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Wagner + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Seasoning of Wood + +Author: Joseph B. Wagner + +Release Date: September 12, 2008 [EBook #26598] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SEASONING OF WOOD *** + + + + +Produced by Jason Isbell, Irma Spehar and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="bbox"> +<h1 class="bb">SEASONING OF WOOD</h1> + +<p class="subtitle"> +A TREATISE ON THE NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL +PROCESSES EMPLOYED IN THE PREPARATION +OF LUMBER FOR MANUFACTURE, +WITH DETAILED EXPLANATIONS OF ITS +USES, CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES +</p> + +<p class="bb bt center"><i>ILLUSTRATIONS</i></p> + +<p class="author"><small>BY</small><br /> +<big>JOSEPH B. WAGNER</big><br /> + +<small>AUTHOR OF "COOPERAGE"</small></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px; padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;"> +<img src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="100" height="105" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="publisher">NEW YORK<br /> +D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY<br /> +25 PARK PLACE<br /> +1917</p> +</div> + +<p class="copyright">COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY<br /> +D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY<br /><br /><br /> + +<span style="letter-spacing: 0.25ex">THE·PLIMPTON·PRESS</span><br /> +<span style="letter-spacing: 0.25ex">NORWOOD·MASS·U·S·A</span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></h3> + + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> seasoning and kiln-drying of wood is such an important +process in the manufacture of woods that a need +for fuller information regarding it, based upon scientific +study of the behavior of various species at different mechanical +temperatures, and under different drying processes +is keenly felt. Everyone connected with the +woodworking industry, or its use in manufactured products, +is well aware of the difficulties encountered in +properly seasoning or removing the moisture content +without injury to the timber, and of its susceptibility to +atmospheric conditions after it has been thoroughly +seasoned. There is perhaps no material or substance that +gives up its moisture with more resistance than wood does. +It vigorously defies the efforts of human ingenuity to take +away from it, without injury or destruction, that with +which nature has so generously supplied it.</p> + +<p>In the past but little has been known of this matter +further than the fact that wood contained moisture which +had to be removed before the wood could be made use of +for commercial purposes. Within recent years, however, +considerable interest has been awakened among wood-users +in the operation of kiln-drying. The losses occasioned +in air-drying and improper kiln-drying, and the +necessity for getting the material dry as quickly as possible +after it has come from the saw, in order to prepare +it for manufacturing purposes, are bringing about a realization +of the importance of a technical knowledge of +the subject.</p> + +<p>Since this particular subject has never before been represented +by any technical work, and appears to have been +neglected, it is hoped that the trade will appreciate the endeavor +in bringing this book before them, as well as the +difficulties encountered in compiling it, as it is the first of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> +its kind in existence. The author trusts that his efforts +will present some information that may be applied with +advantage, or serve at least as a matter of consideration +or investigation.</p> + +<p>In every case the aim has been to give the facts, and +wherever a machine or appliance has been illustrated or +commented upon, or the name of the maker has been +mentioned, it has not been with the intention either of +recommending or disparaging his or their work, but has +been made use of merely to illustrate the text.</p> + +<p>The preparation of the following pages has been a work +of pleasure to the author. If they prove beneficial and +of service to his fellow-workmen he will have been amply +repaid.</p> + +<p class="right">THE AUTHOR.</p> + +<p style="padding-top: 0em; padding-left: 1em">September, 1917</p> + + + +<h3><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></h3> + + +<table summary="table of contents" class="toc"> + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_I">Section I</a></td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="chaphead">TIMBER</td><td class="pageno"><small>PAGES</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">Characteristics and Properties of Same—Structure of Wood—Properties +of Wood—Classes of Trees</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_1">1</a>-<a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_II">Section II</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chaphead">CONIFEROUS TREES</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">Wood of Coniferous Trees—Bark and Pith—Sapwood and Heartwood—The +Annual or Yearly Ring—Spring- and Summer-Wood—Anatomical +Structure—List of Important Coniferous Trees</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_8">8</a>-<a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_III">Section III</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chaphead">BROAD-LEAVED TREES</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">Wood of Broad-leaved Trees—Minute Structure—List of Most Important +Broad-leaved Trees—Red Gum—Range of Red Gum—Form +of Red Gum—Tolerance of Red Gum—Its Demands +upon Soil and Moisture—Reproduction of Red Gum—Second-growth +Red Gum—Tupelo Gum—Uses of Tupelo Gum—Range +of Tupelo Gum</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_31">31</a>-<a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_IV">Section IV</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chaphead">GRAIN, COLOR, ODOR, WEIGHT, AND FIGURE IN WOOD</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">Different Grains of Wood—Color and Odor of Wood—Weight of Wood—Weight +of Kiln-dried Wood of Different Species—Figure in +Wood</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_V">Section V</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chaphead">ENEMIES OF WOOD</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">General Remarks—Ambrosia or Timber Beetles—Round-headed +Borers—Flat-headed Borers—Timber Worms—Powder Post +Borers—Conditions Favorable for Insect Injury—Crude Products—Round +Timber with Bark on—How to Prevent Injury—Saplings—Stave, +Heading, and Shingle Bolts—Unseasoned +Products in the Rough—Seasoned Products in the Rough—Dry +Cooperage Stock and Wooden Truss Hoops—Staves and Heads +of Barrels Containing Alcoholic Liquids</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_98">98</a>-<a href="#Page_113">113</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_VI">Section VI</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chaphead">WATER IN WOOD</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">Distribution of Water in Wood—Seasonal Distribution of Water in +Wood—Composition of Sap—Effects of Moisture on Wood—The +Fibre-Saturation Point in Wood</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_114">114</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_VII">Section VII</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chaphead">WHAT SEASONING IS</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">What Seasoning Is—Difference Between Seasoned and Unseasoned +Wood—Manner of Evaporation of Water—Absorption of Water +by Dry Wood—Rapidity of Evaporation—Physical Properties +that Influence Drying</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_119">119</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_VIII">Section VIII</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chaphead">ADVANTAGES OF SEASONING</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">Advantages of Seasoning—Prevention of Checking and Splitting—Shrinkage +of Wood—Expansion of Wood—Elimination of +Stain and Mildew</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_128">128</a>-<a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_IX">Section IX</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chaphead">DIFFICULTIES OF DRYING WOOD</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">Difficulties of Drying Wood—Changes Rendering Drying Difficult—Losses +Due to Improper Kiln-drying—Properties of Wood that +Effect Drying—Unsolved Problems in Kiln-drying</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_138">138</a>-<a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_X">Section X</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chaphead">HOW WOOD IS SEASONED</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">Methods of Drying—Drying at Atmospheric Pressure—Drying Under +Pressure and Vacuum—Impregnation Methods—Preliminary +Treatments—Out-of-door Seasoning</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_XI">Section XI</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chaphead">KILN-DRYING OF WOOD</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">Advantages of Kiln-drying over Air Drying—Physical Conditions +Governing the Drying of Wood—Theory of Kiln-drying—Requirements +in a Satisfactory Dry Kiln—Kiln-drying—Remarks—Underlying +Principles—Objects of Kiln-drying—Conditions +of Success—Different Treatments According to Kind—Temperature +Depends—Air Circulation—Humidity—Kiln-drying—Pounds +of Water Lost in Drying 100 Pounds of Green Wood in the +Kiln—Kiln-drying Gum—Preliminary Steaming—Final Steaming—Kiln-drying +of Green Red Gum</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_156">156</a>-<a href="#Page_184">184</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_XII">Section XII</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chaphead">TYPES OF DRY KILNS</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">Different types of Dry Kilns—The "Blower" or "Hot Blast" Dry +Kiln—Operating the "Blower" or "Hot Blast" Dry Kiln—The +"Pipe" or "Moist-Air" Dry Kiln—Operating the "Pipe" or +"Moist-Air" Dry Kiln—Choice of Drying Method—Kilns of +Different Types—The "Progressive" Dry Kiln—The "Apartment" +Dry Kiln—The "Pocket" Dry Kiln—The "Tower" +Dry Kiln—The "Box" Dry Kiln</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_185">185</a>-<a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_XIII">Section XIII</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chaphead">DRY KILN SPECIALTIES</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">Kiln Cars and Method of Loading Same—The "Cross-wise" Piling +Method—The "End-wise" Piling Method—The "Edge-wise" +Piling Method—The Automatic Lumber Stacker—The Unstacker +Car—Stave Piling—Shingle Piling—Stave Bolt Trucks—Different +Types of Kiln Cars—Different Types of Transfer +Cars—Dry Kiln Doors—Different Types of Kiln Door Carriers</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#SECTION_XIV">Section XIV</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chaphead">HELPFUL APPLIANCES IN KILN DRYING</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">The Humidity Diagram—Examples of Use—The Hygrodeik—The +Recording Hygrometer—The Registering Hygrometer—The +Recording Thermometer—The Registering Thermometer—The +Recording Steam Gauge—The Troemroid Scalometer—Test +Samples—Weighing—Examples of Use—Records of Moisture +Content—Saw Mills—Factories—The Electric Heater</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_237">237</a>-<a href="#Page_250">250</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><td class="tablesec"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">Section XV</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapentry">Bibliography—Glossary—Index of Latin Names—Index of Common +Names</td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_251">251</a>-<a href="#Page_257">257</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></td></tr> +</table> + + +<h3><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></h3> + +<table summary="list of illustrations" class="toc"> +<tr><td class="illono"><small>FIG.</small></td><td> </td><td class="pageno"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="illono">1.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_1">Board of pine</a></td><td class="pageno">13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">2.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_2">Wood of spruce</a></td><td class="pageno">14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">3.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_3">Group of fibres from pine wood</a></td><td class="pageno">15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">4.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_4">Block of oak</a></td><td class="pageno">31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">5.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_5">Board of oak</a></td><td class="pageno">32</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">6.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_6">Cross-section of oak highly magnified</a></td><td class="pageno">32</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">7.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_7">Highly magnified fibres of wood</a></td><td class="pageno">33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">8.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_8">Isolated fibres and cells of wood</a></td><td class="pageno">34</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">9.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_9">Cross-section of basswood</a></td><td class="pageno">35</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">10.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_10">A large red gum</a></td><td class="pageno">52</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">11.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_11">A tupelo gum slough</a></td><td class="pageno">53</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">12.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_12">Second growth red gum</a></td><td class="pageno">57</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">13.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_13">A cypress slough in dry season</a></td><td class="pageno">58</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">14.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_14">A large cottonwood</a></td><td class="pageno">78</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">15.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_15">Spiral grain in wood</a></td><td class="pageno">87</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">16.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_16">Alternating spiral grain in cypress</a></td><td class="pageno">87</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">17.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_17">Wavy grain in beech</a></td><td class="pageno">88</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">18.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_18">Section of wood showing position of the grain at base of limb</a></td><td class="pageno">89</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">19.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_19">Cross-section of a group of wood fibres</a></td><td class="pageno">91</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">20.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_20">Isolated fibres of wood</a></td><td class="pageno">91</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">21.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_21">Orientation of wood samples</a></td><td class="pageno">93</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">22.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_22">Work of ambrosia beetles in tulip or yellow poplar</a></td><td class="pageno">100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">23.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_23">Work of ambrosia beetles in oak</a></td><td class="pageno">100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">24.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_24">Work of round-headed and flat-headed borers in pine</a></td><td class="pageno">102</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">25.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_25">Work of timber worms in oak</a></td><td class="pageno">103</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">26.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_26">Work of powder post borers in hickory poles</a></td><td class="pageno">104</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">27.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_27">Work of powder post borers in hickory poles</a></td><td class="pageno">104</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">28.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_28">Work of powder post borers in hickory handles</a></td><td class="pageno">105</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">29.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_29">Work of round-headed borers in white pine staves</a></td><td class="pageno">111</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">30.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_30">U. S. Forest Service humidity controlled dry kiln</a></td><td class="pageno">161</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">31.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_31">Section through moist-air dry kiln</a></td><td class="pageno">189</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">32.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_32">Live steam single pipe heating apparatus</a></td><td class="pageno">190</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">33.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_33">Live steam double pipe heating apparatus</a></td><td class="pageno">191</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">34.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_34">Vertical Pipe heating apparatus</a></td><td class="pageno">193</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">35.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_35">Progressive dry kilns</a></td><td class="pageno">197</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">36.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_36">Apartment dry kilns</a></td><td class="pageno">199</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">37.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_37">Pocket dry kilns</a></td><td class="pageno">201</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">38.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_38">Tower dry kiln</a></td><td class="pageno">203</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">39.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_39">Box dry kiln</a></td><td class="pageno">205</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">40.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_40">Edge-wise method of piling</a></td><td class="pageno">206<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">41.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_41">Edge-wise method of piling</a></td><td class="pageno">207</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">42.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_42">Automatic lumber stacker</a></td><td class="pageno">208</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">43.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_43">Automatic lumber stacker</a></td><td class="pageno">208</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">44.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_44">Battery of three automatic lumber stackers</a></td><td class="pageno">209</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">45.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_45">Battery of three automatic lumber stackers</a></td><td class="pageno">209</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">46.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_46">Lumber loaded edge-wise on kiln truck</a></td><td class="pageno">210</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">47.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_47">The lumber unstacker</a></td><td class="pageno">211</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">48.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_48">The lumber unstacker car</a></td><td class="pageno">211</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">49.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_49">Method of piling veneer on edge</a></td><td class="pageno">212</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">50.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_50">Kiln truck loaded cross-wise of kiln</a></td><td class="pageno">213</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">51.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_51">Kiln truck loaded cross-wise of kiln</a></td><td class="pageno">214</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">52.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_52">Kiln truck loaded end-wise of kiln</a></td><td class="pageno">214</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">53.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_53">Kiln truck loaded end-wise of kiln</a></td><td class="pageno">215</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">54.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_54">Method of piling staves on kiln truck</a></td><td class="pageno">216</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">55.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_55">Method of piling staves on kiln truck</a></td><td class="pageno">216</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">56.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_56">Method of piling tub or pail staves on kiln truck</a></td><td class="pageno">217</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">57.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_57">Method of piling bundled staves on kiln truck</a></td><td class="pageno">217</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">58.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_58">Method of piling shingles on kiln truck</a></td><td class="pageno">218</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">59.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_59">Method of piling shingles on kiln truck</a></td><td class="pageno">218</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">60.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_60">Method of piling shingles on kiln truck</a></td><td class="pageno">219</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">61.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_61">Kiln truck designed for loose pail staves</a></td><td class="pageno">219</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">62.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_62">Kiln truck designed for handling short stock</a></td><td class="pageno">221</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">63.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_63">Stave bolt truck</a></td><td class="pageno">221</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">64.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_64">Stave bolt truck</a></td><td class="pageno">222</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">65.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_65">Stave bolt truck</a></td><td class="pageno">222</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">66.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_66">Stave bolt truck</a></td><td class="pageno">223</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">67.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_67">Stave bolt truck</a></td><td class="pageno">223</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">68.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_68">Stave bolt truck</a></td><td class="pageno">224</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">69.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_69">Regular 3-rail transfer car</a></td><td class="pageno">224</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">70.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_70">Regular 3-rail transfer car</a></td><td class="pageno">225</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">71.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_71">Special 4-rail transfer car</a></td><td class="pageno">225</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">72.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_72">Regular 2-rail transfer car</a></td><td class="pageno">225</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">73.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_73">Regular 2-rail transfer car</a></td><td class="pageno"> 226</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">74.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_74">Underslung type 3-rail transfer car</a></td><td class="pageno">226</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">75.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_75">Underslung type 2-rail transfer car</a></td><td class="pageno">226</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">76.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_76">Flexible type 2-rail transfer car</a></td><td class="pageno">227</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">77.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_77">Regular transfer car for stave bolt trucks</a></td><td class="pageno">228</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">78.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_78">Regular transfer car for stave bolt trucks</a></td><td class="pageno">228</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">79.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_79">Special transfer car for stave bolt trucks</a></td><td class="pageno">228</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">80.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_80">Regular channel iron kiln truck for cross-wise piling</a></td><td class="pageno">229</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">81.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_81">Regular channel iron kiln truck for cross-wise piling</a></td><td class="pageno">229</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">82.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_82">Regular channel iron kiln truck for end-wise piling</a></td><td class="pageno">230</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">83.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_82">Special channel iron kiln truck for end-wise piling</a></td><td class="pageno">230</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">84.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_84">Regular dolly kiln truck for end-wise piling</a></td><td class="pageno">230</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">85.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_85">Asbestos-lined kiln door</a></td><td class="pageno">231</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">86.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_86">Twin door carrier with door loaded</a></td><td class="pageno">232</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">87.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_87">Twin door carrier for doors 18 to 35 feet wide</a></td><td class="pageno">232</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">88.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_88">Kiln door carrier</a></td><td class="pageno">233</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">89.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_89">Kiln door construction</a></td><td class="pageno">234</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">90.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_90">Kiln door construction</a></td><td class="pageno">235</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">91.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_91">Kiln door construction</a></td><td class="pageno">235</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">92.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_92">Kiln door construction</a></td><td class="pageno">236<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">93.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_93">The Humidity diagram</a></td><td class="pageno"><i>facing</i> 237</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">94.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_94">The hygrodeik</a></td><td class="pageno">242</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">95.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_95">The recording hygrometer</a></td><td class="pageno">243</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">96.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_96">The registering hygrometer</a></td><td class="pageno">244</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">97.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_97">The recording thermometer</a></td><td class="pageno">245</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">98.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_98">The registering thermometer</a></td><td class="pageno">246</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">99.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_99">The recording steam gauge</a></td><td class="pageno">246</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">100.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_100">The troemroid scalometer</a></td><td class="pageno">247</td></tr> +<tr><td class="illono">101.</td><td class="illoentry"><a href="#Fig_101">The electric heater</a></td><td class="pageno">250</td></tr> +</table> + + + +<h2 style="padding-top: 2em"><a name="SEASONING_OF_WOOD" id="SEASONING_OF_WOOD"></a>SEASONING OF WOOD<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></h2> + + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_I" id="SECTION_I"></a>SECTION I</h3> + +<h2>TIMBER</h2> + +<h4>Characteristics and Properties</h4> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Timber</span> was probably one of the earliest, if not the +earliest, of materials used by man for constructional purposes. +With it he built for himself a shelter from the +elements; it provided him with fuel and oft-times food, +and the tree cut down and let across a stream formed the +first bridge. From it, too, he made his "dug-out" to +travel along and across the rivers of the district in which +he dwelt; so on down through the ages, for shipbuilding +and constructive purposes, timber has continued to our +own time to be one of the most largely used of nature's +products.</p> + +<p>Although wood has been in use so long and so universally, +there still exists a remarkable lack of knowledge regarding +its nature, not only among ordinary workmen, but +among those who might be expected to know its properties. +Consequently it is often used in a faulty and wasteful +manner. Experience has been almost the only teacher, +and theories—sometimes right, sometimes wrong—rather +than well substantiated facts, lead the workman.</p> + +<p>One reason for this imperfect knowledge lies in the fact +that wood is not a homogeneous material, but a complicated +structure, and so variable, that one piece will behave +very differently from another, although cut from the same +tree. Not only does the wood of one species differ from +that of another, but the butt cut differs from that of the +top log, the heartwood from the sapwood; the wood of +quickly-grown sapling of the abandoned field, from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +that of the slowly-grown, old monarch of the forest. Even +the manner in which the tree was cut and kept influences +its behavior and quality. It is therefore extremely difficult +to study the material for the purpose of establishing +general laws.</p> + +<p>The experienced woodsman will look for straight-grained, +long-fibred woods, with the absence of disturbing +resinous and coloring matter, knots, etc., and will +quickly distinguish the more porous red or black oaks from +the less porous white species, <i>Quercus alba</i>. That the +inspection should have regard to defects and unhealthy +conditions (often indicated by color) goes without saying, +and such inspection is usually practised. That knots, +even the smallest, are defects, which for some uses condemn +the material entirely, need hardly be mentioned. +But that "season-checks," even those that have closed +by subsequent shrinkage, remain elements of weakness +is not so readily appreciated; yet there cannot be any +doubt of this, since these, the intimate connections of +the wood fibres, when once interrupted are never reestablished.</p> + +<p>Careful woods-foremen and manufacturers, therefore, +are concerned as to the manner in which their timber is +treated after the felling, for, according to the more or less +careful seasoning of it, the season checks—not altogether +avoidable—are more or less abundant.</p> + +<p>There is no country where wood is more lavishly used +or criminally neglected than in the United States, and +none in which nature has more bountifully provided for +all reasonable requirements.</p> + +<p>In the absence of proper efforts to secure reproduction, +the most valuable kinds are rapidly being decimated, and +the necessity of a more rational and careful use of what +remains is clearly apparent. By greater care in selection, +however, not only will the duration of the supply be extended, +but more satisfactory results will accrue from its +practice.</p> + +<p>There are few more extensive and wide-reaching subjects +on which to treat than timber, which in this book +refers to dead timber—the timber of commerce—as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +distinct from the living tree. Such a great number of +different kinds of wood are now being brought from various +parts of the world, so many new kinds are continually +being added, and the subject is more difficult to explain +because timber of practically the same character which +comes from different localities goes under different names, +that if one were always to adhere to the botanical name +there would be less confusion, although even botanists +differ in some cases as to names. Except in the cases of +the older and better known timbers, one rarely takes up +two books dealing with timber and finds the botanical +names the same; moreover, trees of the same species may +produce a much poorer quality of timber when obtained +from different localities in the same country, so that botanical +knowledge will not always allow us to dispense with +other tests.</p> + +<p>The structure of wood affords the only reliable means +of distinguishing the different kinds. Color, weight, smell, +and other appearances, which are often direct or indirect +results of structure, may be helpful in this distinction, +but cannot be relied upon entirely. Furthermore, structure +underlies nearly all the technical properties of this +important product, and furnishes an explanation why one +piece differs in these properties from another. Structure +explains why oak is heavier, stronger, and tougher than +pine; why it is harder to saw and plane, and why it is so +much more difficult to season without injury. From its +less porous structure alone it is evident that a piece of +young and thrifty oak is stronger than the porous wood +of an old or stunted tree, or that a Georgia or long-leaf +pine excels white pine in weight and strength.</p> + +<p>Keeping especially in mind the arrangement and direction +of the fibres of wood, it is clear at once why knots and +"cross-grain" interfere with the strength of timber. It +is due to the structural peculiarities that "honeycombing" +occurs in rapid seasoning, that checks or cracks extend +radially and follow pith rays, that tangent or "bastard" +cut stock shrinks and warps more than that which is +quarter-sawn. These same peculiarities enable oak to +take a better finish than basswood or coarse-grained pine.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>Structure of Wood</h4> + +<p>The softwoods are made up chiefly of tracheids, or +vertical cells closed at the ends, and of the relatively short +parenchyma cells of the medullary rays which extend +radially from the heart of the tree. The course of the +tracheids and the rays are at right angles to each other. +Although the tracheids have their permeable portions or +pits in their walls, liquids cannot pass through them with +the greatest ease. The softwoods do not contain "pores" +or vessels and are therefore called "non-porous" woods.</p> + +<p>The hardwoods are not so simple in structure as softwoods. +They contain not only rays, and in many cases +tracheids, but also thick-walled cells called fibres and wood +parenchyma for the storage of such foods as starches and +sugars. The principal structural features of the hardwoods +are the pores or vessels. These are long tubes, the +segments of which are made up of cells which have lost +their end walls and joined end to end, forming continuous +"pipe lines" from the roots to the leaves in the tree. Since +they possess pores or vessels, the hardwoods are called +"porous" woods.</p> + +<p>Red oak is an excellent example of a porous wood. In +white oak the vessels of the heartwood especially are +closed, very generally by ingrowths called tyloses. This +probably explains why red oak dries more easily and +rapidly than white oak.</p> + +<p>The red and black gums are perhaps the simplest of the +hardwoods in structure. They are termed "diffuse porous" +woods because of the numerous scattered pores +they contain. They have only vessels, wood fibres, and +a few parenchyma cells. The medullary rays, although +present, are scarcely visible in most instances. The +vessels are in many cases open, and might be expected to +offer relatively little resistance to drying.</p> + + +<h4>Properties of Wood</h4> + +<p>Certain general properties of wood may be discussed +briefly. We know that wood substance has the property +of taking in moisture from the air until some balance is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +reached between the humidity of the air and the moisture +in the wood. This moisture which goes into the cell walls +hygroscopic moisture, and the property which the wood +substance has of taking on hygroscopic moisture is termed +hygroscopicity. Usually wood contains not only hygroscopic +moisture but also more or less free water in the +cell cavities. Especially is this true of sapwood. The +free water usually dries out quite rapidly with little or no +shrinkage or other physical change.</p> + +<p>In certain woods—for example, <i>Eucalyptus globulus</i> and +possibly some oaks—shrinkage begins almost at once, thus +introducing a factor at the very start of the seasoning process +which makes these woods very refractory.</p> + +<p>The cell walls of some species, including the two already +mentioned, such as Western red cedar and redwood, become +soft and plastic when hot and moist. If the fibres +are hot enough and very wet, they are not strong enough +to withstand the resulting force of the atmospheric pressure +and the tensile force exerted by the departing free +water, and the result is that the cells actually collapse.</p> + +<p>In general, however, the hygroscopic moisture necessary +to saturate the cell walls is termed the "fibre saturation +point." This amount has been found to be from +25 to 30 per cent of the dry wood weight. Unlike <i>Eucalyptus +globulus</i> and certain oaks, the gums do not begin +to shrink until the moisture content has been reduced to +about 30 per cent of the dry wood weight. These woods +are not subject to collapse, although their fibres become +very plastic while hot and moist.</p> + +<p>Upon the peculiar properties of each wood depends the +difficulty or ease of the seasoning process.</p> + + +<h4>Classes of Trees</h4> + +<p>The timber of the United States is furnished by three +well-defined classes of trees: (1) The needle-leaved, naked-seeded +conifers, such as pine, cedar, etc., (2) the broad-leaved +trees such as oak poplar, etc., and (3) to an +inferior extent by the (one-seed leaf) palms, yuccas, +and their allies, which are confined to the most southern +parts of the country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> + +<p>Broad-leaved trees are also known as deciduous trees, +although, especially in warm countries, many of them are +evergreen, while the needle-leaved trees (conifers) are +commonly termed "evergreens," although the larch, bald +cypress, and others shed their leaves every fall, and even +the names "broad-leaved" and "coniferous," though perhaps +the most satisfactory, are not at all exact, for the +conifer "ginkgo" has broad leaves and bears no cones.</p> + +<p>Among the woodsmen, the woods of broad-leaved trees +are known as "hardwoods," though poplar is as soft as +pine, and the "coniferous woods" are known as "softwoods," +notwithstanding the fact that yew ranks high in +hardness even when compared with "hardwoods."</p> + +<p>Both in the number of different kinds of trees or species +and still more in the importance of their product, the conifers +and broad-leaved trees far excel the palms and their +relatives.</p> + +<p>In the manner of their growth both the conifers and +broad-leaved trees behave alike, adding each year a new +layer of wood, which covers the old wood in all parts of +the stem and limbs. Thus the trunk continues to grow +in thickness throughout the life of the tree by additions +(annual rings), which in temperate climates are, barring +accidents, accurate records of the tree. With the palms +and their relatives the stem remains generally of the same +diameter, the tree of a hundred years old being as thick +as it was at ten years, the growth of these being only at +the top. Even where a peripheral increase takes place, +as in the yuccas, the wood is not laid on in well-defined +layers for the structure remains irregular throughout. +Though alike in the manner of their growth, and therefore +similar in their general make-up, conifers and broad-leaved +trees differ markedly in the details of their structure and +the character of their wood.</p> + +<p>The wood of all conifers is very simple in its structure, +the fibres composing the main part of the wood all being +alike and their arrangement regular. The wood of the +broad-leaved trees is complex in structure; it is made up +of different kinds of cells and fibres and lacks the regularity +of arrangement so noticeable in the conifers. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +difference is so great that in a study of wood structure it +is best to consider the two kinds separately.</p> + +<p>In this country the great variety of woods, and especially +of useful woods, often makes the mere distinction of the +kind or species of tree most difficult. Thus there are at +least eight pines of the thirty-five native ones in the market, +some of which so closely resemble each other in their +minute structure that one can hardly tell them apart, and +yet they differ in quality and are often mixed or confounded +in the trade. Of the thirty-six oaks, of which +probably not less than six or eight are marketed, we can +readily recognize by means of their minute anatomy at +least two tribes—the white and black oaks. The same +is true of the eleven kinds of hickory, the six kinds of ash, +etc., etc.</p> + +<p>The list of names of all trees indigenous to the United +States, as enumerated by the United States Forest Service, +is 495 in number, the designation of "tree" being applied +to all woody plants which produce naturally in their +native habitat one main, erect stem, bearing a definite +crown, no matter what size they attain.</p> + +<p>Timber is produced only by the Spermatophyta, or +seed-bearing plants, which are subdivided into the Gymnosperms +(conifers), and Angiosperms (broad-leaved). +The conifer or cone-bearing tree, to which belong the pines, +larches, and firs, is one of the three natural orders of Gymnosperms. +These are generally classed as "softwoods," +and are more extensively scattered and more generally +used than any other class of timber, and are simple and +regular in structure. The so-called "hardwoods" are +"Dicotyledons" or broad-leaved trees, a subdivision of +the Angiosperms. They are generally of slower growth, +and produce harder timber than the conifers, but not +necessarily so. Basswood, poplar, sycamore, and some +of the gums, though classed with the hardwoods, are not +nearly as hard as some of the pines.</p> + + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_II" id="SECTION_II"></a>SECTION II<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></h3> + +<h2>CONIFEROUS TREES</h2> + +<h3 style="padding-top: 0em">WOOD OF THE CONIFEROUS TREES</h3> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Examining</span> a smooth cross-section or end face of a well-grown +log of Georgia pine, we distinguish an envelope of +reddish, scaly bark, a small, whitish pith at the center, +and between these the wood in a great number of concentric +rings.</p> + + +<h4>Bark and Pith</h4> + +<p>The bark of a pine stem is thickest and roughest near +the base, decreases rapidly in thickness from one to one-half +inches at the stump to one-tenth inch near the top +of the tree, and forms in general about ten to fifteen per +cent of the entire trunk. The pith is quite thick, usually +one-eighth to one-fifth inch in southern species, though +much less so in white pine, and is very thin, one-fifteenth +to one twenty-fifth inch in cypress, cedar, and larch.</p> + +<p>In woods with a thick pith, the pith is finest at the +stump, grows rapidly thicker toward the top, and becomes +thinner again in the crown and limbs, the first one +to five rings adjoining it behaving similarly.</p> + +<p>What is called the pith was once the seedling tree, and +in many of the pines and firs, especially after they have +been seasoning for a good while, this is distinctly noticeable +in the center of the log, and detaches itself from the +surrounding wood.</p> + + +<h4>Sap and Heartwood</h4> + +<p>Wood is composed of duramen or heartwood, and alburnum +or sapwood, and when dry consists approximately +of 49 per cent by weight of carbon, 6 per cent of hydrogen, +44 per cent of oxygen, and 1 per cent of ash, which is fairly +uniform for all species. The sapwood is the external and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +youngest portion of the tree, and often constitutes a very +considerable proportion of it. It lies next the bark, and +after a course of years, sometimes many, as in the case of +oaks, sometimes few, as in the case of firs, it becomes +hardened and ultimately forms the duramen or heartwood. +Sapwood is generally of a white or light color, almost invariably +lighter in color than the heartwood, and is very +conspicuous in the darker-colored woods, as for instance +the yellow sapwood of mahogany and similiar colored +woods, and the reddish brown heartwood; or the yellow +sapwood of <i>Lignum-vitae</i> and the dark green heartwood. +Sapwood forms a much larger proportion of some trees +than others, but being on the outer circumference it always +forms a large proportion of the timber, and even in sound, +hard pine will be from 40 per cent to 60 per cent of the +tree and in some cases much more. It is really imperfect +wood, while the duramen or heartwood is the perfect wood; +the heartwood of the mature tree was the sapwood of its +earlier years. Young trees when cut down are almost +all sapwood, and practically useless as good, sound timber; +it is, however, through the sapwood that the life-giving +juices which sustain the tree arise from the soil, and if the +sapwood be cut through, as is done when "girdling," the +tree quickly dies, as it can derive no further nourishment +from the soil. Although absolutely necessary to the growing +tree, sapwood is often objectionable to the user, as it +is the first part to decay. In this sapwood many cells are +active, store up starch, and otherwise assist in the life +processes of the tree, although only the last or outer layer +of cells forms the growing part, and the true life of the tree.</p> + +<p>The duramen or heartwood is the inner, darker part of +the log. In the heartwood all the cells are lifeless cases, +and serve only the mechanical function of keeping the +tree from breaking under its own great weight or from +being laid low by the winds. The darker color of the +heartwood is due to infiltration of chemical substances +into the cell walls, but the cavities of the cells in pine are +not filled up, as is sometimes believed, nor do their walls +grow thicker, nor are the walls any more liquified than in +the sapwood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p> + +<p>Sapwood varies in width and in the number of rings +which it contains even in different parts of the same tree. +The same year's growth which is sapwood in one part of +a disk may be heartwood in another. Sapwood is widest +in the main part of the stem and often varies within considerable +limits and without apparent regularity. Generally, +it becomes narrower toward the top and in the +limbs, its width varying with the diameter, and being +the least in a given disk on the side which has the shortest +radius. Sapwood of old and stunted pines is composed +of more rings than that of young and thrifty specimens. +Thus in a pine two hundred and fifty years old a layer of +wood or an annual ring does not change from sapwood to +heartwood until seventy or eighty years after it is formed, +while in a tree one hundred years old or less it remains +sapwood only from thirty to sixty years.</p> + +<p>The width of the sapwood varies considerably for different +kinds of pine. It is small for long-leaf and white +pine and great for loblolly and Norway pines. Occupying +the peripheral part of the trunk, the proportion which +it forms of the entire mass of the stem is always great. +Thus even in old long-leaf pines, the sapwood forms 40 +per cent of the merchantable log, while in the loblolly +and in all young trees the sapwood forms the bulk of the +wood.</p> + + +<h4>The Annual or Yearly Rings</h4> + +<p>The concentric annual or yearly rings which appear on +the end face of a log are cross-sections of so many thin +layers of wood. Each such layer forms an envelope around +its inner neighbor, and is in turn covered by the adjoining +layer without, so that the whole stem is built up of +a series of thin, hollow cylinders, or rather cones.</p> + +<p>A new layer of wood is formed each season, covering +the entire stem, as well as all the living branches. The +thickness of this layer or the width of the yearly ring +varies greatly in different trees, and also in different parts +of the same tree.</p> + +<p>In a normally-grown, thrifty pine log the rings are widest +near the pith, growing more and more narrow toward<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +the bark. Thus the central twenty rings in a disk of an +old long-leaf pine may each be one-eighth to one-sixth +inch wide, while the twenty rings next to the bark may +average only one-thirtieth inch.</p> + +<p>In our forest trees, rings of one-half inch in width occur +only near the center in disks of very thrifty trees, of both +conifers and hardwoods. One-twelfth inch represents good, +thrifty growth, and the minimum width of one two hundred +inch is often seen in stunted spruce and pine. The +average width of rings in well-grown, old white pine will +vary from one-twelfth to one-eighteenth inch, while in the +slower growing long-leaf pine it may be one twenty-fifth +to one-thirtieth of an inch. The same layer of wood +is widest near the stump in very thrifty young trees, +especially if grown in the open park; but in old forest +trees the same year's growth is wider at the upper part +of the tree, being narrowest near the stump, and often +also near the very tip of the stem. Generally the rings +are widest near the center, growing narrower toward the +bark.</p> + +<p>In logs from stunted trees the order is often reversed, +the interior rings being thin and the outer rings widest. +Frequently, too, zones or bands of very narrow rings, +representing unfavorable periods of growth, disturb the +general regularity.</p> + +<p>Few trees, even among pines, furnish a log with truly +circular cross-section. Usually it is an oval, and at the +stump commonly quite an irregular figure. Moreover, +even in very regular or circular disks the pith is rarely in +the center, and frequently one radius is conspicuously +longer than its opposite, the width of some rings, if not +all, being greater on one side than on the other. This is +nearly always so in the limbs, the lower radius exceeding +the upper. In extreme cases, especially in the limbs, a +ring is frequently conspicuous on one side, and almost +or entirely lost to view on the other. Where the rings +are extremely narrow, the dark portion of the ring is often +wanting, the color being quite uniform and light. The +greater regularity or irregularity of the annual rings has +much to do with the technical qualities of the timber.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>Spring- and Summer-Wood</h4> + +<p>Examining the rings more closely, it is noticed that +each ring is made up of an inner, softer, light-colored and +an outer, or peripheral, firmer and darker-colored portion. +Being formed in the forepart of the season, the inner, +light-colored part is termed spring-wood, the outer, darker-portioned +being the summer-wood of the ring. Since the +latter is very heavy and firm it determines to a very large +extent the weight and strength of the wood, and as its +darker color influences the shade of color of the entire +piece of wood, this color effect becomes a valuable aid in +distinguishing heavy and strong from light and soft pine +wood.</p> + +<p>In most hard pines, like the long-leaf, the dark summer-wood +appears as a distinct band, so that the yearly ring +is composed of two sharply defined bands—an inner, +the spring-wood, and an outer, the summer-wood. But +in some cases, even in hard pines, and normally in the +woods of white pines, the spring-wood passes gradually +into the darker summer-wood, so that a darkly defined +line occurs only where the spring-wood of one ring abuts +against the summer-wood of its neighbor. It is this clearly +defined line which enables the eye to distinguish even the +very narrow lines in old pines and spruces.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig01.jpg" width="300" height="381" alt="Board of Pine" title="Board of Pine" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 1. Board of Pine. CS, cross-section; RS, +radial section; TS, tangential section; +<i>sw</i>, summer-wood; <i>spw</i>, spring-wood.</p> +</div> + +<p>In some cases, especially in the trunks of Southern pines, +and normally on the lower side of pine limbs, there occur +dark bands of wood in the spring-wood portion of the ring, +giving rise to false rings, which mislead in a superficial +counting of rings. In the disks cut from limbs these +dark bands often occupy the greater part of the ring, and +appear as "lunes," or sickle-shaped figures. The wood of +these dark bands is similar to that of the true summer-wood. +The cells have thick walls, but usually the compressed +or flattened form. Normally, the summer-wood +forms a greater proportion of the rings in the part of the +tree formed during the period of thriftiest growth. In +an old tree this proportion is very small in the first two +to five rings about the pith, and also in the part next to +the bark, the intermediate part showing a greater proportion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +of summer-wood. It is also greatest in a disk +taken from near the stump, and decreases upward in the +stem, thus fully accounting for the difference in weight +and firmness of the wood of these different parts.</p> + + +<p>In the long-leaf pine the summer-wood often forms +scarcely ten per cent of the wood in the central five rings; +forty to fifty per cent of the next one hundred rings, about +thirty per cent of the next fifty, and only about twenty +per cent in the fifty +rings next to the +bark. It averages +forty-five per cent of +the wood of the +stump and only +twenty-four per cent +of that of the top.</p> + +<p>Sawing the log into +boards, the yearly +rings are represented +on the board faces +of the middle board +(radial sections) by +narrow parallel strips +(<a href="#Fig_1">see Fig. 1</a>), an inner, +lighter stripe +and its outer, darker +neighbor always corresponding +to one +annual ring.</p> + +<p>On the faces of the +boards nearest the slab (tangential or bastard boards) the +several years' growth should also appear as parallel, but +much broader stripes. This they do if the log is short +and very perfect. Usually a variety of pleasing patterns +is displayed on the boards, depending on the position of +the saw cut and on the regularity of growth of the log +(<a href="#Fig_1">see Fig. 1</a>). Where the cut passes through a prominence +(bump or crook) of the log, irregular, concentric circlets +and ovals are produced, and on almost all tangent boards +arrow or V-shaped forms occur.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>Anatomical Structure</h4> + +<p>Holding a well-smoothed disk or cross-section one-eighth +inch thick toward the light, it is readily seen that +pine wood is a very porous structure. If viewed with a +strong magnifier, the little tubes, especially in the spring-wood +of the rings, are easily distinguished, and their arrangement +in regular, straight, radial rows is apparent.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig02.jpg" width="300" height="320" alt="Wood of Spruce" title="Wood of Spruce" /> + + +<p class="caption">Fig. 2. Wood of Spruce. 1, natural size; 2, +small part of one ring magnified 100 +times. The vertical tubes are wood +fibres, in this case all "tracheids." <i>m</i>, +medullary or pith ray; <i>n</i>, transverse +tracheids of ray; <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and <i>c</i>, bordered +pits of the tracheids, more enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>Scattered through the summer-wood portion of the +rings, numerous irregular grayish dots (the resin ducts) +disturb the uniformity +and regularity of +the structure. Magnified +one hundred +times, a piece of +spruce, which is similar +to pine, presents +a picture like that +shown in <a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>. +Only short pieces of +the tubes or cells of +which the wood is +composed are represented +in the picture. +The total length of +these fibres is from +one-twentieth to one-fifth +inch, being the +smallest near the +pith, and is fifty to +one hundred times +as great as their +width (see <a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>). +They are tapered and closed at their ends, polygonal or +rounded and thin-walled, with large cavity, lumen or internal +space in the spring-wood, and thick-walled and +flattened radially, with the internal space or lumen much +reduced in the summer-wood (see right-hand portion +of <a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>). This flattening, together with the thicker walls +of the cells, which reduces the lumen, causes the greater<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +firmness and darker color of the summer-wood. There +is more material in the same volume. As shown in the +figure, the tubes, cells or "tracheids" are decorated on +their walls by circlet-like structures, the "bordered pits," +sections of which are seen more magnified as <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and <i>c</i>, +<a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>. These pits are in the nature of pores, covered +by very thin membranes, and serve as waterways +between the cells or tracheids. The dark +lines on the side of the smaller piece (1, <a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>) +appear when magnified (in 2, <a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>) as tiers +of eight to ten rows of cells, which run radially +(parallel to the rows of tubes or tracheids), +and are seen as bands on the radial face and +as rows of pores on the tangential face. These +bands or tiers of cell rows are the medullary +rays or pith rays, and are common to all our +lumber woods.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 50px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig03.jpg" width="50" height="383" alt="Group of fibres from pine wood" title="Group of fibres from pine wood" /> +</div> + +<p>In the pines and other conifers they are quite +small, but they can readily be seen even without +a magnifier. If a radial surface of split-wood +(not smoothed) is examined, the entire +radial face will be seen almost covered with +these tiny structures, which appear as fine but +conspicuous cross-lines. As shown in <a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>, the +cells of the medullary or pith are smaller and +very much shorter than the wood fibre or +tracheids, and their long axis is at right angles +to that of the fiber.</p> + +<p>In pines and spruces the cells of the upper +and lower rows of each tier or pith ray have +"bordered" pits, like those of the wood fibre +or tracheids proper, but the cells of the intermediate +rows in the rays of cedars, etc., have +only "simple" pits, <i>i.e.</i>, pits devoid of the +saucer-like "border" or rim. In pine, many +of the pith rays are larger than the majority,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +each containing a whitish line, the horizontal resin duct, +which, though much smaller, resembles the vertical ducts +on the cross-section. The larger vertical resin ducts are +best observed on removal of the bark from a fresh piece +of white pine cut in the winter where they appear as conspicuous +white lines, extending often for many inches up +and down the stem. Neither the horizontal nor the vertical +resin ducts are vessels or cells, but are openings between +cells, <i>i.e.</i>, intercellular spaces, in which the resin accumulates, +freely oozing out when the ducts of a fresh piece of +sapwood are cut. They are present only in our coniferous +woods, and even here they are restricted to pine, spruce, +and larch, and are normally absent in fir, cedar, cypress, +and yew. Altogether, the structure of coniferous woods +is very simple and regular, the bulk being made up of the +small fibres called tracheids, the disturbing elements of +pith rays and resin ducts being insignificant, and hence +the great uniformity and great technical value of coniferous +woods.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> + +<p class="caption" style="margin-left: 2em">Fig. 3. Group of Fibres from Pine Wood. Partly schematic. The little +circles are "border pits" (see <a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>, <i>a-c</i>). The transverse rows of +square pits indicate the places of contact of these fibres and the cells +of the neighboring pith rays. Magnified about 25 times.</p> + +<h3><a name="LIST_OF_IMPORTANT_CONIFEROUS_WOODS" id="LIST_OF_IMPORTANT_CONIFEROUS_WOODS"></a>LIST OF IMPORTANT CONIFEROUS WOODS</h3> + + +<h4>CEDAR</h4> + +<p>Light soft, stiff, not strong, of fine texture. Sap- and +heartwood distinct, the former lighter, the latter a dull +grayish brown or red. The wood seasons rapidly, shrinks +and checks but little, and is very durable in contact with +the soil. Used like soft pine, but owing to its great durability +preferred for shingles, etc. Cedars usually occur +scattered, but they form in certain localities forests of +considerable extent.</p> + + +<h4>(<i>a</i>) White Cedars</h4> + +<p class="negative1"><b>1. White Cedar</b> (<i>Thuya occidentalis</i>) (Arborvitæ, Tree of +Life). Heartwood light yellowish brown, sapwood +nearly white. Wood light, soft, not strong, of fine +texture, very durable in contact with the soil, very +fragrant. Scattered along streams and lakes, frequently +covering extensive swamps; rarely large +enough for lumber, but commonly used for fence +posts, rails, railway ties, and shingles. This species +has been extensively cultivated as an ornamental tree +for at least a century. Maine to Minnesota and +northward.</p> + +<p class="negative1"><b>2. Canoe Cedar</b> (<i>Thuya gigantea</i>) (Red Cedar of the West). +In Oregon and Washington a very large tree, covering +extensive swamps; in the mountains much smaller, +skirting the water courses. An important lumber +tree. The wood takes a fine polish; suitable for +interior finishing, as there is much variety of shading +in the color. Washington to northern California +and eastward to Montana.</p> + +<p class="negative1"><b>3. White Cedar</b> (<i>Chamæcyparis thyoides</i>). Medium-sized +tree. Heartwood light brown with rose tinge, sapwood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +paler. Wood light, soft, not strong, close-grained, +easily worked, very durable in contact with +the soil and very fragrant. Used in boatbuilding +cooperage, interior finish, fence posts, railway ties, +etc. Along the coast from Maine to Mississippi.</p> + +<p class="negative1"><b>4. White Cedar</b> (<i>Chamæcyparis Lawsoniana</i>) (Port Orford +Cedar, Oregon Cedar, Lawson's Cypress, Ginger +Pine). A very large tree. A fine, close-grained, +yellowish-white, durable timber, elastic, easily worked, +free of knots, and fragrant. Extensively cut for +lumber; heavier and stronger than any of the preceding. +Along the coast line of Oregon.</p> + +<p class="negative1"><b>5. White Cedar</b> (<i>Libocedrus decurrens</i>) (Incense Cedar). +A large tree, abundantly scattered among pine and +fir. Wood fine-grained. Cascades and Sierra Nevada +Mountains of Oregon and California.</p> + +<p class="negative1"><b>6. Yellow Cedar</b> (<i>Cupressus nootkatensis</i>) (Alaska Cedar, +Alaska Cypress). A very large tree, much used for +panelling and furniture. A fine, close-grained, yellowish +white, durable timber, easily worked. Along +the coast line of Oregon north.</p> + + +<h4>(<i>b</i>) Red Cedars</h4> + +<p class="negative1"><b>7. Red Cedar</b> (<i>Juniperus Virginiana</i>) (Savin Juniper, +Juniper, Red Juniper, Juniper Bush, Pencil Cedar). +Heartwood dull red color, thin sapwood nearly white. +Close even grain, compact structure. Wood light, +soft, weak, brittle, easily worked, durable in contact +with the soil, and fragrant. Used for ties, posts, +interior finish, pencil cases, cigar boxes, silos, tanks, +and especially for lead pencils, for which purpose +alone several million feet are cut each year. A small +to medium-sized tree scattered through the forests, +or in the West sparsely covering extensive areas (cedar +brakes). The red cedar is the most widely distributed +conifer of the United States, occurring from the Atlantic +to the Pacific, and from Florida to Minnesota.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +Attains a suitable size for lumber only in the Southern, +and more especially the Gulf States.</p> + +<p class="negative1"><b>8. Red Cedar</b> (<i>Juniperus communis</i>) (Ground Cedar). +Small-sized tree, its maximum height being about +25 feet. It is found widely distributed throughout +the Northern hemisphere. Wood in its quality similar +to the preceding. The fruit of this species is gathered +in large quantities and used in the manufacture of +gin; whose peculiar flavor and medicinal properties +are due to the oil of Juniper berries, which is secured +by adding the crushed fruit to undistilled grain spirit, +or by allowing the vapor to pass over it before condensation. +Used locally for construction purposes, +fence posts, etc. Ranges from Greenland to Alaska, +in the East, southward to Pennsylvania and northern +Nebraska; in the Rocky Mountains to Texas, Mexico, +and Arizona.</p> + +<p class="negative1"><b>9. Redwood</b> (<i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>) (Sequoia, California +Redwood, Coast Redwood). Wood in its quality +and uses like white cedar. Thick, red heartwood, +changing to reddish brown when seasoned. Thin +sapwood, nearly white, coarse, straight grain, compact +structure. Light, not strong, soft, very durable in +contact with the soil, not resinous, easily worked, +does not burn easily, receives high polish. Used for +timber, shingles, flumes, fence posts, coffins, railway ties, +water pipes, interior decorations, and cabinetmaking. +A very large tree, limited to the coast ranges of California, +and forming considerable forests, which are +rapidly being converted into lumber.</p> + + +<h4>CYPRESS</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>10. Cypress</b> (<i>Taxodium distinchum</i>) (Bald Cypress, Black, +White, and Red Cypress, Pecky Cypress). Wood in +its appearance, quality, and uses similar to white +cedar. "Black" and "White Cypress" are heavy +and light forms of the same species. Heartwood +brownish; sapwood nearly white. Wood close,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +straight-grain, frequently full of small holes caused by +disease known as "pecky cypress." Greasy appearance +and feeling. Wood light, soft, not strong, +durable in contact with the soil, takes a fine polish. +Green wood often very heavy. Used for carpentry, +building construction, shingles, cooperage, railway +ties, silos, tanks, vehicles, and washing machines. +The cypress is a large, deciduous tree, inhabiting +swampy lands, and along rivers and coasts of the +Southern parts of the United States. Grows to a +height of 150 feet and 12 feet in diameter.</p> + + +<h4>FIR</h4> + +<p>This name is frequently applied to wood and to trees +which are not fir; most commonly to spruce, but also, +especially in English markets, to pine. It resembles +spruce, but is easily distinguished from it, as well as from +pine and larch, by the absence of resin ducts. Quality, +uses, and habits similar to spruce.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>11. Balsam Fir</b> (<i>Abies balsamea</i>) (Balsam, Fir Tree, Balm +of Gilead Fir). Heartwood white to brownish; sapwood +lighter color; coarse-grained, compact structure, +satiny. Wood light, not durable or strong, resinous, +easily split. Used for boxes, crates, doors, millwork, +cheap lumber, paper pulp. Inferior to white pine +or spruce, yet often mixed and sold with these species +in the lumber market. A medium-sized tree scattered +throughout the northern pineries, and cut in lumber +operations whenever of sufficient size. Minnesota +to Maine and northward.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>12. White Fir</b> (<i>Abies grandis</i> and <i>Abies concolor</i>). Medium- +to very large-sized tree, forming an important part of +most of the Western mountain forests, and furnishes +much of the lumber of the respective regions. The +former occurs from Vancouver to California, and the +latter from Oregon to Arizona and eastward to Colorado +and Mexico. The wood is soft and light, coarse-grained, +not unlike the "Swiss pine" of Europe, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +darker and firmer, and is not suitable for any purpose +requiring strength. It is used for boxes, barrels, and +to a small extent for wood pulp.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>13. White Fir</b> (<i>Abies amabalis</i>). Good-sized tree, often +forming extensive mountain forests. Wood similar +in quality and uses to <i>Abies grandis</i>. Cascade Mountains +of Washington and Oregon.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>14. Red Fir</b> (<i>Abies nobilis</i>) (Noble Fir) (not to be confounded +with Douglas spruce. See No. 40). Large +to very large-sized tree, forming extensive forests on +the slope of the mountains between 3,000 and 4,000 +feet elevation. Cascade Mountains of Oregon.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>15. Red Fir</b> (<i>Abies magnifica</i>). Very large-sized tree, +forming forests about the base of Mount Shasta. +Sierra Nevada Mountains of California, from Mount +Shasta southward.</p> + + +<h4>HEMLOCK</h4> + +<p>Light to medium weight, soft, stiff, but brittle, commonly +cross-grained, rough and splintery. Sapwood and heartwood +not well defined. The wood of a light reddish-gray +color, free from resin ducts, moderately durable, shrinks +and warps considerably in drying, wears rough, retains +nails firmly. Used principally for dimension stuff and +timbers. Hemlocks are medium- to large-sized trees, +commonly scattered among broad-leaved trees and conifers, +but often forming forests of almost pure growth.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>16. Hemlock</b> (<i>Tsuga canadensis</i>) (Hemlock Spruce, +Peruche). Medium-sized tree, furnishes almost all +the hemlock of the Eastern market. Maine to Wisconsin, +also following the Alleghanies southward to +Georgia and Alabama.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>17. Hemlock</b> (<i>Tsuga mertensiana</i>). Large-sized tree, +wood claimed to be heavier and harder than the +Eastern species and of superior quality. Used for +pulp wood, floors, panels, and newels. It is not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +suitable for heavy construction, especially where exposed +to the weather, it is straight in grain and will +take a good polish. Not adapted for use partly in +and partly out of the ground; in fresh water as piles +will last about ten years, but as it is softer than fir +it is less able to stand driving successfully. Washington +to California and eastward to Montana.</p> + + +<h4>LARCH or TAMARACK</h4> + +<p>Wood like the best of hard pine both in appearance, +quality, and uses, and owing to its great durability somewhat +preferred in shipbuilding, for telegraph poles, and +railway ties. In its structure it resembles spruce. The +larches are deciduous trees, occasionally covering considerable +areas, but usually scattered among other conifers.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>18. Tamarack</b> (<i>Larix laricina</i> var. <i>Americana</i>) (Larch, +Black Larch, American Larch, Hacmatac). Heartwood +light brown in color, sapwood nearly white, +coarse conspicuous grain, compact structure, annual +rings pronounced. Wood heavy, hard, very strong, +durable in contact with the soil. Used for railway +ties, fence posts, sills, ship timbers, telegraph poles, +flagstaffs. Medium-sized tree, often covering swamps, +in which case it is smaller and of poor quality. Maine +to Minnesota, and southward to Pennsylvania.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>19. Tamarack</b> (<i>Larix occidentalis</i>) (Western Larch, Larch). +Large-sized trees, scattered, locally abundant. Is +little inferior to oak in strength and durability. +Heartwood of a light brown color with lighter sapwood, +has a fine, slightly satiny grain, and is +fairly free from knots; the annual rings are distant. +Used for railway ties and shipbuilding. Washington +and Oregon to Montana.</p> + + +<h4>PINE</h4> + +<p>Very variable, very light and soft in "soft" pine, such +as white pine; of medium weight to heavy and quite +hard in "hard" pine, of which the long-leaf or Georgia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +pine is the extreme form. Usually it is stiff, quite strong, +of even texture, and more or less resinous. The sapwood +is yellowish white; the heartwood orange brown. Pine +shrinks moderately, seasons rapidly and without much +injury; it works easily, is never too hard to nail (unlike +oak or hickory); it is mostly quite durable when in contact +with the soil, and if well seasoned is not subject to +the attacks of boring insects. The heavier the wood, the +darker, stronger, and harder it is, and the more it shrinks +and checks when seasoning. Pine is used more extensively +than any other wood. It is the principal wood in +carpentry, as well as in all heavy construction, bridges, +trestles, etc. It is also used in almost every other wood +industry; for spars, masts, planks, and timbers in shipbuilding, +in car and wagon construction, in cooperage and +woodenware; for crates and boxes, in furniture work, for +toys and patterns, water pipes, excelsior, etc. Pines are +usually large-sized trees with few branches, the straight, +cylindrical, useful stem forming by far the greatest part +of the tree. They occur gregariously, forming vast forests, +a fact which greatly facilitates their exploitation. Of the +many special terms applied to pine as lumber, denoting +sometimes differences in quality, the following deserve +attention: "White pine," "pumpkin pine," "soft pine," +in the Eastern markets refer to the wood of the white +pine (<i>Pinus strobus</i>), and on the Pacific Coast to that of +the sugar pine (<i>Pinus lambertiana</i>). "Yellow pine" is +applied in the trade to all the Southern lumber pines; in +the Northwest it is also applied to the pitch pine (<i>Pinus +regida</i>); in the West it refers mostly to the bull pine (<i>Pinus +ponderosa</i>). "Yellow long-leaf pine" (Georgia pine), +chiefly used in advertisements, refers to the long-leaf +Pine (<i>Pinus palustris</i>).</p> + + +<h4>(<i>a</i>) Soft Pines</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>20. White Pine</b> (<i>Pinus strobus</i>) (Soft Pine, Pumpkin Pine, +Weymouth Pine, Yellow Deal). Large to very large-sized +tree, reaching a height of 80 to 100 feet or more, +and in some instances 7 or 8 feet in diameter. For +the last fifty years the most important timber tree<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +of the United States, furnishing the best quality of +soft pine. Heartwood cream white; sapwood nearly +white. Close straight grain, compact structure; comparatively +free from knots and resin. Soft, uniform; +seasons well; easy to work; nails without splitting; +fairly durable in contact with the soil; and shrinks +less than other species of pine. Paints well. Used +for carpentry, construction, building, spars, masts, +matches, boxes, etc., etc., etc.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>21. Sugar Pine</b> (<i>Pinus lambertiana</i>) (White Pine, Pumpkin +Pine, Soft Pine). A very large tree, forming extensive +forests in the Rocky Mountains and furnishing +most of the timber of the western United States. It +is confined to Oregon and California, and grows at +from 1,500 to 8,000 feet above sea level. Has an +average height of 150 to 175 feet and a diameter of +4 to 5 feet, with a maximum height of 235 feet and 12 +feet in diameter. The wood is soft, durable, straight-grained, +easily worked, very resinous, and has a +satiny luster which makes it appreciated for interior +work. It is extensively used for doors, blinds, sashes, +and interior finish, also for druggists' drawers, owing +to its freedom from odor, for oars, mouldings, shipbuilding, +cooperage, shingles, and fruit boxes. Oregon +and California.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>22. White Pine</b> (<i>Pinus monticolo</i>). A large tree, at home +in Montana, Idaho, and the Pacific States. Most +common and locally used in northern Idaho.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>23. White Pine</b> (<i>Pinus flexilis</i>). A small-sized tree, +forming mountain forests of considerable extent and +locally used. Eastern Rocky Mountain slopes, Montana +to New Mexico.</p> + + +<h4>(<i>b</i>) Hard Pines</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>24. Long-Leaf Pine</b> (<i>Pinus palustris</i>) (Georgia Pine, +Southern Pine, Yellow Pine, Southern Hard Pine, +Long-straw Pine, etc.). Large-sized tree. This +species furnishes the hardest and most durable as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +well as one of the strongest pine timbers in the market. +Heartwood orange, sapwood lighter color, the annual +rings are strongly marked, and it is full of resinous +matter, making it very durable, but difficult to work. +It is hard, dense, and strong, fairly free from knots, +straight-grained, and one of the best timbers for +heavy engineering work where great strength, long +span, and durability are required. Used for heavy +construction, shipbuilding, cars, docks, beams, ties, +flooring, and interior decoration. Coast region from +North Carolina to Texas.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>25. Bull Pine</b> (<i>Pinus ponderosa</i>) (Yellow Pine, Western +Yellow Pine, Western Pine, Western White Pine, +California White Pine). Medium- to very large-sized +tree, forming extensive forests in the Pacific and +Rocky Mountain regions. Heartwood reddish brown, +sapwood yellowish white, and there is often a good +deal of it. The resinous smell of the wood is very +remarkable. It is extensively used for beams, flooring, +ceilings, and building work generally.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>26. Bull Pine</b> (<i>Pinus Jeffreyi</i>) (Black Pine). Large-sized +tree, wood resembles <i>Pinus ponderosa</i> and replacing +same at high altitudes. Used locally in +California.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>27. Loblolly Pine</b> (<i>Pinus tæda</i>) (Slash Pine, Old Field +Pine, Rosemary Pine, Sap Pine, Short-straw Pine). +A large-sized tree, forms extensive forests. Wider-ringed, +coarser, lighter, softer, with more sapwood +than the long-leaf pine, but the two are often confounded +in the market. The more Northern tree +produces lumber which is weak, brittle, coarse-grained, +and not durable, the Southern tree produces a better +quality wood. Both are very resinous. This is the +common lumber pine from Virginia to South Carolina, +and is found extensively in Arkansas and Texas. +Southern States, Virginia to Texas and Arkansas.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>28. Norway Pine</b> (<i>Pinus resinosa</i>) (American Red Pine, +Canadian Pine). Large-sized tree, never forming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +forests, usually scattered or in small groves, together +with white pine. Largely sapwood and hence not +durable. Heartwood reddish white, with fine, clear +grain, fairly tough and elastic, not liable to warp and +split. Used for building construction, bridges, piles, +masts, and spars. Minnesota to Michigan; also in +New England to Pennsylvania.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>29. Short-Leaf Pine</b> (<i>Pinus echinata</i>) (Slash Pine, Spruce +Pine, Carolina Pine, Yellow Pine, Old Field Pine, +Hard Pine). A medium- to large-sized tree, resembling +loblolly pine, often approaches in its wood the +Norway pine. Heartwood orange, sapwood lighter; +compact structure, apt to be variable in appearance +in cross-section. Wood usually hard, tough, strong, +durable, resinous. A valuable timber tree, sometimes +worked for turpentine. Used for heavy construction, +shipbuilding, cars, docks, beams, ties, flooring, and +house trim. <i>Pinus echinata</i>, <i>palustris</i>, and <i>tæda</i> are +very similar in character, of thin wood and very difficult +to distinguish one from another. As a rule, however, +<i>palustris</i> (Long-leaf Pine) has the smallest and +most uniform growth rings, and <i>Pinus tæda</i> (Loblolly +Pine) has the largest. All are apt to be bunched +together in the lumber market as Southern Hard +Pine. All are used for the same purposes. Short-leaf +is the common lumber pine of Missouri and +Arkansas. North Carolina to Texas and Missouri.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>30. Cuban Pine</b> (<i>Pinus cubensis</i>) (Slash Pine, Swamp +Pine, Bastard Pine, Meadow Pine). Resembles long-leaf +pine, but commonly has a wider sapwood and +coarser grain. Does not enter the markets to any +extent. Along the coast from South Carolina to +Louisiana.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>31. Pitch Pine</b> (<i>Pinus rigida</i>) (Torch Pine). A small to +medium-sized tree. Heartwood light brown or red, +sapwood yellowish white. Wood light, soft, not +strong, coarse-grained, durable, very resinous. Used +locally for lumber, fuel, and charcoal. Coast regions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +from New York to Georgia, and along the mountains +to Kentucky.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>32. Black Pine</b> (<i>Pinus murryana</i>) (Lodge-pole Pine, +Tamarack). Small-sized tree. Rocky Mountains +and Pacific regions.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>33. Jersey Pine</b> (<i>Pinus inops</i> var. <i>Virginiana</i>) (Scrub +Pine). Small-sized tree. Along the coast from New +York to Georgia and along the mountains to Kentucky.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>34. Gray Pine</b> (<i>Pinus divaricata</i> var. <i>banksiana</i>) (Scrub +Pine, Jack Pine). Medium- to large-sized tree. +Heartwood pale brown, rarely yellow; sapwood nearly +white. Wood light, soft, not strong, close-grained. +Used for fuel, railway ties, and fence posts. In days +gone by the Indians preferred this species for frames +of canoes. Maine, Vermont, and Michigan to Minnesota.</p> + + +<h4>REDWOOD (See Cedar)</h4> + +<h4>SPRUCE</h4> + +<p>Resembles soft pine, is light, very soft, stiff, moderately +strong, less resinous than pine; has no distinct heartwood, +and is of whitish color. Used like soft pine, but also employed +as resonance wood in musical instruments and +preferred for paper pulp. Spruces, like pines, form extensive +forests. They are more frugal, thrive on thinner +soils, and bear more shade, but usually require a more +humid climate. "Black" and "White" spruce as applied +by lumbermen usually refer to narrow and wide-ringed +forms of black spruce (<i>Picea nigra</i>).</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>35. Black Spruce</b> (<i>Picea nigra</i> var. <i>mariana</i>). Medium-sized +tree, forms extensive forests in northwestern +United States and in British America; occurs scattered +or in groves, especially in low lands throughout +the northern pineries. Important lumber tree in +eastern United States. Heartwood pale, often with +reddish tinge; sapwood pure white. Wood light,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +soft, not strong. Chiefly used for manufacture of +paper pulp, and great quantities of this as well as +<i>Picea alba</i> are used for this purpose. Used also for +sounding boards for pianos, violins, etc. Maine to +Minnesota, British America, and in the Alleghanies +to North Carolina.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>36. White Spruce</b> (<i>Picea canadensis</i> var. <i>alba</i>). Medium- to +large-sized tree. Heartwood light yellow; sapwood +nearly white. Generally associated with the +preceding. Most abundant along streams and lakes, +grows largest in Montana and forms the most important +tree of the sub-arctic forest of British America. +Used largely for floors, joists, doors, sashes, mouldings, +and panel work, rapidly superceding <i>Pinus strobus</i> +for building purposes. It is very similar to Norway +pine, excels it in toughness, is rather less durable and +dense, and more liable to warp in seasoning. Northern +United States from Maine to Minnesota, also from +Montana to Pacific, British America.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>37. White Spruce</b> (<i>Picea engelmanni</i>). Medium- to large-sized +tree, forming extensive forests at elevations +from 5,000 to 10,000 feet above sea level; resembles +the preceding, but occupies a different station. A +very important timber tree in the central and southern +parts of the Rocky Mountains. Rocky Mountains +from Mexico to Montana.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>38. Tide-Land Spruce</b> (<i>Picea sitchensis</i>) (Sitka Spruce). +A large-sized tree, forming an extensive coast-belt +forest. Used extensively for all classes of cooperage +and woodenware on the Pacific Coast. Along the +sea-coast from Alaska to central California.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>39. Red Spruce</b> (<i>Picea rubens</i>). Medium-sized tree, generally +associated with <i>Picea nigra</i> and occurs scattered +throughout the northern pineries. Heartwood reddish; +sapwood lighter color, straight-grained, compact +structure. Wood light, soft, not strong, elastic, +resonant, not durable when exposed. Used for flooring, +carpentry, shipbuilding, piles, posts, railway<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +ties, paddles, oars, sounding boards, paper pulp, and +musical instruments. Montana to Pacific, British +America.</p> + + +<h4>BASTARD SPRUCE</h4> + +<p>Spruce or fir in name, but resembling hard pine or larch +in appearance, quality and uses of its wood.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>40. Douglas Spruce</b> (<i>Pseudotsuga douglasii</i>) (Yellow Fir, +Red Fir, Oregon Pine). One of the most important +trees of the western United States; grows very large +in the Pacific States, to fair size in all parts of the +mountains, in Colorado up to about 10,000 feet above +sea level; forms extensive forests, often of pure +growth, it is really neither a pine nor a fir. Wood +very variable, usually coarse-grained and heavy, +with very pronounced summer-wood. Hard and +strong ("red" fir), but often fine-grained and light +("yellow" fir). It is the chief tree of Washington +and Oregon, and most abundant and most valuable +in British Columbia, where it attains its greatest +size. From the plains to the Pacific Ocean, and from +Mexico to British Columbia.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>41. Red Fir</b> (<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>) (Oregon Pine, Puget +Sound Pine, Yellow Fir, Douglas Spruce, Red Pine). +Heartwood light red or yellow in color, sapwood narrow, +nearly white, comparatively free from resins, variable +annual rings. Wood usually hard, strong, difficult +to work, durable, splinters easily. Used for heavy +construction, dimension timber, railway ties, doors, +blinds, interior finish, piles, etc. One of the most +important of Western trees. From the plains to +the Pacific Ocean, and from Mexico to British America.</p> + + +<h4>TAMARACK (See Larch)</h4> + +<h4>YEW</h4> + +<p>Wood heavy, hard, extremely stiff and strong, of fine +texture with a pale yellow sapwood, and an orange-red +heartwood; seasons well and is quite durable. Extensively<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +used for archery bows, turner's ware, etc. The +yews form no forests, but occur scattered with other +conifers.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>42. Yew</b> (<i>Taxus brevifolia</i>). A small to medium-sized +tree of the Pacific region.</p> + + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_III" id="SECTION_III"></a>SECTION III<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></h3> + +<h2>BROAD-LEAVED TREES</h2> + +<h3 style="padding-top: 0em">WOOD OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES</h3> + + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig04.jpg" width="250" height="260" alt="Block of Oak" title="Block of Oak" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 4. Block of Oak. CS, +cross-section; RS, +radial section; TS, tangential +section; <i>mr</i>, +medullary or pith ray; +<i>a</i>, height; <i>b</i>, width; and +<i>e</i>, length of pith ray.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">On</span> a cross-section of oak, the same arrangement of pith +and bark, of sapwood and heartwood, and the same disposition +of the wood in well-defined concentric or annual +rings occur, but the rings are marked by lines or rows of +conspicuous pores or openings, which occupy the greater +part of the spring-wood for each ring (see <a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>, also 6), +and are, in fact the hollows of vessels +through which the cut has been +made. On the radial section or +quarter-sawn board the several +layers appear as so many stripes +(see <a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>); on the tangential section +or "bastard" face patterns +similar to those mentioned for pine +wood are observed. But while the +patterns in hard pine are marked +by the darker summer-wood, and +are composed of plain, alternating +stripes of darker and lighter wood, +the figures in oak (and other broad-leaved +woods) are due chiefly to +the vessels, those of the spring-wood +in oak being the most +conspicuous (see <a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>). So that in an oak table, the +darker, shaded parts are the spring-wood, the lighter +unicolored parts the summer-wood. On closer examination +of the smooth cross-section of oak, the spring-wood +part of the ring is found to be formed in great part +of pores; large, round, or oval openings made by the cut +through long vessels. These are separated by a grayish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +and quite porous tissue (see <a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>, A), which continues +here and there in the form of radial, often branched, +patches (not the pith rays) into and through the summer-wood +to the spring-wood of the next ring. The large +vessels of the spring-wood, occupying six to ten per cent +of the volume of a log in very good oak, and twenty-five +per cent or more in inferior and narrow-ringed timber, +are a very important feature, since it is evident that the +greater their share in the volume, the lighter and weaker +the wood. They are smallest near the pith, and grow +wider outward. They are wider in the stem than limb, +and seem to be of indefinite length, forming open channels, +in some cases probably as long +as the tree itself. Scattered +through the radiating gray +patches of porous wood are +vessels similar to those of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +spring-wood, but decidedly +smaller. These vessels are +usually fewer and larger near +the outer portions of the ring. +Their number and size can be +utilized to distinguish the oaks +classed as white oaks from +those classed as black and +red oaks. They are fewer and +larger in red oaks, smaller but +much more numerous in white +oaks. The summer-wood, +except for these radial, grayish patches, is dark colored and +firm. This firm portion, divided into bodies or strands by +these patches of porous wood, and also by fine, wavy, concentric +lines of short, thin-walled cells (see <a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>, A), consists +of thin-walled fibres (see <a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>, B), and is the chief element +of strength in oak wood. In good white oak it forms +one-half or more of the wood, if it cuts like horn, and the +cut surface is shiny, and of a deep chocolate brown color. +In very narrow-ringed wood and in inferior red oak it is +usually much reduced in quantity as well as quality. The +pith rays of the oak, unlike those of the coniferous woods,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +are at least in part very large and conspicuous. (See <a href="#Fig_4">Fig. +4</a>; their height indicated by the letter <i>a</i>, and their width +by the letter <i>b</i>.) The large medullary rays of oak are +often twenty and more cells wide, and several hundred +cell rows in height, which amount +commonly to one or more inches. +These large rays are conspicuous +on all sections. They appear as +long, sharp, grayish lines on the +cross-sections; as short, thick lines, +tapering at each end, on the tangential +or "bastard" face, and as +broad, shiny bands, "the mirrors," +on the radial section. In addition +to these coarse rays, there is also +a large number of small pith rays, +which can be seen only when magnified. +On the whole, the pith +rays form a much larger part of +the wood than might be supposed. +In specimens of good white oak it +has been found that they form +about sixteen to twenty-five per +cent of the wood.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig05.jpg" width="250" height="364" alt="Board of Oak" title="Board of Oak" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 5. Board of Oak. CS, cross-section; RS, radial section; TS, tangential +section; <i>v</i>, vessels or pores, cut through.; A, slight curve in log which +appears in section as an islet.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig06.jpg" width="400" height="206" alt="Cross-section of Oak" title="Cross-section of Oak" /> + +<p class="caption" style="margin-left: 4em">Fig. 6. Cross-section of Oak (Magnified about 5 times).</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig07.jpg" width="250" height="288" alt="Firm Bodies of Fibres" title="Firm Bodies of Fibres" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 7. Portion of the Firm Bodies +of Fibres with Two Cells of a +Small Pith Ray <i>mr</i> (Highly +Magnified).</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig08.jpg" width="150" height="386" alt="Isolated Fibres and Cells" title="Isolated Fibres and Cells" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption" style="width: 50%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto">Fig. 8. Isolated Fibres and +Cells, <i>a</i>, four cells of +wood, parenchyma; <i>b</i>, +two cells from a pith ray; +<i>c</i>, a single joint or cell of +a vessel, the openings <i>x</i> +leading into its upper +and lower neighbors; <i>d</i>, +tracheid; <i>e</i>, wood fibre +proper.</p> + +<h4>Minute Structure</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig09.jpg" width="400" height="221" alt="Cross-section of Basswood" title="Cross-section of Basswood" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 9. Cross-section of Basswood (Magnified). <i>v</i>, vessels; <i>mr</i>, pith rays.</p> +</div> + +<p>If a well-smoothed thin disk or +cross-section of oak (say one-sixteenth +inch thick) is held up to +the light, it looks very much like +a sieve, the pores or vessels appearing +as clean-cut holes. The +spring-wood and gray patches are +seen to be quite porous, but the +firm bodies of fibres between them +are dense and opaque. Examined +with a magnifier it will be noticed +that there is no such regularity of arrangement in straight +rows as is conspicuous in pine. On the contrary, great +irregularity prevails. At the same time, while the pores<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +are as large as pin holes, the cells of the denser wood, +unlike those of pine wood, are too small to be distinguished. +Studied with the microscope, each vessel is +found to be a vertical row of a great number of short, +wide tubes, joined end to end (see <a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>, <i>c</i>). The +porous spring-wood and radial gray tracts are partly +composed of smaller vessels, but chiefly of tracheids, like +those of pine, and of shorter cells, the "wood parenchyma," +resembling the cells of the medullary rays. These latter, +as well as the fine concentric lines mentioned as occurring +in the summer-wood, are composed entirely of short tube-like +parenchyma cells, with square or oblique ends (see +<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>). The wood fibres proper, which form the +dark, firm bodies referred to, are very fine, thread-like +cells, one twenty-fifth to one-tenth inch long, with a wall +commonly so thick that scarcely any empty internal space +or lumen remains (see <a href="#Fig_8">Figs. 8</a>, <i>e</i>, and <a href="#Fig_7">7</a>, B). If, instead +of oak, a piece of poplar or basswood (see <a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>) +had been used in this study, the structure would have +been found to be quite different. The same kinds of cell-elements, +vessels, etc., are, to be sure, present, but their +combination and arrangement are different, and thus +from the great variety of possible combinations results +the great variety of structure and, in consequence, of +the qualities which distinguish the wood of broad-leaved +trees. The sharp distinction of sap wood and heartwood +is wanting; the rings are not so clearly defined; the vessels<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +of the wood are small, very numerous, and rather evenly +scattered through the wood of the annual rings, so that +the distinction of the ring almost vanishes and the medullary +or pith rays in poplar can be seen, without being +magnified, only on the radial section.</p> + + +<h3>LIST OF MOST IMPORTANT BROAD-LEAVED +TREES (HARDWOODS)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></h3> + +<p>Woods of complex and very variable structure, and +therefore differing widely in quality, behavior, and consequently +in applicability to the arts.</p> + + +<h4>AILANTHUS</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>1. Ailanthus</b> (<i>Ailanthus glandulosa</i>). Medium to large-sized +tree. Wood pale yellow, hard, fine-grained, and +satiny. This species originally came from China, +where it is known as the Tree of "Heaven," was introduced +into the United States and planted near +Philadelphia during the 18th century, and is more +ornamental than useful. It is used to some extent +in cabinet work. Western Pennsylvania and Long +Island, New York.</p> + + +<h4>ASH</h4> + +<p>Wood heavy, hard, stiff, quite tough, not durable in +contact with the soil, straight-grained, rough on the split +surfaces and coarse in texture. The wood shrinks moderately, +seasons with little injury, stands well, and takes a +good polish. In carpentry, ash is used for stairways, +panels, etc. It is used in shipbuilding, in the construction +of cars, wagons, etc., in the manufacture of all kinds of +farm implements, machinery, and especially of all kinds +of furniture; for cooperage, baskets, oars, tool handles, +hoops, etc., etc. The trees of the several species of ash +are rapid growers, of small to medium height with stout +trunks. They form no forests, but occur scattered in +almost all our broad-leaved forests.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>2. White Ash</b> (<i>Fraxinus Americana</i>). Medium-, sometimes +large-sized tree. Heartwood reddish brown, +usually mottled; sapwood lighter color, nearly white. +Wood heavy, hard, tough, elastic, coarse-grained,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +compact structure. Annual rings clearly marked by +large open pores, not durable in contact with the +soil, is straight-grained, and the best material for oars, +etc. Used for agricultural implements, tool handles, +automobile (rim boards), vehicle bodies and parts, +baseball bats, interior finish, cabinet work, etc., etc. +Basin of the Ohio, but found from Maine to Minnesota +and Texas.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>3. Red Ash</b> (<i>Fraxinus pubescens</i> var. <i>Pennsylvanica</i>). +Medium-sized tree, a timber very similar to, but +smaller than <i>Fraxinus Americana</i>. Heartwood light +brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood heavy, hard, +strong, and coarse-grained. Ranges from New +Brunswick to Florida, and westward to Dakota, +Nebraska, and Kansas.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>4. Black Ash</b> (<i>Fraxinus nigra</i> var. <i>sambucifolia</i>) (Hoop +Ash, Ground Ash). Medium-sized tree, very common, +is more widely distributed than the <i>Fraxinus Americana</i>; +the wood is not so hard, but is well suited for +hoops and basketwork. Heartwood dark brown, +sapwood light brown or white. Wood heavy, rather +soft, tough and coarse-grained. Used for barrel +hoops, basketwork, cabinetwork and interior of +houses. Maine to Minnesota and southward to +Alabama.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>5. Blue Ash</b> (<i>Fraxinus quadrangulata</i>). Small to medium-sized +tree. Heartwood yellow, streaked with brown, +sapwood a lighter color. Wood heavy, hard, and +coarse-grained. Not common. Indiana and Illinois; +occurs from Michigan to Minnesota and southward +to Alabama.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>6. Green Ash</b> (<i>Fraxinus viridis</i>). Small-sized tree. Occurs +from New York to the Rocky Mountains, and +southward to Florida and Arizona.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>7. Oregon Ash</b> (<i>Fraxinus Oregana</i>). Small to medium-sized +tree. Occurs from western Washington to +California.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p> + +<p class="negative"><b>8. Carolina Ash</b> (<i>Fraxinus Caroliniana</i>). Medium-sized +tree. Occurs in the Carolinas and the coast regions +southward.</p> + + +<h4>ASPEN (See Poplar)</h4> + + +<h4>BASSWOOD</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>9. Basswood</b> (<i>Tilia Americana</i>) (Linden, Lime Tree, +American Linden, Lin, Bee Tree). Medium- to large-sized +tree. Wood light, soft, stiff, but not strong, +of fine texture, straight and close-grained, and white +to light brown color, but not durable in contact with +the soil. The wood shrinks considerably in drying, +works well and stands well in interior work. It is +used for cooperage, in carpentry, in the manufacture +of furniture and woodenware (both turned and carved), +for toys, also for panelling of car and carriage bodies, +for agricultural implements, automobiles, sides and +backs of drawers, cigar boxes, excelsior, refrigerators, +trunks, and paper pulp. It is also largely cut for +veneer and used as "three-ply" for boxes and chair +seats. It is used for sounding boards in pianos and +organs. If well seasoned and painted it stands fairly +well for outside work. Common in all northern +broad-leaved forests. Found throughout the eastern +United States, but reaches its greatest size in the +Valley of the Ohio, becoming often 130 feet in height, +but its usual height is about 70 feet.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>10. White Basswood</b> (<i>Tilia heterophylla</i>) (Whitewood). +A small-sized tree. Wood in its quality and uses +similar to the preceding, only it is lighter in color. +Most abundant in the Alleghany region.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>11. White Basswood</b> (<i>Tilia pubescens</i>) (Downy Linden, +Small-leaved Basswood). Small-sized tree. Wood +in its quality and uses similar to <i>Tilia Americana</i>. +This is a Southern species which makes it way as far +north as Long Island. Is found at its best in South +Carolina.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>BEECH</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>12. Beech</b> (<i>Fagus ferruginea</i>) (Red Beech, White Beech). +Medium-sized tree, common, sometimes forming +forests of pure growth. Wood heavy, hard, stiff, +strong, of rather coarse texture, white to light brown +color, not durable in contact with the soil, and subject +to the inroads of boring insects. Rather close-grained, +conspicuous medullary rays, and when +quarter-sawn and well smoothed is very beautiful. +The wood shrinks and checks considerably in drying, +works well and stands well, and takes a fine polish. +Beech is comparatively free from objectionable taste, +and finds a place in the manufacture of commodities +which come in contact with foodstuffs, such as lard +tubs, butter boxes and pails, and the beaters of ice +cream freezers; for the latter the persistent hardness +of the wood when subjected to attrition and abrasion, +while wet gives it peculiar fitness. It is an excellent +material for churns. Sugar hogsheads are made of +beech, partly because it is a tasteless wood and partly +because it has great strength. A large class of woodenware, +including veneer plates, dishes, boxes, paddles, +scoops, spoons, and beaters, which belong to the +kitchen and pantry, are made of this species of wood. +Beech picnic plates are made by the million, a single +machine turning out 75,000 a day. The wood has +a long list of miscellaneous uses and enters in +a great variety of commodities. In every region +where it grows in commercial quantities it is made +into boxes, baskets, and crating. Beech baskets are +chiefly employed in shipping fruit, berries, and vegetables. +In Maine thin veneer of beech is made +specially for the Sicily orange and lemon trade. This +is shipped in bulk and the boxes are made abroad. +Beech is also an important handle wood, although +not in the same class with hickory. It is not selected +because of toughness and resiliency, as hickory is, +and generally goes into plane, handsaw, pail, chisel,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +and flatiron handles. Recent statistics show that +in the production of slack cooperage staves, only +two woods, red gum and pine, stood above beech in +quantity, while for heading, pine alone exceeded it. +It is also used in turnery, for shoe lasts, butcher +blocks, ladder rounds, etc. Abroad it is very extensively +used by the carpenter, millwright, and wagon +maker, in turnery and wood carving. Most abundant +in the Ohio and Mississippi basin, but found from +Maine to Wisconsin and southward to Florida.</p> + + +<h4>BIRCH</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>13. Cherry Birch</b> (<i>Betula lenta</i>) (Black Birch, Sweet Birch, +Mahogany Birch, Wintergreen Birch). Medium-sized +tree, very common. Wood of beautiful reddish +or yellowish brown, and much of it nicely figured, +of compact structure, is straight in grain, heavy, +hard, strong, takes a fine polish, and considerably used +as imitation of mahogany. The wood shrinks considerably +in drying, works well and stands well, but +is not durable in contact with the soil. The medullary +rays in birch are very fine and close and not +easily seen. The sweet birch is very handsome, with +satiny luster, equalling cherry, and is too costly a +wood to be profitably used for ordinary purposes, +but there are both high and low grades of birch, the +latter consisting chiefly of sapwood and pieces too +knotty for first class commodities. This cheap material +swells the supply of box lumber, and a little of +it is found wherever birch passes through sawmills. +The frequent objections against sweet birch as box +lumber and crating material are that it is hard to +nail and is inclined to split. It is also used for veneer +picnic plates and butter dishes, although it is not +as popular for this class of commodity as are yellow +and paper birch, maple and beech. The best grades +are largely used for furniture and cabinet work, and +also for interior finish. Maine to Michigan and to +Tennessee.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p> + +<p class="negative"><b>14. White Birch</b> (<i>Betula populifolia</i>) (Gray Birch, Old +Field Birch, Aspen-leaved Birch). Small to medium-sized +tree, least common of all the birches. Short-lived, +twenty to thirty feet high, grows very rapidly. +Heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood +light, soft, close-grained, not strong, checks badly +in drying, decays quickly, not durable in contact +with the soil, takes a good polish. Used for spools, +shoepegs, wood pulp, and barrel hoops. Fuel, value +not high, but burns with bright flame. Ranges from +Nova Scotia and lower St. Lawrence River, southward, +mostly in the coast region to Delaware, and +westward through northern New England and New +York to southern shore of Lake Ontario.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>15. Yellow Birch</b> (<i>Betula lutea</i>) (Gray Birch, Silver Birch). +Medium- to large-sized tree, very common. Heartwood +light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white, +close-grained, compact structure, with a satiny luster. +Wood heavy, very strong, hard, tough, susceptible +of high polish, not durable when exposed. Is similar +to <i>Betula lenta</i>, and finds a place in practically all +kinds of woodenware. A large percentage of broom +handles on the market are made of this species of +wood, though nearly every other birch contributes +something. It is used for veneer plates and dishes +made for pies, butter, lard, and many other commodities. +Tubs and pails are sometimes made of +yellow birch provided weight is not objectionable. +The wood is twice as heavy as some of the pines and +cedars. Many small handles for such articles as +flatirons, gimlets, augers, screw drivers, chisels, varnish +and paint brushes, butcher and carving knives, +etc. It is also widely used for shipping boxes, baskets, +and crates, and it is one of the stiffest, strongest +woods procurable, but on account of its excessive +weight it is sometimes discriminated against. It +is excellent for veneer boxes, and that is probably +one of the most important places it fills. Citrus +fruit from northern Africa and the islands and countries +of the Mediterranean is often shipped to market<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +in boxes made of yellow birch from veneer cut in +New England. The better grades are also used for +furniture and cabinet work, and the "burls" found +on this species are highly valued for making fancy +articles, gavels, etc. It is extensively used for turnery, +buttons, spools, bobbins, wheel hubs, etc. Maine +to Minnesota and southward to Tennessee.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>16. Red Birch</b> (<i>Betula rubra</i> var. <i>nigra</i>) (River Birch). +Small to medium-sized tree, very common. Lighter +and less valuable than the preceding. Heartwood +light brown, sapwood pale. Wood light, fairly strong +and close-grained. Red birch is best developed in +the middle South, and usually grows near the banks +of rivers. Its bark hangs in tatters, even worse than +that of paper birch, but it is darker. In Tennessee +the slack coopers have found that red birch makes +excellent barrel heads and it is sometimes employed +in preference to other woods. In eastern Maryland +the manufacturers of peach baskets draw their supplies +from this wood, and substitute it for white elm +in making the hoops or bands which stiffen the top +of the basket, and provide a fastening for the veneer +which forms the sides. Red birch bends in a very +satisfactory manner, which is an important point. +This wood enters pretty generally into the manufacture +of woodenware within its range, but statistics +do not mention it by name. It is also used in the +manufacture of veneer picnic plates, pie plates, butter +dishes, washboards, small handles, kitchen and pantry +utensils, and ironing boards. New England to Texas +and Missouri.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>17. Canoe Birch</b> (<i>Betula paprifera</i>) (White Birch, Paper +Birch). Small to medium-sized tree, sometimes forming +forests, very common. Heartwood light brown +tinged with red, sapwood lighter color. Wood of +good quality, but light, fairly hard and strong, tough, +close-grained. Sap flows freely in spring and by +boiling can be made into syrup. Not as valuable as +any of the preceding. Canoe birch is a northern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +tree, easily identified by its white trunk and its ragged +bark. Large numbers of small wooden boxes are +made by boring out blocks of this wood, shaping +them in lathes, and fitting lids on them. Canoe +birch is one of the best woods for this class of commodities, +because it can be worked very thin, does +not split readily, and is of pleasing color. Such boxes, +or two-piece diminutive kegs, are used as containers +for articles shipped and sold in small bulk, such as +tacks, small nails, and brads. Such containers are +generally cylindrical and of considerably greater depth +than diameter. Many others of nearly similar form +are made to contain ink bottles, bottles of perfumery, +drugs, liquids, salves, lotions, and powders of many +kinds. Many boxes of this pattern are used by +manufacturers of pencils and crayons for packing +and shipping their wares. Such boxes are made in +numerous numbers by automatic machinery. A +single machine of the most improved pattern will +turn out 1,400 boxes an hour. After the boring and +turning are done, they are smoothed by placing them +into a tumbling barrel with soapstone. It is also +used for one-piece shallow trays or boxes, without +lids, and used as card receivers, pin receptacles, +butter boxes, fruit platters, and contribution plates +in churches. It is also the principal wood used for +spools, bobbins, bowls, shoe lasts, pegs, and turnery, +and is also much used in the furniture trade. All +along the northern boundary of the United States +and northward, from the Atlantic to the Pacific.</p> + + +<h4>BLACK WALNUT (See Walnut)</h4> + +<h4>BLUE BEECH</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>18. Blue Beech</b> (<i>Carpinus Caroliniana</i>) (Hornbeam, Water +Beech, Ironwood). Small-sized tree. Heartwood +light brown, sapwood nearly white. Wood very hard, +heavy, strong, very stiff, of rather fine texture, not +durable in contact with the soil, shrinks and checks +considerably in drying, but works well and stands<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +well, and takes a fine polish. Used chiefly in turnery, +for tool handles, etc. Abroad much used by mill- +and wheelwrights. A small tree, largest in the Southwest, +but found in nearly all parts of the eastern +United States.</p> + + +<h4>BOIS D'ARC (See Osage Orange)</h4> + + +<h4>BUCKEYE</h4> + +<p>Wood light, soft, not strong, often quite tough, of fine, +uniform texture and creamy white color. It shrinks considerably +in drying, but works well and stands well. Used +for woodenware, artificial limbs, paper pulp, and locally +also for building construction.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>19. Ohio Buckeye</b> (<i>Æsculus glabra</i>) (Horse Chestnut, +Fetid Buckeye). Small-sized tree, scattered, never +forming forests. Heartwood white, sapwood pale +brown. Wood light, soft, not strong, often quite +tough and close-grained. Alleghanies, Pennsylvania +to Oklahoma.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>20. Sweet Buckeye</b> (<i>Æsculus octandra</i> var. <i>flava</i>) (Horse +Chestnut). Small-sized tree, scattered, never forming +forests. Wood in its quality and uses similar to +the preceding. Alleghanies, Pennsylvania to Texas.</p> + + +<h4>BUCKTHORNE</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>21. Buckthorne</b> (<i>Rhanmus Caroliniana</i>) (Indian Cherry). +Small-sized tree. Heartwood light brown, sapwood +almost white. Wood light, hard, close-grained. Does +not enter the markets to any great extent. Found +along the borders of streams in rich bottom lands. +Its northern limits is Long Island, where it is only +a shrub; it becomes a tree only in southern Arkansas +and adjoining regions.</p> + + +<h4>BUTTERNUT</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>22. Butternut</b> (<i>Juglans cinerea</i>) (White Walnut, White +Mahogany, Walnut). Medium-sized tree, scattered,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +never forming forests. Wood very similar to black +walnut, but light, quite soft, and not strong. Heartwood +light gray-brown, darkening with exposure; +sapwood nearly white, coarse-grained, compact structure, +easily worked, and susceptible to high polish. +Has similar grain to black walnut and when stained +is a very good imitation. Is much used for inside +work, and very durable. Used chiefly for finishing +lumber, cabinet work, boat finish and fixtures, and +for furniture. Butternut furniture is often sold as +circassian walnut. Largest and most common in the +Ohio basin. Maine to Minnesota and southward +to Georgia and Alabama.</p> + + +<h4>CATALPA</h4> + +<p>The catalpa is a tree which was planted about 25 years +ago as a commercial speculation in Iowa, Kansas, and +Nebraska. Its native habitat was along the rivers Ohio +and lower Wabash, and a century ago it gained a reputation +for rapid growth and durability, but did not grow +in large quantities. As a railway tie, experiments have +left no doubt as to its resistance to decay; it stands abrasion +as well as the white oak (<i>Quercus alba</i>), and is +superior to it in longevity. Catalpa is a tree singularly +free from destructive diseases. Wood cut from the living +tree is one of the most durable timbers known. In spite +of its light porous structure it resists the weathering influences +and the attacks of wood-destroying fungi to a +remarkable degree. No fungus has yet been found which +will grow in the dead timber, and for fence posts this wood +has no equal, lasting longer than almost any other species +of timber. The wood is rather soft and coarse in texture, +the tree is of slow growth, and the brown colored heartwood, +even of very young trees, forms nearly three-quarters of +their volume. There is only about one-quarter inch of +sapwood in a 9-inch tree.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>23. Catalpa</b> (<i>Catalpa speciosa</i> var. <i>bignonioides</i>) (Indian +Bean). Medium-sized tree. Heartwood light brown, +sapwood nearly white. Wood light, soft, not strong,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +brittle, very durable in contact with the soil, of coarse +texture. Used chiefly for railway ties, telegraph poles, +and fence posts, but well suited for a great variety of +uses. Lower basin of the Ohio River, locally common. +Extensively planted, and therefore promising +to become of some importance.</p> + + +<h4>CHERRY</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>24. Cherry</b> (<i>Prunus serotina</i>) (Wild Cherry, Black Cherry, +Rum Cherry). Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine +texture. Sapwood yellowish white, heartwood reddish +to brown. The wood shrinks considerably in drying, +works well and stands well, has a fine satin-like luster, +and takes a fine polish which somewhat resembles +mahogany, and is much esteemed for its beauty. +Cherry is chiefly used as a decorative interior finishing +lumber, for buildings, cars and boats, also for +furniture and in turnery, for musical instruments, +walking sticks, last blocks, and woodenware. It is +becoming too costly for many purposes for which it +is naturally well suited. The lumber-furnishing +cherry of the United States, the wild black cherry, +is a small to medium-sized tree, scattered through +many of the broad-leaved trees of the western slope +of the Alleghanies, but found from Michigan to +Florida, and west to Texas. Other species of this +genus, as well as the hawthornes (<i>Prunus cratoegus</i>) +and wild apple (<i>Pyrus</i>), are not commonly offered in +the markets. Their wood is of the same character +as cherry, often finer, but in smaller dimensions.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>25. Red Cherry</b> (<i>Prunus Pennsylvanica</i>) (Wild Red Cherry, +Bird Cherry). Small-sized tree. Heartwood light +brown, sapwood pale yellow. Wood light, soft, and +close-grained. Uses similiar to the preceding, common +throughout the Northern States, reaching its +greatest size on the mountains of Tennessee.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>CHESTNUT</h4> + +<p>The chestnut is a long-lived tree, attaining an age of +from 400 to 600 years, but trees over 100 years are usually +hollow. It grows quickly, and sprouts from a chestnut +stump (Coppice Chestnut) often attain a height of 8 feet +in the first year. It has a fairly cylindrical stem, and +often grows to a height of 100 feet and over. Coppice +chestnut, that is, chestnut grown on an old stump, furnishes +better timber for working than chestnut grown from the +nut, it is heavier, less spongy, straighter in grain, easier +to split, and stands exposure longer.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>26. Chestnut</b> (<i>Castanea vulgaris</i> var. <i>Americana</i>). Medium- +to large-sized tree, never forming forests. Wood +is light, moderately hard, stiff, elastic, not strong, +but very durable when in contact with the soil, of +coarse texture. Sapwood light, heartwood darker +brown, and is readily distinguishable from the sapwood, +which very early turns into heartwood. It +shrinks and checks considerably in drying, works +easily, stands well. The annual rings are very distinct, +medullary rays very minute and not visible to +the naked eye. Used in cooperage, for cabinetwork, +agricultural implements, railway ties, telegraph poles, +fence posts, sills, boxes, crates, coffins, furniture, +fixtures, foundation for veneer, and locally in heavy +construction. Very common in the Alleghanies. Occurs +from Maine to Michigan and southward to +Alabama.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>27. Chestnut</b> (<i>Castanea dentata</i> var. <i>vesca</i>). Medium-sized +tree, never forming forests, not common. +Heartwood brown color, sapwood lighter shade, +coarse-grained. Wood and uses similar to the preceding. +Occurs scattered along the St. Lawrence River, +and even there is met with only in small quantities.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>28. Chinquapin</b> (<i>Castanea pumila</i>). Medium- to small-sized +tree, with wood slightly heavier, but otherwise +similiar to the preceding. Most common in Arkansas, +but with nearly the same range as <i>Castanea vulgaris</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p> + +<p class="negative"><b>29. Chinquapin</b> (<i>Castanea chrysophylla</i>). A medium-sized +tree of the western ranges of California and Oregon.</p> + + +<h4>COFFEE TREE</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>30. Coffee Tree</b> (<i>Gymnocladus dioicus</i>) (Coffee Nut, +Stump Tree). A medium- to large-sized tree, not +common. Wood heavy, hard, strong, very stiff, of +coarse texture, and durable. Sapwood yellow, heartwood +reddish brown, shrinks and checks considerably +in drying, works well and stands well, and takes a +fine polish. It is used to a limited extent in cabinetwork +and interior finish. Pennsylvania to Minnesota +and Arkansas.</p> + + +<h4>COTTONWOOD (See Poplar)</h4> + +<h4>CRAB APPLE</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>31. Crab Apple</b> (<i>Pyrus coronaria</i>) (Wild Apple, Fragrant +Crab). Small-sized tree. Heartwood reddish brown, +sapwood yellow. Wood heavy, hard, not strong, +close-grained. Used principally for tool handles and +small domestic articles. Most abundant in the middle +and western states, reaches its greatest size in the +valleys of the lower Ohio basin.</p> + + +<h4>CUCUMBER TREE (See Magnolia)</h4> + +<h4>DOGWOOD</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>32. Dogwood</b> (<i>Cornus florida</i>) (American Box). Small to +medium-sized tree. Attains a height of about 30 +feet and about 12 inches in diameter. The heartwood +is a red or pinkish color, the sapwood, which is +considerable, is a creamy white. The wood has a +dull surface and very fine grain. It is valuable for +turnery, tool handles, and mallets, and being so free +from silex, watchmakers use small splinters of it for +cleaning out the pivot holes of watches, and opticians +for removing dust from deep-seated lenses. It is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +also used for butchers' skewers, and shuttle blocks +and wheel stock, and is suitable for turnery and inlaid +work. Occurs scattered in all the broad-leaved forests +of our country; very common.</p> + + +<h4>ELM</h4> + +<p>Wood heavy, hard, strong, elastic, very tough, moderately +durable in contact with the soil, commonly cross-grained, +difficult to split and shape, warps and checks +considerably in drying, but stands well if properly seasoned. +The broad sapwood whitish, heartwood light brown, both +with shades of gray and red. On split surfaces rough, +texture coarse to fine, capable of high polish. Elm for +years has been the principal wood used in slack cooperage +for barrel staves, also in the construction of cars, wagons, +etc., in boat building, agricultural implements and machinery, +in saddlery and harness work, and particularly +in the manufacture of all kinds of furniture, where +the beautiful figures, especially those of the tangential or +bastard section, are just beginning to be appreciated. +The elms are medium- to large-sized trees, of fairly rapid +growth, with stout trunks; they form no forests of pure +growth, but are found scattered in all the broad-leaved +woods of our country, sometimes forming a considerable +portion of the arborescent growth.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>33. White Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus Americana</i>) (American Elm, Water +Elm). Medium- to large-sized tree. Wood in its +quality and uses as stated above. Common. Maine +to Minnesota, southward to Florida and Texas.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>34. Rock Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus racemosa</i>) (Cork Elm, Hickory Elm, +White Elm, Cliff Elm). Medium- to large-sized tree +of rapid growth. Heartwood light brown, often +tinged with red, sapwood yellowish or greenish white, +compact structure, fibres interlaced. Wood heavy, +hard, very tough, strong, elastic, difficult to split, +takes a fine polish. Used for agricultural implements, +automobiles, crating, boxes, cooperage, tool +handles, wheel stock, bridge timbers, sills, interior<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +finish, and maul heads. Fairly free from knots and +has only a small quantity of sapwood. Michigan, +Ohio, from Vermont to Iowa, and southward to +Kentucky.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>35. Red Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus fulva</i> var. <i>pubescens</i>) (Slippery Elm, +Moose Elm). The red or slippery elm is not as large +a tree as the white elm (<i>Ulmus Americana</i>), though +it occasionally attains a height of 135 feet and a diameter +of 4 feet. It grows tall and straight, and +thrives in river valleys. The wood is heavy, hard, +strong, tough, elastic, commonly cross-grained, moderately +durable in contact with the soil, splits easily +when green, works fairly well, and stands well if +properly handled. Careful seasoning and handling +are essential for the best results. Trees can be +utilized for posts when very small. When green the +wood rots very quickly in contact with the soil. +Poles for posts should be cut in summer and peeled +and dried before setting. The wood becomes very +tough and pliable when steamed, and is of value for +sleigh runners and for ribs of canoes and skiffs. Together +with white elm (<i>Ulmus Americana</i>) it is extensively +used for barrel staves in slack cooperage +and also for furniture. The thick, viscous inner +bark, which gives the tree its descriptive name, is +quite palatable, slightly nutritious, and has a medicinal +value. Found chiefly along water courses. +New York to Minnesota, and southward to Florida +and Texas.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>36. Cedar Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus crassifolia</i>). Medium- to small-sized +tree, locally quite common. Arkansas and +Texas.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>37. Winged Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus alata</i>) (Wahoo). Small-sized +tree, locally quite common. Heartwood light brown, +sapwood yellowish white. Wood heavy, hard, tough, +strong, and close-grained. Arkansas, Missouri, and +eastern Virginia.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="400" height="491" alt="A Large Red Gum" title="A Large Red Gum" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 10. A Large Red Gum.</p> +</div> + + +<h4>GUM</h4> + +<p>This general term applies to three important species +of gum in the South, the principal one usually being distinguished +as "red" or "sweet" gum (see <a href="#Fig_10">Fig. 10</a>). +The next in importance being the "tupelo" or "bay poplar," +and the least of the trio is designated as "black" or +"sour" gum (see <a href="#Fig_11">Fig. 11</a>). Up to the year 1900 little +was known of gum as a wood for cooperage purposes, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +by the continued advance in price of the woods used, a +few of the most progressive manufacturers, looking into +the future, saw that the supply of the various woods in +use was limited, that new woods would have to be sought, +and gum was looked upon as a possible substitute, owing +to its cheapness and abundant supply. No doubt in the +future this wood will be used to a considerable extent in +the manufacture of both "tight" and "slack" cooperage.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +In the manufacture of the gum, unless the knives and +saws are kept very sharp, the wood has a tendency to +break out, the corners splitting off; and also, much difficulty +has been experienced in seasoning and kiln-drying.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_11" id="Fig_11"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="400" height="504" alt="A Tupelo Gum Slough" title="A Tupelo Gum Slough" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 11. A Tupelo Gum Slough.</p> +</div> + +<p>In the past, gum, having no marketable value, has been +left standing after logging operations, or, where the land +has been cleared for farming, the trees have been "girdled" +and allowed to rot, and then felled and burned as trash. +Now, however, that there is a market for this species of +timber, it will be profitable to cut the gum with the other +hardwoods, and this species of wood will come in for a +greater share of attention than ever before.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>38. Red Gum</b> (<i>Liquidamber styraciflua</i>) (Sweet Gum, +Hazel Pine, Satin Walnut, Liquidamber, Bilsted). +The wood is about as stiff and as strong as chestnut, +rather heavy, it splits easily and is quite brash, commonly +cross-grained, of fine texture, and has a large +proportion of whitish sapwood, which decays rapidly +when exposed to the weather; but the reddish brown +heartwood is quite durable, even in the ground. The +external appearance of the wood is of fine grain and +smooth, close texture, but when broken the lines of +fracture do not run with apparent direction of the +growth; possibly it is this unevenness of grain which +renders the wood so difficult to dry without twisting +and warping. It has little resiliency; can be easily +bent when steamed, and when properly dried will +hold its shape. The annual rings are not distinctly +marked, medullary rays fine and numerous. The +green wood contains much water, and consequently is +heavy and difficult to float, but when dry it is as light +as basswood. The great amount of water in the +green wood, particularly in the sap, makes it difficult +to season by ordinary methods without warping and +twisting. It does not check badly, is tasteless and +odorless, and when once seasoned, swells and shrinks +but little unless exposed to the weather. Used for +boat finish, veneers, cabinet work, furniture, fixtures, +interior decoration, shingles, paving blocks, woodenware,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +cooperage, machinery frames, refrigerators, and +trunk slats.</p> + + +<h4>Range of Red Gum</h4> + +<p>Red gum is distributed from Fairfield County, Conn., +to southeastern Missouri, through Arkansas and Oklahoma +to the valley of the Trinity River in Texas, +and eastward to the Atlantic coast. Its commercial +range is restricted, however, to the moist lands of +the lower Ohio and Mississippi basins and of the Southeastern +coast. It is one of the commonest timber trees +in the hardwood bottoms and drier swamps of the South. +It grows in mixture with ash, cottonwood and oak (see +<a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12</a>). It is also found to a considerable extent on +the lower ridges and slopes of the southern Appalachians, +but there it does not reach merchantable value and is of +little importance. Considerable difference is found between +the growth in the upper Mississippi bottoms and +that along the rivers on the Atlantic coast and on the +Gulf. In the latter regions the bottoms are lower, and +consequently more subject to floods and to continued +overflows (see <a href="#Fig_11">Fig. 11</a>). The alluvial deposit is also greater, +and the trees grow considerably faster. Trees of the same +diameter show a larger percentage of sapwood there than +in the upper portions of the Mississippi Valley. The +Mississippi Valley hardwood trees are for the most part +considerably older, and reach larger dimensions than the +timber along the coast.</p> + + +<h4>Form of the Red Gum</h4> + +<p>In the best situations red gum reaches a height of 150 +feet, and a diameter of 5 feet. These dimensions, however +are unusual. The stem is straight and cylindrical, +with dark, deeply-furrowed bark, and branches often +winged with corky ridges. In youth, while growing vigorously +under normal conditions, it assumes a long, regular, +conical crown, much resembling the form of a conifer +(see <a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12</a>). After the tree has attained its height +growth, however, the crown becomes rounded, spreading +and rather ovate in shape. When growing in the forest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +the tree prunes itself readily at an early period, and forms +a good length of clear stem, but it branches strongly after +making most of its height growth. The mature tree is +usually forked, and the place where the forking commences +determines the number of logs in the tree or its merchantable +length, by preventing cutting to a small diameter in +the top. On large trees the stem is often not less than +eighteen inches in diameter where the branching begins. +The over-mature tree is usually broken and dry topped, +with a very spreading crown, in consequence of new +branches being sent out.</p> + + +<h4>Tolerance of Red Gum</h4> + +<p>Throughout its entire life red gum is intolerant in shade, +there are practically no red seedlings under the dense +forest cover of the bottom land, and while a good many +may come up under the pine forest on the drier uplands, +they seldom develop into large trees. As a rule seedlings +appear only in clearings or in open spots in the forest. It +is seldom that an over-topped tree is found, for the gum +dies quickly if suppressed, and is consequently nearly +always a dominant or intermediate tree. In a hardwood +bottom forest the timber trees are all of nearly the same +age over considerable areas, and there is little young +growth to be found in the older stands. The reason for +this is the intolerance of most of the swamp species. A +scale of intolerance containing the important species, and +beginning with the most light-demanding, would run as +follows: Cottonwood, sycamore, red gum, white elm, +white ash, and red maple.</p> + + +<h4>Demands upon Soil and Moisture</h4> + +<p>While the red gum grows in various situations, it prefers +the deep, rich soil of the hardwood bottoms, and there +reaches its best development (see <a href="#Fig_10">Fig. 10</a>). It requires +considerable soil moisture, though it does not grow +in the wetter swamps, and does not thrive on dry pine land. +Seedlings, however, are often found in large numbers on +the edges of the uplands and even on the sandy pine land, +but they seldom live beyond the pole stage. When they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +do, they form small, scrubby trees that are of little value. +Where the soil is dry the tree has a long tap root. In the +swamps, where the roots can obtain water easily, the development +of the tap root is poor, and it is only moderate +on the glade bottom lands, where there is considerable +moisture throughout the year, but no standing water in +the summer months.</p> + + +<h4>Reproduction of Red Gum</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="400" height="298" alt="Second Growth Red Gum" title="Second Growth Red Gum" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 12. Second Growth Red Gum, Ash, Cottonwood, and Sycamore.</p> +</div> + +<p>Red gum reproduces both by seed and by sprouts +(see <a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12</a>). It produces seed fairly abundantly every +year, but about once in three years there is an extremely +heavy production. The tree begins to bear seed when +twenty-five to thirty years old, and seeds vigorously up +to an age of one hundred and fifty years, when its productive +power begins to diminish. A great part of the +seed, however, is abortive. Red gum is not fastidious in +regard to its germinating bed; it comes up readily on sod<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +in old fields and meadows, on decomposing humus in the +forest, or on bare clay-loam or loamy sand soil. It requires +a considerable degree of light, however, and prefers +a moist seed bed. The natural distribution of the seed +takes place for several hundred feet from the seed trees, +the dissemination depending almost entirely on the wind. +A great part of the seed falls on the hardwood bottom when +the land is flooded, and is either washed away or, if already<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +in the ground and germinating, is destroyed by the long-continued +overflow. After germinating, the red gum +seedling demands, above everything else, abundant light +for its survival and development. It is for this reason +that there is very little growth of red gum, either in the +unculled forest or on culled land, where, as is usually the +case, a dense undergrowth of cane, briers, and rattan is +present. Under the dense underbrush of cane and briers +throughout much of the virgin forest, reproduction of any +of the merchantable species is of course impossible. And +even where the land has been logged over, the forest is +seldom open enough to allow reproduction of cottonwood +and red gum. Where, however, seed trees are contiguous +to pastures or cleared land, scattered seedlings are found +springing up in the open, and where openings occur in the +forest, there are often large numbers of red gum seedlings, +the reproduction generally occurring in groups. But over +the greater part of the Southern hardwood bottom land +forest reproduction is very poor. The growth of red gum +during the early part of its life, and up to the time it +reaches a diameter of eight inches breast-high, is extremely +rapid, and, like most of the intolerant species, it attains +its height growth at an early period. Gum sprouts readily +from the stump, and the sprouts surpass the seedlings in +rate of height growth for the first few years, but they seldom +form large timber trees. Those over fifty years of +age seldom sprout. For this reason sprout reproduction +is of little importance in the forest. The principal requirements +of red gum, then, are a moist, fairly rich soil +and good exposure to light. Without these it will not +reach its best development.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="400" height="506" alt="A Cypress Slough in the Dry Season" title="A Cypress Slough in the Dry Season" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 13. A Cypress Slough in the Dry Season.</p> +</div> + + +<h4>Second-Growth Red Gum</h4> + +<p>Second-growth red gum occurs to any considerable extent +only on land which has been thoroughly cleared. +Throughout the South there is a great deal of land which +was in cultivation before the Civil War, but which during +the subsequent period of industrial depression was abandoned +and allowed to revert to forest. These old fields +now mostly covered with second-growth forest, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +which red gum forms an important part (see <a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12</a>). +Frequently over fifty per cent of the stand consists of this +species, but more often, and especially on the Atlantic +coast, the greater part is of cottonwood or ash. These +stands are very dense, and the growth is extremely rapid. +Small stands of young growth are also often found along +the edges of cultivated fields. In the Mississippi Valley +the abandoned fields on which young stands have sprung +up are for the most part being rapidly cleared again. The +second growth here is considered of little value in comparison +with the value of the land for agricultural purposes. +In many cases, however, the farm value of the land is not +at present sufficient to make it profitable to clear it, unless +the timber cut will at least pay for the operation. There +is considerable land upon which the second growth will +become valuable timber within a few years. Such land +should not be cleared until it is possible to utilize the +timber.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>39. Tupelo Gum</b> (<i>Nyssa aquatica</i>) (Bay Poplar, Swamp +Poplar, Cotton Gum, Hazel Pine, Circassian Walnut, +Pepperidge, Nyssa). The close similarity which exists +between red and tupelo gum, together with the +fact that tupelo is often cut along with red gum, and +marketed with the sapwood of the latter, makes it +not out of place to give consideration to this timber. +The wood has a fine, uniform texture, is moderately +hard and strong, is stiff, not elastic, very tough and +hard to split, but easy to work with tools. Tupelo +takes glue, paint, or varnish well, and absorbs very +little of the material. In this respect it is equal to +yellow poplar and superior to cottonwood. The +wood is not durable in contact with ground, and requires +much care in seasoning. The distinction between +the heartwood and sapwood of this species is +marked. The former varies in color from a dull gray +to a dull brown; the latter is whitish or light yellow +like that of poplar. The wood is of medium weight, +about thirty-two pounds per cubic foot when dry, or +nearly that of red gum and loblolly pine. After<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +seasoning it is difficult to distinguish the better grades +of sapwood from poplar. Owing to the prejudice +against tupelo gum, it was until recently marketed +under such names as bay poplar, swamp poplar, nyssa, +cotton gum, circassian walnut, and hazel pine. Since +it has become evident that the properties of the wood +fit it for many uses, the demand for tupelo has largely +increased, and it is now taking rank with other standard +woods under its rightful name. Heretofore the +quality and usefulness of this wood were greatly +underestimated, and the difficulty of handling it was +magnified. Poor success in seasoning and kiln-drying +was laid to defects of the wood itself, when, as a +matter of fact, the failures were largely due to the +absence of proper methods in handling. The passing +of this prejudice against tupelo is due to a better +understanding of the characteristics and uses of the +wood. Handled in the way in which its particular +character demands, tupelo is a wood of much value.</p> + + +<h4>Uses of Tupelo Gum</h4> + +<p>Tupelo gum is now used in slack cooperage, principally +for heading. It is used extensively for house flooring and +inside finishing, such as mouldings, door jambs, and casings. +A great deal is now shipped to European countries, where +it is highly valued for different classes of manufacture. +Much of the wood is used in the manufacture of boxes, since +it works well upon rotary veneer machines. There is also +an increasing demand for tupelo for laths, wooden pumps, +violin and organ sounding boards, coffins, mantelwork, +conduits and novelties. It is also used in the furniture +trade for backing, drawers, and panels.</p> + + +<h4>Range of Tupelo Gum</h4> + +<p>Tupelo occurs throughout the coastal region of the Atlantic +States, from southern Virginia to northern Florida, +through the Gulf States to the valley of the Nueces River +in Texas, through Arkansas and southern Missouri to +western Kentucky and Tennessee, and to the valley of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +the lower Wabash River. Tupelo is being extensively +milled at present only in the region adjacent to Mobile +Ala., and in southern and central Louisiana, where it +occurs in large merchantable quantities, attaining its +best development in the former locality. The country +in this locality is very swampy (see <a href="#Fig_11">Fig. 11</a>), and within +a radius of one hundred miles tupelo gum is one of the +principal timber trees. It grows only in the swamps and +wetter situations (see <a href="#Fig_11">Fig. 11</a>), often in mixture with +cypress, and in the rainy season it stands in from two to +twenty feet of water.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>40. Black Gum</b> (<i>Nyssa sylvatica</i>) (Sour Gum). Black +gum is not cut to much extent, owing to its less abundant +supply and poorer quality, but is used for repair +work on wagons, for boxes, crates, wagon hubs, +rollers, bowls, woodenware, and for cattle yokes and +other purposes which require a strong, non-splitting +wood. Heartwood is light brown in color, often +nearly white; sapwood hardly distinguishable, fine +grain, fibres interwoven. Wood is heavy, not hard, +difficult to work, strong, very tough, checks and +warps considerably in drying, not durable. It is +distributed from Maine to southern Ontario, through +central Michigan to southeastern Missouri, southward +to the valley of the Brazos River in Texas, and +eastward to the Kissimmee River and Tampa Bay +in Florida. It is found in the swamps and hardwood +bottoms, but is more abundant and of better size on the +slightly higher ridges and hummocks in these swamps, +and on the mountain slopes in the southern Alleghany +region. Though its range is greater than that of +either red or tupelo gum, it nowhere forms an important +part of the forest.</p> + + +<h4>HACKBERRY</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>41. Hackberry</b> (<i>Celtis occidentalis</i>) (Sugar Berry, Nettle +Tree). The wood is handsome, heavy, hard, strong, +quite tough, of moderately fine texture, and greenish +or yellowish color, shrinks moderately, works well<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +and stands well, and takes a good polish. Used to +some extent in cooperage, and in the manufacture of +cheap furniture. Medium- to large-sized tree, locally +quite common, largest in the lower Mississippi Valley. +Occurs in nearly all parts of the eastern United States.</p> + + +<h4>HICKORY</h4> + +<p>The hickories of commerce are exclusively North American +and some of them are large and beautiful trees of +60 to 70 feet or more in height. They are closely allied +to the walnut, and the wood is very like walnut in grain +and color, though of a somewhat darker brown. It is one +of the finest of American hardwoods in point of strength; +in toughness it is superior to ash, rather coarse in texture, +smooth and of straight grain, very heavy and strong as +well as elastic and tenacious, but decays rapidly, especially +the sapwood when exposed to damp and moisture, and +is very liable to attack from worms and boring insects. +The cross-section of hickory is peculiar, the annual rings +appear like fine lines instead of like the usual pores, and +the medullary rays, which are also very fine but distinct, +in crossing these form a peculiar web-like pattern which +is one of the characteristic differences between hickory +and ash. Hickory is rarely subjected to artificial treatment, +but there is this curious fact in connection with the +wood, that, contrary to most other woods, creosote is +only with difficulty injected into the sap, although there +is no difficulty in getting it into the heartwood. It dries +slowly, shrinks and checks considerably in seasoning; is not +durable in contact with the soil or if exposed. Hickory +excels as wagon and carriage stock, for hoops in cooperage, +and is extensively used in the manufacture of implements +and machinery, for tool handles, timber pins, +harness work, dowel pins, golf clubs, and fishing rods. +The hickories are tall trees with slender stems, never forming +forests, occasionally small groves, but usually occur +scattered among other broad-leaved trees in suitable localities. +The following species all contribute more or less +to the hickory of the markets:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p> + +<p class="negative"><b>42. Shagbark Hickory</b> (<i>Hicoria ovata</i>) (Shellbark Hickory, +Scalybark Hickory). A medium- to large-sized +tree, quite common; the favorite among the hickories. +Heartwood light brown, sapwood ivory or cream-colored. +Wood close-grained, compact structure, +annual rings clearly marked. Very hard, heavy, +strong, tough, and flexible, but not durable in contact +with the soil or when exposed. Used for agricultural +implements, wheel runners, tool handles, +vehicle parts, baskets, dowel pins, harness work, golf +clubs, fishing rods, etc. Best developed in the Ohio +and Mississippi basins; from Lake Ontario to Texas, +Minnesota to Florida.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>43. Mockernut Hickory</b> (<i>Hicoria alba</i>) (Black Nut Hickory, +Black Hickory, Bull Nut Hickory, Big Bud +Hickory, White Heart Hickory). A medium- to large-sized +tree. Wood in its quality and uses similar to +the preceding. Its range is the same as that of +<i>Hicoria ovata</i>. Common, especially in the South.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>44. Pignut Hickory</b> (<i>Hicoria glabra</i>) (Brown Hickory, +Black Hickory, Switchbud Hickory). A medium- to +large-sized tree. Heavier and stronger than any +of the preceding. Heartwood light to dark brown, +sapwood nearly white. Abundant, all eastern United +States.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>45. Bitternut Hickory</b> (<i>Hicoria minima</i>) (Swamp Hickory). +A medium-sized tree, favoring wet localities. +Heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood +in its quality and uses not so valuable as <i>Hicoria +ovata</i>, but is used for the same purposes. Abundant, +all eastern United States.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>46. Pecan</b> (<i>Hicoria pecan</i>) (Illinois Nut). A large tree, +very common in the fertile bottoms of the western +streams. Indiana to Nebraska and southward to +Louisiana and Texas.</p> + + +<h4>HOLLY</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>47. Holly</b> (<i>Ilex opaca</i>). Small to medium-sized tree. +Wood of medium weight, hard, strong, tough, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +exceedingly fine grain, closer in texture than most +woods, of white color, sometimes almost as white as +ivory; requires great care in its treatment to preserve +the whiteness of the wood. It does not readily +absorb foreign matter. Much used by turners and +for all parts of musical instruments, for handles on +whips and fancy articles, draught-boards, engraving +blocks, cabinet work, etc. The wood is often dyed +black and sold as ebony; works well and stands well. +Most abundant in the lower Mississippi Valley and +Gulf States, but occurring eastward to Massachusetts +and north to Indiana.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>48. Holly</b> (<i>Ilex monticolo</i>) (Mountain Holly). Small-sized +tree. Wood in its quality and uses similar to +the preceding, but is not very generally known. It +is found in the Catskill Mountains and extends southward +along the Alleghanies as far as Alabama.</p> + + +<h4>HORSE CHESTNUT (See Buckeye)</h4> + +<h4>IRONWOOD</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>49. Ironwood</b> (<i>Ostrya Virginiana</i>) (Hop Hornbeam, Lever +Wood). Small-sized tree, common. Heartwood light +brown tinged with red, sapwood nearly white. Wood +heavy, tough, exceedingly close-grained, very strong +and hard, durable in contact with the soil, and will +take a fine polish. Used for small articles like levers, +handles of tools, mallets, etc. Ranges throughout +the United States east of the Rocky Mountains.</p> + + +<h4>LAUREL</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>50. Laurel</b> (<i>Umbellularia Californica</i>) (Myrtle). A Western +tree, produces timber of light brown color of great +size and beauty, and is very valuable for cabinet and +inside work, as it takes a fine polish. California and +Oregon, coast range of the Sierra Nevada Mountains.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>LOCUST</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>51. Black Locust</b> (<i>Robinia pseudacacia</i>) (Locust, Yellow +Locust, Acacia). Small to medium-sized tree. Wood +very heavy, hard, strong, and tough, rivalling some +of the best oak in this latter quality. The wood has +great torsional strength, excelling most of the soft +woods in this respect, of coarse texture, close-grained +and compact structure, takes a fine polish. Annual +rings clearly marked, very durable in contact with +the soil, shrinks and checks considerably in drying, +the very narrow sapwood greenish yellow, the heartwood brown, +with shades of red and green. Used +for wagon hubs, trenails or pins, but especially for +railway ties, fence posts, and door sills. Also used +for boat parts, turnery, ornamentations, and locally +for construction. Abroad it is much used for furniture +and farming implements and also in turnery. At +home in the Alleghany Mountains, extensively planted, +especially in the West.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>52. Honey Locust</b> (<i>Gleditschia triacanthos</i>) (Honey Shucks, +Locust, Black Locust, Brown Locust, Sweet Locust, +False Acacia, Three-Thorned Acacia). A medium-sized +tree. Wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, durable +in contact with the soil, of coarse texture, susceptible +to a good polish. The narrow sapwood yellow, +the heartwood brownish red. So far, but little appreciated +except for fences and fuel. Used to some +extent for wheel hubs, and locally in rough construction. +Found from Pennsylvania to Nebraska, +and southward to Florida and Texas; locally quite +abundant.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>53. Locust</b> (<i>Robinia viscosa</i>) (Clammy Locust). Usually +a shrub five or six feet high, but known to reach a +height of 40 feet in the mountains of North Carolina, +with the habit of a tree. Wood light brown, heavy, +hard, and close-grained. Not used to much extent +in manufacture. Range same as the preceding.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>MAGNOLIA</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>54. Magnolia</b> (<i>Magnolia glauca</i>) (Swamp Magnolia, Small +Magnolia, Sweet Bay, Beaver Wood). Small-sized +tree. Heartwood reddish brown, sap wood cream +white. Sparingly used in manufacture. Ranges from +Essex County, Mass., to Long Island, N. Y., from +New Jersey to Florida, and west in the Gulf region +to Texas.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>55. Magnolia</b> (<i>Magnolia tripetala</i>) (Umbrella Tree). A +small-sized tree. Wood in its quality similiar to the +preceding. It may be easily recognized by its great +leaves, twelve to eighteen inches long, and five to +eight inches broad. This species as well as the preceding +is an ornamental tree. Ranges from Pennsylvania +southward to the Gulf.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>56. Cucumber Tree</b> (<i>Magnolia accuminata</i>) (Tulip-wood, +Poplar). Medium- to large-sized tree. Heartwood +yellowish brown, sapwood almost white. Wood light, +soft, satiny, close-grained, durable in contact with +the soil, resembling and sometimes confounded with +tulip tree (<i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i>) in the markets. +The wood shrinks considerably, but seasons without +much injury, and works and stands well. It bends +readily when steamed, and takes stain and paint well. +Used in cooperage, for siding, for panelling and finishing +lumber in house, car and shipbuilding, etc., also +in the manufacture of toys, culinary woodenware, and +backing for drawers. Most common in the southern +Alleghanies, but distributed from western New York +to southern Illinois, south through central Kentucky +and Tennessee to Alabama, and throughout +Arkansas.</p> + + +<h4>MAPLE</h4> + +<p>Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and tough, of fine +texture, frequently wavy-grained, this giving rise to +"curly" and "blister" figures which are much admired. +Not durable in the ground, or when exposed. Maple<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +is creamy white, with shades of light brown in the heartwood, +shrinks moderately, seasons, works, and stands well, +wears smoothly, and takes a fine polish. The wood is +used in cooperage, and for ceiling, flooring, panelling, +stairway, and other finishing lumber in house, ship, and +car construction. It is used for the keels of boats and ships, +in the manufacture of implements and machinery, but +especially for furniture, where entire chamber sets of +maple rival those of oak. Maple is also used for shoe +lasts and other form blocks; for shoe pegs; for piano +actions, school apparatus, for wood type in show bill +printing, tool handles, in wood carving, turnery, and +scroll work, in fact it is one of our most useful woods. +The maples are medium-sized trees, of fairly rapid growth, +sometimes form forests, and frequently constitute a large +proportion of the arborescent growth. They grow freely +in parts of the Northern Hemisphere, and are particularly +luxuriant in Canada and the northern portions of the +United States.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>57. Sugar Maple</b> (<i>Acer saccharum</i>) (Hard Maple, Rock +Maple). Medium- to large-sized tree, very common, +forms considerable forests, and is especially esteemed. +The wood is close-grained, heavy, fairly hard and +strong, of compact structure. Heartwood brownish, +sapwood lighter color; it can be worked to a satin-like +surface and take a fine polish, it is not durable +if exposed, and requires a good deal of seasoning. +Medullary rays small but distinct. The "curly" +or "wavy" varieties furnish wood of much beauty, +the peculiar contortions of the grain called "bird's +eye" being much sought after, and used as veneer for +panelling, etc. It is used in all good grades of furniture, +cabinetmaking, panelling, interior finish, and +turnery; it is not liable to warp and twist. It is also +largely used for flooring, for rollers for wringers and +mangling machines, for which there is a large and +increasing demand. The peculiarity known as "bird's +eye," and which causes a difficulty in working the +wood smooth, owing to the little pieces like knots<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +lifting up, is supposed to be due to the action of boring +insects. Its resistance to compression across the +grain is higher than that of most other woods. Ranges +from Maine to Minnesota, abundant, with birch, in +the region of the Great Lakes.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>58. Red Maple</b> (<i>Acer rubrum</i>) (Swamp Maple, Soft +Maple, Water Maple). Medium-sized tree. Like +the preceding but not so valuable. Scattered along +water-courses and other moist localities. Abundant. +Maine to Minnesota, southward to northern Florida.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>59. Silver Maple</b> (<i>Acer saccharinum</i>) (Soft Maple, White +Maple, Silver-Leaved Maple). Medium- to large-sized +tree, common. Wood lighter, softer, and inferior +to <i>Acer saccharum</i>, and usually offered in small +quantities and held separate in the markets. Heartwood +reddish brown, sapwood ivory white, fine-grained, +compact structure. Fibres sometimes +twisted, weaved, or curly. Not durable. Used in +cooperage for woodenware, turnery articles, interior +decorations and flooring. Valley of the Ohio, but +occurs from Maine to Dakota and southward to +Florida.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>60. Broad-Leaved Maple</b> (<i>Acer macrophyllum</i>) (Oregon +Maple). Medium-sized tree, forms considerable +forests, and, like the preceding has a lighter, softer, +and less valuable wood than <i>Acer saccharum</i>. Pacific +Coast regions.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>61. Mountain Maple</b> (<i>Acer spicatum</i>). Small-sized tree. +Heartwood pale reddish brown, sapwood lighter color. +Wood light, soft, close-grained, and susceptible of +high polish. Ranges from lower St. Lawrence River +to northern Minnesota and regions of the Saskatchewan +River; south through the Northern States and +along the Appalachian Mountains to Georgia.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>62. Ash-Leaved Maple</b> (<i>Acer negundo</i>) (Box Elder). +Medium- to large-sized tree. Heartwood creamy +white, sapwood nearly white. Wood light, soft, close-grained,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +not strong. Used for woodenware and paper +pulp. Distributed across the continent, abundant +throughout the Mississippi Valley along banks of +streams and borders of swamps.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>63. Striped Maple</b> (<i>Acer Pennsylvanicum</i>) (Moose-wood). +Small-sized tree. Produces a very white wood much +sought after for inlaid and for cabinet work. Wood +is light, soft, close-grained, and takes a fine polish. +Not common. Occurs from Pennsylvania to Minnesota.</p> + + +<h4>MULBERRY</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>64. Red Mulberry</b> (<i>Morus rubra</i>). A small-sized tree. +Wood moderately heavy, fairly hard and strong, +rather tough, of coarse texture, very durable in contact +with the soil. The sapwood whitish, heartwood +yellow to orange brown, shrinks and checks considerably +in drying, works well and stands well. Used +in cooperage and locally in construction, and in the +manufacture of farm implements. Common in the +Ohio and Mississippi Valleys, but widely distributed +in the eastern United States.</p> + + +<h4>MYRTLE (See Laurel)</h4> + +<h4>OAK</h4> + +<p>Wood very variable, usually very heavy and hard, very +strong and tough, porous, and of coarse texture. The +sapwood whitish, the heartwood "oak" to reddish brown. +It shrinks and checks badly, giving trouble in seasoning, +but stands well, is durable, and little subject to the attacks +of boring insects. Oak is used for many purposes, +and is the chief wood used for tight cooperage; it is used +in shipbuilding, for heavy construction, in carpentry, in +furniture, car and wagon work, turnery, and even in woodcarving. +It is also used in all kinds of farm implements, +mill machinery, for piles and wharves, railway ties, etc., +etc. The oaks are medium- to large-sized trees, forming +the predominant part of a large proportion of our broad-leaved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +forests, so that these are generally termed "oak +forests," though they always contain considerable proportion +of other kinds of trees. Three well-marked kinds—white, +red, and live oak—are distinguished and kept +separate in the markets. Of the two principal kinds +"white oak" is the stronger, tougher, less porous, and +more durable. "Red oak" is usually of coarser texture, +more porous, often brittle, less durable, and even more +troublesome in seasoning than white oak. In carpentry +and furniture work red oak brings the same price at present +as white oak. The red oaks everywhere accompany the +white oaks, and, like the latter, are usually represented +by several species in any given locality. "Live oak," +once largely employed in shipbuilding, possesses all the +good qualities, except that of size, of white oak, even to +a greater degree. It is one of the heaviest, hardest, toughest, +and most durable woods of this country. In structure +it resembles the red oak, but is less porous.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>65. White Oak</b> (<i>Quercus alba</i>) (American Oak). Medium- +to large-sized tree. Heartwood light brown, +sapwood lighter color. Annual rings well marked, +medullary rays broad and prominent. Wood tough, +strong, heavy, hard, liable to check in seasoning, +durable in contact with the soil, takes a high polish, +very elastic, does not shrink much, and can be bent +to any form when steamed. Used for agricultural +implements, tool handles, furniture, fixtures, interior +finish, car and wagon construction, beams, +cabinet work, tight cooperage, railway ties, etc., etc. +Because of the broad medullary rays, it is generally +"quarter-sawn" for cabinet work and furniture. +Common in the Eastern States, Ohio and Mississippi +Valleys. Occurs throughout the eastern United +States.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>66. White Oak</b> (<i>Quercus durandii</i>). Medium- to small-sized +tree. Wood in its quality and uses similiar to +the preceding. Texas, eastward to Alabama.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>67. White Oak</b> (<i>Quercus garryana</i>) (Western White Oak). +Medium- to large-sized tree. Stronger, more durable,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +and wood more compact than <i>Quercus alba</i>. Washington +to California.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>68. White Oak</b> (<i>Quercus lobata</i>). Medium- to large-sized +tree. Largest oak on the Pacific Coast. Wood in +its quality and uses similar to <i>Quercus alba</i>, only it +is finer-grained. California.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>69. Bur Oak</b> (<i>Quercus macrocarpa</i>) (Mossy-Cup Oak, +Over-Cup Oak). Large-sized tree. Heartwood "oak" +brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood heavy, strong, +close-grained, durable in contact with the soil. +Used in ship- and boatbuilding, all sorts of construction, +interior finish of houses, cabinet work, +tight cooperage, carriage and wagon work, agricultural +implements, railway ties, etc., etc. One of the most +valuable and most widely distributed of American +oaks, 60 to 80 feet in height, and, unlike most of the +other oaks, adapts itself to varying climatic conditions. +It is one of the most durable woods when in +contact with the soil. Common, locally abundant. +Ranges from Manitoba to Texas, and from the foot +hills of the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Coast. +It is the most abundant oak of Kansas and Nebraska, +and forms the scattered forests known as "The oak +openings" of Minnesota.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>70. Willow Oak</b> (<i>Quercus phellos</i>) (Peach oak). Small +to medium-sized tree. Heartwood pale reddish brown, +sapwood lighter color. Wood heavy, hard, strong, +coarse-grained. Occasionally used in construction. +New York to Texas, and northward to Kentucky.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>71. Swamp White Oak</b> (<i>Quercus bicolor</i> var. <i>platanoides</i>). +Large-sized tree. Heartwood pale brown, sapwood +the same color. Wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, +coarse-grained, checks considerably in seasoning. +Used in construction, interior finish of houses, carriage- +and boatbuilding, agricultural implements, in cooperage, +railway ties, fencing, etc., etc. Ranges from +Quebec to Georgia and westward to Arkansas. Never +abundant. Most abundant in the Lake States.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> + +<p class="negative"><b>72. Over-Cup Oak</b> (<i>Quercus lyrata</i>) (Swamp White Oak, +Swamp Post Oak). Medium to large-sized tree, +rather restricted, as it grows in the swampy districts +of Carolina and Georgia. Is a larger tree than most +of the other oaks, and produces an excellent timber, +but grows in districts difficult of access, and is not +much used. Lower Mississippi and eastward to +Delaware.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>73. Pin Oak</b> (<i>Quercus palustris</i>) (Swamp Spanish Oak, +Water Oak). Medium- to large-sized tree. Heartwood +pale brown with dark-colored sap wood. Wood +heavy, strong, and coarse-grained. Common along +the borders of streams and swamps, attains its greatest +size in the valley of the Ohio. Arkansas to Wisconsin, +and eastward to the Alleghanies.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>74. Water Oak</b> (<i>Quercus aquatica</i>) (Duck Oak, Possum +Oak). Medium- to large-sized tree, of extremely +rapid growth. Eastern Gulf States, eastward to +Delaware and northward to Missouri and Kentucky.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>75. Chestnut Oak</b> (<i>Quercus prinus</i>) (Yellow Oak, Rock +Oak, Rock Chestnut Oak). Heartwood dark brown, +sapwood lighter color. Wood heavy, hard, strong, +tough, close-grained, durable in contact with the soil. +Used for railway ties, fencing, fuel, and locally for +construction. Ranges from Maine to Georgia and +Alabama, westward through Ohio, and southward +to Kentucky and Tennessee.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>76. Yellow Oak</b> (<i>Quercus acuminata</i>) (Chestnut Oak, +Chinquapin Oak). Medium- to large-sized tree. +Heartwood dark brown, sapwood pale brown. Wood +heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, durable in contact +with the soil. Used in the manufacture of wheel +stock, in cooperage, for railway ties, fencing, etc., +etc. Ranges from New York to Nebraska and eastern +Kansas, southward in the Atlantic region to the +District of Columbia, and west of the Alleghanies +southward to the Gulf States.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p> + +<p class="negative"><b>77. Chinquapin Oak</b> (<i>Quercus prinoides</i>) (Dwarf Chinquapin +Oak, Scrub Chestnut Oak). Small-sized tree. +Heartwood light brown, sapwood darker color. Does +not enter the markets to any great extent. Ranges +from Massachusetts to North Carolina, westward to +Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, and eastern Texas. +Reaches its best form in Missouri and Kansas.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>78. Basket Oak</b> (<i>Quercus michauxii</i>) (Cow Oak). Large-sized +tree. Locally abundant. Lower Mississippi +and eastward to Delaware.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>79. Scrub Oak</b> (<i>Quercus ilicifolia</i> var. <i>pumila</i>) (Bear Oak). +Small-sized tree. Heartwood light brown, sapwood +darker color. Wood heavy, hard, strong, and coarse-grained. +Found in New England and along the +Alleghanies.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>80. Post Oak</b> (<i>Quercus obtusiloda</i> var. <i>minor</i>) (Iron Oak). +Medium- to large-sized tree, gives timber of great +strength. The color is of a brownish yellow hue, +close-grained, and often superior to the white oak +(<i>Quercus alba</i>) in strength and durability. It is used +for posts and fencing, and locally for construction. +Arkansas to Texas, eastward to New England and +northward to Michigan.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>81. Red Oak</b> (<i>Quercus rubra</i>) (Black Oak). Medium- to +large-sized tree. Heartwood light brown to red, sapwood +lighter color. Wood coarse-grained, well-marked +annual rings, medullary rays few but broad. Wood +heavy, hard, strong, liable to check in seasoning. +It is found over the same range as white oak, and +is more plentiful. Wood is spongy in grain, moderately +durable, but unfit for work requiring strength. +Used for agricultural implements, furniture, bob +sleds, vehicle parts, boxes, cooperage, woodenware, +fixtures, interior finish, railway ties, etc., etc. Common +in all parts of its range. Maine to Minnesota, +and southward to the Gulf.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>82. Black Oak</b> (<i>Quercus tinctoria</i> var. <i>velutina</i>) (Yellow +Oak). Medium- to large-sized tree. Heartwood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +bright brown tinged with red, sapwood lighter color. +Wood heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, checks +considerably in seasoning. Very common in the +Southern States, but occurring North as far as Minnesota, +and eastward to Maine.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>83. Barren Oak</b> (<i>Quercus nigra</i> var. <i>marilandica</i>) (Black +Jack, Jack Oak). Small-sized tree. Heartwood +dark brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood heavy, +hard, strong, coarse-grained, not valuable. Used +in the manufacture of charcoal and for fuel. New +York to Kansas and Nebraska, and southward to +Florida. Rare in the North, but abundant in the +South.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>84. Shingle Oak</b> (<i>Quercus imbricaria</i>) (Laurel Oak). Small +to medium-sized tree. Heartwood pale reddish +brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood heavy, hard, +strong, coarse-grained, checks considerably in drying. +Used for shingles and locally for construction. +Rare in the east, most abundant in the lower Ohio +Valley. From New York to Illinois and southward. +Reaches its greatest size in southern Illinois and +Indiana.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>85. Spanish Oak</b> (<i>Quercus digitata</i> var. <i>falcata</i>) (Red Oak). +Medium-sized tree. Heartwood light reddish brown, +sapwood much lighter. Wood heavy, hard, strong, +coarse-grained, and checks considerably in seasoning. +Used locally for construction, and has high fuel value. +Common in south Atlantic and Gulf region, but found +from Texas to New York, and northward to Missouri +and Kentucky.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>86. Scarlet Oak</b> (<i>Quercus coccinea</i>). Medium- to large-sized +tree. Heartwood light reddish-brown, sapwood +darker color. Wood heavy, hard, strong, and +coarse-grained. Best developed in the lower basin +of the Ohio, but found from Minnesota to Florida.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>87. Live Oak</b> (<i>Quercus virens</i>) (Maul Oak). Medium- to +large-sized tree. Grows from Maryland to the Gulf<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +of Mexico, and often attains a height of 60 feet and +4 feet in diameter. The wood is hard, strong, and +durable, but of rather rapid growth, therefore not +as good quality as <i>Quercus alba</i>. The live oak of +Florida is now reserved by the United States Government +for Naval purposes. Used for mauls and mallets, +tool handles, etc., and locally for construction. +Scattered along the coast from Maryland to Texas.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>88. Live Oak</b> (<i>Quercus chrysolepis</i>) (Maul Oak, Valparaiso +Oak). Medium- to small-sized tree. California.</p> + + +<h4>OSAGE ORANGE</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>89. Osage Orange</b> (<i>Maclura aurantiaca</i>) (Bois d'Arc). +A small-sized tree of fairly rapid growth. Wood +very heavy, exceedingly hard, strong, not tough, of +moderately coarse texture, and very durable and +elastic. Sapwood yellow, heartwood brown on the +end face, yellow on the longitudinal faces, soon +turning grayish brown if exposed. It shrinks considerably +in drying, but once dry it stands unusually +well. Much used for wheel stock, and wagon framing; +it is easily split, so is unfit for wheel hubs, but is very +suitable for wheel spokes. It is considered one of +the timbers likely to supply the place of black locust +for insulator pins on telegraph poles. Seems too +little appreciated; it is well suited for turned ware +and especially for woodcarving. Used for spokes, +insulator pins, posts, railway ties, wagon framing, +turnery, and woodcarving. Scattered through the +rich bottoms of Arkansas and Texas.</p> + + +<h4>PAPAW</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>90. Papaw</b> (<i>Asimina triloba</i>) (Custard Apple). Small-sized +tree, often only a shrub, Heartwood pale, +yellowish green, sapwood lighter color. Wood light, +soft, coarse-grained, and spongy. Not used to any +extent in manufacture. Occurs in eastern and central +Pennsylvania, west as far as Michigan and Kansas, +and south to Florida and Texas. Often forming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +dense thickets in the lowlands bordering the Mississippi +River.</p> + + +<h4>PERSIMMON</h4> + +<p class="negative"><b>91. Persimmon</b> (<i>Diospyros Virginiana</i>). Small to medium-sized +tree. Wood very heavy, and hard, strong and +tough; resembles hickory, but is of finer texture and +elastic, but liable to split in working. The broad +sapwood cream color, the heartwood brown, sometimes +almost black. The persimmon is the Virginia +date plum, a tree of 30 to 50 feet high, and 18 to 20 +inches in diameter; it is noted chiefly for its fruit, +but it produces a wood of considerable value. Used +in turnery, for wood engraving, shuttles, bobbins, +plane stock, shoe lasts, and largely as a substitute +for box (<i>Buxus sempervirens</i>)—especially the black +or Mexican variety,—also used for pocket rules and +drawing scales, for flutes and other wind instruments. +Common, and best developed in the lower +Ohio Valley, but occurs from New York to Texas +and Missouri.</p> + + +<h4>POPLAR (See also Tulip Wood)</h4> + +<p>Wood light, very soft, not strong, of fine texture, and +whitish, grayish to yellowish color, usually with a satiny +luster. The wood shrinks moderately (some cross-grained +forms warp excessively), but checks very little in seasoning; +is easily worked, but is not durable. Used in cooperage, +for building and furniture lumber, for crates and +boxes (especially cracker boxes), for woodenware, and +paper pulp.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>92. Cottonwood</b> (<i>Populus monilifera</i>, var. <i>angulata</i>) (Carolina +Poplar). Large-sized tree, forms considerable +forests along many of the Western streams, and +furnishes most of the cottonwood of the market. +Heartwood dark brown, sapwood nearly white. Wood +light, soft, not strong, and close-grained (see <a href="#Fig_14">Fig. +14</a>). Mississippi Valley and West. New England +to the Rocky Mountains.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> + +<p class="negative"><b>93. Cottonwood</b> (<i>Populus fremontii</i> var. <i>wislizeni</i>). Medium- +to large-sized tree. Common. Wood in its +quality and uses similiar to the preceding, but not +so valuable. Texas to California.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_14" id="Fig_14"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="400" height="508" alt="A Large Cottonwood" title="A Large Cottonwood" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 14. A Large Cottonwood. One of the Associates of Red Gum.</p> +</div> + +<p class="negative"><b>94. Black Cottonwood</b> (<i>Populus trichocarpa</i> var. <i>heterophylla</i>) +(Swamp Cottonwood, Downy Poplar). The +largest deciduous tree of Washington. Very common.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +Heartwood dull brown, sapwood lighter brown. Wood +soft, close-grained. Is now manufactured into lumber +in the West and South, and used in interior finish +of buildings. Northern Rocky Mountains and +Pacific region.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>95. Poplar</b> (<i>Populus grandidentata</i>) (Large-Toothed Aspen). +Medium-sized tree. Heartwood light brown, +sapwood nearly white. Wood soft and close-grained, +neither strong nor durable. Chiefly used for wood +pulp. Maine to Minnesota and southward along +the Alleghanies.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>96. White Poplar</b> (<i>Populus alba</i>) (Abele-Tree). Small +to medium-sized tree. Wood in its quality and uses +similar to the preceding. Found principally along +banks of streams, never forming forests. Widely +distributed in the United States.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>97. Lombardy Poplar</b> (<i>Populus nigra italica</i>). Medium- +to large-sized tree. This species is the first ornamental +tree introduced into the United States, and +originated in Afghanistan. Does not enter into the +markets. Widely planted in the United States.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>98. Balsam</b> (<i>Populus balsamifera</i>) (Balm of Gilead, Tacmahac). +Medium- to large-sized tree. Heartwood light +brown, sapwood nearly white. Wood light, soft, +not strong, close-grained. Used extensively in the +manufacture of paper pulp. Common all along the +northern boundary of the United States.</p> + +<p class="negative"><b>99. Aspen</b> (<i>Populus tremuloides</i>) (Quaking Aspen). Small +to medium-sized tree, often forming extensive forests, +and covering burned areas. Heartwood light brown, +sapwood nearly white. Wood light, soft, close-grained, +neither strong nor durable. Chiefly used +for woodenware, cooperage, and paper pulp. Maine +to Washington and northward, and south in the +western mountains to California and New Mexico.</p> + + +<h4>RED GUM (See Gum)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></h4> + + +<h4>SASSAFRAS</h4> + +<p class="negative2"><b>100. Sassafras</b> (<i>Sassafras sassafras</i>). Medium-sized tree, +largest in the lower Mississippi Valley. Wood light, +soft, not strong, brittle, of coarse texture, durable +in contact with the soil. The sapwood yellow, the +heartwood orange brown. Used to some extent in +slack cooperage, for skiff- and boatbuilding, fencing, +posts, sills, etc. Occurs from New England to Texas +and from Michigan to Florida.</p> + + +<h4>SOUR GUM (See Gum)</h4> + +<h4>SOURWOOD</h4> + +<p class="negative2"><b>101. Sourwood</b> (<i>Oxydendrum arboreum</i>) (Sorrel-Tree). A +slender tree, reaching the maximum height of 60 feet. +Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood lighter color. +Wood heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, and takes +a fine polish. Ranges from Pennsylvania, along the +Alleghanies, to Florida and Alabama, westward through +Ohio to southern Indiana and southward through +Arkansas and Louisiana to the Coast.</p> + + +<h4>SWEET GUM (See Gum)</h4> + +<h4>SYCAMORE</h4> + +<p class="negative2"><b>102. Sycamore</b> (<i>Platanus occidentalis</i>) (Buttonwood, Button-Ball +Tree, Plane Tree, Water Beech). A large-sized +tree, of rapid growth. One of the largest deciduous +trees of the United States, sometimes attaining a +height of 100 feet. It produces a timber that is moderately +heavy, quite hard, stiff, strong, and tough, +usually cross-grained; of coarse texture, difficult to +split and work, shrinks moderately, but warps and +checks considerably in seasoning, but stands well, +and is not considered durable for outside work, or in +contact with the soil. It has broad medullary rays, +and much of the timber has a beautiful figure. It +is used in slack cooperage, and quite extensively for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +drawers, backs, and bottoms, etc., in furniture work. +It is also used for cabinet work, for tobacco boxes, +crates, desks, flooring, furniture, ox-yokes, butcher +blocks, and also for finishing lumber, where it has too +long been underrated. Common and largest in the +Ohio and Mississippi Valleys, at home in nearly all +parts of the eastern United States.</p> + +<p class="negative2"><b>103. Sycamore</b> (<i>Platanus racemosa</i>). The California +species, resembling in its wood the Eastern form. +Not used to any great extent.</p> + + +<h4>TULIP TREE</h4> + +<p class="negative2"><b>104. Tulip Tree</b> (<i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i>) (Yellow Poplar, +Tulip Wood, White Wood, Canary Wood, Poplar, +Blue Poplar, White Poplar, Hickory Poplar). A +medium- to large-sized tree, does not form forests, +but is quite common, especially in the Ohio basin. +Wood usually light, but varies in weight, it is soft, +tough, but not strong, of fine texture, and yellowish +color. The wood shrinks considerably, but seasons +without much injury, and works and stands extremely +well. Heartwood light yellow or greenish brown, +the sapwood is thin, nearly white, and decays rapidly. +The heartwood is fairly durable when exposed to the +weather or in contact with the soil. It bends readily +when steamed, and takes stain and paint well. The +mature forest-grown tree has a long, straight, cylindrical +bole, clear of branches for at least two thirds of +its length, surmounted by a short, open, irregular +crown. When growing in the open, the tree maintains +a straight stem, but the crown extends almost +to the ground, and is of conical shape. Yellow poplar, +or tulip wood, ordinarily grows to a height of from +100 to 125 feet, with a diameter of from 3 to 6 feet, +and a clear length of about 70 feet. Trees have been +found 190 feet high and ten feet in diameter. Used +in cooperage, for siding, for panelling and finishing +lumber in houses, car- and shipbuilding, for sideboards, +panels of wagons and carriages, for aeroplanes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +for automobiles, also in the manufacture of furniture +farm implements, machinery, for pump logs, and +almost every kind of common woodenware, boxes +shelving, drawers, etc., etc. Also in the manufacture +of toys, culinary woodenware, and backing for veneer. +It is in great demand throughout the vehicle and implement +trade, and also makes a fair grade of wood +pulp. In fact the tulip tree is one of the most useful +of woods throughout the woodworking industry +of this country. Occurs from New England to Missouri +and southward to Florida.</p> + + +<h4>TUPELO (See Gum)</h4> + +<h4>WAAHOO</h4> + +<p class="negative2"><b>105. Waahoo</b> (<i>Evonymus atropurpureus</i>). (Burning Bush, +Spindle Tree). A small-sized tree. Wood white, +tinged with orange; heavy, hard, tough, and close-grained, +works well and stands well. Used principally +for arrows and spindles. Widely distributed. +Usually a shrub six to ten feet high, becoming a tree +only in southern Arkansas and Oklahoma.</p> + + +<h4>WALNUT</h4> + +<p class="negative2"><b>106. Black Walnut</b> (<i>Juglans nigra</i>) (Walnut). A large, +beautiful, and quickly-growing tree, about 60 feet and +upwards in height. Wood heavy, hard, strong, of +coarse texture, very durable in contact with the soil. +The narrow sapwood whitish, the heartwood dark, +rich, chocolate brown, sometimes almost black; aged +trees of fine quality bring fancy prices. The wood +shrinks moderately in seasoning, works well and stands +well, and takes a fine polish. It is quite handsome, +and has been for a long time the favorite wood for +cabinet and furniture making. It is used for gun-stocks, +fixtures, interior decoration, veneer, panelling, +stair newells, and all classes of work demanding +a high priced grade of wood. Black walnut is +a large tree with stout trunk, of rapid growth, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +was formerly quite abundant throughout the Alleghany +region. Occurs from New England to Texas, +and from Michigan to Florida. Not common.</p> + + +<h4>WHITE WALNUT (See Butternut)</h4> + + +<h4>WHITE WOOD (See Tulip and also Basswood)</h4> + + +<h4>WHITE WILLOW</h4> + +<p class="negative2"><b>107. White Willow</b> (<i>Salix alba</i> var. <i>vitellina</i>) (Willow, +Yellow Willow, Blue Willow). The wood is very +soft, light, flexible, and fairly strong, is fairly durable +in contact with the soil, works well and stands well +when seasoned. Medium-sized tree, characterized +by a short, thick trunk, and a large, rather irregular +crown composed of many branches. The size of +the tree at maturity varies with the locality. In +the region where it occurs naturally, a height of 70 +to 80 feet, and a diameter of three to four feet are +often attained. When planted in the Middle West, +a height of from 50 to 60 feet, and a diameter of one +and one-half to two feet are all that may be expected. +When closely planted on moist soil, the tree forms a +tall, slender stem, well cleared branches. Is widely +naturalized in the United States. It is used in cooperage, +for woodenware, for cricket and baseball bats, +for basket work, etc. Charcoal made from the wood +is used in the manufacture of gunpowder. It has +been generally used for fence posts on the Northwestern +plains, because of scarcity of better material. +Well seasoned posts will last from four to seven +years. Widely distributed throughout the United +States.</p> + +<p class="negative2"><b>108. Black Willow</b> (<i>Salix nigra</i>). Small-sized tree. +Heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly +white. Wood soft, light, not strong, close-grained, +and very flexible. Used in basket making, etc. +Ranges from New York to Rocky Mountains and +southward to Mexico.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p> + +<p class="negative2"><b>109. Shining Willow</b> (<i>Salix lucida</i>). A small-sized tree. +Wood in its quality and uses similiar to the preceding. +Ranges from Newfoundland to Rocky Mountains +and southward to Pennsylvania and Nebraska.</p> + +<p class="negative2"><b>110. Perch Willow</b> (<i>Salix amygdaloides</i>) (Almond-leaf +Willow). Small to medium-sized tree. Heartwood +light brown, sapwood lighter color. Wood light, +soft, flexible, not strong, close-grained. Uses similiar +to the preceding. Follows the water courses and +ranges across the continent; less abundant in New +England than elsewhere. Common in the West.</p> + +<p class="negative2"><b>111. Long-Leaf Willow</b> (<i>Salix fluviatilis</i>) (Sand Bar Willow). +A small-sized tree. Ranges from the Arctic +Circle to Northern Mexico.</p> + +<p class="negative2"><b>112. Bebb Willow</b> (<i>Salix bebbiana</i> var. <i>rostrata</i>). A small-sized +tree. More abundant in British America than +in the United States, where it ranges southward to +Pennsylvania and westward to Minnesota.</p> + +<p class="negative2"><b>113. Glaucous Willow</b> (<i>Salix discolor</i>) (Pussy Willow). +A small-sized tree. Common along the banks of +streams, and ranges from Nova Scotia to Manitoba, +and south to Delaware; west to Indiana and northwestern +Missouri.</p> + +<p class="negative2"><b>114. Crack Willow</b> (<i>Salix fragilis</i>). A medium to large-sized +tree. Wood is very soft, light, very flexible +and fairly strong, is fairly durable in contact with +the soil, works well and stands well. Used principally +for basket making, hoops, etc., and to produce +charcoal for gunpowder. Very common, and +widely distributed in the United States.</p> + +<p class="negative2"><b>115. Weeping Willow</b> (<i>Salix babylonica</i>). Medium- to +large-sized tree. Wood similiar to <i>Salix nigra</i>, but +not so valuable. Mostly an ornamental tree. Originally +came from China. Widely planted in the +United States.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>YELLOW WOOD</h4> + +<p class="negative2"><b>116. Yellow Wood</b> (<i>Cladrastis lutea</i>) (Virgilia). A small +to medium-sized tree. Wood yellow to pale brown, +heavy, hard, close-grained and strong. Not used +to much extent in manufacturing. Not common. +Found principally on the limestone cliffs of Kentucky, +Tennessee, and North Carolina.</p> + + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_IV" id="SECTION_IV"></a>SECTION IV<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></h3> + +<h2>GRAIN, COLOR, ODOR, WEIGHT, +AND FIGURE IN WOOD</h2> + + +<h3 style="padding-top: 0em">DIFFERENT GRAINS OF WOOD</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> terms "fine-grained," "coarse-grained," "straight-grained," +and "cross-grained" are frequently applied in +the trade. In common usage, wood is coarse-grained if +its annual rings are wide; fine-grained if they are narrow. +In the finer wood industries a fine-grained wood is capable +of high polish, while a coarse-grained wood is not, so +that in this latter case the distinction depends chiefly on +hardness, and in the former on an accidental case of slow +or rapid growth. Generally if the direction of the wood +fibres is parallel to the axis of the stem or limb in which +they occur, the wood is straight-grained; but in many +cases the course of the fibres is spiral or twisted around +the tree (as shown in <a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15</a>), and sometimes commonly +in the butts of gum and cypress, the fibres of several layers +are oblique in one direction, and those of the next series +of layers are oblique in the opposite direction. (As shown +in <a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16</a> the wood is cross or twisted grain.) Wavy-grain +in a tangential plane as seen on the radial section is +illustrated in <a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>, which represents an extreme case +observed in beech. This same form also occurs on the +radial plane, causing the tangential section to appear wavy +or in transverse folds.</p> + +<p>When wavy grain is fine (<i>i.e.</i>, the folds or ridges small +but numerous) it gives rise to the "curly" structure +frequently seen in maple. Ordinarily, neither wavy, +spiral, nor alternate grain is visible on the cross-section; +its existence often escapes the eye even on smooth, longitudinal +faces in the sawed material, so that the only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +guide to their discovery lies in splitting the wood in two, +in the two normal plains.</p> + +<table summary="illos"> +<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_15" id="Fig_15"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="150" height="322" alt="Spiral Grain" title="Spiral Grain" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption" style="margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em">Fig. 15. Spiral Grain. Season checks, after removal of bark, indicate the +direction of the fibres or grain of the wood.</p> +</td> + +<td style="padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 3em"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 322px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_16" id="Fig_16"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig16.jpg" width="322" height="342" alt="Alternating Spiral Grain in Cypress" title="Alternating Spiral Grain in Cypress" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 16. Alternating Spiral Grain in Cypress. Side and end view of same +piece. When the bark was at <i>o</i>, the grain of this piece was straight. +From that time, each year it grew more oblique in one direction, +reaching a climax at <i>a</i>, and then turned back in the opposite direction. +These alternations were repeated periodically, the bark sharing in +these changes.</p> +</div></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Generally the surface of the wood under the bark, and +therefore also that of any layer in the interior, is not uniform +and smooth, but is channelled and pitted by numerous +depressions, which differ greatly in size and form. +Usually, any one depression or elevation is restricted to +one or few annual layers (<i>i.e.</i>, seen only in one or few rings) +and is then lost, being compensated (the surface at the +particular spot evened up) by growth. In some woods, +however, any depression or elevation once attained grows +from year to year and reaches a maximum size, which is +maintained for many years, sometimes throughout life. +In maple, where this tendency to preserve any particular +contour is very great, the depressions and elevations are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +usually small (commonly less than one-eighth inch) but +very numerous.</p> + +<p>On tangent boards of such wood, the sections, pits, and +prominences appear as circlets, and give rise to the beautiful +"bird's eye" or "landscape" structure. Similiar structures +in the burls of black ash, maple, etc., are frequently +due to the presence of dormant buds, which cause the +surface of all the layers through which they pass to be +covered by small conical elevations, whose cross-sections +on the sawed board appear as irregular circlets or islets, +each with a dark speck, the section of the pith or "trace" +of the dormant bud in the center.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_17" id="Fig_17"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig17.jpg" width="300" height="287" alt="Wavy Grain in Beech" title="Wavy Grain in Beech" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 17. Wavy Grain in Beech (<i>after Nordlinger</i>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 120px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_18" id="Fig_18"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig18.jpg" width="120" height="257" alt="Section of Wood" title="Section of Wood" /> +</div> + + + +<p>In the wood of many broad-leaved trees the wood fibres +are much longer when full grown than when they are first +formed in the cambium or growing zone. This causes +the tips of each fibre to crowd in between the fibres above +and below, and leads to an irregular interlacement of these +fibres, which adds to the toughness, but reduces the cleavability +of the wood. At the juncture of the limb and stem +the fibres on the upper and lower sides of the limb behave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +differently. On the lower side they run from the stem +into the limb, forming an uninterrupted strand or tissue +and a perfect union. On the upper side the fibres bend +aside, are not continuous into the +limb, and hence the connection is +not perfect (see <a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>). Owing +to this arrangement of the fibres, +the cleft made in splitting never +runs into the knot if started on +the side above the limb, but is +apt to enter the knot if started +below, a fact well understood in +woodcraft. When limbs die, decay, +and break off, the remaining stubs +are surrounded, and may finally +be covered by the growth of the +trunk and thus give rise to the annoying +"dead" or "loose" knots.</p> + +<p class="caption" style="margin-left: 4em">Fig. 18. Section of Wood +showing Position of the +Grain at Base of a Limb. +P, pith of both stem and +limb; 1-7, seven yearly +layers of wood; <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, knot +or basal part of a limb +which lived for four years, +then died and broke off +near the stem, leaving the +part to the left of <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, a +"sound" knot, the part +to the right a "dead" +knot, which would soon +be entirely covered by +the growing stem.</p> + +<h4>COLOR AND ODOR +OF WOOD</h4> + +<p>Color, like structure, lends +beauty to the wood, aids in its +identification, and is of great value +in the determination of its quality. +If we consider only the heartwood, +the black color of the persimmon, +the dark brown of the walnut, the +light brown of the white oaks, the +reddish brown of the red oaks, +the yellowish white of the tulip +and poplars, the brownish red of +the redwood and cedars, the yellow +of the papaw and sumac, are all reliable +marks of distinction and color. +Together with luster and weight, +they are only too often the only features depended upon +in practice. Newly formed wood, like that of the outer few +rings, has but little color. The sapwood generally is light,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +and the wood of trees which form no heartwood changes +but little, except when stained by forerunners of disease.</p> + +<p>The different tints of colors, whether the brown of oak, +the orange brown of pine, the blackish tint of walnut, or +the reddish cast of cedar, are due to pigments, while the +deeper shade of the summer-wood bands in pine, cedar, +oak, or walnut is due to the fact that the wood being +denser, more of the colored wood substance occurs on a +given space, <i>i.e.</i>, there is more colored matter per square +inch. Wood is translucent, a thin disk of pine permitting +light to pass through quite freely. This translucency +affects the luster and brightness of lumber.</p> + +<p>When lumber is attacked by fungi, it becomes more +opaque, loses its brightness, and in practice is designated +"dead," in distinction to "live" or bright timber. Exposure +to air darkens all wood; direct sunlight and occasional +moistening hasten this change, and cause it to +penetrate deeper. Prolonged immersion has the same +effect, pine wood becoming a dark gray, while oak changes +to a blackish brown.</p> + +<p>Odor, like color, depends on chemical compounds, +forming no part of the wood substance itself. Exposure +to weather reduces and often changes the odor, +but a piece of long-leaf pine, cedar, or camphor wood exhales +apparently as much odor as ever when a new surface +is exposed. Heartwood is more odoriferous than sapwood. +Many kinds of wood are distinguished by strong and +peculiar odors. This is especially the case with camphor, +cedar, pine, oak, and mahogany, and the list would comprise +every kind of wood in use were our sense of smell +developed in keeping with its importance.</p> + +<p>Decomposition is usually accompanied by pronounced +odors. Decaying poplar emits a disagreeable odor, while +red oak often becomes fragrant, its smell resembling that +of heliotrope.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>WEIGHT OF WOOD</h4> + +<p>A small cross-section of wood (as in <a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>) dropped +into water sinks, showing that the substance of which +wood fibre or wood is built up is heavier than water. By +immersing the wood successively in +heavier liquids, until we find a liquid +in which it does not sink, and comparing +the weight of the same with water, +we find that wood substance is about +1.6 times as heavy as water, and that +this is as true of poplar as of oak or +pine.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_19" id="Fig_19"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig19.jpg" width="200" height="192" alt="Cross-section +of a Group of Wood +Fibres" title="Cross-section +of a Group of Wood +Fibres" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 19. Cross-section +of a Group of Wood +Fibres (Highly +Magnified.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_20" id="Fig_20"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig20.jpg" width="100" height="380" alt="Isolated +Fibres of +Wood" title="Isolated +Fibres of +Wood" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 20. +Isolated +Fibres of +Wood.</p> +</div> + +<p>Separating a single cell (as shown in +<a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>, <i>a</i>), drying and then dropping +it into water, it floats. The air-filled +cell cavity or interior reduces its weight, +and, like an empty corked bottle, it weighs less than the +water. Soon, however, water soaks into the cell, when it +fills up and sinks. Many such cells grown together, +as in a block of wood, when all or most +of them are filled with water, will float as long +as the majority of them are empty or only +partially filled. This is why a green, sappy pine +pole soon sinks in "driving" (floating down +stream). Its cells are largely filled before it is +thrown in, and but little additional water suffices +to make its weight greater than that of the +water. In a good-sized white pine log, composed +chiefly of empty cells (heartwood), the water +requires a very long time to fill up the cells (five +years would not suffice to fill them all), and +therefore the log may float for many months. +When the wall of the wood fibre is very thick +(five eighths or more of the volume, as in <a href="#Fig_20">Fig. +20</a>, <i>b</i>), the fibre sinks whether empty or filled. +This applies to most of the fibres of the dark +summer-wood bands in pines, and to the compact fibres +of oak or hickory, and many, especially tropical woods,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +have such thick-walled cells and so little empty or air space +that they never float.</p> + + + +<p>Here, then, are the two main factors of weight in wood; +the amount of cell wall or wood substance constant for +any given piece, and the amount of water contained in +the wood, variable even in the standing tree, and only in +part eliminated in drying.</p> + +<p>The weight of the green wood of any species varies +chiefly as a second factor, and is entirely misleading, if +the relative weight of different kinds is sought. Thus +some green sticks of the otherwise lighter cypress and +gum sink more readily than fresh oak.</p> + +<p>The weight of sapwood or the sappy, peripheral part +of our common lumber woods is always great, whether +cut in winter or summer. It rarely falls much below +forty-five pounds, and commonly exceeds fifty-five pounds +to the cubic foot, even in our lighter wooded species. It +follows that the green wood of a sapling is heavier than +that of an old tree, the fresh wood from a disk of the upper +part of a tree is often heavier than that of the lower part, +and the wood near the bark heavier than that nearer the +pith; and also that the advantage of drying the wood +before shipping is most important in sappy and light +kinds.</p> + +<p>When kiln-dried, the misleading moisture factor of +weight is uniformly reduced, and a fair comparison possible. +For the sake of convenience in comparison, the +weight of wood is expressed either as the weight per cubic +foot, or, what is still more convenient, as specific weight +or density. If an old long-leaf pine is cut up (as shown +in <a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>) the wood of disk No. 1 is heavier than that of +disk No. 2, the latter heavier than that of disk No. 3, and +the wood of the top disk is found to be only about three +fourths as heavy as that of disk No. 1. Similiarly, if disk +No. 2 is cut up, as in the figure, the specific weight of the +different parts is:</p> + +<ul style="margin-left: 30%"> +<li style="padding-left: 2em"><i>a</i>, about 0.52</li> +<li style="padding-left: 2em"><i>b</i>, about 0.64</li> +<li style="padding-left: 2em"><i>c</i>, about 0.67</li> +<li><i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, about 0.65</li></ul> + + + +<p style="text-indent: 0em">showing that in this disk at least the wood formed during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +the many years' growth, represented in piece <i>a</i>, is much +lighter than that of former years. It also shows that the +best wood is the middle part, with its large proportion of +dark summer bands.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_21" id="Fig_21"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig21.jpg" width="300" height="320" alt="Orientation of Wood Samples" title="Orientation of Wood Samples" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 21. Orientation of Wood Samples.</p> +</div> + +<p>Cutting up all disks in the same way, it will be found +that the piece <i>a</i> of the first disk is heavier than the piece +<i>a</i> of the fifth, and that piece <i>c</i> of the first disk excels the +piece <i>c</i> of all the other disks. This shows that the wood +grown during the same number of years is lighter in the +upper parts of the stem; and if the disks are smoothed on +the radial surfaces and set up one on top of the other in +their regular order, for the sake of comparison, this decrease +in weight will be seen to be accompanied by a decrease +in the amount of summer-wood. The color effect +of the upper disks is conspicuously lighter. If our old +pine had been cut one hundred and fifty years ago, +before the outer, lighter wood was laid on, it is evident +that the weight of the wood of any one disk would have +been found to increase from the center outward, and no +subsequent decrease could have been observed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p> + +<p>In a thrifty young pine, then, the wood is heavier from +the center outward, and lighter from below upward; only +the wood laid on in old age falls in weight below the average. +The number of brownish bands of summer-wood are a +direct indication of these differences. If an old oak is +cut up in the same manner, the butt cut is also found +heaviest and the top lightest, but, unlike the disk of pine, +the disk of oak has its firmest wood at the center, and each +successive piece from the center outward is lighter than +its neighbor.</p> + +<p>Examining the pieces, this difference is not as readily +explained by the appearance of each piece as in the case +of pine wood. Nevertheless, one conspicuous point appears +at once. The pores, so very distinct in oak, are +very minute in the wood near the center, and thus the +wood is far less porous.</p> + +<p>Studying different trees, it is found that in the pines, +wood with narrow rings is just as heavy as and often heavier +than the wood with wider rings; but if the rings are unusually +narrow in any part of the disk, the wood has a +lighter color; that is, there is less summer-wood and therefore +less weight.</p> + +<p>In oak, ash, or elm trees of thrifty growth, the rings, +fairly wide (not less than one-twelfth inch), always form +the heaviest wood, while any piece with very narrow rings +is light. On the other hand, the weight of a piece of hard +maple or birch is quite independent of the width of its +rings.</p> + +<p>The bases of limbs (knots) are usually heavy, very +heavy in conifers, and also the wood which surrounds +them, but generally the wood of the limbs is lighter than +that of the stem, and the wood of the roots is the +lightest.</p> + +<p>In general, it may be said that none of the native woods +in common use in this country are when dry as heavy as +water, <i>i.e.</i>, sixty-two pounds to the cubic foot. Few exceed +fifty pounds, while most of them fall below forty +pounds, and much of the pine and other coniferous wood +weigh less than thirty pounds per cubic foot. The weight +of the wood is in itself an important quality. Weight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +assists in distinguishing maple from poplar. Lightness +coupled with great strength and stiffness recommends +wood for a thousand different uses. To a large extent +weight predicates the strength of the wood, at least in the +same species, so that a heavy piece of oak will exceed in +strength a light piece of the same species, and in pine it +appears probable that, weight for weight, the strength of +the wood of various pines is nearly equal.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Weight of Kiln-dried Wood of Different Species</span></p> + +<table summary="weight of kiln-dried wood" cellpadding="6" class="kilnwood"> + +<tr><td class="centered" rowspan="3" style="border-left: 0">Species</td><td class="centered" colspan="3">Approximate</td></tr> +<tr><td class="centered" rowspan="2">Specific<br /> Weight</td><td class="centered" colspan="2">Weight of</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="centered">1<br />Cubic<br />Foot</td><td class="centered">1,000<br />Feet<br />Lumber</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tableentry">(<i>a</i>) Very Heavy Woods: + Hickory, Oak, Persimmon, Osage Orange, + Black Locust, Hackberry, Blue Beech, + best of Elm and Ash</td><td class="values">0.70-0.80</td><td class="values">42-48</td><td class="values">3,700</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tableentry">(<i>b</i>) Heavy Woods + Ash, Elm, Cherry, Birch, Maple, Beech, + Walnut, Sour Gum, Coffee Tree, Honey + Locust, best of Southern Pine and + Tamarack</td><td class="values">0.60-0.70</td><td class="values">36-42</td><td class="values">3,200</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tableentry">(<i>c</i>) Woods of Medium Weight: + Southern Pine, Pitch Pine, Tamarack, + Douglas Spruce, Western Hemlock, + Sweet Gum, Soft Maple, Sycamore, + Sassafras, Mulberry, light grades of + Birch and Cherry</td><td class="values">0.50-0.60</td><td class="values">30-36</td><td class="values">2,700</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tableentry">(<i>d</i>) Light Woods: + Norway and Bull Pine, Red Cedar, + Cypress, Hemlock, the Heavier Spruces + and Firs, Redwood, Basswood, Chestnut, + Butternut, Tulip, Catalpa, Buckeye, + heavier grades of Poplar</td><td class="values">0.40-0.50</td><td class="values">24-30</td><td class="values">2,200</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tableentry">(<i>e</i>) Very Light Woods: + White Pine, Spruce, Fir, White Cedar, + Poplar</td><td class="values">0.30-0.40</td><td class="values">18-24</td><td class="values">1,800</td></tr> +</table> + + +<h4>"FIGURE" IN WOOD<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></h4> + +<p>Many theories have been propounded as to the cause +of "figure" in timber; while it is true that all timber +possesses "figure" in some degree, which is more noticeable +if it be cut in certain ways, yet there are some woods in +which it is more conspicuous than in others, and which +for cabinet or furniture work are much appreciated, as +it adds to the value of the work produced.</p> + +<p>The characteristic "figure" of oak is due to the broad +and deep medullary rays so conspicuous in this timber, +and the same applies to honeysuckle. Figure due to the +same cause is found in sycamore and beech, but is not so +pronounced. The beautiful figure in "bird's eye maple" +is supposed to be due to the boring action of insects in +the early growth of the tree, causing pits or grooves, which +in time become filled up by being overlain by fresh layers +of wood growth; these peculiar and unique markings +are found only in the older and inner portion of the tree.</p> + +<p>Pitch pine has sometimes a very beautiful "figure," but +it generally does not go deep into the timber; walnut has +quite a variety of "figures," and so has the elm. It is in +mahogany, however, that we find the greatest variety of +"figure," and as this timber is only used for furniture and +fancy work, a good "figure" greatly enhances its value, +as firmly figured logs bring fancy prices.</p> + +<p>Mahogany, unlike the oak, never draws its "figure" from +its small and almost unnoticeable medullary rays, but +from the twisted condition of its fibres; the natural growth +of mahogany produces a straight wood; what is called +"figured" is unnatural and exceptional, and thus adds +to its value as an ornamental wood. These peculiarities +are rarely found in the earlier portion of the tree that is +near the center, being in this respect quite different from +maple; they appear when the tree is more fully developed, +and consist of bundles of woody fibres which, instead of +being laid in straight lines, behave in an erratic manner +and are deposited in a twisted form; sometimes it may +be caused by the intersection of branches, or possibly by +the crackling of the bark pressing on the wood, and thus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +moving it out of its natural straight course, causing a +wavy line which in time becomes accentuated.</p> + +<p>It will have been observed by most people that the outer +portion of a tree is often indented by the bark, and the +outer rings often follow a sinuous course which corresponds +to this indention, but in most trees, after a few years, this +is evened up and the annual rings assume their nearly +circular form; it is supposed by some that in the case of +mahogany this is not the case, and that the indentations +are even accentuated.</p> + +<p>The best figured logs of timber are secured from trees +which grow in firm rocky soil; those growing on low-lying +or swampy ground are seldom figured. To the practical +woodworker the figure in mahogany causes some difficulty +in planing the wood to a smooth surface; some portions +plane smooth, others are the "wrong way of the grain."</p> + +<p>Figure in wood is effected by the way light is thrown +upon it, showing light if seen from one direction, and dark +if viewed from another, as may easily be observed by holding +a piece of figured mahogany under artificial light and +looking at it from opposite directions. The characteristic +markings on mahogany are "mottle," which is also +found in sycamore, and is conspicuous on the backs of +fiddles and violins, and is not in itself valuable; it runs +the transverse way of the fibres and is probably the effect +of the wind upon the tree in its early stages of growth. +"Roe," which is said to be caused by the contortion of +the woody fibres, and takes a wavy line parallel to them, +is also found in the hollow of bent stems and in the root +structure, and when combined with "mottle" is very +valuable. "Dapple" is an exaggerated form of mottle. +"Thunder shake," "wind shake," or "tornado shake" is +a rupture of the fibres across the grain, which in mahogany +does not always break them; the tree swaying in the wind +only strains its fibres, and thus produces mottle in the wood.</p> + + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_V" id="SECTION_V"></a>SECTION V<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></h3> + +<h2 style="padding-bottom: 1em">ENEMIES OF WOOD</h2> + + +<p><span class="smcap">From</span> the writer's personal investigations of this subject +in different sections of the country, the damage to +forest products of various kinds from this cause seems +to be far more extensive than is generally recognized. +Allowing a loss of five per cent on the total value of the +forest products of the country, which the writer believes +to be a conservative estimate, it would amount to something +over $30,000,000 annually. This loss differs from +that resulting from insect damage to natural forest resources, +in that it represents more directly a loss of money +invested in material and labor. In dealing with the insects +mentioned, as with forest insects in general, the +methods which yield the best results are those which relate +directly to preventing attack, as well as those which are +unattractive or unfavorable. The insects have two objects +in their attack: one is to obtain food, the other is to prepare +for the development of their broods. Different +species of insects have special periods during the season +of activity (March to November), when the adults are +on the wing in search of suitable material in which to +deposit their eggs. Some species, which fly in April, will +be attracted to the trunks of recently felled pine trees or +to piles of pine sawlogs from trees felled the previous +winter. They are not attracted to any other kind of +timber, because they can live only in the bark or wood +of pine, and only in that which is in the proper condition +to favor the hatching of their eggs and the normal development +of their young. As they fly only in April, +they cannot injure the logs of trees felled during the remainder +of the year.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p> + +<p>There are also oak insects, which attack nothing but +oak; hickory, cypress, and spruce insects, etc., which have +different habits and different periods of flight, and require +special conditions of the bark and wood for depositing +their eggs or for subsequent development of their broods. +Some of these insects have but one generation in a year, +others have two or more, while some require more than +one year for the complete development and transformation. +Some species deposit their eggs in the bark or wood of +trees soon after they are felled or before any perceptible +change from the normal living tissue has taken place; +other species are attracted only to dead bark and dead +wood of trees which have been felled or girdled for several +months; others are attracted to dry and seasoned wood; +while another class will attack nothing but very old, dry +bark or wood of special kinds and under special conditions. +Thus it will be seen how important it is for the +practical man to have knowledge of such of the foregoing +facts as apply to his immediate interest in the manufacture +or utilization of a given forest product, in order that he +may with the least trouble and expense adjust his business +methods to meet the requirements for preventing +losses.</p> + +<p>The work of different kinds of insects, as represented +by special injuries to forest products, is the first thing to +attract attention, and the distinctive character of this +work is easily observed, while the insect responsible for +it is seldom seen, or it is so difficult to determine by the +general observer from descriptions or illustrations that +the species is rarely recognized. Fortunately, the character +of the work is often sufficient in itself to identify the cause +and suggest a remedy, and in this section primary consideration +is given to this phase of the subject.</p> + + +<h4>Ambrosia or Timber Beetles</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_22" id="Fig_22"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig22.jpg" width="450" height="283" alt="Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Tulip or Yellow Poplar Wood" title="Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Tulip or Yellow Poplar Wood" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 22. Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Tulip or Yellow Poplar Wood. +<i>a</i>, work of <i>Xyleborus affinis</i> and <i>Xyleborus inermis</i>; <i>b</i>, <i>Xyleborus obesus</i> +and work; <i>c</i>, bark; <i>d</i>, sapwood; <i>e</i>, heartwood.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_23" id="Fig_23"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig23.jpg" width="450" height="277" alt="Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Oak" title="Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Oak" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 23. Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Oak. <i>a</i>, <i>Monarthrum mali</i> and work; +<i>b</i>, <i>Platypus compositus</i> and work; <i>c</i>, bark; <i>d</i>, sapwood; <i>e</i>, heartwood; +<i>f</i>, character of work in wood from injured log.</p> +</div> + +<p>The characteristic work of this class of wood-boring +beetles is shown in <a href="#Fig_22">Figs. 22</a> and <a href="#Fig_23">23</a>. The injury consists +of pinhole and stained-wood defects in the sapwood and +heartwood of recently felled or girdled trees, sawlogs, +pulpwood, stave and shingle bolts, green or unseasoned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +lumber, and staves and heads of barrels containing alcoholic +liquids. The holes and galleries are made by the +adult parent beetles, to serve as entrances and temporary +houses or nurseries for the development of their broods +of young, which feed on a fungus growing on the walls of +the galleries.</p> + +<p>The growth of this ambrosia-like fungus is induced +and controlled by the parent beetles, and the young are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +dependent upon it for food. The wood must be in exactly +the proper condition for the growth of the fungus +in order to attract the beetles and induce them to excavate +their galleries; it must have a certain degree of moisture +and other favorable qualities, which usually prevail during +the period involved in the change from living, or normal, +to dead or dry wood; such a condition is found in recently +felled trees, sawlogs, or like crude products.</p> + +<p>There are two general types or classes of these galleries: +one in which the broods develop together in the main +burrows (see <a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>), the other in which the individuals +develop in short, separate side chambers, extending at +right angles from the primary galleries (see <a href="#Fig_23">Fig. 23</a>). The +galleries of the latter type are usually accompanied by a +distinct staining of the wood, while those of the former +are not.</p> + +<p>The beetles responsible for this work are cylindrical in +form, apparently with a head (the prothorax) half as long +as the remainder of the body (see <a href="#Fig_22">Figs. 22</a>, <i>a</i>, and <a href="#Fig_23">23</a>, <i>a</i>).</p> + +<p>North American species vary in size from less than +one-tenth to slightly more than two-tenths of an inch, +while some of the subtropical and tropical species attain +a much larger size. The diameter of the holes made by +each species corresponds closely to that of the body, and +varies from about one-twentieth to one-sixteenth of an +inch for the tropical species.</p> + + +<h4>Round-headed Borers</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_24" id="Fig_24"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig24.jpg" width="450" height="287" alt="Work of Round-headed and Flat-headed Borers in Pine" title="Work of Round-headed and Flat-headed Borers in Pine" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 24. Work of Round-headed and Flat-headed Borers in Pine. <i>a</i>, work +of round-headed borer, "sawyer," <i>Monohammus spiculatus</i>, natural +size <i>b</i>, <i>Ergates spiculatus</i>; <i>c</i>, work of flat-headed borer, <i>Buprestis</i>, +larva and adult; <i>d</i>, bark; <i>e</i>, sapwood; <i>f</i>, heartwood.</p> +</div> + +<p>The character of the work of this class of wood- and bark-boring +grubs is shown in <a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>. The injuries consist +of irregular flattened or nearly round wormhole defects +in the wood, which sometimes result in the destruction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +of valuable parts of the wood or bark material. The sapwood +and heartwood of recently felled trees, sawlogs, +poles posts, mine props, pulpwood and cordwood, also +lumber or square timber, with bark on the edges, and +construction timber in new and old buildings, are injured +by wormhole defects, while the valuable parts of stored +oak and hemlock tanbark and certain kinds of wood are +converted into worm-dust. These injuries are caused +by the young or larvae of long-horned beetles. Those +which infest the wood hatch from eggs deposited in the +outer bark of logs and like material, and the minute grubs +hatching therefrom bore into the inner bark, through +which they extend their irregular burrows, for the purpose +of obtaining food from the sap and other nutritive material +found in the plant tissue. They continue to extend and +enlarge their burrows as they increase in size, until they +are nearly or quite full grown. They then enter the wood +and continue their excavations deep into the sapwood or +heartwood until they attain their normal size. They +then excavate pupa cells in which to transform into adults,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +which emerge from the wood through exit holes in the +surface. This class of borers is represented by a large +number of species. The adults, however, are seldom seen +by the general observer unless cut out of the wood before +they have emerged.</p> + + +<h4>Flat-headed Borers</h4> + +<p>The work of the flat-headed borers (<a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>) is only +distinguished from that of the preceding by the broad, +shallow burrows, and the much more oblong form of the +exit holes. In general, the injuries are similiar, and effect +the same class of products, but they are of much less importance. +The adult forms are flattened, metallic-colored +beetles, and represent many species, of various sizes.</p> + + +<h4>Timber Worms</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig25.jpg" width="450" height="277" alt="Work of Timber Worms in Oak" title="Work of Timber Worms in Oak" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 25. Work of Timber Worms in Oak. <i>a</i>, work of oak timber worm, +<i>Eupsalis minuta</i>; <i>b</i>, barked surface; <i>c</i>, bark; <i>d</i>, sapwood timber worm, +<i>Hylocoetus lugubris</i>, and work; <i>e</i>, sapwood.</p> +</div> + +<p>The character of the work done by this class is shown +in <a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>. The injury consists of pinhole defects in the +sapwood and heartwood of felled trees, sawlogs and like +material which have been left in the woods or in piles in the +open for several months during the warmer seasons. Stave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +and shingle bolts and closely piled oak lumber and square +timbers also suffer from injury of this kind. These injuries +are made by elongate, slender worms or larvae, +which hatch from eggs deposited by the adult beetles in the +outer bark, or, where there is no bark, just beneath the +surface of the wood. At first the young larvae bore +almost invisible holes for a long distance through the sapwood +and heartwood, but as they increase in size the same +holes are enlarged and extended until the larvae have attained +their full growth. They then transform to adults, +and emerge through the enlarged entrance burrows. The +work of these timber worms is distinguished from that of +the timber beetles by the greater variation in the size of +holes in the same piece of wood, also by the fact that they +are not branched from a single entrance or gallery, as are +those made by the beetles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_26" id="Fig_26"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig26.jpg" width="450" height="173" alt="Work of Powder Post Beetle" title="Work of Powder Post Beetle" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 26. Work of Powder Post Beetle, <i>Sinoxylon basilare</i>, in Hickory Poles, +showing Transverse Egg Galleries excavated by the Adult, <i>a</i>, entrance; +<i>b</i>, gallery; <i>c</i>, adult.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_27" id="Fig_27"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig27.jpg" width="450" height="125" alt="Work of Powder Post Beetle" title="Work of Powder Post Beetle" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 27. Work of Powder Post Beetle, <i>Sinoxylon basilare</i>, in Hickory Pole. +<i>a</i>, character of work by larvae; <i>b</i>, exit holes made by emerging broods.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p> +</div> + + +<h4>Powder Post Borers</h4> + + +<div class="figright" style="width: 158px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_28" id="Fig_28"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig28.jpg" width="158" height="400" alt="Work of Powder Post +Beetles" title="Work of Powder Post +Beetles" /> +</div> + + +<p>The character of the work of this class of insects is +shown in <a href="#Fig_26">Figs. 26</a>, <a href="#Fig_27">27</a>, and <a href="#Fig_28">28</a>. The injury consists of +closely placed burrows, packed +with borings, or a completely +destroyed or powdered condition +of the wood of seasoned products, +such as lumber, crude and +finished handle and wagon stock, +cooperage and wooden truss +hoops, furniture, and inside finish +woodwork, in old buildings, as +well as in many other crude or +finished and utilized woods. +This is the work of both the +adults and young stages of some +species, or of the larval stage +alone of others. In the former, +the adult beetles deposit their +eggs in burrows or galleries excavated +for the purpose, as in +<a href="#Fig_26">Figs. 26</a> and <a href="#Fig_27">27</a>, while in the +latter (<a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a>) the eggs are on +or beneath the surface of the +wood. The grubs complete the +destruction by boring through +the solid wood in all directions +and packing their burrows with +the powdered wood. When they +are full grown they transform to +the adult, and emerge from the +injured material through holes in +the surface. Some of the species +continue to work in the same +wood until many generations +have developed and emerged or +until every particle of wood +tissue has been destroyed and the available nutritive substance +extracted.</p> + +<p class="caption" style="padding-top: 2em; padding-left: 4em">Fig. 28. Work of Powder Post +Beetles, <i>Lyctus striatus</i>, in +Hickory Handles and Spokes. +<i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i>, pupa; <i>c</i>, adult; +<i>d</i>, exit holes; <i>e</i>, entrance of +larvae (vents for borings are +exits of parasites); <i>f</i>, work +of larvae; <i>g</i>, wood, completely +destroyed; <i>h</i>, sapwood; +<i>i</i>, heartwood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></p> + +<h4>Conditions Favorable for Insect Injury—Crude Products—Round +Timber with Bark on</h4> + +<p>Newly felled trees, sawlogs, stave and heading bolts, +telegraph poles, posts, and the like material, cut in the +fall and winter, and left on the ground or in close piles +during a few weeks or months in the spring or summer, +causing them to heat and sweat, are especially liable to +injury by ambrosia beetles (<a href="#Fig_22">Figs. 22</a> and <a href="#Fig_23">23</a>), round and +flat-headed borers (<a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>), and timber worms (<a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>), +as are also trees felled in the warm season, and left for a +time before working up into lumber.</p> + +<p>The proper degree of moisture found in freshly cut +living or dying wood, and the period when the insects are +flying, are the conditions most favorable for attack. This +period of danger varies with the time of the year the timber +is felled and with the different kinds of trees. Those +felled in late fall and winter will generally remain attractive +to ambrosia beetles, and to the adults of round- and +flat-headed borers during March, April, and May. +Those felled in April to September may be attacked in +a few days after they are felled, and the period of danger +may not extend over more than a few weeks. Certain +kinds of trees felled during certain months and seasons +are never attacked, because the danger period prevails +only when the insects are flying; on the other hand, if +the same kinds of trees are felled at a different time, the +conditions may be most attractive when the insects are +active, and they will be thickly infested and ruined.</p> + +<p>The presence of bark is absolutely necessary for infestation +by most of the wood-boring grubs, since the eggs +and young stages must occupy the outer and inner portions +before they can enter the wood. Some ambrosia +and timber worms will, however, attack barked logs, +especially those in close piles, and others shaded and +protected from rapid drying.</p> + +<p>The sapwood of pine, spruce, fir, cedar, cypress, and +the like softwoods is especially liable to injury by ambrosia +beetles, while the heartwood is sometimes ruined by a +class of round-headed borers, known as "sawyers." Yellow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +poplar, oak, chestnut, gum, hickory, and most other +hardwoods are as a rule attacked by species of ambrosia +beetles, sawyers, and timber worms, different from those +infesting the pines, there being but very few species which +attack both.</p> + +<p>Mahogany and other rare and valuable woods imported +from the tropics to this country in the form of round logs, +with or without bark on, are commonly damaged more +or less seriously by ambrosia beetles and timber worms.</p> + +<p>It would appear from the writer's investigations of +logs received at the mills in this country, that the principal +damage is done during a limited period—from the +time the trees are felled until they are placed in fresh or +salt water for transportation to the shipping points. If, +however, the logs are loaded on a vessel direct from the +shore, or if not left in the water long enough to kill the +insects, the latter will continue their destructive work +during transportation to other countries and after they +arrive, and until cold weather ensues or the logs are converted +into lumber.</p> + +<p>It was also found that a thorough soaking in sea-water, +while it usually killed the insects at the time, did not prevent +subsequent attacks by both foreign and native ambrosia +beetles; also, that the removal of the bark from such +logs previous to immersion did not render them entirely +immune. Those with the bark off were attacked more +than those with it on, owing to a greater amount of saline +moisture retained by the bark.</p> + + +<h4>How to Prevent Injury</h4> + +<p>From the foregoing it will be seen that some requisites +for preventing these insect injuries to round timber are:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. To provide for as little delay as possible between +the felling of the tree and its manufacture into +rough products. This is especially necessary with +trees felled from April to September, in the region +north of the Gulf States, and from March to November +in the latter, while the late fall and winter +cutting should all be worked up by March or April.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p> + +<p>2. If the round timber must be left in the woods or on +the skidways during the danger period, every precaution +should be taken to facilitate rapid drying +of the inner bark, by keeping the logs off the ground +in the sun, or in loose piles; or else the opposite +extreme should be adopted and the logs kept in +water.</p> + +<p>3. The immediate removal of all the bark from poles, +posts, and other material which will not be seriously +damaged by checking or season checks.</p> + +<p>4. To determine and utilize the proper months or seasons +to girdle or fell different kinds of trees: Bald +cypress in the swamps of the South are "girdled" +in order that they may die, and in a few weeks or +months dry out and become light enough to float. +This method has been extensively adopted in sections +where it is the only practicable one by which +the timber can be transported to the sawmills. +It is found, however, that some of these "girdled" +trees are especially attractive to several species of +ambrosia beetles (<a href="#Fig_22">Figs. 22</a> and <a href="#Fig_23">23</a>), round-headed +borers (<a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>) and timber worms (<a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>), which +cause serious injury to the sapwood or heartwood, +while other trees "girdled" at a different time or +season are not injured. This suggested to the +writer the importance of experiments to determine +the proper time to "girdle" trees to avoid losses, and +they are now being conducted on an extensive +scale by the United States Forest Service, in co-operation +with prominent cypress operators in +different sections of the cypress-growing region.</p></div> + + +<h4>Saplings</h4> + +<p>Saplings, including hickory and other round hoop-poles +and similiar products, are subject to serious injuries and +destruction by round- and flat-headed borers (<a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>), +and certain species of powder post borers (<a href="#Fig_26">Figs. 26</a> and <a href="#Fig_27">27</a>) +before the bark and wood are dead or dry, and also by +other powder post borers (<a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a>) after they are dried and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +seasoned. The conditions favoring attack by the former +class are those resulting from leaving the poles in piles +or bundles in or near the forest for a few weeks during the +season of insect activity, and by the latter from leaving +them stored in one place for several months.</p> + + +<h4>Stave, Heading and Shingle Bolts</h4> + +<p>These are attacked by ambrosia beetles (<a href="#Fig_22">Figs. 22</a> and +<a href="#Fig_23">23</a>), and the oak timber worm (<a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>, <i>a</i>), which, as has +been frequently reported, cause serious losses. The conditions +favoring attack by these insects are similiar to +those mentioned under "Round Timber." The insects +may enter the wood before the bolts are cut from the log +or afterward, especially if the bolts are left in moist, shady +places in the woods, in close piles during the danger period. +If cut during the warm season, the bark should be removed +and the bolts converted into the smallest practicable +size and piled in such manner as to facilitate rapid +drying.</p> + + +<h4>Unseasoned Products in the Rough</h4> + +<p>Freshly sawn hardwood, placed in close piles during +warm, damp weather in July and September, presents +especially favorable conditions for injury by ambrosia +beetles (<a href="#Fig_22">Figs. 22</a>, <i>a</i>, and <a href="#Fig_23">23</a>, <i>a</i>). This is due to the continued +moist condition of such material.</p> + +<p>Heavy two-inch or three-inch stuff is also liable to attack +even in loose piles with lumber or cross sticks. An +example of the latter was found in a valuable lot of mahogany +lumber of first grade, the value of which was +reduced two thirds by injury from a native ambrosia +beetle. Numerous complaints have been received from +different sections of the country of this class of injury to +oak, poplar, gum, and other hardwoods. In all cases it +is the moist condition and retarded drying of the lumber +which induces attack; therefore, any method which will +provide for the rapid drying of the wood before or after +piling will tend to prevent losses.</p> + +<p>It is important that heavy lumber should, as far as +possible, be cut in the winter months and piled so that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +will be well dried out before the middle of March. Square +timber, stave and heading bolts, with the bark on, often +suffer from injuries by flat- or round-headed borers, hatching +from eggs deposited in the bark of the logs before they +are sawed and piled. One example of serious damage +and loss was reported in which white pine staves for paint +buckets and other small wooden vessels, which had been +sawed from small logs, and the bark left on the edges, +were attacked by a round-headed borer, the adults having +deposited their eggs in the bark after the stock was sawn +and piled. The character of the injury is shown in <a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>. +Another example was reported from a manufacturer in +the South, where the pieces of lumber which had strips +of bark on one side were seriously damaged by the same +kind of borer, the eggs having been deposited in the logs +before sawing or in the bark after the lumber was piled. +If the eggs are deposited in the logs, and the borers have +entered the inner bark or the wood before sawing, they +may continue their work regardless of methods of piling, +but if such lumber is cut from new logs and placed in the +pile while green, with the bark surface up, it will be much +less liable to attack than if piled with the bark edges down. +This liability of lumber with bark edges or sides to be +attacked by insects suggests the importance of the removal +of the bark, to prevent damage, or, if this is not +practicable, the lumber with the bark on the sides should +be piled in open, loose piles with the bark up, while that +with the bark on the edges should be placed on the outer +edges of the piles, exposed to the light and air.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 256px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_29" id="Fig_29"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig29.jpg" width="256" height="400" alt="Work of Round-headed Borers" title="Work of Round-headed Borers" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption" style="width: 50%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto">Fig. 29. Work of Round-headed Borers, <i>Callidium antennatum</i>, in White +Pine Bucket Staves from New Hampshire. <i>a</i>, where egg was deposited +in bark; <i>b</i>, larval mine; <i>c</i>, pupal cell; <i>d</i>, exit in bark; <i>e</i>, adult.</p> + +<p>In the Southern States it is difficult to keep green timber +in the woods or in piles for any length of time, because of +the rapidity which wood-destroying fungi attack it. This +is particularly true during the summer season, when the +humidity is greatest. There is really no easily-applied, +general specific for these summer troubles in the handling +of wood, but there are some suggestions that are worth +while that it may be well to mention. One of these, and +the most important, is to remove all the bark from the +timber that has been cut, just as soon as possible after +felling. And, in this, emphasis should be laid on the <small>ALL</small>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +as a piece of bark no larger than a man's little finger will +furnish an entering place for insects, and once they get in, +it is a difficult matter to get rid of them, for they seldom +stop boring until they ruin the stick. And again, after +the timber has been felled and the bark removed, it is +well to get it to the mill pond or cut up into merchantable +sizes and on to the pile as soon as possible. What is +wanted is to get the timber up off the ground, to a +place where it can get plenty of air, to enable the sap +to dry up before it sours; and, besides, large units of +wood are more likely to crack open on the ends from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +heat than they would if cut up into the smaller units +for merchandizing.</p> + +<p>A moist condition of lumber and square timber, such +as results from close or solid piles, with the bottom layers +on the ground or on foundations of old decaying logs or +near decaying stumps and logs, offers especially favorable +conditions for the attack of white ants.</p> + + +<h4>Seasoned Products in the Rough</h4> + +<p>Seasoned or dry timber in stacks or storage is liable to +injury by powder post borers (<a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a>). The conditions +favoring attack are: (1) The presence of a large +proportion of sapwood, as in hickory, ash, and similiar +woods; (2) material which is two or more years old, or +that which has been kept in one place for a long time; +(3) access to old infested material. Therefore, such stock +should be frequently examined for evidence of the presence +of these insects. This is always indicated by fine, flour-like +powder on or beneath the piles, or otherwise associated +with such material. All infested material should be at +once removed and the infested parts destroyed by burning.</p> + + +<h4>Dry Cooperage Stock and Wooden Truss Hoops</h4> + +<p>These are especially liable to attack and serious injury +by powder post borers (<a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a>), under the same or similiar +conditions as the preceding.</p> + + +<h4>Staves and Heads of Barrels containing +Alcoholic Liquids</h4> + +<p>These are liable to attack by ambrosia beetles (<a href="#Fig_22">Figs. +22</a>, <i>a</i>, and <a href="#Fig_23">23</a>, <i>a</i>), which are attracted by the moist condition +and possibly by the peculiar odor of the wood, resembling +that of dying sapwood of trees and logs, which +is their normal breeding place.</p> + +<p>There are many examples on record of serious losses +of liquors from leakage caused by the beetles boring through +the staves and heads of the barrels and casks in cellars +and storerooms.</p> + +<p>The condition, in addition to the moisture of the wood, +which is favorable for the presence of the beetles, is proximity<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +to their breeding places, such as the trunks and +stumps of recently felled or dying oak, maple, and other +hardwood or deciduous trees; lumber yards, sawmills, +freshly-cut cordwood, from living or dead trees, and forests +of hardwood timber. Under such conditions the beetles +occur in great numbers, and if the storerooms and cellars +in which the barrels are kept stored are damp, poorly ventilated, +and readily accessible to them, serious injury is +almost certain to follow.</p> + + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_VI" id="SECTION_VI"></a>SECTION VI<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></h3> + +<h2>WATER IN WOOD</h2> + + +<h3 style="padding-top: 0em">DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN WOOD</h3> + + +<h4>Local Distribution of Water in Wood</h4> + +<p><span class="smcap">As</span> seasoning means essentially the more or less rapid +evaporation of water from wood, it will be necessary to discuss at the very outset where water is found in wood, +and its local seasonal distribution in a tree.</p> + +<p>Water may occur in wood in three conditions: (1) It +forms the greater part (over 90 per cent) of the protoplasmic +contents of the living cells; (2) it saturates the +walls of all cells; and (3) it entirely or at least partly fills +the cavities of the lifeless cells, fibres, and vessels.</p> + +<p>In the sapwood of pine it occurs in all three forms; in +the heartwood only in the second form, it merely saturates +the walls.</p> + +<p>Of 100 pounds of water associated with 100 pounds of +dry wood substance taken from 200 pounds of fresh sapwood +of white pine, about 35 pounds are needed to saturate +the cell walls, less than 5 pounds are contained in the +living cells, and the remaining 60 pounds partly fill the +cavities of the wood fibres. This latter forms the sap +as ordinarily understood.</p> + +<p>The wood next to the bark contains the most water. +In the species which do not form heartwood, the decrease +toward the pith is gradual, but where heartwood is formed +the change from a more moist to a drier condition is usually +quite abrupt at the sapwood limit.</p> + +<p>In long-leaf pine, the wood of the outer one inch of a +disk may contain 50 per cent of water, that of the next, +or the second inch, only 35 per cent, and that of the heartwood,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +only 20 per cent. In such a tree the amount of +water in any one section varies with the amount of sapwood, +and is greater for the upper than the lower cuts, +greater for the limbs than the stems, and greatest of all +in the roots.</p> + +<p>Different trees, even of the same kind and from the +same place, differ as to the amount of water they contain. +A thrifty tree contains more water than a stunted one, +and a young tree more than on old one, while the wood +of all trees varies in its moisture relations with the season +of the year.</p> + + +<h4>Seasonal Distribution of Water in Wood</h4> + +<p>It is generally supposed that trees contain less water +in winter than in summer. This is evidenced by the +popular saying that "the sap is down in the winter." This +is probably not always the case; some trees contain as +much water in winter as in summer, if not more. Trees +normally contain the greatest amount of water during +that period when the roots are active and the leaves are +not yet out. This activity commonly begins in January, +February, and March, the exact time varying with the +kind of timber and the local atmospheric conditions. And +it has been found that green wood becomes lighter or +contains less water in late spring or early summer, when +transpiration through the foliage is most rapid. The +amount of water at any one season, however, is doubtless +much influenced by the amount of moisture in the soil. +The fact that the bark peels easily in the spring depends +on the presence of incomplete, soft tissue found between +wood and bark during this season, and has little to do +with the total amount of water contained in the wood of +the stem.</p> + +<p>Even in the living tree a flow of sap from a cut occurs +only in certain kinds of trees and under special circumstances. +From boards, felled timber, etc., the water +does not flow out, as is sometimes believed, but must be +evaporated. The seeming exceptions to this rule are +mostly referable to two causes; clefts or "shakes" will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +allow water contained in them to flow out, and water is +forced out of sound wood, if very sappy, whenever the +wood is warmed, just as water flows from green wood when +put in a stove.</p> + + +<h4>Composition of Sap</h4> + +<p>The term "sap" is an ambiguous expression. The +sap in the tree descends through the bark, and except +in early spring is not present in the wood of the tree +except in the medullary rays and living tissues in the +"sapwood."</p> + +<p>What flows through the "sapwood" is chiefly water +brought from the soil. It is not pure water, but contains +many substances in solution, such as mineral salts, and +in certain species—maple, birch, etc., it also contains +at certain times a small percentage of sugar and other +organic matter.</p> + +<p>The water rises from the roots through the sapwood to +the leaves, where it is converted into true "sap" which +descends through the bark and feeds the living tissues +between the bark and the wood, which tissues make the +annual growth of the trunk. The wood itself contains +very little true sap and the heartwood none.</p> + +<p>The wood contains, however, mineral substances, organic +acids, volatile oils and gums, as resin, cedar oil, etc.</p> + +<p>All the conifers—pines, cedars, junipers, cypresses, +sequoias, yews, and spruces—contain resin. The sap +of deciduous trees—those which shed their leaves at +stated seasons—is lacking in this element, and its constituents +vary greatly in the different species. But there +is one element common to all trees, and for that matter +to almost all plant growth, and that is albumen.</p> + +<p>Both resin and albumen, as they exist in the sap of +woods, are soluble in water; and both harden with heat, +much the same as the white of an egg, which is almost +pure albumen.</p> + +<p>These organic substances are the dissolved reserve food, +stored during the winter in the pith rays, etc., of the wood +and bark; generally but a mere trace of them is to be +found. From this it appears that the solids contained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +in the sap, such as albumen, gum, sugar, etc., cannot +exercise the influence on the strength of the wood which is +so commonly claimed for them.</p> + + +<h4>Effects of Moisture on Wood</h4> + +<p>The question of the effect of moisture upon the strength +and stiffness of wood offers a wide scope for study, and +authorities consulted differ in conclusions. Two authorities +give the tensile strength in pounds per square inch +for white oak as 10,000 and 19,500, respectively; for +spruce, 8,000 to 19,500, and other species in similiar startling +contrasts.</p> + +<p>Wood, we are told, is composed of organic products. +The chief material is cellulose, and this in its natural state +in the living plant or green wood contains from 25 to 35 +per cent of its weight in moisture. The moisture renders +the cellulose substance pliable. What the physical action +of the water is upon the molecular structure of organic +material, to render it softer and more pliable, is largely +a matter of conjecture.</p> + +<p>The strength of a timber depends not only upon its +relative freedom from imperfections, such as knots, crookedness +of grain, decay, wormholes or ring-shakes, but also +upon its density; upon the rate at which it grew, and +upon the arrangement of the various elements which +compose it.</p> + +<p>The factors effecting the strength of wood are therefore +of two classes: (1) Those inherent in the wood itself and +which may cause differences to exist between two pieces +from the same species of wood or even between the two +ends of a piece, and (2) those which are foreign to the wood +itself, such as moisture, oils, and heat.</p> + +<p>Though the effect of moisture is generally temporary, +it is far more important than is generally realized. So +great, indeed, is the effect of moisture that under some +conditions it outweighs all the other causes which effect +strength, with the exception, perhaps of decided imperfections +in the wood itself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>The Fibre Saturation Point in Wood</h4> + +<p>Water exists in green wood in two forms: (1) As liquid +water contained in the cavities of the cells or pores, and +(2) as "imbibed" water intimately absorbed in the substance +of which the wood is composed. The removal of +the free water from the cells or pores will evidently have +no effect upon the physical properties or shrinkage of the +wood, but as soon as any of the "imbibed" moisture is +removed from the cell walls, shrinkage begins to take place +and other changes occur. The strength also begins to +increase at this time.</p> + +<p>The point where the cell walls or wood substance becomes +saturated is called the "fibre saturation point," +and is a very significant point in the drying of wood.</p> + +<p>It is easy to remove the free water from woods which +will stand a high temperature, as it is only necessary to +heat the wood slightly above the boiling point in a closed +vessel, which will allow the escape of the steam as it is +formed, but will not allow dry air to come in contact with +the wood, so that the surface will not become dried below +its saturation point. This can be accomplished with +most of the softwoods, but not as a rule with the hardwoods, +as they are injured by the temperature necessary.</p> + +<p>The chief difficulties are encountered in evaporating +the "imbibed" moisture and also where the free water +has to be removed through its gradual transfusion instead +of boiling. As soon as the imbibed moisture begins to +be extracted from any portion, shrinkage takes place and +stresses are set up in the wood which tend to cause checking.</p> + +<p>The fibre saturation point lies between moisture conditions +of 25 and 30 per cent of the dry weight of the +wood, depending on the species. Certain species of eucalyptus, +and probably other woods, however, appear to +be exceptional in this respect, in that shrinkage begins +to take place at a moisture condition of 80 to 90 per cent +of the dry weight.</p> + + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_VII" id="SECTION_VII"></a>SECTION VII<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></h3> + +<h2 style="padding-bottom: 1em">WHAT SEASONING IS</h2> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Seasoning</span> is ordinarily understood to mean drying. +When exposed to the sun and air, the water in green wood +rapidly evaporates. The rate of evaporation will depend +on: (1) the kind of wood; (2) the shape and thickness of +the timber; and (3) the conditions under which the wood +is placed or piled.</p> + +<p>Pieces of wood completely surrounded by air, exposed +to the wind and the sun, and protected by a roof from +rain and snow, will dry out very rapidly, while wood piled +or packed close together so as to exclude the air, or left +in the shade and exposed to rain and snow, will dry out +very slowly and will also be subject to mould and decay.</p> + +<p>But seasoning implies other changes besides the evaporation +of water. Although we have as yet only a vague +conception as to the exact nature of the difference between +seasoned and unseasoned wood, it is very probable that +one of these consists in changes in the albuminous substances +in the wood fibres, and possibly also in the tannins, +resins, and other incrusting substances. Whether the +change in these substances is merely a drying-out, or +whether it consists in a partial decomposition is at yet +undetermined. That the change during the seasoning +process is a profound one there can be no doubt, because +experience has shown again and again that seasoned wood +fibre is very much more permeable, both for liquids and +gases than the living, unseasoned fibre.</p> + +<p>One can picture the albuminous substances as forming +a coating which dries out and possibly disintegrates when +the wood dries. The drying-out may result in considerable +shrinkage, which may make the wood fibre more +porous. It is also possible that there are oxidizing influences<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +at work within these substances which result in +their disintegration. Whatever the exact nature of the +change may be, one can say without hesitation that exposure +to the wind and air brings about changes in the +wood, which are of such a nature that the wood becomes +drier and more permeable.</p> + +<p>When seasoned by exposure to live steam, similiar +changes may take place; the water leaves the wood in the +form of steam, while the organic compounds in the walls +probably coagulate or disintegrate under the high temperature.</p> + +<p>The most effective seasoning is without doubt that +obtained by the uniform, slow drying which takes place +in properly constructed piles outdoors, under exposure +to the winds and the sun and under cover from the rain +and snow, and is what has been termed "air-seasoning." +By air-seasoning oak and similiar hardwoods, nature performs +certain functions that cannot be duplicated by any +artificial means. Because of this, woods of this class +cannot be successfully kiln-dried green from the saw.</p> + +<p>In drying wood, the free water within the cells passes +through the cell walls until the cells are empty, while the +cell walls remain saturated. When all the free water has +been removed, the cell walls begin to yield up their moisture. +Heat raises the absorptive power of the fibres and +so aids the passage of water from the interior of the cells. +A confusion in the word "sap" is to be found in many +discussions of kiln-drying; in some instances it means +water, in other cases it is applied to the organic substances +held in a water solution in the cell cavities. The term is +best confined to the organic substances from the living +cell. These substances, for the most part of the nature +of sugar, have a strong attraction for water and water +vapor, and so retard drying and absorb moisture into +dried wood. High temperatures, especially those produced +by live steam, appear to destroy these organic compounds +and therefore both to retard and to limit the +reabsorption of moisture when the wood is subsequently +exposed to the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>Air-dried wood, under ordinary atmospheric temperatures,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +retains from 10 to 20 per cent of moisture, whereas +kiln-dried wood may have no more than 5 per cent as it +comes from the kiln. The exact figures for a given species +depend in the first case upon the weather conditions, and +in the second case upon the temperature in the kiln and +the time during which the wood is exposed to it. When +wood that has been kiln-dried is allowed to stand in the +open, it apparently ceases to reabsorb moisture from the +air before its moisture content equals that of wood which +has merely been air-dried in the same place, and under +the same conditions, in other words kiln-dried wood will +not absorb as much moisture as air-dried wood under the +same conditions.</p> + + +<h4>Difference between Seasoned and Unseasoned Wood</h4> + +<p>Although it has been known for a long time that there +is a marked difference in the length of life of seasoned and +of unseasoned wood, the consumers of wood have shown +very little interest in its seasoning, except for the purpose +of doing away with the evils which result from checking, +warping, and shrinking. For this purpose both kiln-drying +and air-seasoning are largely in use.</p> + +<p>The drying of material is a subject which is extremely +important to most industries, and in no industry is it of +more importance than in the lumber trade. Timber +drying means not only the extracting of so much water, +but goes very deeply into the quality of the wood, its +workability and its cell strength, etc.</p> + +<p>Kiln-drying, which dries the wood at a uniformly rapid +rate by artificially heating it in inclosed rooms, has become +a part of almost every woodworking industry, as +without it the construction of the finished product would +often be impossible. Nevertheless much unseasoned or +imperfectly seasoned wood is used, as is evidenced by the +frequent shrinkage and warping of the finished articles. +This is explained to a certain extent by the fact that the +manufacturer is often so hard pressed for his product that +he is forced to send out an inferior article, which the consumer +is willing to accept in that condition rather than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +to wait several weeks or months for an article made up +of thoroughly seasoned material, and also that dry kilns +are at present constructed and operated largely without +thoroughgoing system.</p> + +<p>Forms of kilns and mode of operation have commonly +been copied by one woodworking plant after the example of +some neighboring establishment. In this way it has been +brought about that the present practices have many shortcomings. +The most progressive operators, however, have +experimented freely in the effort to secure special results +desirable for their peculiar products. Despite the diversity +of practice, it is possible to find among the larger and more +enterprising operators a measure of agreement, as to both +methods and results, and from this to outline the essentials +of a correct theory. As a result, properly seasoned wood +commands a high price, and in some cases cannot be obtained +at all.</p> + +<p>Wood seasoned out of doors, which by many is supposed +to be much superior to kiln-dried material, is becoming +very scarce, as the demand for any kind of wood is so great +that it is thought not to pay to hold it for the time necessary +to season it properly. How long this state of affairs +is going to last it is difficult to say, but it is believed that +a reaction will come when the consumer learns that in +the long run it does not pay to use poorly seasoned material. +Such a condition has now arisen in connection with another +phase of the seasoning of wood; it is a commonly accepted +fact that dry wood will not decay nearly so fast as wet +or green wood; nevertheless, the immense superiority of +seasoned over unseasoned wood for all purposes where +resistance to decay is necessary has not been sufficiently +recognized. In the times when wood of all kinds was +both plentiful and cheap, it mattered little in most cases +how long it lasted or resisted decay. Wood used for +furniture, flooring, car construction, cooperage, etc., usually +got some chance to dry out before or after it was placed +in use. The wood which was exposed to decaying influences +was generally selected from those woods which, +whatever their other qualities might be, would resist decay +longest.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p> + +<p>To-day conditions have changed, so that wood can no +longer be used to the same extent as in former years. +Inferior woods with less lasting qualities have been pressed +into service. Although haphazard methods of cutting +and subsequent use are still much in vogue, there are +many signs that both lumbermen and consumers are +awakening to the fact that such carelessness and wasteful +methods of handling wood will no longer do, and must +give way to more exact and economical methods. The +reason why many manufacturers and consumers of wood +are still using the older methods is perhaps because of +long custom, and because they have not yet learned that, +though the saving to be obtained by the application of +good methods has at all times been appreciable, now, +when wood is more valuable, a much greater saving is +possible. The increased cost of applying economical +methods is really very slight, and is many times exceeded +by the value of the increased service which can be secured +through its use.</p> + + +<h4>Manner of Evaporation of Water</h4> + +<p>The evaporation of water from wood takes place largely +through the ends, <i>i.e.</i>, in the direction of the longitudinal +axis of the wood fibres. The evaporation from the other +surfaces takes place very slowly out of doors, and with +greater rapidity in a dry kiln. The rate of evaporation +differs both with the kind of timber and its shape; that is, +thin material will dry more rapidly than heavier stock. +Sapwood dries faster than heartwood, and pine more +rapidly than oak or other hardwoods.</p> + +<p>Tests made show little difference in the rate of evaporation +in sawn and hewn stock, the results, however, not +being conclusive. Air-drying out of doors takes from +two months to a year, the time depending on the kind of +timber, its thickness, and the climatic conditions. After +wood has reached an air-dry condition it absorbs water +in small quantities after a rain or during damp weather, +much of which is immediately lost again when a few warm, +dry days follow. In this way wood exposed to the weather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +will continue to absorb water and lose it for indefinite +periods.</p> + +<p>When soaked in water, seasoned woods absorb water +rapidly. This at first enters into the wood through the +cell walls; when these are soaked, the water will fill the +cell lumen, so that if constantly submerged the wood may +become completely filled with water.</p> + +<p>The following figures show the gain in weight by absorption +of several coniferous woods, air-dry at the start, +expressed in per cent of the kiln-dry weight:</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Absorption of Water by Dry Wood</span></p> + +<table summary="absorption of water" cellpadding="2" class="kilnwood"> +<tr><td> </td><td style="padding: 0.5em; border: solid black 1px">White Pine</td><td style="padding: 0.5em; border: solid black 1px">Red Cedar</td><td style="padding: 0.5em; border: solid black 1px">Hemlock</td><td style="padding: 0.5em; border-bottom: solid black 1px">Tamarack</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2" style="border-top: solid black 1px">Air-dried</td><td class="centered2">108</td><td class="centered2">109</td><td class="centered2">111</td><td class="centered2">108</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2">Kiln-dried</td><td class="centered2">100</td><td class="centered2">100</td><td class="centered2">100</td><td class="centered2">100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2">In water 1 day</td><td class="centered2">135</td><td class="centered2">120</td><td class="centered2">133</td><td class="centered2">129</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2">In water 2 days</td><td class="centered2">147</td><td class="centered2">126</td><td class="centered2">144</td><td class="centered2">136</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2">In water 3 days</td><td class="centered2">154</td><td class="centered2">132</td><td class="centered2">149</td><td class="centered2">142</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2">In water 4 days</td><td class="centered2">162</td><td class="centered2">137</td><td class="centered2">154</td><td class="centered2">147</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2">In water 5 days</td><td class="centered2">165</td><td class="centered2">140</td><td class="centered2">158</td><td class="centered2">150</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2">In water 7 days</td><td class="centered2">176</td><td class="centered2">143</td><td class="centered2">164</td><td class="centered2">156</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2">In water 9 days</td><td class="centered2">179</td><td class="centered2">147</td><td class="centered2">168</td><td class="centered2">157</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2">In water 11 days</td><td class="centered2">184</td><td class="centered2">149</td><td class="centered2">173</td><td class="centered2">159</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2">In water 14 days</td><td class="centered2">187</td><td class="centered2">150</td><td class="centered2">176</td><td class="centered2">159</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2">In water 17 days</td><td class="centered2">192</td><td class="centered2">152</td><td class="centered2">176</td><td class="centered2">161</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2">In water 25 days</td><td class="centered2">198</td><td class="centered2">155</td><td class="centered2">180</td><td class="centered2">161</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry2" style="padding-bottom: 0.5em">In water 30 days</td><td class="centered2" style="padding-bottom: 0.5em">207</td><td class="centered2" style="padding-bottom: 0.5em">158</td><td class="centered2" style="padding-bottom: 0.5em">183</td><td class="centered2" style="padding-bottom: 0.5em">166</td></tr> +</table> + + +<h4>Rapidity of Evaporation</h4> + +<p>The rapidity with which water is evaporated, that is, +the rate of drying, depends on the size and shape of the +piece and on the structure of the wood. An inch board +dries more than four times as fast as a four-inch plank, and +more than twenty times as fast as a ten-inch timber. +White pine dries faster than oak. A very moist piece of +pine or oak will, during one hour, lose more than four times +as much water per square inch from the cross-section, but +only one half as much from the tangential as from the radial +section. In a long timber, where the ends or cross-sections +form but a small part of the drying surface, this difference<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +is not so evident. Nevertheless, the ends dry +and shrink first, and being opposed in this shrinkage by +the more moist adjoining parts, they check, the cracks +largely disappearing as seasoning progresses.</p> + +<p>High temperatures are very effective in evaporating +the water from wood, no matter how humid the air, and +a fresh piece of sapwood may lose weight in boiling water, +and can be dried to quite an extent in hot steam.</p> + +<p>In drying chemicals or fabrics, all that is required is to +provide heat enough to vaporize the moisture and circulation +enough to carry off the vapor thus secured, and the +quickest and most economical means to these ends may +be used. While on the other hand, in drying wood, whether +in the form of standard stock or the finished product, the +application of the requisite heat and circulation must be +carefully regulated throughout the entire process, or +warping and checking are almost certain to result. Moreover, +wood of different shapes and thicknesses is very differently +effected by the same treatment. Finally, the +tissues composing the wood, which vary in form and physical +properties, and which cross each other in regular directions, +exert their own peculiar influences upon its behavior +during drying. With our native woods, for instance, +summer-wood and spring-wood show distinct tendencies +in drying, and the same is true in a less degree of heartwood, +as contrasted with sapwood. Or, again, pronounced +medullary rays further complicate the drying problem.</p> + + +<h4>Physical Properties that influence Drying</h4> + +<p>The principal properties which render the drying of +wood peculiarly difficult are: (1) The irregular shrinkage; +(2) the different ways in which water is contained; (3) the +manner in which moisture transfuses through the wood +from the center to the surface; (4) the plasticity of the +wood substance while moist and hot; (5) the changes +which take place in the hygroscopic and chemical nature +of the surface; and (6) the difference produced in the total +shrinkage by different rates of drying.</p> + +<p>The shrinkage is unequal in different directions and +in different portions of the same piece. It is greatest in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +the circumferential direction of the tree, being generally +twice as great in this direction as in the radial direction. +In the longitudinal direction, for most woods, it is almost +negligible, being from 20 to over 100 times as great circumferentially +as longitudinally.</p> + +<p>There is a great variation in different species in this +respect. Consequently, it follows from necessity that +large internal strains are set up when the wood shrinks, +and were it not for its plasticity it would rupture. There +is an enormous difference in the total amount of shrinkage +of different species of wood, varying from a shrinkage of +only 7 per cent in volume, based on the green dimensions, +in the case of some of the cedars to nearly 50 per cent in +the case of some species of eucalyptus.</p> + +<p>When the free water in the capillary spaces of the wood +fibre is evaporated it follows the laws of evaporation from +capillary spaces, except that the passages are not all free +passages, and much of the water has to pass out by a +process of transfusion through the moist cell walls. These +cell walls in the green wood completely surround the cell +cavities so that there are no openings large enough to offer +a passage to water or air.</p> + +<p>The well-known "pits" in the cell walls extend through +the secondary thickening only, and not through the primary +walls. This statement applies to the tracheids and +parenchyma cells in the conifer (gymnosperms), and to the +tracheids, parenchyma cells, and the wood fibres in the +broad-leaved trees (angiosperms); the vessels in the latter, +however, form open passages except when clogged by +ingrowth called tyloses, and the resin canals in the former +sometimes form occasional openings.</p> + +<p>By heating the wood above the boiling point, corresponding +to the external pressure, the free water passes through +the cell walls more readily.</p> + +<p>To remove the moisture from the wood substance requires +heat in addition to the latent heat of evaporation, +because the molecules of moisture are so intimately associated +with the molecules, minute particles composing +the wood, that energy is required to separate them therefrom.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p> + +<p>Carefully conducted experiments show this to be from +16.6 to 19.6 calories per grain of dry wood in the case of +beech, long-leaf pine, and sugar maple.</p> + +<p>The difficulty imposed in drying, however, is not so +much the additional heat required as it is in the rate at +which the water transfuses through the solid wood.</p> + + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_VIII" id="SECTION_VIII"></a>SECTION VIII<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></h3> + +<h2 style="padding-bottom: 1em">ADVANTAGES IN SEASONING</h2> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Three</span> most important advantages of seasoning have +already been made apparent:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Seasoned timber lasts much longer than unseasoned. +Since the decay of timber is due to the attacks of +wood-destroying fungi, and since the most important +condition of the growth of these fungi is water, +anything which lessens the amount of water in +wood aids in its preservation.</p> + +<p>2. In the case of treated timber, seasoning before treatment +greatly increases the effectiveness of the +ordinary methods of treatment, and seasoning after +treatment prevents the rapid leaching out of the +salts introduced to preserve the timber.</p> + +<p>3. The saving in freight where timber is shipped from +one place to another. Few persons realize how +much water green wood contains, or how much it +will lose in a comparatively short time. Experiments +along this line with lodge-pole pine, white +oak, and chestnut gave results which were a surprise +to the companies owning the timber.</p></div> + +<p>Freight charges vary considerably in different parts of +the country; but a decrease of 35 to 40 per cent in weight +is important enough to deserve everywhere serious consideration +from those in charge of timber operations.</p> + +<p>When timber is shipped long distances over several +roads, as is coming to be more and more the case, the saving +in freight will make a material difference in the cost +of lumber operations, irrespective of any other advantages +of seasoning.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>Prevention of Checking and Splitting</h4> + +<p>Under present methods much timber is rendered unfit +for use by improper seasoning. Green timber, particularly +when cut during January, February, and March, +when the roots are most active, contains a large amount +of water. When exposed to the sun and wind or to high +temperatures in a drying room, the water will evaporate +more rapidly from the outer than from the inner parts +of the piece, and more rapidly from the ends than from +the sides. As the water evaporates, the wood shrinks, +and when the shrinkage is not fairly uniform the wood +cracks and splits.</p> + +<p>When wet wood is piled in the sun, evaporation goes +on with such unevenness that the timbers split and crack +in some cases so badly as to become useless for the purpose +for which it was intended. Such uneven drying can be +prevented by careful piling, keeping the logs immersed +in a log pond until wanted, or by piling or storing under +an open shed so that the sun cannot get at them.</p> + +<p>Experiments have also demonstrated that injury to +stock in the way of checking and splitting always develops +immediately after the stock is taken into the dry +kiln, and is due to the degree of humidity being too low.</p> + +<p>The receiving end of the kiln should always be kept +moist, where the stock has not been steamed before being +put into the kiln, as when the air is too dry it tends to +dry the outside of the stock first—which is termed "case-hardening"—and +in so doing shrinks and closes up the +pores. As the material is moved down the kiln (as +in the case of "progressive kilns"), it absorbs a +continually increasing amount of heat, which tends +to drive off the moisture still present in the center of +the piece, the pores on the outside having been closed +up, there is no exit for the vapor or steam that is being +rapidly formed in the center of the piece. It must find +its way out in some manner, and in doing so sets up strains, +which result either in checking or splitting. If the humidity +had been kept higher, the outside of the piece would +not have dried so quickly, and the pores would have remained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +open for the exit of the moisture from the interior +of the piece, and this trouble would have been +avoided. (See also article following.)</p> + + +<h4>Shrinkage of Wood</h4> + +<p>Since in all our woods, cells with thick walls and cells +with thin walls are more or less intermixed, and especially +as the spring-wood and summer-wood nearly always differ +from each other in this respect, strains and tendencies +to warp are always active when wood dries out, because +the summer-wood shrinks more than the spring-wood, +and heavier wood in general shrinks more than light wood +of the same kind.</p> + +<p>If a thin piece of wood after drying is placed upon a +moist surface, the cells on the under side of the piece take +up moisture and swell before the upper cells receive any +moisture. This causes the under side of the piece to become +longer than the upper side, and as a consequence +warping occurs. Soon, however, the moisture penetrates +to all the cells and the piece straightens out. But while +a thin board of pine curves laterally it remains quite +straight lengthwise, since in this direction both shrinkage +and swelling are small. If one side of a green board is +exposed to the sun, warping is produced by the removal of +water and consequent shrinkage of the side exposed; this +may be eliminated by the frequent turning of the topmost +pieces of the piles in order that they may be dried evenly.</p> + +<p>As already stated, wood loses water faster from the +ends than from the longitudinal faces. Hence the ends +shrink at a different rate from the interior parts. The +faster the drying at the surface, the greater is the difference +in the moisture of the different parts, and hence the greater +the strains and consequently also the greater amount of +checking. This becomes very evident when freshly cut +wood is placed in the sun, and still more when put into a +hot, dry kiln. While most of these smaller checks are only +temporary, closing up again, some large radial checks remain +and even grow larger as drying progresses. Their +cause is a different one and will presently be explained. +The temporary checks not only appear at the ends, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +are developed on the sides also, only to a much smaller +degree. They become especially annoying on the surface +of thick planks of hardwoods, and also on peeled logs +when exposed to the sun.</p> + +<p>So far we have considered the wood as if made up only +of parallel fibres all placed longitudinally in the log. +This, however, is not the case. A large part of the wood +is formed by the medullary or pith rays. In pine over +15,000 of these occur on a square inch of a tangential +section, and even in oak the very large rays, which are +readily visible to the eye, represent scarcely a hundredth +part of the number which a microscope reveals, as the +cells of these rays have their length at right angles to the +direction of the wood fibres.</p> + +<p>If a large pith ray of white oak is whittled out and allowed +to dry, it is found to shrink greatly in its width, +while, as we have stated, the fibres to which the ray is +firmly grown in the wood do not shrink in the same direction. +Therefore, in the wood, as the cells of the pith ray +dry they pull on the longitudinal fibres and try to shorten +them, and, being opposed by the rigidity of the fibres, the +pith ray is greatly strained. But this is not the only +strain it has to bear. Since the fibres shrink as much +again as the pith ray, in this its longitudinal direction, +the fibres tend to shorten the ray, and the latter in opposing +this prevents the former from shrinking as much +as they otherwise would.</p> + +<p>Thus the structure is subjected to two severe strains +at right angles to each other, and herein lies the greatest +difficulty of wood seasoning, for whenever the wood dries +rapidly these fibres have not the chance to "give" or accommodate +themselves, and hence fibres and pith rays +separate and checking results, which, whether visible or +not, are detrimental in the use of the wood.</p> + +<p>The contraction of the pith rays parallel to the length +of the board is probably one of the causes of the small +amount of longitudinal shrinkage which has been observed +in boards. This smaller shrinkage of the pith +rays along the radius of the log (the length of the pith ray), +opposing the shrinkage of the fibres in this direction, becomes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +one of the causes of the second great trouble in +wood seasoning, namely, the difference in the shrinkage +along the radius and that along the rings or tangent. This +greater tangential shrinkage appears to be due in part to +the causes just mentioned, but also to the fact that the +greatly shrinking bands of summer-wood are interrupted +along the radius by as many bands of porous spring-wood, +while they are continuous in the tangential direction. In +this direction, therefore, each such band tends to shrink, +as if the entire piece were composed of summer-wood, +and since the summer-wood represents the greater part +of the wood substance, this greater tendency to tangential +shrinkage prevails.</p> + +<p>The effect of this greater tangential shrinkage effects +every phase of woodworking. It leads to permanent +checks and causes the log or piece to split open on drying. +Sawed in two, the flat sides of the log become convex; +sawed into timber, it checks along the median line of +the four faces, and if converted into boards, the latter +checks considerably from the end through the center, all +owing to the greater tangential shrinkage of the wood.</p> + +<p>Briefly, then, shrinkage of wood is due to the fact that +the cell walls grow thinner on drying. The thicker cell +walls and therefore the heavier wood shrinks most, while +the water in the cell cavities does not influence the volume +of the wood.</p> + +<p>Owing to the great difference of cells in shape, size, and +thickness of walls, and still more in their arrangement, +shrinkage is not uniform in any kind of wood. This +irregularity produces strains, which grow with the difference +between adjoining cells and are greatest at the +pith rays. These strains cause warping and checking, +but exist even where no outward signs are visible. They +are greater if the wood is dried rapidly than if dried slowly, +but can never be entirely avoided.</p> + +<p>Temporary checks are caused by the more rapid drying +of the outer parts of any stick; permanent checks +are due to the greater shrinkage, tangentially, along the +rings than along the radius. This, too, is the cause of +most of the ordinary phenomena of shrinkage, such as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +the difference in behavior of the entire and quartered logs, +"bastard" (tangent) and rift (radial) boards, etc., and +explains many of the phenomena erroneously attributed +to the influence of bark, or of the greater shrinkage of +outer and inner parts of any log.</p> + +<p>Once dry, wood may be swelled again to its original +size by soaking in water, boiling, or steaming. Soaked +pieces on drying shrink again as before; boiled and steamed +pieces do the same, but to a slightly less degree. Neither +hygroscopicity, <i>i.e.</i>, the capacity of taking up water, nor +shrinkage of wood can be overcome by drying at temperatures +below 200 degrees Fahrenheit. Higher temperatures, +however, reduce these qualities, but nothing short of a +coaling heat robs wood of the capacity to shrink and swell.</p> + +<p>Rapidly dried in a kiln, the wood of oak and other +hardwoods "case-harden," that is, the outer part dries +and shrinks before the interior has a chance to do the same, +and thus forms a firm shell or case of shrunken, commonly +checked wood around the interior. This shell does not +prevent the interior from drying, but when this drying +occurs the interior is commonly checked along the medullary +rays, commonly called "honeycombing" or "hollow-horning." +In practice this occurrence can be prevented +by steaming or sweating the wood in the kiln, and still +better by drying the wood in the open air or in a shed +before placing in the kiln. Since only the first shrinkage +is apt to check the wood, any kind of lumber which has +once been air-dried (three to six months for one-inch stuff) +may be subjected to kiln heat without any danger from +this source.</p> + +<p>Kept in a bent or warped condition during the first +shrinkage, the wood retains the shape to which it has +been bent and firmly opposes any attempt at subsequent +straightening.</p> + +<p>Sapwood, as a rule, shrinks more than heartwood of +the same weight, but very heavy heartwood may shrink +more than lighter sapwood. The amount of water in +wood is no criterion of its shrinkage, since in wet wood +most of the water is held in the cavities, where it has no +effect on the volume.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p> + +<p>The wood of pine, spruce, cypress, etc., with its very +regular structure, dries and shrinks evenly, and suffers +much less in seasoning than the wood of broad-leaved +(hardwood) trees. Among the latter, oak is the most +difficult to dry without injury.</p> + +<p>Desiccating the air with certain chemicals will cause the +wood to dry, but wood thus dried at 80 degrees Fahrenheit +will still lose water in the kiln. Wood dried at 120 degrees +Fahrenheit loses water still if dried at 200 degrees Fahrenheit, +and this again will lose more water if the temperature +be raised, so that <i>absolutely dry wood</i> cannot be obtained, +and chemical destruction sets in before all the water is +driven off.</p> + +<p>On removal from the kiln, the dry wood at once takes +up moisture from the air, even in the driest weather. At +first the absorption is quite rapid; at the end of a week +a short piece of pine, 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches thick, has regained two +thirds of, and, in a few months, all the moisture which it +had when air-dry, 8 to 10 per cent, and also its former +dimensions. In thin boards all parts soon attain the +same degree of dryness. In heavy timbers the interior remains +more moist for many months, and even years, than +the exterior parts. Finally an equilibrium is reached, +and then only the outer parts change with the weather.</p> + +<p>With kiln-dried woods all parts are equally dry, and +when exposed, the moisture coming from the air must +pass through the outer parts, and thus the order is reversed. +Ordinary timber requires months before it is +at its best. Kiln-dried timber, if properly handled, is +prime at once.</p> + +<p>Dry wood if soaked in water soon regains its original +volume, and in the heartwood portion it may even surpass +it; that is to say, swell to a larger dimension than +it had when green. With the soaking it continues to +increase in weight, the cell cavities filling with water, and +if left many months all pieces sink. Yet after a year's +immersion a piece of oak 2 by 2 inches and only 6 inches +long still contains air; <i>i.e.</i>, it has not taken up all the +water it can. By rafting or prolonged immersion, wood +loses some of its weight, soluble materials being leached<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +out, but it is not impaired either as fuel or as building +material. Immersion, and still more boiling and steaming, +reduce the hygroscopicity of wood and therefore also +the troublesome "working," or shrinking and swelling.</p> + +<p>Exposure in dry air to a temperature of 300 degrees Fahrenheit +for a short time reduces but does not destroy the +hygroscopicity, and with it the tendency to shrink and +swell. A piece of red oak which has been subjected to a +temperature of over 300 degrees Fahrenheit still swells in +hot water and shrinks in a dry kiln.</p> + + +<h4>Expansion of Wood</h4> + +<p>It must not be forgotten that timber, in common with +every other material, expands as well as contracts. If +we extract the moisture from a piece of wood and so cause +it to shrink, it may be swelled to its original volume by +soaking it in water, but owing to the protection given to +most timber in dwelling-houses it is not much affected by +wet or damp weather. The shrinkage is more apparent, +more lasting, and of more consequence to the architect, +builder, or owner than the slight expansion which takes +place, as, although the amount of moisture contained in +wood varies with the climate conditions, the consequence +of dampness or moisture on good timber used in houses +only makes itself apparent by the occasional jamming of a +door or window in wet or damp weather.</p> + +<p>Considerable expansion, however, takes place in the +wood-paving of streets, and when this form of paving +was in its infancy much trouble occurred owing to all +allowances not having been made for this contingency, +the trouble being doubtless increased owing to the blocks +not being properly seasoned; curbing was lifted or pushed +out of line and gully grids were broken by this action. As +a rule in street paving a space of one or two inches wide +is now left next to the curb, which is filled with sand or +some soft material, so that the blocks may expand longitudinally +without injuring the contour or affecting the curbs. +But even with this arrangement it is not at all unusual +for an inch or more to have to be cut off paving blocks +parallel to the channels some time after the paving has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +been laid, owing to the expansion of the wood exceeding +the amounts allowed.</p> + +<p>Considerable variation occurs in the expansion of wood +blocks, and it is noticeable in the hardwoods as well as in +the softwoods, and is often greater in the former than in +the latter.</p> + +<p>Expansion takes place in the direction of the length of +the blocks as they are laid across the street, and causes +no trouble in the other direction, the reason being that +the lengthway of a block of wood is across the grain, of +the timber, and it expands or contracts as a plank does. +On one occasion, in a roadway forty feet wide, expansion +occurred until it amounted to four inches on each side, +or eight inches in all. This continual expansion and contraction +is doubtless the cause of a considerable amount of +wood street-paving bulging and becoming filled with +ridges and depressions.</p> + + +<h4>Elimination of Stain and Mildew</h4> + +<p>A great many manufacturers, and particularly those +located in the Southern States, experience a great amount +of difficulty in their timber becoming stained and mildewed. +This is particularly true with gum wood, as it will +frequently stain and mould in twenty-four hours, and +they have experienced so much of this trouble that they +have, in a great many instances, discontinued cutting it +during the summer season.</p> + +<p>If this matter were given proper attention they should +be able to eliminate a great deal of this difficulty, as no +doubt they will find after investigation that the mould +has been caused by the stock being improperly piled to +the weather.</p> + +<p>Freshly sawn wood, placed in close piles during warm, +damp weather in the months of July and August, presents +especially favorable conditions for mould and stain. In +all cases it is the moist condition and retarded drying of +the wood which causes this. Therefore, any method which +will provide for the rapid drying of the wood before or +after piling will tend to prevent the difficulty, and the +best method for eliminating mould is (1) to provide for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +as little delay as possible between the felling of the tree, +and its manufacture into rough products before the sap +has had an opportunity of becoming sour. This is especially +necessary with trees felled from April to September, +in the region north of the Gulf States, and from March +to November in the latter, while the late fall and winter +cutting should all be worked up by March or April. (2) +The material should be piled to the weather immediately +after being sawn or cut, and every precaution should be +taken in piling to facilitate rapid drying, by keeping the +piles or ricks up off the ground. (3) All weeds (and emphasis +should be placed on the <small>ALL</small>) and other vegetation +should be kept well clear of the piles, in order that the +air may have a clear and unobstructed passage through and +around the piles, and (4) the piles should be so constructed +that each stick or piece will have as much air space about +it as it is possible to give to it.</p> + +<p>If the above instructions are properly carried out, there +will be little or no difficulty experienced with mould appearing +on the lumber.</p> + + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_IX" id="SECTION_IX"></a>SECTION IX<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></h3> + +<h2 style="padding-bottom: 1em">DIFFICULTIES OF DRYING +WOOD</h2> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Seasoning</span> and kiln-drying is so important a process in +the manufacture of woods that a need is keenly felt for +fuller information regarding it, based upon scientific study +of the behavior of various species at different mechanical +temperatures and under different mechanical drying processes. +The special precautions necessary to prevent loss +of strength or distortion of shape render the drying of +wood especially difficult.</p> + +<p>All wood when undergoing a seasoning process, either +natural (by air) or mechanical (by steam or heat in a dry +kiln), checks or splits more or less. This is due to the +uneven drying-out of the wood and the consequent strains +exerted in opposite directions by the wood fibres in shrinking. +This shrinkage, it has been proven, takes place both +end-wise and across the grain of the wood. The old tradition +that wood does not shrink end-wise has long since +been shattered, and it has long been demonstrated that +there is an end-wise shrinkage.</p> + +<p>In some woods it is very light, while in others it is easily +perceptible. It is claimed that the average end shrinkage, +taking all the woods, is only about 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> per cent. This, +however, probably has relation to the average shrinkage +on ordinary lumber as it is used and cut and dried. Now +if we depart from this and take veneer, or basket stock, +or even stave bolts where they are boiled, causing swelling +both end-wise and across the grain or in dimension, after +they are thoroughly dried, there is considerably more +evidence of end shrinkage. In other words, a slack barrel +stave of elm, say, 28 or 30 inches in length, after being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +boiled might shrink as much in thoroughly drying-out +as compared to its length when freshly cut, as a 12-foot +elm board.</p> + +<p>It is in cutting veneer that this end shrinkage becomes +most readily apparent. In trimming with scoring knives +it is done to exact measure, and where stock is cut to fit +some specific place there has been observed a shrinkage +on some of the softer woods, like cottonwood, amounting +to fully <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> of an inch in 36 inches. And at times where +drying has been thorough the writer has noted a shrinkage +of <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> of an inch on an ordinary elm cabbage-crate strip +36 inches long, sawed from the log without boiling.</p> + +<p>There are really no fixed rules of measurement or allowance, +however, because the same piece of wood may +vary under different conditions, and, again, the grain +may cross a little or wind around the tree, and this of +itself has a decided effect on the amount of what is termed +"end shrinkage."</p> + +<p>There is more checking in the wood of the broad-leaf +(hardwood) trees than in that of the coniferous (softwood) +trees, more in sapwood than in heartwood, and more in +summer-wood than in spring-wood.</p> + +<p>Inasmuch as under normal conditions of weather, water +evaporates less rapidly during the early seasoning of +winter, wood that is cut in the autumn and early winter +is considered less subject to checking than that which is +cut in spring and summer.</p> + +<p>Rapid seasoning, except after wood has been thoroughly +soaked or steamed, almost invariably results in more or +less serious checking. All hardwoods which check or +warp badly during the seasoning should be reduced to +the smallest practicable size before drying to avoid the +injuries involved in this process, and wood once seasoned +<i>should never again be exposed to the weather</i>, since all injuries +due to seasoning are thereby aggravated.</p> + +<p>Seasoning increases the strength of wood in every respect, +and it is therefore of great importance to protect +the wood against moisture.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>Changes rendering Drying difficult</h4> + +<p>An important property rendering drying of wood peculiarly +difficult is the changes which occur in the hygroscopic +properties of the surface of a stick, and the rate +at which it will allow moisture to pass through it. If +wood is dried rapidly the surface soon reaches a condition +where the transfusion is greatly hindered and sometimes +appears almost to cease. The nature of this action is +not well understood and it differs greatly in different species. +Bald cypress (<i>Taxodium distichum</i>) is an example in which +this property is particularly troublesome. The difficulty +can be overcome by regulating the humidity during the +drying operation. It is one of the factors entering into +production of what is called "case-hardening" of wood, +where the surface of the piece becomes hardened in a +stretched or expanded condition, and subsequent shrinkage +of the interior causes "honeycombing," "hollow-horning," +or internal checking. The outer surface of +the wood appears to undergo a chemical change in the +nature of hydrolization or oxidization, which alters the +rate of absorption and evaporation in the air.</p> + +<p>As the total amount of shrinkage varies with the rate +at which the wood is dried, it follows that the outer surface +of a rapidly dried board shrinks less than the interior. +This sets up an internal stress, which, if the board be +afterward resawed into two thinner boards by slicing it +through the middle, causes the two halves to cup with +their convex surfaces outward. This effect may occur +even though the moisture distribution in the board has +reached a uniform condition, and the board is thoroughly +dry before it is resawed. It is distinct from the well-known +"case-hardening" effect spoken of above, which +is caused by unequal moisture conditions.</p> + +<p>The manner in which the water passes from the interior +of a piece of wood to its surface has not as yet been +fully determined, although it is one of the most important +factors which influence drying. This must involve a +transfusion of moisture through the cell walls, since, as +already mentioned, except for the open vessels in the hardwoods,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +free resin ducts in the softwoods, and possibly the +intercellular spaces, the cells of green wood are enclosed +by membranes and the water must pass through the walls +or the membranes of the pits. Heat appears to increase +this transfusion, but experimental data are lacking.</p> + +<p>It is evident that to dry wood properly a great many +factors must be taken into consideration aside from the +mere evaporation of moisture.</p> + + +<h4>Losses Due to Improper Kiln-drying</h4> + +<p>In some cases there is practically no loss in drying, but +more often it ranges from 1 to 3 per cent, and 7 to 10 per +cent in refractory woods such as gum. In exceptional +instances the losses are as high as 33 per cent.</p> + +<p>In air-drying there is little or no control over the process; +it may take place too rapidly on some days and too +slowly on others, and it may be very non-uniform.</p> + +<p>Hardwoods in large sizes almost invariably check.</p> + +<p>By proper kiln-drying these unfavorable circumstances +may be eliminated. However, air-drying is unquestionably +to be preferred to bad kiln-drying, and when there +is any doubt in the case it is generally safer to trust to +air-drying.</p> + +<p>If the fundamental principles are all taken care of, green +lumber can be better dried in the dry kiln.</p> + + +<h4>Properties of Wood that affect Drying</h4> + +<p>It is clear, from the previous discussion of the structure +of wood, that this property is of first importance among +those influencing the seasoning of wood. The free water +way usually be extracted quite readily from porous hardwoods. +The presence of tyloses in white oak makes even +this a difficult problem. On the other hand, its more +complex structure usually renders the hygroscopic moisture +quite difficult to extract.</p> + +<p>The lack of an open, porous structure renders the transfusion +of moisture through some woods very slow, while +the reverse may be true of other species. The point of +interest is that all the different variations in structure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +affect the drying rates of woods. The structure of the +gums suggests relatively easy seasoning.</p> + +<p>Shrinkage is a very important factor affecting the drying +of woods. Generally speaking, the greater the shrinkage +the more difficult it is to dry wood. Wood shrinks +about twice as much tangentially as radially, thus introducing +very serious stresses which may cause loss in woods +whose total shrinkage is large. It has been found that +the amount of shrinkage depends, to some extent, on the +rate and temperature at which woods season. Rapid +drying at high or low temperature results in slight shrinkage, +while slow drying, especially at high temperature, +increases the shrinkage.</p> + +<p>As some woods must be dried in one way and others in +other ways, to obtain the best general results, this effect +may be for the best in one case and the reverse in others. +As an example one might cite the case of Southern white +oak. This species must be dried very slowly at low temperatures +in order to avoid the many evils to which it is +heir. It is interesting to note that this method tends to +increase the shrinkage, so that one might logically expect +such treatment merely to aggravate the evils. Such +is not the case, however, as too fast drying results in other +defects much worse than that of excessive shrinkage.</p> + +<p>Thus we see that the shrinkage of any given species of +wood depends to a great extent on the method of drying. +Just how much the shrinkage of gum is affected by the +temperature and drying rate is not known at present. +There is no doubt that the method of seasoning affects +the shrinkage of the gums, however. It is just possible +that these woods may shrink longitudinally more than +is normal, thus furnishing another cause for their peculiar +action under certain circumstances. It has been found +that the properties of wood which affect the seasoning of +the gums are, in the order of their importance: (1) The +indeterminate and erratic grain; (2) the uneven shrinkage +with the resultant opposing stresses; (3) the plasticity +under high temperature while moist; and (4) the slight +apparent lack of cohesion between the fibres. The first, +second, and fourth properties are clearly detrimental,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +while the third may possibly be an advantage in reducing +checking and "case-hardening."</p> + +<p>The grain of the wood is a prominent factor also affecting +the problem. It is this factor, coupled with uneven +shrinkage, which is probably responsible, to a large extent, +for the action of the gums in drying. The grain may be +said to be more or less indeterminate. It is usually spiral, +and the spiral may reverse from year to year of the tree's +growth. When a board in which this condition exists +begins to shrink, the result is the development of opposing +stresses, the effect of which is sometimes disastrous. The +shrinkage around the knots seems to be particularly uneven, +so that checking at the knots is quite common.</p> + +<p>Some woods, such as Western red cedar, redwood, and +eucalyptus, become very plastic when hot and moist. +The result of drying-out the free water at high temperature +may be to collapse the cells. The gums are known +to be quite soft and plastic, if they are moist, at high +temperature, but they do not collapse so far as we have +been able to determine.</p> + +<p>The cells of certain species of wood appear to lack +cohesion, especially at the junction between the annual +rings. As a result, checks and ring shakes are very common +in Western larch and hemlock. The parenchyma +cells of the medullary rays in oak do not cohere strongly +and often check open, especially when steamed too severely.</p> + + +<h4>Unsolved Problems in Kiln-drying</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Physical data of the properties of wood in relation +to heat are meagre.</p> + +<p>2. Figures on the specific heat of wood are not readily +available, though upon this rests not only the exact +operation of heating coils for kilns, but the +theory of kiln-drying as a whole.</p> + +<p>3. Great divergence is shown in the results of experiments +in the conductivity of wood. It remains +to be seen whether the known variation of conductivity +with moisture content will reduce these +results to uniformity.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p> + +<p>4. The maximum or highest temperature to which +the different species of wood may be exposed without +serious loss of strength has not yet been determined.</p> + +<p>5. The optimum or absolute correct temperature for +drying the different species of wood is as yet +entirely unsettled.</p> + +<p>6. The inter-relation between wood and water is as +imperfectly known to dry-kiln operators as that +between wood and heat.</p> + +<p>7. What moisture conditions obtain in a stick of air-dried +wood?</p> + +<p>8. How is the moisture distinguished?</p> + +<p>9. What is its form?</p> + +<p>10. What is the meaning of the peculiar surface conditions +which even in air-dried wood appear to +indicate incipient "case-hardening"?</p> + +<p>11. The manner in which the water passes from the +interior of a piece of wood to its surface has not +as yet been fully determined.</p></div> + +<p>These questions can be answered thus far only by speculation +or, at best, on the basis of incomplete data.</p> + +<p>Until these problems are solved, kiln-drying must +necessarily remain without the guidance of complete +scientific theory.</p> + +<p>A correct understanding of the principles of drying is +rare, and opinions in regard to the subject are very diverse. +The same lack of knowledge exists in regard to dry kilns. +The physical properties of the wood which complicate +the drying operation and render it distinct from that of +merely evaporating free water from some substance like +a piece of cloth must be studied experimentally. It cannot +well be worked out theoretically.</p> + + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_X" id="SECTION_X"></a>SECTION X<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span></h3> + +<h2 style="padding-bottom: 1em">HOW WOOD IS SEASONED</h2> + + +<h4>Methods of Drying</h4> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> choice of a method of drying depends largely upon +the object in view. The principal objects may be grouped +under three main heads, as follows:</p> + +<ul> +<li>1. To reduce shipping weight.</li> +<li>2. To reduce the quantity necessary to carry in stock.</li> + +<li>3. To prepare the wood for its ultimate use and improve +its qualities.</li> +</ul> + + +<p>When wood will stand the temperature without excessive +checking or undue shrinkage or loss in strength, +the first object is most readily attained by heating the +wood above the boiling point in a closed chamber, with +a large circulation of air or vapor, so arranged that the +excess steam produced will escape. This process manifestly +does not apply to many of the hardwoods, but is +applicable to many of the softwoods. It is used especially +in the northwestern part of the United States, where +Douglas fir boards one inch thick are dried in from 40 to +65 hours, and sometimes in as short a time as 24 hours. +In the latter case superheated steam at 300 degrees Fahrenheit +was forced into the chamber but, of course, the +lumber could not be heated thereby much above the boiling +point so long as it contained any free water.</p> + +<p>This lumber, however, contained but 34 per cent moisture +to start with, and the most rapid rate was 1.6 per cent +loss per hour.</p> + +<p>The heat of evaporation may be supplied either by +superheated steam or by steam pipes within the kiln +itself.</p> + +<p>The quantity of wood it is necessary to carry in stock<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +is naturally reduced when either of the other two objects +is attained and, therefore, need not necessarily be discussed.</p> + +<p>In drying to prepare for use and to improve quality, +careful and scientific drying is called for. This applies +more particularly to the hardwoods, although it may be +required for softwoods also.</p> + + +<h4>Drying at Atmospheric Pressure</h4> + +<p>Present practice of kiln-drying varies tremendously +and there is no uniformity or standard method.</p> + +<p>Temperatures vary anywhere from 65 to 165 degrees +Fahrenheit, or even higher, and inch boards three to six +months on the sticks are being dried in from four days to +three weeks, and three-inch material in from two to five +months.</p> + +<p>All methods in use at atmospheric pressure may be +classified under the following headings. The kilns may +be either progressive or compartment, and preliminary +steaming may or may not be used with any one of these +methods:</p> + +<ul> +<li>1. Dry air heated. This is generally obsolete.</li> + +<li>2. Moist air.</li> + +<li> +<ul style="line-height: 130%"><li><i>a.</i> Ventilated.</li> + +<li><i>b.</i> Forced draft.</li> + +<li><i>c.</i> Condensing.</li> + +<li><i>d.</i> Humidity regulated.</li> + +<li><i>e.</i> Boiling.</li></ul> +</li> +<li>3. Superheated steam.</li> +</ul> + +<h4>Drying under Pressure and Vacuum</h4> + +<p>Various methods of drying wood under pressures other +than atmospheric have been tried. Only a brief mention +of this subject will be made. Where the apparatus is +available probably the quickest way to dry wood is first +to heat it in saturated steam at as high a temperature +as the species can endure without serious chemical change +until the heat has penetrated to the center, then follow +this with a vacuum.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> + +<p>By this means the self-contained specific heat of the +wood and the water is made available for the evaporation, +and the drying takes place from the inside outwardly, +just the reverse of that which occurs by drying by means +of external heat.</p> + +<p>When the specimen has cooled this process is then to be +repeated until it has dried down to fibre-saturation point. +It cannot be dried much below this point by this method, +since the absorption during the heating operation will +then equal the evaporation during the cooling. It may +be carried further, however, by heating in partially humidified +air, proportioning the relative humidity each +time it is heated to the degree of moisture present in the +wood.</p> + +<p>The point to be considered in this operation is that +during the heating process no evaporation shall be allowed +to take place, but only during the cooling. In this way +surface drying and "case-hardening" are prevented since +the heat is from within and the moisture passes from the +inside outwardly. However, with some species, notably +oak, surface cracks appear as a network of fine checks +along the medullary rays.</p> + +<p>In the first place, it should be borne in mind that it is +the heat which produces evaporation and not the air nor +any mysterious property assigned to a "vacuum."</p> + +<p>For every pound of water evaporated at ordinary temperatures +approximately 1,000 British thermal units of +heat are used up, or "become latent," as it is called. This +is true whether the evaporation takes place in a vacuum +or under a moderate air pressure. If this heat is not supplied +from an outside source it must be supplied by the +water itself (or the material being dried), the temperature +of which will consequently fall until the surrounding +space becomes saturated with vapor at a pressure corresponding +to the temperature which the water has reached; +evaporation will then cease. The pressure of the vapor +in a space saturated with water vapor increases rapidly +with increase of temperature. At a so-called vacuum of +28 inches, which is about the limit in commercial operations, +and in reality signifies an actual pressure of 2 inches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +of mercury column, the space will be saturated with vapor +at 101 degrees Fahrenheit. Consequently, no evaporation +will take place in such a vacuum unless the water be +warmer than 101 degrees Fahrenheit, provided there is +no air leakage. The qualification in regard to air is necessary, +for the sake of exactness, for the following reason: +In any given space the total actual pressure is made up +of the combined pressures of all the gases present. If the +total pressure ("vacuum") is 2 inches, and there is no air +present, it is all produced by the water vapor (which +saturates the space at 101 degrees Fahrenheit); but if +some air is present and the total pressure is still maintained +at 2 inches, then there must be less vapor present, since +the air is producing part of the pressure and the space is +no longer saturated at the given temperature. Consequently +further evaporation may occur, with a corresponding +lowering of the temperature of the water, until a balance +is again reached. Without further explanation it is easy +to see that but little water can be evaporated by a vacuum +alone without addition of heat, and that the prevalent +idea that a vacuum can of itself produce evaporation is +a fallacy. If heat be supplied to the water, however, +either by conduction or radiation, evaporation will take +place in direct proportion to the amount of heat supplied, +so long as the pressure is kept down by the vacuum +pump.</p> + +<p>At 30 inches of mercury pressure (one atmosphere) the +space becomes saturated with vapor and equilibrium is +established at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. If heat be now +supplied to the water, however, evaporation will take +place in proportion to the amount of heat supplied, so +long as the pressure remains that of one atmosphere, just +as in the case of the vacuum. Evaporation in this condition, +where the vapor pressure at the temperature of +the water is equal to the gas pressure on the water, +is commonly called "boiling," and the saturated vapor +entirely displaces the air under continuous operation. +Whenever the space is not saturated with vapor, whether +air is present or not, evaporation will take place, by boiling +if no air be present or by diffusion under the presence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +of air, until an equilibrium between temperature and +vapor pressure is resumed.</p> + +<p>Relative humidity is simply the ratio of the actual vapor +pressure present in a given space to the vapor pressure +when the space is saturated with vapor at the given temperature. +It matters not whether air be present or not. +One hundred per cent humidity means that the space +contains all the vapor which it can hold at the given +temperature—it is saturated. Thus at 100 per cent +humidity and 212 degrees Fahrenheit the space is saturated, +and since the pressure of saturated vapor at this +temperature is one atmosphere, no air can be present +under these conditions. If, however, the total pressure +at this temperature were 20 pounds (5 pounds gauge), +then it would mean that there was 5 pounds air pressure +present in addition to the vapor, yet the space would still +be saturated at the given temperature. Again, if the +temperature were 101 degrees Fahrenheit, the pressure +of saturated vapor would be only 1 pound, and the additional +pressure of 14 pounds, if the total pressure were +atmospheric, would be made up of air. In order to have +no air present and the space still saturated at 101 degrees +Fahrenheit, the total pressure must be reduced to 1 pound +by a vacuum pump. Fifty per cent relative humidity, +therefore, signifies that only half the amount of vapor +required to saturate the space at the given temperature +is present. Thus at 212 degrees Fahrenheit temperature +the vapor pressure would only be 7<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>pounds (vacuum of +15 inches gauge). If the total pressure were atmospheric, +then the additional 7<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> pounds would be simply air.</p> + +<p>"Live steam" is simply water-saturated vapor at a +pressure usually above atmospheric. We may just as +truly have live steam at pressures less than atmospheric, +at a vacuum of 28 inches for instance. Only in the latter +case its temperature would be lower, <i>viz.</i>, 101 degrees +Fahrenheit.</p> + +<p>Superheated steam is nothing more than water vapor +at a relative humidity less than saturation, but is usually +considered at pressures above atmospheric, and in the +absence of air. The atmosphere at, say, 50 per cent relative<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +humidity really contains superheated steam or vapor, +the only difference being that it is at a lower temperature +and pressure than we are accustomed to think of in speaking +of superheated steam, and it has air mixed with it to +make up the deficiency in pressure below the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>Two things should now be clear; that evaporation is +produced by heat and that the presence or absence of air +does not influence the amount of evaporation. It does, +however, influence the rate of evaporation, which is retarded +by the presence of air. The main things influencing +evaporation are, first, the quantity of heat supplied +and, second, the relative humidity of the immediately +surrounding space.</p> + + +<h4>Drying by Superheated Steam</h4> + +<p>What this term really signifies is simply water vapor +in the absence of air in a condition of less than saturation. +Kilns of this type are, properly speaking, vapor kilns, +and usually operate at atmospheric pressure, but may be +used at greater pressures or at less pressures. As stated +before, the vapor present in the air at any humidity less +than saturation is really "superheated steam," only at a +lower pressure than is ordinarily understood by this term, +and mixed with air. The main argument in favor of this +process seems to be based on the idea that steam is moist +heat. This is true, however, only when the steam is near +saturation. When it is superheated it is just as dry as +air containing the same relative humidity. For instance, +steam at atmospheric pressure and heated to 248 degrees +Fahrenheit has a relative humidity of only 50 per cent and +is just as dry as air containing the same humidity. If +heated to 306 degrees Fahrenheit, its relative humidity +is reduced to 20 per cent; that is to say, the ratio of its +actual vapor pressure (one atmosphere) to the pressure +of saturated vapor at this temperature (five atmospheres) +is 1:5, or 20 per cent. Superheated vapor in the absence +of air, however, parts with its heat with great rapidity +and finally becomes saturated when it has lost all of its +ability to cause evaporation. In this respect it is more +moist than air when it comes in contact with bodies which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +are at a lower temperature. When saturated steam is +used to heat the lumber it can raise the temperature of +the latter to its own temperature, but cannot produce +evaporation unless, indeed, the pressure is varied. Only +by the heat supplied above the temperature of saturation +can evaporation be produced.</p> + + +<h4>Impregnation Methods</h4> + +<p>Methods of partially overcoming the shrinkage by impregnation +of the cell walls with organic materials closely +allied to the wood substance itself are in use. In one of +these which has been patented, sugar is used as the impregnating +material, which is subsequently hardened or +"caramelized" by heating. Experiments which the United +States Forest Service has made substantiate the claims +that the sugar does greatly reduce the shrinkage of the +wood; but the use of impregnation processes is determined +rather from a financial economic standpoint than by the +physical result obtained.</p> + +<p>Another process consists in passing a current of electricity +through the wet boards or through the green logs +before sawing. It is said that the ligno cellulose and the +sap are thus transformed by electrolysis, and that the +wood subsequently dries more rapidly.</p> + + +<h4>Preliminary Treatments</h4> + +<p>In many dry kiln operations, especially where the kilns +are not designed for treatments with very moist air, the +wood is allowed to air-season from several months to a +year or more before running it into the dry kiln. In this +way the surface dries below its fibre-saturation point and +becomes hardened or "set" and the subsequent shrinkage +is not so great. Moreover, there is less danger of +surface checking in the kiln, since the surface has already +passed the danger point. Many woods, however, check +severely in air-drying or case-harden in the air. It is +thought that such woods can be satisfactorily handled in +a humidity-regulated kiln direct from the saw.</p> + +<p>Preliminary steaming is frequently used to moisten the +surface if case-hardened, and to heat the lumber through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +to the center before drying begins. This is sometimes +done in a separate chamber, but more often in a compartment +of the kiln itself, partitioned off by means of a +curtain which can be raised or lowered as circumstances +require. This steaming is usually conducted at atmospheric +pressure and frequently condensed steam is used +at temperatures far below 212 degrees Fahrenheit. In +a humidity-regulated kiln this preliminary treatment may +be omitted, since nearly saturated conditions can be +maintained and graduated as the drying progresses.</p> + +<p>Recently the process of steaming at pressures up to +20 pounds gauge in a cylinder for short periods of time, +varying from 5 to 20 minutes, is being advocated in the +United States. The truck load is run into the cylinder, +steamed, and then taken directly out into the air. It +may subsequently be placed in the dry kiln if further drying +is desired. The self-contained heat of the wood evaporates +considerable moisture, and the sudden drying of +the boards causes the shrinkage to be reduced slightly +in some cases. Such short periods of steaming under +20 pounds pressure do not appear to injure the wood +mechanically, although they do darken the color appreciably, +especially of the sapwood of the species having a +light-colored sap, as black walnut (<i>Juglans nigra</i>) and +red gum (<i>Liquidamber styraciflua</i>). Longer periods of +steaming have been found to weaken the wood. There +is a great difference in the effect on different species, +however.</p> + +<p>Soaking wood for a long time before drying has been +practised, but experiments indicate that no particularly +beneficial results, from the drying standpoint, are attained +thereby. In fact, in some species containing sugars and +allied substances it is probably detrimental from the +shrinkage standpoint. If soaked in boiling water some +species shrink and warp more than if dried without this +treatment.</p> + +<p>In general, it may be said that, except possibly for +short-period steaming as described above, steaming and +soaking hardwoods at temperatures of 212 degrees Fahrenheit +or over should be avoided if possible.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is the old saying that wood put into water shortly +after it is felled, and left in water for a year or more, will +be perfectly seasoned after a short subsequent exposure +to the air. For this reason rivermen maintain that +timber is made better by rafting. Herzenstein says: +"Floating the timber down rivers helps to wash out the +sap, and hence must be considered as favorable to its +preservation, the more so as it enables it to absorb more +preservative."</p> + +<p>Wood which has been buried in swamps is eagerly +sought after by carpenters and joiners, because it has +lost all tendency to warp and twist. When first taken +from the swamp the long-immersed logs are very much +heavier than water, but they dry with great rapidity. +A cypress log from the Mississippi Delta, which two men +could barely handle at the time it was taken out some +years ago, has dried out so much since then that to-day +one man can lift it with ease. White cedar telegraph +poles are said to remain floating in the water of the Great +Lakes sometimes for several years before they are set in +lines and to last better than freshly cut poles.</p> + +<p>It is very probable that immersion for long periods in +water does materially hasten subsequent seasoning. The +tannins, resins, albuminous materials, etc., which are +deposited in the cell walls of the fibres of green wood, and +which prevent rapid evaporation of the water, undergo +changes when under water, probably due to the action of +bacteria which live without air, and in the course of time +many of these substances are leached out of the wood. +The cells thereby become more and more permeable to +water, and when the wood is finally brought into the air +the water escapes very rapidly and very evenly. Herzenstein's +statement that wood prepared by immersion +and subsequent drying will absorb more preservative, +and that with greater rapidity, is certainly borne out by +experience in the United States.</p> + +<p>It is sometimes claimed that all seasoning preparatory +to treatment with a substance like tar oil might be done +away with by putting the green wood into a cylinder with +the oil and heating to 225 degrees Fahrenheit, thus driving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +the water off in the form of steam, after which the tar oil +would readily penetrate into the wood. This is the basis +of the so-called "Curtiss process" of timber treatment. +Without going into any discussion of this method of +creosoting, it may be said that the same objection made +for steaming holds here. In order to get a temperature of +212 degrees Fahrenheit in the center of the treated wood, +the outside temperature would have to be raised so high +that the strength of the wood might be seriously injured.</p> + +<p>A company on the Pacific coast which treats red fir piling +asserts that it avoids this danger by leaving the green +timber in the tar oil at a temperature which never exceeds +225 degrees Fahrenheit for from five to twelve hours, until +there is no further evidence of water vapor coming out of +the wood. The tar oil is then run out, and a vacuum is +created for about an hour, after which the oil is run in +again and is kept in the cylinders under 100 pounds pressure +for from ten to twelve hours, until the required amount +of absorption has been reached (about 12 pounds per +cubic foot).</p> + + +<h4>Out-of-door Seasoning</h4> + +<p>The most effective seasoning is without doubt that +obtained by the uniform, slow drying which takes place +in properly constructed piles outdoors, under exposure +to the winds and the sun. Lumber has always been +seasoned in this way, which is still the best for ordinary +purposes.</p> + +<p>It is probable for the sake of economy, air-drying will +be eliminated in the drying process of the future without +loss to the quality of the product, but as yet no effective +method has been discovered whereby this may be accomplished, +because nature performs certain functions +in air-drying that cannot be duplicated by artificial means. +Because of this, hardwoods, as a rule, cannot be successfully +kiln-dried green or direct from the saw, and must +receive a certain amount of preliminary air-drying before +being placed in a dry kiln.</p> + +<p>The present methods of air-seasoning in use have been +determined by long experience, and are probably as good<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +as they could be made for present conditions. But the +same care has not up to this time been given to the seasoning +of such timber as ties, bridge material, posts, telegraph +and telephone poles, etc. These have sometimes been +piled more or less intelligently, but in the majority of +cases their value has been too low to make it seem worth +while to pile with reference to anything beyond convenience +in handling.</p> + +<p>In piling material for air-seasoning, one should utilize +high, dry ground when possible, and see that the foundations +are high enough off the ground, so that there is +proper air circulation through the bottom of the piles, +and also that the piles are far enough apart so that the +air may circulate freely through and around them.</p> + +<p>It is air circulation that is desired in all cases of drying, +both in dry kilns and out-of-doors, and not sunshine; that +is, not the sun shining directly upon the material. The +ends also should be protected from the sun, and everything +possible done to induce a free circulation of air, and +to keep the foundations free from all plant growth.</p> + +<p>Naturally, the heavier the material to be dried, the more +difficulty is experienced from checking, which has its most +active time in the spring when the sap is rising. In fact +the main period of danger in material checking comes +with the March winds and the April showers, and not +infrequently in the South it occurs earlier than that. In +other words, as soon as the sap begins to rise, the timber +shows signs of checking, and that is the time to take extra +precautions by careful piling and protection from the sun. +When the hot days of summer arrive the tendency to +check is not so bad, but stock will sour from the heat, +stain from the sap, mildew from moisture, and fall a prey +to wood-destroying insects.</p> + +<p>It has been proven in a general way that wood will +season more slowly in winter than in summer, and also +that the water content during various months varies. In +the spring the drying-out of wood cut in October and +November will take place more rapidly.</p> + + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_XI" id="SECTION_XI"></a>SECTION XI<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></h3> + +<h2 style="padding-bottom: 1em">KILN-DRYING OF WOOD</h2> + + +<h4>Advantages of Kiln-drying over Air-drying</h4> + +<p><span class="smcap">Some</span> of the advantages of kiln-drying to be secured +over air-drying in addition to reducing the shipping weight +and lessening quantity of stock are the following:</p> + +<ul><li>1. Less material lost.</li> + +<li>2. Better quality of product.</li> + +<li>3. Prevention of sap stain and mould.</li> + +<li>4. Fixation of gums and resins.</li> + +<li>5. Reduction of hygroscopicity.</li></ul> + + +<p>This reduction in the tendency to take up moisture +means a reduction in the "working" of the material which, +even though slight, is of importance.</p> + +<p>The problem of drying wood in the best manner divides +itself into two distinct parts, one of which is entirely concerned +with the behavior of the wood itself and the physical +phenomena involved, while the other part has to do +with the control of the drying process.</p> + + +<h4>Physical Conditions governing the Drying of Wood</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Wood is soft and plastic while hot and moist, and +becomes "set" in whatever shape it dries. Some +species are much more plastic than others.</p> + +<p>2. Wood substance begins to shrink only when it dries +below the fibre-saturation point, at which it contains +from 25 to 30 per cent moisture based on +its dry weight. Eucalyptus and certain other species +appear to be exceptions to this law.</p> + +<p>3. The shrinkage of wood is about twice as great circumferentially +as in the radial direction; lengthwise, +it is very slight.</p> + +<p>4. Wood shrinks most when subjected, while kept +moist, to slow drying at high temperatures.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> + +<p>5. Rapid drying produces less shrinkage than slow drying +at high temperatures, but is apt to cause case-hardening +and honeycombing, especially in dense +woods.</p> + +<p>6. Case-hardening, honeycombing, and cupping result +directly from conditions 1, 4, and 5, and chemical +changes of the outer surface.</p> + +<p>7. Brittleness is caused by carrying the drying process +too far, or by using too high temperatures. Safe +limits of treatment vary greatly for different species.</p> + +<p>8. Wood absorbs or loses moisture in proportion to the +relative humidity in the air, not according to the +temperature. This property is called its "hygroscopicity."</p> + +<p>9. Hygroscopicity and "working" are reduced but +not eliminated by thorough drying.</p> + +<p>10. Moisture tends to transfuse from the hot towards +the cold portion of the wood.</p> + +<p>11. Collapse of the cells may occur in some species +while the wood is hot and plastic. This collapse +is independent of subsequent shrinkage.</p></div> + + +<h4>Theory of Kiln-drying</h4> + +<p>The dry kiln has long since acquired particular appreciation +at the hands of those who have witnessed its +time-saving qualities, when practically applied to the drying +of timber. The science of drying is itself of the simplest, +the exposure to the air being, indeed, the only means +needed where the matter of time is not called into question. +Otherwise, where hours, even minutes, have a marked +significance, then other means must be introduced to +bring about the desired effect. In any event, however, +the same simple and natural remedy pertains,—the +absorption of moisture. This moisture in green timber +is known as "sap", which is itself composed of a number +of ingredients, most important among which are water, +resin, and albumen.</p> + +<p>All dry kilns in existence use heat to season timber;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +that is, to drive out that portion of the "sap" which is +volatile.</p> + +<p>The heat does not drive out the resin of the pines nor +the albumen of the hardwoods. It is really of no advantage +in this respect. Resin in its hardened state as +produced by heat is only slowly soluble in water and +contains a large proportion of carbon, the most stable +form of matter. Therefore, its retention in the pores of +the wood is a positive advantage.</p> + +<p>To produce the ideal effect the drying must commence +at the heart of the piece and work outward, the moisture +being removed from the surface as fast as it exudes from +the pores of the wood. To successfully accomplish this, +adjustments must be available to regulate the temperature, +circulation, and humidity according to the variations +of the atmospheric conditions, the kind and condition +of the material to be dried.</p> + +<p>This ideal effect is only attained by the use of a type +of dry kiln in which the surface of the lumber is kept soft, +the pores being left open until all the moisture within has +been volatilized by the heat and carried off by a free circulation +of air. When the moisture has been removed from +the pores, the surface is dried without closing the pores, +resulting in timber that is clean, soft, bright, straight, and +absolutely free from stains, checks, or other imperfections.</p> + +<p>Now, no matter how the method of drying may be +applied, it must be remembered that vapor exists in the +atmosphere at all times, its volume being regulated by +the capacity of the temperature absorbed. To kiln-dry +properly, a free current of air must be maintained, of +sufficient volume to carry off this moisture. Now, the +capacity of this air for drying depends entirely upon the +ability of its temperature to absorb or carry off a larger +proportion of moisture than that apportioned by natural +means. Thus, it will be seen, a cubic foot of air at 32 +degrees Fahrenheit is capable of absorbing only two grains +of water, while at 160 degrees, it will dispose of ninety +grains. The air, therefore, should be made as dry as +possible and caused to move freely, so as to remove all +moisture from the surface of the wood as soon as it appears.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +Thus the heat effects a double purpose, not only increasing +the rate of evaporation, but also the capacity of the +air for absorption. Where these means are applied, which +rely on the heat alone to accomplish this purpose, only that +of the moisture which is volatile succumbs, while the albumen +and resin becoming hardened under the treatment +close up the pores of the wood. This latter result is +oft-times accomplished while moisture yet remains and +which in an enforced effort to escape bursts open the cells +in which it has been confined and creates what is known +as "checks."</p> + +<p>Therefore, taking the above facts into consideration, +the essentials for the successful kiln-drying of wood may +be enumerated as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The evaporation from the surface of a stick should +not exceed the rate at which the moisture transfuses +from the interior to the surface.</p> + +<p>2. Drying should proceed uniformly at all points, +otherwise extra stresses are set up in the wood, +causing warping, etc.</p> + +<p>3. Heat should penetrate to the interior of the piece +before drying begins.</p> + +<p>4. The humidity should be suited to the condition +of the wood at the start and reduced in the proper +ratio as drying progresses. With wet or green +wood it should usually be held uniform at a degree +which will prevent the surface from drying below +its saturation point until all the free water has +evaporated, then gradually reduced to remove the +hygroscopic moisture.</p> + +<p>5. The temperature should be uniform and as high +as the species under treatment will stand without +excessive shrinkage, collapse, or checking.</p> + +<p>6. Rate of drying should be controlled by the amount +of humidity in the air and not by the rate of circulation, +which should be made ample at all times.</p> + +<p>7. In drying refractory hardwoods, such as oak, best +results are obtained at a comparatively low temperature.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +In more easily dried hardwoods, such as +maple, and some of the more difficult softwoods, +as cypress, the process may be hastened by a higher +temperature but not above the boiling point. In +many of the softwoods, the rate of drying may be +very greatly increased by heating above the boiling +point with a large circulation of vapor at atmospheric +pressure.</p> + +<p>8. Unequal shrinkage between the exterior and interior +portions of the wood and also unequal chemical +changes must be guarded against by temperatures +and humidities suited to the species in question +to prevent subsequent cupping and warping.</p> + +<p>9. The degree of dryness attained should conform +to the use to which the wood is put.</p> + +<p>10. Proper piling of the material and weighting to prevent +warping are of great importance.</p></div> + + +<h4>Requirements in a Satisfactory Dry Kiln</h4> + +<p>The requirements in a satisfactory dry kiln are:</p> + +<ul><li>1. Control of humidity at all times.</li> + +<li>2. Ample air circulation at all points.</li> + +<li>3. Uniform and proper temperatures.</li></ul> + + +<p>In order to meet these requirements the United States +Forestry Service has designed a kiln in which the humidity, +temperature, and circulation can be controlled at all times.</p> + +<p>Briefly, it consists of a drying chamber with a partition +on either side, making two narrow side chambers open +top and bottom.</p> + +<p>The steam pipes are in the usual position underneath +the material to be dried.</p> + +<p>At the top of the side chambers is a spray; at the bottom +are gutters and an eliminator or set of baffle plates to +separate the fine mist from the air.</p> + +<p>The spray accomplishes two things: It induces an increased +circulation and it regulates the humidity. This is +done by regulating the temperature of the spray water.</p> + +<p>The air under the heating coil is saturated at whatever<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +temperature is required. This temperature is the dew +point of the air after it passes up into the drying chamber +above the coils. Knowing the temperature in the drying +room and the dew point, the relative humidity is thus +determined.</p> + +<p>The relative humidity is simply the ratio of the vapor +pressure at the dew point to the pressure of saturated +vapor (see <a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_30" id="Fig_30"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig30.jpg" width="500" height="457" alt="Section through United States Forestry Service Humidity-controlled +Dry Kiln" title="Section through United States Forestry Service Humidity-controlled +Dry Kiln" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 30. Section through United States Forestry Service Humidity-controlled +Dry Kiln.</p> +</div> + + +<h4>Theory and Description of the Forestry Service Kiln</h4> + +<p>The humidities and temperatures in the piles of lumber +are largely dependent upon the circulation of air within +the kiln. The temperature and humidity within the kiln, +taken alone, are no criterion of the conditions of drying +the pile of lumber if the circulation in any portion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +is deficient. It is possible to have an extremely rapid circulation +of air within the dry kiln itself and yet have +stagnation within the individual piles, the air passing +chiefly through open spaces and channels. Wherever +stagnation exists or the movement of air is too sluggish +the temperature will drop and the humidity increase, +perhaps to the point of saturation.</p> + +<p>When in large kilns the forced circulation is in the opposite +direction from that induced by the cooling of the +air by the lumber, there is always more or less uncertainty +as to the movement of the air through the piles. Even +with the boards placed edge-wise, with stickers running +vertically, and with the heating pipes beneath the lumber, +it was found that although the air passed upward through +most of the spaces it was actually descending through +others, so that very unequal drying resulted. While +edge piling would at first thought seem ideal for the freest +circulation in an ordinary kiln with steam pipes below, it +in fact produces an indeterminate condition; air columns +may pass downward through some channels as well as upward +through others, and probably stagnate in still others. +Nevertheless, edge piling is greatly superior to flat piling +where the heating system is below the lumber.</p> + +<p>From experiments and from study of conditions in +commercial kilns the idea was developed of so arranging +the parts of the kiln and the pile of lumber that advantage +might be taken of this cooling of the air to assist the circulation. +That this can be readily accomplished without +doing away with the present features of regulation of +humidity by means of a spray of water is clear from <a href="#Fig_30">Fig. +30</a>, which shows a cross-section of the improved humidity-regulated +dry kiln.</p> + +<p>In the form shown in the sketch a chamber or flue B +runs through the center near the bottom. This flue is +only about 6 or 7 feet in height and, together with the +water spray F and the baffle plates DD, constitutes the +humidity-control feature of the kiln. This control of +humidity is affected by the temperature of the water +used in the spray. This spray completely saturates the +air in the flue B at whatever predetermined temperature<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +is required. The baffle plates DD are to separate all +entrained particles of water from the air, so that it is delivered +to the heaters in a saturated condition at the required +temperature. This temperature is, therefore, the +dew point of the air when heated above, and the method +of humidity control may therefore be called the dew-point +method. It is a very simple matter by means of the humidity +diagram (see <a href="#Fig_93">Fig. 93</a>), or by a hygrodeik (<a href="#Fig_94">Fig. 94</a>), +to determine what dew-point temperature is needed for +any desired humidity above the heaters.</p> + +<p>Besides regulating the humidity the spray F also acts as +an ejector and forces circulation of air through the flue B. +The heating system H is concentrated near the outer +walls, so as to heat the rising column of air. The temperature +within the drying chamber is controlled by means +of any suitable thermostat, actuating a valve on the main +steam line. The lumber is piled in such a way that the +stickers slope downward toward the sides of the kiln.</p> + +<p>M is an auxiliary steam spray pointing downward for +use at very high temperatures. C is a gutter to catch +the precipitation and conduct it back to the pump, the +water being recirculated through the sprays. G is a pipe +condenser for use toward the end of the drying operation. +K is a baffle plate for diverting the heated air and at the +same time shielding the under layers of boards from direct +radiation of the steam pipes.</p> + +<p>The operation of the kiln is simple. The heated air +rises above the pipes HH and between the piles of lumber. +As it comes in contact with the piles, portions of it are +cooled and pass downward and outward through the layers +of boards into the space between the condensers GG. +Here the column of cooled air descends into the spray flue +B, where its velocity is increased by the force of the water +spray. It then passes out from the baffle plates to the +heaters and repeats the cycle.</p> + +<p>One of the greatest advantages of this natural circulation +method is that the colder the lumber when placed in +the kiln the greater is the movement produced, under the +very conditions which call for the greatest circulation—just +the opposite of the direct-circulation method. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +is a feature of the greatest importance in winter, when the +lumber is put into the kiln in a frozen condition. One +truckload of lumber at 60 per cent moisture may easily +contain over 7,000 pounds of ice.</p> + +<p>In the matter of circulation the kiln is, in fact, seldom +regulatory—the colder the lumber the greater the circulation +produced, with the effect increased toward the cooler +and wetter portions of the pile.</p> + +<p>Preliminary steaming may be used in connection with +this kiln, but experiments indicate that ordinarily it is +not desirable, since the high humidity which can be secured +gives as good results, and being at as low a temperature +as desired, much better results in the case of certain difficult +woods like oak, eucalyptus, etc., are obtained.</p> + +<p>This kiln has another advantage in that its operation +is entirely independent of outdoor atmospheric conditions, +except that barometric pressure will effect it slightly.</p> + + +<h4>KILN-DRYING</h4> + +<h4>Remarks</h4> + +<p>Drying is an essential part of the preparation of wood +for manufacture. For a long time the only drying process +used or known was air-drying, or the exposure of wood to +the gradual drying influences of the open air, and is what +has now been termed "preliminary seasoning." This +method is without doubt the most successful and effective +seasoning, because nature performs certain functions in +air-drying that cannot be duplicated by artificial means. +Because of this, hardwoods, as a rule, cannot be successfully +kiln-dried green or direct from the saw.</p> + +<p>Within recent years, considerable interest is awakening +among wood users in the operation of kiln-drying. +The losses occasioned in air-drying and in improper kiln-drying, +and the necessity for getting material dry as +quickly as possible from the saw, for shipping purposes +and also for manufacturing, are bringing about a realization +of the importance of a technical knowledge of the +subject.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span></p> + +<p>The losses which occur in air-drying wood, through +checking, warping, staining, and rotting, are often greater +than one would suppose. While correct statistics of this +nature are difficult to obtain, some idea may be had of +the amount of degrading of the better class of lumber. +In the case of one species of soft wood, Western larch, it +is commonly admitted that the best grades fall off sixty +to seventy per cent in air-drying, and it is probable that +the same is true in the case of Southern swamp oaks. In +Western yellow pine, the loss is great, and in the Southern +red gum, it is probably as much as thirty per cent. It +may be said that in all species there is some loss in air-drying, +but in some easily dried species such as spruce, +hemlock, maple, etc., it is not so great.</p> + +<p>It would hardly be correct to state at the present time +that this loss could be entirely prevented by proper methods +of kiln-drying the green lumber, but it is safe to say that +it can be greatly reduced.</p> + +<p>It is well where stock is kiln-dried direct from the saw +or knife, after having first been steamed or boiled—as +in the case of veneers, etc.,—to get them into the kiln +while they are still warm, as they are then in good condition +for kiln-drying, as the fibres of the wood are soft +and the pores well opened, which will allow of forcing +the evaporation of moisture without much damage being +done to the material.</p> + +<p>With softwoods it is a common practice to kiln-dry +direct from the saw. This procedure, however, is ill +adapted for the hardwoods, in which it would produce +such warping and checking as would greatly reduce the +value of the product. Therefore, hardwoods, as a rule, +are more or less thoroughly air-dried before being placed +in the dry kiln, where the residue of moisture may be +reduced to within three or four per cent, which is much +lower than is possible by air-drying only.</p> + +<p>It is probable that for the sake of economy, air-drying +will be eliminated in the drying processes of the future without +loss to the quality of the product, but as yet no method +has been discovered whereby this may be accomplished.</p> + +<p>The dry kiln has been, and probably still is, one of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +most troublesome factors arising from the development +of the timber industry. In the earlier days, before power +machinery for the working-up of timber products came +into general use, dry kilns were unheard-of, air-drying +or seasoning was then relied upon solely to furnish the +craftsman with dry stock from which to manufacture his +product. Even after machinery had made rapid and +startling strides on its way to perfection, the dry kiln remained +practically an unknown quantity, but gradually, +as the industry developed and demand for dry material +increased, the necessity for some more rapid and positive +method of seasoning became apparent, and the subject of +artificial drying began to receive the serious attention of +the more progressive and energetic members of the craft.</p> + +<p>Kiln-drying which is an artificial method, originated +in the effort to improve or shorten the process, by subjecting +the wood to a high temperature or to a draught of +heated air in a confined space or kiln. In so doing, time +is saved and a certain degree of control over the drying +operation is secured.</p> + +<p>The first efforts in the way of artificial drying were confined +to aiding or hastening nature in the seasoning process +by exposing the material to the direct heat from fires built +in pits, over which the lumber was piled in a way to expose +it to the heat rays of the fires below. This, of course, +was a primitive, hazardous, and very unsatisfactory +method, to say the least, but it marked the first step in +the evolution of the present-day dry kiln, and in that +particular only is it deserving of mention.</p> + + +<h4>Underlying Principles</h4> + +<p>In addition to marking the first step in artificial drying, +it illustrated also, in the simplest manner possible, the +three underlying principles governing all drying problems: +(1) The application of heat to evaporate or volatilize the +water contained in the material; (2) with sufficient air +in circulation to carry away in suspension the vapor thus +liberated; and (3) with a certain amount of humidity +present to prevent the surface from drying too rapidly +while the heat is allowed to penetrate to the interior. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +last performs two distinct functions: (a) It makes the +wood more permeable to the passage of the moisture +from the interior of the wood to the surface, and (b) it +supplies the latent heat necessary to evaporate the moisture +after it reaches the surface. The air circulation +is important in removing the moisture after it has +been evaporated by the heat, and ventilation also +serves the purpose of bringing the heat in contact with +the wood. If, however, plain, dry heat is applied to the +wood, the surface will become entirely dry before the interior +moisture is even heated, let alone removed. This +condition causes "case-hardening" or "hollow-horning." +So it is very essential that sufficient humidity be maintained +to prevent the surface from drying too rapidly, +while the heat is allowed to penetrate to the interior.</p> + +<p>This humidity or moisture is originated by the evaporation +from the drying wood, or by the admission of steam +into the dry kiln by the use of steam spray pipes, and is +absolutely necessary in the process of hastening the drying +of wood. With green lumber it keeps the sap near +the surface of the piece in a condition that allows the +escape of the moisture from its interior; or, in other words, +it prevents the outside from drying first, which would +close the pores and cause case-hardening.</p> + +<p>The great amount of latent heat necessary to evaporate +the water after it has reached the surface is shown by the +fact that the evaporation of only one pound of water will +extract approximately 66 degrees from 1,000 cubic feet +of air, allowing the air to drop in temperature from 154 to +84 degrees Fahrenheit. In addition to this amount of heat, +the wood and the water must also be raised to the temperature +at which the drying is to be accomplished.</p> + +<p>It matters not what type of dry kiln is used, source or +application of heating medium, these underlying principles +remain the same, and must be the first things considered +in the design or selection of the equipment necessary for +producing the three essentials of drying: Heat, humidity, +and circulation.</p> + +<p>Although these principles constitute the basis of all +drying problems and must, therefore, be continually<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +carried in mind in the consideration of them, it is equally +necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of the +characteristics of the materials to be dried, and its action +during the drying process. All failures in the past, in +the drying of timber products, can be directly attributed +to either the kiln designer's neglect of these things, or his +failure to carry them fully in mind in the consideration +of his problems.</p> + +<p>Wood has characteristics very much different from those +of other materials, and what little knowledge we have +of it and its properties has been taken from the accumulated +records of experience. The reason for this imperfect +knowledge lies in the fact that wood is not a homogeneous +material like the metals, but a complicated structure, and +so variable that one stick will behave in a manner widely +different from that of another, although it may have been +cut from the same tree.</p> + +<p>The great variety of woods often makes the mere distinction +of the kind or species of the tree most difficult. +It is not uncommon to find men of long experience disagree +as to the kind of tree a certain piece of lumber was +cut from, and, in some cases, there is even a wide difference +in the appearance and evidently the structure of +timber cut from the same tree.</p> + + +<h4>Objects of Kiln-drying</h4> + +<p>The objects of kiln-drying wood may be placed under +three main headings: (1) To reduce shipping expenses; +(2) to reduce the quantity necessary to maintain in stock; +and (3) to reduce losses in air-drying and to properly +prepare the wood for subsequent use. Item number 2 +naturally follows as a consequence of either 1 or 3. The +reduction in weight on account of shipping expenses is +of greatest significance with the Northwestern lumbermen +in the case of Douglas fir, redwood, Western red cedar, +sugar pine, bull pine, and other softwoods.</p> + +<p>Very rapid methods of rough drying are possible with +some of these species, and are in use. High temperatures +are used, and the water is sometimes boiled off from the +wood by heating above 212 degrees Fahrenheit. These<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +high-temperature methods will not apply to the majority +of hardwoods, however, nor to many of the softwoods.</p> + +<p>It must first of all be recognized that the drying of +lumber is a totally different operation from the drying +of a fabric or of thin material. In the latter, it is largely +a matter of evaporated moisture, but wood is not only +hygroscopic and attracts moisture from the air, but its +physical behavior is very complex and renders the extraction +of moisture a very complicated process.</p> + +<p>An idea of its complexity may be had by mentioning some +of the conditions which must be contended with. Shrinkage +is, perhaps, the most important. This is unequal +in different directions, being twice as great tangentially +as radially and fifty times as great radially as longitudinally. +Moreover, shrinkage is often unequal in different +portions of the same piece. The slowness of the transfusion +of moisture through the wood is an important factor. This +varies with different woods and greatly in different directions. +Wood becomes soft and plastic when hot and moist, +and will yield more or less to internal stresses. As some +species are practically impervious to air when wet, this +plasticity of the cell walls causes them to collapse as the +water passes outward from the cell cavities. This difficulty +has given much trouble in the case of Western red +cedar, and also to some extent in redwood. The unequal +shrinkage causes internal stresses in the wood as it dries, +which results in warping, checking, case-hardening, and +honeycombing. Case-hardening is one of the most common +defects in improperly dried lumber. It is clearly +shown by the cupping of the two halves when a case-hardened +board is resawed. Chemical changes also occur +in the wood in drying, especially so at higher temperatures, +rendering it less hygroscopic, but more brittle. If dried +too much or at too high a temperature, the strength and +toughness is seriously reduced.</p> + + +<h4>Conditions of Success</h4> + +<p>Commercial success in drying therefore requires that +the substance be exposed to the air in the most efficient +manner; that the temperature of the air be as high as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +substance will stand without injury, and that the air change +or movement be as rapid as is consistent with economical +installation and operation. Conditions of success therefore +require the observance of the following points, which +embody the basic principles of the process: (1) The +timber should be heated through before drying begins. +(2) The air should be very humid at the beginning of the +drying process, and be made drier only gradually. (3) The +temperature of the lumber must be maintained uniformly +throughout the entire pile. (4) Control of the drying +process at any given temperature must be secured by +controlling the relative humidity, not by decreasing the +circulation. (5) In general, high temperatures permit +more rapid drying than do lower temperatures. The +higher the temperature of the lumber, the more efficient +is the kiln. It is believed that temperatures as high as +the boiling point are not injurious to most woods, providing +all other fundamentally important features are +taken care of. Some species, however, are not able to +stand as high temperatures as others, and (6) the degree +of dryness attained, where strength is the prime requisite, +should not exceed that at which the wood is to be used.</p> + + +<h4>Different Treatment according to Kind</h4> + +<p>The rapidity with which water may be evaporated, that +is, the rate of drying, depends on the size and shape of +the piece and on the structure of the wood. Thin stock +can be dried much faster than thick, under the same conditions +of temperature, circulation, and humidity. Pine +can be dried, as a general thing, in about one third of the +time that would be required for oak of the same thickness, +although the former contains the more water of the two. +Quarter-sawn oak usually requires half again as long as +plain oak. Mahogany requires about the same time as +plain oak; ash dries in a little less time, and maple, according +to the purpose for which it is intended, may be dried +in one fifth the time needed for oak, or may require a +slightly longer treatment. For birch, the time required +is from one half to two thirds, and for poplar and basswood, +from, one fifth to one third that required for oak.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p> + +<p>All kinds and thicknesses of lumber cannot be dried at +the same time in the same kiln. It is manifest that green +and air-dried lumber, dense and porous lumber, all require +different treatment. For instance, Southern yellow +pine when cut green from the log will stand a very high +temperature, say 200 degrees Fahrenheit, and in fact this +high temperature is necessary together with a rapid circulation +of air in order to neutralize the acidity of the pitch +which causes the wood to blue and discolor. This lumber +requires to be heated up immediately and to be kept hot +throughout the length of the kiln. Hence the kiln must +not be of such length as to allow of the air being too much +cooled before escaping.</p> + + +<h4>Temperature depends</h4> + +<p>While it is true that a higher temperature can be carried +in the kiln for drying pine and similar woods, this does +not altogether account for the great difference in drying +time, as experience has taught us that even when both +woods are dried in the same kiln, under the same conditions, +pine will still dry much faster, proving thereby that +the structure of the wood itself affects drying.</p> + +<p>The aim of all kiln designers should be to dry in the +shortest possible time, without injury to the material. Experience +has demonstrated that high temperatures are very +effective in evaporating water, regardless of the degree of +humidity, but great care must be exercised in using extreme +temperatures that the material to be dried is not +damaged by checking, case-hardening, or hollow-horning.</p> + +<p>The temperature used should depend upon the species +and condition of the material when entering the kiln. In +general, it is advantageous to have as high a temperature +as possible, both for economy of operation and speed of +drying, but the physical properties of the wood will govern +this.</p> + +<p>Many species cannot be dried satisfactorily at high +temperatures on account of their peculiar behavior. This +is particularly so with green lumber.</p> + +<p>Air-dried wood will stand a relatively higher temperature, +as a rule, than wet or green wood. In drying green<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +wood direct from the saw, it is usually best to start with +a comparatively low temperature, and not raise the temperature +until the wood is nearly dry. For example, +green maple containing about 60 per cent of its dry weight +in water should be started at about 120 degrees Fahrenheit +and when it reaches a dryness of 25 per cent, the temperature +may be raised gradually up to 190 degrees.</p> + +<p>It is exceedingly important that the material be practically +at the same temperature throughout if perfect +drying is to be secured. It should be the same temperature +in the center of a pile or car as on the outside, and +the same in the center of each individual piece of wood +as on its surface. This is the effect obtained by natural +air-drying. The outside atmosphere and breezes (natural +air circulation) are so ample that the heat extracted for +drying does not appreciably change the temperature.</p> + +<p>When once the wood has been raised to a high temperature +through and through and especially when the +surface has been rendered most permeable to moisture, +drying may proceed as rapidly as it can be forced by artificial +circulation, provided the heat lost from the wood +through vaporization is constantly replaced by the heat +of the kiln.</p> + +<p>It is evident that to secure an even temperature, a free +circulation of air must be brought in contact with the +wood. It is also evident that in addition to heat and a +circulation of air, the air must be charged with a certain +amount of moisture to prevent surface drying or case-hardening.</p> + +<p>There are some twenty-five different makes of dry kilns +on the market, which fulfill to a varying degree the fundamental +requirements. Probably none of them succeed +perfectly in fulfilling all.</p> + +<p>It is well to have the temperature of a dry kiln controlled +by a thermostat which actuates the valve on the +main steam supply pipe. It is doubly important to maintain +a uniform temperature and avoid fluctuations in +the dry kiln, since a change in temperature will greatly +alter the relative humidity.</p> + +<p>In artificial drying, temperatures of from 150 to 180 degrees<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +Fahrenheit are usually employed. Pine, spruce, +cypress, cedar, etc., are dried fresh from the saw, allowing +four days for 1-inch stuff. Hardwoods, especially oak, ash, +maple, birch, sycamore, etc., are usually air-seasoned for +three to six months to allow the first shrinkage to take place +more gradually, and are then exposed to the above temperatures +in the kiln for about six to ten days for 1-inch +stuff, other dimensions in proportion.</p> + +<p>Freshly cut poplar and cottonwood are often dried +direct from the saw in a kiln. By employing lower temperatures, +100 to 120 degrees Fahrenheit, green oak, ash, +etc., can be seasoned in dry kilns without much injury to +the material.</p> + +<p>Steaming and sweating the wood is sometimes resorted +to in order to prevent checking and case-hardening, but +not, as has been frequently asserted, to enable the material +to dry.</p> + + +<h4>Air Circulation</h4> + +<p>Air circulation is of the utmost importance, since no +drying whatever can take place when it is lacking. The +evaporation of moisture requires heat and this must be +supplied by the circulating air. Moreover, the moisture +laden air must be constantly removed and fresh, drier air +substituted. Probably this is the factor which gives +more trouble in commercial operations than anything +else, and the one which causes the greatest number of +failures.</p> + +<p>It is necessary that the air circulate through every +part of the kiln and that the moving air come in contact +with every portion of the material to be dried. In fact, +the humidity is dependent upon the circulation. If the +air stagnates in any portion of the pile, then the temperature +will drop and the humidity rise to a condition of +saturation. Drying will not take place at this portion +of the pile and the material is apt to mould and rot.</p> + +<p>The method of piling the material on trucks or in the +kiln, is therefore, of extreme importance. Various methods +are in use. Ordinary flat piling is probably the poorest. +Flat piling with open chimney spaces in the piles is better.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +But neither method is suitable for a kiln in which the +circulation is mainly vertical.</p> + +<p>Edge piling with stickers running vertically is in use +in kilns when the heating coils are beneath. This is much +better.</p> + +<p>Air being cooled as it comes in contact with a pile of +material, becomes denser, and consequently tends to sink. +Unless the material to be dried is so arranged that the +air can pass gradually downward through the pile as it +cools, poor circulation is apt to result.</p> + +<p>In edge-piled lumber, with the heating system beneath +the piles, the natural tendency of the cooled air to descend +is opposed by the hot air beneath which tends to rise. +An indeterminate condition is thus brought about, resulting +in non-uniform drying. It has been found that +air will rise through some layers and descend through +others.</p> + + +<h4>Humidity</h4> + +<p>Humidity is of prime importance because the rate of +drying and prevention of checking and case-hardening +are largely dependent thereon. It is generally true that +the surface of the wood should not dry more rapidly than +the moisture transfuses from the center of the piece to +its surface, otherwise disaster will result. As a sufficient +amount of moisture is removed from the wood to maintain +the desired humidity, it is not good economy to +generate moisture in an outside apparatus and force it +into a kiln, unless the moisture in the wood is not sufficient +for this purpose; in that case provision should be made +for adding any additional moisture that may be required.</p> + +<p>The rate of evaporation may best be controlled by +controlling the amount of vapor present in the air (relative +humidity); it should not be controlled by reducing the +air circulation, since a large circulation is needed at all +times to supply the necessary heat.</p> + +<p>The humidity should be graded from 100 per cent at +the receiving end of the kiln, to whatever humidity corresponds +with the desired degree of dryness at the delivery +end.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p> + +<p>The kiln should be so designed that the proper degree +may be maintained at its every section.</p> + +<p>A fresh piece of sapwood will lose weight in boiling +water and can also be dried to quite an extent in steam. +This proves conclusively that a high degree of humidity +does not have the detrimental effect on drying that is +commonly attributed to it. In fact, a proper degree of +humidity, especially in the loading or receiving end of a +kiln, is just as necessary to good results in drying as +getting the proper temperature.</p> + +<p>Experiments have demonstrated also that injury to +stock in the way of checking, warping, and hollow-horning +always develops immediately after the stock is taken into +the kiln, and is due to the degree of humidity being too +low. The receiving end of the kiln should always be +kept moist, where the stock has not been steamed before +being put into the kiln. The reason for this is simple +enough. When the air is too dry it tends to dry the outside +of the material first—which is termed "case-hardening"—and +in so doing shrinks and closes up the pores +of the wood. As the stock is moved down the kiln, it +absorbs a continually increasing amount of heat, which +tends to drive off the moisture still present in the center +of the stock. The pores on the outside having been closed +up, there is no exit for the vapor or steam that is being +rapidly formed in the center. It must find its way out +some way, and in doing so sets up strains, which result +either in checking, warping, or hollow-horning. If the +humidity had been kept higher, the outside of the material +would not have dried so quickly, and the pores would +have remained open for the exit of moisture from the interior +of the wood, and this trouble would have been +avoided.</p> + +<p>Where the humidity is kept at a high point in the receiving +end of the kiln, a higher rate of temperature may +also be carried, and in that way the drying process is +hastened with comparative safety.</p> + +<p>It is essential, therefore, to have an ample supply of +heat through the convection currents of the air; but in +the case of wood the rate of evaporation must be controlled,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +else checking will occur. This can be done by +means of the relative humidity, as stated before. It is +clear now that when the air—or, more properly speaking, +the space—is completely saturated no evaporation +can take place at the given temperature. By reducing +the humidity, evaporation takes place more and more +rapidly.</p> + +<p>Another bad feature of an insufficient and non-uniform +supply of heat is that each piece of wood will be heated to +the evaporating point on the outer surface, the inside +remaining cool until considerable drying has taken place +from the surface. Ordinarily in dry kilns high humidity +and large circulation of air are antitheses to one another. +To obtain the high humidity the circulation is either +stopped altogether or greatly reduced, and to reduce the +humidity a greater circulation is induced by opening the +ventilators or otherwise increasing the draft. This is +evidently not good practice, but as a rule is unavoidable +in most dry kilns of present make. The humidity should +be raised to check evaporation without reducing the +circulation if possible.</p> + +<p>While thin stock, such as cooperage and box stuff is +less inclined to give trouble by undue checking than 1-inch +and thicker, one will find that any dry kiln will give more +uniform results and, at the same time, be more economical +in the use of steam, when the humidity and temperature +is carried at as high a point as possible without injury to +the material to be dried.</p> + +<p>Any well-made dry kiln which will fulfill the conditions +required as to circulation and humidity control should work +satisfactorily; but each case must be studied by itself, +and the various factors modified to suit the peculiar conditions +of the problem in hand. In every new case the +material should be constantly watched and studied and, +if checking begins, the humidity should be increased until +it stops. It is not reducing the circulation, but adding +the necessary moisture to the air, that should be depended +on to prevent checking. For this purpose it is well to +have steam jets in the kiln so that if needed they are ready +at hand.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>Kiln-drying</h4> + +<p>There are two distinct ways of handling material in +dry kilns. One way is to place the load of lumber in a +chamber where it remains in the same place throughout +the operation, while the conditions of the drying medium +are varied as the drying progresses. This is the "apartment" +kiln or stationary method. The other is to run +the lumber in at one end of the chamber on a wheeled +truck and gradually move it along until the drying process +is completed, when it is taken out at the opposite end of +the kiln. It is the usual custom in these kilns to maintain +one end of the chamber moist and the other end +dry. This is known as the "progressive" type of kiln, +and is the one most commonly used in large operations.</p> + +<p>It is, however, the least satisfactory of the two where +careful drying is required, since the conditions cannot +be so well regulated and the temperatures and humidities +are apt to change with any change of wind. The apartment +method can be arranged so that it will not require any +more kiln space or any more handling of lumber than the +progressive type. It does, however, require more intelligent +operation, since the conditions in the drying +chamber must be changed as the drying progresses. With +the progressive type the conditions, once properly established, +remain the same.</p> + +<p>To obtain draft or circulation three methods are in use—by +forced draft or a blower usually placed outside the kiln, +by ventilation, and by internal circulation and condensation. +A great many patents have been taken out on +different methods of ventilation, but in actual operation +few kilns work exactly as intended. Frequently the air +moves in the reverse direction for which the ventilators +were planned. Sometimes a condenser is used in connection +with the blower and the air is recirculated. It is +also—and more satisfactorily—used with the gentle +internal-gravity currents of air.</p> + +<p>Many patents have been taken out for heating systems. +The differences among these, however, have more to do +the mechanical construction than with the process<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +of drying. In general, the heating is either direct or indirect. +In the former steam coils are placed in the chamber +with the lumber, and in the latter the air is heated by +either steam coils or a furnace before it is introduced into +the drying chamber.</p> + +<p>Moisture is sometimes supplied by means of free +steam jets in the kiln or in the entering air; but more +often the moisture evaporated from the lumber is relied +upon to maintain the humidity necessary.</p> + +<p>A substance becomes dry by the evaporation of its +inherent moisture into the surrounding space. If this +space be confined it soon becomes saturated and the process +stops. Hence, constant change is necessary in order +that the moisture given off may be continually carried +away.</p> + +<p>In practice, air movement, is therefore absolutely essential +to the process of drying. Heat is merely a useful +accessory which serves to decrease the time of drying +by increasing both the rate of evaporation and the absorbing +power of the surrounding space.</p> + +<p>It makes no difference whether this space is a vacuum +or filled with air; under either condition it will take up +a stated weight of vapor. From this it appears that the +vapor molecules find sufficient space between the molecules +of air. But the converse is not true, for somewhat less +air will be contained in a given space saturated with vapor +than in one devoid of moisture. In other words the air +does not seem to find sufficient space between the molecules +of vapor.</p> + +<p>If the temperature of the confined space be increased, +opportunity will thereby be provided for the vaporization +of more water, but if it be decreased, its capacity for +moisture will be reduced and visible water will be deposited. +The temperature at which this takes place is +known as the "dew-point" and depends upon the initial +degree of saturation of the given space; the less the relative +saturation the lower the dew-point.</p> + +<p>Careful piling of the material to be dried, both in the +yard and dry kiln, is essential to good results in drying.</p> + +<p>Air-dried material is not dry, and its moisture is too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +unevenly distributed to insure good behavior after manufacture.</p> + +<p>It is quite a difficult matter to give specific or absolute +correct weights of any species of timber when thoroughly +or properly dried, in order that one may be guided in +these kiln operations, as a great deal depends upon the +species of wood to be dried, its density, and upon the +thickness which it has been cut, and its condition when +entering the drying chamber.</p> + +<p>Elm will naturally weigh less than beech, and where +the wood is close-grained or compact it will weigh more +than coarse-grained wood of the same species, and, therefore, +no set rules can be laid down, as good judgment +only should be used, as the quality of the drying is not +purely one of time. Sometimes the comparatively slow +process gives excellent results, while to rush a lot of stock +through the kiln may be to turn it out so poorly seasoned +that it will not give satisfaction when worked into the +finished product. The mistreatment of the material in +this respect results in numerous defects, chief among which +are warping and twisting, checking, case-hardening, and +honeycombing, or, as sometimes called, hollow-horning.</p> + +<p>Since the proportion of sap and heartwood varies with +size, age, species, and individual trees, the following figures +as regards weight must be regarded as mere approximations:</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Pounds of Water Lost in Drying 100 Pounds of Green Wood +in the Kiln</span></p> + +<table summary="pounds of water lost in drying" cellpadding="2" class="kilnwood"> +<tr><td style="border-bottom: solid black 1px"> </td><td class="centered">Sapwood or<br /> outer part</td><td class="centered">Heartwood<br /> or interior</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry">(1) Pine, cedar, spruce, and fir</td><td class="centered2">45-65</td><td class="centered2">6-25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry">(2) Cypress, extremely variable</td><td class="centered2">50-65</td><td class="centered2">18-60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry">(3) Poplar, cottonwood, and basswood</td><td class="centered2">60-65</td><td class="centered2">40-60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tableentry">(4) Oak, beech, ash, maple, birch, elm, hickory, +chestnut, walnut, and sycamore</td><td class="centered2" style="vertical-align: bottom">40-50</td><td class="centered2" style="vertical-align: bottom">30-40</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The lighter kinds have the most water in the sapwood; +thus sycamore has more water than hickory, etc.</p> + +<p>The efficiency of the drying operations depends a great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +deal upon the way in which, the lumber is piled, especially +when the humidity is not regulated. From the theory +of drying it is evident that the rate of evaporation in dry +kilns where the humidity is not regulated depends entirely +upon the rate of circulation, other things being equal. +Consequently, those portions of the wood which receive +the greatest amount of air dry the most rapidly, and +vice versa. The only way, therefore, in which anything +like uniform drying can take place is where the lumber is +so piled that each portion of it comes in contact with the +same amount of air.</p> + +<p>In the Forestry Service kiln (<a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a>), where the degree of +relative humidity is used to control the rate of drying, +the amount of circulation makes little difference, provided +it exceeds a certain amount. It is desirable to pile +the lumber so as to offer as little frictional resistance as +possible and at the same time secure uniform circulation. +If circulation is excessive in any place it simply means +waste of energy but no other injury to the lumber.</p> + +<p>The best method of piling is one which permits the +heated air to pass through the pile in a somewhat downward +direction. The natural tendency of the cooled air +to descend is thus taken advantage of in assisting the +circulation in the kiln. This is especially important when +cold or green lumber is first introduced into the kiln. +But even when the lumber has become warmed the cooling +due to the evaporation increases the density of the +mixture of the air and vapor.</p> + + +<h4>Kiln-drying Gum</h4> + +<p>The following article was published by the United +States Forestry Service as to the best method of kiln-drying +gum:</p> + +<p><b>Piling.</b>—Perhaps the most important factor in good kiln-drying, +especially in the case of the gums, is the method of +piling. It is our opinion that proper and very careful piling +will greatly reduce the loss due to warping. A good method +of piling is to place the lumber lengthwise of the kiln and +on an incline cross-wise. The warm air should rise at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +the higher side of the pile and descend between the courses +of lumber. The reason for this is very simple and the +principle has been applied in the manufacture of the best +ice boxes for some time. The most efficient refrigerators +are iced at the side, the ice compartment opening to the +cooling chamber at the top and bottom. The warm air +from above is cooled by melting the ice. It then becomes +denser and settles down into the main chamber. The +articles in the cooling room warm the air as they cool, so +it rises to the top and again comes in contact with the +ice, thus completing the cycle. The rate of this natural +circulation is automatically regulated by the temperature +of the articles in the cooling chamber and by the amount +of ice in the icing compartment; hence the efficiency of +such a box is high.</p> + +<p>Now let us apply this principle to the drying of lumber. +First we must understand that as long as the lumber is +moist and drying, it will always be cooler than the surrounding +air, the amount of this difference being determined +by the rate of drying and the moisture in the wood. As +the lumber dries, its temperature gradually rises until it +is equal to that of the air, when perfect dryness results. +With this fact in mind it is clear that the function of the +lumber in a kiln is exactly analogous to that of the ice in +an ice box; that is, it is the cooling agent. Similarly, +the heating pipes in a dry kiln bring about the same effect +as the articles of food in the ice box in that they serve to +heat the air. Therefore, the air will be cooled by the +lumber, causing it to pass downward through the piles. +If the heating units are placed at the sides of the kiln, +the action of the air in a good ice box is duplicated in the +kiln. The significant point in this connection is that, the +greener and colder the lumber, the faster is the circulation. +This is a highly desirable feature.</p> + +<p>A second vital point is that as the wood becomes gradually +drier the circulation automatically decreases, thus +resulting in increased efficiency, because there is no need +for circulation greater than enough to maintain the humidity +of the air as it leaves the lumber about the same +as it enters. Therefore, we advocate either the longitudinal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +side-wise inclined pile or edge stacking, the latter +being much preferable when possible. Of course the +piles in our kiln were small and could not be weighted +properly, so the best results as to reducing warping were +not obtained.</p> + +<p><b>Preliminary Steaming.</b>—Because the fibres of the gums +become plastic while moist and hot without causing defects, +it is desirable to heat the air-dried lumber to about +200 degrees Fahrenheit in saturated steam at atmospheric +pressure in order to reduce the warping. This treatment +also furnishes a means of heating the lumber very rapidly. +It is probably a good way to stop the sap-staining of green +lumber, if it is steamed while green. We have not investigated +the other effects of steaming green gum, however, +so we hesitate to recommend it.</p> + +<p>Temperatures as high as 210 degrees Fahrenheit were used +with no apparent harm to the material. The best result +was obtained with the temperature of 180 degrees Fahrenheit, +after the first preliminary heating in steam to 200 +degrees Fahrenheit. Higher temperatures may be used +with air-dried gum, however.</p> + +<p>The best method of humidity control proved to be to +reduce the relative humidity of the air from 100 per cent +(saturated steam) very carefully at first and then more +rapidly to 30 per cent in about four days. If the change +is too marked immediately after the steaming period, +checking will invariably result. Under these temperature +and humidity conditions the stock was dried from 15 +per cent moisture, based on the dry wood weight, to 6 per +cent in five days' time. The loss due to checking was +about 5 per cent, based on the actual footage loss, not on +commercial grades.</p> + +<p><b>Final Steaming.</b>—From time to time during the test +runs the material was resawed to test for case-hardening. +The stock dried in five days showed slight case-hardening, +so it was steamed at atmospheric pressure for 36 minutes +near the close of the run, with the result that when dried +off again the stresses were no longer present. The material +from one run was steamed for three hours at atmospheric<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +pressure and proved very badly case-hardened, but +in the reverse direction. It seems possible that by testing +for the amount of case-hardening one might select +a final steaming period which would eliminate all stresses +in the wood.</p> + + +<h4>Kiln-drying of Green Red Gum</h4> + +<p>The following article was published by the United +States Forestry Service on the kiln-drying of green red +gum:</p> + +<p>A short time ago fifteen fine, red-gum logs 16 feet long +were received from Sardis, Miss. They were in excellent +condition and quite green.</p> + +<p>It has been our belief that if the gum could be kiln-dried +directly from the saw, a number of the difficulties +in seasoning might be avoided. Therefore, we have undertaken +to find out whether or not such a thing is feasible. +The green logs now at the laboratory are to be used in +this investigation. One run of a preliminary nature has +just been made, the method and results of which I will +now tell.</p> + +<p>This method was really adapted to the drying of Southern +pine, and one log of the green gum was cut into 1-inch +stock and dried with the pine. The heartwood contained +many knots and some checks, although it was in general +of quite good quality. The sapwood was in fine condition +and almost as white as snow.</p> + +<p>This material was edge-stacked with one crosser at +either end and one at the center, of the 16-foot board. +This is sufficient for the pine, but was absolutely inadequate +for drying green gum. A special shrinkage take-up was +applied at the three points. The results proved very +interesting in spite of the warping which was expected +with but three crossers in 16 feet. The method of circulation +described was used. It is our belief that edge +piling is best for this method.</p> + +<p>This method of kiln-drying depends on the maintenance +of a high velocity of slightly superheated steam through +the lumber. In few words, the object is to maintain the +temperature of the vapor as it leaves the lumber at slightly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +above 212 degrees Fahrenheit. In order to accomplish this +result, it is necessary to maintain the high velocity of +circulation. As the wood dries, the superheat may be +increased until a temperature of 225 degrees or 230 degrees +Fahrenheit of the exit air is recorded.</p> + +<p>The 1-inch green gum was dried from 20.1 per cent to +11.4 per cent moisture, based on the dry wood weight in +45 hours. The loss due to checking was 10 per cent. +Nearly every knot in the heartwood was checked, showing +that as the knots could be eliminated in any case, this +loss might not be so great. It was significant that practically +all of the checking occurred in the heartwood. The +loss due to warping was 22 per cent. Of course this was +large; but not nearly enough crossers were used for the +gum. It is our opinion that this loss due to warping can +be very much reduced by using at least eight crossers and +providing for taking up of the shrinkage. A feature of +this process which is very important is that the method +absolutely prevents all sap staining.</p> + +<p>Another delightful surprise was the manner in which +the superheated steam method of drying changed the +color of the sapwood from pure white to a beautifully +uniform, clean-looking, cherry red color which very closely +resembles that of the heartwood. This method is not +new by any means, as several patents have been granted +on the steaming of gum to render the sapwood more nearly +the color of the heartwoods. The method of application +in kiln-drying green gum we believe to be new, however. +Other methods for kiln-drying this green stock are to be +tested until the proper process is developed. We expect +to have something interesting to report in the near +future.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The above test was made at the United States Forestry Service Laboratory, +Madison, Wis.</p></div> + + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_XII" id="SECTION_XII"></a>SECTION XII<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></h3> + +<h2>TYPES OF DRY KILNS</h2> + + +<h3 style="padding-top: 0em">DIFFERENT TYPES OF DRY KILNS</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dry</span> kilns as in use to-day are divided into two classes: +The "pipe" or "moist-air" kiln, in which natural draft +is relied upon for circulation and, the "blower" or "hot +blast" kiln, in which the circulation is produced by fans +or blowers. Both classes have their adherents and either +one will produce satisfactory results if properly operated.</p> + + +<h4>The "Blower" or "Hot Blast" Kiln</h4> + +<p>The blower kiln in its various types has been in use so +long that it is hardly necessary to give to it a lengthy introduction. +These kilns at their inauguration were a +wonderful improvement over the old style "bake-oven" +or "sweat box" kiln then employed, both on account of +the improved quality of the material and the rapidity at +which it was dried.</p> + +<p>These blower kilns have undergone steady improvement, +not only in the apparatus and equipment, but also in their +general design, method of introducing air, and provision +for controlling the temperature and humidity. With this +type of kiln the circulation is always under absolute control +and can be adjusted to suit the conditions, which +necessarily vary with the conditions of the material to +be dried and the quantity to be put through the kiln.</p> + +<p>In either the blower or moist-air type of dry kiln, however, +it is absolutely essential, in order to secure satisfactory +results, both as to rapidity in drying and good +quality of stock, that the kiln be so designed that the +temperature and humidity, together with circulation, are +always under convenient control. Any dry kiln in which +this has not been carefully considered will not give the +desired results.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the old style blower kiln, while the circulation and +temperature was very largely under the operator's control, +it was next to impossible to produce conditions in +the receiving end of the kiln so that the humidity could +be kept at the proper point. In fact, this was one reason +why the natural draft, or so-called moist-air kiln was +developed.</p> + +<p>The advent of the moist-air kiln served as an education +to kiln designers and manufacturers, in that it has shown +conclusively the value of a proper degree of humidity in +the receiving end of any progressive dry kiln, and it has +been of special benefit also in that it gave the manufacturers +of blower kilns an idea as to how to improve the design +of their type of kiln to overcome the difficulty referred to +in the old style blower kilns. This has now been remedied, +and in a decidedly simple manner, as is usually the case +with all things that possess merit.</p> + +<p>It was found that by returning from one third to one +half of the moist air <i>after</i> having passed through the kiln +back to the fan room and by mixing it with the fresh and +more or less dry air going into the drying room, that the +humidity could be kept under convenient control.</p> + +<p>The amount of air that can be returned from a kiln of +this class depends upon three things: (1) The condition +of the material when entering the drying room; (2) the +rapidity with which the material is to be dried; and (3) the +condition of the outside atmosphere. In the winter season +it will be found that a larger proportion of air may be +returned to the drying room than in summer, as the air +during the winter season contains considerably less moisture +and as a consequence is much drier. This is rather a +fortunate coincidence, as, when the kiln is being operated +in this manner, it will be much more economical in its +steam consumption.</p> + +<p>In the summer season, when the outside atmosphere is +saturated to a much greater extent, it will be found that +it is not possible to return as great a quantity of air to the +drying room, although there have been instances of kilns +of this class, which in operation have had all the air returned +and found to give satisfactory results. This is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +an unusual condition, however, and can only be accounted +for by some special or peculiar condition surrounding the +installation.</p> + +<p>In some instances, the desired amount of humidity in a +blower type of kiln is obtained by the addition of a steam +spray in the receiving end of the kiln, much in the same +manner as that used in the moist-air kilns. This method +is not as economical as returning the moisture-laden air +from the drying room as explained in the preceding paragraph.</p> + +<p>With the positive circulation that may be obtained in +a blower kiln, and with the conditions of temperature and +humidity under convenient control, this type of kiln has +the elements most necessary to produce satisfactory drying +in the quickest possible elapsed time.</p> + +<p>It must not be inferred from this, however, that this +class of dry kiln may be installed and satisfactory results +obtained regardless of how it is handled. A great +deal of the success of any dry kiln—or any other +apparatus, for that matter—depends upon intelligent +operation.</p> + + +<h4>Operation of the "Blower" Dry Kiln</h4> + +<p>It is essential that the operator be supplied with proper +facilities to keep a record of the material as it is placed +into the drying room, and when it is taken out. An accurate +record should be kept of the temperature every +two or three hours, for the different thicknesses and species +of lumber, that he may have some reliable data to guide +him in future cases.</p> + +<p>Any man possessing ordinary intelligence can operate +dry kilns and secure satisfactory results, providing he will +use good judgment and follow the basic instructions as +outlined below:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. When cold and before putting into operation, heat +the apparatus slowly until all pipes are hot, then +start the fan or blower, gradually bringing it up +to its required speed.</p> + +<p>2. See that <i>all</i> steam supply valves are kept wide open,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +unless you desire to lengthen the time required to +dry the material.</p> + +<p>3. When using exhaust steam, the valve from the +header (which is a separate drip, independent of +the trap connection) must be kept wide open, but +must be closed when live steam is used on that +part of the heater.</p> + +<p>4. The engines as supplied by the manufacturers are +constructed to operate the fan or blower at a proper +speed with its throttle valve wide open, and with +not less than 80 pounds pressure of steam.</p> + +<p>5. If the return steam trap does not discharge regularly, +it is important that it be opened and thoroughly +cleaned and the valve seat re-ground.</p> + +<p>6. As good air circulation is as essential as the proper +degree of heat, and as the volume of air and its +contact with the material to be dried depends upon +the volume delivered by the fan or blower, it is +necessary to maintain a regular and uniform speed +of the engine.</p> + +<p>7. Atmospheric openings must always be maintained +in the fan or heater room for fresh air supply.</p> + +<p>8. Successful drying cannot be accomplished without +ample and free circulation of air at all times.</p></div> + +<p>If the above instructions are fully carried out, and good +judgment used in the handling and operation of the +blower kiln, no difficulties should be encountered in successfully +drying the materials at hand.</p> + + +<h4>The "Pipe" or "Moist-air" Dry Kiln</h4> + +<p>While in the blower class of dry kiln, the circulation is +obtained by forced draft with the aid of fans or blowers, +in the Moist-air kilns (see <a href="#Fig_31">Fig. 31</a>); the circulation is obtained +by natural draft only, aided by the manipulation +of dampers installed at the receiving end of the drying +room, which lead to vertical flues through a stack to the +outside atmosphere.</p> + +<p>The heat in these kilns is obtained by condensing steam +in coils of pipe, which are placed underneath the material<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +to be dried. As the degree of heat required, and steam +pressure govern the amount of radiation, there are several +types of radiating coils. In <a href="#Fig_32">Fig. 32</a> will be seen the Single +Row Heating Coils for live or high pressure steam, which +are used when the low temperature is required. <a href="#Fig_33">Figure 33</a> +shows the Double (or 2) Row Heating Coils for live or +high pressure steam. This apparatus is used when a +medium temperature is required. In <a href="#Fig_34">Fig. 34</a> will be seen +the Vertical Type Heating Coils which is recommended +where exhaust or low-pressure steam is to be used, or may +be used with live or high-pressure steam when high temperatures +are desired.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_31" id="Fig_31"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig31.jpg" width="500" height="299" alt="Section through a typical Moist-air Dry Kiln" title="Section through a typical Moist-air Dry Kiln" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 31. Section through a typical Moist-air Dry Kiln.</p> +</div> + +<p>These heating coils are usually installed in sections, +which permit any degree of heat from the minimum to +the maximum to be maintained by the elimination of, +or the addition of, any number of heating sections. This +gives a dry kiln for the drying of green softwoods, or by +shutting off a portion of the radiating coils—thus reducing +the temperature—a dry kiln for drying hardwoods, +that will not stand the maximum degree of heat.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_32" id="Fig_32"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig32.jpg" width="500" height="229" alt="Single Pipe Heating Apparatus for Dry Kilns" title="Single Pipe Heating Apparatus for Dry Kilns" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 32. Single Pipe Heating Apparatus for Dry Kilns, arranged for the Use of Live Steam. For Low Temperatures.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_33" id="Fig_33"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig33.jpg" width="500" height="225" alt="Double Pipe Heating Apparatus for Dry Kilns" title="Double Pipe Heating Apparatus for Dry Kilns" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 33. Double Pipe Heating Apparatus for Dry Kilns, arranged for the Use of Live Steam. For Medium Temperatures.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p>In the Moist-air or Natural Draft type of dry kiln, any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +degree of humidity, from clear and dry to a dense fog may +be obtained; this is in fact, the main and most important +feature of this type of dry kiln, and the most essential +one in the drying of hardwoods.</p> + +<p>It is not generally understood that the length of a kiln +has any effect upon the quantity of material that may be +put through it, but it is a fact nevertheless that long kilns +are much more effective, and produce a better quality of +stock in less time than kilns of shorter length.</p> + +<p>Experience has proven that a kiln from 80 to 125 feet +in length will produce the best results, and it should be +the practice, where possible, to keep them within these +figures. The reason for this is that in a long kiln there is +a greater drop in temperature between the discharge end +and the green or receiving end of the kiln.</p> + +<p>It is very essential that the conditions in the receiving +end of the kiln, as far as the temperature and humidity +are concerned, must go hand in hand.</p> + +<p>It has also been found that in a long kiln the desired +conditions may be obtained with higher temperatures +than with a shorter kiln; consequently higher temperatures +may be carried in the discharge end of the kiln, +thereby securing greater rapidity in drying. It is not +unusual to find that a temperature of 200 degrees Fahrenheit +is carried in the discharge end of a long dry kiln with +safety, without in any way injuring the quality of the +material, although, it would be better not to exceed 180 +degrees in the discharge end, and about 120 degrees in +the receiving or green end in order to be on the safe side.</p> + + +<h4>Operation of the "Moist-air" Dry Kiln</h4> + +<p>To obtain the best results these kilns should be kept +in continuous operation when once started, that is, they +should be operated continuously day and night. When +not in operation at night or on Sundays, and the kiln is +used to season green stock direct from the saw, the large +doors at both ends of the kiln should be opened wide, or +the material to be dried will "sap stain."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_34" id="Fig_34"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig34.jpg" width="500" height="168" alt="Vertical Pipe Heating Apparatus for Dry Kilns" title="Vertical Pipe Heating Apparatus for Dry Kilns" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 34. Vertical Pipe Heating Apparatus for Dry Kilns; may be used in Connection with either +Live or Exhaust Steam for High or Low Temperatures.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is highly important that the operator attending any +drying apparatus keep a minute and accurate record of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +the condition of the material as it is placed into the drying +room, and its final condition when taken out.</p> + +<p>Records of the temperature and humidity should be +taken frequently and at stated periods for the different +thicknesses and species of material, in order that he may +have reliable data to guide him in future operations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p> + +<p>The following facts should be taken into consideration +when operating the Moist-air dry kiln:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Before any material has been placed in the drying +room, the steam should be turned into the heating +or radiating coils, gradually warming them, and +bringing the temperature in the kiln up to the +desired degree.</p> + +<p>2. Care should be exercised that there is sufficient +humidity in the receiving or loading end of the +kiln, in order to guard against checking, case-hardening, +etc. Therefore it is essential that the +steam spray at the receiving or loading end of the +kiln be properly manipulated.</p> + +<p>3. As the temperature depends principally upon the +pressure of steam carried in the boilers, maintain +a steam pressure of not less than 80 pounds at all +times; it may range as high as 100 pounds. The +higher the temperature with its relatively high +humidity the more rapidly the drying will be accomplished.</p> + +<p>4. Since air circulation is as essential as the proper degree +of heat, and as its contact with the material to be +dried depends upon its free circulation, it is necessary +that the dampers for its admittance into, +and its exit from, the drying room be efficiently +and properly operated. Successful drying cannot +be accomplished without ample and free circulation +of air at all times during the drying process.</p></div> + +<p>If the above basic principles are carefully noted and +followed out, and good common sense used in the handling +and operation of the kiln apparatus, no serious difficulties +should arise against the successful drying of the materials +at hand.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>Choice of Drying Method</h4> + +<p>At this point naturally arises the question: Which of +the two classes of dry kilns, the "Moist-air" or "Blower" +kiln is the better adapted for my particular needs?</p> + +<p>This must be determined entirely by the species of +wood to be dried, its condition when it goes into the kiln, +and what kind of finished product is to be manufactured +from it.</p> + +<p>Almost any species of hardwood which has been subjected +to air-seasoning for three months or more may be +dried rapidly and in the best possible condition for glue-jointing +and fine finishing with a "Blower" kiln, but green +hardwood, direct from the saw, can only be successfully +dried (if at all) in a "Moist-air" kiln.</p> + +<p>Most furniture factories have considerable bent stock +which must of necessity be thoroughly steamed before +bending. By steaming, the initial process of the Moist-air +kiln has been consummated. Hence, the Blower kiln is +better adapted to the drying of such stock than the Moist-air +kiln would be, as the stock has been thoroughly soaked +by the preliminary steaming, and all that is required is +sufficient heat to volatilize the moisture, and a strong +circulation of air to remove it as it comes to the surface.</p> + +<p>The Moist-air kiln is better adapted to the drying of +tight cooperage stock, while the Blower kiln is almost +universally used throughout the slack cooperage industry +for the drying of its products.</p> + +<p>For the drying of heavy timbers, planks, blocks, carriage +stock, etc., and for all species of hardwood thicker +than one inch, the Moist-air kiln is undoubtedly the +best.</p> + +<p>Both types of kilns are equally well adapted to the drying +of 1-inch green Norway and white pine, elm, hemlock, +and such woods as are used in the manufacture of flooring, +ceiling, siding, shingles, hoops, tub and pail stock, etc.</p> + +<p>The selection of one or the other for such work is largely +matter of personal opinion.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>Kilns of Different Types</h4> + +<p>All dry kilns as in use to-day are divided as to method +of drying into two classes:</p> + +<ul style="padding-left: 10%; line-height: 130%"> +<li>The "Pipe" or "Moist-air" kiln;</li> +<li>The "Blower" or "Hot Blast" kiln;</li> +</ul> + + +<p>both of which have been fully explained in a previous +article.</p> + +<p>The above two classes are again subdivided into five +different types of dry kilns as follows:</p> + +<ul style="padding-left: 10%; line-height: 130%"> +<li>The "Progressive" kiln;</li> +<li>The "Apartment" kiln;</li> +<li>The "Pocket" kiln;</li> +<li>The "Tower" kiln;</li> +<li>The "Box" kiln.</li> +</ul> + + + +<h4>The "Progressive" Dry Kiln</h4> + +<p>Dry kilns constructed so that the material goes in at +one end and is taken out at the opposite end are called +Progressive dry kilns, from the fact that the material +gradually progresses through the kiln from one stage to +another while drying (see <a href="#Fig_31">Fig. 31</a>).</p> + +<p>In the operation of the Progressive kiln, the material +is first subjected to a sweating or steaming process at the +receiving or loading end of the kiln with a low temperature +and a relative high humidity. It then gradually progresses +through the kiln into higher temperatures and +lower humidities, as well as changes of air circulation, +until it reaches the final stage at the discharge end of the +kiln.</p> + +<p>Progressive kilns, in order to produce the most satisfactory +results, especially in the drying of hardwoods or +heavy softwood timbers, should be not less than 100 feet +in length (see <a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35</a>).</p> + +<p>In placing this type of kiln in operation, the following +instructions should be carefully followed:</p> + +<p>When steam has been turned into the heating coils, and +the kiln is fairly warm, place the first car of material to +be dried in the drying room—preferably in the morning—about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +25 feet from the kiln door on the receiving +or loading end of the kiln, blocking the wheels so that it +will remain stationary.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_35" id="Fig_35"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig35.jpg" width="500" height="190" alt="Exterior View of Four Progressive Dry Kilns" title="Exterior View of Four Progressive Dry Kilns" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 35. Exterior View of Four Progressive Dry Kilns, each 140 Feet long by 18 Feet wide. +Cross-wise piling, fire-proof construction.</p> +</div> + +<p>Five hours later, or +about noon, run in the +second car and stop it +about five feet from the +first one placed in the +drying room. Five +hours later, or in the +evening push car number +two up against the +first car; then run in +car number three, stopping +it about five feet +from car number two.</p> + +<p>On the morning of +the second day, push +car number three +against the others, and +then move them all +forward about 25 feet, +and then run in car +number four, stopping +it about five feet from +the car in advance of +it. Five hours later, or +about noon, run in car +number five and stop +it about five feet from +car number four. In +the evening or about +five hours later, push +these cars against the +ones ahead, and run in +loaded car number six, stopping it about five feet from the +preceding car.</p> + +<p>On the morning of the third day, move all the cars forward +about six feet; then run in loaded car number seven +stop it about four feet from the car preceding it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +Five hours later or about noon push this car against those +in advance of it, and run in loaded car number eight +moving all cars forward about six feet, and continue in +this manner until the full complement of cars have been +placed in the kiln. When the kiln has been filled, remove +car number one and push all the remaining cars +forward and run in the next loaded car, and continue in +this manner as long as the kiln is in operation.</p> + +<p>As the temperature depends principally upon the pressure +of steam, maintain a steam pressure of not less than +80 pounds at all times; it may range up to as high as 100 +pounds. The higher the temperature with a relatively +higher humidity the more rapidly the drying will be accomplished.</p> + +<p>If the above instructions are carried out, the temperatures, +humidities, and air circulation properly manipulated, +there should be complete success in the handling +of this type of dry kiln.</p> + +<p>The Progressive type of dry kiln is adapted to such lines +of manufacture that have large quantities of material to +kiln-dry where the species to be dried is of a similiar +nature or texture, and does not vary to any great extent +in its thickness, such, for instance, as:</p> + +<ul style="padding-left: 10%; line-height: 130%"> +<li>Oak flooring plants;</li> +<li>Maple flooring plants;</li> +<li>Cooperage plants;</li> +<li>Large box plants;</li> +<li>Furniture factories; etc.</li> +</ul> + + +<p>In the selection of this kind of dry kiln, consideration +should be given to the question of ground space of sufficient +length or dimension to accommodate a kiln of proper length +for successful drying.</p> + + +<h4>The "Apartment" Dry Kiln</h4> + +<p>The Apartment system of dry kilns are primarily designed +for the drying of different kinds or sizes of material +at the same time, a separate room or apartment being +devoted to each species or size when the quantity is sufficient +(see <a href="#Fig_36">Fig. 36</a>).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p> + +<p>These kilns are sometimes built single or in batteries +of two or more, generally not exceeding 40 or 50 feet +in length with doors and platforms at both ends the same +as the Progressive kilns; but in operation each kiln is +entirely filled at one loading and then closed, and the +entire contents dried at one time, then emptied and again +recharged.</p> + +<p>Any number of apartments may be built, and each +apartment may be arranged to handle any number of cars, +generally about three or four, or they may be so constructed +that the material is piled directly upon the floor +of the drying room.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_36" id="Fig_36"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig36.jpg" width="500" height="288" alt="Exterior View of Six Apartment Dry Kilns" title="Exterior View of Six Apartment Dry Kilns" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 36. Exterior View of Six Apartment Dry Kilns, each 10 Feet wide by +52 Feet long, End-wise Piling. They are entirely of fire-proof construction +and equipped with double doors (Hussey asbestos outside and +canvas inside), and are also equipped with humidity and air control +dampers, which may be operated from the outside without opening +the kiln doors, which is a very good feature.</p> +</div> + +<p>When cars are used, it is well to have a transfer car at +each end of the kilns, and stub tracks for holding cars of +dry material, and for the loading of the unseasoned stock, +as in this manner the kilns may be kept in full operation +at all times.</p> + +<p>In this type of dry kiln the material receives the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +treatment and process that it would in a Progressive kiln. +The advantages of Apartment kilns is manifest where +certain conditions require the drying of numerous kinds +as well as thicknesses of material at one and the same time. +This method permits of several short drying rooms or +apartments so that it is not necessary to mix hardwoods +and softwoods, or thick and thin material in the same kiln +room.</p> + +<p>In these small kilns the circulation is under perfect +control, so that the efficiency is equal to that of the more +extensive plants, and will readily appeal to manufacturers +whose output calls for the prompt and constant seasoning +of a large variety of small stock, rather than a large volume +of material of uniform size and grade.</p> + +<p>Apartment kilns are recommended for industries where +conditions require numerous kinds and thicknesses of +material to be dried, such as:</p> + +<ul style="padding-left: 10%; line-height: 130%"> +<li>Furniture factories;</li> +<li>Piano factories;</li> +<li>Interior woodwork mills;</li> +<li>Planing mills; etc.</li> +</ul> + + + +<h4>The "Pocket" Dry Kiln</h4> + +<p>"Pocket" dry kilns (see <a href="#Fig_37">Fig. 37</a>) are generally built in +batteries of several pockets. They have the tracks level +and the lumber goes in and out at the same end. Each +drying room is entirely filled at one time, the material is +dried and then removed and the kiln again recharged.</p> + +<p>The length of "Pocket" kilns ranges generally from +14 feet to about 32 feet.</p> + +<p>The interior equipment for this type of dry kiln is +arranged very similiar to that used in the Apartment +kiln. The heating or radiating coils and steam spray +jets extend the whole length of the drying room, and are +arranged for the use of either live or exhaust steam, as +desired.</p> + +<p>Inasmuch as Pocket kilns have doors at one end only, +this feature eliminates a certain amount of door exposure, +which conduces towards economy in operation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span></p> + +<p>In operating Pocket kilns, woods of different texture +and thickness should be separated and placed in different +drying rooms, and each kiln adjusted and operated +to accommodate the peculiarities of the species and thickness +of the material to be dried.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_37" id="Fig_37"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig37.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="Exterior View of Five Pocket Dry Kilns" title="Exterior View of Five Pocket Dry Kilns" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 37. Exterior View of Five Pocket Dry Kilns, built in Two Batteries with the Front of each Set facing +the other, and a Transfer System between. They are also equipped with the asbestos doors.</p> +</div> + +<p>Naturally, the more complex the conditions of manufacturing +wood products in any industry, the more difficult<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +will be the proper drying of same. Pocket kilns, +are, therefore, recommended for factories having several +different kinds and thicknesses of material to dry in small +quantities of each, such as:</p> + +<ul style="padding-left: 10%; line-height: 130%"> +<li>Planing mills;</li> +<li>Chair factories;</li> +<li>Furniture factories;</li> +<li>Sash and door factories; etc.</li> +</ul> + + + +<h4>The "Tower" Dry Kiln</h4> + +<p>The so-called "Tower" dry kiln (see <a href="#Fig_38">Fig. 38</a>) is designed +for the rapid drying of small stuff in quantities. +Although the general form of construction and the capacity +of the individual bins or drying rooms may vary, the same +essential method of operation is common to all. That is, +the material itself, such as wooden novelties, loose staves, +and heading for tubs, kits, and pails, for box stuff, kindling +wood, etc., is dumped directly into the drying rooms +from above, or through the roof, in such quantities as +effectually to fill the bin, from which it is finally removed +when dry, through the doors at the bottom.</p> + +<p>These dry kilns are usually operated as "Blower" kilns, +the heating apparatus is generally located in a separate +room or building adjacent to the main structure or drying +rooms, and arranged so that the hot air discharged through +the inlet duct (see illustration) is thoroughly distributed +beneath a lattice floor upon which rests the material to +be dried. Through this floor the air passes directly upward, +between and around the stock, and finally returns +to the fan or heating room.</p> + +<p>This return air duct is so arranged that by means of +dampers, leading from each drying room, the air may be +returned in any quantity to the fan room where it is mixed +with fresh air and again used. This is one of the main +features of economy of the blower system of drying, as +by the employment of this return air system, considerable +saving may be made in the amount of steam required for +drying.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_38" id="Fig_38"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig38.jpg" width="500" height="275" alt="Exterior and Sectional View of a Battery of Tower Dry Kilns" title="Exterior and Sectional View of a Battery of Tower Dry Kilns" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 38. Exterior and Sectional View of a Battery of Tower Dry Kilns. This is a "Blower" or "Hot Blast" type, and +shows the arrangement of the fan blower, engine, etc. This type of dry kin is used principally for the seasoning of +small, loose material.</p> +</div> + +<p>The lattice floors in this type of dry kiln are built on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +an incline, which arrangement materially lessens the cost, +and increases the convenience with which the dried stock +may be removed from the bins or drying rooms.</p> + +<p>In operation, the material is conveyed in cars or trucks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +on an overhead trestle—which is inclosed—from which +the material to be dried is dumped directly into the drying +rooms or bins, through hoppers arranged for that purpose +thereby creating considerable saving in the handling of +the material to be dried into the kiln. The entire arrangement +thus secures the maximum capacity, with a +minimum amount of floor space, with the least expense. +Of course, the higher these kilns are built, the less relative +cost for a given result in the amount of material dried.</p> + +<p>In some instances, these kilns are built less in height +and up against an embankment so that teamloads of +material may be run directly onto the roof of the kilns, and +dumped through the hoppers into the drying rooms or +bins, thus again reducing to a minimum the cost of +this handling.</p> + +<p>The return air duct plays an important part in both of +these methods of filling, permitting the air to become +saturated to the maximum desired, and utilizing much +of the heat contained therein, which would otherwise +escape to the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>The "Tower" kiln is especially adapted to factories +of the following class:</p> + +<ul style="padding-left: 10%; line-height: 130%"> +<li>Sawmills;</li> +<li>Novelty factories;</li> +<li>Woodenware factories;</li> +<li>Tub and pail factories; etc.</li> +</ul> + + + +<h4>The "Box" Dry Kiln</h4> + +<p>The "Box" kiln shown in <a href="#Fig_39">Figure 39</a> is an exterior view +of a kiln of this type which is 20 feet wide, 19 feet deep, +and 14 feet high, which is the size generally used when +the space will permit.</p> + +<p>Box kilns are used mostly where only a small quantity +of material is to be dried. They are not equipped with +trucks or cars, the material to be dried being piled upon a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +raised platform inside the drying room. This arrangement, +therefore, makes them of less cost than the other +types of dry kilns.</p> + +<p>They are particularly adapted to any and all species +and size of lumber to be dried in very small quantities.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_39" id="Fig_39"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig39.jpg" width="500" height="332" alt="Exterior view of the Box Dry Kiln" title="Exterior view of the Box Dry Kiln" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 39. Exterior view of the Box Dry Kiln. This particular kiln is 20 feet +wide, 19 feet deep and 14 feet high. Box kilns are used mostly where +only a small amount of kiln-dried lumber of various sizes is required. +They are not equipped with trucks or cars, and therefore cost less to +construct than any other type of dry kiln.</p> +</div> + +<p>In these small kilns the circulation is under perfect +control, so that the efficiency is equal to that of the more +extensive plants.</p> + +<p>These special kilns will readily appeal to manufacturers, +whose output calls for the prompt and constant seasoning +of a large variety of small stock, rather than a large volume +material of uniform size and grade.</p> + + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_XIII" id="SECTION_XIII"></a>SECTION XIII<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></h3> + +<h2>DRY KILN SPECIALTIES</h2> + + +<h3 style="padding-top: 0em">KILN CARS AND METHOD OF LOADING</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">Within</span> recent years, the edge-wise piling of lumber +(see <a href="#Fig_40">Figs. 40</a> and <a href="#Fig_41">41</a>), upon kiln cars has met with considerable +favor on account of its many advantages over +the older method of flat piling. It has been proven that +lumber stacked edge-wise dries more uniformly and rapidly, +and with practically no warping or twisting of the material, +and that it is finally discharged from the dry kiln in a +much better and brighter condition. This method of +piling also considerably increases the holding and consequent +drying capacities of the dry kiln by reason of the +increased carrying capacities of the kiln cars, and the +shorter period of time required for drying the material.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_40" id="Fig_40"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig40.jpg" width="500" height="276" alt="Car Loaded with Lumber on its Edges by the Automatic Stacker" title="Car Loaded with Lumber on its Edges by the Automatic Stacker" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 40. Car Loaded with Lumber on its Edges by the Automatic Stacker, +to go into the Dry Kiln cross-wise. Equipped with two edge piling +kiln trucks.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_42">Figures 42</a> and <a href="#Fig_43">43</a> are shown different views of the +automatic lumber stacker for edge-wise piling of lumber on +kiln cars. Many users of automatic stackers report that +the grade of their lumber is raised to such an extent that +the system would be profitable for this reason alone, not +taking into consideration the added saving in time and +labor, which to anyone's mind should be the most important +item.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_41" id="Fig_41"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig41.jpg" width="500" height="244" alt=" Car Loaded with Lumber on its Edges by the Automatic Stacker" title=" Car Loaded with Lumber on its Edges by the Automatic Stacker" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 41. Car Loaded with Lumber on its Edges by the Automatic Stacker, +to go into the Dry Kiln end-wise. The bunks on which the lumber +rests are channel steel. The end sockets are malleable iron and made +for I-beam stakes.</p> +</div> + +<p>In operation, the lumber is carried to these automatic +stackers on transfer chains or chain conveyors, and passes +on to the stacker table. When the table is covered with +boards, the "lumber" lever is pulled by the operator, +which raises a stop, preventing any more lumber leaving +the chain conveyor. The "table" lever then operates +the friction drive and raises the table filled with the boards +to a vertical position. As the table goes up, it raises the +latches, which fall into place behind the piling strips that +had been previously laid on the table. When the table +returns to the lower position, a new set of piling strips +are put in place on the table, and the stream of boards +which has been accumulating on the conveyor chain are +again permitted to flow onto the table. As each layer of +lumber is added, the kiln car is forced out against a strong<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +tension. When the car is loaded, binders are put on over +the stakes by means of a powerful lever arrangement.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_42" id="Fig_42"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig42.jpg" width="500" height="335" alt="The Construction of the Automatic Lumber Stacker" title="The Construction of the Automatic Lumber Stacker" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 42. The above illustration shows the construction of the Automatic +Lumber Stacker for edge piling of lumber to go into the dry kiln end-wise.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_43" id="Fig_43"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig43.jpg" width="500" height="334" alt="The Construction of the Automatic Lumber Stacker" title="The Construction of the Automatic Lumber Stacker" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 43. The above illustration shows the construction of the Automatic +Lumber Stacker for edge piling of lumber to go into the dry kiln cross-wise.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_44" id="Fig_44"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig44.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="Battery of Three Automatic Lumber +Stackers" title="Battery of Three Automatic Lumber +Stackers" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 44. The above illustration shows a battery of Three Automatic Lumber +Stackers.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_45" id="Fig_45"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig45.jpg" width="500" height="368" alt="Another battery of Three Automatic +Lumber Stackers" title="Another battery of Three Automatic +Lumber Stackers" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 45. The above illustration shows another battery of Three Automatic +Lumber Stackers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_46" id="Fig_46"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig46.jpg" width="500" height="402" alt="Cars Loaded with Lumber on its Edges by the Automatic Lumber +Stackers" title="Cars Loaded with Lumber on its Edges by the Automatic Lumber +Stackers" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 46. Cars Loaded with Lumber on its Edges by the Automatic Lumber +Stackers.</p> +</div> + +<p>After leaving the dry kilns, the loaded car is transferred +to the unstacker (see <a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 47</a>). Here it is placed on the +unstacker car which, by means of a tension device, holds +the load of lumber tight against the vertical frame of the +unstacker. The frame of the unstacker is triangular +and has a series of chains. Each chain has two special +links with projecting lugs. The chains all travel in unison. +The lug links engage a layer of boards, sliding the entire +layer vertically, and the boards, one at a time, fall over +the top of the unstacker frame onto the inclined table, +and from there onto conveyor chains from which they +may be delivered to any point desired, depending upon +the length and direction of the chain conveyor.</p> + +<p>With these unstackers one man can easily unload a +kiln car in twenty minutes or less.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_47" id="Fig_47"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig47.jpg" width="500" height="401" alt="The Lumber Unstacker Car" title="The Lumber Unstacker Car" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 47. The Lumber Unstacker Car, used for unloading cars of Lumber +loaded by the Automatic Stacker.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_48" id="Fig_48"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig48.jpg" width="500" height="361" alt="The Lumber Unstacker Car and Unstacker" title="The Lumber Unstacker Car and Unstacker" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 48. The Lumber Unstacker Car and Unstacker, used for unloading +Lumber loaded by the Automatic Stacker.</p> +</div> + +<p>The experience of many users prove that these edge +stacking machines are not alike. This is important, +because there is one feature of edge stacking that must +not be overlooked. Unless each layer of boards is forced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +into place by power and held under a strong pressure, much +slack will accumulate in an entire load, and the subsequent +handling of the kiln cars, and the effect of the kiln-drying +will loosen up the load until there is a tendency for the +layers to telescope. And unless the boards are held in +place rigidly and with strong pressure they will have a +tendency to warp.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_49" id="Fig_49"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig49.jpg" width="500" height="320" alt="Method of loading kiln cars" title="Method of loading kiln cars" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 49. The above illustration shows method of loading kiln cars with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +veneer on its edges by the use of the Tilting Platform.</p> +</div> + +<p>A kiln car of edge-stacked lumber, properly piled, is +made up of alternate solid sheets of lumber and vertical +open-air spaces, so that the hot air and vapors rise naturally +and freely through the lumber, drying both sides of the +board evenly. The distribution of the heat and moisture +being even and uniform, the drying process is naturally +quickened, and there is no opportunity or tendency for +the lumber to warp.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_49">Figure 49</a> will be seen a method of loading kiln cars +with veneer on edge by the use of a tilting platform. On +the right of the illustration is seen a partially loaded kiln +car tilted to an angle of 45 degrees, to facilitate the placing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +of the veneer on the car. At the left is a completely +loaded car ready to enter the dry kiln.</p> + +<p>Gum, poplar, and pine veneers are satisfactorily dried +in this manner in from 8 to 24 hours.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_50">Figure 50</a> will be seen method of piling lumber on +the flat, "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same has three +tracks.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_50" id="Fig_50"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig50.jpg" width="500" height="322" alt="Method of Loading lumber" title="Method of Loading lumber" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 50. Method of Loading lumber on its Flat, cross-wise of the Dry +Kiln when same has Three Tracks.</p> +</div> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_51">Figure 51</a> will be seen another method of piling lumber +on the flat, "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same +has three tracks.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_52">Figure 52</a> will be seen method of piling lumber on the +flat, "end-wise" of the dry kiln when same has two tracks.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_53">Figure 53</a> will be seen another method of piling lumber +on the flat, "end-wise" of the dry kiln when same has +two tracks.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_54">Figure 54</a> will be seen method of piling slack or tight +barrel staves "cross-wise" of the kiln when same has three +tracks.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_55">Figure 55</a> will be seen another method of piling slack +or tight barrel staves "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when +same has three tracks.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_56">Figure 56</a> will be seen method of piling small tub or +pail staves "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same has +two tracks.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_57">Figure 57</a> will be seen method of piling bundled staves +"cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same has two tracks.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_51" id="Fig_51"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig51.jpg" width="500" height="320" alt="Method of loading Lumber" title="Method of loading Lumber" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 51. Method of loading Lumber on its Flat, cross-wise of the Dry Kiln +when same has Three Tracks.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_52" id="Fig_52"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig52.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Method of loading Lumber" title="Method of loading Lumber" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 52. Method of loading Lumber on its Flat, end-wise of the Dry Kiln +by the Use of the Single-sill or Dolly Truck.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_53" id="Fig_53"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig53.jpg" width="500" height="275" alt="Method of loading Lumber" title="Method of loading Lumber" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 53. Method of loading Lumber on its Flat, end-wise of the Dry Kiln by the Use of the +Double-sill Truck.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_54" id="Fig_54"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig54.jpg" width="500" height="341" alt=" Method of loading Kiln Car" title=" Method of loading Kiln Car" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 54. Method of loading Kiln Car with Tight or Slack Barrel Staves +cross-wise of Dry Kiln.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_55" id="Fig_55"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig55.jpg" width="500" height="372" alt="Method of loading Kiln Car" title="Method of loading Kiln Car" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 55. Method of loading Kiln Car with Tight or Slack Barrel Staves +cross-wise of Dry Kiln.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_56" id="Fig_56"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig56.jpg" width="500" height="453" alt="Method of loading Kiln Car" title="Method of loading Kiln Car" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 56. Method of loading Kiln Car with Tub or Pail Staves cross-wise of +Dry Kiln.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_57" id="Fig_57"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig57.jpg" width="500" height="520" alt="Method of loading Kiln Car" title="Method of loading Kiln Car" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 57. Method of loading Kiln Car with Bundled Staves cross-wise of +Dry Kiln.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_58">Figure 58</a> will be seen method of piling shingles "cross-wise" +of dry kiln when same has three tracks.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_59">Figure 59</a> will be seen another method of piling +shingles "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same has three +tracks.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_58" id="Fig_58"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig58.jpg" width="500" height="416" alt="Method of loading Kiln Car" title="Method of loading Kiln Car" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 58. Method of loading Kiln Car with Shingles cross-wise of Dry Kiln.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_59" id="Fig_59"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig59.jpg" width="500" height="328" alt="Method of loading Kiln Car" title="Method of loading Kiln Car" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 59. Method of loading Kiln Car with Shingles cross-wise of Dry Kiln.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_60">Figure 60</a> will be seen method of piling shingles "end-wise" +of the dry kiln when same has two tracks.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_61">Figure 61</a> will be seen a kiln car designed for handling +short tub or pail staves through a dry kiln.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_60" id="Fig_60"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig60.jpg" width="500" height="262" alt="Car loaded with 100,000 Shingles" title="Car loaded with 100,000 Shingles" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 60. Car loaded with 100,000 Shingles. Equipped with four long end-wise +piling trucks and to go into dry kiln end-wise.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_61" id="Fig_61"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig61.jpg" width="500" height="450" alt="Kiln Car designed for handling Short Tub or Pail Staves" title="Kiln Car designed for handling Short Tub or Pail Staves" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 61. Kiln Car designed for handling Short Tub or Pail Staves through +a Dry Kiln.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_62">Figure 62</a> will be seen a kiln car designed for short +piece stock through a dry kiln.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_63">Figure 63</a> will be seen a type of truck designed for +the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through +a steam box.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_64">Figure 64</a> will be seen another type of truck designed +for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through +a steam box.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_65">Figure 65</a> will be seen another type of truck designed +for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through +a steam box.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_66">Figure 66</a> will be seen another type of truck designed +for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through +a steam box.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_67">Figure 67</a> will be seen another type of truck designed +for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through +a steam box.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_68">Figure 68</a> will be seen another type of truck designed +for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through +a steam box.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_69">Figure 69</a> will be seen the Regular 3-rail Transfer +Car designed for the handling of 2-rail kiln cars which +have been loaded "end-wise."</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_70">Figure 70</a> will be seen another type of Regular 3-rail +Transfer Car designed for the handling of 2-rail kiln cars +which have been loaded "end-wise."</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_71">Figure 71</a> will be seen a Specially-designed 4-rail +Transfer Car for 2-rail kiln cars which have been built +to accommodate extra long material to be dried.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_72">Figure 72</a> will be seen the Regular 2-rail Transfer +Car designed for the handling of 3-rail kiln cars which have +been loaded "cross-wise."</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_73">Figure 73</a> will be seen another type of Regular 2-rail +Transfer Car designed for the handling of 3-rail kiln cars +which have been loaded "cross-wise."</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_74">Figure 74</a> will be seen the Regular 2-rail Underslung +type of Transfer Car designed for the handling of 3-rail +kiln cars which have been loaded "cross-wise." Two important +features in the construction of this transfer car +make it extremely easy in its operation. It has extra large +wheels, diameter 13<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> inches, and being underslung, the +top of its rails are no higher than the other types of transfer +cars. Note the relative size of the wheels in the illustration, +yet the car is only about 10 inches in height.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_62" id="Fig_62"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig62.jpg" width="500" height="353" alt="Kiln Car Designed for handling Short Piece Stock" title="Kiln Car Designed for handling Short Piece Stock" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 62. Kiln Car Designed for handling Short Piece Stock through a Dry Kiln.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_63" id="Fig_63"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig63.jpg" width="300" height="397" alt="A Stave Bolt Truck" title="A Stave Bolt Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 63. A Stave Bolt Truck.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_64" id="Fig_64"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig64.jpg" width="300" height="323" alt="A Stave Bolt Truck" title="A Stave Bolt Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 64. A Stave Bolt Truck.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_65" id="Fig_65"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig65.jpg" width="300" height="379" alt="A Stave Bolt Truck" title="A Stave Bolt Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 65. A Stave Bolt Truck.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_66" id="Fig_66"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig66.jpg" width="300" height="348" alt="A Stave Bolt Truck" title="A Stave Bolt Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 66. A Stave Bolt Truck.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_67" id="Fig_67"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig67.jpg" width="300" height="332" alt="A Stave Bolt Truck" title="A Stave Bolt Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 67. A Stave Bolt Truck.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_68" id="Fig_68"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig68.jpg" width="300" height="424" alt="A Stave Bolt Truck" title="A Stave Bolt Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 68. A Stave Bolt Truck.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_69" id="Fig_69"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig69.jpg" width="500" height="216" alt="A Regular 3-Rail Transfer Truck" title="A Regular 3-Rail Transfer Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 69. A Regular 3-Rail Transfer Truck.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_70" id="Fig_70"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig70.jpg" width="500" height="237" alt="A Regular 3-Rail Transfer Truck" title="A Regular 3-Rail Transfer Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 70. A Regular 3-Rail Transfer Truck.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_71" id="Fig_71"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig71.jpg" width="500" height="186" alt="A Special 4-Rail Transfer Truck" title="A Special 4-Rail Transfer Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 71. A Special 4-Rail Transfer Truck.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_72" id="Fig_72"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig72.jpg" width="500" height="249" alt="A Regular 2-Rail Transfer Truck" title="A Regular 2-Rail Transfer Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 72. A Regular 2-Rail Transfer Truck.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_73" id="Fig_73"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig73.jpg" width="500" height="189" alt="A Regular 2-Rail Transfer Truck" title="A Regular 2-Rail Transfer Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 73. A Regular 2-Rail Transfer Truck.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_74" id="Fig_74"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig74.jpg" width="500" height="165" alt="A Regular 2-Rail Underslung Transfer Truck" title="A Regular 2-Rail Underslung Transfer Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 74. A Regular 2-Rail Underslung Transfer Truck.</p> +</div> + + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_75">Figure 75</a> will be seen the Regular 3-rail Underslung +type of Transfer Car designed for the handling of 2-rail +kiln cars which have been loaded "end-wise." This car +also has the important features of large diameter wheels +and low rail construction, which make it very easy in its +operation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_75" id="Fig_75"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig75.jpg" width="500" height="219" alt="A Regular 3-Rail Underslung Transfer Truck" title="A Regular 3-Rail Underslung Transfer Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 75. A Regular 3-Rail Underslung Transfer Truck.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_76">Figure 76</a> will be seen the Special 2-rail Flexible +type of Transfer Car designed for the handling of 3-rail +kiln cars which have been loaded "cross-wise." This car +is equipped with double the usual number of wheels, and +by making each set of trucks a separate unit (the front +and rear trucks being bolted to a steel beam with malleable +iron connection), a slight up-and-down movement is permitted, +which enables this transfer car to adjust itself to +any unevenness in the track, which is a very good feature.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_76" id="Fig_76"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig76.jpg" width="500" height="215" alt="A Special 2-Rail Flexible Transfer Truck" title="A Special 2-Rail Flexible Transfer Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 76. A Special 2-Rail Flexible Transfer Truck.</p> +</div> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_77">Figure 77</a> will be seen the Regular Transfer Car designed +for the handling of stave bolt trucks.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_78">Figure 78</a> will be seen another type of Regular Transfer +Car designed for the handling of stave bolt trucks.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_79">Figure 79</a> will be seen a Special Transfer Car designed +for the handling of stave bolt trucks.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_77" id="Fig_77"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig77.jpg" width="500" height="190" alt="A Regular Transfer Car for handling Stave Bolt Trucks" title="A Regular Transfer Car for handling Stave Bolt Trucks" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 77. A Regular Transfer Car for handling Stave Bolt Trucks.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_78" id="Fig_78"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig78.jpg" width="500" height="274" alt="A Regular Transfer Car for handling Stave Bolt Trucks" title="A Regular Transfer Car for handling Stave Bolt Trucks" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 78. A Regular Transfer Car for handling Stave Bolt Trucks.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_79" id="Fig_79"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig79.jpg" width="500" height="159" alt="A Special Transfer Car for handling Stave Bolt Trucks" title="A Special Transfer Car for handling Stave Bolt Trucks" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 79. A Special Transfer Car for handling Stave Bolt Trucks.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_80">Figure 80</a> will be seen the Regular Channel-iron +Kiln Truck designed for edge piling "cross-wise" of the +dry kiln.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_81">Figure 81</a> will be seen another type of Regular Channel-iron +Kiln Truck designed for edge piling "cross-wise" +of the dry kiln.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_80" id="Fig_80"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig80.jpg" width="500" height="192" alt="A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck" title="A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 80. A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_81" id="Fig_81"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig81.jpg" width="500" height="165" alt="A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck" title="A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 81. A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_82">Figure 82</a> will be seen the Regular Channel-iron +Kiln Truck designed for flat piling "end-wise" of the dry +kiln.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_82" id="Fig_82"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig82.jpg" width="500" height="171" alt="A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck" title="A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 82. A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck.</p> +</div> + + +<p>In<a href="#Fig_83"> Figure 83</a> will be seen the Regular Channel-iron +Kiln Truck with I-Beam cross-pieces designed for flat +piling "end-wise" of the dry kiln.</p> + +<p>In<a href="#Fig_84"> Figure 84</a> will be seen the Regular Small Dolly Kiln +Truck designed for flat piling "end-wise" of the dry kiln.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_83" id="Fig_83"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig83.jpg" width="500" height="198" alt="A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck" title="A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 83. A Regular Channel-iron Kiln Truck.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_84" id="Fig_84"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig84.jpg" width="500" height="264" alt="A Regular Single-sill or Dolly Kiln Truck" title="A Regular Single-sill or Dolly Kiln Truck" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 84. A Regular Single-sill or Dolly Kiln Truck.</p> +</div> + +<h4>Different Types of Kiln Doors</h4> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_85">Figure 85</a> will be seen the Asbestos-lined Door. The +construction of this kiln door is such that it has no tendency +to warp or twist. The framework is solid and the body +is made of thin slats placed so that the slat on either side +covers the open space of the other with asbestos roofing +fabric in between. This makes a comparatively light +and inexpensive door, and one that absolutely holds the +heat. These doors may be built either swinging, hoisting, +or sliding.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_85" id="Fig_85"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig85.jpg" width="350" height="451" alt="An Asbestos-lined Kiln Door of the Hinge Type" title="An Asbestos-lined Kiln Door of the Hinge Type" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 85. An Asbestos-lined Kiln Door of the Hinge Type.</p> +</div> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_86">Figure 86</a> will be seen the Twin Carrier type of door +hangers with doors loaded and rolling clear of the opening.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_86" id="Fig_86"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig86.jpg" width="500" height="352" alt="Twin Carrier with Kiln Door loaded and rolling clear of Opening" title="Twin Carrier with Kiln Door loaded and rolling clear of Opening" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 86. Twin Carrier with Kiln Door loaded and rolling clear of Opening.</p> +</div> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_87">Figure 87</a> will be seen the Twin Carrier for doors 18 +to 35 feet wide, idle on a section of the track.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_88">Figure 88</a> will be seen another type of carrier for kiln +doors.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_89">Figure 89</a> will be seen the preceding type of kiln door +carrier in operation.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_90">Figure 90</a> will be seen another type of carrier for +kiln doors.</p> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_91">Figure 91</a> will be seen kiln doors seated, wood construction, +showing 3<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>" × 5<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>" inch-track timbers and +trusses, supported on 4-inch by 6-inch jamb posts. "T" +rail track, top and side, inclined shelves on which the kiln +door rests. Track timber not trussed on openings under +12 feet wide.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_87" id="Fig_87"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig87.jpg" width="500" height="369" alt="Twin Carriers for Kiln Doors 18 to 35 Feet wide" title="Twin Carriers for Kiln Doors 18 to 35 Feet wide" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 87. Twin Carriers for Kiln Doors 18 to 35 Feet wide.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_88" id="Fig_88"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig88.jpg" width="500" height="424" alt=" Kiln Door Carrier engaged to Door Ready for lifting" title=" Kiln Door Carrier engaged to Door Ready for lifting" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 88. Kiln Door Carrier engaged to Door Ready for lifting.</p> +</div> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_92">Figure 92</a> will be seen kiln doors seated, fire-proof +construction, showing 12-inch, channel, steel lintels, 2" × 2" +steel angle mullions, track brackets bolted to the steel +lintels and "T" rail track. No track timbers or trusses +used.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_89" id="Fig_89"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig89.jpg" width="500" height="236" alt="Kiln Door Carrier shown on Doors of Wood Construction" title="Kiln Door Carrier shown on Doors of Wood Construction" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 89. Kiln Door Carrier shown on Doors of Wood Construction.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_90" id="Fig_90"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig90.jpg" width="500" height="370" alt="Kiln Door Construction with Door Carrier out of Sight" title="Kiln Door Construction with Door Carrier out of Sight" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 90. Kiln Door Construction with Door Carrier out of Sight.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_91" id="Fig_91"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig91.jpg" width="500" height="247" alt="Kiln Door Construction. Doors Seated. Wood Construction." title="Kiln Door Construction. Doors Seated. Wood Construction." /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 91. Kiln Door Construction. Doors Seated. Wood Construction.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_92" id="Fig_92"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig92.jpg" width="500" height="253" alt="Kiln Door Construction. Doors Seated. Fire-proof Construction." title="Kiln Door Construction. Doors Seated. Fire-proof Construction." /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 92. Kiln Door Construction. Doors Seated. Fire-proof Construction.</p> +</div> + + +<h3 style="padding-bottom: 0em"><a name="SECTION_XIV" id="SECTION_XIV"></a>SECTION XIV<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span></h3> + +<h2 style="padding-bottom: 1em">HELPFUL APPLIANCES IN +KILN-DRYING</h2> + + +<h4>The Humidity Diagram</h4> + +<p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_93" id="Fig_93"></a></p> + +<p class="figcenter"><a href="images/fig93.jpg"><img src="images/fig93_th.jpg" +alt="Humidity Diagram" title="Humidity Diagram" /></a></p> + +<p class="caption" style="width: 50%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto">Fig. 93. The United States Forest Service Humidity Diagram for +determination of Absolute Humidities. Dew Points and Vapor Pressures; also Relative +Humidities by means of Wet and Dry-Bulb Thermometer, for any temperatures and change +in temperature.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Some</span> simple means of determining humidities and +changes in humidity brought about by changes in temperature +in the dry kiln without the use of tables is almost +a necessity. To meet this requirement the United States +Forestry Service has devised the Humidity Diagram shown +in <a href="#Fig_93">Figure 93</a>. It differs in several respects from the hydrodeiks +now in use.</p> + +<p>The purpose of the humidity diagram is to enable the +dry-kiln operator to determine quickly the humidity conditions +and vapor pressure, as well as the changes which +take place with changes of temperature. The diagram +above is adapted to the direct solution of problems of +this character without recourse to tables or mathematical +calculations.</p> + +<p>The humidity diagram consists of two distinct sets of +curves on the same sheet. One set, the convex curves, +is for the determination of relative humidity of wet-and-dry-bulb +hygrometer or psychrometer; the other, the concave +curves, is derived from the vapor pressures and shows +the amount of moisture per cubic foot at relative humidities +and temperatures when read at the dew-point. The +latter curves, therefore, are independent of all variables +affecting the wet-bulb readings. They are proportional +to vapor pressures, not to density, and, therefore, may be +followed from one temperature to another with correctness. +The short dashes show the correction (increase or decrease) +which is necessary in the relative humidity, read from the +convex curves, with an increase or decrease from the normal +barometric pressure of 30 inches, for which the curves<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +have been plotted. This correction, except for very low +temperatures, is so small that it may usually be disregarded.</p> + +<p>The ordinates, or vertical distances, are relative humidity +expressed in per cent of saturation, from 0 per cent +at the bottom to 100 per cent at the top. The abscissae, or +horizontal distances, are temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit +from 30 degrees below zero, at the left, to 220 degrees above, +at the right.</p> + + +<h4>Examples of Use</h4> + +<p>The application of the humidity diagram can best be +understood by sample problems. These problems also +show the wide range of conditions to which the diagram +will apply.</p> + +<div class="example"><p><span class="smcap">Example 1.</span> To find the relative humidity by use of wet-and-dry-bulb +hygrometer or psychrometer:</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"> +<p>Place the instrument in a strong circulation of air, or +wave it to and fro. Read the temperature of the dry bulb +and the wet, and subtract. Find on the horizontal line +the temperature shown by the dry-bulb thermometer. +Follow the vertical line from this point till it intersects +with the convex curve marked with the difference between +the wet and dry readings. The horizontal line passing +through this intersection will give the relative humidity.</p> + +<p>Example: Dry bulb 70°, wet bulb 62°, difference 8°. +Find 70° on the horizontal line of temperature. Follow +up the vertical line from 70° until it intersects with the +convex curve marked 8°. The horizontal line passing +through this intersection shows the relative humidity to be +64 per cent.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Example 2.</span> To find how much water per cubic foot is contained +in the air:</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"> +<p>Find the relative humidity as in example 1. Then the +nearest concave curve gives the weight of water in grains +per cubic foot when the air is cooled to the dew-point. +Using the same quantities as in example 1, this will be +slightly more than 5 grains.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Example 3.</span> To find the amount of water required to saturate +air at a given temperature:</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"> +<p>Find on the top line (100 per cent humidity) the given +temperature; the concave curve intersecting at or near<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +this point gives the number of grains per cubic foot. +(Interpolate, if great accuracy is desired.)</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Example 4.</span> To find the dew-point:</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"> +<p>Obtain the relative humidity as in example 1. Then +follow up parallel to the nearest concave curve until the +top horizontal (indicating 100 per cent relative humidity) +is reached. The temperature on this horizontal line at +the point reached will be the dew-point.</p> + +<p>Example: Dry bulb 70°, wet bulb 62°. On the vertical +line for 70° find the intersection with the hygrometer +(convex) curve for 8°. This will be found at nearly 64 per +cent relative humidity. Then follow up parallel with the +vapor pressure (concave) curve marked 5 grains to its +intersection at the top of the chart with the 100 per cent +humidity line. This gives the dew-point as 57°.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Example 5.</span> To find the change in the relative humidity produced +by a change in temperature:</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"> +<p>Example: The air at 70° Fahr. is found to contain 64 +per cent humidity; what will be its relative humidity if +heated to 150° Fahr.? Starting from the intersection of +the designated humidity and temperature coordinates, +follow the vapor-pressure curve (concave) until it intersects +the 150° temperature ordinate. The horizontal line +then reads 6 per cent relative humidity. The same operation +applies to reductions in temperature. In the above +example what is the humidity at 60°? Following parallel to +the same curve in the opposite direction until it intersects +the 60° ordinate gives 90 per cent; at 57° it becomes 100 +per cent, reaching the dew-point.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Example 6.</span> To find the amount of condensation produced by +lowering the temperature:</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"> +<p>Example: At 150° the wet bulb reads 132°. How much +water would be condensed if the temperature were lowered +to 70°? The intersection of the hygrometer curve for 18° +(150°-132°) with temperature line for 150° shows a relative +humidity of 60 per cent. The vapor-pressure curve +(concave) followed up to the 100 per cent relative humidity +line shows 45 grains per cubic foot at the dew-point, which +corresponds to a temperature of 130°. At 70° it is seen +that the air can contain but 8 grains per cubic foot (saturation). +Consequently, there will be condensed 45 minus 8, or +37 grains per cubic foot of space measured at the dew-point.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Example</span> 7. To find the amount of water required to produce +saturation by a given rise in temperature:</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"> +<p>Example: Take the values given in example 5. The air +at the dew-point contains slightly over 5 grains per cubic +foot. At 150° it is capable of containing 73 grains per +cubic foot. Consequently, 73-5=68 grains of water +which can be evaporated per cubic foot of space at the +dew-point when the temperature is raised to 150°. But +the latent heat necessary to produce evaporation must be +supplied in addition to the heat required to raise the air +to 150°.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Example</span> 8. To find the amount of water evaporated during +a given change of temperature and humidity:</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"> +<p>Example: At 70° suppose the humidity is found to be +64 per cent and at 150° it is found to be 60 per cent. How +much water has been evaporated per cubic foot of space? +At 70° temperature and 64 per cent humidity there are +5 grains of water present per cubic foot at the dew-point +(example 2). At 150° and 60 per cent humidity there are +45 grains present. Therefore, 45-5=40 grains of water +which have been evaporated per cubic foot of space, +figuring all volumes at the dew-point.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Example</span> 9. To correct readings of the hygrometer for changes +in barometric pressure:</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"> +<p>A change of pressure affects the reading of the wet bulb. +The chart applies at a barometric pressure of 30 inches, +and, except for great accuracy, no correction is generally +necessary.</p> + +<p>Find the relative humidity as usual. Then look for the +nearest barometer line (indicated by dashes). At the end +of each barometer line will be found a fraction which represents +the proportion of the relative humidity already found, +which must be added or subtracted for a change in barometric +pressure. If the barometer reading is less than +30 inches, add; if greater than 30 inches, subtract. The +figures given are for a change of 1 inch; for other changes +use proportional amounts. Thus, for a change of 2 inches +use twice the indicated ratio; for half an inch use half, +and so on.</p> + +<p>Example: Dry bulb 67°, wet bulb 51°, barometer 28 +inches. The relative humidity is found, by the method +given in example 1, to equal 30 per cent. The barometric<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +line—gives a value of 3/100H for each inch of change. +Since the barometer is 2 inches below 30, multiply +3/100H by 2, giving 6/100H. The correction will, therefore, +be 6/100 of 30, which equals 1.8. Since the barometer +is below 30, this is to be added, giving a corrected relative +humidity of 31.8 per cent.</p> + +<p>This has nothing to do with the vapor pressure (concave) +curves, which are independent of barometric pressure, and +consequently does not affect the solution of the previous +problems.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Example</span> 10. At what temperature must the condenser be +maintained to produce a given humidity?</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"> +<p>Example: Suppose the temperature in the drying room +is to be kept at 150° Fahr., and a humidity of 80 per cent +is desired. If the humidity is in excess of 80 per cent the +air must be cooled to the dew-point corresponding to this +condition (see example 4), which in this case is 141.5°.</p> + +<p>Hence, if the condenser cools the air to this dew point +the required condition is obtained when the air is again +heated to the initial temperature.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Example</span> 11. Determination of relative humidity by the dew-point:</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"> +<p>The quantity of moisture present and relative humidity +for any given temperature may be determined directly +and accurately by finding the dew-point and applying the +concave (vapor-pressure) curves. This does away with +the necessity for the empirical convex curves and wet-and-dry-bulb +readings. To find the dew-point some form +of apparatus, consisting essentially of a thin glass vessel +containing a thermometer and a volatile liquid, such as +ether, may be used. The vessel is gradually cooled through +the evaporation of the liquid, accelerated by forcing air +through a tube until a haze or dimness, due to condensation +from the surrounding air, first appears upon the brighter +outer surface of the glass. The temperature at which the +haze first appears is the dew-point. Several trials should +be made for this temperature determination, using the +average temperature at which the haze appears and +disappears.</p> + +<p>To determine the relative humidity of the surrounding +air by means of the dew-point thus determined, find the +concave curve intersecting the top horizontal (100 per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +cent relative humidity) line nearest the dew-point temperature. +Follow parallel with this curve till it intersects +the vertical line representing the temperature of the surrounding +air. The horizontal line passing through this +intersection will give the relative humidity.</p> + +<p>Example: Temperature of surrounding air is 80; dew-point +is 61; relative humidity is 53 per cent.</p> + +<p>The dew-point determination is, however, not as convenient +to make as the wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer +readings. Therefore, the hygrometer (convex) curves are +ordinarily more useful in determining relative humidities.</p></div> +</div> + +<h4>The Hygrodeik</h4> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_94">Figure 94</a> will be seen the Hygrodeik. This instrument +is used to determine the amount of moisture in the +atmosphere. It is a very useful instrument, as the readings +may be taken direct with accuracy.</p> + +<p>To find the relative humidity in the atmosphere, swing +the index hand to the left of the chart, and adjust the +sliding pointer to that degree of the wet-bulb thermometer +scale at which the mercury stands. Then swing the index +hand to the right until the sliding pointer intersects the +curved line, which extends downwards to the left from +the degree of the dry-bulb thermometer scale, indicated +by the top of the mercury column in the dry-bulb tube.</p> + +<p>At that intersection, the index hand will point to the +relative humidity on scale at bottom of chart (for example +see <a href="#Fig_94">Fig. 94</a>). Should the temperature indicated by the +wet-bulb thermometer be 60 degrees, and that of the dry-bulb +70 degrees, the index hand will indicate humidity +55 degrees, when the pointer rests on the intersecting +line of 60 degrees and 80 degrees.</p> + + +<h4>The Recording Hygrometer</h4> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_95">Figure 95</a> is shown the Recording Hygrometer complete +with wet and dry bulbs, two connecting tubes and +two recording pens and special moistening device for +supplying water to the wet bulb.</p> + +<p>This equipment is designed particularly for use in connection +with dry rooms and dry kilns and is arranged so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +that the recording instrument and the water supply bottle +may be installed outside of the dry kiln or drying room, +while the wet and dry bulbs are both installed inside the +room or kiln at the point where it is desired to measure +the humidity. This instrument records on a weekly +chart the humidity for each hour of the day, during the +entire week.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_94" id="Fig_94"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig94.jpg" width="400" height="501" alt="The Hygrodeik" title="The Hygrodeik" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 94. The Hygrodeik.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p> +</div> + + +<h4>The Registering Hygrometer</h4> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_96">Figure 96</a> is shown the Registering Hygrometer, +which consists of two especially constructed thermometers. +The special feature of the thermometers permits placing +the instrument in the dry kiln without entering the drying +room, through a small opening, where it is left for about +20 minutes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_95" id="Fig_95"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig95.jpg" width="400" height="320" alt=" The Recording Hygrometer" title=" The Recording Hygrometer" /> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 95. The Recording Hygrometer, Complete with Wet and Dry Bulbs. +This instrument records on a weekly chart the humidity for each +hour of the day, during the entire week.</p> +</div> + +<p>The temperature of both the dry and wet bulbs are +automatically recorded, and the outside temperature will +not affect the thermometers when removed from the kiln. +From these recorded temperatures, as shown when the +instrument is removed from the kiln, the humidity can +be easily determined from a simple form of chart which +is furnished free by the makers with each instrument.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>The Recording Thermometer</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_96" id="Fig_96"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig96.jpg" width="500" height="235" alt="The Registering Hygrometer" title="The Registering Hygrometer" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 96. The Registering Hygrometer.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px; padding-top: 2em"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_97" id="Fig_97"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig97.jpg" width="300" height="311" alt="The Recording Thermometer" title="The Recording Thermometer" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 97. The Recording Thermometer.</p> +</div> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_97">Figure 97</a> is shown the Recording Thermometer for +observing and recording the temperatures within a dry +kiln, and thus obtaining a check upon its operation. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +instrument is constructed to record automatically, upon +a circular chart, the temperatures prevailing within the +drying room at all times of the day and night, and serves +not only as a means of keeping an accurate record of the +operation of the dry kiln, but as a valuable check upon +the attendant in charge of the drying +process.</p> + +<table summary="illos"> +<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_98" id="Fig_98"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig98.jpg" width="100" height="371" alt="The Registering +Thermometer" title="The Registering +Thermometer" /> +</div> +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 98. The Registering +Thermometer.</p></td> + +<td style="padding-left: 2em"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 284px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_99" id="Fig_99"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig99.jpg" width="284" height="371" alt="The Recording Steam-Pressure +Gauge" title="The Recording Steam-Pressure +Gauge" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 99. The Recording Steam-Pressure +Gauge.]</p> +</div></td></tr> +</table> + +<h4>The Registering Thermometer</h4> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_98">Figure 98</a> is shown the Registering +Thermometer, which is a less expensive +instrument than that shown +in <a href="#Fig_97">Figure 97</a>, but by its use the maximum +and minimum temperatures in the drying room +during a given period can be determined.</p> + + +<h4>The Recording Steam Gauge</h4> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_99">Figure 99</a> is shown the Recording Steam Pressure +Gauge, which is used for accurately recording the steam +pressures kept in the boilers. This instrument may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +mounted near the boilers, or may be located at any distance +necessary, giving a true and accurate record of the +fluctuations of the steam pressure that may take place +within the boilers, and is a check upon both the day and +night boiler firemen.</p> + + +<h4>The Troemroid Scalometer</h4> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_100">Figure 100</a> is shown the Troemroid Scalometer. This +instrument is a special scale of extreme accuracy, fitted +with agate bearings with screw adjustment for balancing. +The beam is graduated from 0 to 2 ounces, divided into +100 parts, each division representing 1-50th of an ounce; +and by using the pointer attached to the beam weight, +the 1-100th part of an ounce can be weighed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_100" id="Fig_100"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig100.jpg" width="500" height="370" alt="The Troemroid Scalometer" title="The Troemroid Scalometer" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 100. The Troemroid Scalometer.</p> +</div> + +<p>The percentage table No. II has a range from one half +of 1 per cent to 30 per cent and is designed for use where +extremely fine results are needed, or where a very small<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +amount of moisture is present. Table No. III ranges +from 30 per cent up to 90 per cent. These instruments +are in three models as described below.</p> + +<div class="blockquot" style="font-size: 90%"><p><span class="smcap">Model</span> A. (One cylinder) ranges from <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> of 1 per cent to 30 +per cent and is to be used for testing moisture contents +in kiln-dried and air-dried lumber.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Model</span> B. (Two cylinders) ranges from <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> of 1 per cent up to +90 per cent and is to be used for testing the moisture +contents of kiln-dried, air-dried, and green lumber.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Model</span> C. (One cylinder) ranges from 30 per cent to 90 per +cent and is applicable to green lumber only.</p></div> + +<p><b>Test Samples.</b>—The green boards and all other boards +intended for testing should be selected from boards of fair +average quality. If air-dried, select one about half way +up the height of the pile of lumber. If kiln-dried, two +thirds the height of the kiln car. Do not remove the kiln +car from the kiln until after the test. Three of four test +pieces should be cut from near the middle of the cross-wise +section of the board, and <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> to <span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">16</span> inch thick. Remove +the superfluous sawdust and splinters. When the +test pieces are placed on the scale pan, be sure their weight +is less than two ounces and more than 1<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> ounces. If +necessary, use two or more broken pieces. It is better if +the test pieces can be cut off on a fine band saw.</p> + +<p><b>Weighing.</b>—Set the base of the scale on a level surface +and accurately balance the scale beam. Put the test +pieces on the scale pan and note their weight on the lower +edge of the beam. Set the indicator point on the horizontal +bar at a number corresponding to this weight, which +may be found on the cylinder at the top of the table.</p> + +<p>Dry the test pieces on the Electric Heater (<a href="#Fig_101">Fig. 101</a>) +30 to 40 minutes, or on the engine cylinder two or three +hours. Weigh them at once and note the weight. Then +turn the cylinder up and at the left of it under the small +pointer find the number corresponding to this weight. +The percentage of moisture lost is found directly under +pointer on the horizontal bar first mentioned. The lower +portion on the cylinder Table No. II is an extension of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +the upper portion, and is manipulated in the same manner +except that the bottom line of figures is used for the +first weight, and the right side of cylinder for second weight. +Turn the cylinder down instead of up when using it.</p> + + +<p class="center"><b>Examples (Test Pieces)</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot" style="font-size: 90%"><p><span class="smcap">Model</span> A. Table No. II, Kiln-dried or Air-dried Lumber:<br /> + +If first weight is 90<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> and the second weight is 87, the cylinder +table will show the board from which the test pieces were +taken had a moisture content of 3.8 per cent.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Model</span> B. Tables No. II and III, Air-dried (also Green and +Kiln-dried) Lumber.<br /> + +If the first weight on lower cylinder is 97 and the second +weight is 76, the table will show 21.6 per cent of moisture.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Model</span> C. Table III, Green Lumber:<br /> + +If the first weight is 94 and the second weight is 51, the +table shows 45.8 per cent of moisture.</p></div> + + +<h4>Keep Records of the Moisture Content</h4> + +<p><b>Saw Mills.</b>—Should test and mark each pile of lumber +when first piled in the yard, and later when sold it should +be again tested and the two records given to the purchaser.</p> + +<p><b>Factories.</b>—Should test and mark the lumber when +first received, and if piled in the yard to be kiln-dried +later, it should be tested before going into the dry kiln, +and again before being removed, and these records placed +on file for future reference.</p> + +<p>Kiln-dried lumber piled in storage rooms (without any +heat) will absorb 7 to 9 per cent of moisture, and even +when so stored should be tested for moisture before being +manufactured into the finished product.</p> + +<p>Never work lumber through the factory that has more +than 5 or 6 per cent of moisture or less than 3 per cent.</p> + +<p>Dry storage rooms should be provided with heating +coils and properly ventilated.</p> + +<p>Oak or any other species of wood that shows 25 or 30 +per cent of moisture when going into the dry kiln, will +take longer to dry than it would if it contained 15 to 20 +per cent, therefore the importance of testing before putting +into the kiln as well as when taking it out.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>The Electric Heater</h4> + +<p>In <a href="#Fig_101">Figure 101</a> is shown the Electric Heater. This +heater is especially designed to dry quickly the test pieces +for use in connection with the Scalometer (see <a href="#Fig_100">Fig. 100</a>) +without charring them. It may be attached to any electric +light socket of 110 volts direct or alternating current. A +metal rack is provided to hold the test pieces vertically +on edge.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><p class="anchor"><a name="Fig_101" id="Fig_101"></a></p> +<img src="images/fig101.jpg" width="500" height="345" alt="The Electric Heater" title="The Electric Heater" /> + +<p class="caption" style="text-align: center">Fig. 101. The Electric Heater.</p> +</div> + +<p>Turn the test pieces over once or twice while drying.</p> + +<p>It will require from 20 minutes to one hour to remove +all the moisture from the test pieces when placed on this +heater, depending on whether they are cut from green, +air-dried, or kiln-dried boards.</p> + +<p>Test pieces cut from softwoods will dry quicker than +those cut from hardwoods.</p> + +<p>When the test pieces fail to show any further loss in +weight, they are then free from all moisture content.</p> + + + +<h3><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></h3> + + +<ul class="bibliography"> +<li><span class="smcap">American Blower Company</span>, Detroit, Mich.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Imre, James</span> E., "The Kiln-drying of Gum," The United States +Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">National Dry Kiln Company</span>, Indianapolis, Ind.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Prichard, Reuben</span> P., "The Structure of the Common Woods," +The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, +Bulletin No. 3.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Roth, Filibert</span>, "Timber," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, +Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 10.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Standard Dry Kiln Company</span>, Indianapolis, Ind.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Sturtevant Company</span>, B. F., Boston, Mass.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tieman</span>, H. D., "The Effects of Moisture upon the Strength and +Stiffness of Wood," The United States Dept. of Agriculture, +Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 70.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tieman</span>, H. D., "Principles of Kiln-drying Lumber," The United +States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tieman</span>, H. D., "The Theory of Drying and its Application, etc.," +The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of +Forestry, Bulletin No. 509.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry</span>, +"Check List of the Forest Trees of the United +States."</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">The United States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of +Forestry</span>, Bulletin No. 37.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Von Schrenk, Herman</span>, "Seasoning of Timbers," The United +States Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Bulletin +No. 41.</li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Wagner</span>, J. B., "Cooperage," 1910.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></li> +</ul> + + + + +<h3><a name="GLOSSARY" id="GLOSSARY"></a>GLOSSARY<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></h3> + + +<ul class="glossary"> +<li><b>Abnormal.</b> Differing from the usual structure.</li> + +<li><b>Acuminate.</b> Tapering at the end.</li> + +<li><b>Adhesion.</b> The union of members of different floral whorls.</li> + +<li><b>Air-seasoning.</b> The drying of wood in the open air.</li> + +<li><b>Albumen.</b> A name applied to the food store laid up outside the +embryo in many seeds; also nitrogenous organic matter +found in plants.</li> + +<li><b>Alburnam.</b> Sapwood.</li> + +<li><b>Angiosperms.</b> Those plants which bear their seeds within a +pericarp.</li> + +<li><b>Annual rings.</b> The layers of wood which are added annually to +the tree.</li> + +<li><b>Apartment kiln.</b> A drying arrangement of one or more rooms +with openings at each end.</li> + +<li><b>Arborescent.</b> A tree in size and habit of growth.</li> + +<li> </li> +<li><b>Baffle plate.</b> An obstruction to deflect air or other currents.</li> + +<li><b>Bastard cut.</b> Tangential cut. Wood of inferior cut.</li> + +<li><b>Berry.</b> A fruit whose entire pericarp is succulent.</li> + +<li><b>Blower kiln.</b> A drying arrangement in which the air is blown +through heating coils into the drying room.</li> + +<li><b>Box kiln.</b> A small square heating room with openings in one end +only.</li> + +<li><b>Brittleness.</b> Aptness to break; not tough; fragility.</li> + +<li><b>Burrow.</b> A shelter; insect's hole in the wood.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Calorie.</b> Unit of heat; amount of heat which raises the +temperature.</li> + +<li><b>Calyx.</b> The outer whorl of floral envelopes.</li> + +<li><b>Capillary.</b> A tube or vessel extremely fine or minute.</li> + +<li><b>Case-harden.</b> A condition in which the pores of the wood are +closed and the outer surface dry, while the inner portion is +still wet or unseasoned.</li> + +<li><b>Cavity.</b> A hollow place; a hollow.</li> + +<li><b>Cell.</b> One of the minute, elementary structures comprising the +greater part of plant tissue.</li> + +<li><b>Cellulose.</b> A primary cell-wall substance.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></li> + +<li><b>Checks.</b> The small chinks or cracks caused by the rupture of the +wood fibres.</li> + +<li><b>Cleft.</b> Opening made by splitting; divided.</li> + +<li><b>Coarse-grained.</b> Wood is coarse-grained when the annual rings +are wide or far apart.</li> + +<li><b>Cohesion.</b> The union of members of the same floral whorl.</li> + +<li><b>Contorted.</b> Twisted together.</li> + +<li><b>Corolla.</b> The inner whorl of floral envelopes.</li> + +<li><b>Cotyledon.</b> One of the parts of the embryo performing in part the +function of a leaf, but usually serving as a storehouse of food +for the developing plant.</li> + +<li><b>Crossers.</b> Narrow wooden strips used to separate the material on +kiln cars.</li> + +<li><b>Cross-grained.</b> Wood is cross-grained when its fibres are spiral +or twisted.</li> + +<li> </li> +<li><b>Dapple.</b> An exaggerated form of mottle.</li> + +<li><b>Deciduous.</b> Not persistent; applied to leaves that fall in autumn +and to calyx and corolla when they fall off before the fruit +develops.</li> + +<li><b>Definite.</b> Limited or defined.</li> + +<li><b>Dew-point.</b> The point at which water is deposited from moisture-laden +air.</li> + +<li><b>Dicotyledon.</b> A plant whose embryo has two opposite cotyledons.</li> + +<li><b>Diffuse.</b> Widely spreading.</li> + +<li><b>Disk.</b> A circular, flat, thin piece or section of the tree.</li> + +<li><b>Duramen.</b> Heartwood.</li> + +<li> </li> +<li><b>Embryo.</b> Applied in botany to the tiny plant within the seed.</li> + +<li><b>Enchinate.</b> Beset with prickles.</li> + +<li><b>Expansion.</b> An enlargement across the grain or lengthwise of the +wood.</li> + +<li> </li> +<li><b>Fibres.</b> The thread-like portion of the tissue of wood.</li> + +<li><b>Fibre-saturation point.</b> The amount of moisture wood will imbibe, +usually 25 to 30 per cent of its dry-wood weight.</li> + +<li><b>Figure.</b> The broad and deep medullary rays as in oak showing +when the timber is cut into boards.</li> + +<li><b>Filament.</b> The stalk which supports the anther.</li> + +<li><b>Fine-grained.</b> Wood is fine-grained when the annual rings are +close together or narrow.</li> + +<li> </li> +<li><b>Germination.</b> The sprouting of a seed.</li> + +<li><b>Girdling.</b> To make a groove around and through the bark of a +tree, thus killing it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></li> + +<li><b>Glands.</b> A secreting surface or structure; a protuberance having +the appearance of such an organ.</li> + +<li><b>Glaucous.</b> Covered or whitened with a bloom.</li> + +<li><b>Grain.</b> Direction or arrangement of the fibres in wood.</li> + +<li><b>Grubs.</b> The larvae of wood-destroying insects.</li> + +<li><b>Gymnosperms.</b> Plants bearing naked seeds; without an ovary.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Habitat.</b> The geographical range of a plant.</li> + +<li><b>Heartwood.</b> The central portion of tree.</li> + +<li><b>Hollow-horning.</b> Internal checking.</li> + +<li><b>Honeycombing.</b> Internal checking.</li> + +<li><b>Hot-blast kiln.</b> A drying arrangement in which the air is blown +through heating coils into the drying room.</li> + +<li><b>Humidity.</b> Damp, moist.</li> + +<li><b>Hygroscopicity.</b> The property of readily imbibing moisture from +the atmosphere.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Indefinite.</b> Applied to petals or other organs when too numerous +to be conveniently counted.</li> + +<li><b>Indigenous.</b> Native to the country.</li> + +<li><b>Involute.</b> A form of vernation in which the leaf is rolled inward +from its edges.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Kiln-drying.</b> Drying or seasoning of wood by artificial heat in an +inclosed room.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Leaflet.</b> A single division of a compound leaf.</li> + +<li><b>Limb.</b> The spreading portion of the tree.</li> + +<li><b>Lumen.</b> Internal space in the spring- and summer-wood fibres.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Median.</b> Situated in the middle.</li> + +<li><b>Medulla.</b> The pith.</li> + +<li><b>Medullary rays.</b> Rays of fundamental tissue which connect the +pith with the bark.</li> + +<li><b>Membranous.</b> Thin and rather soft, more or less translucent.</li> + +<li><b>Midrib.</b> The central or main rib of a leaf.</li> + +<li><b>Moist-air kiln.</b> A drying arrangement in which the heat is taken +from radiating coils located inside the drying room.</li> + +<li><b>Mottle.</b> Figure transverse of the fibres, probably caused by the +action of wind upon the tree.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Non-porous.</b> Without pores.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Oblong.</b> Considerably longer than broad, with flowing outline.</li> + +<li><b>Obtuse.</b> Blunt, rounded.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></li> + +<li><b>Oval.</b> Broadly elliptical.</li> + +<li><b>Ovary.</b> The part of the pistil that contains the ovules.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Parted.</b> Cleft nearly, but not quite to the base or midrib.</li> + +<li><b>Parenchyma.</b> Short cells constituting the pith and pulp of the +tree.</li> + +<li><b>Pericarp.</b> The walls of the ripened ovary, the part of the fruit +that encloses the seeds.</li> + +<li><b>Permeable.</b> Capable of being penetrated.</li> + +<li><b>Petal.</b> One of the leaves of the corolla.</li> + +<li><b>Pinholes.</b> Small holes in the wood caused by worms or insects.</li> + +<li><b>Pistil.</b> The modified leaf or leaves which bear the ovules; usually +consisting of ovary, style and stigma.</li> + +<li><b>Plastic.</b> Elastic, easily bent.</li> + +<li><b>Pocket kilns.</b> Small drying rooms with openings on one end only +and in which the material to be dried is piled directly on the +floor.</li> + +<li><b>Pollen.</b> The fertilizing powder produced by the anther.</li> + +<li><b>Pores.</b> Minute orifices in wood.</li> + +<li><b>Porous.</b> Containing pores.</li> + +<li><b>Preliminary steaming.</b> Subjecting wood to a steaming process +before drying or seasoning.</li> + +<li><b>Progressive kiln.</b> A drying arrangement with openings at both +ends, and in which the material enters at one end and is discharged +at the other.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Rick.</b> A pile or stack of lumber.</li> + +<li><b>Rift.</b> To split; cleft.</li> + +<li><b>Ring shake.</b> A large check or crack in the wood following an +annual ring.</li> + +<li><b>Roe.</b> A peculiar figure caused by the contortion of the woody +fibres, and takes a wavy line parallel to them.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Sapwood.</b> The outer portions of the tree next to the bark; +alburnam.</li> + +<li><b>Saturate.</b> To cause to become completely penetrated or soaked.</li> + +<li><b>Season checks.</b> Small openings in the ends of the wood caused +by the process of drying.</li> + +<li><b>Seasoning.</b> The process by which wood is dried or seasoned.</li> + +<li><b>Seedholes.</b> Minute holes in wood caused by wood-destroying +worms or insects.</li> + +<li><b>Shake.</b> A large check or crack in wood caused by the action of +the wind on the tree.</li> + +<li><b>Shrinkage.</b> A lessening or contraction of the wood substance.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></li> + +<li><b>Skidways.</b> Material set on an incline for transporting lumber or +logs.</li> + +<li><b>Species.</b> In science, a group of existing things, associated according +to properties.</li> + +<li><b>Spermatophyta.</b> Seed-bearing plants.</li> + +<li><b>Spring-wood.</b> Wood that is formed in the spring of the year.</li> + +<li><b>Stamen.</b> The pollen-bearing organ of the flower, usually consisting +of filament and anther.</li> + +<li><b>Stigma.</b> That part of the pistil which receives the pollen.</li> + +<li><b>Style.</b> That part of the pistil which connects the ovary with the +stigma.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Taproot.</b> The main root or downward continuation of the plant +axis.</li> + +<li><b>Temporary checks.</b> Checks or cracks that subsequently close.</li> + +<li><b>Tissue.</b> One of the elementary fibres composing wood.</li> + +<li><b>Thunder shake.</b> A rupture of the fibres of the tree across the +grain, which in some woods does not always break them.</li> + +<li><b>Tornado shake.</b> (See Thunder shake.)</li> + +<li><b>Tracheids.</b> The tissues of the tree which consist of vertical cells +or vessels closed at one end.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Warping.</b> Turning or twisting out of shape.</li> + +<li><b>Wind shake.</b> (See Thunder shake.)</li> + +<li><b>Working.</b> The shrinking and swelling occasioned in wood.</li> + +<li><b>Wormholes.</b> Small holes in wood caused by wood-destroying +worms.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li><b>Vernation.</b> The arrangement of the leaves in the bud.</li> + +<li><b>Whorl.</b> An arrangement of organs in a circle about a central axis.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></li> +</ul> + + + + +<h3><a name="INDEX_OF_LATIN_NAMES" id="INDEX_OF_LATIN_NAMES"></a>INDEX OF LATIN NAMES<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></h3> + +<div class="twocolumns"> +<div class="column_left"> +<ul> +<li>Abies amabalis, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Abies balsamea, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li>Abies concolor, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li>Abies grandis, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li>Abies magnifica, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Abies nobilis, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Acer macrophyllum, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Acer negundo, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Acer Pennsylvanicum, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Acer rubrum, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Acer saccharinum, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Acer saccharum, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> +<li>Acer spicatum, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Æsculus flava, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Æsculus glabra, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Æsculus octandra, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Ailanthus glandulosa, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +<li>Asimina triloba, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li>Betula lenta, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li>Betula lutea, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +<li>Betula nigra, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>Betula papyrifera, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>Betula populifolia, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +<li>Betula rubra, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>Buxus sempervirens, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Carpinus Caroliana, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li>Castanea Americana, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Castanea chrysophylla, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>Castanea dentata, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Castanea pumila, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Castanea vesca, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Castanea vulgaris, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Catalpa bignonioides, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Catalpa speciosa, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Celtis occidentalis, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li>Chamæcyparis Lawsonia, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li>Chamæcyparis thyoides, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> +<li>Cladrastis lutea, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li>Cornus florida, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>Cupressus nootkatensis, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Diospyros Virginia, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Evonymus atropurpureus, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Fagus ferruginea, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> +<li>Fraxinus Americana, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +<li>Fraxinus Caroliniana, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li>Fraxinus nigra, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Fraxinus Oregana, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Fraxinus Pennsylvanica, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Fraxinus pubescens, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Fraxinus quadrangulata, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Fraxinus sambucifolia, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Fraxinus viridis, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Gleditschia triacanthos, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Gymnocladus dioicus, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Hicoria alba, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li>Hicoria glabra, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li>Hicoria minima, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li>Hicoria ovata, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li>Hicoria pecan, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Ilex monticolo, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li>Ilex opaca, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Juglans cinerea, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Juglans nigra, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li>Juniperus communis, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li>Juniperus Virginiana, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Larix Americana, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> +<li>Larix laricina, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> +<li>Larix occidentalis, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> +<li>Libocedrus decurrens, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li>Liquidamber styraciflua, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li>Liriodendron tulipfera, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Maclura aurantiaca, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li>Magnolia acuminata, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Magnolia glauca, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></li> +<li>Magnolia tripetala, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Morus rubra, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Nyssa aquatica, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li>Nyssa sylvatica, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Ostrya Virginiana, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li>Oxydendrum arboreum, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Picea alba, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li>Picea canadensis, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li>Picea engelmanni, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li>Picea mariana, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Picea nigra, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Picea rubens, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li>Picea sitchensis, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li>Pinus banksiana, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li></ul> +</div> + +<div class="column_right"> +<ul> +<li>Pinus cubensis, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Pinus divaricata, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Pinus enchinata, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Pinus flexilis, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Pinus inops, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Pinus Jeffreyi, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +<li>Pinus Lambertiana, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Pinus monticolo, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Pinus Murryana, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Pinus palustris, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Pinus ponderosa, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +<li>Pinus resinosa, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +<li>Pinus rigida, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Pinus strobus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>Pinus tæda, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +<li>Pinus Virginiana, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Platanus occidentalis, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li>Platanus racemosa, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li>Populus alba, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li>Populus angulata, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li>Populus balsamifera, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li>Populus fremontii, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li>Populus grandidentata, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li>Populus heteropylla, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li>Populus monilifera, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li>Populus nigra italica, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li>Populus tremuloides, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li>Populus trichocarpa, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li>Populus Wislizeni, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li>Prunus Pennsylvanica, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Prunus serotina, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Pseudotsuga douglasii, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li>Pseudotsuga taxifolia, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li>Pyrus coronaria, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Quercus acuminata, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>Quercus alba, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li>Quercus aquatica, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>Quercus bicolor, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li>Quercus chrysolepis, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li>Quercus coccinea, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Quercus digitata, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Quercus durandii, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li>Quercus falcata, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Quercus garryana, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li>Quercus ilicijolia, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Quercus imbricaria, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Quercus lobata, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li>Quercus lyrata, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>Quercus macrocarpa, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li>Quercus marilandica, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Quercus Michauxii, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Quercus minor, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Quercus nigra, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Quercus obtusiloda, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Quercus palustris, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>Quercus phellos, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li>Quercus platanoides, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li>Quercus prinoides, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Quercus prinus, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>Quercus pumila, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Quercus rubra, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Quercus tinctoria, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Quercus velutina, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Quercus virens, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Rhamnus Caroliniana, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Robinia pseudacacia, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Robinia viscosa, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Salix alba, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>Salix amygdaloides, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>Salix babylonica, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>Salix bebbiana, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>Salix discolor, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>Salix fluviatilis, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>Salix fragilis, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>Salix lucida, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>Salix nigra, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>Salix rostrata, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>Salix vitellina, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>Sassafras sassafras, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li>Sequoia sempervirens, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Taxodium distinchum, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li>Taxus brevifolia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li>Thuya gigantea, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> +<li>Thuya occidentalis, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> +<li>Tilia Americana, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li>Tilia heterophylla, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span></li> +<li>Tilia pubescens, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li>Tsuga canadensis, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>Tsuga mertensiana, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li> </li> + + +<li>Ulmus alata, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li>Ulmus Americana, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +<li>Ulmus crassifolia, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li>Ulmus fulva, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li>Ulmus pubescens, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li>Ulmus racemosa, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +<li>Umbellularia Californica, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +</ul> +</div> +<div class="clear"> </div> +</div> + + + + + +<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span></h3> + + +<ul class="index"> +<li><span class="smcap">Abele, Tree</span>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Absorption of water by dry wood, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li>Acacia, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Acacia, false, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Acacia, three-thorned, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>According to species, different kiln drying, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> + +<li>Advantages in seasoning, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + +<li>Advantages of kiln-drying over air-drying, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Affect drying, properties of wood that, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Ailanthus, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Air circulation, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> + +<li>Air-drying, advantages of kiln-drying over, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Alaska cedar, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Alaska cypress, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Alcoholic liquids, stave and heads of barrels containing, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Almond-leaf willow, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Ambrosia or timber beetles, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> + +<li>American box, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>American elm, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>American larch, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>American linden, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>American oak, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> + +<li>American red pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Anatomical structure, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + +<li>Annual ring, the yearly or, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li>Apartment dry kiln, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Apple, crab, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Apple, custard, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Apple, wild, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Appliances in kiln-drying, helpful, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li>Arborvitæ, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Ash, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Ash, black, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Ash, blue, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Ash, Carolina, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Ash, green, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Ash, ground, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Ash, hoop, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Ash-leaved maple, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Ash, Oregon, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Ash, red, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Ash, white, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Aspen, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Aspen, large-toothed, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Aspen-leaved birch, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Aspen, quaking, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Atmospheric pressure, drying at, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Bald Cypress</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Ball tree, button, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Balm of gilead, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Balm of gilead fir, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + +<li>Balsam, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Balsam fir, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + +<li>Bark and pith, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Bark on, round timber with, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Barrels containing alcoholic liquids, staves and heads of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Barren oak, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Bar willow, sand, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Basket oak, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Basswood, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Basswood, small-leaved, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Basswood, white, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Bastard pine, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Bastard spruce, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Bay poplar, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Bay, sweet, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Bear oak, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Beaver wood, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Bebb willow, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Bee tree, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Beech, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + +<li>Beech, blue, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li>Beech, red, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + +<li>Beech, water, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Beech, white, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + +<li>Berry, sugar, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + +<li>Beetles, ambrosia or timber, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></li> + +<li>Big bud hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Bilsted, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + +<li>Birch, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Birch, aspen-leaved, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Birch, black, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Birch, canoe, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Birch, cherry, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Birch, gray, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Birch, mahogany, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Birch, old field, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Birch, paper, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Birch, red, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Birch, river, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Birch, silver, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Birch, sweet, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Birch, white, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Birch, wintergreen, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Birch, yellow, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Bird cherry, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Bitternut hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Black ash, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Black birch, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Black cherry, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Black cottonwood, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Black cypress, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Black gum, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + +<li>Black hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Black jack, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Black larch, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>Black locust, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Black nut hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Black oak, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Black pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Black spruce, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Black walnut, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Black willow, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Blower dry kiln, operation of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> + +<li>Blower or hot blast dry kiln, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + +<li>Blue ash, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Blue beech, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li>Blue poplar, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Blue willow, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Bois d'Arc, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Bolts, stave, heading and shingle, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li>Borers, flat-headed, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + +<li>Borers, powder post, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> + +<li>Borers, round-headed, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> + +<li>Box, American, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Box elder, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Box dry kiln, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> + +<li>Broad-leaved maple, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Broad-leaved trees, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + +<li>Broad-leaved trees, list of most important, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Broad-leaved trees, wood of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + +<li>Brown hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Brown locust, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Buckeye, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Buckeye, fetid, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Buckeye, Ohio, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Buckeye, sweet, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Buckthorne, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Bud hickory, big, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Bull nut hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Bull pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Bur oak, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li>Burning bush, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Bush, burning, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Bush, juniper, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Butternut, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Button ball tree, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Button wood, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">California Redwood</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>California white pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Canadian pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Canary wood, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Canoe birch, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Canoe cedar, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Carolina ash, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Carolina pine, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Carolina poplar, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + +<li>Cars, method of loading kiln, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li>Catalpa, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li>Cedar, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Cedar, Alaska, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Cedar, canoe, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Cedar, elm, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li>Cedar, ground, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Cedar, incense, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Cedar of the West, red, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Cedar, Oregon, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Cedar, pencil, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Cedar, Port Orford, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Cedar, red, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Cedar, white, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Cedar, yellow, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Changes rendering drying difficult, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> + +<li>Characteristics and properties of wood, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> + +<li>Checking and splitting, prevention of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + +<li>Cherry, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Cherry birch, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span></li> + +<li>Cherry, bird, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Cherry, black, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Cherry, Indian, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Cherry, red, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Cherry, rum, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Cherry, wild, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Cherry, wild red, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Chestnut, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li>Chestnut, horse, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Chestnut oak, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Chestnut oak, rock, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Chestnut oak, scrub, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Chinquapin, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Chinquapin oak, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Chinquapin oak, dwarf, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Choice of drying method, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> + +<li>Circassian walnut, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Circulation, air, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> + +<li>Clammy locust, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Classes of trees, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li>Cliff elm, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Coast redwood, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Coffee nut, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Coffee tree, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Color and odor of wood, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> + +<li>Color, odor, weight, and figure in wood, grain, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Composition of sap, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + +<li>Conditions and species, temperature depends on, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> + +<li>Conditions favorable for insect injury, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Conditions governing the drying of wood, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Conditions of success in kiln-drying, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> + +<li>Coniferous trees, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Coniferous trees, wood of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Coniferous woods, list of important, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Containing alcoholic liquids, staves and heads of barrels, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Cooperage stock and wooden truss hoops, dry, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Cork elm, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Cotton gum, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Cottonwood, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Cottonwood, black, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Cottonwood, swamp, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Cow oak, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Crab apple, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Crab, fragrant, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Crack willow, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Crude products, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Cuban pine, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Cucumber tree, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Cup oak, mossy, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li>Cup oak, over-, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Custard apple, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Cypress, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Cypress, Alaska, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Cypress, bald, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Cypress, black, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Cypress, Lawson's, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Cypress, pecky, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Cypress, red, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Cypress, white, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">D'Arc, Bois</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Deal, yellow, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + +<li>Demands upon soil and moisture of red gum, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + +<li>Depends on conditions and species, temperature, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> + +<li>Description of the forest service kiln, theory and, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> + +<li>Diagram, the uses of the humidity, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li>Difference between seasoned and unseasoned wood, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> + +<li>Different grains of wood, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Different kiln-drying according to species, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> + +<li>Different species, weight of kiln-dried wood of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> + +<li>Different types, kilns of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + +<li>Different types of dry kilns, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + +<li>Different types of kiln doors, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> + +<li>Difficult, changes rendering drying, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> + +<li>Difficulties of drying wood, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> + +<li>Distribution of water in wood, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Distribution of water in wood, local, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Distribution of water in wood seasonal, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> + +<li>Dogwood, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Doors, different types of kiln, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> + +<li>Douglas spruce, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Downy linden, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Downy poplar, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Dry cooperage stock and wooden truss hoops, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Drying according to species, different kiln, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> + +<li>Drying, advantages of kiln-drying over air, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></li> + +<li>Drying at atmospheric pressure, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> + +<li>Drying by superheated steam, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> + +<li>Drying, conditions of success in kiln, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> + +<li>Drying difficult, changes rendering, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> + +<li>Drying gum, kiln, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> + +<li>Drying, helpful appliances in kiln, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li>Drying, kiln, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> + +<li>Drying, losses due to improper kiln, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + +<li>Drying method, choice of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + +<li>Drying, methods of kiln, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> + +<li>Drying, objects of kiln, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> + +<li>Drying of green red gum, kiln, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> + +<li>Drying of wood, kiln, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Drying of wood, physical conditions governing the, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Drying, physical properties that influence, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> + +<li>Drying, properties of wood that effect, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + +<li>Drying, theory of kiln, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> + +<li>Drying, underlying principles of kiln, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> + +<li>Drying under pressure and vacuum, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> + +<li>Drying, unsolved problems in kiln, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> + +<li>Drying wood, difficulties of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> + +<li>Drying 100 lb. of green wood in the kiln, pounds of water lost, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + +<li>Dry kiln, apartment, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Dry kiln, box, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> + +<li>Dry kiln, operation of the blower, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> + +<li>Dry kiln, operation of the moist-air, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> + +<li>Dry kiln, moist-air or pipe, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Dry kiln, pocket, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> + +<li>Dry kiln, progressive, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + +<li>Dry kiln, requirements in a satisfactory, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + +<li>Dry kilns, different types of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + +<li>Dry kiln specialties, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li>Dry kilns, types of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + +<li>Dry kiln, tower, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + +<li>Dry wood, absorption of water by, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li>Duck oak, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Due to improper kiln-drying, losses, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + +<li>Dwarf chinquapin oak, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Effects of Moisture on Wood</span>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + +<li>Elder, box, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Electric heater, the, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li>Elimination of stain and mildew, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li>Elm, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Elm, American, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Elm, cedar, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li>Elm, cliff, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Elm, cork, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Elm, hickory, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Elm, moose, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li>Elm, red, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li>Elm, rock, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Elm, slippery, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li>Elm, water, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Elm, winged, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li>Elm, white, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Enemies of wood, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + +<li>Evaporation of water, manner of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li>Evaporation, rapidity of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li>Expansion of wood, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Factories, Scalometer in</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> + +<li>False acacia, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Favorable for insect injury, conditions, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Fetid buckeye, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Fibre saturation point in wood, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> + +<li>Field birch, old, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Field pine, old, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Figure in wood, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li>Figure in wood, grain, color, odor, weight, and, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Final steaming of gum, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Fir, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + +<li>Fir, balm of gilead, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + +<li>Fir balsam, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + +<li>Fir, noble, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + +<li>Fir, red, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Fir tree, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + +<li>Fir, white, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + +<li>Fir, yellow, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Flat-headed borers, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + +<li>Forest service kiln, theory and description of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> + +<li>Form of the red gum, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li>Fragrant crab, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Gauge, the Recording Steam</span>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> + +<li>Georgia pine, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Gilead, balm of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Gilead fir, balm of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></li> + +<li>Ginger pine, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Glaucous willow, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Governing the drying of wood, physical conditions, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Grain, color, odor, weight, and figure in wood, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Grains of wood, different, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Gray birch, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Gray pine, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Green ash, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Green red gum, kiln-drying, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> + +<li>Green wood in the kiln, pounds of water lost in drying 100 lbs., <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + +<li>Ground ash, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Ground cedar, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Growth red gum, second, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + +<li>Gum, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> + +<li>Gum, black, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + +<li>Gum, cotton, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Gum, demands upon soil and moisture of red, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + +<li>Gum, final steaming of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Gum, form of red, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li>Gum, kiln-drying, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> + +<li>Gum, kiln-drying of green red, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> + +<li>Gum, method of piling, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> + +<li>Gum, preliminary steaming of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Gum, range of red, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li>Gum, range of tupelo, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> + +<li>Gum, red, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Gum, reproduction of red, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + +<li>Gum, second-growth red, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + +<li>Gum, sour, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Gum, sweet, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Gum, tolerance of the red, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + +<li>Gum, tupelo, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Gum, uses of tupelo, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Hackberry</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + +<li>Hacmatac, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>Hard maple, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + +<li>Hard pine, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Hard pines, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Hard pine, southern, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Hardwoods, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Hazel pine, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Headed borers, flat, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + +<li>Headed borers, round, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> + +<li>Heading, stave and shingle bolts, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li>Heads and staves of barrels containing alcoholic liquids, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Heart hickory, white, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Heartwood, sap and, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Heater, the electric, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li>Helpful appliances in kiln-drying, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li>Hemlock, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + +<li>Hemlock spruce, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, big bud, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, bitternut, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, black, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, black nut, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, brown, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, bull nut, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Hickory elm, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, mockernut, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, pignut, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, poplar, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, scalybark, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, shagbark, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, shellbark, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, swamp, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, switchbud, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Hickory, white heart, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Holly, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Holly, mountain, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Honey locust, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Honey shucks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Hoop ash, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Hoops, dry cooperage stock and wooden truss, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Hop hornbeam, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Hornbeam, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li>Hornbeam, hop, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Horse chestnut, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Hot blast or blower kiln, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + +<li>Humidity, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> + +<li>Humidity diagram, uses of the, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li>How to prevent insect injury, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + +<li>How wood is seasoned, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> + +<li>Hygrodeik, the, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> + +<li>Hygrometer, the recording, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> + +<li>Hygrometer, the registering, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Illinois Nut</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Important broad-leaved trees, list of most, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Important coniferous woods, list of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Impregnation methods, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> + +<li>Improper kiln-drying, losses due to, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + +<li>Incense cedar, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Indian bean, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li>Indian cherry, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></li> + +<li>Influence drying, physical properties that, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> + +<li>Injury, conditions favorable for insect, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Injury from insects, how to prevent, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + +<li>Insect injury, conditions favorable for, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Insects, how to prevent injury from, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + +<li>Iron oak, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Ironwood, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Jack, Black</span>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Jack oak, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Jack pine, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Jersey pine, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Juniper, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Juniper bush, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Juniper, red, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Juniper, savin, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Keep Records of the Moisture Content</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> + +<li>Kiln, apartment dry, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Kiln, blower or hot blast, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + +<li>Kiln, box dry, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> + +<li>Kiln cars and method of loading, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li>Kiln doors, different types, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-dried wood of different species, weight of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying according to species, different, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying, conditions of success in, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying gum, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying, helpful appliances in, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying, losses due to improper, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying, objects of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying of green red gum, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying of wood, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying of wood, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying over air-drying, advantages of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying, theory of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying, underlying principles of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> + +<li>Kiln-drying, unsolved problems in, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> + +<li>Kiln, operation of the blower dry, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> + +<li>Kiln, operation of the moist-air dry, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> + +<li>Kiln, pipe or moist-air dry, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Kiln, pocket dry, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> + +<li>Kiln, progressive dry, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + +<li>Kiln, requirements in a satisfactory dry, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + +<li>Kilns, different types of dry, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + +<li>Kilns of different types, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + +<li>Kiln specialties, dry, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li>Kiln, theory and description of the forest service, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> + +<li>Kilns, types of dry, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + +<li>Kiln, tower dry, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Land Spruce, Tide</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Larch, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>Larch, American, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>Larch, black, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>Larch, western, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>Large-toothed aspen, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Laurel, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Laurel oak, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Lawson's cypress, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Leaf pine, long-, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Leaf pine, short-, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Leaf willow, long, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Leaved basswood, small, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Leaved birch, aspen, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Leaved maple, ash, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Leaved maple, broad, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Leaved maple, silver, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Leaved trees, broad, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + +<li>Leaved trees, list of most important broad, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Leaved trees, wood of broad, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + +<li>Leverwood, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Life, tree of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Lime tree, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Lin, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Linden, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Linden, American, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Linden, downy, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Liquidamber, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + +<li>Liquids, staves and heads of barrels containing alcoholic, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>List of important coniferous trees, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>List of most important broad-leaved trees, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Live oak, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Loading, kiln cars and method of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li>Loblolly pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></li> + +<li>Local distribution of water in wood, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Locust, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Locust, black, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Locust, brown, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Locust, clammy, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Locust, honey, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Locust, sweet, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Locust, yellow, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Lodge-pole pine, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Lombardy poplar, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Long-leaf pine, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Long-leaf willow, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Long-straw pine, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Losses due to improper kiln-drying, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + +<li>Lost in kiln-drying 100 lb. green wood in the kiln, pounds of water, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Magnolia</span>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Magnolia, small, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Magnolia, swamp, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Mahogany, birch, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Mahogany, white, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Manner of evaporation of water, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li>Maple, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Maple, ash-leaved, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Maple, broad-leaved, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Maple, hard, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + +<li>Maple, mountain, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Maple, Oregon, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Maple, red, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Maple, rock, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + +<li>Maple, silver, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Maple, silver-leaved, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Maple, soft, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Maple, striped, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> + +<li>Maple, sugar, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + +<li>Maple, swamp, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Maple, water, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Maple, white, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Maul oak, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Meadow pine, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Method, choice of drying, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> + +<li>Method of loading kiln cars, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li>Method of piling gum, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> + +<li>Methods, impregnation, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> + +<li>Methods of drying, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> + +<li>Mildew, elimination of stain and, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li>Minute structure, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + +<li>Mockernut hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Moist-air dry kiln, operation of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> + +<li>Moist-air or pipe kiln, the, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Moisture content, keep records of the, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> + +<li>Moisture, demands upon soil and, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + +<li>Moisture on wood, effects of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + +<li>Moose elm, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li>Moose-wood, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> + +<li>Mossy-cup oak, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li>Most important broad-leaved trees list of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Mountain holly, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Mountain maple, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Mulberry, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> + +<li>Mulberry, red, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> + +<li>Myrtle, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Nettle Tree</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + +<li>Noble fir, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + +<li>Norway pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Nut, coffee, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Nut hickory, black, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Nut hickory, bull, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Nut, Illinois, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Nyssa, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Oak</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> + +<li>Oak, American, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> + +<li>Oak, barren, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Oak, basket, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Oak, bear, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Oak, black, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Oak, bur, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li>Oak, chestnut, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Oak, chinquapin, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Oak, cow, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Oak, duck, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Oak, dwarf chinquapin, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Oak, iron, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Oak, jack, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Oak, laurel, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Oak, live, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Oak, maul, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Oak, mossy-cup, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li>Oak, over-cup, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Oak, peach, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li>Oak, pin, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Oak, possum, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Oak, post, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Oak, punk, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Oak, red, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Oak, rock, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Oak, rock chestnut, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></li> + +<li>Oak, scarlet, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Oak, scrub, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Oak, scrub chestnut, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Oak, shingle, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Oak, Spanish, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Oak, swamp post, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Oak, swamp Spanish, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Oak, swamp white, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Oak, water, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Oak, western white, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> + +<li>Oak, white, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li>Oak, willow, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li>Oak, yellow, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Oak, Valparaiso, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Objects of kiln-drying, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> + +<li>Odor and color of wood, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> + +<li>Odor, weight, and figure in wood, grain, color, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Ohio buckeye, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Old field birch, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Old field pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Operation of the blower kiln, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> + +<li>Operation of the moist-air kiln, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> + +<li>Orange, osage, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Oregon ash, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Oregon cedar, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Oregon maple, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Oregon pine, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Orford cedar, Port, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Osage orange, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Out-of-door seasoning, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> + +<li>Over-cup oak, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Papaw</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Paper birch, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Peach oak, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li>Pecan, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Pecky cypress, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Pencil cedar, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Pepperidge, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Perch willow, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Persimmon, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + +<li>Peruche, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + +<li>Physical conditions governing the drying of wood, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Physical properties that influence drying, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> + +<li>Pignut hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Piling gum, methods of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> + +<li>Pine, American red, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Pine, bastard, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pine, black, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Pine, bull, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Pine, California white, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Pine, Canadian, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Pine, Carolina, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pine, Cuban, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pine, Georgia, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Pine, ginger, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Pine, gray, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Pine, hard, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pine, hazel, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Pine, jack, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Pine, Jersey, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Pine, loblolly, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Pine, lodge-pole, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Pine, long-leaf, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Pine, long-straw, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Pine, meadow, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pine, Norway, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Pine, old field, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pine, Oregon, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Pine, pitch, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pine, Puget Sound, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Pine, pumpkin, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Pine, red, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Pine, rosemary, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Pine, sap, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Pine, scrub, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Pines, hard, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Pine, short-leaf, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pine, short-straw, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Pine, slash, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pine, soft, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Pine, southern, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Pine, southern hard, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Pine, spruce, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pine, sugar, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Pine, swamp, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pine, torch, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pine, Weymouth, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + +<li>Pine, western, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Pine, western white, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Pine, western yellow, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Pine, white, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Pine, yellow, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pin oak, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Pipe or moist-air kiln, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Pitch pine, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Pith and bark, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Plane tree, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Pocket dry kiln, the, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> + +<li>Point in wood, the fibre saturation, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> + +<li>Pole pine, lodge, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Poplar, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span></li> + +<li>Poplar, bay, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Poplar, blue, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Poplar, Carolina, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + +<li>Poplar, downy, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Poplar, hickory, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Poplar, Lombardy, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Poplar, swamp, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Poplar, white, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Poplar, yellow, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Port Orford cedar, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Possum oak, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Post borers, powder, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> + +<li>Post oak, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Post oak, swamp, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Pounds of water lost in drying 100 lb. green wood in the kiln, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + +<li>Powder post borers, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> + +<li>Preliminary steaming of gum, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Preliminary treatments, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> + +<li>Pressure and vacuum, drying under, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> + +<li>Pressure, drying at atmospheric, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> + +<li>Prevent injury from insects, how to, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + +<li>Prevention of checking and splitting, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + +<li>Principles of kiln-drying, underlying, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> + +<li>Problems in kiln-drying, unsolved, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> + +<li>Products, crude, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Products in the rough, seasoned, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Products in the rough, unseasoned, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li>Progressive dry kiln, the, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + +<li>Properties, characteristics and, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> + +<li>Properties of wood, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li>Properties of wood that affect drying, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + +<li>Properties that influence drying, physical, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> + +<li>Puget Sound pine, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Pumpkin pine, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Punk oak, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Pussy willow, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Quaking Aspen</span>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Range of Red Gum</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li>Range of tupelo gum, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> + +<li>Rapidity of evaporation, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li>Recording hygrometer, the, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> + +<li>Recording steam gauge, the, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> + +<li>Recording thermometer, the, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li>Records of the moisture content, keep, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> + +<li>Red ash, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Red beech, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + +<li>Red birch, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Red cedar, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Red cedar of the West, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Red cherry, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Red cherry, wild, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Red cypress, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Red elm, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li>Red fir, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Red gum, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Red gum, demands upon soil and moisture of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + +<li>Red gum, form of the, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li>Red gum, kiln-drying of green, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> + +<li>Red gum, range of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li>Red gum, reproduction of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + +<li>Red gum, second-growth, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + +<li>Red gum, tolerance of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + +<li>Red juniper, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Red maple, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Red mulberry, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> + +<li>Red oak, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Red pine, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Red pine, American, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Red spruce, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Redwood, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Redwood, California, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Redwood, Coast, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Registering hygrometer, the, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> + +<li>Registering thermometer, the, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> + +<li>Rendering drying difficult, changes, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> + +<li>Reproduction of red gum, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + +<li>Requirements in a satisfactory dry kiln, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + +<li>Ring, the annual or yearly, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li>River birch, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Rock chestnut oak, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Rock elm, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>Rock maple, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + +<li>Rock oak, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Rosemary pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Rough, seasoned products in the, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Rough, unseasoned products in the, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li>Round-headed borers, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> + +<li>Round timber with bark on, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Rum cherry, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Samples for Scalometer Test</span>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span></li> + +<li>Sand bar willow, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Sap and heartwood, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Sap, composition of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + +<li>Saplings, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> + +<li>Sap pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Sassafras, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Satin walnut, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + +<li>Satisfactory dry kiln, requirements in a, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + +<li>Saturation point in wood, fibre, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> + +<li>Sawmills, scalometer in, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> + +<li>Savin juniper, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Scalometer in factories, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> + +<li>Scalometer in sawmills, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> + +<li>Scalometer, test samples for, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> + +<li>Scalometer, the troemroid, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li>Scalometer, weighing with, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> + +<li>Scalybark hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Scarlet oak, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Scrub chestnut oak, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Scrub oak, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Scrub pine, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Seasonal distribution of water in wood, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> + +<li>Seasoned and unseasoned wood, difference between, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> + +<li>Seasoned, how wood is, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> + +<li>Seasoned products in the rough, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Seasoning, advantages in, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + +<li>Seasoning is, what, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> + +<li>Seasoning, out-of-door, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> + +<li>Second-growth red gum, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + +<li>Sequoia, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Service kiln, theory and description of forest, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> + +<li>Shagbark hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Shellbark hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Shingle, heading and stave bolts, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li>Shingle oak, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Shining willow, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Short-leaf pine, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Short-straw pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Shrinkage of wood, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> + +<li>Shucks, honey, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Sitka spruce, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Silver birch, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Silver-leaved maple, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Silver maple, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Slash pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Slippery elm, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li>Small-leaved basswood, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Small magnolia, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Soft maple, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Soft pine, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Soil and moisture, demands upon, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + +<li>Sorrel-tree, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Sound pine, Puget, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Sour gum, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Sourwood, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Southern hard pine, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Southern pine, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Spanish oak, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Spanish oak, swamp, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Specialties, dry-kiln, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li>Species, different kiln-drying according to, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> + +<li>Species, temperature depends upon condition and, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> + +<li>Species, weight of kiln-dried wood of different, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> + +<li>Spindle tree, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Splitting, prevention of checking and, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + +<li>Spring and summer-wood, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Spruce, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Spruce, bastard, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Spruce, black, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Spruce, Douglas, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Spruce, hemlock, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + +<li>Spruce pine, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Spruce, red, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Spruce, Sitka, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Spruce, tide-land, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Spruce, white, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Stain and mildew, elimination of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li>Stave, heading and shingle bolts, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li>Staves and heads of barrels containing alcoholic liquids, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Steam, drying by superheated, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> + +<li>Steam gauge, the recording, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> + +<li>Steaming of gum, preliminary, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Steaming of gum, final, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Stock and wooden truss hoops, dry cooperage, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Straw pine, long, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Straw pine, short, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Striped maple, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> + +<li>Structure, anatomical, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + +<li>Structure, minute, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + +<li>Structure of wood, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li>Stump tree, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Success in kiln-drying, conditions of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> + +<li>Sugar berry, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + +<li>Sugar maple, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></li> + +<li>Sugar pine, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Summerwood, spring and, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Superheated steam, drying by, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> + +<li>Swamp cottonwood, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Swamp hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Swamp magnolia, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Swamp maple, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Swamp pine, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Swamp poplar, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Swamp post oak, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Swamp Spanish oak, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Swamp white oak, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Sweet bay, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Sweet buckeye, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Sweet birch, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Sweet gum, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Sweet locust, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Switchbud hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Sycamore, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Tacmahac</span>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Tamarack, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Temperature depends upon conditions and species, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> + +<li>Test samples for scalometer, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> + +<li>Theory and description of the forest service kiln, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> + +<li>Theory of kiln-drying, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> + +<li>Thermometer, the recording, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li>Thermometer, the registering, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> + +<li>Thorned acacia, three, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Three-thorned acacia, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Tide-land spruce, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Timber, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> + +<li>Timber beetles, ambrosia or, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> + +<li>Timber with bark on, round, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Timber worms, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + +<li>Tolerance of red gum, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + +<li>Toothed aspen, large-, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Torch pine, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Tower dry kiln, the, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + +<li>Treatments, preliminary, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> + +<li>Tree, abele, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Tree, bee, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Tree, button ball, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Tree, coffee, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Tree, cucumber, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Tree, fir, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + +<li>Tree, lime, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>Tree, nettle, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + +<li>Tree of life, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Tree, plane, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Trees, broad-leaved, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + +<li>Trees, classes of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li>Trees, coniferous, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Trees, list of important coniferous, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Trees, list of most important broad-leaved, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Tree, sorrel, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Tree, spindle, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Tree, stump, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Trees, wood of broad-leaved, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + +<li>Trees, wood of the coniferous, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Tree, tulip, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Tree, umbrella, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Troemroid Scalometer, the, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li>Truss hoops, dry cooperage stock and, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Tulip tree, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Tulip wood, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Tupelo, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Tupelo gum, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Tupelo gum, range of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> + +<li>Tupelo gum, uses of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> + +<li>Types of dry kilns, different, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + +<li>Types of kiln doors, different, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> + +<li>Types, kilns of different, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Umbrella Tree</span>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Underlying principles of kiln-drying, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> + +<li>Unseasoned products in the rough, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li>Unseasoned wood, difference between seasoned and, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> + +<li>Unsolved problems in kiln-drying, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> + +<li>Uses of the humidity diagram, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li>Uses of tupelo gum, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Vacuum, Drying under Pressure and</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> + +<li>Valparaiso oak, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Virgilia, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Wahoo</span>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Walnut, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Walnut, black, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Walnut, circassian, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Walnut, satin, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + +<li>Walnut, white, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Water beech, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Water by dry wood, absorption of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li>Water elm, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></li> + +<li>Water in wood, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Water in wood, distribution of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Water in wood, local distribution of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Water in wood, seasonal distribution of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> + +<li>Water lost in drying 100 lb. of green wood in the kiln, pounds of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + +<li>Water, manner of evaporation of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li>Water maple, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Water oak, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Weeping willow, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Weighing with scalometer, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> + +<li>Weight, and figure in wood, grain, color, odor, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Weight of kiln-dried wood of different species, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> + +<li>Weight of wood, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> + +<li>Western larch, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>Western pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Western white oak, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> + +<li>Western white pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Western yellow pine, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>West, red cedar of the, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Weymouth pine, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + +<li>What seasoning is, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> + +<li>White ash, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>White basswood, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>White beech, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + +<li>White birch, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>White cedar, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>White cypress, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>White elm, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li>White fir, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + +<li>White heart hickory, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>White mahogany, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>White maple, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>White oak, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li>White oak, swamp, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>White oak, western, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> + +<li>White pine, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>White pine, California, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>White pine, western, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>White poplar, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>White spruce, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>White walnut, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>White willow, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Whitewood, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Wild apple, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Wild cherry, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Wild red cherry, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Willow, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Willow, almond-leaf, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Willow, bebb, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Willow, black, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Willow, blue, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Willow, crack, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Willow, glaucous, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Willow, long-leaf, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Willow, oak, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li>Willow, perch, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Willow, pussy, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Willow, sand bar, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Willow, shining, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Willow, weeping, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Willow, white, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Willow, yellow, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Winged elm, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li>Wintergreen birch, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Wood, absorption of water by dry, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li>Wood, beaver, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Wood, canary, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Wood, characteristics and properties of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> + +<li>Wood, color and odor of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> + +<li>Wood, different grains of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Wood, difference between seasoned and unseasoned, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> + +<li>Wood, difficulties of drying, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> + +<li>Wood, distribution of water in, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Wood, effects of moisture on, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + +<li>Wood, enemies of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + +<li>Wood, expansion of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li>Wood, figure in, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li>Wood, grain, color, odor, weight, and figure in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Wood, how seasoned, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> + +<li>Wood in the kiln, pounds of water lost in drying 100 lb. of green, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + +<li>Wood, iron, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Wood, kiln-drying of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Wood, lever, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Wood, local distribution of water in, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Wood, moose, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> + +<li>Wood, of broad-leaves trees, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + +<li>Wood of different species, weight of kiln-dried, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> + +<li>Wood of coniferous trees, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Wood, physical conditions governing the drying of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></li> + +<li>Wood, properties of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li>Wood, seasonal distribution of water in, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> + +<li>Wood, shrinkage of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> + +<li>Woods, list of important coniferous, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Wood, spring and summer, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Wood, structure of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li>Wood that effect drying, properties of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + +<li>Wood, the fibre saturation point in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> + +<li>Wood, tulip, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Wood, water in, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Wood, weight of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> + +<li>Wood, white, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Wood, yellow, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> + +<li>Wooden truss hoops, dry cooperage, stock and, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Worms, timber, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li> </li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Yearly Ring, the Annual of</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li>Yellow birch, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Yellow cedar, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Yellow deal, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + +<li>Yellow fir, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Yellow locust, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Yellow oak, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>Yellow pine, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>Yellow pine, western, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Yellow poplar, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Yellow willow, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Yellow wood, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> + +<li>Yew, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +</ul> + +<div class="advertisements"> + +<div class="bbox"> + +<p class="center bb" style="letter-spacing: 0.20ex; line-height: 180%"><big><b>D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY</b></big><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1a" id="Page_1a">[1]</a></span> +25 PARK PLACE<br /> +NEW YORK</p> + +<p class="center" style="line-height: 200%"><span style="font-size: 130%; font-weight: bold">SHORT-TITLE CATALOG</span><br /> +<small>OF</small><br /> +<span style="font-size: 130%; font-weight: bold">Publications and Importations</span><br /> +<small>OF</small><br /> +<span style="font-size: 110%">SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING</span><br /> +<span style="font-size: 110%">BOOKS</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50px; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em"> +<img src="images/advert2.jpg" width="50" height="53" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="center bt">This list includes<br /> +the technical publications of the following English publishers:</p> + +<p class="center">SCOTT, GREENWOOD &<span style="padding-left: 1em"> CO. JAMES MUNRO & CO., Ltd.</span><br /> +CONSTABLE & COMPANY, Ltd. TECHNICAL PUBLISHING CO.<br /> +ELECTRICIAN PRINTING & PUBLISHING CO.<br /> + +for whom D. Van Nostrand Company are American agents.</p> +</div> +<p class="right" style="padding-top: 4em"><span class="smcap">July, 1917</span></p> + +<p class="center" style="line-height: 180%; font-weight: bold"><span style="font-size: 150%">SHORT-TITLE CATALOG</span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2a" id="Page_2a">[2]</a></span><br /> + +<small>OF THE</small><br /> + +<span style="font-size: 150%">Publications and Importations</span><br /> + +<small>OF</small><br /> + +<span style="font-size: 130%">D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY</span><br /> + +<span style="font-size: 130%">25 PARK PLACE, N. Y.</span></p> + +<p class="center"><i>Prices marked with an asterisk (*) are NET.</i><br /> + +<i>All bindings are in cloth unless otherwise noted.</i></p> + + + + +<table summary="catalog" style="margin-bottom: 4em"> +<tr><td class="catent">Abbott, A. V. The Electrical Transmission of Energy</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*$5 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">—— A Treatise on Fuel. (Science Series No. 9)</td><td class="catvolume">16mo,</td><td class="catprice">0 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">—— Testing Machines. (Science Series No. 74.)</td><td class="catvolume">16mo,</td><td class="catprice">0 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Adam, P. Practical Bookbinding. Trans. by T. E. Maw</td><td class="catvolume">12mo,</td><td class="catprice">*2 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Adams, H. Theory and Practice in Designing</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*2 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Adams, H. C. Sewage of Sea Coast Towns</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*2 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Adams, J. W. Sewers and Drains for Populous Districts</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">2 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Adler, A. A. Theory of Engineering Drawing</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*2 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">—— Principles of Parallel Projecting-line Drawing</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*1 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Aikman, C. M. Manures and the Principles of Manuring</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">2 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Aitken, W. Manual of the Telephone</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*8 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">d'Albe, E. E. F., Contemporary Chemistry</td><td class="catvolume">12mo,</td><td class="catprice">*1 25</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Alexander, J. H. Elementary Electrical Engineering</td><td class="catvolume">12mo,</td><td class="catprice">2 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Allan, W. Strength of Beams Under Transverse Loads. (Science Series + No. 19.)</td><td class="catvolume">16mo,</td><td class="catprice">0 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">—— Theory of Arches. (Science Series No. 11)</td><td class="catvolume">16mo,</td><td class="catprice"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Allen, H. Modern Power Gas Producer Practice and Applications.</td><td class="catvolume">12mo,</td><td class="catprice">*2 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Anderson, J. W. Prospector's Handbook</td><td class="catvolume">12mo,</td><td class="catprice">1 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Andés, L. Vegetable Fats and Oils</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*4 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">—— Animal Fats and Oils. Trans. by C. Salter</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*4 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">—— Drying Oils, Boiled Oil, and Solid and Liquid Driers</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*5 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">—— Iron Corrosion, Anti-fouling and Anti-corrosive Paints. Trans. by + C. Salter</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*4 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">—— Oil Colors, and Printers' Ink. Trans. by A. Morris and H. + Robson</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*2 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">—— Treatment of Paper for Special Purposes. Trans. by C. Salter</td><td class="catvolume">12mo,</td><td class="catprice">*2 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Andrews, E. S. Reinforced Concrete Construction</td><td class="catvolume">12mo,</td><td class="catprice">*1 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">—— Theory and Design of Structures</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*3 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">—— Further Problems in the Theory and Design of Structures</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*2 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">—— The Strength of Materials</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*4 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Andrews, E. S., and Heywood, H. B. The Calculus for Engineers.</td><td class="catvolume">12mo,</td><td class="catprice">*1 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Annual Reports on the Progress of Chemistry. Twelve Volumes now + ready. Vol. I., 1904, Vol. XII., 1914</td><td class="catvolume">8vo, each,</td><td class="catprice">*2 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Argand, M. Imaginary Quantities. Translated from the French by +A. S. Hardy. (Science Series No. 52.)</td><td class="catvolume">16mo,</td><td class="catprice">0 50<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3a" id="Page_3a">[3]</a></span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Armstrong, R., and Idell, F. E. Chimneys for Furnaces and Steam Boilers. +(Science Series No. 1.)</td><td class="catvolume">16mo,</td><td class="catprice">0 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Arnold, E. Armature Windings of Direct-Current Dynamos. Trans. by +F. B. DeGress</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*2 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Asch, W., and Asch, D. The Silicates in Chemistry and Commerce</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*6 00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Ashe, S. W., and Kelley, J. D. Electric Railways. Theoretically and +Practically Treated. Vol. I. Rolling Stock</td><td class="catvolume">12mo,</td><td class="catprice">*2 50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="catent">Ashe, S. W. Electric Railways. Vol. II. 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Engineering Workshop Machines and Processes. Trans. +by J. A. Davenport</td><td class="catvolume">8vo,</td><td class="catprice">*2 00</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="bbox"> +<p class="center bb" style="font-size: 130%; font-weight: bold"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32a" id="Page_32a">[32]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">D. Van Nostrand Company</span></p> + + + +<p class="center">are prepared to supply, either from<br /> +their complete stock or at<br /> +short notice,<br /><br /> + +<span style="font-size: 140%; padding-right: 4em">Any Technical or</span><br /> +<span style="font-size: 140%; padding-left: 4em">Scientific Book</span></p> + +<p style="padding-top: 1em; text-align: justify; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 20em; text-indent: 0em"> +In addition to publishing a very large +and varied number of <span class="smcap">Scientific and +Engineering Books</span>, D. 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See the detailed list below. +If your cursor turns into a hand when it is hovered over an illustration, the click +on it will take you to the larger image.</p> + +<ul> +<li>page <a href="#Page_18">018</a>—typo fixed: changed 'Oregan' to 'Oregon'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_27">027</a>—typo fixed: changed 'Michigian' to 'Michigan'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_46">046</a>—typo fixed: changed 'resistence' to 'resistance'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_58">058</a>—typo fixed: changed 'homus' to 'humus'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_69">069</a>—typo fixed: changed 'resistence' to 'resistance'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_74">074</a>—typo fixed: changed 'ilicijolia' to 'ilicifolia'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_84">084</a>—typo fixed: changed 'Novia Scota' to 'Nova Scotia'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_86">086</a>—typo fixed: changed 'visable' to 'visible'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_103">103</a>—typo fixed: changed 'energed' to 'emerged'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_106">106</a>—typo fixed: changed 'absolutley' to 'absolutely'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_110">110</a>—typo fixed: changed 'has' to 'had'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_131">131</a>—typo fixed: changed 'accomodate' to 'accommodate'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_163">163</a>—typo fixed: changed 'hydrodeik' to 'hygrodeik'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_181">181</a>—typo fixed: changed 'longitutudinal' to 'longitudinal'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_198">198</a>—typo fixed: changed 'accomodate' to 'accommodate'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_202">202</a>—typo fixed: changed 'ecomony' to 'economy'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_204">204</a>—typo fixed: changed 'minumim' to 'minimum'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_239">239</a>—typo fixed: changed 'horizonal' to 'horizontal'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_257">257</a>—typo fixed: changed 'arrangment' to 'arrangement'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_266">266</a>—typo fixed: changed 'applicances' to 'appliances'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_267">267</a>—typo fixed: changed 'specialities' to 'specialties'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_267">267</a>—typo fixed: changed 'theary' to 'theory'</li> +<li>page <a href="#Page_274">274</a>—typo fixed: changed 'Annual of' to 'Annual or'</li> +</ul> + +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Seasoning of Wood, by Joseph B. 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