + +1. To get the water out of the lungs. + +2. To get the air into the lungs and start the man breathing before +the heart stops. + +Emptying the lungs is precisely similar to emptying a bottle. + +The lungs are the bottle, the windpipe is the neck of the bottle and +the cork of the bottle may be the tongue turned back in the throat or +mud and leaves from bottom of the pool and bloody froth in the +nostrils. We therefore-- + +1. { Pull out the cork. + { =Remove mud, mucus, etc., and pull the tongue forward.= + +[Illustration: Fig. 13 + +_Pulling out the cork_] + +2. { Turn the bottle neck down to pour out the contents. + { =Place the patient's head lower than his chest so the water + { will run out.= + +[Illustration: Fig. 14] + +Then lay the patient on a blanket, if possible, and on his stomach, +arms extended from his body beyond his head, face turned to one side +so that the mouth and nose do not touch the ground. This position +causes the tongue to fall forward of its own weight and so prevents it +from falling back into the air passages. Turning the head to one side +prevents the face coming into contact with mud or water during the +operation. + +Kneel and straddle the patient's hips, facing his head. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +Roll up or rip off the clothing so as to get at the bare back. + +Locate the lowest rib, and with your thumbs extending in about the +same direction as your fingers, place your spread hands so that your +little finger curls over the lowest rib. _Be sure to get the hands +well away from the back bone_,--the nearer the ends of the ribs the +hands are placed without sliding off, the better it is. + +Then with your arms _held straight_, press down SLOWLY AND STEADILY on +the ribs, bringing the weight of your body straight from your +shoulders. _Do not bend your elbows and shove in from the side._ + +Release the pressure suddenly, removing the hands from the body +entirely, and thus allowing the chest to fill with air. + +Wait a couple of seconds, so as to give the air time to get into the +blood. This is most important. + +Repeat the pressure and continue doing so, slowly and steadily, +pressing down at the rate of ordinary breathing. That is to say, +_pressure and release of pressure (one complete respiration)_ should +occupy about five seconds. Guide yourself by your own deep, regular +breathing, or by counting. + +Keep up for at least one hour the effort to revive the patient; and +much longer if there is any sign of revival by way of speaking, +breathing, coughing, sneezing or gurgling sounds. + +Do not stop working at the first signs of life, but keep it up until +the patient is breathing well and is conscious. If you stop too soon +he may stop breathing and die. + +Persons have been revived after two hours of steady work, but most +cases revive within about thirty minutes. + +If you are a heavy man, be careful not to bring too much force on the +ribs, as you might break one of them. + +In the case of women or thin persons place a roll of clothing under +them at the waist line before beginning the pressure. + +If you happen to be of light build and the patient is a large, heavy +person, you will be able to apply the pressure better by raising your +knees from the ground, and supporting yourself entirely on your toes +and the heels of your hands, properly placed on the floating ribs of +the patient. + +Do not attempt to give liquids of any kind to the patient while he is +unconscious, for he cannot swallow them. They will merely run into his +windpipe and choke him, and furthermore, it will take up valuable +time. + +However, after the patient has regained consciousness you may give him +hot coffee or hot whiskey, punch or aromatic spirits of ammonia (a +teaspoonful in water). + +Then wrap up the patient warmly in hot blankets with hot water +bottles, and take him to the nearest hospital or put him to bed and +send for a doctor. Why? Because the dirty water in the lungs has +damaged the lining and the patient is in danger of lung fever and +needs care and nursing. + +Aromatic spirits of ammonia may be poured on a handkerchief and held +continuously within about three inches of the face and nose. If other +ammonia preparations are used, they should be diluted or held farther +away. Try it on your own nose first. + +The above method of artificial respiration is also applicable in cases +of electric shock, suffocation by gas and smoke. + +=1494. Earache.= Put a teaspoonful of salt into a quart of water and +add 6 teaspoonfuls of tea. Boil it. As soon as it is cool enough to +stand the finger, drip some into the nostrils until it falls into the +throat. Clear out the nose and throat by sniffing,--_do not blow_ the +nose.--and then gargle with the rest of the remedy as hot as can be +taken, holding each mouthful well back in the throat. This will often +open up the tubes running from the ears to the throat, and relieve the +pressure against the ear drum. In addition, a little hot oil may be +dropped into the ear. Repeat the treatment in one-half an hour if not +successful first time. + +=1495. Ear, foreign body in.= Lay the head over, with the affected ear +up, and pour in some warm oil or soap suds. This will float the thing +up, unless it be a vegetable such as a grain of corn or a bean. +Turning the affected ear down and then jumping, jerking the head, or +pounding it gently, may dislodge it. + +A little peroxide of hydrogen poured into the ear will often dislodge +the substance, especially if it be wax. + +In case of an insect, a bright light held near the ear will often +cause it to leave the ear to go to the light. + +=1496. Electric Shock.= Failure of respiration following an electric +shock by lightning or live wire is treated the same as in the case of +drowning, omitting, of course, the operation of removing the water out +of the lungs. + +Do not try to pull a man away from a live wire until you have put on +rubber overshoes or gotten a _wooden_ stick with which to get the wire +away from him. Otherwise you will yourself get a shock. + +=1497. Eye, foreign body in.= Close the eye for a few moments and +allow the tears to fill the eye; upon opening it, the body may be +washed out by them. + +Never rub the eye. + +The foreign body can often be removed by keeping the eye open with one +hand and splashing water into it with the other, or by dipping the eye +into clean water while holding the eyelid open with the hand. + +If the body lies under the lower lid, make the patient look up, and at +the same time press down upon the lid; the inner surface of the lid +will be exposed, and the foreign body may be brushed off with the +corner of a handkerchief. + +If the body lies under lid, (1) grasp the lashes of the upper lid and +pull it down over the lower, which should at the same time, with the +other hand, be pushed up under the upper. Upon repeating this two or +three times, the foreign body will often be brushed out on the lower +lid. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16] + +(2) If this fails, the upper lid should be turned up; make the patient +shut his eye and look down; then with a pencil or some similar article +press gently upon the lid at about the middle, and grasping the lashes +with the other hand, turn the lid up over the pencil, when its inner +surface will be seen, and the foreign body may readily be brushed off. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17] + +If the body is firmly stuck in the surface of the eye, a careful +attempt may be made to lift it out with the point of a needle. If not +at once successful, do not try again, as you may injure the sight. + +Lime, plaster or whitewash in the eye should be washed out with a very +weak mixture of vinegar and water. Acids in the eye may be washed with +baking soda in water. Olive oil will also afford relief. + +After the removal of a foreign body from the eye, a sensation as if of +its presence often remains. People not infrequently complain of a +foreign body when it has already been removed by natural means. +Sometimes the body has excited a little irritation, which feels like a +foreign body. If this sensation remains over night, the eye needs +attention, and a surgeon should be consulted; for, it should have +passed away, if no irritating body is present. + +After the removal of an irritating foreign body from the eye, salt +water should be poured into it, then butter, lard or olive oil may be +used for a salve. + +=1498. Fainting.= Fainting is caused by the blood leaving the head. +Therefore, we must get the blood back into the head, which is done by +placing the patient on his back, with the head lower than the rest of +the body. If necessary, make, by digging, a slight depression in the +ground for the head, neck and upper part of shoulders. Also, the head +may be placed lower than the rest of the body by putting a couple of +folded blankets, or a few folded coats or any other suitable article +under the body: also, by raising the feet by hand or otherwise. The +clothing should be loosened by unbuttoning and the patient fanned. +Give him as much fresh air as possible,--so, do not let people crowd +around him. Mop the face and forehead with a handkerchief soaked in +cold water. + +=1499. Fish hook.= If a fish hook gets caught in the flesh, push it on +through and when the end sticks out, break off the hook and pull it +out the other way. Put tincture of iodine on the wound and bandage. + +=1500. Fits.= The man falls over suddenly unconscious in a convulsion, +which continues until he is blue in the face, when he gradually quiets +down and regains consciousness. He is liable to injure himself by the +fall and by biting his tongue. Put a stick or cork between his teeth +and let him lie quietly undisturbed. Don't try to hold him down or +make him sit up. He will come to no harm on the floor and you cannot +stop the fit. Ammonia on a handkerchief held under the nose to smell +will assist reviving consciousness. Put him in the hospital at once. + +=1501. Fracture.= See, "Broken Bones." + +=1502. Freezing.= If a man is overcome by the cold, do not take him +into a warm room, or heated tent. Put him into a cool room without +draughts and get a doctor at once. Meanwhile loosen his clothing and +rub arms and legs towards the heart with cold water and a towel or +sponge, using pressure. + +When he revives give him hot drinks and wrap him up well in hot +blankets and put him in the hospital. + +When freezing to death a man feels overcome with sleepiness and +stupor. Take a switch or stick and beat him unmercifully. Remember +that falling to sleep means death. + +=1503. Frost-bite.= The best way to get frost-bitten is to have on +damp clothing, such as wet shoes and socks or mittens. The first +feeling of frost bite is numbness, and the first sign is marble +whiteness. + +_Treatment._ Rub the frozen part briskly with snow or ice cold water, +if the frost-bite has just occurred. If it has been frozen more than +fifteen minutes, _rub very gently_ with snow, cold water or coal oil +(kerosene). If you rub hard, it will break the frozen flesh. + +Returning pinkness is a sign of thawing; if the parts turn a dark +color, see a surgeon at once, for it means gangrene (death of the +flesh). + +When thawed out apply plenty of oil, tallow or vaseline. + +If gangrene has set in and no doctor is available, then treat as a +burn. + +By all means keep away from heat. To toast frost-bitten fingers or +toes before a fire is liable to result in chilblains. + +=1504. Headache.= Among troops headache is usually due to intestinal +indigestion, combined with a congestion of the stomach. Take a +tablespoonful of Worcestershire sauce or 5 drops of tobasco sauce in a +tumbler of hot water as a drink and put a small piece of soap up into +the bowel to cause a movement. + +=1505. Heat exhaustion.= The man falls out in a faint while marching, +or on fatigue or parade. He looks pale, his body is clammy and cold, +his breathing is sighing and heart fluttering. _What is the matter?_ +His heart is weak from poisons in the blood, usually alcohol, but +often too much carbonic gas and too little oxygen. This occurs when +men are soft-muscled: so, young soldiers, recruits and fat soldiers +and especially those who drink alcohol, use drugs or smoke or chew +tobacco while hiking, are the first to have it. + +_Treatment._ Loosen the man's clothing, remove his pack, lay him on +his back in the shade, with head and shoulders lower than his hips and +raise his feet in the air. This will make the blood flow to the heart +and brain. If he has fainted, slap the bare chest with the hand or a +wet towel and briskly rub the arms towards the heart. If he does not +revive, apply hot bottles, or bricks to the chest and abdomen, and +ammonia to the nose, as a smelling salt. Do not give stimulants until +he is conscious. He should ride in the ambulance, or go to the +hospital. + +=1506. Lightning.= A man struck by lightning is treated the same as in +the case of drowning, omitting, of course, the operation of getting +the water out of the lungs. + +=1507. Nose, foreign body in.= If it cannot be sneezed out, lean the +head back and pour a little oil into the nostril. Then snift and blow +the nose alternately. If this is not successful, take a lead pencil +and try to push the object straight back into the throat. This must be +done very gently. + +=1508. Poison.= When poison has been swallowed, cause the patient to +take a large quantity of luke-warm water and make him vomit by putting +his finger in his throat. Repeat this and then have him swallow the +white of two eggs or some milk into which raw flour or corn-starch has +been stirred. + +If you know he took bichloride of mercury, you may increase the amount +of eggs and give one-half glass of weak lime water. + +If you know he took carbolic acid, give him alcohol (pure alcohol or +in the form of gin or whiskey) and plenty of it in order to neutralize +the acid. + +Get a doctor as soon as possible, and save the vomit and poison not +taken, for him to see. + +=1509. Scalds.= Apply at once common baking soda or olive oil and +cover with a bandage. To sprinkle with flour is also good. + +=1510. Scratches of cats and other animals.= Apply tincture of iodine +or wash with soap and water. + +=1511. Shock.= In case of collapse following an accident, treat the +accident; then treat as for fainting. Apply hot plates, stones or +bottles of hot water, or an electric light wrapped in towels over the +stomach. Wrap up warmly. Keep the patient quiet, in the dark, and send +for a doctor. + +=1512. Snow or sun blindness.= Smear the nose and face about the eyes +with charcoal, and wear a cloth over the face with small holes for the +eyes. + +=1513. Sore throat.= Gargling with hot strong tea or hot water and +salt is often effective. + +Listerine diluted in water and used as a gargle is also good. + +Peroxide of hydrogen is a good gargle. + +=1514. Spider bite.= Apply a cloth dampened with alcohol or weak +ammonia and water. + +=1515. Suffocation by gas.= See "Asphyxiation by gas." + +=1516. Sprains.= The regular medical treatment is to plunge a sprained +ankle, wrist or finger, into water as hot as can be borne at the +start, and to raise the heat gradually thereafter to the limit of +endurance. Continue for half an hour, then put the joint in a hot wet +bandage, reheat from time to time, and support the limb in an elevated +position,--the leg on a chair or stool; the arm carried in a sling. In +a day or two begin gently moving and kneading the joint, and rub with +liniment, oil or vaseline. + +As a soothing application for sprains, bruises, etc., the virtues of +witch hazel are well known. + +=1517. Stings.= Stings of bees, jelly fish and other stinging animals +are treated with a very weak solution of ammonia in water applied as a +lotion. Or apply a very weak solution of carbolic acid in water, a +strong solution of baking powder, a slice of crushed raw onion, a +moist quid of tobacco, witch hazel, listerine, or a paste of clay. + +Before applying any of these remedies, extract the sting, if left in +the wound. Also, work out as much of the poison as possible by +massaging and sucking the wound. + +=1518. Sunburn.= Treat with witch hazel or listerine or vinegar well +diluted with water. + +=1519. Sunstroke.= In sunstroke the man has a blazing red face, dry, +burning hot skin; agitated heart; snoring breathing; a high fever, and +is unconscious and delirious. _What is the matter?_ The part of the +brain which regulates the heat of the body is overcome by the heat and +loses control,--the man is entirely too hot all the way through. + +_Treatment._ First of all remove the pack and shoes and loosen the +clothing. Then souse the man, clothing and all, with water. Lay him in +the shade and fan him, keeping him covered and wet. This will cool him +off without chilling too much. If possible, rub the chest and legs, +but not the belly, with ice. + +=1520. Wounds.= Wounds may be made in every degree of size, from the +jab of a splinter to the loss of a part of the body from shrapnel. + +No matter what form of the wound or the cause, we know the following +fact to be of the utmost importance: A wound without germs in it will +heal rapidly without pain, redness, heat, or pus and the patient will +have no fever. He will eat his regular meals and act as though well. + +Such wounds we see made by surgeons when operating. On the other hand, +wounds infected with germs are painful, hot, angry, red, and swollen +and form large quantities of pus or matter. + +Pus is a mixture of germs, blood and the flesh that they have +destroyed. This pus prevents wounds from healing and often burrows +under the skin, forming abcesses which cause fever and chills, and the +pus enters the blood causing delirium and death. + +Our one aim in treating wounds is to keep out germs, and we accomplish +this by means of the first aid packet. + +=1521. The first aid packet= consists of two gauze compresses sewed to +two cotton bandages. They are sealed in wax paper. There are also two +safety pins wrapped in wax paper. These articles are placed in an +airtight metal case which protects them from contamination. + +Now, the one important fact about this first aid packet is that the +bandage compresses and safety pins have been _sterilized_,--that is, +they contain no living germs of any kind. It is, therefore, perfectly +safe to put on a wound, _provided the pad touches the wound before it +touches anything else and provided that the wound has not been +handled_. Therefore, do not wash a fresh clean wound. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18 + +_First Aid Packet_ + +After the removal of packet from tin can, open the wax paper and hold +the package as shown. + +1. Left hand holds the wax paper. + +2. Right hand holds the bandage.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 19 + +_First Aid Packet_ + +Shake out packet with right hand so that the pad (or compress) does +not touch anything until placed on the wound.] + +CAUTION. Have the wound ready before you open the packet. Do not touch +the gauze pad with ANYTHING. Do not breathe on it, and be especially +careful not to cough or sneeze over it. These things put germs on it +which will grow in the wound. + +By observing these instructions you may save a man's life. By not +observing them, you may cause his death, or cause him much pain and +suffering. + +The life of a wounded man is often in the hands of the first one who +attends him. + +It is said that since the adoption of the first aid packet by armies, +it has done more than everything else to save the lives of those +wounded in battle by preventing the infection of wounds. + +In an emergency a pad from any kind of cloth may be boiled for ten +minutes to kill the germs, the water drained off to allow it to cool, +and then placed on the wound. Or, the pad may be held over a clear +fire until it is fairly scorched; then let it cool. A little charring +of the surface will do no harm. Any kind of bandage may then be used +to hold it in place. + +When a bullet strikes a man first, the wound is clean cut and germ +free and it will heal rapidly. If, however, it strikes something +first, and bounces off (ricochets) and then strikes a man, it will be +knocked into an irregular shape and, therefore, cause a ragged wound +with much bruising. What is more important, such a bullet will carry +germs into the wound from the object struck, and almost surely some +shreds of clothing. + +When a wound is infected it is extremely difficult to kill the germs +(disinfect). Such a wound, before applying the first aid dressing +should be painted with a tincture of iodine, or alcohol or be well +washed with boiled salt water. + +=1522.= The illustrations below show improvised litters. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20 + +_Litter made of one-half shelter tent, three shelter tent pins and one +tent or other pole_ + +_Litter made of two poles, two coats and one belt. The coats are +buttoned and the sleeves turned inside out, the poles being run +through the sleeves. The belt is used as a head rest_ + +_The coat litter in use_] + + + + +PART VI + +MILITARY COURTESY AND KINDRED SUBJECTS + + + + +CHAPTER I + +MILITARY DEPORTMENT AND APPEARANCE--PERSONAL CLEANLINESS--FORMS OF +SPEECH--DELIVERY OF MESSAGES, ETC. + + +=1523. Military Deportment and Appearance.= The enlisted man is no +longer a civilian but a soldier. He is, however, still a citizen of +the United States and by becoming a soldier also he is in no way +relieved of the responsibilities of a citizen; he has merely assumed +in addition thereto the responsibilities of a soldier. For instance, +if he should visit an adjoining town and become drunk and disorderly +while in uniform, not only could he be arrested and tried by the civil +authorities, but he could also be tried by the summary court at his +post for conduct to the prejudice of good order and military +discipline. Indeed, his uniform is in no way whatsoever a license for +him to do anything contrary to law and be protected by the government. + +Being a soldier, he must conduct himself as such at all times, that he +may be looked upon not only by his superior officers as a soldier, but +also by the public as a man in every way worthy of the uniform of the +American soldier. + +Whether on or off duty, he should always look neat and clean, ever +remembering that in bearing and in conversation he should be every +inch a soldier--shoes must be clean and polished at all times; no +chewing, spitting, gazing about, or raising of hands in ranks--he +should know his drill, his orders and his duties--he should always be +ready and willing to learn all he can about his profession--he should +never debase himself with drink. + +A soldier's uniform is more than a mere suit of clothes that is worn +to hide nakedness and protect the body. The uniform of an army +symbolizes its respectability, its honor, its traditions, and its +achievements, just as the flag of a nation symbolizes its honor, +dignity and history. Always remember this, and remember, too, that the +soldier who brings reproach upon his uniform is in the same class as +the priest who brings dishonor upon his robes. + +It is not given to every man to wear the uniform of his Country's +army,--it is an honor and a privilege to do so, and no individual has +a right to abuse this honor and privilege by bringing the uniform into +disrepute through misbehavior. + +It should be remembered that the soldiers of a command can make the +uniform carry distinction and respect, or they can make it a thing to +be derided. + +The soldier should take pride in his uniform. + +A soldier should be soldierly in dress, soldierly in carriage, +soldierly in courtesies. + +A civilian owes it to himself to be neat in dress. A soldier owes it +to more than himself--he owes it to his comrades, to his company--he +owes it to his country, for just so far as a soldier is slack so far +does his company suffer; his shabbiness reflects first upon himself, +then upon his company and finally upon the entire Army. + +It is a fact known to students of human nature that just in proportion +as a man is neatly and trimly dressed is he apt to conduct himself +with like decency. The worst vagabonds in our communities are the +tramps, with their dirty bodies and dirty clothes; the most brutal +deeds in all history were those of the ragged, motley mobs of Paris in +the days of the French Revolution; the first act of the mutineer has +ever been to debase and deride his uniform. + +The man who misbehaves himself in uniform in public creates a bad +impression of the whole command, as a result of which his comrades +must suffer. Remember that a man in the uniform of a soldier is +conspicuous,--much more so than a civilian,--and consequently any +misconduct on his part is more noticeable than if done in civilian +clothes. The man who deliberately besmirches the uniform of his +Country's army by appearing in public drunk or by other misconduct, +not only fouls his own nest, but he also dishonors the uniform worn by +his self-respecting comrades. + +It is a well known fact that laxity in dress and negligence in +military courtesy run hand in hand with laxity and negligence in +almost everything else, and that is why we can always look for certain +infallible symptoms in the individual dress, carriage and courtesies +of soldiers. + +_Should a soldier give care and attention to his dress?_ + +Yes; not only should a soldier be always neatly dressed, but he should +also be properly dressed--that is, he should be dressed as required by +regulations. A soldier should always be neat and trim, precise in +dress and carriage and punctilious in salute. Under no circumstances +should the blouse or overcoat be worn unbuttoned, or the cap back or +on the side of the head. His hair should be kept properly trimmed, his +face clean shaven or beard trimmed and his shoes polished, his +trousers pressed, the garrison belt accurately fitted to the waist so +that it does not sag, his leggins cleaned, his brass letters, numbers +and crossed rifles polished, and his white gloves immaculate. + +_Should a man ever be allowed to leave the post on pass if not +properly dressed?_ + +No; never. The Army Regulations require that chiefs of squads shall +see that such members of their squads as have passes leave the post in +proper dress. + +_Should a soldier ever stand or walk with his hands in his pockets?_ + +No; never. There is nothing more unmilitary than to see a soldier +standing or walking with his hands in his pockets. + +The real soldier always stands erect. He never slouches. + +_Is it permissible, while in uniform, to wear picture buttons, chains, +watch charms, etc., exposed to view?_ + +No; it is not. + +_May the campaign hat or any other parts of the uniform be worn with +civilian dress?_ + +No; this is prohibited by the Uniform Regulations, which especially +states that when the civilian dress is worn it will not be accompanied +by any mark or part of the uniform. + +_May a mixed uniform be worn--for example, a cotton olive drab at and +woolen olive drab breeches?_ + +No; under no circumstances. + +When the company commander or any other officer sends for a soldier to +report to him in the company office or any other place, the soldier +must report in proper uniform. + +=1524. Obedience.= _What is Obedience?_ It is compliance with +everything that is required by authority--it is the mainspring, the +very soul and essence of all military duty. It is said a famous +general once remarked every soldier should know three things--"First, +_obedience_; second, _obedience_; third, _obedience_." + +Cheerful, earnest and loyal obedience must be paid by all subordinates +to the orders of their superiors. + +_A soldier should obey first and if aggrieved complain afterward._ + +All duty should be performed cheerfully and willingly. Soldiers are +sometimes required to perform duties that are not pleasant--for +instance, doing guard duty on a cold, rainy night, when tired and +sleepy; digging ditches or cleaning up dirt and filth that have +accumulated around the barracks, kitchens, quarters, etc., scrubbing +floors, polishing stoves, cleaning knives, forks, pots, etc. However, +by doing everything required of him in a cheerful manner, a soldier +will soon earn the respect of his comrades and the commendation of his +officers. + +=1525. Respect and Obedience to Noncommissioned Officers.= In the +orders and directions that they give, company noncommissioned officers +represent the company commander, and they must be obeyed and respected +at all times and under all circumstances. + +Orders and regulations require that men respect and obey their +noncommissioned officers, and discipline makes it imperative that they +do so. + +It is not for a private to question in any way the fairness, justice, +propriety or wisdom of an order received from a noncommissioned +officer. When ordered by a noncommissioned officer to do a thing, +whatever it may be, do it promptly and thoroughly, and then if you +feel that you have been injured in any way, report the matter to your +company commander, who will see that you receive justice. If the +noncommissioned officer made a mistake, exceeded his authority, or +treated you unfairly, he will be punished by the company commander. +The company commander, and not the privates of the company, is to +judge the conduct of his noncommissioned officers, who are directly +responsible to him for every act of theirs. + +If every subordinate were to question the fairness, justice, propriety +or wisdom of orders received from noncommissioned officers or other +superiors, there would be no discipline, and the Army would soon +degenerate into a mob. + +Remember, a soldier is supposed to obey _first_, and, if aggrieved, +complain _afterward_. + +And remember, too, that the authority of noncommissioned officers is +not confined to the drill ground, the barracks and the post or camp. +Whether you are on pass, in a theatre, in a streetcar, on a train on +the street or anywhere else, if you receive an order from a +noncommissioned officer you are to obey it just the same as if it were +given you at drill or in barracks. + +=1526. Forms of Speech.= In speaking to an officer it is not proper +for a soldier to say, "You, etc.," but the third person should always +be used, as, for example, "_Does the captain want his horse this +morning?_"--do not say, "Do you want your horse this morning?" "The +lieutenant is wanted on the 'phone,"--not "You are wanted on the +'phone." + +In beginning a conversation with an officer, a soldier should use the +third person in referring to himself instead of the pronouns "I" and +"me." However, after the conversation has commenced, it is perfectly +proper, and usual, for the soldier to use the pronouns "I" and "me," +but an officer is _always_ addressed in the third person and never as +"you." + +In speaking to an officer, an enlisted man should refer to another +enlisted man by proper title, as, "_Sergeant Richards_," "_Corporal +Smith_," "_Private Wilson_." + +Privates and others should always address noncommissioned officers by +their titles. For example, "_Sergeant Smith_," "_Corporal Jones_," +etc., and not "_Smith_," "_Jones_," etc. + +When asked his name, a soldier should answer, for instance, "_Private +Jones, Sir_." + +When given an order or instructions of any kind by an officer, or +noncommissioned officer, a soldier should always say, "_Yes, sir_," +thus letting the officer or noncommissioned officer know that the +soldier understands the order or instructions. Don't say, "Very well, +sir," or "All right, sir"; say, "_Yes, sir_," it's the direct, +military way of answering. + +Short direct answers should be made in the form of, "_No, sir_," +"_Yes, sir_," "_I don't know, sir_," "_I will try, sir_," etc. + +Do not use slang in speaking to an officer. + +Never interrupt an officer while he is speaking. Always wait until he +is through talking before you begin to speak. + +After a soldier has finished a thing that he was ordered to do, he +should always report to the officer who gave him the order. For +example, "The captain's message to Lieutenant Smith has been +delivered." + +If ordered to report to an officer for any purpose, do not go away +without first ascertaining if the officer is through with you, as it +often happens he has something else he would like to have you do. +After having finished the work given in the beginning, report, for +instance, "_Sir, is the captain through with me?_" + +When an officer calls a soldier who is some distance away, the soldier +should immediately salute, and say, "_Yes, sir_," and, if necessary, +approach the officer with a quickened step. If the officer is waiting +on the soldier, the latter should take up the double time. + +Always salute an officer when he leaves you after a conversation or at +any other time. And always salute just as soon as the officer makes +the first move to leave. Don't wait until he has moved away several +feet before saluting. + + +Miscellaneous + +=1527. How to Enter an Office.= In entering an office a soldier should +give two or three knocks at the door (whether it be open or closed); +when told to come in, enter, taking off the hat (if unarmed), close +the door (if it was closed before you entered) and remain just inside +the door until asked what is wanted; then go within a short distance +of the officer, stand at attention, salute, and make known your +request in as few words as possible. On completion, salute, face +toward the door, and go out, being careful to close the door if it was +closed when you entered. If it was not closed, leave it open. + +=1528. Complaints to the Captain.= Complaints must never be made +directly to the captain unless the soldier has the captain's +permission to do so, or the first sergeant refuses to have the matter +reported. If dissatisfied with his food, clothing, duties, or +treatment, the facts should be reported to the first sergeant, with +the request, if necessary, to see the captain. + +It is also customary for soldiers who wish to speak to the captain +about anything to see the first sergeant first, and when speaking to +the captain to inform him that they have the first sergeant's +permission to do so. Thus: "Private Smith has the first sergeant's +permission to speak to the captain," etc. + +=1529. How the Soldier is Paid.= When your name is called, answer +"Here," step forward and halt directly in front of the paymaster, who +will be directly behind the table; salute him. When he spreads out +your pay on the table in front of you, count it quickly, take it up +with your ungloved hand, execute a left or right face and leave the +room and building, unless you wish to deposit, in which case, you will +remain in the hall outside the payroom, until the company has been +paid, when you enter the payroom. Men wishing to deposit money with +the paymaster, will always notify the first sergeant before the +company is marched to the pay table. + +=1530. Delivery of Messages.= When an enlisted man receives a message, +verbal or written, from an officer for delivery, he will, in case he +does not understand his instructions, ask the officer to repeat them, +saying, for instance, "Sir, Private Smith does not understand; will +the captain please repeat?" When he has received his instructions, and +understands them, he will salute, and say: "Yes, sir," execute an +about face, and proceed immediately to the officer for whom the +message is intended. He will halt three or four paces directly in +front of the officer and _if the officer be junior to the officer +sending the message_, he will say, "Sir, Captain Smith presents his +compliments," etc., and then deliver the message, or "The commanding +officer presents his compliments to Lieutenant Smith and would like to +see him at headquarters." He will salute immediately before he begins +to address the officer and will hold his hand at the position of +salute while he says, "Sir, Captain Smith presents his compliments," +or "The commanding officer presents his compliments to Lieutenant +Smith." If the officer sending the message be junior to the one +receiving it, the soldier will not present his compliments, but will +say, for instance, "Sir, Lieutenant Smith directed me to hand this +letter to the captain," or "Sir, Lieutenant Smith directed me to say +to the captain," etc. As soon as the message has been delivered, the +soldier will salute, execute an about face, and proceed at once to the +officer who sent the message, and will similarly report to him, "Sir, +the lieutenant's message to Captain Smith has been delivered," and +leave. + +Before leaving an officer to whom you deliver a message always +ascertain whether there is an answer. + +The compliments of a junior are never presented to a senior. For +instance, never say to a captain that a lieutenant presents his +compliments to him. + +=1531. Appearance as Witness.= The uniform is that prescribed. Proceed +to the courtroom and remain outside. When you are notified that you +are wanted enter the room. Then take off your cap and right hand +glove, and raise your right hand above your head, palm to the front, +to be sworn. After the judge-advocate reads the oath, say, "I do" or +"So help me God." Then sit down in the chair indicated by the +judge-advocate. Do not cross your legs, but sit upright. When asked, +"Do you know the accused? If, so, state who he is," answer, "I do; +Corporal John Jones, Co. 'B' 1st Infantry." Be sure you thoroughly +understand every question before you start to reply, answering them +all promptly, in a loud, distinct, deliberate voice, and confining +your answers strictly to the questions asked and telling all you know. + +When the judge-advocate says, "That is all," arise, salute him, +execute an about face, and leave the room. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +MILITARY COURTESY + + +=1532. Its importance.= Some soldiers do not see the necessity for +saluting, standing at attention, and other forms of courtesy, because +they do not understand their significance--their object. It is a +well-known fact that military courtesy is a very important part of the +education of the soldier, and there are good reasons for it. + +General Orders No. 183, Division of the Philippines, 1901, says: "In +all armies the manner in which military courtesies are observed and +rendered by officers and soldiers, is the index to the manner in which +other duties are performed." + +The Army Regulations tells us, "Courtesy among military men is +indispensable to discipline; respect to superiors will not be confined +to obedience on duty, but will be extended on all occasions." + +[Illustration] + + +THE NATURE OF SALUTES AND THEIR ORIGIN + + +The Civilian Salute + +=1533.= When a gentleman raises his hat to a lady he is but continuing +a custom that had its beginning in the days of knighthood, when every +knight wore his helmet as a protection against foes. However, when +coming among friends, especially ladies, the knight would remove his +helmet as a mark of confidence and trust in his friends. In those days +failure to remove the helmet in the presence of ladies signified +distrust and want of confidence--today it signifies impoliteness and a +want of good breeding. + + +The Military Salute + +=1534.= From time immemorial subordinates have always uncovered before +superiors, and equals have always acknowledged each other's presence +by some courtesy--this seems to be one of the natural, nobler +instincts of man. It was not so many years ago when a sentinel saluted +not only with his gun but by taking off his hat also. However, when +complicated headgear like the bearskin and the helmet came into use, +they could not be readily removed and the act of removing the hat was +finally conventionalized into the present salute--into the movement of +the hand to the visor as if the hat were going to be removed. + +Every once in a while a man is found who has the mistaken idea that he +smothers the American spirit of freedom, that he sacrifices his +independence, by saluting his officers. Of course, no one but an +anarchist or a man with a small, shrivelled-up mind can have such +ideas. + +Manly deference to superiors, which in military life is merely +recognition of constituted authority, does not imply admission of +inferiority any more than respect for law implies cowardice. + +The recruit should at once rid himself of the idea that saluting and +other forms of military courtesy are un-American. The salute is the +soldier's claim from the very highest in the land to instant +recognition as a soldier. The raw recruit by his simple act of +saluting, commands like honor from the ranking general of the +Army--aye, from even the President of the United States. + +While the personal element naturally enters into the salute to a +certain extent, when a soldier salutes an officer he is really +saluting the office rather than the officer personally--the salute is +rendered as a mark of respect to the rank, the position that the +officer holds, to the authority with which he is vested. A man with +the true soldierly instinct never misses an opportunity to salute his +officers. + +As a matter of fact, military courtesy is just simply an application +of common, every-day courtesy and common sense. In common, every-day +courtesy no man with the instincts of a gentleman ever thinks about +taking advantage of this thing and that thing in order to avoid paying +to his fellow-man the ordinary, conventional courtesies of life, and +if there is ever any doubt about the matter, he takes no chances but +extends the courtesy. And this is just exactly what the man who has +the instincts of a real soldier does in the case of military courtesy. +The thought of "Should I salute or should I not salute" never enters +the mind of a soldier just because he happens to be in a wagon, in a +postoffice, etc. + +In all armies of the world, all officers and soldiers are required to +salute each other whenever they meet or pass, the subordinate saluting +first. The salute on the part of the subordinate is not intended in +any way as an act of degradation or a mark of inferiority, but is +simply a military courtesy that is as binding on the officer as it is +on the private, and just as the enlisted man is required to salute the +officer first, so is the officer required to salute his superiors +first. It is a bond uniting all in a common profession, marking the +fact that above them there is an authority that both recognize and +obey--the Country! Indeed, by custom and regulations, it is as +obligatory for the ranking general of the Army to return the salute of +the recruit, as it is for the latter to give it. + +Let it be remembered that the military salute is a form of greeting +that belongs exclusively to the Government--to the soldier, the +sailor, the marine--it is the mark and prerogative of the military man +and he should be proud of having the privilege of using that form of +salutation--a form of salutation that marks him as a member of the +Profession of Arms--the profession of Napoleon, Wellington, Grant, +Lee, Sherman, Jackson and scores of others of the greatest and most +famous men the world has ever known. The military salute is ours, it +is ours only. Moreover, it belongs only to the soldier who is in good +standing, the prisoner under guard, for instance, not being allowed to +salute. Ours is a grand fraternity of men-at-arms, banded together for +national defense, for the maintenance of law and order--we are bound +together by the love and respect we bear the flag--we are pledged to +loyalty, to one God, one country--our lives are dedicated to the +defense of our country's flag--the officer and the private belong to a +brotherhood whose regalia is the uniform of the American soldier, and +they are known to one another and to all men, by an honored sign and +symbol of knighthood that has come down to us from the ages--THE +MILITARY SALUTE! + + +WHOM TO SALUTE + +=1535. Army officers.= All Army officers are saluted by their juniors +and by enlisted men. + +=1536. Navy, Marine Corps, Volunteer and National Guard officers.= +Soldiers at all times and in all situations salute officers of the +Navy, Marine Corps, and National Guard the same as they salute +officers of the Regular Army. + +=1537. Reserve Corps officers.= Although the subject is not at present +(March, 1917) covered by orders or regulations, it goes without saying +that soldiers would salute members of the Officers' Reserve Corps _on +active duty_ the same as they salute their own officers. + +=1538. Foreign naval and military officers.= The Manual of Interior +Guard Duty requires sentinels to salute foreign naval and military +officers, but there are no instructions about other enlisted men +saluting them. However, as an act of international courtesy, they +should be saluted the same as our own officers. + + +WHEN AND HOW TO SALUTE + +=1539. General rule.= Day or night, covered or uncovered, whether +either or both are in uniform or civilian clothes, salutes shall be +exchanged between officers and enlisted men not in a military +formation, nor at drill, work, games or mess, on every occasion of +their meeting, passing near or being addressed, the junior in rank or +the enlisted man saluting first. + +=1540. Saluting when making and receiving reports.= When making or +receiving official reports, or on meeting out of doors, all officers +will salute. + +Military courtesy requires the junior to salute first, but when the +salute is introductory to a report made at a military ceremony or +formation, to the representative of a common superior (as, for +example, to the adjutant, officer of the day, etc.), the officer +making the report, whatever his rank, will salute first; the officer +to whom the report is made will acknowledge by saluting that he has +received and understood the report. + +=1541. Saluting distance.= Saluting distance is that within which +recognition is easy. In general, it does not exceed 30 paces. + +As to the distance at which the salute should be made, the following +is what has been the practice in the Army: + +In approaching or passing each other within saluting distance, +individuals or bodies of troops exchange salutes when at a distance of +about 6 paces. If they do not approach each other that closely, the +salute is exchanged at the point of nearest approach. For instance, if +the officer and soldier are approaching each other on the same +sidewalk, the hand is brought up to the headdress when about 6 paces +from the officer. If they are on opposite sides of the street, the +hand is brought up when about ten paces in advance of the officer. If +the officer and soldier are not going in opposite directions and the +officer does not approach within six paces, the salute is rendered +when the officer reaches the nearest point to the soldier. If a +soldier passes an officer from the rear, the hand is raised as he +reaches the officer; if an officer passes a soldier from the rear, the +soldier salutes just as the officer is about to pass him. + +=1542. Officer entering room occupied by soldiers.= When an officer +enters a room where there are several enlisted men, the word +"attention" is given by someone who perceives him, when all rise, +uncover, and remain standing at attention until the officer leaves the +room or directs otherwise. + +=1543. At meals.= Enlisted men at meals stop eating and remain seated +at attention when an officer enters the room. + +=1544. When seated.= An enlisted man, if seated, rises on the approach +of an officer, faces toward him, stands at attention, and salutes. +Standing he faces an officer for the same purpose. If the parties +remain in the same place or on the same ground, such compliments need +not be repeated. + +=1545. Soldier indoors.= Indoors, an unarmed enlisted man uncovers and +stands at attention upon the approach of an officer. If armed with +rifle, he renders the rifle salute at the order or trail. + +(Note. According to custom, the term "indoors" is interpreted as +meaning military offices barracks, quarters and similar places,--it +does not mean such public places as stores, storehouses, riding halls, +stables, post exchange buildings, hotels, places of amusement, and +railway and steamboat stations. In such places an unarmed soldier +renders the right hand salute.) + +=1546. Officers approaching number of soldiers in open.= When an +officer approaches a number of enlisted men out of doors, the word +"attention" should be given by someone who perceives him, when all +stand at attention and all salute. It is customary for all to salute +at or about the same instant, taking the time from the soldier nearest +the officer, and who salutes when the officer is six paces from him. + +=1547. At work.= Soldiers actually at work do not cease work to salute +an officer unless addressed by him. + +=1548. Riding in wagon.= A soldier riding in a wagon should salute +officers that he passes. He would salute without rising. Likewise, a +soldier driving a wagon should salute, unless both hands are occupied. + +=1549. Passing officer on staircase.= It is customary for a soldier +who is passed by an officer on a staircase to come to a halt and stand +at attention. + +=1550. Addressing or being addressed by an officer.= Before addressing +an officer, or when addressed by an officer, an enlisted man makes +the prescribed salute with the weapon with which he is armed; or, if +unarmed, with the right hand. He also makes the same salute after +receiving a reply. + +=1551. How salutes are rendered in uniform.= In uniform, covered or +uncovered, but not in formation, officers and enlisted men salute +military persons as follows: With arms in hand, the salute prescribed +for that arm (sentinels on interior guard duty excepted); without +arms, the right-hand salute. + +=1552. Rifle salute.= Enlisted men out of doors and armed with the +rifle, salute with the piece at the right shoulder; if indoors, the +rifle salute is rendered at the order or trail. + +=1553. Saber salute.= An enlisted man armed with the saber renders the +saber salute, if the saber is drawn; otherwise he salutes with the +hand. + +=1554. Sentinels on post.= A soldier salutes with the "present arms" +only when actually on post as a sentinel doing interior guard duty. At +all other times when armed with the rifle he salutes with the +prescribed rifle salute. + +The general rules and principles of saluting apply to sentinels on +post doing interior guard duty, except, as just stated, they salute by +presenting arms when armed with the rifle. However, they do not salute +if it interferes with the proper performance of their duties. + +=1555. How salutes are rendered in civilian dress.= In civilian dress, +covered or uncovered, officers and enlisted men salute military +persons with the right-hand salute. + +=1556. Saluting in military manner.= Officers and enlisted men will +render the prescribed salutes in a military manner. + +=1557. Several officers together.= When several officers in company +are saluted, all entitled to the salute shall return it. + +=1558. Dismounting before addressing superior not mounted.= Except in +the field under campaign or simulated campaign conditions, a mounted +officer or soldier dismounts before addressing a superior officer not +mounted. + +=1559. Man addressed in formation.= A man in formation shall not +salute when directly addressed, but shall come to attention if at rest +or at ease. + +=1560. In public places and conveyances.= In public conveyances, such +as railway trains and street cars, and in public places, such as +theaters, honors and personal salutes may be omitted when palpably +inappropriate or apt to disturb or annoy civilians present. + +For instance, as a rule, it may be said that an enlisted man riding in +a street car, or in the act of purchasing goods in a store, or eating +in a restaurant, would not salute unless addressed by an officer. +However, in case of a soldier occupying a seat in a crowded street or +railway car, if he recognized a person standing to be an officer, it +would be but an act of courtesy for him to raise, salute and offer the +officer his seat. + +=1561. Salutes by commanders of detachments or other commands.= +Commanders of detachments or other commands will salute officers of +grades higher than the person commanding the unit, by first bringing +the unit to attention and then saluting as prescribed,--that is, with +arms in hand, the salute prescribed for that arm; without arms in +hand, the right-hand salute. + +=1562. Officer passing in rear of troops.= When an officer entitled to +the salute passes in rear of a body of troops, the troops are brought +to attention when he is opposite the post of the commander. + +=1563. Bringing command to present arms or sabers before commander +salutes.= If the command is in line at a halt (not in the field) and +armed with the rifle, or with sabers drawn, it shall be brought to +_present arms_ or _present sabers_ before its commander salutes in the +following cases: When the National Anthem is played, or when _to the +color_ or _to the standard_ is sounded during ceremonies, or when a +person is saluted who is its immediate or higher commander or a +general officer, or when the national or regimental color is saluted. + +=1564. No compliments paid at drill, on march, etc.= Salutes and +honors, as a rule, are not paid by troops actually engaged in drill, +on the march, or in the field under campaign or simulated campaign +conditions. Troops on the service of security pay no compliments +whatever. + +=1565. No saluting at double time, trot or gallop.= Salutes are not +rendered when marching in double time or at the trot or gallop. The +soldier must first come to quick time or walk before saluting. + +The question of gait applies to the person saluting and not to the one +saluted,--so, a soldier would salute an officer passing in double time +or at a trot or gallop. + + +MISCELLANEOUS + +=1566. Soldier walking with officer.= A soldier accompanying an +officer walks on the officer's left and about one pace to his rear. + +=1567. Prisoners do not salute.= Prisoners do not salute officers. +They merely stand at attention. In some commands it is customary for +paroled prisoners and others who are not under the immediate charge of +sentinels, to fold their arms when passing or addressing officers. + +=1568. Unmilitary salutes.= It is very unmilitary to salute with the +coat unbuttoned or with the hand in the pocket, or a cigarette, cigar +or pipe in the mouth. + +=1569. Headdress not raised in saluting.= The headdress must not be +raised to ladies, but they must be given the military salute. + +(War Dept. decision. August, 1913.) + +=1570. Caution.= In saluting, the hand or weapon is held in the +position of salute until the salute has been acknowledged or until the +officer has passed or has been passed. + + +USUAL MISTAKES IN SALUTING + +=1571.= The following are the mistakes usually made by soldiers in +rendering salutes: + +1. They do not begin the salute soon enough; often they do not raise +the hand to the headdress until they are only a pace or two from the +officer--the salute should always begin when at least six paces from +the officer. + +2. They do not turn the head and eyes toward the officer who is +saluted--the head and eyes should always be turned toward the officer +saluted and kept turned as long as the hand is raised. + +3. The hand is not kept to the headdress until the salute is +acknowledged by the officer--the hand should always be kept raised +until the salute has been acknowledged, or it is evident the officer +has not seen the saluter. + +4. The salute is often rendered in an indifferent, lax manner--the +salute should always be rendered with life, snap and vim; the soldier +should always render a salute as if he _meant it_. + + +RESPECT TO BE PAID THE NATIONAL ANTHEM, THE COLORS AND STANDARDS + +=1572. The National Anthem.= Whenever the National Anthem is played at +any place when persons belonging to the military service are present, +all officers and enlisted men not in formation shall stand at +attention facing toward the music (except at retreat when they shall +face toward the flag). If in uniform, covered or uncovered, or in +civilian clothes, uncovered, they shall salute at the first note of +the Anthem, retaining the position of salute until the last note of +the Anthem. If not in uniform and covered, they shall uncover at the +first note of the Anthem, holding the headdress opposite the left +shoulder and so remain until its close, except that in inclement +weather the headdress may be held slightly raised. + +The same rules apply when "To the Color" or "To the Standard" is +sounded as when the National Anthem is played. + +=1573. National anthems of other nations.= The same marks of respect +prescribed for observance during the playing of the National Anthem of +the United States shall be shown toward the national anthem of any +other country when played upon official occasions. + +=1574. At retreat.= The flag will be lowered at the sounding of the +last note of the retreat, and while the flag is being lowered the band +will play the National Anthem, or, if there be no band present, the +field music will sound "To the Color." When "To the Color" is sounded +by the field music while the flag is being lowered the same respect +will be observed as when the National Anthem is played by the band, +and in either case officers and enlisted men out of ranks will face +toward the flag, stand at attention, and render the prescribed salute. + +=1575. Colors and standards.= Officers and enlisted men passing the +uncased color (or standard) will render honors as follows: If in +uniform they will salute as described in par. 1551; if in civilian +dress and covered, they will uncover, holding the headdress opposite +the left shoulder with the right hand; if uncovered, they will salute +with the right-hand salute. + +By "Colors" and "Standards" is meant the national flags and the +regimental flags that are carried by regiments and separate +battalions. The national flag may be of either silk or bunting; the +regimental flag is always of silk. In the Army Regulations the word +"Color" is used in referring to regiments of Infantry, the Coast +Artillery and battalions of Philippine Scouts, while "Standard" is +used in reference to regiments of Cavalry and Field Artillery. + +By _uncased_ colors and standards are meant colors and standards when +not in their waterproof cases. + +By Flag is meant the national emblem that waves from flag staffs and +other stationary poles. They are always of bunting. + + + + +PART VII + + + + +GUARD DUTY + +(To include Changes No. 1, February 24, 1915.) + +(The numbers following the paragraphs are those of the _Manual of +Interior Guard Duty_.) + + +=1576. Importance.= Guard duty is one of the soldier's most important +duties, and in all armies of the world the manner in which it is +performed is an index to the discipline of the command and the manner +in which other duties are performed. + +Upon the guard's vigilance and readiness for action depend not only +the enforcement of military law and orders, but also the safety and +protection of the post and the quelling of sudden disorder, perhaps +even mutiny. + +The importance of guard duty is increased during times of war, when +the very safety of the army depends upon the vigilance of the +sentinels, who are required to watch that others may sleep and thus +refresh themselves from the labors of the day. The sentinels are the +guardians of the repose, quiet and safety of the camp. + +=1577. Respect for Sentinels.= Respect for the person and office of a +sentinel is as strictly enjoined by military law as that required to +be paid to an officer. As it is expressed in the _Manual of Guard +Duty_, "All persons of whatever rank in the service are required to +observe respect toward sentinels." Invested as the private soldier +frequently is, while on his post, with a grave responsibility, it is +proper that he should be fully protected in the discharge of his duty. +To permit anyone, of whatever rank, to molest or interfere with him +while thus employed, without becoming liable to severe penalty, would +clearly establish a precedent highly prejudicial to the interests of +the service. (_Davis' Military Law_). + +=1578. Duty of sentinels.= A sentinel, in respect to the duties with +which he is charged, represents the superior military authority of the +command to which he belongs, and whose orders he is required to +enforce on or in the vicinity of his post. As such he is entitled to +the respect and obedience of all persons who come within the scope of +operation of the orders, which he is required to carry into effect. +Over military persons the authority of the sentinel is absolute, and +disobedience of his orders on the part of such persons constitutes a +most serious military offence and is prejudicial in the highest degree +to the interests of discipline. (_Davis' Military Law_).--Author. + + +INTRODUCTION + +=1579.= Guards may be divided into four classes: Exterior guards, +interior guards, military police, and provost guards. (1) + +=1580.= Exterior guards are used only in time of war. They belong to +the domain of tactics and are treated of in the _Field Service +Regulations_ and in the drill regulations of the different arms of the +service. + +The purpose of exterior guards is to prevent surprise, to delay +attack, and otherwise to provide for the security of the main body. + +On the march they take the form of advance guards, rear guards, and +flank guards. At a halt they consist of outposts. (2) + +=1581.= Interior guards are used in camp or garrison to preserve +order, protect property, and to enforce police regulations. In time of +war such sentinels of an interior guard as may be necessary are placed +close in or about a camp, and normally there is an exterior guard +further out consisting of outposts. In time of peace the interior +guard is the only guard in a camp or garrison. (3) + +=1582.= Military police differ somewhat from either of these classes. +(See _Field Service Regulations_.) They are used in time of war to +guard prisoners, to arrest stragglers and deserters, and to maintain +order and enforce police regulations in the rear of armies, along +lines of communication, and in the vicinity of large camps. (4) + +=1583.= Provost guards are used in the absence of military police, +generally in conjunction with the civil authorities at or near large +posts or encampments, to preserve order among soldiers beyond the +interior guard. (5) + + +INTERIOR GUARD + + +Classification + +=1584.= The various elements of an interior guard classified according +to their particular purposes and the manner in which they perform +their duties are as follows: + +(=a=) The main guard. + +(=b=) Special guards: Stable guards, park guards, prisoner guards, +herd guards, train guards, boat guards, watchmen, etc. (6) + + +Details and Rosters + +=1585.= At every military post, and in every regiment or separate +command in the field, an interior guard will be detailed and duly +mounted. + +It will consist of such number of officers and enlisted men as the +commanding officer may deem necessary, and will be commanded by the +senior officer or noncommissioned officer therewith, under the +supervision of the officer of the day or other officer detailed by the +commanding officer. (7) + +=1586.= The system of sentinels on fixed posts is of value in +discipline and training because of the direct individual +responsibility which is imposed and required to be discharged in a +definite and precise manner. In order, however, that guard duty may +not be needlessly irksome and interfere with tactical instruction, the +number of men detailed for guard will be the smallest possible. + +Commanding officers are specifically charged with this matter, and, +without entirely dispensing with the system of sentinels on fixed +posts will, as far as practicable in time of peace, replace such +sentinels with watchmen. (See Par. 1781.) (8) + +=1587.= At posts where there are less than three companies the main +guard and special guards may all be furnished by one company or by +detail from each company. + +Where there are three or more companies, the main guard will, if +practicable, be furnished by a single company, and, as far as +practicable, the same organization will supply all details for that +day for special guard, overseer, and fatigue duty. In this case the +officer of the day, and the officers of the guard, if there are any, +will, if practicable, be from the company furnishing the guard. (9) + +=1588.= There will be an officer of the day with each guard, unless in +the opinion of the commanding officer the guard is so small that his +services are not needed. In this case an officer will be detailed to +supervise the command and instruction of the guard for such period as +the commanding officer may direct. (16) + +=1589.= The detail of officers of the guard will be limited to the +necessities of the service and efficient instruction; inexperienced +officers may be detailed as supernumerary officers of the guard for +purposes of instruction. (18). + +=1590.= The strength of guards and the number of consecutive days for +which an organization furnishes the guard will be so regulated as to +insure privates of the main guard an interval of not less than five +days between tours. + + +The Commanding Officer + +=1591.= The commanding officer will exact a faithful, vigilant, and +correct performance of guard duty in all of its details, giving his +orders to the officer of the day, or causing them to be communicated +to him with the least practicable delay. He will prescribe the +strength of the guard, and the necessary regulations for guard, +police, and fatigue duty. (27) + +=1592.= The commanding officer receives the reports of the officers of +the day immediately after guard mounting, at his office, or at some +other place previously designated; carefully examines the guard report +and remarks thereon (questioning the old officer of the day, if +necessary, concerning his tour of duty), relieves the old officer of +the day and gives the new officer of the day such instructions as may +be necessary. (28) + + +The Officer of the Day + +=1593.= The officer of the day is responsible for the proper +performance of duty by the guard with which he marches on and for the +enforcement of all police regulations. He is charged with the +execution of all orders of the commanding officer relating to the +safety and good order of the post or camp. His actual tour begins when +he receives the instructions of the commanding officer after guard +mounting, and ceases when he has been relieved by the commanding +officer. In case of emergency during the interval between guard +mounting and reporting to the commanding officer, the senior officer +of the day will give the necessary instructions for both guards. (29) + +=1594.= In the absence of special instructions from the commanding +officer, the officer of the day will inspect the guard and sentinels +during the day and at night at such times as he may deem necessary. He +will visit them at least once between 12 o'clock midnight and +daylight. (30) + +He may prescribe patrols (Par. 1778) and visits of inspection to be +made by officers and noncommissioned officers of the guard whenever he +deems it necessary. (31) + +=1595.= He will see that the commander of the guard is furnished with +the parole and countersign before retreat in case they are to be used, +and will inform him of the presence in post or camp of any person +entitled to the compliment. (32) + +=1596.= In case of alarm of any kind he will at once take such steps +as may be necessary to insure the safety of life and public property +and to preserve order in the command, disposing his guard so as best +to accomplish this result. (33) + +=1597.= In the performance of his duties as officer of the day he is +subject to the orders of the commanding officer only, except that in +case of an alarm of any kind, and at a time of great danger, the +senior line officer present is competent to give necessary orders to +the officer of the day for the employment of the guard. (34) + +=1598.= At the inspection and musters prescribed in _Army +Regulations_, the officer of the day will be present at the post of +the guard, but all commands to the guard will be given by the +commander of the guard. (35) + +Both officers of the day together verify the prisoners and inspect the +guardhouse and premises. (36) + +=1599.= In the absence of special instructions, the old officer of the +day will, at guard mounting, release all garrison prisoners whose +sentences expire that day. If there are any prisoners with no record +of charges against them, the old officer of the day will report that +fact to the commanding officer who will give the necessary +instructions. (37) + +=1600.= The old officer of the day signs the report of the commander +of the guard. He also enters on it such remarks as may be necessary. +(38) + +=1601.= The officers of the day then report to the commanding officer. + +On presenting themselves, both salute with the right hand, remaining +covered. The old officer of the day, standing on the right of the new, +then says: "=Sir, I report as old officer of the day=," and presents +the guard report. As soon as the commanding officer notifies the old +officer of the day that he is relieved, the old officer of the day +salutes the commanding officer and retires. The new officer of the day +again salutes and says: "=Sir, I report as new officer of the day=," +and then receives his instructions. (39) + +=1602.= The officer of the day will always keep the guard informed as +to where he may be found at all hours of the day and night. (40) + + +Commander of the Guard + +=1603.= The commander of the guard is responsible for the instruction +and discipline of the guard. He will see that all of its members are +correctly instructed in their orders and duties, and that they +understand and properly perform them. He will visit each relief at +least once while it is on post, and at least one of these visits will +be made between 12 o'clock midnight and daylight. (41) + +=1604.= He receives and obeys the orders of the commanding officer and +the officer of the day, and reports to the latter without delay all +orders to the guard not received from the officer of the day; he +transmits to his successor all material instructions and information +relating to his duties. (42) + +=1605.= He is responsible under the officer of the day for the general +safety of the post or camp as soon as the old guard marches away from +the guardhouse. In case of emergency while both guards are at the +guardhouse, the senior commander of the two guards will be responsible +that the proper action is taken. (43) + +=1606.= Officers of the guard will remain constantly with their +guards, except while visiting patrols or necessarily engaged elsewhere +in the performance of their duties. The commanding officer will allow +a reasonable time for meals. (44) + +=1607.= A commander of a guard leaving his post for any purpose will +inform the next in command of his destination and probable time of +return. (45) + +=1608.= Except in emergencies, the commander of the guard may divide +the night with the next in command, but retains his responsibility; +the one on watch must be constantly on the alert. (46) + +=1609.= When any alarm is raised in camp or garrison, the guard will +be formed immediately. (Par. 1793.) If the case be serious, the proper +call will be sounded, and the commander of the guard will cause the +commanding officer and the officer of the day to be at once notified. +(47) + +=1610.= If a sentinel calls: "=The Guard=," the commander of the guard +will at once send a patrol to the sentinel's post. If the danger be +great, in which case the sentinel will discharge his piece, the patrol +will be as strong as possible. (48) + +=1611.= When practicable, there should always be an officer or +noncommissioned officer and two privates of the guard at the +guardhouse, in addition to the sentinels there on post. (49) + +=1612.= Between reveille and retreat, when the guard had been turned +out for any person entitled to the compliment (See Pars. 1782 and +1784), the commander of the guard, if an officer, will receive the +report of the sergeant, returning the salute of the later with the +right hand. He will then draw his saber, and place himself two paces +in front of the center of the guard. When the person for whom the +guard has been turned out approaches, he faces his guard and commands: +=1. Present, 2. ARMS=; faces to the front and salutes. When his salute +is acknowledged he resumes the carry, faces about, and commands: =1. +Order, 2. ARMS=; and faces to the front. + +If it be an officer entitled to inspect the guard, after saluting and +before bringing his guard to an order, the officer of the guard +reports: "=Sir, all present or accounted for="; or, "=Sir, (so and so) +is absent="; or, if the roll call has been omitted: "=Sir, the guard +is formed=," except that at guard mounting the commanders of the +guards present their guards and salute without making any report. + +Between retreat and reveille, the commander of the guard salutes and +reports, but does not bring the guard to a present. (50) + +=1613.= To those entitled to have the guard turned out but not +entitled to inspect it, no report will be made; nor will a report be +made to any officer, unless he halts in front of the guard. (51) + +=1614.= When a guard commanded by a noncommissioned officer is turned +out as a compliment or for inspection, the noncommissioned officer, +standing at a right shoulder on the right of the right guide, +commands: =1. Present, 2. ARMS.= He then executes the rifle salute. If +a report be also required, he will, after saluting, and before +bringing his guard to an order, report as prescribed for the officer +of the guard. (Par. 1612.) (52) + +=1615.= When a guard is in line, not under inspection, and commanded +by an officer, the commander of the guard salutes his regimental, +battalion, and company commander, by bringing the guard to attention +and saluting in person. + +For all other officers, excepting those entitled to the compliment +from a guard (Par. 1784), the commander of the guard salutes in +person, but does not bring the guard to attention. + +When commanded by a noncommissioned officer the guard is brought to +attention in either case, and the noncommissioned officer salutes. + +The commander of a guard exchanges salutes with the commanders of all +other bodies of troops; the guard is brought to attention during the +exchange. + +"=Present arms=" is executed by a guard only when it has turned out +for inspection or as a compliment, and at the ceremonies of guard +mounting and relieving the old guard. (53) + +=1616.= In marching a guard or a detachment of a guard the principles +of paragraph 1615 apply. "=Eyes right=" is executed only in the +ceremonies of guard mounting and relieving the old guard. (54) + +=1617.= If a person entitled to the compliment, or the regimental, +battalion, or company commander, passes in rear of a guard, neither +the compliment nor the salute is given, but the guard is brought to +attention while such person is opposite the post of the commander. + +After any person has received or declined the compliment, or received +the salute from the commander of the guard, official recognition of +his presence thereafter while he remains in the vicinity will be taken +by bringing the guard to attention. (55) + +=1618.= The commander of the guard will inspect the guard at reveille +and retreat, and at such other times as may be necessary, to assure +himself that the men are in proper condition to perform their duties +and that their arms and equipments are in proper condition. For +inspection by other officers, he prepares the guard in each case as +directed by the inspecting officer. (56) + +=1619.= The guard will not be paraded during ceremonies unless +directed by the commanding officer. (57) + +=1620.= At all formations members of the guard or reliefs will execute +inspection arms as prescribed in the drill regulations of their arm. +(58) + +=1621.= The commander of the guard will see that all sentinels are +habitually relieved every two hours, unless the weather or other cause +makes it necessary that it be done at shorter or longer intervals, as +directed by the commanding officer. (59) + +=1622.= He will question his noncommissioned officers and sentinels +relative to the instructions they may have received from the old +guard; he will see that patrols and visits of inspection are made as +directed by the officer of the day. (60) + +=1623.= He will see that the special orders for each post and member +of the guard, either written or printed, are posted in the guardhouse, +and, if practicable, in the sentry box or other sheltered place to +which the member of the guard has constant access. (61) + +=1624.= He will see that the proper calls are sounded at the hours +appointed by the commanding officer. (62) + +=1625.= Should a member of the guard be taken sick, or be arrested, or +desert, or leave his guard, he will at once notify the officer of the +day. (63) + +=1626.= He will, when the countersign is used (Pars. 1770 to 1776), +communicate it to the noncommissioned officers of the guard and see +that it is duly communicated to the sentinels before the hour for +challenging; the countersign will not be given to sentinels posted at +the guardhouse. (64) + +=1627.= He will have the details for hoisting the flag at reveille, +and lowering it at retreat, and for firing the reveille and retreat +gun, made in time for the proper performance of these duties. (See +Pars. 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837). He will see that the flags are kept in +the best condition possible, and that they are never handled except in +the proper performance of duty. (65) + +=1628.= He may permit members of the guard while at the guardhouse to +remove their headdress, overcoats, and gloves; if they leave the +guardhouse for any purpose whatever he will require that they be +properly equipped and armed according to the character of the service +in which engaged, or as directed by the commanding officer. (66) + +=1629.= He will enter in the guard report a report of his tour of +duty, and, on the completion of his tour, will present it to the +officer of the day. He will transmit with his report all passes turned +in at the post of the guard. (67) + +=1630.= Whenever a prisoner is sent to the guardhouse or guard tent +for confinement, he will cause him to be searched, and will, without +unnecessary delay, report the case to the officer of the day. (68) + +=1631.= Under war conditions, if anyone is to be passed out of camp at +night, he will be sent to the commander of the guard, who will have +him passed beyond the sentinels. (69) + +=1632.= The commander of the guard will detain at the guardhouse all +suspicious characters or parties attempting to pass a sentinel's post +without authority, reporting his action to the officer of the day, to +whom persons so arrested will be sent, if necessary. (70) + +=1633.= He will inspect the guard rooms and cells, and the irons of +such prisoners as may be ironed, at least once during his tour, and at +such other times as he may deem necessary. (71) + +=1634.= He will cause the corporals of the old and new reliefs to +verify together, immediately before each relief goes on post, the +number of prisoners who should then properly be at the guardhouse. +(72) + +=1635.= He will see that the sentences of prisoners under his charge +are executed strictly in accordance with the action of the reviewing +authority. (73) + +=1636.= When no special prisoner guard has been detailed (Par. 1798), +he will, as far as practicable, assign as guards over working parties +of prisoners sentinels from posts guarded at night only. (74) + +=1637.= The commander of the guard will inspect all meals sent to the +guardhouse and see that the quantity and quality of food are in +accordance with regulations. (75) + +=1638.= At guard mounting he will report to the old officer of the day +all cases of prisoners whose terms of sentence expire on that day, and +also all cases of prisoners concerning whom no statement of charges +has been received. (76) + +=1639.= The commander of the guard is responsible for the security of +the prisoners under the charge of his guard; he becomes responsible +for them after their number has been verified and they have been +turned over to the custody of his guard by the old guard or by the +prisoner guard or overseers. (77) + +=1640.= The prisoners will be verified and turned over to the new +guard without parading them, unless the commanding officer or the +officer of the day shall direct otherwise. (78) + +=1641.= To receive the prisoners at the guardhouse when they have been +paraded and after they have been verified by the officers of the day, +the commander of the new guard directs his sergeant to form his guard +with an interval, and commands: =1. Prisoners, 2. Right, 3. FACE, 4. +Forward, 5. MARCH.= The prisoners having arrived opposite the interval +in the new guard, he commands: =1. Prisoners, 2. HALT, 3. Left, 4. +FACE, 5. Right (or left), 6. DRESS, 7. FRONT.= + +The prisoners dress on the line of the new guard. (79) + + +Sergeant of the Guard + +=1642.= The senior noncommissioned officer of the guard always acts as +sergeant of the guard, and if there be no officer of the guard, will +perform the duties prescribed for the commander of the guard. (80) + +=1643.= The sergeant of the guard has general supervision over the +other noncommissioned officers and the musicians and privates of the +guard, and must be thoroughly familiar with all of their orders and +duties. (81) + +=1644.= He is directly responsible for the property under charge of +the guard, and will see that it is properly cared for. He will make +lists of articles taken out by working parties, and see that all such +articles are duly returned. If they are not, he will immediately +report the fact to the commander of the guard. (82) + +=1645.= Immediately after guard mounting he will prepare duplicate +lists of the names of all noncommissioned officers, musicians, and +privates of the guard, showing the relief and post or duties of each. +One list will be handed as soon as possible to the commander of the +guard; the other will be retained by the sergeant. (83) + +=1646.= He will see that all reliefs are turned out at the proper +time, and that the corporals thoroughly understand, and are prompt and +efficient in, the discharge of their duties. (84) + +=1647.= During the temporary absence from the guardhouse of the +sergeant of the guard, the next in rank of the noncommissioned +officers will perform his duties. (85) + +=1648.= Should the corporal whose relief is on post be called away +from the guardhouse, the sergeant of the guard will designate a +noncommissioned officer to take the corporal's place until his return. +(86) + +=1649.= The sergeant of the guard is responsible at all times for the +proper police of the guardhouse or guard tent, including the ground +about them and the prison cells. (87) + +=1650.= At "=first sergeant's call=" he will proceed to the adjutant's +office and obtain the guard report book. (88) + +=1651.= When the national or regimental colors are taken from the +stacks of the color line, the color bearer and guard, or the sergeant +of the guard, unarmed, and two armed privates as a guard, will escort +the colors to the colonel's quarters, as prescribed for the color +guard in the drill regulations of the arm of the service to which the +guard belongs. (89) + +=1652.= He will report to the commander of the guard any suspicious or +unusual occurrence that comes under his notice, will warn him of the +approach of any armed body, and will send to him all persons arrested +by the guard. (90) + +=1653.= When the guard is turned out, its formation will be as +follows: The senior noncommissioned officer, if commander of the +guard, is on the right of the right guide; if not commander of the +guard, he is in the line of file closers, in rear of the right four of +the guard; the next in rank is right guide; the next left guide; the +others in the line of file closers, usually, each in rear of his +relief; the field music, with its left three paces to the right of the +right guide. The reliefs form in the same order as when the guard was +first divided, except that if the guard consists of dismounted cavalry +and infantry, the cavalry forms on the left. (91) + +=1654.= The sergeant forms the guard, calls the roll, and, if not in +command of the guard, reports to the commander of the guard as +prescribed in drill regulations for a first sergeant forming a troop +or company; the guard is not divided into platoons or sections, and, +except when the whole guard is formed prior to marching off, fours are +not counted. (92) + +=1655.= The sergeant reports as follows: "=Sir, all present or +accounted for=," or "=Sir, (so-and-so) is absent="; or if the roll +call has been omitted, "=Sir, the guard, is formed=." Only men absent +without proper authority are reported absent. He then takes his place, +without command. (93) + +=1656.= At night, the roll may be called by reliefs and numbers +instead of names; thus, the first relief being on post: =Second +relief; No. 1; No. 2=, etc.; =Third relief, Corporal; No. 1=, etc. +(94) + +=1657.= Calling the roll will be dispensed with in forming the guard +when it is turned out as a compliment, on the approach of an armed +body, or in any sudden emergency; but in such cases the roll may be +called before dismissing the guard. If the guard be turned out for an +officer entitled to inspect it, the roll will, unless he directs +otherwise, always be called before a report is made. (95) + +=1658.= The sergeant of the guard has direct charge of the prisoners, +except during such time as they may be under the charge of the +prisoner guard or overseers, and is responsible to the commander of +the guard for their security. (96) + +=1659.= He will carry the keys of the guardroom and cells, and will +not suffer them to leave his personal possession while he is at the +guardhouse, except as hereinafter provided. (Par. 1661.) Should he +leave the guardhouse for any purpose, he will turn the keys over to +the noncommissioned officer who takes his place. (Par. 1647.) (97) + +=1660.= He will count the knives, forks, etc., given to the prisoners +with their food, and see that none of these articles remain in their +possession. He will see that no forbidden articles of any kind are +conveyed to the prisoners. (98) + +=1661.= Prisoners when paraded with the guard, are placed in line in +its center. The sergeant, immediately before forming the guard, will +turn over his keys to the noncommissioned officer at the guardhouse. +Having formed the guard, he will divide it into two nearly equal +parts. Indicating the point of division with his hand, he commands: + +=1. Right (or left), 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH, 5. Guard, 6. HALT, +7. Left (or right), 8. FACE.= + +If the first command be =right face=, the right half of the guard only +will execute the movements: if =left face=, the left half only will +execute them. The command =halt= is given when sufficient interval is +obtained to admit the prisoners. The doors of the guardroom and cells +are then opened by the noncommissioned officer having the keys. The +prisoners will file out under the supervision of the sergeant, the +noncommissioned officer, and sentinel on duty at the guardhouse, and +such other sentinels as may be necessary; they will form in line in +the interval between the two parts of the guard. (99) + +=1662.= To return the prisoners to the guardroom and cells, the +sergeant commands: + +=1. Prisoners, 2. Right (or left), 3. FACE, 4. Column right (or left), +5. MARCH.= + +The prisoners, under the same supervision as before, return to their +proper rooms or cells. (100) + +=1663.= To close the guard, the sergeant commands: + +=1. Left (or right), 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH, 5. Guard, 6. HALT, +7. Right (or left), 8. FACE.= + +The left or right half only of the guard as indicated, executes the +movement. (101) + +=1664.= If there be but few prisoners, the sergeant may indicate the +point of division as above, and form the necessary interval by the +commands: + +=1. Right (or left) step, 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, 4. HALT=, and close the +intervals by the commands: + +=1. Left (or right) step, 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, 4. HALT.= (102) + +=1665.= If sentinels are numerous, reliefs may, at the discretion of +the commanding officer, be posted in detachments, and sergeants, as +well as corporals, required to relieve and post them. (103) + + +Corporal of the Guard + +=1666.= A corporal of the guard receives and obeys orders from none +but noncommissioned officers of the guard senior to himself, the +officers of the guard, the officer of the day, and the commanding +officer. (104) + +=1667.= It is the duty of the corporal of the guard to post and +relieve sentinels, and to instruct the members of his relief in their +orders and duties. (105) + +=1668.= Immediately after the division of the guard into reliefs the +corporals will assign the members of their respective reliefs to posts +by number, and a soldier so assigned to his post will not be changed +to another during the same tour of guard duty, unless by direction of +the commander of the guard or higher authority. Usually, experienced +soldiers are placed over the arms of the guard, and at remote and +responsible posts. (106) + +=1669.= Each corporal will then make a list of the members of his +relief including himself. This list will contain the number of the +relief, the name, the company, and the regiment of every member +thereof, and the post to which each is assigned. The list will be made +in duplicate, one copy to be given to the sergeant of the guard as +soon as completed, the other to be retained by the corporal. (107) + +=1670.= When directed by the commander of the guard, the corporal of +the first relief forms his relief, and then commands: =CALL OFF.= + +Commencing on the right, the men call off alternately =rear= and +=front= rank, "=one=," "=two=," "=three=," "=four=," and so on; if in +single rank, they call off from right to left. The corporal then +commands: + +=1. Right, 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH.= + +The corporal marches on the left, and near the rear file, in order to +observe the march. The corporal of the old guard marches on the right +of the leading file, and takes command when the last one of the old +sentinels is relieved, changing places with the corporal of the new +guard. (108) + +=1671.= When the relief arrives at six paces from a sentinel (See Par. +1729), the corporal halts it and commands, according to the number of +the post: =No. (--).= + +Both sentinels execute port arms or saber; the new sentinel approaches +the old, halting about one pace from him. (See Par. 1733.) (109) + +=1672.= The corporals advance and place themselves, facing each other, +a little in advance of the new sentinel, the old corporal on his +right, the new corporal on his left, both at a right shoulder, and +observe that the old sentinel transmits correctly his instructions. + +The following diagram will illustrate the positions taken: + +[Illustration] + +R is the relief; A, the new corporal; B, the old; C, the new sentinel: +D, the old. (110) + +=1673.= The instructions relative to the post having been +communicated, the new corporal commands, =Post=; both sentinels then +resume the right shoulder, face toward the new corporal and step back +so as to allow the relief to pass in front of them. The new corporal +then commands, =1. Forward, 2. MARCH=; the old sentinel takes his +place in rear of the relief as it passes him, his piece in the same +position as those of the relief. The new sentinel stands fast at a +right shoulder until the relief has passed six paces beyond him, when +he walks his post. The corporals take their places as the relief +passes them. (111) + +=1674.= Mounted sentinels are posted and relieved in accordance with +the same principles. (112) + +=1675.= On the return of the old relief, the corporal of the new guard +falls out when the relief halts; the corporal of the old guard forms +his relief on the left of the old guard, salutes, and reports to the +commander of his guard: "=Sir, the relief is present="; or "=Sir, (so +and so) is absent=," and takes his place in the guard. (113) + +=1676.= To post a relief other than that which is posted when the old +guard is relieved, its corporal commands: + +=1. (Such) relief, 2. FALL IN=; and if arms are stacked, they are +taken at the proper commands. + +The relief is formed facing to the front, with arms at an =order=; the +men place themselves according to the numbers of their respective +posts, viz., =two=, =four=, =six=, and so on, in the =front rank=, and +=one=, =three=, =five=, and so on, in the =rear rank=. The corporal, +standing about two paces in front of the center of his relief, then +commands: =Call off.= + +The men call off as prescribed. The corporal then commands: =1. +Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Order, 4. ARMS=; faces the commander of the +guard, executes the rifle salute, reports: "=Sir, the relief is +present=," or "=Sir, (so and so) is absent="; he then takes his place +on the right at order arms. (114) + +=1677.= When the commander of the guard directs the corporal: "=Post +your relief=," the corporal salutes and posts his relief as prescribed +(Pars. 108 to 111); the corporal of the relief on post does not go +with the new relief, except when necessary to show the way. (115) + +=1678.= To dismiss the old relief, it is halted and faced to the front +at the guardhouse by the corporal of the new relief, who then falls +out; the corporal of the old relief then steps in front of the relief +and dismisses it by the proper commands. (116) + +=1679.= Should the pieces have been loaded before the relief was +posted, the corporal will, before dismissing the relief, see that no +cartridges are left in the chambers or magazines. The same rule +applies to sentinels over prisoners. (117) + +=1680.= Each corporal will thoroughly acquaint himself with all the +special orders of every sentinel on his relief, and see that each +understands and correctly transmits such orders =in detail= to his +successor. (118) + +=1681.= There should be at least one noncommissioned officer +constantly on the alert at the guardhouse, usually the corporal whose +relief is on post. This noncommissioned officer takes post near the +entrance of the guardhouse, and does not fall in with the guard when +it is formed. He will have his rifle constantly with him. (119) + +=1682.= Whenever it becomes necessary for the corporal to leave his +post near the entrance of the guardhouse, he will notify the sergeant +of the guard, who will at once take his place, or designate another +noncommissioned officer to do so. (120) + +=1683.= He will see that no person enters the guardhouse, or guard +tent, or crosses the posts of the sentinels there posted without +proper authority. (121) + +=1684.= Should any sentinel call for the corporal of the guard, the +corporal will, in every case, at once and quickly proceed to such +sentinel. He will notify the sergeant of the guard before leaving the +guardhouse. (122) + +=1685.= He will at once report to the commander of the guard any +violation of regulations or any unusual occurrence which is reported +to him by a sentinel, or which comes to his notice in any other way. +(123) + +=1686.= Should a sentinel call: "=The Guard=," the corporal will +promptly notify the commander of the guard. (124) + +=1687.= Should a sentinel call: "=Relief=," the corporal will at once +proceed to the post of such sentinel, taking with him the man next for +duty on that post. If the sentinel is relieved for a short time only, +the corporal will again post him as soon as the necessity for his +relief ceases. (125) + +=1688.= When the countersign is used, the corporal at the posting of +the relief during whose tour challenging is to begin gives the +countersign to the members of the relief, excepting those posted at +the guardhouse. (126) + +=1689.= He will wake the corporal whose relief is next on post in time +for the latter to verify the prisoners, form his relief, and post it +at the proper hour. (127) + +=1690.= Should the guard be turned out, each corporal will call his +own relief, and cause its members to fall in promptly. (128) + +=1691.= Tents or bunks in the same vicinity will be designated for the +reliefs so that all the members of each relief may, if necessary, be +found and turned out by the corporal in the least time and with the +least confusion. (129) + +=1692.= When challenged by a sentinel while posting his relief, the +corporal commands: =1. Relief, 2. HALT=; to the sentinel's challenge +he answers "=Relief=," and at the order of the sentinel he advances +alone to give the countersign, or to be recognized. When the sentinel +says, "=Advance relief=," the corporal commands: =1. Forward, 2. +MARCH.= + +If to be relieved, the sentinel is then relieved as prescribed. (130) + +=1693.= Between retreat and reveille, the corporal of the guard will +challenge all suspicious looking persons or parties he may observe, +first halting his patrol or relief, if either be with him. He will +advance them in the same manner that sentinels on post advance like +parties (Pars. 1751 to 1757), but if the route of a patrol is on a +continuous chain of sentinels, he should not challenge persons coming +near him unless he has reason to believe that they have eluded the +vigilance of sentinels. (131) + +=1694.= Between retreat and reveille, whenever so ordered by an +officer entitled to inspect the guard, the corporal will call: "=Turn +out the guard=," announcing the title of the officer, and then, if not +otherwise ordered he will salute and return to his post. (132) + +=1695.= As a general rule he will advance parties approaching the +guard at night in the same manner that sentinels on post advance like +parties. Thus, the sentinel at the guardhouse challenges and repeats +the answer to the corporal, as prescribed hereafter (Par. 1760); the +corporal, advancing at "=port arms=," says: "=Advance (so and so) with +the countersign=," or "=to be recognized=," if there be no countersign +used; the countersign being correctly given, or the party being duly +recognized, the corporal says: "=Advance (so and so)="; repeating the +answer to the challenge of the sentinel. (133) + +=1696.= When officers of different rank approach the guardhouse from +different directions at the same time, the senior will be advanced +first, and will not be made to wait for his junior. (134) + +=1697.= Out of ranks and under arms, the corporal salutes with the +rifle salute. He will salute all officers whether by day or night. +(135) + +=1698.= The corporal will examine parties halted and detained by +sentinels, and if he has reason to believe the parties have no +authority to cross sentinel's posts, will conduct them to the +commander of the guard. (136) + +=1699.= The corporal of the guard will arrest all suspicious looking +characters prowling about the post or camp, all persons of a +disorderly character disturbing the peace, and all persons taken in +the act of committing crime against the Government on a military +reservation or post. All persons arrested by corporals of the guard, +or by sentinels, will at once be conducted to the commander of the +guard by the corporal. (137) + + +Musicians of the Guard + +=1700.= The musicians of the guard will sound call as prescribed by +the commanding officer. (138) + +=1701.= Should the guard be turned out for national or regimental +colors or standards, uncased, the field music of the guard will, when +the guard present arms, sound, "=To the color=" or "=To the +standard="; or, if for any person entitled thereto, the march, +flourishes, or ruffles, prescribed in paragraphs 375, 376, and 377, A. +R. (139) + + +Orderlies and Color Sentinels + +=1702.= When so directed by the commanding officer, the officer who +inspects the guard at guard mounting will select from the members of +the new guard an orderly for the commanding officer and such number of +other orderlies and color sentinels as may be required. (140) + +For these positions the soldiers will be chosen who are most correct +in the performance of duty and in military bearing, neatest in person +and clothing, and whose arms and accouterments are in the best +condition. Clothing, arms, and equipments must conform to regulations. +If there is any doubt as to the relative qualifications of two or more +soldiers, the inspecting officer will cause them to fall out at the +guardhouse and to form in line in single rank. He will then, by +testing them in drill regulations, select the most proficient. The +commander of the guard will be notified of the selection. (141) + +=1703.= When directed by the commander of the guard to fall out and +report, an orderly will give his name, company, and regiment to the +sergeant of the guard, and, leaving his rifle in the arm rack in his +company quarters, will proceed at once to the officer to whom he is +assigned, reporting: "=Sir, Private ----, Company ----, reports as +orderly.=" (142) + +=1704.= If the orderly selected be a cavalryman, he will leave his +rifle in the arm rack of his troop quarters, and report with his belt +on, but without side arms unless specially otherwise ordered. (143) + +=1705.= Orderlies, while on duty as such, are subject only to the +orders of the commanding officer and of the officers to whom they are +ordered to report. (144) + +=1706.= When an orderly is ordered to carry a message, he will be +careful to deliver it exactly as it was given to him. (145) + +=1707.= His tour of duty ends when he is relieved by the orderly +selected from the guard relieving his own. (146) + +=1708.= Orderlies are members of the guard, and their name, company, +and regiment are entered on the guard report and lists of the guard. +(147) + +=1709.= If a color line is established, sufficient sentinels are +placed on the color line to guard the colors and stacks. (148) + +=1710.= Color sentinels are posted only so long as the stacks are +formed. The commander of the guard will divide the time equally among +them. (149) + +=1711.= When stacks are broken, the color sentinels may be permitted +to return to their respective companies. They are required to report +in person to the commander of the guard at reveille and retreat. They +will fall in with the guard, under arms, at guard mounting. (150) + +=1712.= Color sentinels are not placed on the regular reliefs, nor are +their posts numbered. In calling for the corporal of the guard, they +call: "=Corporal of the guard. Color line.=" (151) + +=1713.= Officers or enlisted men passing the uncased colors will +render the prescribed salute. If the colors are on the stacks, the +salute will be made on crossing the color line or on passing the +colors. (152) + +=1714.= A sentinel placed over the colors will not permit them to be +moved, except in the presence of an armed escort. Unless otherwise +ordered by the commanding officer, he will allow no one to touch them +but the color bearer. + +He will not permit any soldier to take arms from the stacks, or to +touch them, except by order of an officer or noncommissioned officer +of the guard. + +If any person passing the colors or crossing the color line fails to +salute the colors, the sentinel will caution him to do so, and if the +caution be not heeded he will call the corporal of the guard and +report the facts. (153) + + +Privates of the Guard + +=1715.= Privates are assigned to reliefs by the commander of the +guard, and to posts, usually, by the corporal of their relief. They +will not change from one relief or post to another during the same +tour of guard duty unless by proper authority. (154) + + +Orders for Sentinels + +=1716.= Orders for sentinels are of two classes: General orders and +special orders. General orders apply to all sentinels. Special orders +relate to particular posts and duties. (155) + +=1717.= Sentinels will be required to memorize the following: + +My general orders are: + +=1. To take charge of this post and all Government property in view.= + +=2. To walk my post in a military manner, keeping always on the alert +and observing everything that takes place within sight or hearing.= + +=3. To report all violations of orders I am instructed to enforce.= + +=4. To repeat all calls from posts more distant from the guardhouse +than my own.= + +=5. To quit my post only when properly relieved.= + +=6. To receive, obey, and pass on to the sentinel who relieves me all +orders from the commanding officer, officer of the day, and officers +and noncommissioned officers of the guard only.= + +=7. To talk to no one except in line of duty.= + +=8. In case of fire or disorder to give the alarm.= + +=9. To allow no one to commit a nuisance on or near my post.= + +=10. In any case not covered by instructions to call the corporal of +the guard.= + +=11. To salute all officers, and all colors and standards not cased.= + +=12. To be especially watchful at night, and, during the time for +challenging, to challenge all persons on or near my post, and to allow +no one to pass without proper authority.= (156) + + +Regulations Relating to the General Orders for Sentinels + +=1718.= No. 1: =To take charge of this post and all Government +property in view.= + +All persons, of whatever rank in the service, are required to observe +respect toward sentinels and members of the guard when such are in the +performance of their duties. (157) + +=1719.= A sentinel will at once report to the corporal of the guard +every unusual or suspicious occurrence noted. (158) + +=1720.= He will arrest suspicious persons prowling about the post or +camp at any time, all parties to a disorder occurring on or near his +post, and all, except authorized persons, who attempt to enter the +camp at night, and will turn over to the corporal of the guard all +persons arrested. (159) + +=1721.= The number, limits, and extent of his post will invariably +constitute part of the special orders of a sentinel on post. The +limits of his post should be so defined as to include every place to +which he is required to go in the performance of his duties. + +No. 2: =To walk my post in a military manner, keeping always on the +alert and observing everything that takes place within sight or +hearing.= (160) + +=1722.= A sentinel is not required to halt and change the position of +his rifle on arriving at the end of his post, nor to execute =to the +rear, march=, precisely as prescribed in the drill regulations, but +faces about while walking, in the manner most convenient to him, and +at any part of his post as may be best suited to the proper +performance of his duties. He carries his rifle on either shoulder, +and in wet or severe weather, when not in a sentry box, may carry it +at a secure. (161) + +=1723.= Sentinels when in sentry boxes stand at ease. Sentry boxes +will be used in wet weather only, or at other times when specially +authorized by the commanding officer. (162) + +=1724.= In very hot weather, sentinels may be authorized to stand at +ease on their posts, provided they can effectively discharge their +duties in this position, but they will take advantage of this +privilege only on the express authority of the officer of the day or +the commander of the guard. (163) + +=1725.= A mounted sentinel may dismount occasionally and lead his +horse but will not relax his vigilance. + +No. 3: =To report all violations of orders I am instructed to +enforce.= (164) + +=1726.= A sentinel will ordinarily report a violation of orders when +he is inspected or relieved, but if the case be urgent he will call +the corporal of the guard, and also, if necessary, will arrest the +offender. + +No. 4: =To repeat all calls from posts more distant from the +guardhouse than my own.= (165) + +=1727.= To call the corporal, or the guard, for any purpose other than +relief, fire, or disorder (Pars. 1728 and 1734), a sentinel will call, +"=Corporal of the guard, No. (--)=," adding the number of his post. In +no case will any sentinel call, "=Never mind the corporal="; nor will +the corporal heed such call if given. + +No. 5: =To quit my post only when properly relieved.= (166) + +=1728.= If relief becomes necessary, by reason of sickness or other +cause, a sentinel will call, "=Corporal of the guard, No. (--), +Relief=," giving the number of his post. (167) + +=1729.= Whenever a sentinel is to be relieved, he will halt, and with +arms at a right shoulder, will face toward the relief when it is +thirty paces from him. He will come to a port arms with the new +sentinel, and in a low tone will transmit to him all the special +orders relating to the post, and any other information which will +assist him to better perform his duties. + +No. 6: =To receive, obey, and pass on to the sentinel who relieves me, +all orders from the commanding officer, officer of the day, and +officers and noncommissioned officers of the guard only.= (168) + +=1730.= During this tour of duty a soldier is subject to the orders of +the commanding officer, officer of the day, and officers and +noncommissioned officers of the guard only; but any officer is +competent to investigate apparent violations of regulations by members +of the guard. (169) + +=1731.= A sentinel will quit his piece on an explicit order from any +person from whom he lawfully receives orders while on post; under no +circumstances will he yield it to any other person. Unless necessity +therefor exists, no person will require a sentinel to quit his piece, +even to allow it to be inspected. (170) + +=1732.= A sentinel will not divulge the countersign (Pars. 1769 to +1777) to anyone except the sentinel who relieves him, or to a person +from whom he properly receives orders, on such person's verbal order +given personally. Privates of the guard will not use the countersign +except in the performance of their duties while posted as sentinels. + +No. 7: =To talk to no one except in line of duty.= (171) + +=1733.= When calling for any purpose, challenging, or holding +communication with any person, a dismounted sentinel, armed with a +rifle or saber, will take the position of "port" arms or saber. At +night a dismounted sentinel, armed with a pistol, takes the position +of raise pistol in challenging or holding communication. A mounted +sentinel does not ordinarily draw his weapon in the daytime when +challenging or holding conversation; but if drawn, he holds it at +advance rifle, raise pistol, or port saber, according as he is armed +with a rifle, pistol, or saber. At night, in challenging and holding +conversation, his weapon is drawn and held as just prescribed, +depending on whether he is armed with a rifle, pistol, or saber. + +No. 8: =In case of fire or disorder to give the alarm.= (172) + +=1734.= In case of fire, a sentinel will call, "=Fire No. (--)=," +adding the number of his post; if possible, he will extinguish the +fire himself. In case of disorder, he will call: "=The Guard, No. +(--)=," adding the number of his post. If the danger be great, he +will, in either case, discharge his piece before calling. + +No. 11: =To salute all officers and all colors and standards not +cased.= (173) + +=1735.= When not engaged in the performance of a specific duty, the +proper execution of which would prevent it, a member of the guard will +salute all officers who pass him. This rule applies at all hours of +the day or night, except in the case of mounted sentinels armed with a +rifle or pistol, or dismounted sentinels armed with a pistol, after +challenging. (See Par. 1742.) (174) + +=1736.= Sentinels will salute as follows: A dismounted sentinel armed +with a rifle or saber, salutes by presenting arms; if otherwise armed, +he salutes with the right hand. + +A mounted sentinel, if armed with a saber and the saber be drawn, +salutes by presenting saber; otherwise he salutes in all cases with +the right hand. (175) + +=1737.= To salute, a dismounted sentinel, with piece at a right +shoulder or saber at a carry, halts and faces toward the person to be +saluted when the latter arrives within thirty paces. + +The limit within which individuals and insignia of rank can be readily +recognized is assumed to be about 30 paces, and, therefore, at this +distance cognizance is taken of the person or party to be saluted. +(176) + +=1738.= The salute is rendered at 6 paces; if the person to be saluted +does not arrive within that distance, then when he is nearest. (177) + +=1739.= A sentinel in a sentry box, armed with a rifle, stands at +attention in the doorway on the approach of a person or party entitled +to salute, and salutes by presenting arms according to the forgoing +rules. + +If armed with a saber, he stands at a carry and salutes as before. +(178) + +=1740.= A mounted sentinel on a regular post halts, faces, and salutes +in accordance with the foregoing rules. If doing patrol duty, he +salutes, but does not halt unless spoken to. (179) + +=1741.= Sentinels salute, in accordance with the foregoing rules, all +persons and parties entitled to compliments from the guard (Pars. +1787, and 1788): officers of the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps; +military and naval officers of foreign powers; officers of volunteers, +and militia officers when in uniform. (180) + +=1742.= A sentinel salutes as just prescribed when an officer comes on +his post; if the officer holds communication with the sentinel, the +sentinel again salutes when the officer leaves him. + +During the hours when challenging is prescribed, the first salute is +given as soon as the officer has been duly recognized and advanced. A +mounted sentinel armed with a rifle or pistol, or a dismounted +sentinel armed with a pistol, does not salute after challenging. + +He stands at advance rifle or raise pistol until the officer passes. +(181) + +=1743.= In case of the approach of an armed party of the guard, the +sentinel will halt when it is about 30 paces from him, facing toward +the party with his piece at the right shoulder. If not himself +relieved, he will, as the party passes, place himself so that the +party will pass in front of him; he resumes walking his post when the +party has reached 6 paces beyond him. (182) + +An officer is entitled to the compliments prescribed, whether in +uniform or not. (183) + +=1744.= A sentinel in communication with an officer will not interrupt +the conversation to salute. In the case of seniors the officer will +salute, whereupon the sentinel will salute. (184) + +=1745.= When the flag is being lowered at retreat, a sentinel on post +and in view of the flag will face the flag, and, at the first note of +the "Star Spangled Banner" or to the color will come to a present +arms. At the sounding of the last note he will resume walking his +post. + +No. 12: =To be especially watchful at night and during the time for +challenging, to challenge all persons on or near my post, and to allow +no one to pass without proper authority.= (185) + +=1746.= During challenging hours, if a sentinel sees any person or +party on or near his post, he will advance rapidly along his post +toward such person or party and when within about 30 yards will +challenge sharply, "=HALT. Who is there?=" He will place himself in +the best possible position to receive or, if necessary, to arrest the +person or party. (186) + +=1747.= In case a mounted party be challenged, the sentinel will call, +"=HALT. DISMOUNT. Who is there?=" (187) + +=1748.= The sentinel will permit only one of any party to approach him +for the purpose of giving the countersign (Pars. 1769 to 1777), or if +no countersign be used, of being duly recognized. When this is done +the whole party is advanced, i. e., allowed to pass. (188) + +=1749.= In all cases the sentinel must satisfy himself beyond a +reasonable doubt that the parties are what they represent themselves +to be and have a right to pass. If he is not satisfied, he must cause +them to stand and call the corporal of the guard. So, likewise, if he +have no authority to pass persons with the countersign, or when the +party has not the countersign, or gives an incorrect one. (189) + +=1750.= A sentinel will not permit any person to approach so close as +to prevent the proper use of his own weapon before recognizing the +person or receiving the countersign. (190) + +=1751.= When two or more persons approach in one party, the sentinel +on receiving an answer that indicates that someone in the party has +the countersign, will say, "=Advance one with the countersign=," and, +if the countersign is given correctly, will then say, "=Advance (So +and so)=," repeating the answer to his challenge. Thus, if the answer +be, "=Relief (friends with the countersign, patrol, etc.)=," the +sentinel will say, "=Advance one with the countersign="; then, +"=Advance relief (friends, patrol, etc.)=." (191) + +=1752.= If a person having the countersign approach alone, he is +advanced to give the countersign. Thus, if the answer be, "=Friend +with the countersign (or officer of the day, or etc.)=," the sentinel +will say, "=Advance, friend (or officer of the day, or etc.), with the +countersign="; then, "=Advance, friend (or officer of the day, or +etc.)=." (192) + +=1753.= If two or more persons approach a sentinel's post from +different directions at the same time, all such persons are challenged +in turn and required to halt and to remain halted until advanced. + +The senior is first advanced, in accordance with the foregoing rules. +(193) + +=1754.= If a party is already advanced and in communication with a +sentinel, the latter will challenge any other party that may approach; +if the party challenged be senior to the one already on his post, the +sentinel will advance the new party at once. The senior may allow him +to advance any or all of the other parties; otherwise, the sentinel +will not advance any of them until the senior leaves him. He will then +advance the senior only of the remaining parties, and so on. (194) + +=1755.= The following order of rank will govern a sentinel in +advancing different persons or parties approaching his post: +Commanding officer, officer of the day, officer of the guard, +officers, patrols, reliefs, noncommissioned officers of the guard in +order of rank, friends. (195) + +=1756.= A sentinel will never allow himself to be surprised, nor +permit two parties to advance upon him at the same time. (196) + +=1757.= If no countersign be used, the rules for challenging are the +same. The rules for advancing parties are modified only as follows: +Instead of saying "=Advance (so and so) with the countersign=," the +sentinel will say, "=Advance (so and so) to be recognized=." Upon +recognition he will say, "=Advance (so and so)=." (197) + +=1758.= Answers to a sentinel's challenge intended to confuse or +mislead him are prohibited, but the use of such an answer as "=Friends +with the countersign=," is not to be understood as misleading, but as +the usual answer made by officers, patrols, etc., when the purpose of +their visit makes it desirable that their official capacity should not +be announced. (198) + + +Special Orders For Sentinels at the Post of the Guard + +=1759.= Sentinels posted at the guard will be required to memorize the +following: + +=Between reveille and retreat to turn out the guard for all persons +designated by the commanding officer, for all colors or standards not +cased, and in time of war for all armed parties approaching my post, +except troops at drill and reliefs and detachments of the guard.= + +=At night, after challenging any person or party, to advance no one +but call the corporal of the guard, repeating the answer to the +challenge.= (199) + +=1760.= After receiving an answer to his challenge, the sentinel +calls, "=Corporal of the guard (So and so)=," repeating the answer to +the challenge. + +He does not in such cases repeat the number of his post. (200) + +=1761.= He remains in the position assumed in challenging until the +corporal has recognized or advanced the person or party challenged, +when he resumes walking his post, or, if the person or party be +entitled thereto, he salutes and, as soon as the salute has been +acknowledged, resumes walking his post. (201) + +=1762.= The sentinel at the post of the guard will be notified by +direction of the commanding officer of the presence in camp or +garrison of persons entitled to the compliment (Par. 1784.) (202) + +=1763.= The following examples illustrate the manner in which the +sentinel at the post of the guard will turn out the guard upon the +approach of persons or parties entitled to the compliment (Pars. 1784, +1787, and 1788): "=Turn out the guard, Commanding Officer="; "=Turn +out the guard, Governor of a Territory="; "=Turn out the guard, +national colors="; "=Turn out the guard, armed party="; etc. + +At the approach of the new guard at guard mounting the sentinel will +call "=Turn out the guard, armed party=." (203) + +=1764.= Should the person named by the sentinel not desire the guard +formed, he will salute, whereupon the sentinel will call "=Never mind +the guard=." (204) + +=1765.= After having called "=Turn out the guard=," the sentinel will +never call "=Never mind the guard=," on the approach of an armed +party. (205) + +=1766.= Though the guard be already formed he will not fail to call +"=Turn out the guard=," as required in his special orders, except that +the guard will not be turned out for any person while his senior is at +or coming to the post of the guard. (206) + +=1767.= The sentinels at the post of the guard will warn the commander +of the approach of any armed body and of the presence in the vicinity +of all suspicious or disorderly persons. (207) + +=1768.= In case of fire or disorder in sight or hearing, the sentinel +at the guardhouse will call the corporal of the guard and report the +facts to him. (208) + + +Countersigns and Paroles + +=1769. Seventy-seventh Article of War.= Any person subject to military +law makes known the parole or countersign to any person not entitled +to receive it according to the rules and discipline of war, or gives a +parole or countersign different from that which he received, shall, if +the offense be committed in time of war, suffer death or such other +punishment as a court-martial may direct. (See Par. 1732.) (209) + +=1770.= The =countersign= is a word given daily from the principal +headquarters of a command to aid guards and sentinels in identifying +persons who may be authorized to pass at night. + +It is given to such persons as may be authorized to pass and repass +sentinels' posts during the night, and to officers, noncommissioned +officers, and sentinels of the guard. (210) + +=1771.= The =parole= is a word used as a check on the countersign in +order to obtain more accurate identification of persons. It is +imparted only to those who are entitled to inspect guards and to +commanders of guards. + +The parole or countersign, or both, are sent sealed in the form of an +order to those entitled to them. (211) + +=1772.= When the commander of the guard demands the parole, he will +advance and receive it as the corporal receives the countersign. (See +Par. 1695.) (212) + +=1773.= As the communications containing the parole and countersign +must at times be distributed by many orderlies, the parole intrusted +to many officers, and the countersign and parole to many officers and +sentinels, and as both the countersign and parole must, for large +commands, be prepared several days in advance, there is always danger +of their being lost or becoming known to persons who would make +improper use of them; moreover, a sentinel is too apt to take it for +granted that any person who gives the right countersign is what he +represents himself to be; hence for outpost duty there is greater +security in omitting the use of the countersign and parole, or in +using them with great caution. The chief reliance should be upon +personal recognition or identification of all persons claiming +authority to pass. + +Persons whose sole means of identification is the countersign, or +concerning whose authority to pass there is a reasonable doubt, should +not be allowed to pass without the authority of the corporal of the +guard after proper investigation; the corporal will take to his next +superior any person about whom he is not competent to decide. (213) + +=1774.= The =countersign= is usually the name of a battle; the +=parole=, that of a general or other distinguished person. (214) + +=1775.= When they can not be communicated daily, a series of words for +some days in advance may be sent to posts or detachments that are to +use the same parole or countersign as the main body. (215) + +=1776.= If the countersign be lost, or if a member of the guard desert +with it, the commander on the spot will substitute another for it and +report the case at once to headquarters. (216) + +=1777.= In addition to the countersign, use may be made of +preconcerted signals, such as striking the rifle with the hand or +striking the hands together a certain number of times, as agreed upon. +Such signals may be used only by guards that occupy exposed points. + +They are used before the countersign is given, and must not be +communicated to anyone not entitled to know the countersign. Their use +is intended to prevent the surprise of a sentinel. + +In the daytime signals such as raising a cap or a handkerchief in a +prearranged manner may be used by sentinels to communicate with the +guard or with each other. (217) + + +Guard Patrols + +=1778.= A guard patrol consists of one or more men detailed for the +performance of some special service connected with guard duty. (218) + +=1779.= If the patrol be required to go beyond the chain of sentinels, +the officer or noncommissioned officer in charge will be furnished +with the countersign, and the outposts and sentinels warned. (219) + +=1780.= If challenged by a sentinel, the patrol is halted by its +commander, and the noncommissioned officer accompanying it advances +alone and gives the countersign. (220) + + +Watchmen + +=1781.= Enlisted men may be detailed as watchmen or as overseers over +prisoners, and as such will receive their orders and perform their +duties as the commanding officer may direct. (221) + + +Compliments From Guards + +=1782.= The compliment from a guard consists in the guard turning out +and presenting arms. (See Par. 1612.) No compliments will be paid +between retreat and reveille except as provided in paragraphs 361 and +362, nor will any person other than those named in paragraph 224 +receive the compliment. (222) + +=1783.= Though a guard does not turn out between retreat and reveille +as a matter of compliment, it may be turned out for inspection at any +time by a person entitled to inspect it. (223) + +=1784.= Between reveille and retreat the following persons are +entitled to the compliment: The President, sovereign or chief +magistrate of a foreign country, and members of a royal family; +Vice-President; President and President pro tempore of the Senate; +American and foreign ambassadors; members of the Cabinet; Chief +Justice; Speaker of the House of Representatives; committees of +Congress officially visiting a military post; governors within their +respective States and Territories; governors general[20]; Assistant +Secretary of War officially visiting a military post; all general +officers of the Army; general officers of foreign services visiting a +post; naval, marine, volunteer, and militia officers in the service of +the United States and holding the rank of general officer; American or +foreign envoys or ministers; ministers accredited to the United +states: charges d'affaires accredited to the United States; consuls +general accredited to the United States; commanding officer of a coast +artillery district, coast defense command, post, fort or camp; officer +of the day. (224) (C. M. I. G. D., No. 1, Feb. 24, 1915.) + +=1785.= The relative rank between officers of the Army and Navy is as +follows: General with admiral, lieutenant general with the vice +admiral, major general with rear admiral, brigadier general with +commodore,[21] colonel with captain, lieutenant colonel with +commander, major with lieutenant commander, captain with lieutenant, +first lieutenant with lieutenant (junior grade), second lieutenant +with ensign. (A. R. 12.) (225) + +=1786.= Sentinels will not be required to memorize paragraph 1784, and +except in the cases of general officers of the Army, the commanding +officer, and the officer of the day, they will be advised in each case +of the presence in camp or garrison of persons entitled to the +compliment. (226) + +=1787.= Guards will turn out and present arms when the national or +regimental colors or standards, not cased, are carried past by a guard +or an armed party. This rule also applies when the party carrying the +colors is at drill. If the drill is conducted in the vicinity of the +guardhouse, the guard will be turned out when the colors first pass, +and not thereafter. (227) + +=1788.= In case the remains of a deceased officer or soldier are +carried past, the guard will turn out and present arms. (228) + +=1789.= In time of war all guards will turn out under arms when armed +parties, except troops at drill and reliefs or detachments of the +guard, approach their post. (See Par. 1615.) (229) + +=1790.= The commander of the guard will be notified of the presence in +camp or garrison of all persons entitled to the compliment, except +general officers of the Army, the commanding officer, and the officer +of the day. Members of the guard will salute all persons entitled to +the compliment and all officers in the military or naval service of +foreign powers, officers of the Army, Navy and Marine Corps, officers +of volunteers, and officers of militia when in uniform. (230) + + +General Rules Concerning Guard Duty + +=1791. Eighty-sixth Article of War.= Any sentinel who is found drunk +or sleeping upon his post, or who leaves it before he is regularly +relieved, shall, if the offense be committed in time of war, suffer +death or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct; and if +the offense be committed in time of peace, he shall suffer any +punishment, except death, that a court-martial may direct. (232) + +=1792.= All material instructions given to a member of the guard by an +officer having authority will be promptly communicated to the +commander of the guard by the officer giving them. (233) + +=1793.= Should the guard be formed, soldiers will fall in ranks under +arms. At roll call, each man, as his name or number and relief are +called, will answer "Here," and come to an =order arms=. (234) + +=1794.= Whenever the guard or a relief is dismissed, each member not +at once required for duty will place his rifle in the arms racks, if +they be provided, and will not remove it therefrom unless he requires +it in the performance of some duty. (235) + +=1795.= Without permission from the commander of the guard, members of +the main guard, except orderlies, will not leave the immediate +vicinity of the guard house. Permission to leave will not be granted +except in cases of necessity. (236) + +=1796.= Members of the main guard, except orderlies, will not remove +their accouterments or clothing without permission from the commander +of the guard. (Par. 1628.) (237) + + +Guarding Prisoners + +=1797.= The sentinel at the post of the guard has charge of the +prisoners except when they have been turned over to the prisoner guard +or overseers. (Par. 1798 to 1802 and 300 to 304.) + +(a) =He will allow none to escape.= + +(b) =He will allow none to cross his post leaving the guardhouse +except when passed by an officer or noncommissioned officer of the +guard.= + +(c) =He will allow no one to communicate with prisoners without +permission from proper authority.= + +(d) =He will promptly report to the corporal of the guard any +suspicious noise made by the prisoners.= + +(e) =He will be prepared to tell whenever asked how many prisoners are +in the guardhouse and how many are out at work or elsewhere.= + +Whenever prisoners are brought to his post returning from work or +elsewhere, he will halt them and call the corporal of the guard, +notifying him of the number of prisoners returning. Thus: "=Corporal +of the guard, (so many) prisoners.=" + +He will not allow prisoners to pass into the guardhouse until the +corporal of the guard has responded to the call and ordered him to do +so. (299) + +=1798.= Whenever practicable special guards will be detailed for the +particular duty of guarding working parties composed of such prisoners +as cannot be placed under overseers. (300) + +=1799.= The prisoner guard and overseers will be commanded by the +police officer; if there be no police officer, then by the officer of +the day. (301) + +=1800.= The provost sergeant is sergeant of the prisoner guard and +overseers, and as such receives orders from the commanding officer and +the commander of the prisoner guard only. (302) + +=1801.= Details for prisoner guard are marched to the guardhouse and +mounted by being inspected by the commander of the main guard, who +determines whether all of the men are in proper condition to perform +their duties and whether their arms and equipments are in proper +condition, and rejects any men found unfit. (303) + +=1802.= When prisoners have been turned over to the prisoner guard or +overseers, such guards or overseers are responsible for them under +their commander, and all responsibility and control of the main guard +ceases until they are returned to the main guard. (Par. 1804.) (304) + +=1803.= If a prisoner attempts to escape, the sentinel will call +"=Halt=." If he fails to halt when the sentinel has once repeated his +call, and if there be no other possible means of preventing his +escape, the sentinel will fire upon him. + +=1804.= On approaching the post of the sentinel at the guardhouse, a +sentinel of the prisoner guard or an overseer in charge of prisoners +will halt them and call, "=No. 1, (so many prisoners.)=" He will not +allow them to cross the post of the sentinel until so directed by the +Corporal of the guard. (306) + +=1805.= Members of the prisoner guard and overseers placed over +prisoners for work will receive specific and explicit instructions +covering the required work; they will be held strictly responsible +that the prisoners under their charge properly and satisfactorily +perform the designated work. (307) + + +Stable Guards + +=1806.= Under the head of stable guards will be included guards for +cavalry stables, artillery stables and parks, mounted infantry +stables, machine-gun organization stables and parks, and quartermaster +stables and parks. Where the words "troop" and "cavalry" are used they +will be held to include all of these organizations. (308) + +=1807.= When troop stable guards are mounted they will guard the +stables of the cavalry. When no stable guards are mounted, the stables +will be guarded by sentinels posted from the main guard, under the +control of the officer of the day. + +The instructions given for troop stable guard will be observed as far +as applicable by the noncommissioned officers and sentinels of the +main guard when in charge of the stables. (309) + + +Troop Stable Guards + +=1808.= Troops stable guards will not be used except in the field, or +when it is impracticable to guard the stables by sentinels from the +main guard. (310) + +=1809.= Troop stable guards will be under the immediate control of +their respective troop commanders; they will be posted in each cavalry +stable, or near the picket line, and will consist of not less than one +noncommissioned officer and three privates. + +Stable guards are for the protection of the horses, stables, forage, +equipments, and public property generally. They will in addition +enforce the special regulations in regard to stables, horses, and +parks. (311) + +=1810.= Sentinels of stable guards will be posted at the stables or at +the picket lines when the horses are kept outside. The troop stable +guard may be used as a herd guard during the day time or when grazing +is practicable. (312) + +=1811.= The troop stable guard, when authorized by the post commander, +will be mounted under the supervision of the troop commander. It will +be armed, at the discretion of the troop commander, with either rifle +or pistol. (313) + +=1812.= The tour continues for 24 hours, or until the guard is +relieved by a new guard. (314) + +=1813.= The employment of stable guards for police and fatigue duties +at the stables is forbidden; but this will not prohibit them from +being required to assist in feeding grain before reveille. (315) + +The troop stable guard will attend stables with the rest of the troop +and groom their own horses, the sentinels being taken off post for the +purpose. (316) + +=1814.= Neither the noncommissioned officer nor the members of the +stable guard will absent themselves from the immediate vicinity of the +stables except in case of urgent necessity, and then for no longer +time than is absolutely necessary. No member of the guard will leave +for any purpose without the authority of the noncommissioned officer +of the guard. (317) + +=1815.= The noncommissioned officer and one member of the stable guard +will go for meals at the proper hour; upon their return the other +members of the guard will be directed to go by the noncommissioned +officer. (318) + +=1816.= When the horses are herded each troop will furnish its own +herd guard. (319) + +=1817.= Smoking in the stables or their immediate vicinity is +prohibited. No fire or light, other than electric light or stable +lanterns, will be permitted in the stables. A special place will be +designated for trimming, filling, and lighting lanterns. (320) + + +Noncommissioned Officer of the Troop Stable Guard + +=1818.= The noncommissioned officer receives his orders from his troop +commander, to whom he will report immediately after posting his first +relief, and when relieved will turn over all his orders to his +successor. He instructs his sentinels in their general and special +duties; exercises general supervision over his entire guard; exacts +order and cleanliness about the guardroom; prevents the introduction +of intoxicants into the guardhouse and stables; receives, by count, +from his predecessor, the animals, horse equipments, and all property +(both private and public) pertaining thereto; examines, before +relieving his predecessor, all locks, windows, and doors, and should +any be found insecure he will report the fact to his troop commander +when he reports for orders. He will personally post and relieve each +sentinel, taking care to verify the property responsibility of the +sentinel who comes off post, and see that the sentinel who goes on +post is aware of the property responsibility that he assumes. (321) + +=1819.= That the noncommissioned officer may be more thoroughly +informed of his responsibility, =all= horses returning, except those +from a regular formation, will be reported to him. He will then notify +the sentinel on post, and, in the absence of the stable sergeant, will +see that the horses are promptly cared for. + +In case of abuse, he will promptly report to the troop commander. +Should the horse be the private property of an officer, he will report +such abuse to the owner. (322) + +=1820.= The noncommissioned officer will report any unusual occurrence +during his tour direct to his troop commander. (323) + +=1821.= Horses and other property for which the noncommissioned +officer is responsible will not be taken from the stables without the +authority of the post or troop commander. (324) + +=1822.= The noncommissioned officer must answer the sentinel's calls +promptly. (325) + +=1823.= In case of fire, the noncommissioned officer will see that the +requirements of paragraph 1831 are promptly carried out. (326) + +=1824.= Whenever it becomes necessary for the noncommissioned officer +to leave his guard, he will designate a member of it to take charge +and assume his responsibility during his absence. (327) + + +Sentinels of the Troop Stable Guard + +=1825.= The sentinel in the discharge of his duties will be governed +by the regulations for sentinels of the main guard whenever they are +applicable--such as courtesies to officers, walking post in a +soldierly manner, challenging, etc.; he will not turn out the guard +except when ordered by proper authority. (328) + +=1826.= The sentinel will receive orders from the commanding officer, +the troop commander, and the noncommissioned officers of the stable +guard only, except when the commanding officer directs the officer of +the day to inspect the stable guard. (329) + +=1827.= In the field and elsewhere when directed by the commanding +officer the sentinel when posted will verify the number of horses for +which he is responsible, and when relieved will give the number to his +successor. (330) + +=1828.= The sentinel will not permit any horse or equipments to be +taken from the stables, except in the presence of the noncommissioned +officer. (331) + +=1829.= Should a horse get loose, the sentinel will catch him and tie +him up. If he be unable to catch the horse, the noncommissioned +officer will at once be notified. In case a horse be cast, or in any +way entangled, he will relieve him, if possible; if unable to relieve +him, he will call the noncommissioned officer. Sentinels are forbidden +to punish or maltreat a horse. (332) + +=1830.= When a horse is taken sick, the sentinel will notify the +noncommissioned officer, who in turn will call the farrier, and see +that the horse is properly attended to. (333) + +=1831.= In case of fire the sentinel will give the alarm by stepping +outside the stable and firing his pistol or piece repeatedly, and +calling out at the same time, "=Fire, stables, Troop (----)=." + +As soon as the guard is alarmed, he will take the necessary +precautions in opening or closing the doors so as to prevent the +spreading of the fire and make it possible to remove the horses; he +will drop the chains and bars, and, with the other members of the +guard, proceed to lead out the horses and secure them at the picket +line or such other place as may have been previously designated. (334) + +=1832.= Sentinels over horses, or in charge of prisoners, receive +orders from the stable sergeant, so far as the care of the horses and +the labor of prisoners are concerned. (335) + +=1833.= In field artillery and machine-gun organizations, the guard +for the stables has charge of the guns, caissons, etc., with their +ammunition and stores, as well as the horses, harness, and forage. +(336) + + +The Flag + +=1834.= The lowering of the flag will be regulated as to be completed +at the last note of "The Star Spangled Banner" or "to the color." +(338) + +=1835.= When practicable, a detail consisting of a noncommissioned +officer and two privates of the guard will raise or lower the flag. +This detail wears side arms or, if the special equipments do not +include side arms, then belts only. + +The noncommissioned officer, carrying the flag, forms the detail in +line, takes his post in the center, and marches it to the staff. The +flag is then securely attached to the halyards and rapidly hoisted. +The halyards are then securely fastened to the cleat on the staff and +the detail marched to the guardhouse. (344) + +=1836.= When the flag is to be lowered, the halyards are loosened from +the staff and made perfectly free. At retreat the flag is lowered at +the last note of retreat. It is then neatly folded and the halyards +made fast. The detail is then reformed and marched to the guardhouse, +where the flag is turned over to the commander of the guard. + +The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and should always +be hoisted or lowered from the leeward side of the staff, the halyards +being held by two persons. (345) + + +Reveille and Retreat Gun + +=1837.= The morning and evening gun will be fired by a detachment of +the guard, consisting, when practicable, of a corporal and two +privates. The morning gun is fired at the first note of reveille, or, +if marches be played before the reveille, it is fired at the beginning +of the first march The retreat gun is fired at the last note of +retreat. + +The corporal marches the detachment to and from the piece, which is +fired, sponged out, and secured under his direction. (346) + + +Guard Mounting + +=1838.= Guard mounting will be formal or informal as the commanding +officer may direct. It will be held as prescribed in the drill +regulations of the arm of the service to which the guard belongs; if +none is prescribed, then as for infantry. In case the guard is +composed wholly of mounted organizations, guard mounting may be held +mounted. (347) + +=1839.= When infantry and mounted troops dismounted are united for +guard mounting, all details form as prescribed for infantry. (348) + + +Formal Guard Mounting for Infantry + +=1840.= Formal guard mounting will ordinarily be held only in posts or +camps where a band is present. (349) + +=1841.= At the =assembly=, the men designated for the guard fall in on +their company parade grounds as prescribed in paragraph 106. I. D. R. +The first sergeant then verifies the detail, inspects it, replaces any +man unfit to go on guard, turns the detail over to the senior +noncommissioned officer, and retires. The band takes its place on the +parade ground so that the left of its front rank shall be 12 paces to +the right of the front rank of the guard when the latter is formed. +(350) + +=1842.= At =adjutant's call=, the adjutant, dismounted, and the +sergeant-major on his left, marches to the parade ground. The adjutant +halts and takes post so as to be 12 paces in front of and facing the +center of the guard when formed; the sergeant-major continues on, +moves by the left flank, and takes post, facing to the left, 12 paces +to the left of the front rank of the band; the band plays in quick or +double time; the details are marched to the parade ground by the +senior noncommissioned officers; the detail that arrives first is +marched to the line so that, upon halting, the breast of the +front-rank man shall be near to and opposite the left arm of the +sergeant-major; the commander of the detail halts his detail, places +himself in front of and facing the sergeant-major, at a distance equal +to or a little greater than the front of his detail, and commands: =1. +Right, 2. DRESS.= The detail dresses up to the line of the +sergeant-major and its commander, the right front-rank man placing his +breast against the left arm of the sergeant-major; the noncommissioned +officers take post two paces in rear of the rear rank of the detail. +The detail aligned, the commander of the detail commands: =FRONT=, +salutes, and then reports: "=The detail is correct=;" or "=So many +sergeants, corporals, or privates are absent=;" the sergeant-major +returns the salute with the right hand after the report is made; the +commander then passes by the right of the guard and takes post in the +line of noncommissioned officers in rear of the right file or his +detail. + +Should there be more than one detail, it is formed in like manner on +the left of the one preceding; the privates, noncommissioned officers, +and commander of each detail dress on those of the preceding details +in the same rank or line; each detail commander closes the rear rank +to the right and fills blank files, as far as practicable, with the +men from his front rank. + +Should the guard from a company not include a noncommissioned officer, +one will be detailed to perform the duties of commander of the detail. +In this case the commander of the detail, after reporting to the +sergeant-major, passes around the right flank between the guard and +the band and retires. (351) + +=1843.= When the last detail has formed, the sergeant-major takes a +side step to the right, draws sword, verifies the detail, takes post +two paces to the right and two paces to the front of the guard, facing +to the left, causes the guard to count off, completes the left squad, +if necessary, as in the school of the company, and if there be more +than three squads, divides the guard into two platoons, again takes +post as described above and commands: =1. Open ranks, 2. MARCH.= + +At the command march, the rear rank and file closers march backward +four steps, halt, and dress to the right. The sergeant major aligns +the ranks and file closers and again, taking post as described above, +commands: =FRONT=, moves parallel to the front rank until opposite the +center, turns to the right, halts midway to the adjutant, salutes, +and reports: "=Sir, the details are correct=;" or, "=Sir, (so many) +sergeants, corporals, or privates are absent=;" the adjutant returns +the salute, directs the sergeant-major: =Take your post=, and then +draws saber; the sergeant-major faces about, approaches to within two +paces of the center of the front rank, turns to the right, moves three +paces beyond the left of the front rank, turns to the left, halts on +the line of the front rank, faces about, and brings his sword to the +order. When the sergeant-major has reported, the officer of the guard +takes post, facing to the front, three paces in front of the center of +the guard, and draws saber. + +The adjutant then commands: =1. Officer (or officers) and +noncommissioned officers, 2. Front and Center, 3. MARCH.= + +At the command =center=, the officers carry saber. At the command +=march=, the officer advances and halts three paces from the adjutant, +remaining at the carry; the noncommissioned officers pass by the +flanks, along the front, and form in order of rank from right to left, +three paces in rear of the officer, remaining at the right shoulder; +if there is no officer of the guard the noncommissioned officers halt +on a line three paces from the adjutant; the adjutant then assigns the +officers and noncommissioned officers according to rank, as follows: +=Commander of the guard, leader of first platoon, leader of second +platoon, right guide of first platoon, left guide of second platoon, +left guide of first platoon, right guide of second platoon=, and =file +closers=, or, if the guard is not divided into platoons: =Commander of +the guard, right guide, left guide=, and =file closers=. + +The adjutant then commands: =1. Officer (or officers) and +noncommissioned officers, 2. POSTS, 3. MARCH.= + +At the command =posts=, all, except the officer commanding the guard, +face about. At the command =march=, they take the posts prescribed in +the school of the company with open ranks. The adjutant directs: +=Inspect your guard, sir=; at which the officer commanding the guard +faces about, commands: =Prepare for inspection=, returns saber, and +inspects the guard. + +During the inspection, the band plays; the adjutant returns saber, +observes the general condition of the guard, and falls out any man who +is unfit for guard duty or does not present a creditable appearance. +Substitutes will report to the commander of the guard at the +guardhouse. (352) + +=1844.= The adjutant, when so directed, selects orderlies and color +sentinels, as prescribed in paragraphs 140 and 141, and notifies the +commander of the guard of his selection. (353) + +If there be a junior officer of the guard he takes post at the same +time as the senior, facing to the front, 3 paces in front of the +center of the first platoon; in going to the front and center he +follows and takes position on the left of the senior and is assigned +as leader of the first platoon; he may be directed by the commander of +the guard to assist in inspecting the guard. + +If there be no officer of the guard, the adjutant inspects the guard. +A noncommissioned officer commanding the guard takes post on the right +of the right guide, when the guard is in line; and takes the post of +the officer of the guard, when in column or passing in review. (354) + +=1845.= The inspection ended, the adjutant places himself about 30 +paces in front of and facing the center of the guard, and draws saber; +the new officer of the day takes post in front of and facing the +guard, about 30 paces from the adjutant; the old officer of the day +takes post 3 paces to the right of and 1 pace to the rear of the new +officer of the day; the officer of the guard takes post 3 paces in +front of its center, draws saber with the adjutant and comes to the +order; thereafter he takes the same relative positions as a captain of +a company. + +The adjutant then commands: =1. Parade, 2. REST, 3. SOUND OFF=, and +comes to the order and parade rest. + +The band, playing, passes in front of the officer of the guard to the +left of the line, and back to its post on the right, when it ceases +playing. + +The adjutant then comes to attention, carries saber, and commands: =1. +Guard, 2. ATTENTION, 3. Close ranks, 4. MARCH.= + +The ranks are opened and closed as in paragraph 745, I. D. R. + +The adjutant then commands: =1. Present, 2. ARMS=, faces toward the +new officer of the day, salutes, and then reports: =Sir, the guard is +formed.= The new officer of the day, after the adjutant has reported, +returns the salute with the hand and directs the adjutant: =March the +guard in review, sir.= + +The adjutant carries saber, faces about, brings the guard to an order, +and commands: =1. At trail, platoons (or guard) right, 2. MARCH, 3. +Guard, 4. HALT.= + +The platoons execute the movements; the band turns to the right and +places itself 12 paces in front of the first platoon. + +The adjutant places himself 6 paces from the flank and abreast of the +commander of the guard; the sergeant major, 6 paces from the left +flank of the second platoon. + +The adjutant then commands: =1. Pass in review, 2. FORWARD, 3. MARCH.= + +The guard marches in quick time past the officer of the day, according +to the principles of review, and is brought to =eyes right= at the +proper time by the commander of the guard; the adjutant, commander of +the guard, leaders of platoons, sergeant-major, and drum major salute. + +The band, having passed the officer of the day, turns to the left out +of the column, places itself opposite and facing him, and continues to +play until the guard leaves the parade ground. The field music +detaches itself from the band when the latter turns out of the column, +and, remaining in front of the guard, commences to play when the band +ceases. + +Having passed 12 paces beyond the officer of the day, the adjutant +halts; the sergeant-major halts abreast of the adjutant and 1 pace to +his left; they then return saber, salute, and retire; the commander of +the guard then commands: =1. Platoons, right by squads, 2. MARCH=, and +marches the guard to its post. + +The officers of the day face toward each other and salute; the old +officer of the day turns over the orders to the new officer of the +day. + +When the band is sounding off, and while the guard is marching in +review, the officers of the day stand at parade rest with arms folded. +They take this position when the adjutant comes to parade rest, resume +the attention with him, again take the parade rest at the first note +of the march in review, and resume attention as the head of the column +approaches. + +The new officer of the day returns the salute of the commander of the +guard and the adjutant, making one salute with the hand. (355) + +=1846.= If the guard be not divided into platoons, the adjutant +commands: =1. At trail, guard right, 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, 4. HALT=, and +it passes in review as above; the commander of the guard is 3 paces in +front of its center; the adjutant places himself 6 paces from the left +flank and abreast of the commander of the guard; the sergeant covers +the adjutant on a line with the front rank. (356) + + +Informal Guard Mounting for Infantry + +=1847.= Informal guard mounting will be held on the parade ground of +the organization from which the guard is detailed. If it is detailed +from more than one organization, then at such place as the commanding +officer may direct. (357) + +=1848. At assembly=, the detail for guard falls in on the company +parade ground. The first sergeant verifies the detail, inspects their +dress and general appearance, and replaces any man unfit to march on +guard. He then turns the detail over to the commander of the guard and +retires. (358) + +=1849. At adjutant's call=, the officer of the day takes his place 15 +paces in front of the center of the guard and commands: =1. Officer +(or officers) and noncommissioned officers, 2. Front and center, 3. +MARCH=; whereupon the officers and noncommissioned officers take their +positions, are assigned and sent to their posts as prescribed in +formal guard mounting. (Par. 1843.) + +The officer of the day will then inspect the guard with especial +reference for its fitness for the duty for which it is detailed, and +will select as prescribed in paragraphs 1702, the necessary orderlies +and color sentinels. The men found unfit for guard will be returned to +quarters and will be replaced by others found to be suitable, if +available in the company. If none are available in the company, the +fact will be reported to the adjutant immediately after guard +mounting. + +When the inspection shall have been completed, the officer of the day +resumes his position and directs the commander of the guard to march +the guard to its post. (359) + + +Relieving the Old Guard + +=1850.= As the new guard approaches the guardhouse, the old guard is +formed in line, with its field music 3 paces to its right; and when +the field music at the head of the new guard arrives opposite its +left, the commander of the new guard commands: =1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT=; +the commander of the old guard commands: =1. Present, 2. ARMS=; +commanders of both guards salute. The new guard marches in quick time +past the old guard. + +When the commander of the new guard is opposite the field music of the +old guard, he commands: =FRONT=; the commander of the old guard +commands: =1. Order, 2. ARMS=, as soon as the new guard shall have +cleared the old guard. + +The field music having marched 3 paces beyond the field music of the +old guard, changes direction to the right, and, followed by the guard, +changes direction to the left when on a line with the old guard; the +changes of direction are without command. The commander of the guard +halts on the line of the front rank of the old guard, allows his guard +to march past him, and when its rear approaches forms it in line to +the left, establishes the left guide 3 paces to the right of the field +music of the old guard, and on a line with the front rank, and then +dresses his guard to the left; the field music of the new guard is 3 +paces to the right of its front rank. (360) + +=1851.= The new guard being dressed, the commander of each guard, in +front of and facing its center, commands: =1. Present, 2. ARMS=, +resumes his front, salutes, carries saber, faces his guard and +commands: =1. Order, 2. ARMS.= + +Should a guard be commanded by a noncommissioned officer, he stands on +the right or left of the front rank, according as he commands the old +or new guard, and executes the rifle salute. (361) + +=1852.= After the new guard arrives at its post, and has saluted the +old guard, each guard is presented by its commander to its officer of +the day; if there be but one officer of the day present, or if one +officer acts in the capacity of old and new officer of the day, each +guard is presented to him by its commander. (362) + +=1853.= If other persons entitled to a salute approach, each commander +of the guard will bring his own guard to attention if not already at +attention. The senior commander of the two guards will then command +"=1. Old and new guards, 2. Present, 3. ARMS.=" + +The junior will salute at the command "=Present Arms=" given by the +senior. After the salute has been acknowledged, the senior brings both +guards to the order. (363) + +=1854.= After the salutes have been acknowledged by the officers of +the day, each guard is brought to an order by its commander; the +commander of the new guard then directs the orderly or orderlies to +fall out and report, and causes bayonets to be fixed if so ordered by +the commanding officer; bayonets will not then be unfixed during the +tour except in route marches while the guard is actually marching, or +when specially directed by the commanding officer. + +The commander of the new guard then falls out members of the guard for +detached posts, placing them under charge of the proper +noncommissioned officers, divides the guard into three reliefs, +=first=, =second=, and =third=, from right to left, and directs a list +of the guard to be made by reliefs. When the guard consists of troops +of different arms combined, the men are assigned to reliefs so as to +insure a fair division of duty, under rules prescribed by the +commanding officer. (364) + +=1855.= The sentinels and detachments of the old guard are at once +relieved by members of the new guard; the two guards standing at ease +or at rest while these changes are being made. The commander of the +old transmits to the commander of the new guard all his orders, +instructions, and information concerning the guard and its duties. The +commander of the new guard then takes possession of the guardhouse and +verifies the articles in charge of the guard. (365) + +=1856.= If considerable time is required to bring in that portion of +the old guard still on post, the commanding officer may direct that as +soon as the orders and property are turned over to the new guard, the +portion of the old guard at the guardhouse may be marched off and +dismissed. In such a case, the remaining detachment or detachments of +the old guard will be inspected by the commander of the new guard when +they reach the guardhouse. He will direct the senior noncommissioned +officer present to march these detachments off and dismiss them in the +prescribed manner. (366) + +=1857.= In bad weather, at night, after long marches, or when the +guard is very small, the field music may be dispensed with. (367) + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[20] The term "governors general" shall be taken to mean +administrative officers under whom officers with the title of governor +are acting. + +[21] The grade of commodore ceased to exist as a grade on the active +list of the Navy of the United States on Mar. 3, 1899. By section 7 of +the act of Mar. 3, 1899, the nine junior rear admirals are authorized +to receive the pay and allowances of a brigadier general of the Army. + + + + +PART VIII + +MILITARY ORGANIZATION + + +=1858.= The tabulations that follow are based on the National Defense +Act of June 3, 1916, and on the Tables of Organization. + + Composition of Infantry Units + + ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ + Regiment | Battalions (3) + ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ + Each | Each + ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ + 1 Colonel | 1 Major + 1 Lt. Colonel | 1 1st Lieut., mounted + 3 Majors | (battalion adjutant) + 15 Captains | 4 Companies. + 16 1st Lieuts. | + 15 2nd Lieuts. | _Attached_ + -- | + 51 | 1 Battalion Sergt. Major + -- | (from Hdqrs. Co.) + 1 Hdqrs. Co. | + 1 Machine Gun Co. | + 1 Supply Co. | + 12 Infantry Cos., organized into 3 | + battalions of 4 companies each | + | + _Attached_ | + | + 1 Major, Med. Dept. | + 3 Capts., or 1st Lieuts., | + Med. Dept. | + 1 Chaplain | + ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ + + ------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Companies + -----------------+--------------------+-----------------+---------------- + Infantry (12) | Headquarters (1) | Machine Gun (1) | Supply (1) + -----------------+--------------------+-----------------+---------------- + 1 Captain | 1 Captain, mounted,| 1 Captain, Mtd. | 1 Captain, Mtd. + 1 1st Lieut. | (Regtl. Adjt.) | 1 1st Lt., Mtd. | 1 2nd Lt., Mtd. + 1 2nd Lieut. | | 2 2nd Lts., Mtd.|-- + -- | 1 Regtl. Sergt. |-- | 2 + 3 | Major, mounted. | 4 |-- + -- | 3 Batln. Sergts. |-- | 3 Regtl. Supply + | Major, mounted. | 1 1st Sergt., | Sergts., Mtd. + 1 1st Sergt. | 1 1st Sergt. | Mtd. | 1 1st Sergt., + 1 Mess Sergt. | (drum major) | 1 Mess Sergt. | Mtd. + 1 Supply Sergt.| 2 Color Sergts. | 1 Supply Sergt.,| 1 Mess Sergt. + 6 Sergts. | 1 Mess Sergt. | Mtd. | 1 Stable Sergt. + 11 Corpls. | 1 Supply Sergt. | 1 Stable Sergt.,| 1 Corpl., Mtd. + 2 Cooks | 1 Stable Sergt. | Mtd. | 1 Cook + 2 Buglers | 1 Sergt. | 1 Horseshoer | 1 Saddler + 1 Mechanic | 2 Cooks | 5 Sergeants | 1 Horseshoer + 19 Pvts. (1st | 1 Horseshoer | 6 Corporals | 1 Wagoner for + Class) | 1 Band leader | 2 Cooks | each + 56 Pvts. | 1 Asst. Band leader| 2 Buglers | authorized + --- | 1 Sergt. bugler | 1 Mechanic | wagon + 100 | 2 Band Sergts. | 8 Pvts., 1st | of the field + --- | 4 Band Corpls. | Class | and combat + (The President | 2 Musicians, 1st |24 Privates | train. + may add 2 | Class |-- | + Sergts., 6 | 4 Musicians, 2nd |53 | + Corpls., 1 | Class |-- | + Mechanic, 9 Pvts.|13 Musicians, 3rd |(The President | + 1st Class and 31 | Class |may add 2 | + Pvts.--total, 49)| 4 Pvts., 1st Class,|Sergts., 2 | + | Mtd. |Corpls., | + |12 Pvts, Mtd. |1 Mechanic, | + |-- |4 Pvts., 1st | + |58 |Class and 12 | + |-- |Pvts.--total, | + | |21) | + -----------------+--------------------+-----------------+---------------- + +=Transportation, orderlies, etc.= To Hdqrs. Co., 27 riding horses; to +Machine Gun Co., 6 riding horses and 8 pack mules; to Supply Co., 3 +riding horses; to each Battalion Hdqrs., 6 riding horses, 1 wagon, 4 +draft mules, and 2 mounted orderlies; to Regtl. Hdqrs., 5 riding +horses. + + Composition of Cavalry Units + + ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ + Regiment | Squadrons (3) + ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ + Each | Each + ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ + 1 Colonel | 1 Major + 1 Lt. Colonel | 1 1st Lieut., squadron adjutant + 3 Majors | + 15 Captains | 4 troops + 16 1st Lieuts. | + 16 2nd Lieuts. | _Attached_ + -- | + 52 | 1 Squadron Sergt. Major + -- | (from Hdqrs. Troop) + | + 1 Hdqrs. Troop | + 1 Machine Gun Troop | + 1 Supply Troop | + 12 Troops organized into 3 | + squadrons of 4 troops each | + | + _Attached_ | + | + 1 Major, Med. Dept. | + 3 Capts., or 1st Lieuts., | + Med. Dept. | + 1 Chaplain | + ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ + + ------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Troops + -----------------+--------------------+-----------------+---------------- + Cavalry (12) | Headquarters (1) | Machine Gun (1) | Supply (1) + -----------------+--------------------+-----------------+---------------- + 1 Captain | 1 Captain, Regtl. | 1 Captain | 1 Captain, + 1 1st Lieut. | Adjt. | 1 1st Lieut. | Regtl. Supply + 1 2nd Lieut. | 1 Regtl. Sergeant | 2 2nd Lieuts. | Officer + -- | Major |-- | 2 2nd Lieuts. + 3 | 3 Squadron Sergts. | 4 |-- + -- | Major |-- | 3 + | 1 1st Sergt. | |-- + 1 1st Sergt. | (Drum Major) | 1 1st Sergt. | + 1 Mess Sergt. | 2 Color Sergts. | 1 Mess Sergt. | 3 Regtl. Supply + 1 Supply Sergt. | 1 Mess Sergt. | 1 Supply Sergt. | Sergts. + 1 Stable Sergt. | 1 Supply Sergt. | 1 Stable Sergt. | 1 1st Sergt. + 5 Sergts. | 1 Stable Sergt. | 2 Horseshoers | 1 Mess Sergt. + 8 Corpls. | 1 Sergt. | 5 Sergts. | 1 Stable Sergt. + 2 Cooks | 2 Cooks | 6 Corpls. | 1 Corpl. + 2 Horseshoers | 1 Horseshoer | 2 Cooks | 1 Cook + 1 Saddler | 1 Saddler | 1 Mechanic | 1 Horseshoer + 2 Buglers | 2 Pvts. (1st Class)| 1 Saddler | 1 Saddler + 10 Pvts. (1st | 9 Pvts. | 2 Buglers | 1 Wagoner for + Class) | 1 Band leader |12 Pvts. 1st | each + 36 Pvts. | 1 Asst. Band Leader| Class | authorized + -- | 1 Sergt. Bugler |35 Pvts. | wagon of the + 70 | 2 Band Sergts. |-- | field and + -- | 4 Band Corpls. |70 | combat train. + | 2 Musicians, 1st |-- | + (The President | Class | | + may add 10 Pvts. | 4 Musicians, 2nd |(The President | + (1st Class) and | Class |may add 3 | + 25 Pvts.--total, |13 Musicians, 3rd |Sergts., 2 | + 35) | Class |Corpls., 1 | + |-- |Mechanic, 1 Pvt. | + |54 |1st Class, 14 | + |-- |Pvts.--total, 21)| + | | | + |(The President may | | + | add 2 Sergts, 5 | | + | Corpls., 1 | | + | Horseshoer, 5 Pvts.| | + | 1st Class, 18 | | + | Pvts.--total, 31) | | + -----------------+--------------------+-----------------+---------------- + +=Transportation, orderlies, etc.= To each Squadron Hdqrs., 6 or 7 +riding horses and 2 orderlies; to each squadron; 292 riding horses, 1 +wagon and 4 draft mules. + + Composition of Field Artillery Units + + ------------------------+------------------------+----------------------- + | Battalion | Battery + Regiment | (Gun or Howitzer) | (Gun or Howitzer) + ------------------------+------------------------+----------------------- + Each | Each | Each + ------------------------+------------------------+----------------------- + 1 Colonel | 1 Major | 1 Captain + 1 Lt. Colonel | 1 Captain | 2 1st Lieuts. + 1 Captain | -- | 2 2nd Lieuts. + -- | 2 | -- + 3 | -- | 5 + -- | | -- + | Batteries as follows: | + 1 Hdqrs. Co., | | 1 1st Sergt. + 1 Supply Co., | Mountain artillery | 1 Supply Sergt. + | battalions and light | 1 Stable Sergt. + And such number of | artillery gun or | 1 Mess Sergt. + guns and howitzer as | howitzer battalions | 6 Sergts. + the President may | serving with the field | 13 Corpls. + direct. | artillery or Infantry | 1 Chief Mechanic + | divisions shall contain| 1 Saddler + _Attached_ | three batteries; horse | 2 Horseshoers + | artillery battalions | 1 Mechanic + 1 Major, Med. Dept. | and heavy field | 2 Buglers + 3 Capts. or 1st | artillery gun or | 3 Cooks + Lieuts., Med. Dept. | howitzer battalions | 22 Pvts., 1st Class + 1 Chaplain | shall contain two | 71 Pvts. + | batteries. | --- + | | 125 + | | --- + | | + | | When no enlisted men + | | of the Quartermaster + | | Corps are attached for + | | such positions there + | | shall be added to each + | | battery of mountain + | | artillery: + | | + | | 1 Packmaster Sergt., + | | 1st Class + | | 1 Asst. Packmaster + | | Sergt. + | | 1 Cargador, Corpl. + | | + | | (The President may add + | | 3 Sergts., 7 Corpls., + | | 1 Horseshoer, 2 + | | Mechanics, 1 Bugler, + | | 13 Pvts. 1st Class, 37 + | | Pvts.--total, 64) + ------------------------+------------------------+----------------------- + + ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ + Headquarters Company of Regt., of | + 2 battalions | Supply (1) Regt. of 2 Batlns. + ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ + 1 Captain | 1 Captain + 1 1st Lieut. | 1 1st Lieut. + -- | -- + 2 | 2 + -- | -- + | + 1 Regtl. Sergt. Major | 2 Regtl. Supply Sergts. + 2 Batln. Sergts. Major | 1 1st Sergt. + 1 1st Sergt. | 1 Mess Sergt. + 2 Color Sergts. | 1 Corpl. + 1 Mess Sergt. | 1 Cook + 1 Supply Sergt. | 1 Horseshoer + 1 Stable Sergt. | 1 Saddler + 2 Sergts. | 2 Pvts. + 9 Corpls. | 1 Wagoner for each authorized + 1 Horseshoer | wagon of the field train. + 1 Saddler | + 1 Mechanic | When Regt. consists of 3 Batlns. + 3 Buglers | there shall be added 1 2nd Lieut. + 2 Cooks | (1), 1 Regtl. Supply Sergt., 1 + 5 Pvts. 1st Class | Pvt., 1 Wagoner for each + 15 Pvts. | additional authorized wagon of the + 1 Band leader | field train. + 1 Asst. Band leader | + 1 Sergt. Bugler | (The President may add 1 Corpl., 1 + 2 Band Sergts. | Cook, 1 Horseshoer, 1 + 4 Band Corpls. | Saddler.--total, 4) + 2 Musicians, 1st Class | + 4 Musicians, 2nd Class | Supply Co., of Regt. of 3 Batlns. + 13 Musicians, 3rd Class | may have added, the same number as + -- | given above for Regt. of 2 Batlns. + 76 | + -- | + | + When a regiment consists of three | + battalions there shall be added to | + Hdqrs. Co.: 1 Batln. Sergt. Major, | + 1 Sergt., 3 Corpls., 1 Bugler, 1 | + Pvt. 1st Class, 5 Pvts.--total, 12.| + | + When no enlisted men of the | + Quartermaster Corps are attached | + for such positions there shall be | + added to each mountain artillery | + Hdqrs. Co., | + | + 1 Packmaster Sergt., 1st Class | + 1 Asst. Packmaster, Sergt. | + 1 Cargador, Corpl.--total, 3. | + | + (The President may add 2 Sergts., | + 5 Corpls., 1 Horseshoer, 1 | + Mechanic, 1 Pvt. 1st Class, 6 | + Pvts.--total 16 to a regiment of 2 | + battalions; and to a regiment of 3 | + battalions 1 Sergt., 7 Corpls., | + 1 Horseshoer, 1 Mechanic, 2 Cooks, | + 2 Pvts. 1st Class, 7 Pvts.--total, | + 21) | + ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ + +=Transportation, orderlies, etc.= To Battery Hdqrs., 8 riding horses; +to each Battery, 24 riding horses, 88 draft horses, 1 Battery wagon, 1 +Store wagon, 8 Caissons and 4 Guns. + + + + +PART IX + +MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING + + + + +CHAPTER I + +MAP READING + + +=1859. Definition of map.= A map is a representation on paper of a +certain portion of the earth's surface. + +A military map is one that shows the things which are of military +importance, such as roads, streams, bridges, houses, depressions, and +hills. + +=1860. Map reading.= By map reading is meant the ability to get a +clear idea of the ground represented by the map,--of being able to +_visualize_ the ground so represented. + +For some unknown reason, military map reading is generally considered +a very difficult matter to master, and the beginner, starting out with +this idea, seemingly tries to find it difficult. + +However, as a matter of fact, map reading is not difficult, if one +goes about learning it in the right way,--that is, by first becoming +familiar with scales, contours, conventional signs, and other things +that go to make up map making. + +Practice is most important in acquiring ability in map reading. +Practice looking at maps and then _visualizing_ the actual country +represented on the map. + +=1861. Scales.= In order that you may be able to tell the distance +between any two points on a map, the map must be drawn to scale,--that +is, it must be so drawn that a certain distance on the map, say, one +inch, represents a certain distance on the ground, say, one mile. On +such a map, then, two inches would represent two miles on the ground; +three inches, three miles, and so on. Therefore, we may say-- + +_The scale of a map is the ratio between actual distances on the +ground and those between the same points as represented on the map._ + +=1862. Methods of representing scales.= There are three ways in which +the scale of a map may be represented: + +1st. By words and figures, as 3 inches = 1 mile; 1 inch = 200 feet. + +2d. By Representative Fraction (abbreviated R. F.), which is a +fraction whose numerator represents units of distance on the map and +whose denominator, units of distance on the ground. + +For example, R. F. = 1 inch (on map)/1 mile (on ground) which is +equivalent to R. F. = 1/63360, since 1 mile = 63,360 inches. So the +expression, "R. F. 1/63360" on a map merely means that 1 inch on the +map represents 63,360 inches (or 1 mile) on the ground. This fraction +is usually written with a numerator 1, as above, no definite unit of +inches or miles being specified in either the numerator or +denominator. In this case the expression means that one unit of +distance on the map equals as many of the same units on the ground as +are in the denominator. Thus, 1/63360 means that 1 inch on the map = +63,360 inches on the ground, 1 foot on the map = 63,360 feet on the +ground; 1 yard on the map = 63,360 yards on the ground, etc. + +3d. By Graphical Scale, that is, a drawn scale. A graphical scale is a +line drawn on the map, divided into equal parts, each part being +marked not with its actual length, but with the distance which it +represents on the ground. Thus: + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +For example, the distance from 0 to 50 represents fifty yards on the +ground; the distance from 0 to 100, one hundred yards on the ground, +etc. + +If the above scale were applied to the road running from A to B in +Fig. 2, it would show that the length of the road is 675 yards. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +=1863. Construction of Scales.= The following are the most usual +problems that arise in connection with the construction of scales: + +1. Having given the R. F. on a map, to find how many miles on the +ground are represented by one inch on the map. Let us suppose that the +R. F. is 1/21120. + + +Solution + +Now, as previously explained, 1/21120 simply means that one inch on +the map represents 21,120 inches on the ground. There are 63,360 +inches in one mile. 21,120 goes into 63,360 three times--that is to +say, 21,120 is 1/3 of 63,360, and we, therefore, see from this that +one inch on the map represents 1/3 of a mile on the ground, and +consequently it would take three inches on the map to represent one +whole mile on the ground. So, we have this general rule: To find out +how many miles one inch on the map represents on the ground, divide +the denominator of the R. F. by 63,360. + +2. Being given the R. F. to construct a graphical scale to read yards. +Let us assume that 1/21120 is the R. F. given--that is to say, one +inch on the map represents 21,120 inches on the ground, but, as there +are 36 inches in one yard, 21,120 inches = 21,120/36 yds. = 586.66 +yds.--that is, one inch on the map represents 586.66 yds. on the +ground. Now, suppose about a 6-inch scale is desired. Since one inch +on the map = 586.66 yards on the ground, 6 inches (map) = 586.66 x 6 = +3,519.96 yards (ground). In order to get as nearly a 6-inch scale as +possible to represent even hundreds of yards, let us assume 3,500 +yards to be the total number to be represented by the scale. The +question then resolves itself into this: How many inches on the map +are necessary to represent 3,500 yards on the ground. Since, as we +have seen, one inch (map) = 586.66 yards (ground), as many inches are +necessary to show 3,500 yards as 586.66 is contained in 3,500; or +3500/586.66 = 5.96 inches. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +Now lay off with a scale of equal parts the distance A-I (Figure 3) = +5.96 inches (about 5 and 9-1/2 tenths), and divided it into 7 equal +parts by the construction shown in figure, as follows: Draw a line +A-H, making any convenient angle with A-I, and lay off 7 equal +convenient lengths (A-B, B-C, C-D, etc.), so as to bring H about +opposite to I. Join H and I and draw the intermediate lines through B, +C, etc., parallel to H-I. These lines divide A-I into 7 equal parts, +each 500 yards long. The left part, called the Extension, is similarly +divided into 5 equal parts, each representing 100 yards. + +=3. To construct a scale for a map with no scale.= In this case, +measure the distance between any two definite points on the ground +represented, by pacing or otherwise, and scale off the corresponding +map distance. Then see how the distance thus measured corresponds with +the distance on the map between the two points. For example, let us +suppose that the distance on the ground between two given points is +one mile and that the distance between the corresponding points on the +map is 3/4 inch. We would, therefore, see that 3/4 inch on the map = +one mile on the ground. Hence 1/4 inch would represent 1/3 of a mile, +and 4-4, or one inch, would represent 4 x 1/3 = 4/3 = 1-1/3 miles. + +The R. F. is found as follows: + +R. F. 1 inch/(1-1/3 mile) = 1 inch/(63,360 x 1-1/3 inches) = 1/84480. + +From this a scale of yards is constructed as above (2). + +4. To construct a graphical scale from a scale expressed in unfamiliar +units. There remains one more problem, which occurs when there is a +scale on the map in words and figures, but it is expressed in +unfamiliar units, such as the meter (= 39.37 inches), strides of a man +or horse, rate of travel of column, etc. If a noncommissioned officer +should come into possession of such a map, it would be impossible for +him to have a correct idea of the distances on the map. If the scale +were in inches to miles or yards, he would estimate the distance +between any two points on the map to be so many inches and at once +know the corresponding distance on the ground in miles or yards. But +suppose the scale found on the map to be one inch = 100 strides +(ground), then estimates could not be intelligently made by one +unfamiliar with the length of the stride used. However, suppose the +stride was 60 inches long; we would then have this: Since 1 stride = +60 inches, 100 strides = 6,000 inches. But according to our +supposition, 1 inch on the map = 100 strides on the ground; hence 1 +inch on the map = 6,000 inches on the ground, and we have as our R. +F., 1 inch (map)/6,000 inches (ground) = 1/6000. A graphical scale can +now be constructed as in (2). + + +Problems in Scales + +=1864.= The following problems should be solved to become familiar +with the construction of scales: + +=Problem No. 1.= The R. F. of a map is 1/1000. Required: 1. The +distance in miles shown by one inch on the map; 2. To construct a +graphical scale of yards; also one to read miles. + +=Problem No. 2.= A map has a graphical scale on which 1.5 inches reads +500 strides. 1. What is the R. F. of the map? 2. How many miles are +represented by 1 inch? + +=Problem No. 3.= The Leavenworth map in back of this book has a +graphical scale and a measured distance of 1.25 inches reads 1,100 +yards. Required: 1. The R. F. of the map; 2. Number of miles shown by +1 inch on the map. + +=Problem No. 4.= 1. Construct a scale to read yards for a map of R. F. += 1/21120. 2. How many inches represent 1 mile? + +=1865. Scaling distances from a map.= There are four methods of +scaling distances from maps: + +1. Apply a piece of straight edged paper to the distance between any +two points, A and B, for instance, and mark the distance on the paper. +Now, apply the paper to the graphical scale, (Fig. 2, Par. 1862), and +read the number of yards on the main scale and add the number +indicated on the extension. For example: 600 + 75 = 675 yards. + +2. By taking the distance off with a pair of dividers and applying the +dividers thus set to the graphical scale, the distance is read. + +3. By use of an instrument called a map measurer, Fig. 4, set the hand +on the face to read zero, roll the small wheel over the distance; now +roll the wheel in an opposite direction along the graphical scale, +noting the number of yards passed over. Or, having rolled over the +distance, note the number of inches on the dial and multiply this by +the number of miles or other units per inch. A map measurer is +valuable for use in solving map problems in patrolling, advance guard, +outpost, etc. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +4. Apply a scale of inches to the line to be measured, and multiply +this distance by the number of miles per inch shown by the map. + +=1866. Contours.= In order to show on a map a correct representation +of ground, the depressions and elevations,--that is, the +undulations,--must be represented. This is usually done by +_contours_. + +Conversationally speaking, a _contour_ is the outline of a figure or +body, or the line or lines representing such an outline. + +In connection with maps, the word _contour_ is used in these two +senses: + +1. It is a projection on a horizontal (level) plane (that is, a map) +of the line in which a horizontal plane cuts the surface of the +ground. In other words, it is a line on a map which shows the route +one might follow on the ground and walk on the absolute level. If, for +example, you went half way up the side of a hill and, starting there, +walked entirely around the hill, neither going up any higher nor down +any lower, and you drew a line of the route you had followed, this +line would be a _contour line_ and its projection on a horizontal +plane (map) would be a _contour_. + +By imagining the surface of the ground being cut by a number of +horizontal planes _that are the same distance apart_, and then +projecting (shooting) on a horizontal plane (map) the lines so cut, +the elevations and depressions on the ground are represented on the +map. + +It is important to remember that the imaginary horizontal planes +cutting the surface of the ground must be the same distance apart. The +distance between the planes is called the _contour interval_. + +2. The word _contour_ is also used in referring to _contour +line_,--that is to say, it is used in referring to the line itself in +which a horizontal plane cuts the surface of the ground as well as in +referring to the projection of such line on a horizontal plane. + +An excellent idea of what is meant by contours and contour-lines can +be gotten from Figs. 5 and 6. Let us suppose that formerly the island +represented in Figure 5 was entirely under water and that by a sudden +disturbance the water of the lake fell until the island stood twenty +feet above the water, and that later several other sudden falls of the +water, twenty feet each time, occurred, until now the island stands +100 feet out of the lake, and at each of the twenty feet elevations a +distinct water line is left. These water lines are perfect +contour-lines measured from the surface of the lake as a reference (or +datum) plane. Figure 6 shows the contour-lines in Figure 5 projected, +or shot down, on a horizontal (level) surface. It will be observed +that on the gentle slopes, such as F-H (Fig. 5), the contours (20, 40) +are far apart. But on the steep slopes, as R-O, the contours (20, 40, +60, 80, 100) are close together. Hence, it is seen that contours far +apart on a map indicate gentle slopes, and contours close together, +steep slopes. It is also seen that the shape of the contours gives an +accurate idea of the form of the island. The contours in Fig. 6 give +an exact representation not only of the general form of the island, +the two peaks, O and B, the stream, M-N, the Saddle, M, the water shed +from F to H, and steep bluff at K, but they also give the slopes of +the ground at all points. From this we see that the slopes are +directly proportional to the nearness of the contours--that is, the +nearer the contours on a map are to one another, the steeper is the +slope, and the farther the contours on a map are from one another, the +gentler is the slope. A wide space between contours, therefore, +represents level ground. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + +The contours on maps are always numbered, the number of each showing +its height above some plane called a datum plane. Thus in Fig. 6 the +contours are numbered from 0 to 100 using the surface of the lake as +the datum plane. + +The numbering shows at once the height of any point on a given contour +and in addition shows the contour interval--in this case 20 feet. + +Generally only every fifth contour is numbered. + +The datum plane generally used in maps is mean sea level, hence the +elevations indicated would be the heights above mean sea level. + +The contours of a cone (Fig. 7) are circles of different sizes, one +within another, and the same distance apart, because the slope of a +cone is at all points the same. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +The contours of a half sphere (Fig. 8), are a series of circles, far +apart near the center (top), and near together at the outside +(bottom), showing that the slope of a hemisphere varies at all points, +being nearly flat on top and increasing in steepness toward the +bottom. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8] + +The contours of a concave (hollowed out) cone (Fig. 9) are close +together at the center (top) and far apart at the outside (bottom). + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +The following additional points about contours should be remembered: + +(a) A Water Shed or Spur, along with rain water divides, flowing away +from it on both sides, is indicated by the higher contours bulging out +toward the lower ones (F-H, Fig. 6). + +(b) A Water Course or Valley, along which rain falling on both sides +of it joins in one stream, is indicated by the lower contours curving +in toward the higher ones (M-N, Fig. 6). + +(c) The contours of different heights which unite and become a single +line, represent a vertical cliff (K, Fig. 6). + +(d) Two contours which cross each other represent an overhanging +cliff. + +(e) A closed contour without another contour in it, represents either +in elevation or a depression, depending on whether its reference +number is greater or smaller than that of the outer contour. A hilltop +is shown when the closed contour is higher than the contour next to +it; a depression is shown when the closed contour is lower than the +one next to it. + +If the student will first examine the drainage system, as shown by the +courses of the streams on the map, he can readily locate all the +valleys, as the streams must flow through valleys. Knowing the +valleys, the ridges or hills can easily be placed, even without +reference to the numbers on the contours. + +=For example:= On the Elementary Map, Woods Creek flows north and York +Creek flows south. They rise very close to each other, and the ground +between the points at which they rise must be higher ground, sloping +north on one side and south on the other, as the streams flow north +and south, respectively (see the ridge running west from Twin Hills). + +The course of Sandy Creek indicates a long valley, extending almost +the entire length of the map. Meadow Creek follows another valley, and +Deep Run another. When these streams happen to join other streams, the +valleys must open into each other. + +=1867. Map Distances (or horizontal equivalents).= The horizontal +distance between contours on a map (called map distance, or M. D.; or +horizontal equivalents or H. E.) is inversely proportional to the +slope of the ground represented--that it to say, the greater the slope +of the ground, the less is the horizontal distance between the +contours; the less the slope of the ground represented, the greater is +the horizontal distance between the contours. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + + +-----------+--------+--------------+ + | Slope | Rise | Horizontal | + | (degrees) | (feet) | Distance | + | | | (inches) | + +-----------+--------+--------------+ + | 1 deg. | 1 | 688 | + | 2 deg. | 1 | 688/2 = 344 | + | 3 deg. | 1 | 688/3 = 229 | + | 4 deg. | 1 | 688/4 = 172 | + | 5 deg. | 1 | 688/5 = 138 | + +-----------+--------+--------------+ + +It is a fact that 688 inches horizontally on a 1 degree slope gives a +vertical rise of one foot; 1376 inches, two feet, 2064 inches, three +feet, etc., from which we see that on a slope of 1 degree, 688 inches +multiplied by vertical rises of 1 foot, 2 feet, 3 feet, etc., gives us +the corresponding horizontal distance in inches. For example, if the +contour interval (Vertical Interval, V. I.) of a map is 10 feet, then +688 inches x 10 equals 6880 inches, gives the horizontal ground +distance corresponding to a rise of 10 feet on a 1 degree slope. To +reduce this horizontal ground distance to horizontal map distance, we +would, for example, proceed as follows: + +Let us assume the R. F. to be 1/15840--that is to say, 15,840 inches +on the ground equals 1 inch on the map, consequently, 6880 inches on +the ground equals 6880/15840, equals .44 inch on the map. And in the +case of 2 degrees, 3 degrees, etc., we would have: + +M. D. for 2 deg. = 6880/(15840 x 2) = .22 inch; + +M. D. for 3 deg. = 6880/(15840 x 3) = .15 inch, etc. + +From the above, we have this rule: + +To construct a scale of M. D. for a map, multiply 688 by the contour +interval (in feet) and the R. F. of the map, and divide the results by +1, 2, 3, 4, etc., and then lay off these distances as shown in Fig. +11, Par. 1867a. + + +FORMULA + +M. D. (inches) = (688 x V. I. (feet) x R. F.) / + (Degrees (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.)) + +=1867a. Scale of Map Distances (or, Scale of Slopes).= On the +Elementary Map, below the scale of miles and scale of yards, is a +scale similar to the following one: + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +The left-hand division is marked 1/2 deg.; the next division (one-half as +long) 1 deg.; the next division (one-half the length of the 1 deg. division) +2 deg., and so on. The 1/2 deg. division means that where adjacent contours on +the map are just that distance apart, the ground has a slope of 1/2 a +degree between these two contours, and slopes up toward the contour +with the higher reference number; a space between adjacent contours +equal to the 1 deg. space shown on the scale means a 1 deg. slope, and so on. + +What is a slope of 1 deg.? By a slope of 1 deg. we mean that the surface of +the ground makes an angle of 1 deg. with the horizontal (a level surface. +See Fig. 10, Par. 1867). The student should find out the slope of some +hill or street and thus get a concrete idea of what the different +degrees of slope mean. A road having a 5 deg. slope is very steep. + +By means of this scale of M. D.'s on the map, the map reader can +determine the slope of any portion of the ground represented, that is, +as steep as 1/2 deg. or steeper. Ground having a slope of less than 1/2 deg. +is practically level. + +=1868. Slopes.= Slopes are usually given in one of three ways: 1st, in +degrees; 2d, in percentages; 3d, in gradients (grades). + +1st. A one degree slope means that the angle between the horizontal +and the given line is 1 degree (1 deg.). See Fig. 10, Par. 1867. + +2d. A slope is said to be 1, 2, 3, etc., per cent, when 100 units +horizontally correspond to a rise of 1, 2, 3, etc., units vertically. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +3d. A slope is said to be one on one (1/1), two on three, (2/3), etc., +when one unit horizontal corresponds to 1 vertical; three horizontal +correspond to two vertical, etc. The numerator usually refers to the +vertical distance, and the denominator to the horizontal distance. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13] + +Degrees of slope are usually used in military matters; percentages are +often used for roads, almost always of railroads; gradients are used +of steep slopes, and usually of dimensions of trenches. + +=1869. Effect of Slope on Movements= + + 60 degrees or 7/4 inaccessible for infantry; + 45 degrees or 1/1 difficult for infantry; + 30 degrees or 4/7 inaccessible for cavalry; + 15 degrees or 1/4 inaccessible for artillery; + 5 degrees or 1/12 accessible for wagons. + +The normal system of scales prescribed for U. S. Army field sketches +is as follows: For road sketches, 3 inches = 1 mile, vertical +interval between contours (V. I.) = 20 ft.; for position sketches, 6 +inches = 1 mile, V. I. = 10 ft.; for fortification sketches, 12 inches += 1 mile, V. I. = 5 ft. On this system any given length of M. D. +corresponds to the same slope on each of the scales. For instance, .15 +inch between contours represents a 5 deg. slope on the 3-inch, 6-inch and +12-inch maps of the normal system. Figure 11, Par. 1867a, gives the +normal scale of M. D.'s for slopes up to 8 degrees. A scale of M. D.'s +is usually printed on the margin of maps, near the geographical scale. + +=1870. Meridians.= If you look along the upper left hand border of the +Elementary Map (back of Manual), you will see two arrows, as shown in +Fig. 14, pointing towards the top of the map. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14] + +They are pointing in the direction that is north on the map. The arrow +with a full barb points toward the north pole (the True North Pole) of +the earth, and is called the True Meridian. + +The arrow with but half a barb points toward what is known as the +Magnetic Pole of the earth, and is called the Magnetic Meridian. + +The Magnetic Pole is a point up in the arctic regions, near the +geographical or True North Pole, which, on account of its magnetic +qualities, attracts one end of all compass needles and causes them to +point towards it, and as it is near the True North Pole, this serves +to indicate the direction of north to a person using a compass. + +Of course, the angle which the Magnetic needle makes with the True +Meridian (called the Magnetic Declination) varies at different points +on the earth. In some places it points east of the True Meridian and +in others it points west of it. + +It is important to know this relation because maps usually show the +True Meridian and an observer is generally supplied with a magnetic +compass. Fig. 15 shows the usual type of Box Compass. It has 4 +cardinal points, N, E, S and W marked, as well as a circle graduated +in degrees from zero to 360 deg., clockwise around the circle. To read the +magnetic angle (called magnetic azimuth) of any point from the +observer's position the north point of the compass circle is pointed +toward the object and the angle indicated by the north end of the +needle is read. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +You now know from the meridians, for example, in going from York to +Oxford (see Elementary Map) that you travel north; from Boling to +Salem you must travel south; going from Salem to York requires you to +travel west; and from York to Salem you travel east. Suppose you are +in command of a patrol at York and are told to go to Salem by the most +direct line across country. You look at your map and see that Salem is +exactly east of York. Next you take out your field compass (Figure 15, +Par. 1870), raise the lid, hold the box level, allow the needle to +settle and see in what direction the north end of the needle points +(it would point toward Oxford). You then know the direction of north +from York, and you can turn your right and go due east towards Salem. + +Having once discovered the direction of north on the ground, you can +go to any point shown on your map without other assistance. If you +stand at York, facing north and refer to your map, you need no guide +to tell you that Salem lies directly to your right; Oxford straight in +front of you; Boling in a direction about halfway between the +directions of Salem and Oxford, and so on. + +=1871. Determination of positions of points on map.= If the distance, +height and direction of a point on a map are known with respect to any +other point, then the position of the first point is fully determined. + +The scale of the map enables us to determine the distance; the +contours, the height; and the time meridian, the direction. + +Thus (see map in pocket at back of book), Pope Hill (sm') is 800 yards +from Grant Hill (um') (using graphical scale), and it is 30 feet +higher than Grant Hill, since it is on contour 870 and Grant Hill is +on contour 840; Pope Hill is also due north of Grant Hill, that is, +the north and south line through Grant Hill passes through Pope Hill. +Therefore, the position of Pope Hill is fully determined with respect +to Grant Hill. + + +Orientation + +=1872.= In order that directions on the map and on the ground shall +correspond, it is necessary for the map to be oriented, that is, the +true meridian of the map must lie in the same direction as the true +meridian through the observer's position on the ground, which is only +another way of saying that the lines that run north and south on the +map must run in the same direction as the lines north and south on the +ground. Every road, stream or other feature on the map will then run +in the same direction as the road, stream or other feature itself on +the ground, and all the objects shown on the map can be quickly +identified and picked out on the ground. + + +Methods of Orienting a Map + +1st. By magnetic needle: If the map has a magnetic meridian marked on +it as is on the Leavenworth map (in pocket at back of book), place the +sighting line, a-b, of the compass (Fig. 15) on the magnetic meridian +of the map and move the map around horizontally until the north end of +the needle points toward the north of its circle, whereupon the map is +oriented. If there is a true meridian on the map, but not a magnetic +meridian, one may be constructed as follows, if the magnetic +declination is known: + +(Figure 16): Place the true meridian of the map directly under the +magnetic needle of the compass and then move the compass box until +the needle reads an angle equal to the magnetic declination. A line in +extension of the sighting line a'-b' will be the magnetic-meridian. If +the magnetic declination of the observer's position is not more than +4 deg. or 5 deg., the orientation will be given closely enough for ordinary +purposes by taking the true and magnetic meridians to be identical. + +2d. If neither the magnetic nor the true meridian is on the map, but +the observer's position on the ground is known: Move the map +horizontally until the direction of some definite point on the ground +is the same as its direction on the map; the map is then oriented. For +example, suppose you are standing on the ground at 8, q k' (Fort +Leaven worth Map), and can see the U. S. penitentiary off to the +south. Hold the map in front of you and face toward the U. S. +penitentiary, moving the map until the line joining 8 and the U. S. +penitentiary (on the map) lies in the same direction as the line +joining those two points on the ground. The map is now oriented. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16] + +Having learned to orient a map and to locate his position on the map, +one should then practice moving over the ground and at the same time +keeping his map oriented and noting each ground feature on the map as +it is passed. This practice is of the greatest value in learning to +read a map accurately and to estimate distances, directions and slopes +correctly. + + +True Meridian + +=1873.= The position of the true meridian may be found as follows +(Fig. 17): Point the hour hand of a watch toward the sun; the line +joining the pivot and the point midway between the hour hand and XII +on the dial, will point toward the south; that is to say, if the +observer stands so as to face the sun and the XII on the dial, he will +be looking south. To point the hour hand exactly at the sun, stick a +pin as at (a) Fig. 17 and bring the hour hand into the shadow. At +night, a line drawn toward the north star from the observer's position +is approximately a true meridian. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17] + +The line joining the "pointers" of the Great Bear or Dipper, prolonged +about five times its length passes nearly through the North Star, +which can be recognized by its brilliancy. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18] + +=1874. Conventional Signs.= In order that the person using a map may +be able to tell what are roads, houses, woods, etc., each of these +features are represented by particular signs, called conventional +signs. In other words, conventional signs are certain marks or symbols +shown on a map to designate physical features of the terrain. (See +diagram, Par. 1875 Plate I and II.) On the Elementary Map the +conventional signs are all labeled with the name of what they +represent. By examining this map the student can quickly learn to +distinguish the conventional signs of most of the ordinary features +shown on maps. These conventional signs are usually graphical +representations of the ground features they represent, and, therefore, +can usually be recognized without explanation. + +For example, the roads on the Elementary Map can be easily +distinguished. They are represented by parallel lines (======). The +student should be able to trace out the route of the Valley Pike, the +Chester Pike, the County Road, and the direct road from Salem to +Boling. + +Private or farm lanes, and unimproved roads are represented by broken +lines (= = = =). Such a road or lane can be seen running from the +Barton farm to the Chester Pike. Another lane runs from the Mills farm +to the same Pike. The small crossmarks on the road lines indicate +barbed wire fences; the round circles indicate smooth wire; the small, +connected ovals (as shown around the cemetery) indicate stone walls, +and the zigzag lines (as shown one mile south of Boling) represent +wooden fences. + +Near the center of the map, by the Chester Pike, is an orchard. The +small circles, regularly placed, give the idea of trees planted in +regular rows. Each circle does not indicate a tree, but the area +covered by the small circles does indicate accurately the area covered +by the orchard on the ground. + +Just southwest of Boling a large woods (Boling Woods) is shown. Other +clumps of woods, of varying extent, are indicated on the map. + +The course of Sandy Creek can be readily traced, and the arrows placed +along it, indicate the direction in which it flows. Its steep banks +are indicated by successive dashes, termed _hachures_. A few trees are +shown strung along its banks. Baker's Pond receives its water from the +little creek which rises in the small clump of timber just south of +the pond, and the hachures along the northern end represent the steep +banks of a dam. Meadow Creek flows northeast from the dam and then +northwest toward Oxford, joining Woods Creek just south of that town. +York Creek rises in the woods 1-1/4 miles north of York, and flows +south through York. It has a west branch which rises in the valleys +south of Twin Hills. + +A railroad is shown running southeast from Oxford to Salem. The +hachures, unconnected at their outer extremities, indicate the fills +or embankments over which the track runs. Notice the fills or +embankments on which the railroad runs just northwest of Salem; near +the crossing of Sandy Creek; north of Baker's Pond; and where it +approaches the outskirts of Oxford. The hachures, connected along +their outer extremities, represent the cut through which the railroad +passes. There is only one railroad cut shown on the Elementary +Map--about one-quarter of a mile northeast of Baker's Pond--where it +cuts through the northern extremity of the long range of hills, +starting just east of York. The wagon roads pass through numerous +cuts--west of Twin Hills, northern end of Sandy Ridge, southeastern +end of Long Ridge, and so on. The small T's along the railroad and +some of the wagon roads, indicate telegraph or telephone lines. + +The conventional sign for a bridge is shown where the railroad crosses +Sandy Creek on a trestle. Other bridges are shown at the points the +wagon roads cross this creek. Houses or buildings are shown in Oxford, +Salem, York and Boling. They are also shown in the case of a number of +farms represented--Barton farm, Wells farm, Mason's, Brown's, Baker's +and others. The houses shown in solid black are substantial structures +of brick or stone; the buildings indicated by rectangular outlines are +"out buildings," barns, sheds, etc. + +Plates I and II give the Conventional Signs used on military maps and +they should be thoroughly learned. + +[Illustration: Plate I] + +[Illustration: Plate II] + +In hasty sketching, in order to save time, instead of using the +regulation Conventional Signs, very often simply the outline of the +object, such as a wood, a vineyard, a lake, etc., is indicated, with +the name of the object written within the outline, thus: + +[Illustration: Fig. 19] + +Such means are used very frequently in rapid sketching, on account of +the time that they save. + +By reference to the map of Fort Leavenworth, the meaning of all its +symbols is at once evident from the names printed thereon; for +example, that of a city, woods, roads, streams, railroad, etc.; where +no Conventional Sign is used on any area, it is to be understood that +any growths thereon are not high enough to furnish any cover. As an +exercise, pick out from the map the following conventional signs: +Unimproved road, cemetery, railroad track, hedge, wire fence, orchard, +streams, lake. The numbers on the various road crossings have no +equivalent on the ground, but are placed on the maps to facilitate +description of routes, etc. Often the numbers at road crossings on +other maps denote the elevation of these points. + + +Visibility + +=1875.= The problem of visibility is based on the relations of +contours and map distances previously discussed, and includes such +matters as the determination of whether a point can or can not be seen +from another; whether a certain line of march is concealed from the +enemy; whether a particular area is seen from a given point. + +On account of the necessary inaccuracy of all maps it is impossible to +determine exactly how much ground is visible from any given +point--that is, if a correct reading of the map shows a certain point +to be just barely visible, then it would be unsafe to say positively +that on the ground this point could be seen or could not be seen. It +is, however, of great importance for one to be able to determine at a +glance, within about one contour interval, whether or not such and +such a point is visible; or whether a given road is generally visible +to a certain scout, etc. For this reason no effort is made to give an +exact mathematical solution of problems in visibility further than +would be useful in practical work with a map in the solution of map +problems in patrolling. + +In the solution of visibility problems, it is necessary that one +should thoroughly understand the meaning of profiles and their +construction. A profile is the line supposed to be cut from the +surface of the earth by an imaginary vertical (up and down) plane. +(See Fig. 21.) The representation of this line to scale on a sheet of +paper is also called a profile. Figure 21 shows a profile on the line +D--y (Figure 20) in which the horizontal scale is the same as that of +the map (Figure 20) and the vertical scale is 1 inch = 40 feet. It is +customary to draw a profile with a greater vertical than horizontal +scale in order to make the slopes on the profile appear to the eye as +they exist on the ground. Consequently, always note especially the +vertical scale in examining any profile; the horizontal scale is +usually that of the map from which the profile is taken. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20] + +[Illustration: Fig. 21] + +A profile is constructed as follows: (Fig. 21): Draw a line D'--y' +equal in length to D--y on the map. Lay off on this line from D' +distances equal to the distances of the successive contours from D on +the map. At each of these contour points erect a perpendicular equal +to the elevation of this particular contour, as shown by the vertical +scale (960, 940, 920, etc.) on the left. Join successively these +verticals by a smooth curve, which is the required profile. Cross +section paper with lines printed 1/10 inch apart horizontally and +vertically simplifies the work of construction, by avoiding the +necessity of laying off each individual distance. + +=1876. Visibility Problem.= To determine whether an observer with his +eye at D can see the bridge at XX (Figure 20). By examining the +profile it is seen that an observer, with his eye at D, looking along +the line D--XX, can see the ground as far as (a) from (a) to (b), is +hidden from view by the ridge at (a); (b) to (c) is visible; (c) to +(d) is hidden by the ridge at (c). By thus drawing the profiles, the +visibility of any point from a given point may be determined. The work +may be much shortened by drawing the profile of only the observer's +position (D) of the point in question, and of the probable obstructing +points (a) and (c). It is evidently unnecessary to construct the +profile from D to x, because the slope being concave shows that it +does not form an obstruction. + +The above method of determining visibility by means of a profile is +valuable practice for learning slopes of ground, and the forms of the +ground corresponding to different contour spacings. + + +Visibility of Areas + +=1877.= To determine the area visible from a given point the same +method is used. First mark off as invisible all areas hidden by woods, +buildings, high hills, and then test the doubtful points along lines +such as D--XX, Figure 20. With practice the noncommissioned officer +can soon decide by inspection all except the very close cases. + +This method is a rapid approximation of the solution shown in the +profile. In general it will not be practicable to determine the +visibility of a point by this method closer than to say the line of +sight pierces the ground between two adjoining contours. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +MILITARY SKETCHING + + + (While this chapter presents the principal features of military + sketching in a simple, clear manner, attention is invited to the + fact that the only way that any one who has never done any + sketching can follow properly the statements made, is to do so + with the instruments and the sketching material mentioned at hand. + In fact, the only way to learn how to sketch is to _sketch_.) + +=1878.= A military sketch is a rough map showing the features of the +ground that are of military value. + +Military sketching is the art of making such a military sketch. + +Military sketches are of three kinds: + +Position sketches, Fig. 1; + +Outpost sketches; + +Road sketches. + +All kinds of military sketches are intended to give a military +commander detailed information of the ground to be operated over, when +this is not given by the existing maps, or when there are no maps of +the area. + +The general methods of sketching are: + +(1) The location of points by intersection. + +(2) The location of points by resection. + +=1879. Location of points by intersection.= To locate a point by +intersection proceed as follows: Set up, level and orient the +sketching board (Par. 1872), at A, Fig. 1. The board is said to be +oriented when the needle is parallel to the sides of the compass +trough of the drawing board, Fig 2. (At every station the needle must +have this position, so that every line on the sketch will be parallel +to the corresponding line or direction on the ground.) Assume a point +(A) on the paper, Fig. 1 Y, in such a position that the ground to be +sketched will fall on the sheet. Lay the ruler on the board and point +it to the desired point (C), all the while keeping the edge of the +ruler on the point (A), Fig. 1 Y. Draw an indefinite line along the +edge. Now move to (B), Fig. 1 X, plotted on the map in (b), Fig. 1 X, +and having set up, leveled and oriented as at (A), Fig. 1 Y, sight +toward (C) as before. The intersection (crossing) of the two lines +locates (C) on the sketch at (c), Fig. 1 X. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +=1880. Locating points by resection.= A sketcher at an unknown point +may locate himself from two visible known points by setting up and +orienting his sketching board. He then places his alidade (ruler) so +that it points at one of the known points, keeping the edge of the +alidade touching the corresponding point on the sketch. He then draws +a ray (line) from the point toward his eye. He repeats the performance +with the other visible known point and its location on the map. The +point where the rays intersect is his location. This method is called +_resection_. However, local attractions for the compass greatly affect +this method. + +=1881. The location of points by traversing.= To locate a point by +traversing is done as follows: With the board set up, leveled and +oriented at A, Fig. 1 Y, as above, draw a line in the direction of the +desired point B, Fig. 1 X, and then move to B, counting strides, +keeping record of them with a tally register, Fig. 3, if one is +available. Set up the board at B, Fig. 1 X, and orient it by laying +the ruler along the line (a)-(b), Fig. 1 X, and moving the board until +the ruler is directed toward A, Fig. 1 Y, on the ground; or else +orient by the needle as at A. With the scale of the sketcher's strides +on the ruler, lay off the number of strides found from A, Fig. 1 Y, to +B, Fig. 1 X, and mark the point (b), Fig. 1 X. Other points, such as +C, D, etc., would be located in the same way. + +=1882. The determination of the heights of hills, shapes of the +ground, etc., by contours.= To draw in contours on a sketch, the +following steps are necessary: + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +(a) From the known or assumed elevation of a located station as A, +Fig. 1 Y, (elevation 890), the elevations of all hill tops, stream +junctures, stream sources, etc, are determined. + +(b) Having found the elevations of these critical points the contours +are put in by spacing them so as to show the slope of the ground along +each line such as (a)-(b), (a)-(c), etc., Fig. 1 Y, as these slopes +actually are on the ground. + +[Illustration: (Tally Register)--Fig. 3] + +[Illustration: (Clinometer)--Fig. 4] + +To find the elevation of any point, say C (shown on sketch as c), +proceed as follows: + +Read the vertical angle with slope board, Fig. 2, or with a +clinometer, Fig. 4. Suppose this is found to be 2 degrees; lay the +scale of M. D.[22] (ruler, Fig. 2) along (a)-(c), Fig. 1 Y, and note +the number of divisions of -2 degrees (minus 2 deg.) between (a) and (c). +Suppose there are found to be 5-1/2 divisions; then, since each +division is 10 feet, the total height of A above C is 55 feet (5-1/2 x +10). C is therefore 835 ft. elev. which is written at (c), Fig. 1 Y. +Now looking at the ground along A-C, suppose you find it to be a very +decided concave (hollowed out) slope, nearly flat at the bottom and +steep at the top. There are to be placed in this space (a)-(c), Fig. 1 +Y, contours 890, 880, 870, 860 and 850, and they would be spaced close +at the top and far apart near (c), Fig. 1 Y, to give a true idea of +the slope. + +The above is the entire principle of contouring in making sketches and +if thoroughly learned by careful repetition under different +conditions, will enable the student to soon be able to carry the +contours with the horizontal locations. + +=1883.= In all maps that are to be contoured some plane, called the +_datum plane_, must be used to which all contours are referred. This +plane is usually mean sea level and the contours are numbered from +this plane upward, all heights being elevations above mean sea level. + +In a particular locality that is to be sketched there is generally +some point the elevation of which is known. These points may be bench +marks of a survey, elevation of a railroad station above sea level, +etc. By using such points as the reference point for contours the +proper elevations above sea level will be shown. + +In case no point of known elevation is at hand the elevation of some +point will have to be assumed and the contours referred to it. + +Skill in contouring comes only with practice but by the use of +expedients a fairly accurate contoured map can be made. In contouring +an area the stream lines and ravines form a framework or skeleton on +which the contours are hung more or less like a cobweb. These lines +are accurately mapped and their slopes determined and the contours are +then sketched in. + +If the sketcher desires he may omit determining the slopes of the +stream lines and instead determine the elevations of a number of +critical points (points where the slope changes) in the area and then +draw in the contours remembering that contours bulge downward on +slopes and upward on streams lines and ravines. + +If time permits both the slopes of the stream lines and the elevation +of the critical points may be determined and the resulting sketch will +gain in accuracy. + +Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 show these methods of determining and +sketching in contours. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +[Illustration: Fig. 8] + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +=1884. Form lines.= It frequently happens that a sketch must be made +very hastily and time will not permit of contouring. In this case form +lines are used. These lines are exactly like contours except that the +elevations and forms of the hills and depressions which they represent +are estimated and the sketcher draws the form lines in to indicate the +varying forms of the ground as he sees it. + +=1885. Scales.= The Army Regulations prescribe a uniform system of +scales and contour intervals for military maps, as follows: + +Road sketches and extended positions; scale 3 inches to a mile, +vertical (or contour) interval, 20 feet. + +Position or outpost sketches; scale 6 inches to a mile, vertical (or +contour) interval, 10 feet. + +This uniform system is a great help in sketching as a given map +distance, Par. 1867a, represents the same degree of slope for both the +3 inch to the mile or the 6 inch to the mile scale. The map distances +once learned can be applied to a map of either scale and this is of +great value in sketching. + + +Construction of Working Scales + +=1886. Working scale.= A _working scale_ is a scale used in making a +map. It may be a scale for paces or strides or revolutions of a wheel. + +=1887. Length of pace.= The length of a man's pace at a natural walk +is about 30 inches, varying somewhat in different men. Each man must +determine his own length of pace by walking several times over a known +distance. In doing this be sure to take a natural pace. When you know +your length of pace you merely count your paces in going over a +distance and a simple multiplication of paces by length of pace gives +your distance in inches. + +In going up and down slopes one's pace varies. On level ground careful +pacing will give you distances correct to within 3% or less. + +The following tables give length of pace on slopes of 5 degrees to 30 +degrees, corresponding to a normal pace on a level of 30.4 inches: + + +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + |Slopes | 0 deg.| 5 deg.| 10 deg.| 15 deg.| 20 deg.| 25 deg.| 30 deg.| + +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + |Length of step ascending | 30.4| 27.6| 24.4| 22.1| 19.7| 17.8| 15.0| + |Length of step descending| 30.4| 29.2| 28.3| 27.6| 26.4| 23.6| 19.7| + +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + +For the same person, the length of step decreases as he becomes tired. +To overcome this, ascertain the length of pace when fresh and when +tired and use the first scale in the morning and the latter in the +afternoon. + +The result of the shortening of the pace due to fatigue or going over +a slope, is to make the map larger than it should be for a given +scale. This is apparent when we consider that we take more paces in +covering a given distance than we would were it on a horizontal plane +and we were taking our normal pace. + +In going up or down a slope of 3 or 4 we actually walk 5 units, but +cover only 4 in a horizontal direction. Therefore, we must make +allowance when pacing slopes. + +In counting paces count each foot as it strikes. In counting strides +count only 1 foot as it strikes. A stride is two paces. + +In practice it has been found that the scale of strides is far more +satisfactory than a scale of paces. + +=1888. How to make a scale of paces.= Having determined the length of +our pace, any one of the following three methods may be used in making +a working scale: + +_1st method._ The so-called "One thousand unit rule" method is as +follows: + +Multiply the R. F. (representative fraction) by the number of inches +in the unit of measure multiplied by 1000; the result will be the +length of line in inches necessary to show 1000 units. + +For example, let us suppose that we desire a graphic scale showing +1000 yards, the scale of the map being 3 inches equal 1 mile: + +Multiply 1/21120 (R. F.) by 36 (36 inches in 1 yard, the unit of +measure) by 1000,--that is, + +(1/21120) x 36 x 1000 = 36000/21120 = 1.7046 inches. + +Therefore, a line or graphic scale 1.7 inches in length will represent +1000 yards. + +If we desire a working scale of paces at 3 inches to the mile, and we +have determined that our pace is 31 inches long, we would have +(1/21120) x 31 x 1000 = 31000/21120 = 1.467 inches. + +We can now lay off this distance and divide it into ten equal parts, +and each will give us a 100-pace division. + +_2nd method._ Lay off 100 yards; ascertain how many of your paces are +necessary to cover this distance; multiply R. F. by 7,200,000, and +divide by the number of paces you take in going 100 yards. The result +will be the length of line in inches which will show 2000 of your +paces. + +_3rd method._ Construct a scale of convenient length, about 6 inches, +as described in Par. 1863, to read in the units you intend to measure +your distance with (your stride, pace, stride of a horse, etc.), to +the scale on which you intend to make your sketch. + +For example, suppose your stride is 66 inches long (33 inch pace) and +you wish to make a sketch on a scale of 3 inches = 1 mile. The R. F. +of this scale is 3 inches/1 mile = 3 inches/63360 inches = 1/21120. +That is 1 inch on your sketch is to represent 21120 inches on the +ground. As you intend to measure your ground distances by counting +your strides of 66 inches length, 1 inch on the sketch will represent +as many of your strides on the ground as 66 is contained into 21120 = +320 strides. For convenience in sketching you wish to make your scale +about 6 inches long. Since 1 inch represents 320 strides, 6 inches +will represent 6 x 320 = 1,920 strides. As this is an odd number, +difficult to divide into convenient subdivisions of hundreds, fifties, +etc., construct your scale to represent 2,000 strides, which will give +it a length slightly in excess of 6 inches--6.25. Lay off this length +and divide it into ten main divisions of 200 strides each, and +subdivide these into 50 stride divisions as explained in Par. 1862. + +=1889. Position sketching.= The following are the instruments used in +position sketching: + +1. Drawing board with attached compass (Fig. 2); + +2. Loose ruler, on board (Fig. 2); + +3. Rough tripod or camera tripod; + +4. Scale of M. D.'s (shown on ruler, Fig. 2); + +5. Scale of sketchers, strides or paces (at six inches to one mile), +on ruler; + +6. Clinometer (not necessary if board has slope board, Fig. 6); + +7. Scale of hundreds of yards shown on ruler; + +8. Scale of paces. + + +Methods to be used + +(1) Select a base line,--that is, a central line 1/4 to 1/2 mile long +in the area to be sketched. It should have at its ends some plainly +marked objects, such as telegraph poles, trees, corners of buildings, +etc., and from its ends, and intermediate points, a good view of the +area should be possible. The base line selected should be capable of +being measured. + +(2) Set up, level and orient the drawing board at one end of the base +(A), Fig. 1, Y, for example. Draw a meridian on the sheet parallel to +the position of the magnetic needle. Assume a point (A), Fig. 1, Y, +corresponding to the ground point (A), 890, on the sheet, in such a +position that the area to be sketched will lie on the sheet. + +(3) Sight at hilltops, stream junctures, stream heads, etc., to begin +the locations of these points by intersection, labelling each ray so +as to be able to identify it later. + +(4) Traverse to (b) and complete the locations by intersection as +previously explained. If the base line is not accurately measured, the +map will be correct within itself in all of its proportions, but its +scale will not necessarily be the scale desired. + +(5) Draw the details of the country between A and B and in the +vicinity of this line, using the conventional signs for roads, houses, +etc. + +(6) The lines from station (b), Fig. 1, X, to any of the other located +points may now be used as a new base line to carry the work over +additional area. + +(7) In case parts of the area are not visible from a base line, these +parts are located by traversing as before explained. + +(8) Having learned by several repetitions the above steps, the +sketcher will then combine contouring with his horizontal locations. + +=1890. Outpost sketching.= The same instruments are used as in +position sketching, and so are the methods the same, except that the +sketcher cannot advance beyond the outpost line, toward the supposed +position of the enemy. It is often possible to select a measurable +base line well in rear of the line of observation,--for instance, +along the line of resistance. Secondary base lines may then be taken +on or near the line of observation, from the extremities of which +additional base lines may be selected, if necessary, and points toward +the enemy's position located by intersection. Details are sketched in +as in position sketching. For obvious reasons, no traversing should be +done along the line of observation. + +=1891. Road sketching.= The following are the instruments used in road +sketching: + +1. Drawing board or sketching case; + +2. Loose ruler; + +3. Scale of strides, or paces, if made dismounted; scale of time +trotting or walking, if mounted; + +4. Scale of hundreds of yards, at three inches to 1 mile; + +5. Scale of M. D.'s; + +6. Slope board (if clinometer is not available). + + +Methods to be used + +(1) At station 1, Fig. 10, orient the board as described in par. 1872, +holding the board in the hands, in front of the body of the sketcher, +who faces toward station 2. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +(2) Important points in the vicinity, such as the railroad bridge, the +stream juncture, hilltops, are sighted for intersections, lines drawn +as shown and the sketcher traverses to station 2. + +(3) At station 2 he locates and draws in all details between station 1 +and 2, to include about 300 yards on each side of the road. + +(4) The traverse is then continued forward as described for 1 and 2. + +(5) After some practice of horizontal sketching, as just described, +the sketcher will be able to take up contouring in combination. The +methods are as described in the paragraph on contouring. + +(6) When the traverse runs off the paper as at A, Fig. 10, the +following method is followed: Reorient the board so that the road +forward will lie across the long dimensions of the paper; draw a +meridian parallel to the compass needle and assume a point on the new +sheet corresponding to the last point (A) plotted on the first sheet. + +(7) On completion of the sketch various sections will be pasted +together, so that all the meridians are parallel. + +=1892. Combined sketching.= Let us suppose that we have the rectangle +W, X, Y, Z, Fig. 11, assigned to us to map and that we have been given +four sketching parties, and that the locations and elevations of A and +B have been previously determined by triangulation and are plotted to +scale on our rectangle. + +A logical step would be to carefully plot the line a' b', and then the +lines c' c" and c" d. + +If the area is densely wooded we run "line of level" by using the +slope board or clinometer and by taking elevations at points +arbitrarily selected. Our lines will look something like this: + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +Each party will be given its rectangle with the traverses sketched in. +They will each then run similar traverses over the other two sides of +their area and then fill in. In this manner the whole work is tied up +to the original lines. + + +Another method + +The line A B, Fig. 12, is carefully plotted. Each of the four +sketching parties has two sketching groups. One group of party No. 1 +traverses line a' Y; then the other group of the party traverses the +line a" y'. The first group of party of No. 2 accompanies them. The +second group of party No. 2 traverses the line c" d, accompanied by +the first group of party No. 3; the second group of party No. 3, and +the first group of party No. 4 traverse b" z', and the second group of +party No. 4 traverses b' Z. When the first group of party No. 1 +arrives at Y, it traverses Y y'. The second group of party No. 1, +arriving at y', cuts the sheet along traverse and gives the first +group of party No. 2 the part which shows their area; and then +traverses toward Y from y'. Upon meeting the first group of party No. +1, they join forces and proceed to fill in their area. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +In the same manner areas W X a' b' are filled in. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13] + +The method described above is useful in working over country which is +densely wooded, and in which a general view cannot be obtained, for +example, in mapping jungles. + +An additional article of the sketcher's equipment is a holder for his +pencils, alidade, eraser, knife, pins, etc. This consists of a series +of small pockets sewed on to a piece of canvas about 7 inches by 4 +inches. This can be attached to the left breast of the sketcher's coat +or shirt by means of two pins. In addition to keeping all of his +implements in a handy place the holder prevents the loss of the +several articles. Nothing is so discouraging to the sketcher as to +look for his pencil, eraser, knife or even alidade and find that he +has left it several hundred yards back where he sat down last to +sketch in details. By using the holder the sketcher gets into the +habit of replacing articles after they are used and consequently +always has them with him when needed. These holders ready made can be +obtained from the Secretary, Army Service Schools at Fort Leavenworth, +Kansas. + +In sketching a good quality of paper should always be used as erasures +will be frequent. A specially prepared paper that has the appearance +of oiled paper can be obtained commercially and is excellent for +sketching in damp weather. It has considerable resistance to rain. +Sheets of celluloid prepared for sketching are invaluable in sketching +in the rain. These are a part of the equipment of the case of +sketching instruments supplied battalions in the regular army. These +sheets may be procured at most any dealers. + + +Points for Beginners to Remember + +=1893.= 1. Always keep your pencils sharpened and have an eraser +handy. No one but an expert can sketch with a dull pencil. + +2. Use hard pencils when learning to sketch--4H to 6H--and go over +your work afterwards with a softer pencil--2H. + +3. Do not try to put down on your sketch a mass of small details that +are too small to be shown on the scale at which you are sketching. For +example, if you are making a sketch on a scale of 3 inches = 1 mile, +do not try to show each house in a row of houses; simply indicate that +there is a row of houses, by putting down several distinct +conventional signs for houses in a row; nor should you try to show +every little "cut" through which the road may run. Only use about one +sign to the inch of telegraph or telephone lines, for wire fences, +etc. + +4. When first practicing sketching only plot the route over which you +walk, indicating it by a single line. When you can do this with +facility, go back over one of these plotted routes and fill in the +woods, houses, streams and the other large features. + +5. The beginner should sketch the same ground several times over--at +least three or four times. Practice alone will make perfect. + +6. Always try to compare your finished sketch with an accurate map of +the ground, if one is obtainable. Try to practice on ground of which +you can obtain a map. + +7. Make each course (the distance you go between points where the +direction of your route changes) as long as possible. + +8. Do not try to contour until you are expert at making a sketch +showing all the flat details (roads, streams, woods, houses, etc.). + +9. Never try to "sketch in" the contours until you have plotted the +stream lines or the direction of the valleys, ravines, etc. The +contours are fitted to or sketched around the drainage system; not the +drainage system to the contours. + +10. Always "size up" ground before you sketch it; that is, take a +general view of it, noticing the drainage system (the direction in +which the streams flow or ravines run), the prominent hills and +ridges, the direction the roads run, etc. + +11. Above all things, DON'T FAKE ANY PART OF YOUR MAP. + +If the man using your map happens to strike the faked portion, he +immediately condemns your whole map as incorrect. Every other part may +be highly accurate, but your whole map is discredited because the user +strikes the bad part first. You will naturally put little faith in the +man who has told you something you know to be untrue. You will always +suspect him. So it is with maps. Don't put down anything that you +don't know to be correct. If any guess work is to be done, let the man +using the map do it,--he knows that he is guessing and will be +governed accordingly, but if you do the guessing, he doesn't know +where the guessing begins and the accurate work leaves off. Don't +fudge. Your name is on the map,--_don't have any questionable work +hitched up to your name_. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[22] Sheets of working scales reading in paces, strides, minutes, etc, +at a scale of 3 and 6 inches to the mile can be obtained at little +cost from the Secretary, Army Service Schools, Fort Leavenworth, +Kansas + + + + +INDEX + +(The numbers refer to paragraphs) + + + A Par. No. + + Abatis 1176 + + About face, how executed 105 + + 1. About, 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH 229 + + About, turning by mounted officer 74 + + Abstract of clothing 905 + + Abstract record of memorandum receipts 901 + + Adjustment of fire 1428 + + Adjutant, formation of battalion 307; 308 + + Adjutant of general officer, post of 73 + + Adjutant's call 616; 693 + + Advance by crawling, etc. 261 + + ADVANCE BY RUSHES: + Commands 259 + Company as whole led by captain 260 + Position, fire 293 + When impossible for company to advance as a whole 258 + + ADVANCE GUARD: + Commander with 542 + Connecting files 584 + Machine guns 553 + Meeting engagement 542; 543 + + ADVANCE OF: + Battalion acting as part of firing line 343 + Company into an engagement 249-257 + Firing line 346 + + ADVANCING: + Improvised formations for 257 + In succession of thin lines 255; 256 + The attack 467; 471 + + Aerial mines 1200 + + Aides, post of 73 + + Aim, commands for 189 + + Aiming and sighting 1350 + + Aiming exercise 1368 + + Aiming point 1357 + + AIMING POINT: + Announced before or after range 181 + Designations, practice in repeating 201 + Once designated not changed unless ordered 182 + Use 284 + + ALIGNMENT: + Battalion, rectifying 310; 312 + Command of captains in battalion drill at command guide + right (left) 301 + Company 218 + Definition 24 + Deployed lines preserve general alignment 240 + Dressing companies in formation of battalion in line 308 + Placing left hand on hip 70 + Position of captain and platoon leaders in prolongation 218 + Position of captains in dressing companies in battalion + drill 302 + Preservation while marching 155 + Rules for guides in close order 210; 211 + Squad 154 + + AMMUNITION: + Bandoleers 573 + Combat train and major's responsibility for ammunition + in belts 572 + Destination of combat wagons when refilled 571 + Expenditure of 432; 433 + For company, husbanding and distribution 286 + Issue before deployment of battalion 269 + Issue upon deployment of battalion 331 + Men not to be sent back from firing line for ammunition 574 + Of dead and wounded 572 + Rendezvous for each brigade 570 + Replenishment of ammunition after engagement 575 + Sent forward with reinforcements 574 + Supply 360; 569-575 + Thirty rounds in right pocket section 573 + + Amusement room 879 + + Appearance of objects in firing 1396 + + Appendices, Infantry Drill Regulations 696-710 + and pp. 192 a b c d + + Arm, disengaged, position at double time 121 (eighth) + + Arm signals 92; 401 + + Arrangement of companies in battalion formation 297 + + Art of instruction on varied ground 933 + + Art of leadership 372 + + Art of war, definition 943 + + ARTILLERY: + Action of infantry in case enemy has powerful artillery 418 + Change of target by infantry warranted in case of flanking + fire against artillery 424 + Communication with firing line 402 + Covering deployment of artillery in meeting engagement 541 + Deployment of troops when exposed to hostile artillery 463 + Effect on deployed infantry usually unimportant 345 + Infantry against 597-600 + Infantry passing through deployed artillery 470 + In pursuit 494 + In withdrawal from action 546 + Part played in pursuit 491; 494 + Supported by infantry 434-437 + Use against machine guns 555 + Use in delaying action 533 + Withdrawal of attacking troops covered by artillery 489 + + ARTILLERY SUPPORTS: + Charged only with protection of artillery 605 + Detailing of supports 602 + Formation and location in action 604 + Formation on march 603 + Purpose 601 + + Asphyxiating gases 1194 + + Asphyxiation, first aid 1478 + + ASSEMBLE FROM: + Deployment + Battalion 326 + Company 248 + Squad 173 + Distances 159 + Intervals 157 + Platoon or squad columns 254 + + Assembled skirmishers not while marching to rear 173 + + ASSEMBLY: + Arm signals 92 + Call 693 + Point indicated by company flag 95 + + AS SKIRMISHERS: + Action of squad leaders at preparatory command 237 + Deployment squad 170 + Deployment in oblique direction 245 + Deployment to flank or rear 246 + From a column of twos or files 244 + From platoon or squad column 253 + Guide right (left or center) (being in column of squads) 244 + Guide right (left or center) (being in line) 243 + Rules for deployment 236-247 + To increase or decrease intervals 172 + + 'As you were' 64 + + AT EASE: + Applicable to any marching formation 233 + Extended order executed at ease 55 (b) + How executed 100 + To march 233 + With arms, executed as without arms 121 (fifth) + + Athletic apparatus, company 880 + + ATTACK: + Advancing 467-471 + Battalion in 342-356 + Company in 249-294 + Deployment for 463-466 + Enveloping 461; 462 + Feint 502 + Fire attack 258-261; 414-438 + Flank 459-462 + Fortifications 495-498 + Frontal 457; 462 + General principles 456-502 + Holding attack 499-502 + Machine guns 555 + Opening fire 417 + Pursuit 490-494 + Range 344; 426 + The charge 478-489 + Unit, the battalion 342 + + ATTENTION: + Command for 82 + Drills at are disciplinary exercises 55 (a) + Forced at first word of command note of bugle or whistle 82 + From parade rest 138 + From rest and at ease resumed at order 121 (fifth) + From route step or at ease 233 + Position of 99 + + At trail (command) 121 (sixth) + + At will fire 190 + + Automatic alarms trenches 1192 + + Auxiliary aiming points 1431 + + + B + + Back Step (backward march) 115 + + Bacon can, care of 1308 + + Balance position of left hand 122 (first) + + Ballistic qualities of rifle 1410 + + BAND: + In reviews 623; 624 + Post of 71; 72; 299 + + Bandoleers ammunition in to be used first 573 + + Barricades 1185 + + Base company in advancing by rushes 348 + + Base, definition 25 + + Base squad in deployment 236-329; 243-245 + + BATTALION: + Adjutant, formation of battalion 307; 308 + Advance close in on enemy as much as possible before + opening fire 344 + Advance when part of firing line 343 + Advance of firing line 346 + Alignment rectifying 310; 311 + Ammunition issue upon deployment 331 + Arrangement of companies in battalion 297 + Assembly from deployment 326 + Attack principles 342-356 + Attack unit, the 342 + Base company in attack 329 + Battalion a tactical unit 295 + Battalion right (left) 318 + Bayonets order to fix given by major 355; 361 + Charge, the 356 + Close on first (fourth) company 320 + Close order drill 300-326 + Column rectifying 312 + Column of companies, first company squads right (left) 315 + Column of squads first company, squads right (left) 316 + Column of squads first (fourth) company, squads right + (left) (from close column) 323 + Column of squads first (fourth) company forward (from + close line) 324 + Column right (left) 317; 319 + Combat principles 327-363 + Command for guides repeated by captain 301 + Commands repeated by captains 300 + Consolidation to provide war strength organizations 55 (d) + Counter attack 363 + Covering fire rushes made under 349 + Defense 371 + Defense opening fire 360 + Deployment + Avoidance of premature 332 + Companies and detachments taking their places 334 + Depth of 334 + Designation of base company 329 + Designation of companies 298 + Dismissing 309 + Division of battalion into support and firing line 335 + Dressing battalion 310; 311 + Dressing companies, action of guides 302 + Dressing companies, position of captains 302 + Extend on first (fourth) company 321 + File closers, post in route marches 325 + Fire, delayed opening as long as possible 344 + Fire fight, where and when to begin, indicated by major 341 + Fire to be directed against hostile infantry 345 + Firing line: + Advance 346 + Companies to be kept closed in on center 354 + Placing entire battalion or regiments into 339 + Fix bayonets, ordered by major 355 + Flanks, protection 330 + Flank units to begin rush 348 + Formations 307; 308 + Front occupied by 334-339 + Guides, action when companies are dressed 302 + Guides, command for, repeated by captains 301 + Hostile infantry target 345 + Inspection 650-654 + Intervals between battalions on firing line 465 + Largest unit executing movement at command of the commander 88 + Loading and firing 306 + Mass formations 320 + Major: + Apportions target 340 + Duties and responsibilities 295 + Gives orders to charge 356 + Gives order to fix bayonet 355; 361 + His order making disposition of battalion for combat 329 + Indicates where or when fire fight begins 341 + Locates trenches and obstacles 358 + Post during attack 352 + Post in route march 325 + Reenforces firing line (See "Battalion Commander") 359 + Movements executed as in school of the company 325 + Movements executed as in school of soldier, squad and + company 303; 304 + Movements explained for four companies 296 + Musicians repeat signals to charge 356 + Musicians repeat signal to fix bayonet 355 + Muster 655-657 + On right (left) into line 313 + Opening fire on defense 360 + Order of companies 297 + Parade 636 + Plate showing formations 300 + Positions of captains in dressing companies 302 + Post of band and other special units 299 + Post of major during attack 352 + Reconnaissance 330 + Rectifying column 312 + Reenforcing firing line, two methods 354 + Reenforcements size 353 + Repetition of command by captains 300 + Review 631-633 + Right (left) 318 + Right (left) (center) dress 310; 311 + Right front (left) into line (from column of squads + or companies) 314 + Right front into line (from close column) 322 + Rushes: + Advance made under covering fire 349 + Begin by flank company 348 + Prearranged methods prohibited 351 + Subsequent to advancing 350 + Rushing units, size 346; 347 + School of 295 + Simultaneous movements by companies or platoons 305 + Size of reenforcements 353 + Staff officers 579 + Support: + Battalion acting alone in defense 362 + None at beginning 339 + Position 337 + Size 336 + To cover withdrawal 362 + Tactical unit best suited for defense 357 + Target, apportioned by major 340 + Target, hostile infantry 345 + Trenches located by major 358 + Withdrawal covered by support 362 + + BATTALION COMMANDERS: + Duty regarding reconnaissance 412-413 + Equipped with different tone of whistle 83 + Responsibility regarding ammunition 570 + Signal to rear when ready to charge 480 + See "Major" under "Battalion" + + Battalion drill 300-363 + + Battalion inspection 650-654 + + Battalion parade 636 + + Battalion staff officers, training in patrolling and + reconnaissance 579 + + BATTLE: + Integrity of squads in 151 + Separated officers and others placing themselves under + order of nearest higher commander 390; 391 + + Battlefields, bugle signals used on 90 + + Battle order 392 + + Battle sight 26; 1352 (c) + + BAYONET: + Charge in combat 356 + Confidence in 485 + Fixing 142 + Habitually not fixed 121 (fourth) + Order to fix in combat given by major 355-361 + Position at charge 144 + Unfixing 143 + When fixed in combat 355; 361; 590 + + Beaten zone 1413 + + Bite of dog 1480 + + Bite of snake 1480 + + Blank cartridges, use 273 + + Bleeding, first aid 1481 + + Books and records, company 887-909 + + Bombs and grenades 1197-1199 + + Bombs from air craft 1202 + + Bore of rifle, care 1322-1324; 1328; 1330 + + Bridges 1111-1125 + + BRIGADE: + Commander, action in deployment 440 + Review 628; 629 + + Broken bones 1483 + + Bruises, first aid 1487 + + Brush work, field engineering 1117 + + Bugle calls, explanation 692-695 + + BUGLE SIGNALS: + Communication between firing line and rear 401 + Those used on and off battlefields 90 + + Bunks, camping 1251 + + Burning clothes 1486 + + Burns, first aid 1485 + + By platoon (squad, etc.), from right (left) rush 259 + + "By the numbers" 122 (fifth) + + By the right (left) flank, how executed 117 + + By the right (left) flank in forming skirmish line 237 + + + C + + CADENCE OF: + Manual of arms 122 (fourth) + Marching 108 + + CALLS: + Alarm 694 + Formation 693 + Service 695 + Warning 692 + + CAMPS: + Camping on fordable stream 1237 + Desirable sites 1231 + Form and dimensions of camps 1233 + Making camp 1234 + Making tent poles and pegs fast in loose soil 1239 + Parade ground 1236 + Retreat in camp 1235 + Sanitation. See "Camp Sanitation" + Selection of site 1230 + Trees in camp 1240 + Undesirable sites 1232 + Windstorms 1238 + See "Camp Sanitation" + + CAMP SANITATION: + Avoiding old camp sites 1249 + Bunks 1251 + Camp expedients 1242 + Canteen, care 1311 + Changing camp site 1250 + Definition 1241 + Drainage 1248 + Incinerators 1247 + Kitchens 1245 + Kitchen pits 1246 + Latrines 1243 + Rules of sanitation 1254 + Urinal tubs 1244 + Water 1253 + Wood 1252 + Your camp, your home 1255 + + CAPTAIN: + Directs the fire 285; 286 + Duties, etc. 868; 871 + Indicates point on which base squad marches in deployment 238 + Leads depleted company as platoon 209 + Leads company as whole in rushes 260 + Position at alignment 218; 302 + Post during firings 269; 306 + Responsible for instruction 202 + + CARE OF: + Clothing 1277 + Equipment 1276 + Feet 1229 + Rifle 1321 + Shoes 1292 + + Cartridges not to be carried in piece 121 (first) + + Cased colors, defined 659 + + Cat and mouse contest 1089 + + CAVALRY: + Infantry against 591-596 + In pursuit 494 + In withdrawal from action 546 + Patrols 411 + + CEASE FIRING: + Bugle signal for 90 + How executed 194 + Krag rifle 705 + + Center company, defined 298 + + Center, definition 27 + + Center of impact 1412 + + CEREMONIES: + Battalion parade 636 + Battalion review 631 + Escorts of-- + Funeral 640-645 + Honor 639 + The Color 637-639 + Formation of battalion 308 + General rules 614-616 + Mounted enlisted men formed into detachment 76 + Parades, general rules 634; 635 + Post of dismounted noncommissioned staff officers 77 + Reviews, general rules 617-630 + + Ceremonies and drills at attention teach precision, etc. 55 (a) + + CHALLENGING ON: + Guard 1746 + Outpost 1103 + + Chancroid 1466 + + Change elevation; signal for 92 + + CHANGE OF DIRECTION: + Battalion 317-319 + Company 219; 223; 224 + Partial 67 + Squad 164; 165 + + Change step, how executed 119 + + CHARGE, THE: + Additional force for pursuit 483 + Avoiding too dense a mass 481 + Battalion commanders signal commanders of line when + ready to charge 480 + Bayonet, confidence in ability to use 485 + Charging without authority from rear 484 + Counter attack, preparations to meet 487 + Fire superiority, what it accomplishes 478 + Line to be strengthened by prolongations 482 + Not to be made without sufficient troops 481 + Premature charges to be avoided 484 + Psychological moment for charge determined by tactical + instinct 478 + Pursuing fire 486 + Pursuing troops 487 + Pursuit, disordered units not to participate in 486 + Reorganization of charging line 487 + Reserves give impetus to charge 481 + Steps to be taken in case of temporary set back 488 + Steps to be taken if attack is abandoned 489 + Strength of charging line 449 + To be made simultaneously 480 + To be made with approval of commander of attacking line 480 + When and distance over which charge should be made 479 + Without fire preparation 497 + + Charge bayonet 144 + + Charges, preferring 882 + + Cheerfulness, factor in training 930 + + Cheveaux de frise 1179; 1189 + + Chiggers 1488 + + Choking, first aid 1489 + + "Chop-chop" signal 863 + + Clap 1466 + + Classes of firing 278-280 + + Clearness in instruction 922 + + CLIP FIRE: + How executed 192 + Krag rifle 704 + Use 280 + + Clock system of target designation 1446; 1447 + + Clock system of wind designation 1391 + + Close on first (fourth) company 320 + + CLOSE ORDER: + Advantage of formation 539 + Battalion 300; 326 + Company 210 + Double rank, habitual formation 70 + Firings in 269 + Necessity for 379 + + Close packs 648 + + Close range 275 + + Close ranks 648 + + Cloth equipment, care 1301 + + Clothing, care of 1277 + + Cohesion and order in combat 376 + + Cold, effect on shooting 1397 + + COLOR: + Escort of 637; 638 + Manual of 670 + Receiving 667-669 + Regimental saluting 622 + Saluting in reviews 618 + With reserve in battle 665 + See "The Color" + + COLOR COMPANY: + Defined 663 + Receiving the colors 668 + + COLOR GUARD: + Carrying of color 661 + Composition 661 + Escorting color to office or quarters of colonel 670 + Formation and marching 662 + In battle joins reserve 665 + Loadings and firings 666 + Manual of the color 670 + Manual of arms 660 + Movements executed 666 + Post in various formations 664 + Receiving the color 667-669 + Remains with color company 663 + + Colors and standards 1575 + + Column, definition 28 + + Column half right (left) 67 + + Columns of companies to form successively to right or left 315 + + Column of squads, first (fourth) company forward (from + close line) 324 + + Column of squads, first (fourth) company, squads right (from + close column) 323 + + Column of squads, first company, squads right (left) 316 + + Column of squads, habitual column of route 233; 276 + + Column of subdivisions, full distance defined 69 + + Column, rectifying (battalion) 312 + + Column, right (left) (battalion) 317; 319 + + Column, right (company) 224 + + COMBAT EXERCISES: + Definition 55 (d) + Effective method of conducting 371 + Explained 1408 + To be conducted under assumed tactical situations 370 + To be followed by brief drill at attention 55 (d) + + Combat, modern, demands upon infantry 365 + + Combats offering no chance of valuable results to be avoided 374 + + Combat patrols to protect flanks of company acting alone 268 + + Combat practice 1404 + + COMBAT PRINCIPLES: + Battalion 327 + Summary 550 + + Combat reconnaissance 403 + + Combat tactics, general 364 + + Combined sights 1430 + + Combined sketching 1892 + + Commander of the guard 1603 + + Commanding officer accountable for training 51 + + Commanding officer, guard duty 1591 + + COMMANDS: + Battalion and higher commanders repeat commands of + superiors 88 + Battalion largest unit executing movement at command of + its commander 88 + Definition 86 + Facing troops and avoiding indifference when giving + commands 89 + For guides, repeated by captains at battalion drill 301 + How given 86; 89 + Loading and firing 179 + Of executions 87 + Preparatory 57; 87 + Repetition by: + Battalion and higher commanders 88 + Captains at battalion drill 300 + Leaders of subdivisions when necessary 83 + Platoon leaders and platoon drill 214 + Use in battalion combat 328 + When used 80 + + Commander's post in fight 383 + + Commence firing, bugle signal for 90 + + Common tents 688; 690 + + Communication between firing line and reserve 96 + + Communicating trenches 1157 + + Communication, how maintained, etc. 398-402 + + Communication in fire control and direction 1447 (b) + + COMPANY: + Abstract of clothing 905 + Abstract record of memorandum receipts 901 + Acting alone 267; 268 + Arrangement in battalion formation 297; 614 + Arrangement of men according to height 203 + Athletic apparatus 880 + Base 329-348 + Books and records 887-909 + Captain, duties etc. 868; 871 + Center 298 + Certain movements executed by company and platoons as + prescribed in school of the Soldier and the squad 208 + Close order drill 210 + Column right (being in column of squads) 224 + Companies to be consolidated to provide war strength + organizations 55 (a) + Company attention, from route step or at ease 233 + Company fund book 892 + Company return 908 + Company musicians carry company flags 402 + Company right 219 + Complete equipment carried into action 382 + Completion of task, rejoining command after 390 + Contentment and harmony 877 + Correspondence book 893 + Delinquency record 895 + Depleted company led as platoon 209 + Deployment as skirmishers 241; 243; 244 + Deployment in oblique direction 245 + Descriptive card of animals 898 + Descriptive list 897 + Designation in battalion formation 297 + Devolution of work and responsibility 869 + Division into platoons 204 + Division into squads 205 + Document file 894 + Dressing 218 + Drill 202 + Duty roster 890 + Establishing outpost 1080 + Extended order drill 236 + Files of orders 891 + First Sergeant duties 873 + First sergeant's report when company is formed 215 + Flags 94; 95; 401 + Formations in single rank 216 + Formed in double rank 203 + Forms of company punishment 883 + Half right 67; 219 + Inspection 646-649 + Inspections, object of 88 + Instruction. See "Training and instruction" + In support 262-266 + Largest unit executing extended order 55 (b); 328 + Library and amusement room 879 + Lieutenants, duties, etc. 870; 871 + Lieutenants taking post when company is formed 215 + Memorandum receipts 900 + Mess 878 + Morning report 888 + Muster 655-657 + Noncommissioned officers 874 + Noncommissioned officers confining enlisted men 875 + Paperwork 887 + Platoons, assignment 206 + Platoons, designation 205 + Property responsibility 886; 896 + Protection against surprise 268 + Punishment 882 + Ration return 909 + Record of rifles 902 + Record of size of clothing 906 + Reduction and resignation of noncommissioned officers 876 + Retained copies of rolls, etc. 899 + Rewards and privileges 881 + Right 219 + School of 210-294 + Sick report 889 + Squads designation 205 + Statement of clothing charged to enlisted men 904 + Summary Court records 903 + Target records 907 + To be kept closed in on center on firing line 354 + To dismiss 217 + To form 215-216 + Training. See "Training and instruction" + Treatment of soldiers 872 + Trials by court martial 882 + Withholding privileges 884 + + Compass, points of 1084 + + Complaints to captain 1528 + + COMPLICATED MANEUVERS: + Impracticable 365 + To be avoided 375 + + Compliments from guards 1782 + + Compliments not paid on marches 1227 + + Composition of infantry and other units 1858 + + Comradeship, factor in training 931 + + Concealment and dodging, training in 1087 + + Condiment can, care 1309 + + Cone of fire or dispersion 1411 + + Conical wall tent 689 + + Connecting Files at night 584 + + Consolidation of organizations to provide war strength 55 (d) + + Contentment and harmony in company 877 + + Contentment, factor in training 931 + + Contours 1882; 1866 + + Cooking individual 1256 + + Contract 249; 403-413 + + Conventional signs 1874 + + Cooeperation between frontal and enveloping attacks 462 + + Cooeperation of subordinates 387 + + Corduroying 1116 + + Corporal is squad leader 150 + + Corporal of the Guard 1666 + + Correction of errors, staying of execution of movements for 63-64 + + Correspondence book 893 + + COUNTER ATTACK: + Battalion 363 + General principles 525-530 + Preparations 487 + + Countermining 1211 + + Countersigns and paroles 1769 + + Counting, indicating cadence 108 + + Counting off 153; 203 + + Courage 927 + + COVER: + Skirmishers take advantage of, on halting 240 + Use 195-199; 420 + Training in use of 939 + + Covering fire, rushes made under 349 + + Cover trenches 1155 + + Crawling, advance of firing line 261 + + Cup, care 1310 + + "Cut off" habitually turned off 218 (third) + + Cuts, first aid, 1490 + + Courtesy. See "Military courtesy" + + + D + + Daily sick report 889 + + Datum plane 1883 + + Decreasing intervals 247 + + DEFENSE: + Action when target disappears 294 + Active defense 527 + Battalion on 357 + Counter attack: + Communicating and cover trenches head cover, etc., + construction 505 + Cover, utilization 504 + Importance of counter-attack 527 + Manner of making 529 + Minor 530 + Post of troops 528 + Delaying action: + Important considerations 531 + Purposes of support and reserve 532 + Thin firing line to be used 532 + Value of artillery 533 + Deployment: + Advance posts and other dispersion to be avoided 520 + Assignment of front to units 516 + Battalions to be kept intact 518 + Dead space to be covered by adjoining section or + machine guns 519 + Density 509; 510 + Division of positions into sections 517 + Fire alone unable to stop attack; use of bayonet 522 + Night attack, steps to be taken if expected 523 + Position not to be fully occupied until infantry + attack begins 521 + Reserve, detaching part of, to protect opposite flank 515 + Reserve posts 513; 514 + Sections, divisions of positions into 517 + Size of units occupying sections 518 + Short range fire and bayonet in night attack 524 + Strength in rear to be increased when change from + defensive to offensive is contemplated 511 + Supports, post and cover 512 + Dummy trenches 506 + Field works: + Construction 504 + Location, extent, garrison, etc. 507 + Machine guns 556; 566 + Obstacles, construction 504 + Opening fire 360; 418 + Passive 525 + Position and intrenchments 503-508 + Requisites of defensive position 503 + Trenches, outlining trace in combat exercises 508 + + Defilade 1420 + + Deflection 1384 + + Deflection and elevation connection drills 1383 + + Deliberate intrenchments 1147 + + Delinquency record 895 + + Delivery of messages 958; 1530 + + Density of firing line 446-453; 532 + + Deploy, definition 29 + + Deployed line, faces to front and takes advantage of + cover on halting 239 + + Deployed lines, alignment 239 + + Deployed troops, leading difficult 379 + + DEPLOYMENT: + Action of brigade and regimental commanders in deployment + of division 440 + As skirmishes 65; 92; 170; 239-246 + Battalion, depth of 334 + Battalions furnish firing lines and support 455 + Company, rules for 236 + Companies and detachments taking their places 334 + Dense, well directed and controlled fire gives fire + superiority 446 + Density of charging line 449 + Density of one man per yard 447 + Density of whole deployment varies with size of command 451 + Division of battle line into battle districts 452 + Each commander to guard his command against surprise 442 + Extent of front occupied by unit depends upon security + of flanks 453 + For attack: + Distance for hostile position at which deployment is made 463 + Each unit to deploy on its own direction line 463 + Foreground to be cleared of hostile detachments before + deployment 463 + Intervals between battalions 465 + Moving well forward and deploying at night 464 + Post of reserve 466 + Reserve charged with flank protection 466 + Formations of troops before and during 439 + In defense. See "Deployment" under "Defense" + In oblique direction 245 + Length of firing line employed by whole force 449 + Mechanism taught by extended order 55 (b) + Occupation of only sections of long lines 447 + Of squads when company is deployed 239 + On wrong lines, avoided by reconnaissance 403 + Orders for 392 + Personal reconnaissance before deployment 441 + Premature to be avoided 332; 443 + Rectification of deployments in wrong direction 444 + Reserves, how employed 455 + Reserves furnished by units larger than battalion 441 + Rules for 236-242 + Side by side of regiments, battalions and companies 454 + Strength of support and reserves 449; 450 + Supports furnished by battalion 455 + To flank or rear 246 + Troops deployed vary from 1 to 10 men per yard 450 + Use of thin firing lines 448 + When made 463 + + Deportment, military 1523 + + Depth, definition 30 + + Descriptive card of animals 898 + + Descriptive list 897 + + DESIGNATION OF: + Companies in battalion formation 298 + Squads and platoons 205 + + Designation of targets 1445-1147 a + + Designation of winds 1391 + + Details and roster of guards 1585 + + Details to be left to subordinates 384; 385 + + Determination, factor in warfare 924 + + Deviation from orders 388 + + Devolution of work and responsibility 869 + + Diarrhoea 1491 + + Diminish intervals 172 + + Directions given subordinates through immediate superiors 397 + + DISCIPLINE: + Definition 910 + General principles 916 + Importance 912 + Methods of attaining good discipline 911; 914 + Punishment 915 + Sound system 913 + + Disciplinary exercises--drills at attention and ceremonies 55 a + + Discipline and training necessary 379 + + Discipline, fire 291; 430; 431 + + Dislocations, first aid 1492 + + DISMISSING: + Battalion 309 + Company 217 + Squad 147 + + Dismounted noncommissioned staff officers, posts 77; 78 + + Dismounting, before addressing dismounted superior 1558 + + Dismounting before saluting dismounted senior 75 + + DISTANCE: + Between firing line and support 338 + Between front and rear rank 153 + Between units in column of subdivisions 69 + Definition 31 + Plates showing distances: + Battalion near, 300 + Company near, 207 + Taken by file closers in "take distance" and + "take interval" 213 + + DISTANCE TAKING: + Action of guides 213 + How executed 158 + + Distant range 275 + + Distance to target, determination of 276 + + Distribution of fire 1441-1444 + + Distribution of fire and target 282; 283; 427 + + Division of battalion into firing line and support 335 + + Document file 894 + + Dog's bite 1480 + + Do something 386 + + DOUBLE RANK: + Company to be formed in 203 + Habitual close order formation 70 + Kneeling and lying down in 178 + Rear rank loading and firing 179 + + Double sleeping bag 686 + + DOUBLE TIME: + Adding preparatory command 109 + Any movement executed in, unless excepted 60 + Cadence 108 + Command for 111 + Command for precedes command of execution 60 + Dropping hands by side upon halting 116 + Half step, length 113 + In successive movements, base unit marches in quick time 61 + Position of disengaged hand 111; 121 + To hasten movements begun in quick time 177 + To the rear 118 + + Drainage, camping, 1248 + + Drainage of trenches 1167 + + Draw saber 671 + + Dress, appearance 1523 + + DRESSING: + Battalion 310; 311 + Company 218 + Companies, position of captain 218; 302 + Deployed lines 240 + Drill at attention after combat exercises 55 (d) + Squad (right or left) 154 + Verify both ranks 154 + + DRILL: + Battalion 295-363 + Company 202-294 + Squad 148-202 + + Drills at attention and ceremonies designed to teach + precision, etc. 55 (a) + + Drill regulations furnished as guide, providing principles + for training, etc. 53 + + Drill regulations, interpretation of 53 + + Drowning 1493 + + Drum major at battalion inspection 650 + + Dugouts, trenches 1156 + + Dummy trenches 1163 + + Duties of infantry, many and difficult 366 + + Duties of officers and noncommissioned officers in battle 389 + + Duty roster 890 + + + E + + Earache 1494 + + Ear, foreign body in 1495 + + Echelon definition 49 + + Effect of fire 1410 + + Effect of heat, light, etc. 1397-1403 + + Effectiveness of fire 1416 + + Effective range 275 + + Efficiency dependent upon thorough and uniform training 51 + + Elastic formations essential to correct battle training 52 + + Electric shock 1496 + + Element, definition 32 + + Elevation, change of 92 + + Encroachment upon functions of subordinates 396 + + Endurance, limit of, exacted 380 + + Enemy--imaginary outlined and represented 56; 370 + + Entrenching at night 1099 + + ENVELOPING ATTACK: + Advantages 459; 461 + Resulting in local frontal attack 461 + To be started at considerable distance from enemy 462 + + Envelopment of both flanks, when allowable 460 + + EQUIPMENT: + Carried into action 382 + Display for inspection 682 + + EQUIPMENT, CARE OF: + Cloth equipment: + General instructions 1301 + Intrenching tools 1312 + Shelter tent 1303 + Washing 1302 + Clothing: + Grease spots 1285; 1289 + Ink stains 1287 + Leggins 1280 + Paint spots 1290 + Rust 1286 + Stains 1284 + Importance 1276 + Leather equipment: + Cleaning 1316 + Cleaning materials 1315 + New equipment 1318 + Oiling 1317; 1319 + Points to be remembered 1320 + Mess outfit: + Bacon can 1308 + Canteen 1311 + Condiment can 1309 + Cup 1310 + Fork 1305 + Knife 1304 + Meat can 1307 + Spoon 1306 + Rifle 1321 + Shoes: + Care 1292 + Polishing 1295; 1299; 1300 + Repairing 1294 + Selection 1293 + Wet shoes 1297 + + Equipment. See "Care and preservation" + + Errors staying execution of movement, for correction of 63; 64 + + ESCORTS OF: + Funeral 640-645 + Honor 639 + The Color 637; 638 + + Establishing outpost by company 1080 + + Estimate of situation 950 + + Estimating distance 1393-1395 + + Estimating distances, training in 201 + + Estimators of ranges 278 + + Exercises in fire control and direction 1450 + + EXTENDED ORDER: + Certain movements executed as in close order 241 + Company 236-268 + Company largest unit executing 55 (b) + Company largest unit to execute movements by prescribed + commands 328 + Exercises to be in nature of combat exercise 370 + Purpose 55 (b) + Squad 170 + To be executed at ease 55 (b) + + Extended on first (fourth) company 321 + + Eye, foreign body in 1497 + + Eyes left, when post of reviewing officer is on left of + column 626 + + EYES RIGHT: + How executed 103 + Battalion review 631; 632 + + Eyesight in scouting 1083 + + Eyes, use of 200 + + + F + + Facings 104 + + Facing about to give commands, staff stands fast 74 + + Facing about, mounted officer turns to left 74 + + Facing troops when giving commands 89 + + Fainting, first aid 1498 + + "Fall in" 100; 153 + + "Fall in" executed at order 121 (fifth) + + "Fall out" 100 + + "Fall out" executed as without arms 121 (fifth) + + Falling in with hands on hips 70 + + Fascines 1117; 1118 + + Faster, command for increasing rate of fire 191 + + Fear 926 + + Feet, care of 1229 + + Feint attacks 502 + + Field efficiency of organization 51 + + FIELD ENGINEERING: + Bridges: + Double lock 1114 + Roadway of spar 1115 + Single lock 1113 + Spar 1112 + Brush work 1117 + Corduroying 1116 + Fascines 1117; 1118 + Gabions 1121-1123 + Hurdles 1119 + Knots: + Bowline 1130 + Clove hitch 1128 + Eye splice 1135 + Long splice 1134 + Sheep shank 1132 + Short splice 1133 + Square or reef 1126 + Timber hitch 1129 + Two-half hitches 1127 + Lashings 1136-1139 + Revetments 1124; 1125 + + Field exercises, definition 55 (c); 56 + + FIELD FORTIFICATIONS: + Classification 1142 + Communicating trenches 1157 + Concealment of trenches 1162 + Cover trenches 1155 + Deliberate intrenchments 1147 + Drainage 1167 + Dugouts 1156 + Dummy trenches 1163 + Example of trench system 1160 + Fire trenches 1148 + Hasty intrenchments 1143 + Head cover 1152 + Illumination of foreground 1170 + Kneeling trench 1145 + Latrines 1169 + Length of trench 1164 + Location of trenches 1161 + Lookouts 1158 + Loopholes and notches 1153 + Lying trench 1144 + Notches and loopholes 1153 + Object 1140 + Overhead cover 1154 + Parados 1151 + Preparation of foreground 1165 + Revetments 1166 + Siege works 1172 + Sortie steps 1150 + Standing trench 1146 + Supporting points 1159 + Telephones 1171 + Traverses 1149 + Trench recesses 1150 + Water supply 1168 + + Field officers, habitually mounted 73 + + File definition 33 + + FILE CLOSER: + Darting through column of squads 221 + Execution of loadings and manual of arms 212 + On the right (left) flank 211 + Post in column of squads 221 + Post in route marches 325 + To correct mistakes 71 + + Files, advancing by 255 + + Files of orders, company 891 + + Fill magazine 702 + + Finding way in strange country 1084 + + Fine sight 1353 (b) + + Finger system of target designation 1447 (a) + + FIRE: + By volley 189; 278 + Classes of 179; 194; 278-280 + Clip 192; 280 + Commands for 179; 189; 194 + Delay opening as long as possible 344 + In deployment controlled by platoon leaders 269 + Long range, when effective 416 + Observation of 428; 429 + Opening in attack 344; 417 + Opening in defense 417 + Purpose and nature 414; 415 + Rate of 191; 292 + To be directed against hostile infantry 345 + + Fire action 269 + + FIRE ATTACK: + Fire superiority sought at first firing position and to + be maintained until charging point is reached 472 + Futility of advancing without fire superiority 473 + General principles 258; 472 + Intrenching 475 + Retiring under fire suicidal 475 + Signs that fire superiority has been gained 474 + Size of rushing units 472 + Supports and reserves occupying trenches vacated by + firing line to improve same 476 + + FIRE AT WILL: + How executed 190 + Use 279 + + Fire control, company 287-290 + + Fire direction, company 285; 286 + + FIRE CONTROL AND DIRECTION: + General considerations 416 + Signals 431 + + Fire direction and control 1434-1440 + + Fire discipline 291; 430; 431 + + Fire discipline, definition 1406 + + Fire distribution 427; 1441-1444 + + Fire fight, where and when to begin, indicated by major 341 + + FIRE OF POSITION: + Use of machine guns 555 + When used 438 + + FIRE SUPERIORITY: + Futility of advancing without 473 + Purpose and nature 414 + Signs that it has been gained 474 + Sought at first firing position 472 + To be maintained until charging point is reached 472 + What it accomplishes 478 + + Fire trenches 1148 + + Fire unit, platoon 287 + + Firing at night 1101 + + Firing at stationary targets 1428 + + Firing by sentries at night 1104 + + Firing, classes of 278-280 + + FIRING LINE: + Advance 258-261; 346 + Advance as far as possible before opening fire 467 + Advanced elements not to open fire on main position 471 + Companies to be kept closed in on center 354 + Control by signals 55 (d) + Controlled by commander when whole line has been absorbed 383 + Density 446-453 + Furnished by battalion 455 + Placing entire battalion or regiment into 339 + Premature formation to be avoided 443 + Reenforcement by major 359 + To advance as far as possible before opening fire 467 + + Firing line and support, division of battalion 335 + + Firings in close order 269 + + Firings and loadings, see "Loadings and firings" + + First aid packet 1521 + + First aid to sick and injured 1478 + + FIRST SERGEANT: + Accompanies captain when company is deployed 207 + Assists in fire control in case of depleted company 209 + Duties 873 + Never assigned as guide 207 + Post 207 + Report when company is formed 215 + + Fish hook, first aid 1499 + + Fits, first aid 1500 + + Fix bayonets, how executed 142 + + Fix bayonet order, given by major 355 + + Fixed forms covering all cases impossible 369 + + FIXED PIVOT, TURN ON: + Company 219-221 + Squad 165 + When used 66 + + FLAG: + Company signal carried by company musicians (now buglers) 401 + Defined 1575 + Of general officers, post of 73; 618 + Respect paid to 1574; 1575 + Signals 94; 400; 401 + Signaling to artillery 437 + To outline enemy 371 + + Flag-stealing contest 1090 + + FLANK: + By the right, how executed 117 + Definition 35; 54 + Deployment as skirmishers 246 + Movements executed towards either, explained toward but + one flank 58 + Unit to begin rush 348 + + FLOURISHES AT: + Funeral 641 + Review 624 + + Fly, disease carrier 1460 + + Folding tents 691 + + FOLLOW ME: + In forming skirmish line 237 + In rushes 259 + To follow corporal 169 + + Footmarks, following 1088 + + Forced marches 1225 + + Fork, care 1305 + + FORM: + Column of companies 315 + Column of squads 316 + For shelter tents 181 + + Formation calls 693 + + Formation definition 36 + + FORMATIONS FOR: + Advancing improvised 257 + Support 262 + + FORMATION OF: + Battalion 307; 308 + Company 215 + Squad 153 + + Form lines 1884 + + Forms of speech 1526 + + Fortifications, attack 495-498 + + FORWARD MARCH: + From half step, halt and mark time 113 + From halt 110 + From oblique 163 + Pieces brought to right shoulder from order, at + command 121 (sixth) + + Fractures 1483 + + Fraise 1178 + + Freezing, first aid 1502 + + Front, definition 37 + + Front, extent of in deployment 446-453 + + FRONT OF: + Deployed battalion 334-337 + Deployed squad 171 + + Frontal attacks, when they may be successful 457 + + FRONT INTO LINE: + Battalion 314 + Company 231 + + Frost-bite, first aid 1503 + + Full distance, definition 69 + + Full sight 1353 (c) + + Full step, length and cadence 108 + + Funeral escort 640-645 + + + G + + Gabions 1121-1123 + + Gallery practice 1385 + + Gangrene 1482 + + Gases, asphyxiating 1194 + + GENERAL COMMON SENSE PRINCIPLES OF APPLIED MINOR TACTICS: + Art of war, definition 943 + Estimating the situation 950 + Maneuvers 947; 949 + Map problems 945; 949 + Mission, defined 950 + Noncommissioned officers, responsibilities in time of war 944 + Orders, tactical, preparation 952 + Terrain exercises 945; 949 + War game 946; 949 + + General officers habitually mounted 73 + + General plan to be furthered by subordinates 386 + + GENERAL RULES FOR: + Ceremonies 614-616 + Drills and formations 57-79 + Parades 634; 635 + Reviews 617-630 + + Gentle reverse slopes 1427 + + Germs 1452 + + Gonorrhoea 1466 + + Grazing fire 1423 + + Grease spots, how removed 1285; 1289 + + Grenades and bombs 1197-1199 + + Ground, use of 420; 421 + + GUARD DUTY: + Challenging 1746 + Classification of guards 1584 + Commander of the guard 1603 + Commanding officer 1591 + Compliments from guard 1782 + Corporal of the guard 1666 + Countersigns and paroles 1769 + Details and roster 1585 + Duty of sentinels 1578 + General rules concerning guard duty 1792 + Guarding prisoners 1797 + Guard mounting: + Formal 1840 + Informal 1847 + Guard patrols 1778 + Importance 1576 + Musicians of the guard 1700 + Officer of the day 1593 + Orderlies and color sentinels 1702 + Orders for sentinels 1716 + Paroles and countersigns 1769 + Privates of the guard 1715 + Relieving old guard 1850 + Respect for sentinels 1577 + Reveille and retreat gun 1837 + Sentinels of troops stable guard 1825 + Sentinels' orders 1716 + Sergeant of the guard 1642 + Special orders for sentinels at post of guard 1759 + Stable guards 1806 + Troop stable guards 1808 + Watchmen 1781 + + GUARD MOUNTING: + Formal 1840 + Informal 1847 + + Guard patrols 1778 + + Guarding prisoners 1797 + + GUIDE: + Announcing before executing platoons right (left) 220 + Definition 38 + In deployment 236 + In successive formations 65 + Right (left) 155 + What it is, unless otherwise announced 65 + When given in connection with movement, follows command of + execution 65 + + GUIDES: + Alignment of battalion 311 + Assignment to platoons 206 + Battalion formed in line 308 + Battalion marching in column of companies or platoons 325 + Battalion parade 636 + Close on first (fourth) company 320 + Column of companies, first company, squads right 315 + Column right (left) battalion 317 + Dressing company when battalion is in line 302 + Duties in battle 389 + Duties in fire fight 289 + Equipped with whistles 83 + Execution of loading and manual of arms as file closers 212 + First Sergeant never assigned as 207 + Guide 65 + Guide of leading subdivision charged with step and + direction in column of subdivisions 69 + In successive formation guide is toward base 65 + Manual of arms, execution by file closers 212 + Partial changes of direction 67 + Platoon guides 210 + Platoon guides accompany leader when platoon is deployed 206 + Positions shown in plates of company and battalion 166 + Post in column of squads 211 + Post of file closers in route marches 325 + Rectifying column (battalion) 313 + Repeating signals 83 + Taking intervals and distances 213 + Taking place in front rank at command about face 229 + To change guides to opposite flank 211 + + Guide center designate left guide of center company 301 + + Guide right (left) command 155 + + + H + + Half step (command) 113 + + HALT: + Any movement executed from, unless otherwise prescribed 59 + Firing executed at 179 + From half step and mark time 113 + How executed 116 + Piece brought to the order 121 (seventh) + + Halting, skirmishers face to the front and take advantage + of cover 240 + + Halts on marches 1222 + + HAND: + Disengaged, position at double time 111; 121 (Eighth) + Left, position at balance 122 (First) + On hip falling in with 70 + Salute 106 + + Hand grenades 1198 + + Harmony and contentment in company 877 + + Hasty intrenchments 1143 + + Head, definition 39 + + Headache 1504 + + Head cover, trenches 1152 + + HEALTH, CARE OF: + Chancroid 1466 + Clap 1466 + Five ways of catching disease 1453 + Fly, disease carrier 1460 + Germs 1452 + Gonorrhoea 1466 + Importance 1451 + Malaria fever 1469 + Mosquito, carrier of disease 1469 + Syphilis 1466 + Vegetables, distributer of disease 1458 + Venereal disease 1466 + Water, distributer of disease 1457 + Yellow fever 1469 + + Hearing at night 1095 + + Hearing in scouting 1083 + + Heat, effect on shooting 1397 + + Heat exhaustion 1505 + + Height, men to fall in according to 203 + + Heliographing 864 + + Helmets, steel 1205 + + Hits, percentage 1417 + + Holding attack 499-502 + + Horizontal clock face system of target designation 1446 + + Horizontal equivalents 1867 + + Hostile Infantry, target 345 + + Human element in training and instruction 925 + + Hurdles 1119 + + Hygiene. See "Personal hygiene" + + + I + + Illumination of foreground of trenches 1170 + + Imaginary enemy, definition 56; 370 + + Improvised formations for advancing 257 + + Incinerators, camp 1247 + + "Incline to the right (left)" 67 + + INCREASING INTERVALS: + Company 247 + Squad 172 + + INDIVIDUAL COOKING: + Fire, how to make 1257 + Importance 1256 + Recipes 1258-1275 + + Individual intelligence, factor in warfare 924 + + INFANTRY: + Against artillery: + Action against artillery limbering or coming into action 600 + Action against guns out of ammunition 599 + Flank attack 598 + Frontal attack usually futile 597 + Machine guns 597 + Wheel horses best targets 600 + Against Cavalry: + Cavalry charge against infantry usually futile 591 + Infantry attacking dismounted cavalry 596 + Measures to check charges from front and flanks 592 + Meeting of cavalry charge by infantry in column 595 + Rifle fire main dependence of infantry 594 + Standing position, best to meet charge 593 + Demands upon it by modern combat 365 + Duties many and difficult 366 + Good Infantry can defeat superior troops of poor quality 368 + Modern war requires good infantry 366 + Moving to attack, passing through deployed artillery 470 + Requisites of good infantry 368 + Trained to bear heaviest burdens 368 + + Infantry Drill Regulations 24 + + Influence of ground 1420 + + Initial combat order 394 + + Initiative in warfare 923 + + Initiative of subordinates not to be hampered 384; 385; 386 + + Ink stains, how removed 1287 + + "In place halt" 63 + + INSPECTION: + Band 650; 653 + Battalion 650; 654 + Company 646-649 + Display of equipment 682 + Equipment 648 + Of pieces when troop are formed and when dismissed 121 (Second) + Pistol 646 + Prepare for 646; 649-651; 653 + Quarters 647; 654 + Saber 646; 680 + Seniority at 630; 650 + + Inspection and port arms when dismissing squad 147 + + Inspection arms from order 145 + + Inspection arms, Krag rifle 698 + + Inspections, object of 885 + + INSTRUCTION: + Captain's responsibility for 202 + Commanding officers accountable for 51 + In use of signals 81 + Of battalion, major responsible for 295 + Of recruits 97-98 (a); 120 + Without arms 98 (a) + + Instruction given subordinates through immediate superiors 397 + + Instruction. See "Training and instruction" + + Integrity of squads in battle 151 + + Intelligence, factor in warfare 924 + + Interest in training and instruction 922 + + Intermingling of units in firing line 389 + + Interpretations of Drill Regulations, spirit to govern 53 + + INTERVAL: + Action of guides in taking 213 + Battalion in deployment 454; 465 + Between companies in deployment 354; 447 + Between files obtained by placing hands on hip 70 + Between platoon columns 252 + Between regiments in deployment 454 + Between skirmishers 171 + Definition 40 + Increasing or decreasing between skirmishers 172; 247 + Of file closers in column of squads 221 + Plates showing intervals: + Battalion near, 300 + Company near, 207 + To take 156 + + Intrenching tools, care 1312 + + INTRENCHMENTS: + Construction in action 475 + Order of importance of operations in construction 606 + Intrenchments. See "Field Fortifications" + + Introduction 50-79; 364-371 + + Inundations, trenches 1186 + + Invisibility best protection while advancing 468 + + + J + + "Jab," bayonet 824 (d) + + + K + + Kitchen pits, camping 1246 + + Kitchens, camp 1245 + + KNEEL: + From lying down 177 + From standing 174 + Position of piece 185 + To aim 189 + Use of position 178 + + Kneeling trench 1145 + + Knife, care of 1304 + + Knots 1126-1135 + + Knowledge of subordinates 378 + + Krag rifle (Infantry Drill Regulations) 696 + + + L + + Landmarks, observing 1086 + + Largest unit executing extended order 55 (b); 328 + + Lashings 1136 + + Latitude allowed subordinates 384; 385 + + Latrines, camping 1243 + + Latrines in trenches 1169 + + LEADERSHIP: + General consideration 372-384 + Necessary to success in battle 365 + + LEADING: + Company 209; 260 + Platoon 250; 251; 259 + Rush 260 + Squad 150; 169; 237; 259; 289 + + LEATHER EQUIPMENT: + Cleaning 1316 + Cleaning materials 1315 + Oiling 1317; 1319 + + Left arm, position when piece is "diagonally across + the body" 122 (Second) + + Left, definition 41 + + Left foot, stepping off with 107 + + Left hand, position at balance 122 (First) + + LEFT SHOULDER FROM: + Order 136 + Port 136 + Present 136 + Right shoulder 136 + + Leggins, how cleaned 1280 + + Length of steps 107-115 + + Library, company 879 + + LIEUTENANTS: + Assisting captain in fire control of depleted company 209 + Assignment of platoons to 206 + Duties, etc., 870; 871 + Fire control 270; 287-289 + Intermingling of units in firing line 389 + Leading in charges 356 + Posts of 71 + Rushes by platoons 259; 293 + Suspending fire when target disappears 294 + Taking post when company is formed 215 + Training 369 + + LIEUTENANT COLONEL: + Salute in ceremonies 615 + + Light, effect on shooting 1399 + + Lightning, struck by 1507 + + Line, definition 42 + + Line of platoons, companies, etc., definition 68 + + Line of skirmishers 169-172; 236-247 + + Lines of information 398-402 + + Liquid fire 1196 + + Listening posts, trenches 1191 + + Litters, improvised 1522 + + Loaded pieces not to be carried 121 (First) + + Loading pieces before deployment 269 + + Loading, with Krag rifle 701 + + LOADINGS AND FIRINGS: + Aiming point: + Announced before or after range 181 + Once designated, not changed unless ordered 182 + By battalion 306 + Cease firing 194 + Clip fire 192 + Color guard does not execute 666 + Commands 179; 185-194 + Continuing the fire (command) 189 + Execution by file closers 212 + Fire at will 190 + Fire faster (slower) 191 + Firing: + Executed in line and skirmish line only 179 + Instruction in, preceded by command to load 179 + Rear rank kneeling or lying down 179 + Firings executed at halt 179 + Instruction in firing to be preceded by command for loading 179 + Load: + Command 185 + Position of, when taken 183 + Rear rank, kneeling or lying down 179 + Target: + Announced before or after range 181 + Once designated, not changed unless ordered 182 + Loadings executed in line and skirmish line only 179 + Long whistle blast 193 + Pieces once loaded, so kept until command to unload 180 + Position of load, when taken 183 + Range and command announcing 188 + Sight setting, aiming point announced before or after 181 + Simulate load (command) 186 + Single loader, use of piece as 186 + Sling, use when deployed 184 + Suspend firing 193; 194 + + Local successes necessary to general success 367 + + Location of trenches 1426 + + Lock pieces 700 + + Long blast of whistle 193; 271 + + Long range 275 + + Long-range fire 1414 + + Long-range fire, when effective 416 + + Lookouts in trenches 1158 + + Loopholes and notches 1153 + + Loose pieces 161 + + Lost, what to do 1085 + + Lying down 175; 185; 189 + + Lying down position, use 178 + + Lying trench 1144 + + + M + + MACHINE GUNS: + Concealment 564 + Covering dead spaces on defensive 519 + Covering withdrawal 546; 557 + Effectiveness against skirmish line 559 + Fire of position 438; 555 + In attack 555 + In defense 555 + In infantry attack against artillery 597 + In meeting engagements 553 + Lessons of European war 561-568 + Location on defense 566 + Methods of transportation 563 + Not to form part of firing line of attack 558 + Silencing of machine guns by infantry 560 + To be used for short periods 552 + Use in villages 565 + Weapons of emergency 551 + With advance guard 553 + With rear guard 554 + With reserve 557 + + MACHINE GUN COMPANY: + Post in formations 71; 72 + Post when attached to battalion 299 + + MAJOR: + Apportions target 340 + Controls support 263 + Duties and responsibilities as battalion commander 295 + Duty regarding protection of flanks 412; 413 + Gives order to charge 356 + Gives order to fix bayonets 355 + Indicates where or when fire fight begins 341 + Locates trenches and obstacles 358 + Order making disposition of battalion for combat 329 + Orders bayonets fixed on defense 361 + Post during attack 352 + Post in route march 325 + Reenforces firing line 359 + Responsibility regarding ammunition 570 + See "Battalion commander" + + Malarial fever 1469 + + Maneuvers 947; 949 + + Maneuvers effective method of conducting 371 + + MANUAL OF: + Arms: + "By the numbers" 122 (Fifth) + Cadence 122 (Fourth) + Carrying rifle in any position 122 (Sixth) + Executed by color guard 666 + General principles and the manual 120-147 + Regular positions assume without regard to + previous ones 122 (Sixth) + "Without the numbers" 122 (Fifth) + Bugle 692-695 + Color 658-670 + Saber 671-680 + Tent pitching 681-691 + The color 670 + + MANUAL OF BAYONET: + Bayonet combat 760 + Combined movements 802 + Fencing at will 807 + Fencing exercises 772 + General remarks 711 + Guard 725 + Hints for instructors 823 + Instruction with rifle 734 + Instruction without bayonet 755 + Instruction without rifle 723 + Jab 824 (d) + Lessons of European war 824 + Nomenclature 721 + Short point 824 (d) + + Map, definition 1859 + + Map distances 1867 + + Map problems 945; 949 + + Map problems, instruction in 954 + + MAP READING: + Contours 1866 + Conventional signs 1874 + Definition of map 1859 + Determination of positions of points on map 1871 + Horizontal equivalents 1867 + Map distances 1867 + Meaning of map reading 1860 + Meridians 1870 + North star 1873 + Orientation 1872 + Problems in scales 1864 + Scale of map distances 1867 (a) + Scales 1861-1863 + Scaling distances from map 1865 + Slopes 1868 + True meridian 1873 + Visibility problem 1875 + + Map sketching. See "Military map sketching" + + MARCH: + At funeral 641 + Played as honor 624 + + MARCHES: + A successful march 1215 + At night 1102 + Care of feet and fitting of shoes 1229 + Compliments not paid on marches 1227 + Conduct on march 1220 + Crossing bridges and fords 1223 + Elongation of column 1224 + Fitting shoes and care of feet 1229 + Forced matches 1225 + Halts 1222 + Hardening new troops 1213 + Long march not to be made with new troops 1214 + Marching capacity 1221 + Marching, principal occupation of troops in campaign 1212 + Night marches 1226 + No compliments paid on 1564 + Physical training 1213 + Preparation for march 1216-1218 + Protection on march 1228 + Rate of march 1220 + Starting on march 1219 + Straggling 1224 + + Marching, any movement executed when, unless otherwise + prescribed 59 + + Marching to rear, skirmishes, not assembled 173 + + Marchings and steps 107-119 + + MARK TIME: + Executed from half step, halt and mark time 113 + How executed 112 + While obliquing 163 + + Masks, protection against gases 1206 + + Mass formation, battalion 320 + + Meat can, care 1307 + + Mechanism of deployment taught by extended order 55 (b) + + Meeting engagements: + Action of advance guard prior to receipt of order 543 + Action of column 542 + Action of the leading troops 541 + Advantage accrues to side deploying the faster 539 + Afford ideal opportunity to certain commanders 537 + Boldness and determination of commander 536 + Characteristics of 534 + First troops deploying have advantage 539 + Function of advance guard 542 + General action 535 + Machine guns, use 552 + Main body not to be put into action piece meal 544 + Meagerness of information 536 + Mission determines method of attack 538 + Post of commander 542 + + Memorandum receipts, company 900 + + Meridians 1870 + + Mess, company 878 + + Mess outfit care 1304 + + Messages, delivery 1530 + + Messages, instruction in delivering 958 + + Metal fouling, removing from bore 1327 + + Method in training and instruction 918 + + Military appearance and deportment 1523 + + MILITARY COURTESY: + Colors and standards 1575 + Headdress not raised in saluting 1569 + National anthem 1572 + National anthems of other nations 1573 + Nature and origin of salutes 1533; 1534 + Prisoners do not salute 1567 + Soldier walking with officer 1566 + Unmilitary salutes 1568 + Usual mistakes in saluting 1571 + When and how to salute: + At meals 1543 + At work 1547 + Bringing command to present before commander salutes 1563 + Commanders of detachments or other commands 1561 + Dismounting before addressing, superior not mounted 1558 + General rule 1539 + How to salute in uniform 1551 + Indoors 1545 + In public places and conveyances 1560 + Man addressed in formation 1559 + No compliments paid at drill, on march, etc. 1564 + No saluting at double time, trot or gallop 1565 + Officer approaching number of soldiers in open 1546 + Officer entering room occupied by soldiers 1542 + Officer passing in rear of troops 1562 + Passing officer on staircase 1549 + Riding in wagon 1548 + Rifle salute 1552 + Saber salute 1553 + Saluting distance 1541 + Saluting in civilian dress 1555 + Saluting in military manner 1556 + Sentinels on post 1554 + Several officers together 1557 + Soldier addressing or being addressed by officer 1550 + When making and receiving reports 1540 + When seated 1544 + Whom to salute: + Army officers 1535 + Foreign, naval and military attaches 1538 + Navy, Marine Corps, Volunteer and National Guard + officers 1536 + Reserve Corps officers 1537 + + MILITARY MAP SKETCHING: + Combined sketching 1892 + Contours 1882 + Datum plane 1883 + Different methods of sketching 1878 + Form lines 1884 + Kinds of military sketches 1878 + Location of points by intersection 1879 + Location of points by resection 1880 + Location of points by traversing 1881 + Outpost sketching 1890 + Points for beginners to remember 1893 + Position sketching 1889 + Road sketching 1891 + Scales 1885; 1888 + + Military organization 1858 + + Military pits 1184 + + Military training object of 50 + + Mine warfare. See, "Trench and mine warfare" + + MINOR WARFARE: + Camp or bivouac protection 612 + Dividing marching column into two or more detachments 611 + Formations in close country 610 + Formation in open country 609 + Irregular operations 607 + March and bivouac formations to admit of rapid action in + any direction 608 + Night operations frequently advisable 613 + Regular operations 606 + Selection of site for camp or bivouac 612 + What it embraces 606 + + Mirage 1400 + + Mission, defined 950 + + Mistakes, staying execution of movement for correction of 63; 64 + + Modern combat, demands upon infantry 365 + + Modern war requires good infantry 366 + + Moisture, effect on shooting 1398 + + Morning report 888 + + Morse code 866 + + Mosquito, carrier of disease 1469 + + Mounted enlisted men formed into a detachment for ceremonies 76 + + Mounted officer in making about face, turns to left 74 + + MOUNTED SCOUTS: + Battalion staff officers, training in patrolling and + reconnaissance 579 + Dismounted patrolling 578 + How used 576 + Post when attached to battalion 299 + To be trained in patrolling and reconnaissance 576 + Use for reconnoitering 577; 578 + + Mouse and cat contest 1089 + + Movement, any executed in double time unless excepted 60 + + MOVEMENTS: + Begun in quick time, hastened by command, "Double time" 62 + Executed toward either flank, explained toward but one + flank 58 + General rules 57; 63 + May be executed from halt or when marching 59 + + MOVING PIVOT, TURNING ON: + Company 222; 227 + Squad 164 + When used 66 + + Moving targets, firing at 1432 + + MUSICIANS: (now buglers) + Duties during firing 272 + Equipped with whistles and repeating signals 83 + Join their companies at battalion inspection 650 + Post 207 + To carry signal flags 94; 401 + To repeat signal to fix bayonet and charge 355; 356 + + Musicians (now buglers) of the Guard 1700 + + Muster 655-657 + + + N + + NATIONAL AIR: + At funeral 641 + Playing as honor at review 624 + + National Anthem 1572 + + National color does not salute 660 + + Next to last motion in resuming order from any + position 122 (Third) + + Night firing 1433 + + Night marches 1226 + + NIGHT OPERATIONS: + Advance and rear guards 584 + Approaching charging point under cover of darkness 496 + Attack, time of making 588 + Bayonet use 583; 586; 589 + Challenging 1103 + Connections 1107 + Defense, measures taken to resist night attacks 590 + Deployment at night 464 + Equipment 1100 + Finding bearings 1096 + Fire action to be avoided 583 + Fire not effective beyond 50 yards 590 + Formations 581; 586; 589 + Hearing 1095 + Importance 1091 + Individual training 1093 + Marches 1102 + Marking route outguards to supports 1105 + Moving in dark 1097 + Night advance followed by attack by day 585 + Night entrenching 1099 + Night fencing 1098 + Night firing 1101 + Night matches 584 + Outposts 1103 + Practice in offensive and defensive operations 581 + Preparation 1108 + Purposes 580 + Readiness for action 1106 + Reconnaissance 587 + Secrecy 583 + Sentries firing 1104 + Surprise 587 + Trained troops necessary 586 + Training of company 1092 + Unfriendly guides 583 + Vision 1094 + White rag, tying around muzzle of rifle 590 + + Nomenclature of rifle 1342 + + Noncommissioned officer commanding platoon or company + carrying of piece and taking of post 79 + + Noncommissioned officers, post of 71 + + Noncommissioned officers to be obeyed and respected 1525 + + Noncommissioned officers, company, duties 874 + + Noncommissioned officers confining men 875 + + Noncommissioned officers; instructions in map problems 954 + + Noncommissioned officers; reduction and resignation 876 + + Noncommissioned officers; responsibilities in time of war 944 + + "Normal" forms covering all cases impossible 369 + + Normal sight 1353 (a) + + North star 1873 + + Nose, foreign body in 1507 + + Notches and loopholes 1153 + + Number of troops to be deployed in beginning 445 + + "Numbers, by the" 122 (fifth) + + + O + + Obedience 1524 + + Object of military training 150 + + OBJECTIVE-- + Announced before or after range 181 + Once designated not changed unless ordered 182 + + Oblique deployment as skirmishers 245 + + Oblique march 162-163 + + Observation 200-201 + + Observation of target and fire 428-429 + + OBSTACLES: + Abatis 1176 + Against cavalry 1180 + Automatic alarms 1192 + Barricades 1185 + Cheveaux de frise 1179; 1189 + Fraise 1178 + Guarding obstacles 1190 + In front of outguards 1187 + Inundations 1186 + Kinds 1176 + Lessons from European War 1188 + Listening posts 1191 + Location 1175 + Military pits 1184 + Necessity for 1174 + Object 1173 + Palisade 1177 + Search lights 1193 + Trous de loup 1184 + Wire entanglements 1181; 1182; 1188 + Wire fence 1183 + + Obstacles located by Major 358 + + Occupation of ground 1426 + + Offensive necessary for decisive results 367 + + Office, how to enter 1527 + + Officer of the Day 1593 + + OFFICERS: + Posts of 71 + To be true leaders 377 + To comply with spirit of orders 377 + + Oil, use on rifle 1330; 1339 + + ON RIGHT (LEFT) INTO LINE: + Battalion 313 + Company 230 + + Open packs 648 + + Open ranks 646 + + Open sight 1352 (a) + + Opening fire on defense 360 + + ORDER: + Assumed in resuming attention from rest or at ease 121 (fifth) + Piece brought to, upon halting 121 (seventh) + Piece striking ground gently 122 (third) + Position in next to last motion 122 (third) + Position of piece at 123 + + Order and cohesion in combat 376 + + Order, close, definition 43 + + Order, extended, definition 44 + + ORDER FROM: + Inspection 146 + Left shoulder 136 + Port 128 + Present 128 + Right shoulder 130 + Trail 140 + + ORDERLIES: + Carrying signal flags 400 + Do not change position when commander faces about to give + command 74 + Posts of 73; 78 + + ORDERS: + Battle 392 + Brigade and division, usually written 392 + Compliance with spirit of 377 + Composition of combat order 395 + Definition 85 + Deployment 392 + Deviation from 388 + Encroaching upon functions of subordinates, prohibited 396 + Given subordinates through immediate superiors 397 + Reconnaissance to precede issuing of initial combat orders 394 + Regiment, usually verbal 393 + Repetition of 83 + To be definite 396 + Use in battalion combat 328 + Verbal 393 + When used 80; 85 + + Orders, files of, company 891 + + Orders for sentinels 1716 + + Orders, tactical preparation 952 + + Organization, military 1858 + + Orientation 1872 + + Outlined enemy 56; 273; 370; 371 + + Outpost, establishing by company 1080 + + Outpost sketching 1890 + + Outposts at night 1103 + + Overhead cover, trenches 1154 + + + P + + Pace, definition 45 + + PACK: + Close 648 + Display of contents for inspection 682 + Laid aside in action 382 + Open 648 + + Packs, unslinging, old equipment 706 + + Paint spots, how removed 1290 + + Palisade 1177 + + Paperwork, company 887 + + PARADE REST: + With arms 137 + Without arms 101 + + PARADES: + Battalion 636 + General rules 634; 635 + Post of color guard 663; 664 + + Parados 1151 + + Paroles and countersigns 1769 + + Partial changes of direction, commander of 67 + + Patrolling. See, "Scouting and patrolling" + + Payment of soldier 1529 + + Peep sight 1352 (b) + + Percentage of hits 1417 + + Periscopes 1207 + + Personal hygiene 1470 + + PERSONAL RECONNAISSANCE: + Deployment 441 + Formation of plan 394 + + PHYSICAL TRAINING: + Commands 826 + Double timing 846 + Methods 825 + Rifle exercises 847 + Setting up exercises 826; 837 + Starting positions 834 + Walking and marching 845 + + PIECE: + Carrying in any position 122 (Sixth) + "Diagonally across the body" 122 (Second) + Loading before deployment 269 + Not to be carried loaded 121 (First) + Once loaded, so kept until command to unload 180 + Rules governing carrying 121 + To strike ground gently in coming to order 122 (Third) + Use as single loader 186 + + Pitching tents 684 + + PLAN: + Of battle preceded by personal reconnaissance 394 + Of combat, adherence to original 373 + + PLATES: + Battalion near, 300 + Company near, 207 + Equipment near, 646 + + PLATOON COLUMN: + Assembly from 254 + Deployment 253 + How executed 250 + Use in advancing 249-252 + + PLATOON DRILL: + Assembling from deployment 248 + Column right (left) (company being in column of platoon) 223 + Extended order 242 + On right into line (being in column of platoons) 230 + Platoons column right (left) (company being in column of + squad) 225 + Platoon light (left) 220 + Platoons right (left) by squads (being in line) 227 + Platoons right (left) front into line 232 + Squads right about (being in line of platoons) 228 + Squads right (left), platoons column right (left) (being + in line) 227 + + PLATOON GUIDES: + Close order drill 210 + Duties in fire fight 289 + + PLATOON LEADER: + Allotment of target to 282 + Control the fire in deployment 270 + Duties on fire fight 288; 289 + Equipped with whistles 83 + Of flank platoons when company acts alone 268 + Positions in verifying alignments 218 + Repeating commands 214 + + Platoon, the fire unit of 287 + + PLATOONS: + Advance into an engagement 249 + Assignment 206 + Designation 205 + Division of company into 204 + + Point of aim 1357 + + Point of rest, definition 46 + + Point on which base squad marches in deployment 238 + + Points of compass 1084 + + Poison, first aid 1508 + + PORT ARMS FROM: + Inspection 146 + Left shoulder 136 + Order 125 + Present 126 + Right shoulder 132 + Position and aiming drills 1365 + + POSITION FIRE: + Advance by rushes 293 + When used 438 + + POSITION OF: + Captain in dressing company 302 + Load, when taken 183 + Piece at order 123 + Piece "diagonally across the body" 122 (Second) + The soldier 99 + Position sketching 1889 + + POST OF: + Band 71; 299 + Commander in fight 383 + Color 637; 638; 650; 664; 665 + File closers in column of squads 221 + Major during attack 352 + Major in route order 325 + Mounted enlisted men 73; 76; 78 + Noncommissioned officer in command of troops 79 + Noncommissioned staff officers 77; 78 + Officers, noncommissioned officers and special units + (band and machine gun company) shown in plates 71; 72 + Reviewing officer 617 + Special units 71; 72; 299 + Staff officers 73 + + Powder fouling, removing from bore 1327 + + Practical instruction, purpose 369 + + Precision taught by drill at attention 55 (a) + + Preliminary drills 1355 + + PREPARATORY COMMAND: + Arrangements of elements 57 + To revoke 64 + What it indicates 87 + + PRESENT ARMS FROM: + Left shoulder 136 + Order 124 + Port 127 + Right shoulder 133 + + Present saber 673 + + Principles of combat, extent to which treated in Part I 54 + + Prisoners do not salute 1567 + + Privates of the Guard 1715 + + Privileges, awarding 881 + + Privileges, withholding 884 + + Program of training 919 + + Progression in training and instruction 917 + + Property, responsibility, company 886; 896 + + PROTECTION: + By reconnaissance 410; 412 + When battalion is acting alone 330 + When company is acting alone 268 + + Protection against surprise when company is acting alone 268 + + PUNISHMENT: + Awarding 915 + Company 882; 883 + + PURSUIT: + Additional force for 483 + General principles 490; 494 + Pursuing fire 486 + Troops used for 487 + + + Q + + Quartermaster sergeant (now supply sergeant) assignment + at drill 207 + + Quibbling, avoiding, in interpreting drill regulations 53 + + QUICK TIME: + Cadence 108 + From double time 111 + Movements habitually executed in 109 + + + R + + RANGE: + Classification 275-277 + Command announcing 188 + Determining of 276; 277; 426 + Finders 277 + Importance of correct sight setting 425 + In attack 344; 426 + In defense 426 + Signal for announcing 92 + + Range, how determined 1429 + + Range practice 1386 + + Ranging volleys 278 + + Rank, definition 47 + + Rapid fire exercises 1372 + + RATE OF: + Fire 191; 292; 415; 1419 + Quick and double time 108 + + Ration return 909 + + Ready 189 + + Reality in training 922 + + Rear guard, use of machines guns as part of 554 + + Rear marching, skirmishers, not assembled 173 + + Rear rank not loading nor firing kneeling or lying down 179 + + Rear sight, description 1343 + + Rear, to the, how to execute 118 + + RECONNAISSANCE: + Battalion acting alone 330 + Combat 403-413 + Company acting alone 268 + Company advancing into an engagement 249 + Each commander to guard against surprise 442 + Meeting engagement 534; 538 + Minor warfare 608 + Night operations 587 + Personal before deployment 441 + To precede formation of plan 394 + + Record of rifles 902 + + Record of size of clothing 906 + + Records, company 887-909 + + Recruits, instruction 97-98; 120; 152-156 + + Rectifying column, (battalion) 312 + + Red bugs 1488 + + Reduction and resignation of noncommissioned officers 876 + + Reenforcement of firing line by major 359 + + Reenforcements, size 353 + + Reenforcing firing line 263-366; 354 + + REGIMENT: + Interval in deployment 454 + Lines of communication established by 400 + Muster 655-657 + + REGIMENTAL COLOR: + Salutes by 660 + Saluting reviewing officer 622 + + REGIMENTAL COMMANDER: + Action in deployment of division 440 + Decide equipment carried into action 382 + + Rejoining command after completion of task 390 + + REPETITION OF: + Command for guides, by captains at battalion drill 301 + Commands by captains at battalion drill 300 + Orders, commands and signals 83; 88 + + Report, first sergeant's when company is formed 215 + + Reports, saluting when making or receiving 75 + + Represented enemy, definition 56 + + Requisites of good scout 1031 + + RESERVE: + Captured position strengthened by reserves 492 + Commander of troops in action habitually with reserve 383 + Covering withdrawal of attacking troops 489 + Deployment to enable withdrawal of faulty firing line 444 + Enveloping attack 461; 462 + Fire of position in decisive action 438 + Furnished by units larger than battalion 455 + Gives impetus to charge 481 + How used 455 + In attack charged with flank protection 466 + In withdrawal from action 547 + Machine guns as part of 557 + Occupying trenches vacated by firing line to improve same 476 + Of firing line, strength 449; 450 + Part played by, in pursuit 491 + Post and strength in holding attack 500 + Post of, in attack 466 + Post of, in defense 513 + Post of, in delaying action 532 + Reduction of reserve in case of protected flanks 452 + Regimental: + Ammunition sent from 574 + Use of, in case of victory 383 + + Respect, factor in training 929 + + Respect for sentinels 1577 + + Respect to noncommissioned officers 1525 + + Responsibility, devolution of 869 + + Responsibility for proper training 921 + + Rest, executed as without arms 121 (Fifth) + + Rests, the 100; 101; 121 + + "1. Resume 2. March" 63 + + Retained copies of rolls, etc., company 899 + + Retiring under fire 475 + + Return saber 679 + + Reveille and retreat gun 1837 + + Reverse slopes 1427 + + Revetments 1124; 1125; 1166 + + REVIEWS: + Band 623; 624 + Battalion 631-633 + Battalions, after passing reviewing officer 628 + Brigades, or larger commands 628; 629 + Cadence at which troops pass in review 627 + Commander faces command 614 + Flank to pass 12 paces from reviewing officer 617 + Flourishes 624 + Formation of companies, battalions and regiments 616 + General rules 617-630 + March, played as honor 624 + National air, playing as honor 624 + Order in which troops are arranged 614 + Passing around line 618; 631 + Points where column changes direction 617 + Post of reviewing officer on left of column 626 + Post of reviewing officer and others 617 + Reviewing officer returns only salute of commanding officer 618 + Reviewing officer, post 617 + Reviewing officer junior to commanding officer 630 + Riding around troops 618 + Ruffles 524 + Salute by regimental color 622 + Salute returned by reviewing officer 618 + Salute by lieutenant colonel 615 + Saluting by staff 615; 619 + Saluting the color 618 + Standing "at ease" etc., in case of brigade or larger + command 629 + Subordinates face to front 614 + To the color 624 + Turning out of column by commanding officer of troops 620; 621 + + Revoking preparatory command 64 + + Rewards and privileges, company 881 + + Ricochet shots 1425 + + RIFLE, care and description: + Army regulations 1341 + Bore 1322-1324; 1328 + Description 1342 + Importance 1321 + Kinds of fouling 1325 + Oil, how to apply 1339 + Oiling barrel 1330 + Rear-sight leaf 1343 + Removing metal fouling 1327 + Removing powder fouling. See "Piece" 1326 + + Rifle exercises 847 + + RIFLE SALUTE AT: + Order or trail 141 + Right shoulder 140 + + RIFLE TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION: + Adjustment of fire 1428 + Aiming exercise 1368 + Aiming point 1357 + Aiming and sighting 1350 + Appearance of objects 1396 + Auxiliary aiming points 1431 + Ballistic qualities of rifle 1410 + Battle sight 1352 (c) + Beaten zone 1413 + Center of impact 1412 + Clock system of target designation 1446; 1447 + Clock system of wind designation 1391 + Cold, effect on shooting 1397 + Collective instruction 1404 + Combat exercises 1408 + Combat practice 1404 + Combined sights 1430 + Communication in fire control and direction 1447 (b) + Cone of fire or dispersion 1411 + Defilade 1420 + Deflection 1384 + Deflection and elevation correction drills 1383 + Designation of targets 1445-1447 (a) + Designation of winds 1391 + Distribution of fire 1441-1444 + Effect of fire 1410 + Effect of heat, light, etc. 1397; 1403 + Effectiveness of fire 1416 + Estimating distance 1393-1395 + Exercises in fire control and direction 1450 + Finger system of target designation 1447 (a) + Fine sight 1353 (b) + Fire direction and control 1434-1440 + Fire discipline, definition 1406 + Fire distribution 1441-1444 + Firing at stationary targets 1428 + Full sight 1353 (c) + Gallery practice 1385 + Gentle reverse slopes 1427 + Grazing fire 1423 + Heat, effect on shooting 1397 + Hits, percentage 1417 + Horizontal clock face system of target designation 1446 + Individual instruction 1349 + Influence of ground 1420 + Light, effect on shooting 1399 + Location of trenches 1426 + Long range fire 1414 + Mirage 1400 + Moisture, effect on shooting 1398 + Moving targets, firing at 1432 + Night firing 1433 + Normal sight 1353 (a) + Object of system 1344 + Occupation of ground 1426 + Open sight 1352 (a) + Peep sight 1352 (b) + Percentage of hits 1417 + Point of aim 1357 + Position and aiming drills 1365 + Preliminary drills 1355 + Program of instruction 1348 + Range, how determined 1429 + Range practice 1386 + Rapid fire exercise 1372 + Rate of fire 1419 + Reverse slopes 1427 + Ricochet shots 1425 + Sighting and aiming 1350 + Shot group 1412 + Sighting drills 1356; 1383 + Sights, kinds of 1352 + Sling, use 1387 + Slopes gentle reverse 1427 + Stationary targets firing at 1428 + Target designation 1445-1447 (a) + Targets, number hit 1418 + Technical principles of firing 1409 + Trajectory 1349 + Trial shots, determination of range 1395 + Triangle of sighting 1359 + Trigger squeeze exercise 1370 + Vertical clock face system of target designation 1447 + Volleys, determination of range 1395 + Windage 1384 + Zero of rifle 1392 + Zone of effective fire 1415 + + Right (left) about, squad 167 + + RIGHT (LEFT) BY: + File 235 + Squads 226 + Two's 234; 235 + + Right, definition 48 + + Right (left, center) dress 154; 310; 311 + + Right face 104 + + RIGHT (LEFT) FRONT INTO LINE FROM: + Close column 322 + Column of platoons or squads (company) 231 + Column of squads or companies 314 + Column of two's 235 + + Right half face 104 + + RIGHT (LEFT) HALF TURN: + Command 67 + Squad 164 + + Right (left) oblique 163 + + RIGHT SHOULDER FROM: + Inspection 146 + Left shoulder 136 + Order 129 + Port 131 + Present 134 + Right shoulder, pieces brought to, from order at + command "March" 121 (Sixth) + + Right (left) step, how executed 114 + + RIGHT (LEFT) TURN: + Company 222 + Squad 164 + + Rise, how executed 176 + + Road sketching 1891 + + Route march, post of major and file closers 325 + + Route step 233 + + RUFFLES AT: + Funeral 641 + Review 624 + + RULES FOR: + Carrying piece 121 (First) + Ceremonies 614-616 + Close order (battalion) 300-306 + Close order, company 210-214 + Deployment 236-242 + Drills and formations 57-79 + Execution of manual 122 + Parades 634; 635 + Reviews 617-630 + Salutes 75 + Steps and marchings 107-119 + + RUSHES: + Advances made under covering fire 349 + Begun by flank company 348 + Command for 259 + Company as whole led by captain 260 + Prearranged methods prohibited 351 + Size of rushing units 346; 347 + Subsequent advancing 350 + Use of position fire 293 + When impossible for company to advance as a whole 258 + + Rust, how removed 1286 + + + S + + Saber, manual of 671-680 + + Safety lock 121; 185 + + SALUTES: + Hand 106 + Returned by reviewing officer 618 + Rifle 141 + Saber 75; 673 + With color 660 + See "Honors and salutes" also "Military Courtesy" + + SALUTING: + By lieutenant colonel in ceremonies 615 + By staffs in ceremonies 619 + Mounted junior to dismount before saluting dismounted + senior 75 + On marches 1227 + Regimental color 622 + The color in reviews 618 + When making or receiving reports 75 + + Saluting volleys fired in close order 269 + + Sapping, advancing to charging point 498 + + Scalds, first aid 1509 + + Scale of map distances 1867 (a) + + Scales 1861-1869 + + Scales of maps 1885-1888 + + Scaling distances from map 1865 + + SCHOOL OF THE: + Battalion 295-363 + Company 202-294 + Soldier 97-147 + Squad 148-201 + + SCOUTING AND PATROLLING: + Eyesight and hearing 1083 + Cat and mouse contest 1089 + Concealment and dodging 1087 + Finding way in strange country 1084 + Flag stealing contest 1090 + Footmarks, following 1088 + Landmarks, observing 1086 + Lost, what to do 1085 + Mouse and cat contest 1089 + Points of compass 1084 + Requisites of good scouts 1031 + "Tracking" 1088 + + Scouts; See, "Mounted Scouts" + + Scratches, first aid 1510 + + Search lights, trench warfare 1193 + + Seeing at night 1094 + + Semaphore signaling 863 + + Semi-blindness 1512 + + Sentinel's orders 1716 + + Sentinels, respect for 1517 + + Sentries firing at night 1104 + + Separated officers and others placing themselves under + order of nearest higher commander 390; 391 + + Sergeant of the guard 1642 + + Service calls 695 + + SERVICE OF INFORMATION: + Bridges, facts to be obtained about 1000 + Bridges, reconnoitering of 992 + Buildings, reconnoitering of 996 + Camp noises 985 + Camps, abandoned 986 + Canals, facts to be obtained about 1003 + Cross roads, how reconnoitered 989 + Defiles, facts to be obtained about 1006 + Defiles, reconnoitering of 991 + Demolitions 1011 + Enclosures, reconnoitering of 994 + Facts to be obtained about various objects 998 + Fords, reconnoitering of 992 + Heights, facts to be obtained about 1010 + Heights, reconnoitering of 990 + Houses, reconnoitering of 996 + Indications to be noticed by patrols 983 + Marches, facts to be obtained about 1007 + Patrolling: + Facts to be obtained about various objects by patrols 998 + Civilians 970 + Flames and smoke 987 + Messages 979; 980 + Model reports 1016 + Night work 975 + Patrol fighting 977 + Principles of patrolling 967 + Patrols: + Acting upon meeting hostile patrols 971 + By whom furnished 962 + Cooerdination before departure 966 + Definition 959 + Formation 968 + Guarding against being cut off 974 + Halts 970 + Inspection before departure 961 + Leaders 961 + Orders and instructions 963 + Preparation for starting 965 + Prisoners to be captured 984 + Problems 1017-1019 + Rate of march 969 + Report on return 1015 + Returning by different route 973 + Scattered patrols 972 + Signals 978 + Size 960 + Ponds, facts to be obtained about 1007 + Positions, reconnoitering of 995 + Railroads: + Demolitions 1013 + Facts to be obtained about 999 + Reconnaissance of positions 989 + Rivers, facts to be obtained about 1001 + Roads, facts to be obtained about 998 + Signs to be noticed by patrols 983 + Springs, facts to be obtained about 1008 + Suggestions for gaining information about the enemy 983 + Suggestions for reconnaissance of positions 989 + Telegraph line, demolition 1012 + Telegraphs, facts to be obtained about 1004 + Valleys, facts to be obtained about 1009 + Villages, facts to be obtained about 1005 + Villages, reconnoitering of 997 + Vision limits of 988 + Wagon roads, demolition 1014 + Woods, facts to be obtained about 1002 + Woods, reconnoitering of 993 + + SERVICE OF SECURITY: + Advance guard, general principles 1021-1024 + Advance guard order 1025-1026 + Advance guard problems 1033-1046 + General principles 1020 + Outposts: + Advance cavalry 1056 + Cavalry outpost 1071 + Changes for the night 1075 + Communication between subdivision 1074 + Composition 1053 + Concealment 1068 + Cossack post 1061 + Definition and duties 1051-1052 + Detached posts 1069 + Distances between subdivisions 1055 + Entrenchments 1067 + Establishing the outpost 1073 + Examining posts 1070 + Flags of truce 1066 + Formation 1054 + Intercommunication 1074 + Obstacles 1067 + Outguards 1058 + Outpost order 1073 + Patrols 1064-1065 + Pickets 1059 + Problems 1077; 1078; 1079 + Relieving outpost 1076 + Reserves 1063 + Sentinels 1062 + Sentry squad 1060 + Subdivisions 1054 + Supports 1057 + Problems, advance guards 1033-1046 + Rear guard, general principles 1047-1050 + + Setting-up exercises 826; 837 + + SHELTER TENT: + Care of 1303 + Pitching: + New model 682 + Old model 707-710 + Striking 687 + + Shock, first aid 1511 + + SHOES: + Care 1292 + On marches 1229 + Polishing 1295; 1299; 1300 + Repair 1294 + Selection 1293 + + "Short point" 824 (d) + + Shot group 1412 + + Shots grazing enemy have approximate value of hits 291 + + Sick report 889 + + Side step 114 + + Siege operations 496 + + Siege works 1172 + + Sight rear, description 1343 + + SIGHT SETTING: + Command 188 + Importance 425 + + Sighting and aiming 1350 + + Sighting drills 1356; 1383 + + Sights, kinds of 1352 + + Signal Corps, establishment of lines of communication 399 + + SIGNAL FLAGS: + Carried by musician (now bugler) 94; 401 + Carried by orderlies 400 + Description 94 + Use 95 + + SIGNALING: + "Chop chop" signal 863 + General service code 861 + Heliograph, flash lantern, searchlight 864 + Morse code 866 + Semaphore code 863 + Sound signals 865 + Wigwag 862 + + SIGNALS: + Arm 92 + Attention fixed at first motion 82 + Bugle used on and off the battlefield 90 + Captain of supporting company to look out for major's + signals 263 + Cease firing 90 + Change elevation 92 + Commence firing 90 + Communication between firing line and reserve 96 + Flag 94; 96 + For "Platoon" and "Squad," use of 93 + Instruction in use of 81 + Limitation of 84 + Long blast of whistle: + Signifies suspension of firing 193 + To be avoided as signal for cease firing in rushes 234 + Movement commences when signal is understood 82 + Range, to announce 92 + Repetition of 83 + Special prearranged 84 + Training in use of, to control firing line 55 (d) + Use during firing 271 + Use on firing line 431 + Use of saber, rifle, or headdress in making 81 + When used 80 + Whistle 91 + + Simple maneuvers best 375 + + Simple movements essential to correct battle training 52 + + Simulate load, how executed 186 + + Simultaneous movements by companies or platoons in + battalion drill 305 + + Single loader, use of rifle as 186 + + Single rank 98 (a); 616 + + Sitting position used instead of kneeling one 178 + + Size of clothing, record 906 + + SKIRMISHERS: + Deployment: + Company 243 + General rules 236-244 + Squad 170 + To rear 246 + Face to front and take advantage of cover on halting 240 + Interval between 170; 172; 247; 255; 447 + Not assembled, marching to rear 173 + To form from platoon or squad column 253 + + Skulking of troops carrying back wounded 381 + + Sky lines to be avoided 421 + + Sleeping bag 685; 686 + + SLING, GUN: + Adjustment and use 1387 + Included in grip of piece at balance 122 (First) + Use when deployed 184 + + Sling packs, old equipment 706 + + Slopes, gentle reverse 1427 + + Slopes on maps 1868 + + Slower, fire 191 + + Small arms firing. See "Rifle training and instruction" + + Smartness taught by drills at attention, etc. 55 (a) + + Snake's bites 1480 + + Sniperscope 1208 + + Snow blindness 1512 + + Sore throat 1513 + + Sortie steps 1150 + + Sound signals 865 + + Special units; posts of 71; 72 + + Spider bites 1514 + + Spirit of order to be complied with by officers 377 + + Spirit to govern in interpreting drill regulations 53 + + Splicing 1133-1135 + + Splints 1484 + + Spoon, care 1306 + + Sprains, first aid 1516 + + SQUAD: + Base 236; 239 + Composition 149 + Dressing 154 + Front when deployed 171 + Integrity in battle 151 + Movements executed as prescribed in school of the soldier 152 + Right 165 + Right (left) about 167 + To dismiss 147 + To form 153 + + SQUAD COLUMN: + Deployment 253 + How executed 251 + To assemble from 254 + Use in advancing 249; 252 + + Squad drill, object 149 + + SQUAD LEADER: + Action at preparatory command for forming skirmish line 237 + Corporal is 150 + Duties in fire fight 289 + Post 150 + + SQUADS: + Deployment when company is deployed 239 + Designation 205 + Division of company into 203 + Grouping soldiers into 148 + Preservation of integrity in battle 151 + Right (left) about 228 + Right (left) column right (left) 226 + Right (left) front into line 235 + + Stable guards 1806 + + Stack arms 160; 161 + + STAFF: + Does not change position when commander faces about to + give command 74 + Draws and returns saber with chief 73 + Habitually mounted 73 + Post of 73 + Saluting by, in review 619 + Turning out of column in review 620; 621 + + Stains, how removed 1284 + + Standards and colors 1575 + + Standing trench 1146 + + "Star Spangled Banner" 1572 + + "STAR SPANGLED BANNER" PLAYED AT: + Funeral 641 + Review 624 + + Statement of clothing charged to enlisted men 904 + + Stationary targets, firing at 1428 + + Step, change, how executed 119 + + Stepping off with left foot 107 + + Steps and marchings 107-119 + + Stings, first aid 1517 + + Straggling in marches 1224 + + Strange country, finding way in 1084 + + Striking tents 687; 690 + + SUBORDINATES: + Cooeperation 387 + Latitude allowed and initiative 384; 385; 386 + + SUCCESS IN BATTLE: + Depends upon leadership, etc. 365 + Factors entering into 373; 376 + Object of military training 50 + Principles for increasing probability of, provided for + in drill regulations 53 + + SUCCESSION OF THIN LINES: + Command for advancing 255 + Use in advancing 249 + Use and purpose 256 + + Successive formations, guide toward point of rest 65 + + Successive movements in double time, base unit marches in + quick time 61 + + Suffocation, first aid 1478 + + Summary court records 903 + + Summary of combat principles 550 + + Sunburn, first aid 1485; 1518 + + Sunstroke 1519 + + Superiority of fire 414-438 + + SUPPORT: + Artillery 601-605 + Battalion: + Battalion acting alone in defense 357 + Distance from firing line 338 + Division of battalion into support and firing line 335 + Furnished by battalion 455 + None at beginning 339 + Position 337 + Size 336 + Company: + Captain to look out for major's signals 363 + Control by major 263 + Duties of officers and sergeants upon joining firing line 266 + Formations for 262 + Original platoon divisions to be maintained 266 + Promptness in reenforcing firing line 265 + Reenforcements joining firing line 264 + Occupying trenches vacated by firing line, to improve + same 476 + Of firing line, strength 449; 450 + Post and strength, in holding attack 500 + To cover withdrawal 362 + + Supporting artillery 434-437 + + Supreme will, but one in battle 387 + + SURPRISE: + Each commander to guard his command against 442 + Human element 92 + Protection against, when company is acting alone 26 + + Suspend firing 193; 194 + + Syphilis 146 + + + T + + Tactical exercises, methods of conducting 37 + + Tactical orders 32 + + Tactical principles, application of 5 + + Take arms 16 + + TAKE INTERVAL: + Actions of guides and file closers 213 + How executed 156 + + TAKING DISTANCE: + Actions of guides and file closers 66 + How executed 158 + + "Tanks" 1204 + + TARGET: + Action in defense when it disappears 294 + Aiming points, use 284 + Announced before or after range 181 + Allotment to platoon leaders 282 + Apportioned by major 340 + Assignment by major 281 + Change to be avoided 281 + Choice of, etc. 422 + Designation 201; 1445; 1447 (a) + Determination of distance to 276 + Distribution of fire 282; 283; 427 + Hostile firing line usual target 281; 345 + Observation of 424; 429 + Once designated, not changed unless ordered 182 + + Target practice. See "Rifle training and instruction" + + Target records, company 907 + + Targets, number hit 1418 + + TEAMWORK: + Developed by thorough and uniform training 51 + General principles 385-391 + + Technical principles of firing 1409 + + Telegraph code 866 + + Telephones in trenches 1171 + + Tent folding 691 + + TENT PITCHING: + All types except shelter and conical wall 688 + Conical wall 689 + Shelter 681; 682 + + Tent striking 687; 690 + + Terrain exercises 945; 949 + + THE COLOR: + Cased, defined 659 + Meaning of "Color" 658 + National, renders no salute 660 + Receiving of 669 + Salute by regimental 660 + Where kept 659 + + Theoretical instruction, purpose 369 + + "The Star Spangled Banner," see "Star Spangled Banner" + + THIN LINES SUCCESSION OF: + Commands for advancing 255 + Use and purpose 256 + Use in advancing 249 + + Thoroughness in training 922 + + "To the Color" sounded at review 624 + + To the rear, how executed 118 + + Tourniquet 1481 + + "Tracking" 1088 + + Trail, at, (command) 121 (sixth) + + Trail from order 139 + + TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION: + Art of instruction on varied ground 933 + Captain's responsibility for 202 + Cheerfulness 930 + Clearness 922 + Commanding officers accountable for 51 + Comradeship 932 + Contentment 931 + Courage 927 + Cover, training in use of 939 + Delivery of messages 958 + Determination and individual intelligence 924 + Fear 926 + For battle, simple movements and elastic formations 52 + Human element 925 + Individual initiative 923 + Interest 922 + In use of signals to control fire line 55 (d) + Map problems 954 + Method and progression 918 + Object 50; 917 + Of battalions, major responsible for 295 + Operating against other troops 941 + Practice in commanding mixed squads 940 + Principles provided for in Drill Regulations 53 + Program 919 + Reality 922 + Respect 929 + Responsibility 921 + See, "General Common Sense Principles of Applied Minor + Tactics" + Simultaneous instruction and training 920 + Surprise 928 + Thoroughness 51; 922 + Vanity 922 + + Trajectory 1349 + + Traveling in strange country 1084 + + Traverses 1149 + + Treatment of soldiers 872 + + TRENCH AND MINE WARFARE: + Aerial mines 1200 + Aids to firing 1209 + Asphyxiating gases 1194 + Bombs from air-craft 1202 + Countermining 1211 + Grenades and bombs 1197; 1198; 1199 + Helmets 1205 + Liquid fire 1196 + Masks 1206 + Mining 1210 + Periscopes 1207 + Protection against gases 1195 + Protection against hand grenades 1203 + Sniperscope 1208 + "Tanks" 1204 + Winged torpedoes 1201 + + TRENCHES: + Located by major 351 + Occupied by supports and reserves, to be improved 462 + See "Field fortifications" + + Trial shots, determination of range 1395 + + Trials by court-martial 882 + + Triangle of sighting 1359 + + Trigger-squeeze exercise 1370 + + Troops stable guards 1808 + + Trous de loup 1184 + + True meridian 1873 + + Turning about, mounted officer 74 + + Turning movements when allowable 458 + + TURNING ON FIXED PIVOT: + How executed 164 + When used 66 + + Two's right (left) front into line 235 + + + U + + Umpire 55; 371 + + UNFIX BAYONET: + Krag rifle 694 + Springfield rifle 143 + + Uniform, dignity of 1523 + + UNIT: + Attack 342 + Fire 287 + + Units not to be broken up 378 + + Unload 180; 187 + + Unload, Krag rifle 703 + + Unnecessary hardship to be avoided 380 + + Unsling equipment 648 + + Unsling packs, old equipment 706 + + Urinal tubs 1244 + + Use of cover 195-199 + + Use of ground 420; 421 + + + V + + Valleys determination of range 1395 + + Variety in instruction 922 + + Vegetables, distribution of disease 1458 + + Venereal disease 1466 + + Verbal orders 393 + + Vertical clock face system of target designation 1447 + + Visibility problem 1875 + + Vision at night 1094 + + VOLLEY FIRING: + How executed 189 + Use 278 + + + W + + Wall tents 688 + + War game 946; 949 + + Warning calls 692 + + Watchmen 1781 + + WATER: + Distribution of disease 1457 + In camp 1253 + In trenches 1168 + + Whistle, long blast 193 + + Whistle signals 91 + + Whistles, by whom carried, different tones, etc. 83 + + Wigwag 862 + + Will supreme, but one in battle 387 + + Windage 1384 + + Winged torpedoes 1201 + + Wire entanglements 1181; 1182; 1188 + + Wire fence, trenches 1183 + + WITHDRAWAL FROM ACTION: + Action by commander 549 + Covered by support 362 + Generally effected at heavy cost 545 + Part of line to be withdrawn first 548 + Rear guard and distance to be placed between enemy and + defeated troops 545 + Reserve used to check pursuit 547 + Retreating troops to be gotten under control as soon as + possible 548 + Selection of rendezvous point 549 + Under fire 475 + Use of artillery, machine guns and cavalry 546 + Use of machine guns 557 + + With dummy (blank or ball) cartridges, load 185 + + "Without the numbers" 122 (Fifth) + + Witness, appearance as 1531 + + Wood, camping 1252 + + Work, devolution of 869 + + Wounded not to be carried back by fighting troops 381 + + Wounds, first aid 1520 + + + Y + + Yellow fever 1469 + + + Z + + Zero of rifle 1392 + + Zone of effective fire 1415 + + + + +THE MOSS PUBLICATIONS + + + OFFICERS' MANUAL $2.50 + NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS' MANUAL 1.50 + PRIVATES' MANUAL 1.00 + MANUAL OF MILITARY TRAINING 2.25 + QUESTIONS ON MANUAL OF MILITARY TRAINING .50 + APPLIED MINOR TACTICS 1.25 + FIELD SERVICE 1.25 + INFANTRY DRILL REGULATIONS SIMPLIFIED .75 + SPANISH FOR SOLDIERS 1.00 + SELF-HELPS FOR THE CITIZEN-SOLDIER 1.25 + RIOT DUTY .50 + ARMY CHANGES Single copies, 50c; 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It has no attachments and does +not take down. + +You can carry Corona anywhere for, case and all, it weighs but 9 lbs. +and measures only 10 x 11-1/4 x 4-1/4 ins. + +Being built almost entirely of aluminum and steel, Corona is +practically indestructible. + +The Corona Folding Stand adds greatly to the convenience of using +Corona in the field. This stand has three telescopic brass legs, +stands 24 ins. high and collapses to 10-3/4 ins. It weighs 2 lbs. + + _Price of Corona and case, $50_ + _Price of Folding Stand, $5_ + + Corona Typewriter Co., Inc. + + GROTON, NEW YORK + + + + +To make your shoes waterproof +To make your shoes soft and comfortable +To make your shoes wear 3 times longer +To keep the harness and saddle in good order + + Use Viscol + +[Illustration] + +Viscol makes the leather soft and pliable and also waterproof. +Viscolized leather remains soft and pliable under continuous hard +service, even when it is worn in salt water or in snow. Viscol is a +solution of a rubber-like material which amalgamates with the leather +substance and is not driven out of the leather by heat or by water, +the way oils are. Its beneficial effect is lasting. Leather that is +treated with Viscol wears several times as long as leather that has +not been thus treated. + +Viscol is sold by many of the Post Exchanges and by most shoe dealers. +If you can not procure it at the nearest Post Exchange or from your +shoe dealer, write to + + VISCOL COMPANY + East Cambridge Boston, Mass. + + + + + TROPHIES AND PRIZES + + For Military, Athletic and Sporting Events + + Of Quality as Designed and made for the U. S. Army and Navy, West + Point Academy and U. S. Naval Academy + + _Catalogues and Information upon Request_ + + BAILEY, BANKS & BIDDLE CO. + + _Diamond Merchants, Jewelers, Silversmiths, Goldsmiths, Heraldists_ + + PHILADELPHIA + + + + + [Illustration] + + Eisner + UNIFORMS + + For + U. S. 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You'll shave easier. + +[Illustration] + +Sold at Post Exchanges and Ship's Stores: 1-oz. bottle, 10c; 3-oz., +25c; 8-oz. (1/2 pt.) 50c. Also in HANDY Oil Cans, 3-oz. 25c. _Avoid +substitutes._ + + FREE a generous sample and Dictionary of uses + + THREE-IN-ONE OIL CO., 42 DAL, Broadway, New York + + + + + _Outdoor Equipage_ + + MEYER'S MILITARY SHOPS + + [Illustration] + + _Riding Breeches and Habits_ + + TAILORS + + F Street, between 13th and 14th Sts. N. W. + + WASHINGTON, D. C. + + _Complete Outdoor Equipage_ + + _Ready to Wear_ + + _For Men, Women, and Children_ + + RIDING BREECHES, PUTTEE LEGGINS, NORFOLK JACKETS, HUNTING CLOTHES, + BOOTS AND SHOES, MIDDY BLOUSE AND SKIRTS, TENTS AND SLEEPING BAGS, + RIDING SKIRTS AND NORFOLK JACKETS, MOCCASINS + + Write for Catalogue + + _Visit Our Camp Rooms When in Washington_ + + + + + RIDABOCK & COMPANY + + 149-151 West 36th St., New York + + _U. S. Army, National Guard Officers' Uniforms and Equipments_ + + _Military School Uniforms and Equipments_ + + _Military Training Camp Outfits_ + + _Military Supplies, Military Textbooks_ + + Individual Departments and Workshops for the Respective Grades + of Uniforms. + + + + + USED BY UNCLE SAM'S EXPERT RIFLEMEN + + [Illustration] + + Hoppe's + Nitro Powder Solvent No. 9 + + Trade Mark Registered + + For Cleaning High Power (Springfield) Rifles, + Revolvers and Firearms of All Kinds + +A compound that will remove the residue of any high-power powder, +including Black Powder. It will neutralize and residue and loosen +metal fouling and leading that may be left in the barrel after +cleaning, and prevent Pitting. No. 9 is the only Rifle cleaning +Solvent that will remove Rust, Metal Fouling and Leading. For cleaning +the .22 cal. Rifles, Revolvers and Automatic Pistols it has no equal. +Nitro Powder Solvent No. 9 is endorsed by the most prominent Riflemen +in America. Used by U. S. Rifle Teams, and at Buenos Ayres, Argentine +Matches. No Rifleman or Quartermaster's Department should be without +it. + +Sold by Sporting Goods Dealers and at Post Exchanges + +FRANK A. HOPPE, Sole Manufacturer, Station O, Philadelphia, U. S. A. + + + + + ESTABLISHED 1854 + + B. Pasquale Company + + 115-117 Post St. SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. + + _The Only Manufacturers of_ + + Army and Navy Equipments + and Uniforms on the Pacific Coast + + "QUALITY AND FIT GUARANTEED" + + (Write for Catalogue) + + + + + THE MILITARY HISTORIAN AND ECONOMIST + + QUARTERLY + + Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. + + _Subscription, $3.00 per annum._ + +Edited by MAJOR A. L. CONGER, U. S. A., and PROFESSOR R. M. JOHNSTON, +Harvard University. Advisory Board: General J. F. Morrison, U. S. A., +Colonel J. W. McAndrew, U. S. A., Professors C. J. Bullock, A. +Bushnell Hart, O. M. W. Sprague, and Justin H. Smith, Esq. + +Original articles and notes on military history, the Conduct of War, +Strategy, Tactics. Military economics by the best American and foreign +authorities. + + + CLAUSEWITZ TO DATE + + Edited by R. M. JOHNSTON + +Synopsis of the views of Clausewitz with selected quotations from the +best military theorists, systematically modernized. + +The volume measures only 1-3/4 x 2-1/2 inches. + +Field service binding. _Price, postpaid $1.00._ + + THE MILITARY HISTORIAN AND ECONOMIST + + 275 Widener Hall CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS + + + + ++--------------------------------------------------------------------+ +| TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE. | +| =================== | +| | +| Irregularities within the original book have been preserved, | +| notably: | +| | +| Part I has appendicies A, B and D. There is no Appendix C. | +| | +| Part I Chapter I contains plates II, III and VI. Plates I, IV | +| and V are not present nor referenced. | +| | +| References to other paragraphs within the text mostly use the | +| book paragraph number. However, there are some cases where the | +| paragraph number relates to the source document paragraph number | +| (in brackets at the end of the paragraph)--these have been left | +| as shown in the book. The link in the html version does, however,| +| point to the intended paragraph. | +| | +| Spelling variants (e. g. reinforce vs reenforce) have been | +| preserved. | +| | +| The 'pointing finger' picture has been transcribed as --> in the | +| text version. | +| | +| Brackets have been added as necessary to equations to aid clarity. | +| | +| For consistency, subheadings which originally appeared next to a | +| paragraph number have been extracted out to the line above (i. e. | +| they do not appear on the same line as the paragraph number in | +| this transcription.) Affected paragraphs are: | +| | +| 817, 818, 826, 828-34, 836-47, 860, 862, 864-6, 1016-9, 1034-45, | +| 1078, 1277, 1320, 1340-1, 1352-3, 1356, 1358-65, 1367-70, 1372, | +| 1376, 1379-80, 1383. | +| | ++--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Manual of Military Training, by James A. 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