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diff --git a/26595-0.txt b/26595-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..88a536c --- /dev/null +++ b/26595-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2525 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Condition and Tendencies of Technical +Education in Germany, by Arthur Henry Chamberlain + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Condition and Tendencies of Technical Education in Germany + +Author: Arthur Henry Chamberlain + +Release Date: September 12, 2008 [EBook #26595] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY *** + + + + +Produced by Irma Spehar, Markus Brenner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + THE CONDITION AND TENDENCIES + + OF + + Technical Education in Germany + + BY + + ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN + + Professor of Education and Principal of the Normal School + of Manual Training, Art, and Domestic Economy, + Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, California: + Author of “Educative Hand-Work Manuals” + and “A Bibliography of Manual Arts” + + [Illustration] + + SYRACUSE, N. Y. + C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER + 1908 + + Copyright, 1908, by C. W. BARDEEN + + + + + INTRODUCTION + + +The question of the technical phases of education is, with any nation, a +vital one. Perhaps this is true of Germany as it is of no other European +country. This may be mainly due to one of several causes. First, as to +the length of time technical education has had a place in the German +schools. In some form or another, and in a greater or lesser degree, +such instruction has been in vogue for many years, and has in no small +measure become part and parcel of the educational fabric of the nation. +Again, throughout the various German States, the work is rather widely +differentiated, this owing in part to the fact that the varying lines of +industry in adjacent localities even, give color and bent to the +technical education of any particular locality. An extensive field is +thus comprehended under the term “technical education”. Then, too, +Germany as a nation must needs better her condition in order that she +may prove self-sustaining. The country is not a wealthy one, and if in +trade, in manufacture, and in commerce, she is to compete, and that +successfully, with the world powers, strength must be gained along such +lines as those opening through technical education. + +The hope is entertained that the following pages may prove of value, not +alone to the student of technical education as it exists in Germany, but +particularly to those who are endeavoring to institute and develop +industrial and technical training in this country. The possibility along +these lines is exceedingly great and the interest and attention of +thinking people is focused here. They look to this form of education as +a partial solution of some of the most obstinate problems now +confronting us. + + + + + CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + INTRODUCTION v + + CONTENTS vii + + PUBLISHER’S NOTE viii + + SECTION I. Classification of Schools 5 + + SECTION II. Continuation Schools (Fortbildungsschulen) 16 + + SECTION III. Trade Schools (Fachschulen) 41 + + SECTION IV. Secondary Technical Schools + (Gewerbliche Mittelschulen) 61 + + Schools for the Building Trades + (Baugewerkschulen) 61 + + Schools for Foremen (Werkmeisterschulen) 69 + + Schools for the Textile Trades (Gewerbeschulen) 74 + + Industrial Schools of Bavaria (Industrie Schulen) 82 + + SECTION V. Higher Technical Schools (Technische Hochschulen) 85 + + SECTION VI. Schools of Industrial Arts or Art Trade Schools + (Kunstgewerbeschulen) 98 + + SECTION VII. Bibliography 105 + + + + + Technical Education in Germany + + BY PROF. ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN + + + + + I + + +If one were to point out the most distinctive feature of the educational +system in the Fatherland to-day, it would perhaps be the highly +specialized condition of the technical schools. + +In approaching our problem we naturally ask ourselves the question as to +how far the industrial progress of a country is influenced by technical +education. In no time as in our own has so much stress been laid upon +the commercial side of our existence. New trades, new industries are +springing up; specialization is becoming more far-reaching and more +firmly established than ever before; competition is becoming keener; +the application of science to the arts is more varied. + +In this latter field we find Germany in the very fore front, she having +developed along these lines to a greater extent than have many of our +nations. Illustrations of this application lie all about us,--in the +bettered transportation facilities by railroad and by ocean vessel; in +the more improved bridge and building construction; in the methods of +water supply and drainage; in modes of heat, light, and ventilation; in +electric vehicles, sound transmitters, labor-saving machinery; in finely +adjusted instruments that bring far away worlds almost within reaching +distance; in these and a thousand other ways is made manifest the result +of the application of science to the arts. Germany is taking a prominent +part in this warfare for industrial supremacy, and that she expects her +technical schools to be largely instrumental in answering many of the +problems of the present and the future cannot be doubted, especially +when one is made aware of the diversity and extent of the schools of a +technical character scattered over the Empire. + +It will be readily understood from the foregoing how difficult a matter +it is to make any one classification that will cover in an adequate +manner the various types of existing institutions. Frequently a school +is found which in some respects is distinctive. To place such a school +in this or that category would of course do violence to the +classification, while to form a new class only serves to further +complicate and bewilder. Again, various of the institutions mentioned +may offer such a differentiated schedule or be made up of so many +parallel departments as to entitle them to admission into two or more of +the classes given. + +Another point of difficulty lies in the fact that the term “technical” +would in Germany be somewhat more sweeping than with us in America. We +do not class technical training with so-called manual training or +handwork of the elementary schools. In our present study however, we +shall find that while in the main we are dealing with the technical +training of boys from fourteen to eighteen years of age,--comparable in +a measure to our high or secondary school courses, we shall also include +the industrial, vocational, or trade training of men and boys alike, as +well as work in the more simplified forms of handicraft, as carried on +in the lower or elementary school. Reference will also be made to the +instruction of a higher order,--such for example as makes for engineers. +These facts will be illuminated as the study proceeds. + +In reading into these schools their real significance, several points +must be kept constantly in mind. At an early age the German youth is +supposed to have solved the problem of his likes and dislikes, his +abilities and shortcomings; to have gained such a perspective of his +probable chances for future success, as to choose the line of work or +occupation he shall follow. It is only fair to state, however, that +circumstances have much to do with such decision, viz,--the occupation +of the father, the financial outlook of the family, the industrial +demands of the locality, the particular educational opportunities +offered,--these and like problems entering in as vital elements. + +Then too, the founding and sustaining of a technical school is a matter +to be noted. This may be in the hands of the general government, of the +state, of the municipality, or may be looked after by private +enterprise. The Guilds, Vereins or Associations may organize, equip and +foster schools of such character as train directly for their particular +lines of work. It must be stated however in this connection, that there +seems to be a strong tendency at the present time toward the +centralizing of control in the states. This has been brought about in +large measure through the ever-increasing willingness on the part of the +state to give financial backing to the schools, and thus has quite +naturally arisen the desire and necessity on the part of the state, that +it have a controlling voice in the school administration. Herein lies +one of the main differences between such education in Germany and that +of our own country. + +Conrad’s Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 1900, in an article +entitled “Gewerblicher Unterricht”, gives the following table on state +expenditure for trade and technical instruction in recent years: + +Prussia: + + Marks 142,000 ($33,796) in 1874; + Marks 475,000 ($114,050) in 1885; + Marks 4,672,000 ($1,111,936) in 1899. + +Saxony: + + Marks 235,000 ($60,214) in 1873; + Marks 570,000 ($135,660) in 1885; + Marks 1,138,000 ($270,844) in 1898. + +Wurttemburg industrial continuation school: + + Marks, 58,000 ($13,804) in 1869; + Marks 129,000 ($30,702) in 1879; + Marks 164,000 ($39,032) in 1889; + Marks 208,000 ($49,504) in 1897. + +The cost of the state per capita of the population of the expenditures +was as follows: + + Prussia, Pfennigs 15 (3½ cts.) in 1899; + Saxony, Pfennigs 29 (7 cts.) in 1898; + Hesse, Pfennigs 22 (5 cts.) in 1898. + +The cost per Marks 1,000 ($236) of the entire state expenditures was +Marks 2.27 (54 cts.) in Prussia in 1899, and Marks 5.88 ($1.40) in +Saxony in 1898. + +In general the German schools are classified upon a basis of the grade +of instruction given rather than upon the character of the subjects +taught. Primary education is compulsory, that is to say, all children +are compelled by law to attend school from their sixth to their +fourteenth year. It is at this point that we find our difficulty. To +quote Dr. Alwin Pabst of Leipzig (who speaks of conditions governing +technical schools): + +“The age of admission, length of course, fees and other conditions +(examinations) of these schools differ widely. Ages range from fourteen +to thirty years or over; length of course, one to four or five years; +fees perhaps twenty to thirty marks per year. The Fortbildungsschule is +the only institution in which no fee is charged.” (Taken from a personal +letter.) + +Several classifications commend themselves for use. Each has its +weaknesses and breaks down at some point, owing to the conditions +previously mentioned. In order the better to illustrate this difficulty +I shall give these various possible classifications. + +The first refers chiefly to the scheme of secondary education and was +the one first chosen and later discarded. It was suggested mainly by Sir +Philip Magnus’s work on “Industrial Education” and the “Report of the +Industrial Commission”, Vol. 1. + + 1. Industrieschulen + Gewerbeschulen + + 2. Trade Schools + Fachschulen + + 3. Building Trade Schools + + 4. Secondary Technical Schools + Higher Technical + Foremen + Building + Weaving + Drawing + + 5. Industrial Art Schools (Kunstgewerbe) + Pure Art + Applied Art + + 6. Polytechnics or Technische Hochschulen + + 7. Continuation Schools--Fortbildungsschulen + +Another classification, suggested in most part by a German authority is +as follows: + + 1. Fortbildungsschulen--Continuation schools + 2. Industrie--or Fachschulen--Special Trade Schools + 3. Gewerbeschulen + 4. Technische Schulen + 5. Technische Hochschulen + 6. Baugewerkschulen--School for Architects + 7. Kunstgewerbeschulen--Schools of Art + +In the Seventeenth Annual Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Labor for +1902 we find the following: + + 1. Technical Colleges + 2. Secondary or Intermediate Technical Schools + 3. Schools and Museums of Industrial Art + 4. Schools for Foremen + 5. Schools for the Textile Trades + 6. Trade and Industrial Continuation Schools + 7. Industrial Drawing Courses + 8. Other Institutions for Industrial Education. + +The order followed in the present study is finally given below. It is +one not to be found elsewhere, but more closely resembles that of Dr. +Pabst (the second classification) and that found in the Seventeenth +Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor. It has undoubtedly its weak +points, but I feel it is the best that can be made however, as it is +based upon data recently published, and the results of correspondence +with German school authorities, in addition to a not very extended +knowledge gained through personal contact with the German schools. It +may be taken therefore, as bringing the work down to the present time: + + 1. Continuation Schools or Fortbildungsschulen + 2. Trade Schools or Fachschulen + 3. Secondary or Intermediate Technical Schools or Gewerbliche + Mittelschulen + 4. Technical Colleges or Technische Hochschulen + 5. School and Museums of Industrial Art, or Kunstgewerbeschulen + + + + + II + + CONTINUATION SCHOOLS + + FORTBILDUNGSSCHULEN + + +Since at the age of fourteen years the German youth is no longer under +the control of the compulsory school law, the value of the system of +continuation schools is realized. Of necessity the great mass of boys +are at this age, forced to enter some gainful pursuit. It was clearly +evident to the German people that boys should not be cut off from school +education at this early age. Dr. James H. Russell in his German Higher +Schools says: + +“The elementary and secondary schools are quite independent of each +other--not one boy in ten thousand finds his way from the highest class +of the elementary school into the Gymnasium.” + +It is evident that year by year an increasingly large number of boys +discontinue their education at the close of the elementary school, for a +statement made by Mr. Michael N. Sadler, (Vol. III of Special Reports on +Educational Subjects, London), some years prior to the above writing, +would seem to indicate a lesser percentage of dropping out than that +proposed by Dr. Russell. + +The desire then for more extended educational advantages must have been +early felt, and there sprang into existence what has since developed +into one of the most significant features and far-reaching factors in +the German scheme,--the continuation school. I quote from Mr. H. Bertram +who writes of the continuation schools in Berlin, December, 1899: + +“Amid the development of civilization among the nations the idea of the +continuation school is making its way with increasing strength. Urgently +required by the conditions of social organization, and in its turn +acting on them, the new institution appears in many forms. It claims its +place side by side with the Church and the School. + +“Among the great number of those who enter early upon the practical +business of life, to whom the primary school has offered a start there +awakens, sooner or later, the desire to share in the stores of +knowledge which human intelligence has won, in the insight into the +working of the forces of nature, which it has acquired and applied to +industry, in the arts which ennoble and support human action; in short +to participate in the spiritual treasures which are, as it were, the +birthright of those born under a luckier star. This desire, which opens +to the diligent the way to material prosperity and inner contentment, +seems for society as a whole an important incentive to industrial +progress, and turns the discontent of the slaves of machinery into +happiness of men conscious of their own success. The more the old order +changes which held the work people in the narrow bonds of tradition, the +more is customary prescription replaced by education and independent +judgment, by insight into existing conditions, by special excellence +within a particular sphere. For this reason, the elementary school, +however efficient and methodically correct its action may be, cannot +suffice for the happiness of the masses, nor for the preservation of +society. The instruction must come into close contact with the life of +the future citizen, and must be at the command of everyone desirous to +learn, as long as he seeks it. But the seeker, born amid such conditions +as these, needs guidance. Public libraries, newspapers, magazines help +him the more he pushes forward, but without expert assistance he hardly +finds the beginning of the path. + +“This is the object of the Continuation School.” + +It is somewhat difficult to define the limits and scope of the +continuation or Fortbildungsschulen. Conditions vary in the different +German states and especially do they vary in the various kinds of +continuation schools. Definition is made even more doubtful when we find +that the limits of certain schools overlap. It may be said that +students are regularly admitted from fourteen to sixteen years of age. +Not infrequently however, boys and men of more mature years take +advantage of the courses offered. Instruction is carried on during the +week-day evenings from six to eight o’clock and on Sunday mornings. + +Prussia leads the other states in the number and character of her +supplementary schools, the system having its fullest expression in +Berlin. The fact became early apparent that preparation, whatever line +the boy was to follow, was necessary, and this thought is confirmed in +the many skilled laborers in Germany to-day. In Prussia, as elsewhere, +it was found that boys many times left the common school before they +became proficient in any line of book work. The causes were various; +poverty, indifference, sickness, overcrowding, poor enforcement of the +compulsory attendance laws,--all these conspired to make supplementary +schools necessary. In the older provinces very little attention was +given the continuation school prior to 1875, and almost as much could be +said of those provinces which were acquired in 1866. In 1844 a report +issued by the Department of Public Instruction makes mention of the +usefulness of such schools, while two years later a second report has +only slightly more to say on the subject. This lack of interest may be +attributed in large measure to the non-financial support of these +schools by the government. + +Several problems had to be faced in working out the scheme. Certain +definite relations between the primary and continuation schools must be +observed; those coming into the latter with an inadequate underschool +knowledge must be looked after; provision must be made for students of +lesser as well as of more mature years; all classes of occupation must +be given attention; these and many other difficult questions were to be +met and overcome. + +“Three principles,” says Mr. Bertram, “have contributed to the solution +of this problem--free choices between the courses provided, free +enjoyment of the preparatory courses without fee, and the selection of +the teachers according to their attainments in a particular branch and +their ability to adapt their instruction to the needs of the pupils or +participants in the course.” + +In certain sections, Nassau and Hanover for example, state aid came +early to the continuation school. In 1874 an increased appropriation +resulted in the betterment of the schools then existing and in the +further establishment of like institutions. Here the communities must +meet the cost of building, heating, lighting etc., and one-half of all +the expenses not covered by the actual tuition. Since 1878 there is a +fairly general acceptance throughout the Empire of the statute +providing that all employes under eighteen years of age must be allowed +to attend a continuation school, the period of attendance to be +determined by “competent authority”. This naturally leads the Public +Instruction Department to be free in its financial support. + +It will be understood that in most cases six hours per week is the +attendance required and that only those who have left the Volksschule or +lower school and are not attending any higher institution are admitted. +In Saxony a somewhat different condition exists. Children who have not +made satisfactory progress in the Volksschule must, perforce, attend the +continuation school for two years. + +The writer of this paper was thoroughly impressed with the work of the +Sunday classes as seen in Leipzig, Saxony, during the summer of 1899. +His first introduction to such work was made, when on joining a group +of boys, several of them carrying draughting-boards, he was conducted by +them to their school. The general character and deportment of the boys, +the spirit and enthusiasm manifested by them, and the thoughtful and +intelligent quality of the work produced, fully justified in his own +mind, the validity and worth of the Sunday class instruction. + +As between the schools located in the cities and those in the smaller +towns and country places, there is some slight difference. They may be +classified as (_a_) rural or (_b_) city schools, on account of their +location. The distinction lies rather in the arrangement of their +curricula, the needs of the students in the particular locality being +kept in mind. In the rural schools the programme of studies is somewhat +general, comprising the German language, arithmetic, mensuration, nature +study; and in some instances may be added to these, geography, German +history, drawing, gymnastics and music. This programme is elective to +the extent that the capacity and previous education of the pupil are +considered, and too, the ability of the teacher, local conditions and +the time spent by the individual student. Such schools are admonished +not to take on the character of technical institutions, but rather to +continue the general education begun in the Volksschulen. Only under +certain conditions is less than four hours per week of instruction +permissible. + +In Prussia the city continuation schools are of two grades, each grade +made up of a number of classes. In the lower grade schools, instruction +is given in accordance with the particular trade or calling the pupil is +to follow. In the upper grade, work is much the same, proficiency being +the chief additional feature. When six hours of work is the minimum, +language, arithmetic, elementary geometry and drawing, form the body of +the course; while penmanship, geography, history, grammar and nature +study all are taken up in connection with the reading work. Business +forms are not overlooked. In the more fully equipped schools where the +teachers are prepared for such branches, higher mathematics, mechanics, +physics and advanced drawing are taken up. + +If, as before stated, the various types of continuation schools overlap, +the same is true regarding the trade and industrial continuation +schools. While in many instances the work in the latter schools is of a +general character, aiming to supplement or round out the education of +the pupil, we find that many of the original schools of this class have +developed into a form of special or trade school. This is brought about +through pressure from without, as it were. When a certain industry +predominates in a locality supporting a continuation school, it is only +fair to suppose that the work done, general though it may be, will be +colored to some extent at least, by the demands of such industry. If +this process of merging is carried sufficiently far, as is in many cases +done, the school may lose almost or entirely its original trend, and +from a Fortbildungsschule, fall into the class of trade or Fachschulen. + +In the main then, the instruction given in a continuation school proper, +is either of a theoretical nature or involves some form of drawing +perhaps, thus rendering any other than an ordinary school room +unnecessary for class use. In the city of Leipzig the situation is +dissimilar to that in some north German cities. Here the classes are +arranged according to the various trades followed, as bookbinders, +printers, lithographers, bakers, metal workers, workers in wood and +stone, etc. There are again in Southern Germany simply schools of +drawing with special reference to the various trades and industries. In +addition to these are classes of a general nature for boys not following +special trades. Such schools however, cannot be found in the smaller +towns or in the country. Certain other Saxon cities have schools of +somewhat similar character. + +In the Consular Report, Vol. 54, No. 202, page 447, 1898, Mr. J. C. +Monoghan says, writing under the title Technical Education in Germany: + +“The supplementary schools are for the people who have to work, what +Chautauquas, summer schools, and university extension courses are for +others.--Parties in politico-economic circles have found that the system +of common school education under which boys and girls were given an +ordinary education in reading, writing, arithmetic etc., up to their +fourteenth year, was inadequate, partially if not wholly, to the ends +aimed at in such a system. To supply this defect it was urged, and +finally proposed and favorably acted upon, that graduates of the common +schools, boys especially, in some few cases girls too, should continue +to get instruction a certain number of hours a week. This was made +compulsory. Manufacturers, shopkeepers, and mechanics in whose employ +such boys were found, and not the parents, were made responsible for the +boys’ attendance. In these schools, as indicated in the foregoing, the +boys get as good an idea as possible of the trade or branch of business +in which they are employed. As a rule, the hours of attendance are early +in the morning or a certain number of afternoons in the week. Sunday +mornings are not thought too sacred for such work. It seems to be an +acknowledgement that the years hitherto given to a boy in which to get +an education, viz., from his sixth to his fourteenth year, are not +enough to prepare him for the struggle for life that he has to enter +upon. Men have told me, successful merchants and agents here, that they +owe more to the hours spent in the developing or supplementary schools +from the practical character of the instruction given and the +information imparted, than to the many years spent in the common +schools. While one is hardly willing to believe this, there can be no +doubt of the good work done, and being done, by the schools referred +to.” + +The Handwerkschulen in Berlin are very similar to Fortbildungsschulen in +Leipzig for example. These schools have seen a marvelous development +during the past few years. They have a technical quality, giving much +attention to drawing. The sessions are in the evening, eight hours per +week, the fee being six marks the half year. They are attended by +journeymen and apprentices who come recommended by their employers. In +connection with these schools various Sunday classes are conducted +throughout the city, each center specializing along certain trade lines. + +The Berlin Handwerker Verein is a type of continuation school, sustained +not by the state but by an association. The Verein, founded in 1859, has +for its object the promotion of general culture, a partial knowledge at +least of the several callings represented, and good manners (gute +Sitten). The moral and ethical elements are not lacking. Here public +lectures of real merit are given, together with music, gymnastics, and +instruction in general and technical subjects. Boys of good character, +over seventeen years of age, are admitted. The families of the boys in +attendance are also allowed to avail themselves of such general +exercises, lectures, music, etc., as the school offers. + +What may also be styled as belonging in a sense in the continuation +school category is the German Association for the Diffusion of Popular +Education, with headquarters in Berlin. Branches of this association are +scattered throughout various parts of the Empire. + +In the year 1869, the industrial code provided that all boys under +eighteen years of age might, at the discretion of the local authorities, +be compelled to attend school. It is thus evident that the local or +State authority was here consulted, rather than the General Government. +At the present time however, when the adjustment of this matter is not +in the hands of local authority, the employer must, if those engaged +with him desire so to do, allow such boys to attend school at their +option. In some States however, Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse and Baden, +compulsory school laws are in force among all boys fourteen to eighteen +years of age. At present the law of 1891 is active and the portion +touching our problem is here given: + +“Employers are required to give the necessary time, to be determined +eventually by the competent authorities, to their workingmen under +eighteen years of age who attend an educational establishment recognized +by the communal administration or by the State as an adult’s school. +Instruction shall not be given on Sunday except where the hours are so +fixed that the pupils are not prevented from attending the principal +religious exercise or a religious exercise of their faith especially +conducted for them with the consent of the ecclesiastical authorities. +The central administration may, until October 1, 1894, accord exemptions +from the last provision to adult schools already in existence, +attendance upon which is not obligatory. + +“For purposes of this law schools giving instruction in manual work and +domestic duties to women shall be considered as adult schools.” + +This citation points out that the Sunday class work must not conflict +with the religious services. There is a strong sentiment in many places +in favor of a repeal of such laws as prohibit Sunday classes at such +times as church services are held. Many of the clergy are opposed to the +extending of Sunday continuation schools, while for the most part the +government authorities are favorable to such extension. + +As regards the compulsory age limit, Prussia of all the German states is +following out the option given the individual States. It is worthy of +note that she declares (while declining to accept the law) that where +freedom is allowed, boys are more likely to continue in school after +their eighteenth year. It is insisted also that with the restrictions +removed, a deeper interest is excited in the school studies. The +statement is made however that in Prussia two thirds of the industrial +continuation schools have compulsory attendance laws in force as the +local authorities may determine. Certain it is that much stress is laid +upon the ethical side of instruction in the continuation schools and it +is agreed that the compulsory school should not transplant the regular +continuation school, except where it seems absolutely necessary to do +so. In Bavaria for example, where the age limit by law is thirteen, the +compulsory school has a place for the time being at least. + +In Berlin, a century ago, Sunday afternoon classes were inaugurated, +with a programme no more varied than that furnished by the three R’s. +Apprentices not equipped with sufficient school training were forced to +attend the schools. In 1869 the power was wrested from the trade guilds +and the elective system resulted, later producing the Elementary +Continuation School. The local city government founded at a later date +three such schools, and in these a more diversified curriculum was +operated, adding to the three R’s, German composition and literature, +modern languages, natural science, political science, law, bookkeeping +and drawing. For various reasons these schools were not attended by a +full measure of success and the city authorities formulated the plan of +placing the continuation schools in some of the higher institutions of +learning, courses to be operative in winter only. Later, from the +preparatory school, which fitted for the continuation school proper, +grew up the technical continuation school. + +There are at the present twelve schools of the continuation type in +Berlin. A large attendance is desired, for with large classes groups of +various intellectual standards may be formed. The student is free to +elect subjects--as between certain languages, mathematics or art +studies. The Director of the school, by keeping in touch with the +employers in the various trades and shops, can thus control the +attendance and shape the course of the lines of work offered. + +Some ten years since, two special lines of instruction were withdrawn +from the continuation school proper--the carpenters’ school and the +Gewerbesaal, comprising work in drawing and theory involved in machine +construction and the like. Courses for turners are offered in the +carpenters’ schools. In Berlin there are in excess of nine centers for +the last named school and ten centers for the Gewerbesaal, the winter +classes running up to 2000 and 850 pupils respectively. + +This example serves to illustrate the fact mentioned in a previous +connection, viz., that the Fortbildungsschule was in some cases merged +into a special school, for here in reality a Fach or trade institution +has developed from the original continuation school. This practice has +been going on more or less extensively among the various schools; and in +Berlin especially, the continuation school has been the foundation of +most of the Fachschulen. Something more will be said in this connection +in the section under trade schools. + +Regarding the continuation schools for girls and women a word may be +added. As with the boys’ schools, so these designed for girls were put +on foot, partly at least, from an ethical standpoint. Girls spending +their days in the factory and shop were in need of a refining influence, +and this the continuation school afforded. Courses were offered in the +German language, arithmetic, sewing and dressmaking. The efforts made to +give girls this training were not entirely successful. So many +objections to Sunday work were brought forward that it was discontinued. +The burdens of the day fell so heavily upon the girls that they were not +ambitious to attend evening classes. At the present time the schools are +more largely attended by girls who, during the day, remain in the +family, and in the school take up the household arts, sewing, cutting +out, and the like, and also languages, mathematics, geography, etc., +gymnastics and music, shorthand and typewriting. It is hoped soon to +introduce cookery in all girls’ schools. Drawing is given much +attention. + +There are in Berlin, nine municipal continuation schools for girls, +which are, as the name indicates, maintained by the city. + + + + + III + + TRADE SCHOOLS[1] + + +As has been indicated in another connection, the classification of trade +schools as such, is somewhat uncertain. It has been shown that many of +the present schools for special trades have evolved from the +continuation schools of the past. In the transition state it is +sometimes quite difficult to definitely place a certain school, whether +in the trade continuation, or trade group proper, or to class it with +the Industrieschulen. The trade continuation schools have largely +superseded the regular trade schools, in many localities at least, and +where this condition exists, trade instruction seems to be losing +ground, here the Fortbildungsschulen on the one hand, and regular +apprenticeships on the other, coming in to supplant trade teaching. + +[Footnote 1: The two previous articles were published in the School +Bulletin for July and August, 1906.] + +The seeming contradictory statements made here must be interpreted in +the spirit rather than in the letter, if the full meaning and +significance of the trade school is to be grasped. Trades are taught as +formerly. The point made is that while the trade school, per se, is +doing its work, boys are, more and more, being trained for their trades +in the so-called trades continuation schools and as apprentices in the +shops. The latter form of training will be spoken of elsewhere in this +section of the paper. + +We have noted in following the work of the continuation school, that the +attempt has been mainly toward the teaching of theoretical subjects, the +practical lines being carried forward in the regular daily occupations +of the individuals. Hence the trade is not held specifically in mind, +although the desired end is always kept in view. In the trade schools +on the other hand, the work is largely of a practical nature, dealing +with some particular occupation. The foregoing statement may be taken as +fairly representing the Fachschule point of view, but it should be +observed that while these schools are special trade schools, training +for example iron workers, or joiners, or tailors, there is a +differentiation within the general class. I refer to the Gewerbeschulen, +where theoretical lessons are sometimes taught. These schools will be +given mention in the secondary group. + +Admission to the trade schools is gained usually at fourteen years of +age, the length of each course covering a period of three years. The +schools are in receipt of financial aid from both state and local +governments. + +To simplify our study, we shall consider only such institutions as deal +with a single trade each, leaving the schools for the building trades +and the like, and those dealing with industrial art and drawing to be +treated elsewhere. Specialization has been carried so far that the +following lists of schools, each training for its own particular trade +or calling, may be given. The list is arranged alphabetically and +without reference to the relative importance of the various vocations, +or to the number of schools. Such schools are now found pretty generally +in the larger cities throughout the Empire. Some of these are day +schools; some evening schools, and others again offer both day and +evening courses and Sunday instruction. + + + SINGLE TRADE SCHOOLS + + Schools for Bakers + " " Barbers and Hairdressers + " " Basketmakers, Wickerworkers, and Strawplaiters + " " Blacksmiths + " " Bookbinders + " " Carpenters and Cabinetmakers + " " Chimney Sweeps + " " Confectioners + " " Coopers + " " Gardeners + " " Glaziers + " " Joiners + " " Marine Machinists + " " Masons + " " Painters + " " Paperhangers and Decorators + " " Plumbers + " " Photographers + " " Potters + " " Printers + " " Saddlers, Trimmers and Trunkmakers + " " Shoemakers + " " Tailors + " " Tinsmiths + " " Toymakers + " " Upholsterers + " " Wagonmakers and Wheelwrights + " " Watch and Clockmakers + " " Woodcarvers + +Some of the above named institutions are in certain localities styled +apprenticeship schools. These train workmen and foremen of a minor +degree. Shop work is offered, and in some cases pure and applied art as +well. + +The evening work of the so-called Artisans’ Schools of Berlin, are +deserving of special mention. There are two such institutions, called +respectively school number one and school number two. The first was +established in 1880; the second in 1892. The aim of these schools is to +give to tradesmen and apprentices in their leisure hours such a +knowledge of drawing, the arts and sciences, as will find an application +in their own lines of work. + +The grade of instruction varies from quite elementary work to that for +advanced students, the latter being obliged to present evidence of +fitness before entering. + +The following courses are offered, the figures indicating the number of +hours per week devoted to each. + + Arithmetic 2 + Algebra 2 + Geometry 2 + Trigonometry 2 + Analytical geometry and calculus 1 + Mathematical problems involving physics and mechanics 2 + Descriptive geometry 4 + Bookkeeping 2 + Physics 4 + Mechanics 2 + Electro-technics 4 + Chemistry 4 + Chemistry and pharmacy 4 + Free-hand drawing 2-4 + Aquarelle 4 + Projection 4 + Ornament 4 + Trade drawing according to occupation 4 + Modeling in wax and clay 4 + Decorative painting 4 + +In addition to the foregoing, school number two offers: + + Chasing 4 + Practical wrought-iron work 4 + Sketching and calculating the elements of machinery 2 + +The courses continue for two years. + +It is interesting to note that whereas certain enactments are in force +regarding the Sunday sessions of the Fortbildungsschulen, there are no +such restrictions placed upon the Fachschulen, Sunday morning classes +being held at the discretion of the school authorities. + +Let us refer to our table of single trade schools as given above. The +statements which follow have in most cases been taken from data relating +to the schools of Berlin, and may be said to fairly represent the +general existing conditions throughout the Empire. + +In the school for bakers, instruction is given one day weekly for two +and one half hours. The theoretical work (which in common with all such +work in the regular trade schools, is related directly to the particular +trade under discussion) is made up of chemistry and bookkeeping. + +In the barbers’ and hairdressers’ schools, instruction is carried on six +days each week, four hours daily, the school continuing six months of +the year, covering the winter period. Each class receives fourteen hours +instruction per week. While the bakers’ school is supported by the +guild, the barbers’ school is jointly maintained by state, city and +guild. The curriculum includes shaving, hair cutting, and hair dressing, +wig making, and ladies’ hair dressing. A tuition of three marks is +charged for the term, in the case of apprentices, and six marks for +journeymen; a charge five times as great is made for ladies’ hair +dressing, and for the surgical lectures, ten marks. + +The guild, state and municipality maintain the school for basketmakers +and wickerworkers. Apprentices receive instruction free, four marks each +semester being charged the journeymen and adults. Attendance is +compulsory on the part of apprentices of guild members. Four hours work +per week are given, on Saturdays. The annual expenses of the school, are +about five hundred and fifty dollars. Four courses are offered, as +follows: first, general basket making and wicker furniture; second, +making of small wicker furniture; third, large wicker furniture; fourth, +fine and artistic wicker working. + +In the blacksmiths’ school the instruction is for two hours, one day +each week. Theoretical work in horseshoeing, and drawing related to the +course are taught. + +The city and guild support the school for bookbinders. The students are +both apprentices and journeymen. They work week day evenings and Sunday +mornings. The purpose is not to produce tradesmen, but rather to make +more proficient those engaged in some form of bookbinding, and to this +end applicants must have had experience amounting to two years work +before entering the school. All students must be grounded in the general +elements underlying the trade before they are allowed to take up any +phase as a specialty. No fee is charged the apprentices of guild +members; others pay five marks per term; journeymen pay nine marks per +term. + +In the cabinetmakers’ school, all lines of work pertaining to the trade +are taken up, drawing and designing for trade purposes; free-hand +drawing; modeling, carving; properties of woods, etc. Instruction is +given week day evenings and Sunday forenoons. Four marks are charged +for the first term in the drawing course and for each subsequent term, +two marks. The subjects taken up are: chemistry, free-hand drawing, +projection, trade drawing, perspective and shadows, drawing from cast, +modeling and wood carving, joinery. The school is under public control. + +In most of the remaining trade schools, instruction is pretty generally +given on week day evenings and Sunday mornings, the apprentices of guild +members paying no fee, a small charge being made for outsiders. The +support comes from city, state and guild in most cases. In the school +for masons however, there is a preparatory course and also a carpenters’ +course, the whole covering a three years term. In this school the +instruction is thorough, covering plans, drawings and specifications; +stone, brick, and wood construction; foundations, arches, staircases, +roofs, and the like. Almost without exception in all these schools the +winter attendance is greater than that in the summer. + +Certain individual schools throughout the Empire deserve special +mention, the Royal Fachschule of Iserlohn, the first in Prussia, being a +notable example. Here handwork is combined with industrial art adapted +to metal work. Boys who entered the trade were, in the early days of the +school, found to be in need of both theoretical and practical work, so +each has a place in the curriculum. The length of the course is three +years, covering the trades of designers, wood carvers, moulders, +founders, turners, chasers, engravers, gilders, and etchers. Here are +taught drawing in all its branches; modeling in wax and clay; history of +art and metal work; elements of chemistry and physics; mathematics; +German. Practical work in the department in which the student is +engaged, is given, the student stating on entrance what subject he +desires to take up. The time of instruction is from eight to twelve, in +the winter season, and from seven to eleven in the summer. The afternoon +session is from two to six. In the engineering trade school, three hours +per day are devoted to ornamental drawing, German, physics and +arithmetic. As the instruction is planned for working people it is +largely theoretical. + +The Reimscheid school is of the apprenticeship order. Attention is given +the making of edge tools and such other implements as are manufactured +in the district. All students take drawing and design as applied to iron +work. They are made acquainted with the different kinds of iron work +that can be carried on in the home; are schooled in the use of the tools +made; learn regarding the markets at which they are sold, and the +various methods of their manufacture. Thus a general understanding of +the principles underlying his trade is given the boy and he becomes +acquainted with the commercial side of his calling while undergoing the +necessary preparation in manipulation. The theoretical work is given in +the morning and what shop practice is offered is in the afternoon from +two to seven. The tuition is twenty dollars per year. + +The Pottery Trade School at Hohr Grenzhausen, Prussia, is under State +control. There are day and evening classes, the former attended for the +most part by the sons of manufacturers; the evening classes by men and +women who are employed otherwise during the day. There are Sunday +classes also. Decorated stoneware is given much attention. The day class +boys enter with a fairly good knowledge of drawing and have perhaps +attended the Fortbildungsschule. Drawing, descriptive geometry, +modeling in clay and wax, new forms of vessels and original +ornamentation, painting, designing and decorative art, manufacture of +earthenware, lectures and study of collections, make up the curriculum. +Any original model made becomes the property of the father of the boy, +or of the person financially supporting such boy during his attendance +at school. Two duplicates of the model must be left at the school. The +courses are three years, daily sessions, Saturdays excepted. The fees +are nominal, being only five dollars per year for the day classes, +thirty hours weekly, and one dollar for evening work, two hours weekly. +Pupils living outside the municipality pay six dollars per year for day +instruction. + +The Furtwangen, or Black Forest schools are made up of several +divisions, giving rather a high class of instruction. Clock making, wood +carving, and straw plaiting, are largely carried on. + +This paper would not be complete without some mention of the system of +apprenticeship in vogue in Germany. The Lehrwerkstätten or apprentice +shops play a considerable part in the industrial life of the Empire. In +some instances they are maintained in connection with the trade schools, +or again, are semi-private or separate shops. The apprenticeship shops +on the one hand, and the continuation schools upon the other, are doing +much of the work formerly undertaken by the trade schools proper. While +manufacturing upon a larger scale is recognized as possessing advantages +over the smaller productive plants, it has seemed wise to hold to the +handicrafts, in a measure at least. The apprentice system helps to +preserve the traditions and sentiments of the German people, by handing +down these handicrafts. The associations, vereins, and guilds of past +time, are to-day, through the aid of legislation, coming to the fore, +and bringing with them many boys trained in the shops under the masters. +To show the power and scope of the guild, and in some cases it is +incumbent upon a community to form a guild whether or no, let me give +the following quotation: + +“Persons carrying on trades on their own account can form guilds for the +advancement of their common trade interests. The object of the guild +shall be: + +1. the cultivation of an esprit de corps and professional pride among +the members of a trade; + +2. the maintenance of amicable relations between employers and their +employes, and the securing of work for unemployed journeymen and their +shelter during the period of their nonemployment; + +3. the detailed regulations of the conditions of apprenticeship and the +care for the technical and moral education of apprentices; + +4. the adjustment of disputes between guild members and their +apprentices, as contemplated by the law of July 20, 1890, concerning +industrial arbitration.” + +The shops offer about the same lines of work as do the private concerns, +aiming however to be more systematic and to cover a wider scope. It is +asserted by some that the instruction gained in the shop is superficial, +and not to be compared with that obtained from the traveling +master-workmen. When the shop is connected with some enterprise or +manufacturing interest, a master-workman has one apprentice only under +his charge, for which he receives from the state some thirty-five +dollars yearly, the boy being given board, lodging and proper training. +The master must have attained the age of twenty-four years, and must +fulfil certain technical qualifications. The instruction is practical in +the highest degree and thus follows the lead of the trade schools in +letter and spirit. The fees are mainly paid in by guild members, and +those not members even, provided such reside in the district and are +connected with the trade for which the school stands. Local and state +aid is furnished. While the period of apprenticeship may extend over +four years, three years is the usual term. + + + + + IV + + ART TRADE SCHOOLS + + +The various types of institutions taken up under this head are of an +intermediate grade, standing half way between the trade school on the +one hand and the higher technical institutions upon the other. Indeed, +they contain many elements in common with the lower group, their scope +however being broader and more general or indirect, theoretical work +finding a place in their curricula. Owing to a similarity in the +instruction given, several classes of schools seem to demand a hearing +under this section. We shall begin with the more general trade schools +omitted from our previous study. + + + SCHOOLS FOR THE BUILDING TRADES + + (Baugewerkschulen) + +The schools for the building trades, of which there are a half hundred +in the Empire, are very similar in character throughout. The Munich +school, established in 1823, was the first of its kind. Their aim, as +indicated in the title, is the giving of training in the trades +connected with the various building operations. The majority of these +schools offer a course two years in length. The age of admission is +fourteen to sixteen years. It is a requisite under some boards, that +applicants have had practical experience in the line to be followed, at +least two half-years and in some cases two full years, before entrance +to the school. They must have also a fair general knowledge of their own +language, and of reading and writing as well. The candidate must be a +graduate of the Volksschule or must subject himself to an examination. +The fees in these schools vary from fifty to two hundred marks per year. +These are day sessions only. The governing power is in some cases vested +in the municipality, frequently in the State, and again in private +enterprise. + +While those who go out from these schools may, some of them at least, +follow the trades as regular laborers, others again are qualified as +master-workmen and leaders in their craft. Construction in wood, stone, +iron and metals; laws of building; modes of heat, light and ventilation; +plumbing; interior fittings; these and other occupations are taken up. +The sessions of most schools extend over the winter months only, the +students being actively engaged in their several trades during the +summer season. These schools holding continuous sessions, are sparsely +attended during the summer. When theoretical work is given, such +subjects are included as bookkeeping, descriptive geometry, physics and +mechanics, German, free-hand and mechanical drawing, design, principles +of architecture. The practical programme comprehends a study of building +materials and the procuring and working of the same; relative strengths +and adaptability to purpose; models of construction; ornamentation; +architecture and design; estimates; chemical properties of materials; +supports, trusses, arches and the like. In the more advanced +institutions, algebra, surveying, mechanics, study of machines and +chemistry may be added to the theoretical list given, while the +practical studies are more intensive, and of a somewhat higher order. +Special departments for engineering, (Tiefbauabteilungen) preparing men +to occupy positions as superintendents, managers of public works, +construction directors, etc., are sustained in some instances. + +Such schools are of an inferior engineering type, and deal with problems +of advanced work as related to the construction of roads, water works +and railroads; municipal engineering; bridge construction; +electro-technics. The theoretical lines are similar to those pursued in +other courses. + +The schools to which we have just referred illustrate well the statement +made in a previous connection, that the grade of instruction rather than +the character of the subjects taught, determines the classification of +schools into groups. Three classes of trade instruction have just been +mentioned, and might well be styled lower, middle and upper schools for +trade teaching. Another point of interest lies in the fact, that while +we have been speaking of theoretical and practical subjects as forming +the curricula of the schools for the building trades, the distinction +should rather be drawn on the line of traditional book subjects and +applied or laboratory practice. Practical work, per se, is not carried +on in the school. Thus we have a close connection between theory and +practice; more closely perhaps than is found to exist in other trades. + +The following table shows the distribution of building trade schools +throughout the Empire, the cities in which such schools are located +being given. + + Anhalt Zerbst + + Baden Carlsruhe + + Kaiserslautern + Munich + Bavaria Nuremburg + Ratisbon + Würzburg + + Brunswick Holzminden + Hamburg + Hesse + Lübeck + + Neustadt + Mecklenburg-Schwerin + Sternberg + + Mecklenburg-Strelitz Strelitz + + Oldenburg Varel + Aix-la-Chappelle + Berlin + Breslau + Buxtehude + Cassel + Cologne + Deutsch-Krone + Eckernförde + Erfurt + Frankfort-on-the-Oder + Prussia Görlitz + Hildesheim + Höxter + Idstein + Kattowitz + Königsberg + Magdeburg + Münster + Nienburg + Posen + Stettin + + Reuss-Schleitz Gera + + Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Coburg + + Weimar + Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach + Stadt-Sulza + + Chemnitz + Dresden + Grossenhain + Saxony Leipzig + Oschatz + Plauen + Rosswein + Zittau + + Schwarzburg-Sondershausen Arnstadt + + Wurttemberg Stuttgart + + + SCHOOLS FOR FOREMEN + + (Werkmeisterschulen) + +The Werkmeisterschulen or schools for foremen, are quite prominent in +the scheme of secondary instruction. The courses given in these schools +are of a general character, for the most part practical, and the +institution, as the name implies, fits men to occupy positions as +foremen and overseers. Machine construction is the chief industry for +which these schools train. The first school of this character was opened +in 1855 at Chemnitz, Saxony. There are at present twenty-one schools of +this class in the Empire. Sixteen is the regular age of admission. +Candidates must have an elementary education on presenting themselves. +Two years is the average length of course, including both winter and +summer terms. A requisite for admission also is practical experience in +the trade, hence little other than theoretical instruction is given. + +To the objection made by some, to extending the course over two years of +residence and of including the elementary branches in the curriculum +(such opposition favoring a reduction in time given to preparation) the +answer comes that the school should give a well grounded education, such +as will fit the participant for all the functions of his social and +industrial life. Fifty to sixty marks is charged yearly for tuition +fees. Certain of these schools have both evening and Sunday classes, the +tuition being twenty marks yearly for week day evenings, eight to nine +forty-five, and Sundays, eight to ten in the forenoon. + +Table showing location of schools for foremen: + + Anhalt Dessau + Baden Mannheim + Bavaria Four Mechanische Fachschulen + + Hamburg + Altona + Cologne + Dortmund + Duisburg + Elberfeld-Barmen + + Prussia Gleiwitz + Gorlitz + Hanover + Magdeburg + Iserlohn + Reimscheid + + Chemnitz + Saxony Mittweida + Leipzig + +The following data were compiled from tables appearing in the Report of +the Commissioner of Labor of the United States, for 1902. The hours per +week allowed each subject taught in the schools of machinery +construction, at Duisburg and Dortmund, Prussia, are given. + + | DUISBURG || DORTMUND + +------------+------------++------------+------------ + | FIRST YEAR | SECOND YEAR|| FIRST YEAR |SECOND YEAR + +-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------ + |First|Second|First|Second||First|Second|First|Second + |Half |Half |Half |Half ||Half |Half |Half |Half +-----------------------------+-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------ +German language and law | 4 | 4 | 2 | 2 || 5 | 3 | 2 | -- +Arithmetic | 4 | 1 | -- | -- || 5 | 2 | -- | -- +Bookkeeping | -- | -- | -- | 2 || -- | -- | -- | 3 +Descriptive Geometry | -- | 3 | -- | -- || -- | -- | -- | -- +Mathematics | 8 | 6 | 4 | 2 || 7 | 6 | 5 | 2 +Experimental Physics | -- | -- | -- | -- || 4 | 2 | -- | -- +Physics and Electricity | 4 | 3 | 2 | 2 || -- | 4 | 3 | 3 +Experimental Chemistry | 2 | -- | -- | -- || 2 | -- | -- | -- +Penmanship | 2 | -- | -- | -- || 1 | -- | -- | -- +Drawing | 12 | -- | -- | -- || 17 | -- | -- | -- +Machine Drawing | -- | 6 | 8 | 8 || -- | 10 | 8 | 14 +Projection | -- | -- | -- | -- || -- | 2 | -- | -- +Mechanics | -- | 4 | 4 | 4 || -- | 5 | 5 | 2 +Technology of mechanics, | | | | || | | | + smelting and refining | -- | -- | 6 | 4 || -- | 2 | 6 | 4 +Theory of machines | -- | 6 | -- | -- || -- | 6 | -- | -- +Steam boilers and hoist | | | | || | | | + machines | -- | -- | 6 | -- || -- | -- | 7 | -- +Steam engines and hydraulics | | | | || | | | + and small motors | -- | -- | -- | 6 || -- | -- | -- | 8 +Heating | -- | 3 | -- | -- || -- | -- | -- | -- +Theory of building | | | | || | | | + construction | -- | -- | 4 | -- || -- | -- | 2 | 2 +Practice in the work shop for| | | | || | | | + machinery construction | -- | -- | -- | -- || -- | -- | 4 | 4 +Estimated wages | -- | -- | -- | 6 || -- | -- | -- | -- +First aid to the injured | -- | -- | 1 | -- || -- | 1 | -- | -- + +-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------ + Total | 36 | 36 | 37 | 36 || 41 | 43 | 42 | 42 + +The following table showing the occupations of one time students at +three of the Prussian schools was compiled in April, 1898. This table +may be found on page 883 of the Seventeenth Annual Report of the +Commissioner of Labor of the United States. + +Columns: + +A Duisburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1883 to April 10, 1898 +B Dortmund: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1892 to April 10, 1898 +C Magdeburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1893 to April 10, 1898 + +-------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+ + OCCUPATION | A | B | C | +-------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+ +Heads of establishments | 54 | 1 | 1 | +Other officers of establishments | 237 | 107 | 11 | +Machine builders and foremen | 39 | 18 | 1 | +Wage-workers | 34 | 9 | | +Owners of establishments or shops | 10 | 3 | | +Draftsmen and technical experts in offices | 86 | 55 | 83 | +Assistant Chemists | 3 | | | +Students at other schools | 11 | 1 | 2 | +Other than technical work | 4 | 1 | | +Military service | 16 | 23 | | +Deceased | 11 | | | +Unknown | 26 | 21 | 5 | + | --- | --- | --- | + Total | 531 | 239 | 103 | +-------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+ + + + SCHOOLS FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES + +One of the most interesting groups of trade schools are those for the +promotion of the textile industry in its various aspects, there existing +at the present time no less than seventy-nine such institutions. The +fourfold classification of these schools which follow, seems to be in +accordance with the spirit of the work attempted. + +First; the superior weaving school (Höhere Webschulen). + +Second; the secondary weaving schools (Webschulen). + +Third; the apprentice shops for weaving and knitting +(Webereilehrwerkstätten). + +Fourth; instruction by traveling or itinerant masters. (Wanderlehrer) + +Not only does Germany rank high in the character of her textile schools, +but instruction is exceedingly wide spread. Then again all lines of the +industry are taken up, from the most elementary to the most technical +processes known. It will thus be seen that men are trained for the lower +as well as for the higher branches of the art. In the highest classes of +institutions weaving is almost exclusively carried on. The general +Government assumes the control of these schools notwithstanding that in +the beginning, many such institutions were put on foot through the +initiative of associations and guilds. In each of the several classes +the work is both theoretical and practical. The age of admission is +usually fourteen years and the course of two years duration. + +The Webschulen train, not for specialists as do the schools just +mentioned, but rather aim to turn out foremen and bosses. The +apprenticeship shops come more closely in touch with the workmen of +small means and those using hand machinery, while the Wanderlehrer +schools are moveable. In the latter instance, the home becomes the +school when the teacher is present; that is a competent instructor is +employed to travel from place to place, visiting the small factories or +home manufacturers, and giving such instruction as he deems wise and +necessary. Much good work is still done in the rural homes of Germany, +and through the means mentioned the standards are kept up. + +The work of these textile schools is largely specialized, depending upon +the the location of the school. In some localities wool, in others linen +or cotton, or again in others silk will be given the chief attention. +Both theory and practice have a place in the school instruction. Work in +the various courses includes a study at first hand of the materials +used, cost of production, relative values, various processes of +manipulation, chemistry, drawing, designing, painting, lectures on +fabrics, elements of weaving and machinery used, and original design +and practical work. + +The distribution of textile schools is shown in the following table. + +----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+----------------------- + | Superior Textile + | + | | Secondary Weaving + | | + | | | Primary Weaving + | | | + | | | | Weaving, Knitting and Trimming + | | | | + | | | | | Spinning, Weaving and Knitting + STATE | | | | | + | | | | | | Spinning and Weaving + | | | | | | + | | | | | | | Primary Knitting + | | | | | | | +----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+----------------------- +Alsace-Lorraine | | | | | | 1 | +Bavaria | | 3 | | | | | +Hesse | | 1 | | | | | +Prussia | 8 | 8 | 22 | | | | +Reuss-Greitz | | 1 | | | | | +Reuss-Schleitz | | 1 | | | | | +Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach | | | | | | | 1 +Saxony | | | | 27 | | | +Wurttemberg | | | | | 1 | | +----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+----------------------- + +The Prussian superior textile schools are located as follows: + + Aix-la-Chappelle + Bremen + Berlin + Crefeld + Cottbus + Mülheim-on-Rhine + München-Gladbach + Sorau + +The Berlin textile schools may be taken as fairly representing the +higher and more completely equipped institutions of this class. The age +of admission is sixteen years, a secondary education being necessary to +entrance. Several courses are offered as follows: + + knitting, one year; + weaving, one and one-half years; + designing, two years; + passementerie making, one year; + dyeing, one year; + embroidery, one-fourth year. + +There are day, evening and Sunday classes. The accompanying table shows +the subjects taught in each course and the number of hours given to each +subject, reckoned on the basis of the entire length of course. + +---------------------------+-------------------------------------------- + | For manufacturers and + | superintendents, 1½ yrs. + | + | | Designing, 2 yrs. + | | + | | | Knitting, 1 yr. + | | | + SUBJECTS | | | | Passementerie making, 1 yr. + | | | | + | | | | | Dyeing, 1 yr. +---------------------------+----+----+----+----+----------------------- +Theory of weaving | 4 | 3 | 6 | 6 | 2 +Design transfer | 13 | 9 | 3 | 8 | +Materials | 1 | ½ | 1 | 1 | +Hand and power looms | 3 | 2 | | | +Motors | 1 | | | | +Preparing apparatus | 1 | | | | +Finishing apparatus | 1 | | | | +Practical exercises | 8 | 6 | 18 | 12 | 33 +Dyeing | 2 | | 2 | 2 | +Analysis and production of | | | | | + knitting goods | | | 4 | | +Chemistry of fibers | | | | | 2 +Chemistry and physics | | | | | 4 +Drawing | 8 | 23 | 2 | 5 | +Arithmetic and bookkeeping | 2 | | 3 | 3 | +Jurisprudence | 2 | | 1 | 1 | +Lecture | | | 2 | | +---------------------------+----+----+----+----+----------------------- + +In many instances the weaving schools have in connection with them +departments for dyeing and finishing. In such cases much attention is +given to color blending and harmony and to chemistry as well. + + + GEWERBESCHULEN + +Extended mention will not be made of the Gewerbeschulen, as the point of +distinction between such schools and the Fachschulen was set forth under +the last section. They partake of the character of trade schools, but +are more general in their tendencies. While both theoretical and +practical work are given, the former is not always applied theory, the +Gewerbeschulen being based upon, what we in America speak of, as the +educational side of trade instruction. These schools are attended by +boys and men fourteen to twenty-four years of age,--individuals +representing the various trades. The courses cover a period of three +years. Both State and local moneys go to the support of these schools. + +The Gewerbliche Fachschule of Cologne is somewhat distinctive. It +instructs chiefly the sons of tradesmen and superior artisans. There +are three departments in the school: + +First--that of engineering and architectural drawing. + +Second--modeling department. + +Third--the department of decoration, housepainting, etc. + +The session covers both winter and summer months, the winter term, as in +other cases, being the better attended. Other typical Gewerbeschulen are +located at Grenzhausen and at Reimscheid. Applicants for admission must +have prepared in the Volksschule or elementary school. The programme +comprises the German language, French, English, literature, plane and +descriptive geometry, physics, chemistry, drawing, mechanics, machine +construction. The preparation here obtained fits the participants to +enter the higher schools, or to act as foremen and masters. These +schools also lead up to the industrial schools of Bavaria, of which we +shall now speak. + + + INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS OF BAVARIA + + (Industrieschulen) + +The industrial schools of the Bavarian Kingdom stand out as a distinct +class of educational institutions. Here, since 1872, there has been a +clean cut system, presided over by a Minister of Education. While the +quality and character of the work done are quite similar to that taken +up in the secondary schools elsewhere, the institutions are in some +respects more exactly defined and supervision and instruction in the +schools of weaving, woodcarving, basketmaking, pottery, violin making, +etc., is frequently superior to that in some other locality. + +The age of admission is sixteen years, two years being the usual length +of course; the education of the Real-Schule is a requisite, or failing +this, an examination must be taken. In 1901-1902 the Munich schools had +an enrollment of 241 students, distributed as follows: mechanical +engineering 124; chemical engineering 27; architecture 62; commercial +28. The graduates are fitted to occupy positions of trust and prominence +in the various industrial pursuits of the country and to enter the +technical colleges. + +The Industrieschulen of Bavaria are four in number, located at + + Augsburg + Kaiserslautern + Munich + Nuremberg + +they having been established in 1868. Advanced courses are offered in +mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, building construction, and +commercial education. The school at Würzburg is of a somewhat superior +order, although secondary in its tendencies, machinery construction and +electro-technics being given attention. + +In the mechanical engineering course the following subjects are studied: + + elementary mathematics + descriptive geometry + calculus + surveying + physics + German + French + English + mechanics + machine work + machine construction + mechanical drawing + practical work. + +In the chemistry course the curriculum is made up of + + mathematics + physics + chemistry + mineralogy + German + French + English + machine construction + laboratory work. + +The building construction course offers language, mechanical drawing +and architecture. + + + + + V + + HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOLS + + Technische Hochschulen + + +We have at this point in our study reached the schools of highest rank +offering training of a technical character, called variously technical +high schools, technical colleges, or polytechnics, the Technische +Hochschulen. These schools are not high schools in the sense that the +term would be applied to our American institutions, but are rather +schools of collegiate grade, ranking in fact, as the title indicates in +the university class. While not exactly comparable to our engineering +schools, they approach more nearly these than they do any other of our +American educational institutions. + +Before the beginning of the century just closed it was apparent to some +German minds more far seeing than the rest, that schools of a higher +than secondary rank must be inaugurated to offer training in the +sciences; give opportunity to show the application of science to the +arts; and prepare young men to grapple with scientific industrial +problems such as were constantly springing up. Should the university +attempt such work? An effort was made looking toward this end. It was at +once evident that here was not the place to begin. The university was an +institution in and of itself. Its methods, curriculum and aim were +fixed, owing to long established customs. It had a certain work to +perform, its own peculiar function to fulfill, and traditional and +classical tendency were too strong to be checked in their movement, or +to allow a branch stream to flow in and thus add to or modify the +existing content. + +The war for industrial supremacy, between England and Germany +particularly, was a prominent factor leading up to the establishment of +technical schools in the latter country. Germany saw the necessity for +heroic action, and her people, anxious to improve from the standpoint of +her industries at home not only, but that they might rival and surpass +their neighbors across the “Silver Streak” readily took up the cry for +advanced scientific training. This then was the object of the Technische +Hochschulen:[2] + +“They were intended to secure for science a foothold in the workshop, to +assist with the light of reasoned theory the progress of arts and +industry, till then fettered by many a prejudice and hindered through +lack of knowledge; on the other hand, they sought to raise that part of +the nation engaged in industry to such a love of culture as would secure +to it its due measure of public respect.” + +[Footnote 2: Note on the earlier History of the Technical High School in +Germany by A. E. Twentyman in Special Reports on Educational Subjects, +London, Vol 9, page 468.] + +The dates of the founding of the now existing Technische Hochschulen +vary somewhat, certain of the schools growing out of a foundation which +at the beginning was of a low or intermediate grade. Several of the +schools have passed through a period of transition or reorganization +state during the course of their existence. The institution, and time of +establishment of each are as follows. + + Berlin, 1799 + Carlsruhe, 1825 + Munich, 1827 + Dresden, 1828 + Stuttgart, 1829 + Brunswick, 1835 + Darmstadt, 1868 + Aachen, 1870 + Hannover, 1879 + +In 1799 was instituted in Berlin the Bauakademie, a State institution +whose purpose was set forth in the royal decree thus: + +“To train in theoretical and practical knowledge capable surveyors, +architects, civil engineers, and masons, principally for the King’s +dominions, but foreigners may find admittance if no disadvantage accrue +thereby to the King’s subjects.” + +Later, in 1821, Gewerbeschule came into existence, and in 1879 the union +of these two formed the Berlin Technische Hochschule which is located in +Charlottenburg, a suburb of the city. Owing to the high standards of +this institution, it is styled the Königliche Technische Hochschule. +Since its reorganization the plans of the other schools of like +character have been modified in accordance with the Berlin scheme. + +The preparation necessary for admission to the Hochschulen is equivalent +to that demanded by the university proper. The age of admission probably +never drops below seventeen, the average age being considerably greater. +Men of mature years and of wide experience and training avail themselves +to the privileges offered. The courses are from three to four years in +length. + +[3] “The new universities thus developed have the purpose of affording +higher instruction for the technical positions in state and community +service, as well as in industrial life, and of cultivating sciences and +arts which are intimately connected with the field of technology (Berlin +provisory statute, 1879). They prove themselves equal to universities in +the following points: they claim for their matriculated students the +same preparatory education required by the old universities, namely, +nine years at a classical high school; they grant and insist upon +perfect freedom in teaching and learning; and are under the direction of +rectors elected for one year, instead of having principals chosen for +life as in secondary schools.” + +[Footnote 3: Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, +1897-1898, page 70.] + +It may be said here that an exception to the rule of the annual election +of the administrative officers, is furnished in the example of the +Munich school, which retains a permanent Director as the custom +prevailed in times past. + +Unless otherwise qualified, students must have prepared in the +Industrieschule, the Gymnasium, the Real-Gymnasium or in the trade or +building schools. In lieu of this an examination is demanded. +Twenty-four is the minimum age of graduation. + +In tracing the development of these schools from unpretentious +beginnings to their present high standards of excellence, we see that +more and more they have become unified in purpose and similar in +curricula. In the early days too, the qualifications for admission, +their dynamic government, and educational standards were lower and more +diversified than we find them to-day. Sustained by the State and each +administered by its board or council, they are doing a work which cannot +be excelled by the universities themselves. + +The organization of departments of work offered is approximately the +same in all schools. In Berlin there are six departments: + + first, general school of applied science; + second, general construction engineering; + third, machine construction; + fourth, naval engineering; + fifth, chemistry and mining engineering; + sixth, architecture. + +Special attention is given certain subjects in one or another of these +schools; civil or mechanical engineering, building construction, +industrial chemistry, etc. An agricultural department is maintained at +Munich, and a forestry department at Carlsruhe. That a knowledge of the +application of electricity is considered essential in our modern methods +is shown in the fact that all students in departments of machine +construction engage in the study of electro-technics. + +The courses of study are to-day upon more of an elective basis than +formerly although even now the results of the work of Nebenius are +clearly seen. The success of the Hochschulen is due to the efforts of +Nebenius more than to any other one man. His ideas were worked out at +Carlsruhe and in greater or lesser degree incorporated into all the +schools. It was insisted by him that a proper foundation must be laid +before any successful special technical training can be had. Preliminary +work must be mastered and a natural sequence of studies followed. To +this end a fixed graduated course is recommended, the student to be +promoted as ability may determine. The one course plan however has been +substituted for the several.[4] + +[Footnote 4: “Programm der Königl. Technischen Hochschule zu Hannover, +1901-1902, page 90. Den Hörern bleibt die Wahl der Lehrfächer frei +überlassen, für ein geordnetes Studium empfiehlt sich aber die Beachtung +der folgenden Studien und Stundenpläne.”] + +The following table compiled from various sources will give some idea of +the extent of the work as carried on in Berlin. The school has a library +of 54,000 volumes; a student body of upwards of 4,500 and a modern +equipment throughout. + +-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+----------- +Departments | No. | SUBJECTS |No. of + | of | |Professors + | courses | |and + | | |Instructors +-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+----------- +General | 58 | Mechanics, Physics and general | 33 +Science | | science studies; literature, | + | | French, English, Italian, law, | + | | political science. | +-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+----------- +Civil | 34 | Mechanics, railway construction, | 13 +Engineering | | bridges, canals, harbors, hydraulics, | + | | drainage, land surveying. | +-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+----------- +Mechanical | 54 | Kinematics, machine construction, | 23 +Engineering | | mechanical technology, | + | | machine design, water, steam | + | | and electrical machines, | + | | electro-technics, electro-mechanics, | + | | electrical and railway | + | | works. | +-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+----------- +Naval | 19 | Theory of ship building, | 6 +Engineering | | classification of ships, designing of | + | | warships, boilers, machine | + | | construction, practical | + | | ship building. | +-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+----------- +Chemistry | 51 | Organic and inorganic chemistry | 27 +and | | including physical, electro and | +Metallurgy | | technological chemistry, | + | | crystallography, metallurgy, foundry | + | | work, cements, botany, | + | | chemistry of plants and foods. | +-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+----------- +Architecture | 65 | History of art, architecture and | 36 + | | ornament; building construction, | + | | designing of buildings | + | | in different materials and for | + | | various purposes, preparation | + | | of estimates, etc. | +-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+----------- + +The rivalry existing among the various schools is in some respects a +point to be commended. Then, too, the idea taking form in the +Hochschulen and being more fully appreciated by the educationalists of +our own country, that each school should specialize along some +particular line, is worthy of attention. Energy is saved thereby, and +students may have the advantage of increased facilities in equipment and +instruction. Many Americans are studying in these schools, possibly more +in Munich than elsewhere. While thorough in their treatment of subjects, +the practical side of the work is too much lost sight of in the +theoretical treatment. Testing and applied work are certainly given +considerable attention however. To quote Dean Victor C. Alderson of the +Armour Institute, Chicago, who says in reference to testing: + + “Professors regard this work as professional practice, just as + doctors, who are professors in medical schools, have an outside + practice. The technical school allows the professors free use of + the laboratories, but assumes no responsibility for the accuracy + of the results or opinions expressed.” + +The degree of Doctor of Engineering is conferred by these institutions, +and that their work has been highly instrumental in developing the +country cannot be doubted, especially in the line of applied chemistry +in which branch of engineering Germany leads the nations. How closely +the development of the industries of Germany are related to the work of +the Technische Hochschulen it is difficult to say, but that these +schools have shown through the accomplishments of their graduates that +high standards of moral and intellectual training can be had in other +than the traditional universities, and that as efficient social service +can be rendered through the application of science to the arts and +industries as by means of the languages, cannot be doubted. + + + + + VI + + SCHOOLS OF INDUSTRIAL ART OR ART TRADE SCHOOLS + + +The Kunstgewerbeschulen are schools of art. The causes leading to their +inception are clearly set forth in a paragraph contained in the 1902 +Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor. It reads: + +“The international museums of 1851, 1855 and 1862, in England, Austria +and Germany, respectively called attention to the fact that with all +their technical excellence the industrial products of Germany possessed +few qualities of artistic finish and design. France showed what could be +done in this direction. Her products easily held first rank in this +respect, her eminence being the result of centuries of training in this +field. Since Colbert’s time industrial art education has been emphasized +in the training of French workmen, and the accumulated skill and taste +due to this training, has left its impress on French products. The +German states at once set about to remedy this weakness in this respect, +and since that time have so persistently established museums and schools +for industrial art training that now there is no important city in the +Empire which does not possess one or more of these institutions”. + +Considerable variety exists among the various types of art schools and +even among those belonging in the same class and separated as to +location we find differences. In Leipzig, Saxony, for example the +Kunstgewerbeschule aims at the graphic arts mainly. In Berlin, Dresden, +Carlsruhe, and certain other cities these schools train for sculptors +and painters, and the term “Akademie” is frequently applied to these +institutions. They are in fact, art trade schools whose main purpose, +while yet industrial, is also the instilling of an artistic feeling into +industrial work. They reach on and out from the trade school and up to +the institutions for the teaching of the fine arts. They are then a +middle grade of applied art schools. + +The genesis of the industrial art schools really lies in the +establishment of museums of industrial art. The museums were an +inspiring and energizing force, for here the best work could be +exhibited and studied. The municipality and general government financed +the movement for the museums. Schools sprang up in connection with the +museums and later, independent art schools were established. + +A moderate fee is charged those who pursue work here, twenty to forty +marks yearly. Candidates must have had practical experience in the line +of work they propose to take up, and both these schools and the +so-called industrial drawing courses assume a certain proficiency on the +part of the candidates; a proficiency in general subjects and in +drawing particularly. An examination is given those who cannot present +the desired credentials. The length of the courses in these schools is +usually three years. The classes are both day and evening, 8 A. M. to 4 +P. M. and from 5 to 10 P. M. In some instances Sunday sessions are held +also. + +The courses consist of architectural designing in wood and metal, metal +engraving and chasing, modeling, steel engraving and etching, design for +fabrics, pattern designing, artistic embroidery, decorative painting, +enamel painting, designing and painting figures and plants. The work +throughout is both theoretical and practical in its nature, the +instruction gained in the class being applied in the shop. The subjects +of instruction and time devoted to each differ according to the course +pursued. As an example of the programme offered, the following, taken +from the architectural draftsman’s course in the Munich school is given; +the figures show the number of hours per week devoted to each subject. + + First year, + linear drawing 7 + ornament drawing 9 + modelling of ornament and of the human + figure 21 + history of art 1 + style 1 + geometry and projections 3 + + Second year, + architectural drawing 7 + drawing and modeling of the human + figure and modeling of ornaments 20 + history of art 1 + style 1 + perspective and shadows 2 + anatomy, xylography, architecture, + sculpture, or chasing 10 + + Third year, + architectural drawing 7 + drawing and modeling of the human figure + and modeling of ornaments 10 + anatomy 1 + xylography, architecture, sculpture or + chasing 24 + +The Bauschule are only for those who wish proficiency in architectural +studies. + +What the Industrial Hall at Carlsruhe, the Industrial Art Museum at +Berlin, and the National Museum at Munich are to the art schools proper, +the open drawing halls are to the industrial drawing courses. Here, as +in the museums, are kept models and designs of rare merit and students +may pursue work under competent instruction. Such halls are established +in Bavaria, Hesse, Prussia, Saxony and Wurttemberg. + +In these art courses skill and originality are aimed at equally. The +relation existing between the art work and the trade or industry with +which it is connected is such as to make more valuable the latter. + +It is needless to speak further of the museums. The art products there +exhibited give much incentive to students, as well as a feeling for the +best from the standpoint of the beautiful and artistic, and all who +visit them are consciously or unconsciously influenced for the better. + +The following table shows the distribution of industrial art schools +throughout the various States. + + _Alsace-Lorraine_, Mülhausen, Strasburg. + _Anhalt_, Dessau. + _Baden_, Carlsruhe, Pforzheim. + _Bremen_, + _Bavaria_, Kaiserslautern, Munich, Nuremberg. + _Hamburg_, + _Hesse_, Mentz, Offenbach. + _Prussia_, Aix-la-Chappelle, Barmen, Berlin, Breslau, Cassel, + Cologne, Düsseldorf, Elberfeld, Frankfort-on the-Main, Hanau, + Hanover, Iserlohn, Königsberg, Magdeburg. + _Saxony_, Dresden, Leipzig, Plauen. + _Wurttemberg_, Stuttgart. + + + + + VII + + BIBLIOGRAPHY + + +Beobachtungen und Vergleiche über Einrichtungen für Gewerbliche +Erziehung, 1901.--Dr. G. Kerschensteiner. + +Das Gewerbeschulwesen.--Carl Melchior. + +Denkschriften über die Entwickelung der Gewerblichen Fachschulen und der +Fortbildungsschulen in Preussen.--Lüders. + +Encyklopädisches Handbuch der Pädagogik.--W. Rein. + +English Technical Instruction Commission, 1896. Report on the Recent +Progress of Technical Education in Germany. + +Fortbildungsschule in unserer Zeit.--J. B. Meyer. + +German Higher Schools.--James E. Russell. + +German Technical Schools, 1901.--Victor C. Alderson. + +Gewerbliche Fortbildungsschulen Deutschlands.--R. Nagel. + +Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 1900.--Conrad. + +Höherer Polytechnischer Unterricht in Deutschland, etc.--Carl Koristka. + +Industrial Education.--Philip Magnus. + +Jahresbericht der Königlichen Industrieschule und Baugewerkschule zu +München, 1898-1899. + +Jahresbericht der Technischen Staatslehranstalten zu Chemnitz, 1890. + +Jahresbericht über die Berliner Fortbildungsschule, 1890-1891. + +Kunstgewerbe als Beruf, 1901. + +Note on the Earlier History of the Technical High Schools in +Germany.--A. E. Twentyman. + +Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, 1902, Vol. 9, page 465. + +Paches’ Handbook, 1899. + +Problems in Prussian Secondary Education for Boys.--Michael E. Sadler. + +Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, 1898, Vol. 3. + +Programm der Königlichen Fachschule zu Iserlohn Metal Industrie. + +Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1889-1890, page +1209-1212. + +Same, 1894-1895, Vol. 1, page 345-380. + +Supplementary and Industrial Schools in Germany. + +Same, 1895-1896, Vol. 1, page 138. + +Same, 1897-1898, Vol. 1, page 69. German Technical Colleges. + +Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor, 1892, Eighth Annual. + +Industrial Education in Germany. + +Same, 1902, Seventeenth Annual. + +Trade and Technical Education in Germany, page 871. + +Second Report of the Royal Commission on Technical Education, London, +1884, Vol. 1. + +The Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry, 1902.--Fabian Ware. + +The Continuation Schools in Berlin.--Dr. H. Bertram. + +Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, 1902, Vol. 9, page 451. + +United States Consular Reports. Description of the School of Carpentry +and Cabinetmaking in Magdeburg, Prussia, No. 238, July, 1900.--Wm. +Diederich. + +Same. School of Marine Machinists, Flensburg, Prussia. No. 174, March, +1895. + +Same. Technical and Merchant Schools 56:208, page 78.--J. C. Monoghan. + +Same. Technical Education in Germany. 54:202, page 447.--J. C. Monoghan. + + + + + PUBLISHER’S NOTE + + +This book was published under some disadvantages, as it was delayed by +the removal of our office to a larger place of business, and by a +printers’ strike, which resulted in four changes in foremen. This, +together with the fact that the author was upon the Pacific coast and +proof was delayed and sometimes lost has led to errors for which he is +not responsible. Besides typographical blunders easily recognized the +following are noted: + +Page 13, next line to last for _Air_ read _Art_. + + 19, 5th line, for _enable_ read _ennoble_. + + 23, 4th line from below, for _committee_ read _communities_. + + 25, 5th line, for _development_ read _deportment_. + + 63, 7th line, for _models_ read _modes_. + + 72, next to last line, the 1 should be in _second_ half of first + year, making the totals 41 and 43 instead of 42 and 42. + + 79, in table, Knitting should have _1 yr._ instead of _2 yrs._, and + the line beginning _Machinery_ is to be omitted. + + 81, 4th line from below, insert _to_ before _enter_. + + 93, last part of paragraph, read “The one course plan however has + been substituted for the several.” + + + +Transcriber’s Note: The table below lists all corrections applied to the +original text. + +p. viii: for _development_ read _department_ -> _deportment_ +p. 007: make any one clasification -> classification +p. 010: Conrad’s Handworterbuch -> Handwörterbuch +p. 011: Wurtemburg industrial -> Wurttemburg +p. 012: other conditions (examinations) or these schools -> of +p. 012: Ages ranges from fourteen to thirty -> range +p. 012: the only instition -> institution +p. 013: [errata] Pure Air -> Art +p. 014: Technischeschulen -> Technische Schulen +p. 016: Continuation Schools or Fortbilbungsschulen -> Fortbildungsschulen +p. 016: Fortbildtngsshulen -> Fortbildungsschulen +p. 017: [extra comma] at this age, forced to -> age forced +p. 017: a statsment made by Mr. Michael N. Sadler-> statement +p. 018: [quote added] “Among the great number +p. 019: [errata] in the arts which enable -> ennoble +p. 019: born under a luckler star -> luckier +p. 020: continuation of Fortbildungsschulen -> or +p. 023: adapt their instrnction -> instruction +p. 023: [errata] Here the committee must meet -> communities +p. 025: [errata] character and development of the boys -> deportment +p. 027: higher mathemematics, mechanics, physics -> mathematics +p. 028: is carried suffciently far -> sufficiently +p. 028: classes are arranged acording to -> according +p. 029: smaller towns or in the conntry -> country +p. 029: university extention courses -> extension +p. 031: similar to Fortbildungsschulen in Leipsig -> Leipzig +p. 031: schools have seen a marvelous developement -> development +p. 032: attended by journeyman and apprentices -> journeymen +p. 032: good manners (gute sitten) -> Sitten +p. 033: [normalized] throughout various parts of the empire -> Empire +p. 033: [extra comma] under eighteen years of age, might -> age might +p. 033: [extra comma] the employer, must -> employer must +p. 033: Baden. compulsory school laws -> Baden, compulsory +p. 034: to be determined eventually be -> by +p. 035: worthy of note that she delares -> declares +p. 039: that the Forthildungsschule -> Fortbildungsschule +p. 039: foundation of most of the Faceschulen -> Fachschulen +p. 046: Wagonmakers and Wheelrights -> Wheelwrights +p. 047: Free hand drawing -> Free-hand +p. 056: becomes the property ot the father -> of +p. 057: The Lehrwerkstatten or apprentice shops -> Lehrwerkstätten +p. 059: fulfil certain teohnical qualifications -> technical +p. 059: practical iu the highest degree -> in +p. 062: [missing letter] The governing power is in ome cases -> some +p. 063: [errata] laws of building; models of heat -> modes +p. 067: Buxtehede -> Buxtehude +p. 067: Magdeberg -> Magdeburg +p. 068: Orchatz -> Oschatz +p. 068: Zitteau -> Zittau +p. 069: [normalized] schools of this class in the empire -> Empire +p. 070: the elementary ranches in the curriculm -> curriculum +p. 071: Inserlohn -> Iserlohn +p. 071: Mlttweida -> Mittweida +p. 071: compiled from tables appearing the Report -> appearing in the +p. 074: [missing letters] Webereilehrwerkstä en -> Webereilehrwerkstätten +p. 074: itinerant masters. (Wenderlehrer) -> Wanderlehrer +p. 074: lines of the indnstry -> industry +p. 075: In each of the several classses -> classes +p. 077: Grefeld -> Crefeld +p. 079: [errata] Knitting, 2 yrs. -> Knitting, 1yr. +p. 079: [errata, removed line] Machinery | | | 3 | 6 | 2 +p. 081: superior artizans -> artisans +p. 081: prepared in the Volkschule -> Volksschule +p. 081: [errata] the participants enter -> participants to enter +p. 085: [added chapter number] V +p. 086: show the aplication of science -> application +p. 087: in the atter country -> latter +p. 087: the necessity or heroic action -> for heroic +p. 087: due measure of public respsct -> respect +p. 087: by A. E. Twentymen -> by A. E. Twentyman +p. 088: Dresden, 1826 -> 1828 +p. 088: principally for the Kiugs dominions -> King’s +p. 089: styled the Koeniglische Technische Hochschule -> Königliche +p. 090: Berlin provisory statue -> statute +p. 091: State and and each administered -> State and each +p. 092: The organization of deparments of work -> departments +p. 093: [errata] For the one course plan however -> The one +p. 093: [errata] have been substituted -> has +p. 093: [errata] substituted the several -> substituted for the +p. 093: Program der Königl. Technischen Hochschule -> Programm +p. 093: Den Horern bleibt die Wahl -> Hörern +p. 093: frei überlassen, Für ein geordnetes -> überlassen, für +p. 098: Kunstgewerbsechulen are schools of art -> Kunstgewerbeschulen +p. 104: Alcace-Lorraine, Mülhausen, Strasburg -> Alsace +p. 104: Prussia, Aix-la Chapelle -> Aix-la-Chappelle +p. 105: Enrichtungen für -> Einrichtungen +p. 105: Gewerbliche Erzichnung -> Erziehung +p. 105: Dr. G. Kerschenteuer -> Kerschensteiner +p. 105: Denkschriften über die Entiwickelung -> Entwickelung +p. 105: Fortbildungschulen in Prussen -> Fortbildungsschulen in Preussen +p. 105: Encyklopädischer Handbuch -> Encyklopädisches +p. 105: Handbuch der Pädogik -> Pädagogik +p. 105: in unserer zeit -> Zeit +p. 105: [removed in] Fortbildungsschulen in Deutschlands +p. 106: [removed comma] Jahresbericht der Königlichen, Industrieschule +p. 106: Technischen Stattslehranstalten -> Staatslehranstalten +p. 107: Program der Königlichen Fachschule -> Programm +p. 108: School of Marine Machinists, Fleusburg, Prussia -> Flensburg + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Condition and Tendencies of +Technical Education in Germany, by Arthur Henry Chamberlain + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY *** + +***** This file should be named 26595-0.txt or 26595-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/5/9/26595/ + +Produced by Irma Spehar, Markus Brenner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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