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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Condition and Tendencies of Technical
+Education in Germany, by Arthur Henry Chamberlain
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Condition and Tendencies of Technical Education in Germany
+
+Author: Arthur Henry Chamberlain
+
+Release Date: September 12, 2008 [EBook #26595]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Irma Spehar, Markus Brenner and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                     THE CONDITION AND TENDENCIES
+
+                                  OF
+
+                    Technical Education in Germany
+
+                                  BY
+
+                       ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN
+
+       Professor of Education and Principal of the Normal School
+            of Manual Training, Art, and Domestic Economy,
+          Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, California:
+                Author of “Educative Hand-Work Manuals”
+                  and “A Bibliography of Manual Arts”
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+                            SYRACUSE, N. Y.
+                       C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER
+                                 1908
+
+                   Copyright, 1908, by C. W. BARDEEN
+
+
+
+
+                             INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The question of the technical phases of education is, with any nation, a
+vital one. Perhaps this is true of Germany as it is of no other European
+country. This may be mainly due to one of several causes. First, as to
+the length of time technical education has had a place in the German
+schools. In some form or another, and in a greater or lesser degree,
+such instruction has been in vogue for many years, and has in no small
+measure become part and parcel of the educational fabric of the nation.
+Again, throughout the various German States, the work is rather widely
+differentiated, this owing in part to the fact that the varying lines of
+industry in adjacent localities even, give color and bent to the
+technical education of any particular locality. An extensive field is
+thus comprehended under the term “technical education”. Then, too,
+Germany as a nation must needs better her condition in order that she
+may prove self-sustaining. The country is not a wealthy one, and if in
+trade, in manufacture, and in commerce, she is to compete, and that
+successfully, with the world powers, strength must be gained along such
+lines as those opening through technical education.
+
+The hope is entertained that the following pages may prove of value, not
+alone to the student of technical education as it exists in Germany, but
+particularly to those who are endeavoring to institute and develop
+industrial and technical training in this country. The possibility along
+these lines is exceedingly great and the interest and attention of
+thinking people is focused here. They look to this form of education as
+a partial solution of some of the most obstinate problems now
+confronting us.
+
+
+
+
+                               CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+    INTRODUCTION                                                     v
+
+    CONTENTS                                                       vii
+
+    PUBLISHER’S NOTE                                              viii
+
+    SECTION I. Classification of Schools                             5
+
+    SECTION II. Continuation Schools (Fortbildungsschulen)          16
+
+    SECTION III. Trade Schools (Fachschulen)                        41
+
+    SECTION IV. Secondary Technical Schools
+                  (Gewerbliche Mittelschulen)                       61
+
+                Schools for the Building Trades
+                  (Baugewerkschulen)                                61
+
+                Schools for Foremen (Werkmeisterschulen)            69
+
+                Schools for the Textile Trades (Gewerbeschulen)     74
+
+                Industrial Schools of Bavaria (Industrie Schulen)   82
+
+    SECTION V.  Higher Technical Schools (Technische Hochschulen)   85
+
+    SECTION VI. Schools of Industrial Arts or Art Trade Schools
+                  (Kunstgewerbeschulen)                             98
+
+    SECTION VII. Bibliography                                      105
+
+
+
+
+                    Technical Education in Germany
+
+                   BY PROF. ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN
+
+
+
+
+                                   I
+
+
+If one were to point out the most distinctive feature of the educational
+system in the Fatherland to-day, it would perhaps be the highly
+specialized condition of the technical schools.
+
+In approaching our problem we naturally ask ourselves the question as to
+how far the industrial progress of a country is influenced by technical
+education. In no time as in our own has so much stress been laid upon
+the commercial side of our existence. New trades, new industries are
+springing up; specialization is becoming more far-reaching and more
+firmly established than ever before; competition is becoming keener;
+the application of science to the arts is more varied.
+
+In this latter field we find Germany in the very fore front, she having
+developed along these lines to a greater extent than have many of our
+nations. Illustrations of this application lie all about us,--in the
+bettered transportation facilities by railroad and by ocean vessel; in
+the more improved bridge and building construction; in the methods of
+water supply and drainage; in modes of heat, light, and ventilation; in
+electric vehicles, sound transmitters, labor-saving machinery; in finely
+adjusted instruments that bring far away worlds almost within reaching
+distance; in these and a thousand other ways is made manifest the result
+of the application of science to the arts. Germany is taking a prominent
+part in this warfare for industrial supremacy, and that she expects her
+technical schools to be largely instrumental in answering many of the
+problems of the present and the future cannot be doubted, especially
+when one is made aware of the diversity and extent of the schools of a
+technical character scattered over the Empire.
+
+It will be readily understood from the foregoing how difficult a matter
+it is to make any one classification that will cover in an adequate
+manner the various types of existing institutions. Frequently a school
+is found which in some respects is distinctive. To place such a school
+in this or that category would of course do violence to the
+classification, while to form a new class only serves to further
+complicate and bewilder. Again, various of the institutions mentioned
+may offer such a differentiated schedule or be made up of so many
+parallel departments as to entitle them to admission into two or more of
+the classes given.
+
+Another point of difficulty lies in the fact that the term “technical”
+would in Germany be somewhat more sweeping than with us in America. We
+do not class technical training with so-called manual training or
+handwork of the elementary schools. In our present study however, we
+shall find that while in the main we are dealing with the technical
+training of boys from fourteen to eighteen years of age,--comparable in
+a measure to our high or secondary school courses, we shall also include
+the industrial, vocational, or trade training of men and boys alike, as
+well as work in the more simplified forms of handicraft, as carried on
+in the lower or elementary school. Reference will also be made to the
+instruction of a higher order,--such for example as makes for engineers.
+These facts will be illuminated as the study proceeds.
+
+In reading into these schools their real significance, several points
+must be kept constantly in mind. At an early age the German youth is
+supposed to have solved the problem of his likes and dislikes, his
+abilities and shortcomings; to have gained such a perspective of his
+probable chances for future success, as to choose the line of work or
+occupation he shall follow. It is only fair to state, however, that
+circumstances have much to do with such decision, viz,--the occupation
+of the father, the financial outlook of the family, the industrial
+demands of the locality, the particular educational opportunities
+offered,--these and like problems entering in as vital elements.
+
+Then too, the founding and sustaining of a technical school is a matter
+to be noted. This may be in the hands of the general government, of the
+state, of the municipality, or may be looked after by private
+enterprise. The Guilds, Vereins or Associations may organize, equip and
+foster schools of such character as train directly for their particular
+lines of work. It must be stated however in this connection, that there
+seems to be a strong tendency at the present time toward the
+centralizing of control in the states. This has been brought about in
+large measure through the ever-increasing willingness on the part of the
+state to give financial backing to the schools, and thus has quite
+naturally arisen the desire and necessity on the part of the state, that
+it have a controlling voice in the school administration. Herein lies
+one of the main differences between such education in Germany and that
+of our own country.
+
+Conrad’s Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 1900, in an article
+entitled “Gewerblicher Unterricht”, gives the following table on state
+expenditure for trade and technical instruction in recent years:
+
+Prussia:
+
+  Marks 142,000 ($33,796) in 1874;
+  Marks 475,000 ($114,050) in 1885;
+  Marks 4,672,000 ($1,111,936) in 1899.
+
+Saxony:
+
+  Marks 235,000 ($60,214) in 1873;
+  Marks 570,000 ($135,660) in 1885;
+  Marks 1,138,000 ($270,844) in 1898.
+
+Wurttemburg industrial continuation school:
+
+  Marks, 58,000 ($13,804) in 1869;
+  Marks 129,000 ($30,702) in 1879;
+  Marks 164,000 ($39,032) in 1889;
+  Marks 208,000 ($49,504) in 1897.
+
+The cost of the state per capita of the population of the expenditures
+was as follows:
+
+  Prussia, Pfennigs 15 (3½ cts.) in 1899;
+  Saxony, Pfennigs 29 (7 cts.) in 1898;
+  Hesse, Pfennigs 22 (5 cts.) in 1898.
+
+The cost per Marks 1,000 ($236) of the entire state expenditures was
+Marks 2.27 (54 cts.) in Prussia in 1899, and Marks 5.88 ($1.40) in
+Saxony in 1898.
+
+In general the German schools are classified upon a basis of the grade
+of instruction given rather than upon the character of the subjects
+taught. Primary education is compulsory, that is to say, all children
+are compelled by law to attend school from their sixth to their
+fourteenth year. It is at this point that we find our difficulty. To
+quote Dr. Alwin Pabst of Leipzig (who speaks of conditions governing
+technical schools):
+
+“The age of admission, length of course, fees and other conditions
+(examinations) of these schools differ widely. Ages range from fourteen
+to thirty years or over; length of course, one to four or five years;
+fees perhaps twenty to thirty marks per year. The Fortbildungsschule is
+the only institution in which no fee is charged.” (Taken from a personal
+letter.)
+
+Several classifications commend themselves for use. Each has its
+weaknesses and breaks down at some point, owing to the conditions
+previously mentioned. In order the better to illustrate this difficulty
+I shall give these various possible classifications.
+
+The first refers chiefly to the scheme of secondary education and was
+the one first chosen and later discarded. It was suggested mainly by Sir
+Philip Magnus’s work on “Industrial Education” and the “Report of the
+Industrial Commission”, Vol. 1.
+
+  1. Industrieschulen
+      Gewerbeschulen
+
+  2. Trade Schools
+      Fachschulen
+
+  3. Building Trade Schools
+
+  4. Secondary Technical Schools
+      Higher Technical
+      Foremen
+      Building
+      Weaving
+      Drawing
+
+  5. Industrial Art Schools (Kunstgewerbe)
+      Pure Art
+      Applied Art
+
+  6. Polytechnics or Technische Hochschulen
+
+  7. Continuation Schools--Fortbildungsschulen
+
+Another classification, suggested in most part by a German authority is
+as follows:
+
+  1. Fortbildungsschulen--Continuation schools
+  2. Industrie--or Fachschulen--Special Trade Schools
+  3. Gewerbeschulen
+  4. Technische Schulen
+  5. Technische Hochschulen
+  6. Baugewerkschulen--School for Architects
+  7. Kunstgewerbeschulen--Schools of Art
+
+In the Seventeenth Annual Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Labor for
+1902 we find the following:
+
+  1. Technical Colleges
+  2. Secondary or Intermediate Technical Schools
+  3. Schools and Museums of Industrial Art
+  4. Schools for Foremen
+  5. Schools for the Textile Trades
+  6. Trade and Industrial Continuation Schools
+  7. Industrial Drawing Courses
+  8. Other Institutions for Industrial Education.
+
+The order followed in the present study is finally given below. It is
+one not to be found elsewhere, but more closely resembles that of Dr.
+Pabst (the second classification) and that found in the Seventeenth
+Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor. It has undoubtedly its weak
+points, but I feel it is the best that can be made however, as it is
+based upon data recently published, and the results of correspondence
+with German school authorities, in addition to a not very extended
+knowledge gained through personal contact with the German schools. It
+may be taken therefore, as bringing the work down to the present time:
+
+  1. Continuation Schools or Fortbildungsschulen
+  2. Trade Schools or Fachschulen
+  3. Secondary or Intermediate Technical Schools or Gewerbliche
+     Mittelschulen
+  4. Technical Colleges or Technische Hochschulen
+  5. School and Museums of Industrial Art, or Kunstgewerbeschulen
+
+
+
+
+                                  II
+
+                         CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
+
+                          FORTBILDUNGSSCHULEN
+
+
+Since at the age of fourteen years the German youth is no longer under
+the control of the compulsory school law, the value of the system of
+continuation schools is realized. Of necessity the great mass of boys
+are at this age, forced to enter some gainful pursuit. It was clearly
+evident to the German people that boys should not be cut off from school
+education at this early age. Dr. James H. Russell in his German Higher
+Schools says:
+
+“The elementary and secondary schools are quite independent of each
+other--not one boy in ten thousand finds his way from the highest class
+of the elementary school into the Gymnasium.”
+
+It is evident that year by year an increasingly large number of boys
+discontinue their education at the close of the elementary school, for a
+statement made by Mr. Michael N. Sadler, (Vol. III of Special Reports on
+Educational Subjects, London), some years prior to the above writing,
+would seem to indicate a lesser percentage of dropping out than that
+proposed by Dr. Russell.
+
+The desire then for more extended educational advantages must have been
+early felt, and there sprang into existence what has since developed
+into one of the most significant features and far-reaching factors in
+the German scheme,--the continuation school. I quote from Mr. H. Bertram
+who writes of the continuation schools in Berlin, December, 1899:
+
+“Amid the development of civilization among the nations the idea of the
+continuation school is making its way with increasing strength. Urgently
+required by the conditions of social organization, and in its turn
+acting on them, the new institution appears in many forms. It claims its
+place side by side with the Church and the School.
+
+“Among the great number of those who enter early upon the practical
+business of life, to whom the primary school has offered a start there
+awakens, sooner or later, the desire to share in the stores of
+knowledge which human intelligence has won, in the insight into the
+working of the forces of nature, which it has acquired and applied to
+industry, in the arts which ennoble and support human action; in short
+to participate in the spiritual treasures which are, as it were, the
+birthright of those born under a luckier star. This desire, which opens
+to the diligent the way to material prosperity and inner contentment,
+seems for society as a whole an important incentive to industrial
+progress, and turns the discontent of the slaves of machinery into
+happiness of men conscious of their own success. The more the old order
+changes which held the work people in the narrow bonds of tradition, the
+more is customary prescription replaced by education and independent
+judgment, by insight into existing conditions, by special excellence
+within a particular sphere. For this reason, the elementary school,
+however efficient and methodically correct its action may be, cannot
+suffice for the happiness of the masses, nor for the preservation of
+society. The instruction must come into close contact with the life of
+the future citizen, and must be at the command of everyone desirous to
+learn, as long as he seeks it. But the seeker, born amid such conditions
+as these, needs guidance. Public libraries, newspapers, magazines help
+him the more he pushes forward, but without expert assistance he hardly
+finds the beginning of the path.
+
+“This is the object of the Continuation School.”
+
+It is somewhat difficult to define the limits and scope of the
+continuation or Fortbildungsschulen. Conditions vary in the different
+German states and especially do they vary in the various kinds of
+continuation schools. Definition is made even more doubtful when we find
+that the limits of certain schools overlap. It may be said that
+students are regularly admitted from fourteen to sixteen years of age.
+Not infrequently however, boys and men of more mature years take
+advantage of the courses offered. Instruction is carried on during the
+week-day evenings from six to eight o’clock and on Sunday mornings.
+
+Prussia leads the other states in the number and character of her
+supplementary schools, the system having its fullest expression in
+Berlin. The fact became early apparent that preparation, whatever line
+the boy was to follow, was necessary, and this thought is confirmed in
+the many skilled laborers in Germany to-day. In Prussia, as elsewhere,
+it was found that boys many times left the common school before they
+became proficient in any line of book work. The causes were various;
+poverty, indifference, sickness, overcrowding, poor enforcement of the
+compulsory attendance laws,--all these conspired to make supplementary
+schools necessary. In the older provinces very little attention was
+given the continuation school prior to 1875, and almost as much could be
+said of those provinces which were acquired in 1866. In 1844 a report
+issued by the Department of Public Instruction makes mention of the
+usefulness of such schools, while two years later a second report has
+only slightly more to say on the subject. This lack of interest may be
+attributed in large measure to the non-financial support of these
+schools by the government.
+
+Several problems had to be faced in working out the scheme. Certain
+definite relations between the primary and continuation schools must be
+observed; those coming into the latter with an inadequate underschool
+knowledge must be looked after; provision must be made for students of
+lesser as well as of more mature years; all classes of occupation must
+be given attention; these and many other difficult questions were to be
+met and overcome.
+
+“Three principles,” says Mr. Bertram, “have contributed to the solution
+of this problem--free choices between the courses provided, free
+enjoyment of the preparatory courses without fee, and the selection of
+the teachers according to their attainments in a particular branch and
+their ability to adapt their instruction to the needs of the pupils or
+participants in the course.”
+
+In certain sections, Nassau and Hanover for example, state aid came
+early to the continuation school. In 1874 an increased appropriation
+resulted in the betterment of the schools then existing and in the
+further establishment of like institutions. Here the communities must
+meet the cost of building, heating, lighting etc., and one-half of all
+the expenses not covered by the actual tuition. Since 1878 there is a
+fairly general acceptance throughout the Empire of the statute
+providing that all employes under eighteen years of age must be allowed
+to attend a continuation school, the period of attendance to be
+determined by “competent authority”. This naturally leads the Public
+Instruction Department to be free in its financial support.
+
+It will be understood that in most cases six hours per week is the
+attendance required and that only those who have left the Volksschule or
+lower school and are not attending any higher institution are admitted.
+In Saxony a somewhat different condition exists. Children who have not
+made satisfactory progress in the Volksschule must, perforce, attend the
+continuation school for two years.
+
+The writer of this paper was thoroughly impressed with the work of the
+Sunday classes as seen in Leipzig, Saxony, during the summer of 1899.
+His first introduction to such work was made, when on joining a group
+of boys, several of them carrying draughting-boards, he was conducted by
+them to their school. The general character and deportment of the boys,
+the spirit and enthusiasm manifested by them, and the thoughtful and
+intelligent quality of the work produced, fully justified in his own
+mind, the validity and worth of the Sunday class instruction.
+
+As between the schools located in the cities and those in the smaller
+towns and country places, there is some slight difference. They may be
+classified as (_a_) rural or (_b_) city schools, on account of their
+location. The distinction lies rather in the arrangement of their
+curricula, the needs of the students in the particular locality being
+kept in mind. In the rural schools the programme of studies is somewhat
+general, comprising the German language, arithmetic, mensuration, nature
+study; and in some instances may be added to these, geography, German
+history, drawing, gymnastics and music. This programme is elective to
+the extent that the capacity and previous education of the pupil are
+considered, and too, the ability of the teacher, local conditions and
+the time spent by the individual student. Such schools are admonished
+not to take on the character of technical institutions, but rather to
+continue the general education begun in the Volksschulen. Only under
+certain conditions is less than four hours per week of instruction
+permissible.
+
+In Prussia the city continuation schools are of two grades, each grade
+made up of a number of classes. In the lower grade schools, instruction
+is given in accordance with the particular trade or calling the pupil is
+to follow. In the upper grade, work is much the same, proficiency being
+the chief additional feature. When six hours of work is the minimum,
+language, arithmetic, elementary geometry and drawing, form the body of
+the course; while penmanship, geography, history, grammar and nature
+study all are taken up in connection with the reading work. Business
+forms are not overlooked. In the more fully equipped schools where the
+teachers are prepared for such branches, higher mathematics, mechanics,
+physics and advanced drawing are taken up.
+
+If, as before stated, the various types of continuation schools overlap,
+the same is true regarding the trade and industrial continuation
+schools. While in many instances the work in the latter schools is of a
+general character, aiming to supplement or round out the education of
+the pupil, we find that many of the original schools of this class have
+developed into a form of special or trade school. This is brought about
+through pressure from without, as it were. When a certain industry
+predominates in a locality supporting a continuation school, it is only
+fair to suppose that the work done, general though it may be, will be
+colored to some extent at least, by the demands of such industry. If
+this process of merging is carried sufficiently far, as is in many cases
+done, the school may lose almost or entirely its original trend, and
+from a Fortbildungsschule, fall into the class of trade or Fachschulen.
+
+In the main then, the instruction given in a continuation school proper,
+is either of a theoretical nature or involves some form of drawing
+perhaps, thus rendering any other than an ordinary school room
+unnecessary for class use. In the city of Leipzig the situation is
+dissimilar to that in some north German cities. Here the classes are
+arranged according to the various trades followed, as bookbinders,
+printers, lithographers, bakers, metal workers, workers in wood and
+stone, etc. There are again in Southern Germany simply schools of
+drawing with special reference to the various trades and industries. In
+addition to these are classes of a general nature for boys not following
+special trades. Such schools however, cannot be found in the smaller
+towns or in the country. Certain other Saxon cities have schools of
+somewhat similar character.
+
+In the Consular Report, Vol. 54, No. 202, page 447, 1898, Mr. J. C.
+Monoghan says, writing under the title Technical Education in Germany:
+
+“The supplementary schools are for the people who have to work, what
+Chautauquas, summer schools, and university extension courses are for
+others.--Parties in politico-economic circles have found that the system
+of common school education under which boys and girls were given an
+ordinary education in reading, writing, arithmetic etc., up to their
+fourteenth year, was inadequate, partially if not wholly, to the ends
+aimed at in such a system. To supply this defect it was urged, and
+finally proposed and favorably acted upon, that graduates of the common
+schools, boys especially, in some few cases girls too, should continue
+to get instruction a certain number of hours a week. This was made
+compulsory. Manufacturers, shopkeepers, and mechanics in whose employ
+such boys were found, and not the parents, were made responsible for the
+boys’ attendance. In these schools, as indicated in the foregoing, the
+boys get as good an idea as possible of the trade or branch of business
+in which they are employed. As a rule, the hours of attendance are early
+in the morning or a certain number of afternoons in the week. Sunday
+mornings are not thought too sacred for such work. It seems to be an
+acknowledgement that the years hitherto given to a boy in which to get
+an education, viz., from his sixth to his fourteenth year, are not
+enough to prepare him for the struggle for life that he has to enter
+upon. Men have told me, successful merchants and agents here, that they
+owe more to the hours spent in the developing or supplementary schools
+from the practical character of the instruction given and the
+information imparted, than to the many years spent in the common
+schools. While one is hardly willing to believe this, there can be no
+doubt of the good work done, and being done, by the schools referred
+to.”
+
+The Handwerkschulen in Berlin are very similar to Fortbildungsschulen in
+Leipzig for example. These schools have seen a marvelous development
+during the past few years. They have a technical quality, giving much
+attention to drawing. The sessions are in the evening, eight hours per
+week, the fee being six marks the half year. They are attended by
+journeymen and apprentices who come recommended by their employers. In
+connection with these schools various Sunday classes are conducted
+throughout the city, each center specializing along certain trade lines.
+
+The Berlin Handwerker Verein is a type of continuation school, sustained
+not by the state but by an association. The Verein, founded in 1859, has
+for its object the promotion of general culture, a partial knowledge at
+least of the several callings represented, and good manners (gute
+Sitten). The moral and ethical elements are not lacking. Here public
+lectures of real merit are given, together with music, gymnastics, and
+instruction in general and technical subjects. Boys of good character,
+over seventeen years of age, are admitted. The families of the boys in
+attendance are also allowed to avail themselves of such general
+exercises, lectures, music, etc., as the school offers.
+
+What may also be styled as belonging in a sense in the continuation
+school category is the German Association for the Diffusion of Popular
+Education, with headquarters in Berlin. Branches of this association are
+scattered throughout various parts of the Empire.
+
+In the year 1869, the industrial code provided that all boys under
+eighteen years of age might, at the discretion of the local authorities,
+be compelled to attend school. It is thus evident that the local or
+State authority was here consulted, rather than the General Government.
+At the present time however, when the adjustment of this matter is not
+in the hands of local authority, the employer must, if those engaged
+with him desire so to do, allow such boys to attend school at their
+option. In some States however, Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse and Baden,
+compulsory school laws are in force among all boys fourteen to eighteen
+years of age. At present the law of 1891 is active and the portion
+touching our problem is here given:
+
+“Employers are required to give the necessary time, to be determined
+eventually by the competent authorities, to their workingmen under
+eighteen years of age who attend an educational establishment recognized
+by the communal administration or by the State as an adult’s school.
+Instruction shall not be given on Sunday except where the hours are so
+fixed that the pupils are not prevented from attending the principal
+religious exercise or a religious exercise of their faith especially
+conducted for them with the consent of the ecclesiastical authorities.
+The central administration may, until October 1, 1894, accord exemptions
+from the last provision to adult schools already in existence,
+attendance upon which is not obligatory.
+
+“For purposes of this law schools giving instruction in manual work and
+domestic duties to women shall be considered as adult schools.”
+
+This citation points out that the Sunday class work must not conflict
+with the religious services. There is a strong sentiment in many places
+in favor of a repeal of such laws as prohibit Sunday classes at such
+times as church services are held. Many of the clergy are opposed to the
+extending of Sunday continuation schools, while for the most part the
+government authorities are favorable to such extension.
+
+As regards the compulsory age limit, Prussia of all the German states is
+following out the option given the individual States. It is worthy of
+note that she declares (while declining to accept the law) that where
+freedom is allowed, boys are more likely to continue in school after
+their eighteenth year. It is insisted also that with the restrictions
+removed, a deeper interest is excited in the school studies. The
+statement is made however that in Prussia two thirds of the industrial
+continuation schools have compulsory attendance laws in force as the
+local authorities may determine. Certain it is that much stress is laid
+upon the ethical side of instruction in the continuation schools and it
+is agreed that the compulsory school should not transplant the regular
+continuation school, except where it seems absolutely necessary to do
+so. In Bavaria for example, where the age limit by law is thirteen, the
+compulsory school has a place for the time being at least.
+
+In Berlin, a century ago, Sunday afternoon classes were inaugurated,
+with a programme no more varied than that furnished by the three R’s.
+Apprentices not equipped with sufficient school training were forced to
+attend the schools. In 1869 the power was wrested from the trade guilds
+and the elective system resulted, later producing the Elementary
+Continuation School. The local city government founded at a later date
+three such schools, and in these a more diversified curriculum was
+operated, adding to the three R’s, German composition and literature,
+modern languages, natural science, political science, law, bookkeeping
+and drawing. For various reasons these schools were not attended by a
+full measure of success and the city authorities formulated the plan of
+placing the continuation schools in some of the higher institutions of
+learning, courses to be operative in winter only. Later, from the
+preparatory school, which fitted for the continuation school proper,
+grew up the technical continuation school.
+
+There are at the present twelve schools of the continuation type in
+Berlin. A large attendance is desired, for with large classes groups of
+various intellectual standards may be formed. The student is free to
+elect subjects--as between certain languages, mathematics or art
+studies. The Director of the school, by keeping in touch with the
+employers in the various trades and shops, can thus control the
+attendance and shape the course of the lines of work offered.
+
+Some ten years since, two special lines of instruction were withdrawn
+from the continuation school proper--the carpenters’ school and the
+Gewerbesaal, comprising work in drawing and theory involved in machine
+construction and the like. Courses for turners are offered in the
+carpenters’ schools. In Berlin there are in excess of nine centers for
+the last named school and ten centers for the Gewerbesaal, the winter
+classes running up to 2000 and 850 pupils respectively.
+
+This example serves to illustrate the fact mentioned in a previous
+connection, viz., that the Fortbildungsschule was in some cases merged
+into a special school, for here in reality a Fach or trade institution
+has developed from the original continuation school. This practice has
+been going on more or less extensively among the various schools; and in
+Berlin especially, the continuation school has been the foundation of
+most of the Fachschulen. Something more will be said in this connection
+in the section under trade schools.
+
+Regarding the continuation schools for girls and women a word may be
+added. As with the boys’ schools, so these designed for girls were put
+on foot, partly at least, from an ethical standpoint. Girls spending
+their days in the factory and shop were in need of a refining influence,
+and this the continuation school afforded. Courses were offered in the
+German language, arithmetic, sewing and dressmaking. The efforts made to
+give girls this training were not entirely successful. So many
+objections to Sunday work were brought forward that it was discontinued.
+The burdens of the day fell so heavily upon the girls that they were not
+ambitious to attend evening classes. At the present time the schools are
+more largely attended by girls who, during the day, remain in the
+family, and in the school take up the household arts, sewing, cutting
+out, and the like, and also languages, mathematics, geography, etc.,
+gymnastics and music, shorthand and typewriting. It is hoped soon to
+introduce cookery in all girls’ schools. Drawing is given much
+attention.
+
+There are in Berlin, nine municipal continuation schools for girls,
+which are, as the name indicates, maintained by the city.
+
+
+
+
+                                  III
+
+                           TRADE SCHOOLS[1]
+
+
+As has been indicated in another connection, the classification of trade
+schools as such, is somewhat uncertain. It has been shown that many of
+the present schools for special trades have evolved from the
+continuation schools of the past. In the transition state it is
+sometimes quite difficult to definitely place a certain school, whether
+in the trade continuation, or trade group proper, or to class it with
+the Industrieschulen. The trade continuation schools have largely
+superseded the regular trade schools, in many localities at least, and
+where this condition exists, trade instruction seems to be losing
+ground, here the Fortbildungsschulen on the one hand, and regular
+apprenticeships on the other, coming in to supplant trade teaching.
+
+[Footnote 1: The two previous articles were published in the School
+Bulletin for July and August, 1906.]
+
+The seeming contradictory statements made here must be interpreted in
+the spirit rather than in the letter, if the full meaning and
+significance of the trade school is to be grasped. Trades are taught as
+formerly. The point made is that while the trade school, per se, is
+doing its work, boys are, more and more, being trained for their trades
+in the so-called trades continuation schools and as apprentices in the
+shops. The latter form of training will be spoken of elsewhere in this
+section of the paper.
+
+We have noted in following the work of the continuation school, that the
+attempt has been mainly toward the teaching of theoretical subjects, the
+practical lines being carried forward in the regular daily occupations
+of the individuals. Hence the trade is not held specifically in mind,
+although the desired end is always kept in view. In the trade schools
+on the other hand, the work is largely of a practical nature, dealing
+with some particular occupation. The foregoing statement may be taken as
+fairly representing the Fachschule point of view, but it should be
+observed that while these schools are special trade schools, training
+for example iron workers, or joiners, or tailors, there is a
+differentiation within the general class. I refer to the Gewerbeschulen,
+where theoretical lessons are sometimes taught. These schools will be
+given mention in the secondary group.
+
+Admission to the trade schools is gained usually at fourteen years of
+age, the length of each course covering a period of three years. The
+schools are in receipt of financial aid from both state and local
+governments.
+
+To simplify our study, we shall consider only such institutions as deal
+with a single trade each, leaving the schools for the building trades
+and the like, and those dealing with industrial art and drawing to be
+treated elsewhere. Specialization has been carried so far that the
+following lists of schools, each training for its own particular trade
+or calling, may be given. The list is arranged alphabetically and
+without reference to the relative importance of the various vocations,
+or to the number of schools. Such schools are now found pretty generally
+in the larger cities throughout the Empire. Some of these are day
+schools; some evening schools, and others again offer both day and
+evening courses and Sunday instruction.
+
+
+  SINGLE TRADE SCHOOLS
+
+  Schools for Bakers
+     "     "  Barbers and Hairdressers
+     "     "  Basketmakers, Wickerworkers, and Strawplaiters
+     "     "  Blacksmiths
+     "     "  Bookbinders
+     "     "  Carpenters and Cabinetmakers
+     "     "  Chimney Sweeps
+     "     "  Confectioners
+     "     "  Coopers
+     "     "  Gardeners
+     "     "  Glaziers
+     "     "  Joiners
+     "     "  Marine Machinists
+     "     "  Masons
+     "     "  Painters
+     "     "  Paperhangers and Decorators
+     "     "  Plumbers
+     "     "  Photographers
+     "     "  Potters
+     "     "  Printers
+     "     "  Saddlers, Trimmers and Trunkmakers
+     "     "  Shoemakers
+     "     "  Tailors
+     "     "  Tinsmiths
+     "     "  Toymakers
+     "     "  Upholsterers
+     "     "  Wagonmakers and Wheelwrights
+     "     "  Watch and Clockmakers
+     "     "  Woodcarvers
+
+Some of the above named institutions are in certain localities styled
+apprenticeship schools. These train workmen and foremen of a minor
+degree. Shop work is offered, and in some cases pure and applied art as
+well.
+
+The evening work of the so-called Artisans’ Schools of Berlin, are
+deserving of special mention. There are two such institutions, called
+respectively school number one and school number two. The first was
+established in 1880; the second in 1892. The aim of these schools is to
+give to tradesmen and apprentices in their leisure hours such a
+knowledge of drawing, the arts and sciences, as will find an application
+in their own lines of work.
+
+The grade of instruction varies from quite elementary work to that for
+advanced students, the latter being obliged to present evidence of
+fitness before entering.
+
+The following courses are offered, the figures indicating the number of
+hours per week devoted to each.
+
+  Arithmetic                                                 2
+  Algebra                                                    2
+  Geometry                                                   2
+  Trigonometry                                               2
+  Analytical geometry and calculus                           1
+  Mathematical problems involving physics and mechanics      2
+  Descriptive geometry                                       4
+  Bookkeeping                                                2
+  Physics                                                    4
+  Mechanics                                                  2
+  Electro-technics                                           4
+  Chemistry                                                  4
+  Chemistry and pharmacy                                     4
+  Free-hand drawing                                        2-4
+  Aquarelle                                                  4
+  Projection                                                 4
+  Ornament                                                   4
+  Trade drawing according to occupation                      4
+  Modeling in wax and clay                                   4
+  Decorative painting                                        4
+
+In addition to the foregoing, school number two offers:
+
+  Chasing                                                    4
+  Practical wrought-iron work                                4
+  Sketching and calculating the elements of machinery        2
+
+The courses continue for two years.
+
+It is interesting to note that whereas certain enactments are in force
+regarding the Sunday sessions of the Fortbildungsschulen, there are no
+such restrictions placed upon the Fachschulen, Sunday morning classes
+being held at the discretion of the school authorities.
+
+Let us refer to our table of single trade schools as given above. The
+statements which follow have in most cases been taken from data relating
+to the schools of Berlin, and may be said to fairly represent the
+general existing conditions throughout the Empire.
+
+In the school for bakers, instruction is given one day weekly for two
+and one half hours. The theoretical work (which in common with all such
+work in the regular trade schools, is related directly to the particular
+trade under discussion) is made up of chemistry and bookkeeping.
+
+In the barbers’ and hairdressers’ schools, instruction is carried on six
+days each week, four hours daily, the school continuing six months of
+the year, covering the winter period. Each class receives fourteen hours
+instruction per week. While the bakers’ school is supported by the
+guild, the barbers’ school is jointly maintained by state, city and
+guild. The curriculum includes shaving, hair cutting, and hair dressing,
+wig making, and ladies’ hair dressing. A tuition of three marks is
+charged for the term, in the case of apprentices, and six marks for
+journeymen; a charge five times as great is made for ladies’ hair
+dressing, and for the surgical lectures, ten marks.
+
+The guild, state and municipality maintain the school for basketmakers
+and wickerworkers. Apprentices receive instruction free, four marks each
+semester being charged the journeymen and adults. Attendance is
+compulsory on the part of apprentices of guild members. Four hours work
+per week are given, on Saturdays. The annual expenses of the school, are
+about five hundred and fifty dollars. Four courses are offered, as
+follows: first, general basket making and wicker furniture; second,
+making of small wicker furniture; third, large wicker furniture; fourth,
+fine and artistic wicker working.
+
+In the blacksmiths’ school the instruction is for two hours, one day
+each week. Theoretical work in horseshoeing, and drawing related to the
+course are taught.
+
+The city and guild support the school for bookbinders. The students are
+both apprentices and journeymen. They work week day evenings and Sunday
+mornings. The purpose is not to produce tradesmen, but rather to make
+more proficient those engaged in some form of bookbinding, and to this
+end applicants must have had experience amounting to two years work
+before entering the school. All students must be grounded in the general
+elements underlying the trade before they are allowed to take up any
+phase as a specialty. No fee is charged the apprentices of guild
+members; others pay five marks per term; journeymen pay nine marks per
+term.
+
+In the cabinetmakers’ school, all lines of work pertaining to the trade
+are taken up, drawing and designing for trade purposes; free-hand
+drawing; modeling, carving; properties of woods, etc. Instruction is
+given week day evenings and Sunday forenoons. Four marks are charged
+for the first term in the drawing course and for each subsequent term,
+two marks. The subjects taken up are: chemistry, free-hand drawing,
+projection, trade drawing, perspective and shadows, drawing from cast,
+modeling and wood carving, joinery. The school is under public control.
+
+In most of the remaining trade schools, instruction is pretty generally
+given on week day evenings and Sunday mornings, the apprentices of guild
+members paying no fee, a small charge being made for outsiders. The
+support comes from city, state and guild in most cases. In the school
+for masons however, there is a preparatory course and also a carpenters’
+course, the whole covering a three years term. In this school the
+instruction is thorough, covering plans, drawings and specifications;
+stone, brick, and wood construction; foundations, arches, staircases,
+roofs, and the like. Almost without exception in all these schools the
+winter attendance is greater than that in the summer.
+
+Certain individual schools throughout the Empire deserve special
+mention, the Royal Fachschule of Iserlohn, the first in Prussia, being a
+notable example. Here handwork is combined with industrial art adapted
+to metal work. Boys who entered the trade were, in the early days of the
+school, found to be in need of both theoretical and practical work, so
+each has a place in the curriculum. The length of the course is three
+years, covering the trades of designers, wood carvers, moulders,
+founders, turners, chasers, engravers, gilders, and etchers. Here are
+taught drawing in all its branches; modeling in wax and clay; history of
+art and metal work; elements of chemistry and physics; mathematics;
+German. Practical work in the department in which the student is
+engaged, is given, the student stating on entrance what subject he
+desires to take up. The time of instruction is from eight to twelve, in
+the winter season, and from seven to eleven in the summer. The afternoon
+session is from two to six. In the engineering trade school, three hours
+per day are devoted to ornamental drawing, German, physics and
+arithmetic. As the instruction is planned for working people it is
+largely theoretical.
+
+The Reimscheid school is of the apprenticeship order. Attention is given
+the making of edge tools and such other implements as are manufactured
+in the district. All students take drawing and design as applied to iron
+work. They are made acquainted with the different kinds of iron work
+that can be carried on in the home; are schooled in the use of the tools
+made; learn regarding the markets at which they are sold, and the
+various methods of their manufacture. Thus a general understanding of
+the principles underlying his trade is given the boy and he becomes
+acquainted with the commercial side of his calling while undergoing the
+necessary preparation in manipulation. The theoretical work is given in
+the morning and what shop practice is offered is in the afternoon from
+two to seven. The tuition is twenty dollars per year.
+
+The Pottery Trade School at Hohr Grenzhausen, Prussia, is under State
+control. There are day and evening classes, the former attended for the
+most part by the sons of manufacturers; the evening classes by men and
+women who are employed otherwise during the day. There are Sunday
+classes also. Decorated stoneware is given much attention. The day class
+boys enter with a fairly good knowledge of drawing and have perhaps
+attended the Fortbildungsschule. Drawing, descriptive geometry,
+modeling in clay and wax, new forms of vessels and original
+ornamentation, painting, designing and decorative art, manufacture of
+earthenware, lectures and study of collections, make up the curriculum.
+Any original model made becomes the property of the father of the boy,
+or of the person financially supporting such boy during his attendance
+at school. Two duplicates of the model must be left at the school. The
+courses are three years, daily sessions, Saturdays excepted. The fees
+are nominal, being only five dollars per year for the day classes,
+thirty hours weekly, and one dollar for evening work, two hours weekly.
+Pupils living outside the municipality pay six dollars per year for day
+instruction.
+
+The Furtwangen, or Black Forest schools are made up of several
+divisions, giving rather a high class of instruction. Clock making, wood
+carving, and straw plaiting, are largely carried on.
+
+This paper would not be complete without some mention of the system of
+apprenticeship in vogue in Germany. The Lehrwerkstätten or apprentice
+shops play a considerable part in the industrial life of the Empire. In
+some instances they are maintained in connection with the trade schools,
+or again, are semi-private or separate shops. The apprenticeship shops
+on the one hand, and the continuation schools upon the other, are doing
+much of the work formerly undertaken by the trade schools proper. While
+manufacturing upon a larger scale is recognized as possessing advantages
+over the smaller productive plants, it has seemed wise to hold to the
+handicrafts, in a measure at least. The apprentice system helps to
+preserve the traditions and sentiments of the German people, by handing
+down these handicrafts. The associations, vereins, and guilds of past
+time, are to-day, through the aid of legislation, coming to the fore,
+and bringing with them many boys trained in the shops under the masters.
+To show the power and scope of the guild, and in some cases it is
+incumbent upon a community to form a guild whether or no, let me give
+the following quotation:
+
+“Persons carrying on trades on their own account can form guilds for the
+advancement of their common trade interests. The object of the guild
+shall be:
+
+1. the cultivation of an esprit de corps and professional pride among
+the members of a trade;
+
+2. the maintenance of amicable relations between employers and their
+employes, and the securing of work for unemployed journeymen and their
+shelter during the period of their nonemployment;
+
+3. the detailed regulations of the conditions of apprenticeship and the
+care for the technical and moral education of apprentices;
+
+4. the adjustment of disputes between guild members and their
+apprentices, as contemplated by the law of July 20, 1890, concerning
+industrial arbitration.”
+
+The shops offer about the same lines of work as do the private concerns,
+aiming however to be more systematic and to cover a wider scope. It is
+asserted by some that the instruction gained in the shop is superficial,
+and not to be compared with that obtained from the traveling
+master-workmen. When the shop is connected with some enterprise or
+manufacturing interest, a master-workman has one apprentice only under
+his charge, for which he receives from the state some thirty-five
+dollars yearly, the boy being given board, lodging and proper training.
+The master must have attained the age of twenty-four years, and must
+fulfil certain technical qualifications. The instruction is practical in
+the highest degree and thus follows the lead of the trade schools in
+letter and spirit. The fees are mainly paid in by guild members, and
+those not members even, provided such reside in the district and are
+connected with the trade for which the school stands. Local and state
+aid is furnished. While the period of apprenticeship may extend over
+four years, three years is the usual term.
+
+
+
+
+                                  IV
+
+                           ART TRADE SCHOOLS
+
+
+The various types of institutions taken up under this head are of an
+intermediate grade, standing half way between the trade school on the
+one hand and the higher technical institutions upon the other. Indeed,
+they contain many elements in common with the lower group, their scope
+however being broader and more general or indirect, theoretical work
+finding a place in their curricula. Owing to a similarity in the
+instruction given, several classes of schools seem to demand a hearing
+under this section. We shall begin with the more general trade schools
+omitted from our previous study.
+
+
+                    SCHOOLS FOR THE BUILDING TRADES
+
+                          (Baugewerkschulen)
+
+The schools for the building trades, of which there are a half hundred
+in the Empire, are very similar in character throughout. The Munich
+school, established in 1823, was the first of its kind. Their aim, as
+indicated in the title, is the giving of training in the trades
+connected with the various building operations. The majority of these
+schools offer a course two years in length. The age of admission is
+fourteen to sixteen years. It is a requisite under some boards, that
+applicants have had practical experience in the line to be followed, at
+least two half-years and in some cases two full years, before entrance
+to the school. They must have also a fair general knowledge of their own
+language, and of reading and writing as well. The candidate must be a
+graduate of the Volksschule or must subject himself to an examination.
+The fees in these schools vary from fifty to two hundred marks per year.
+These are day sessions only. The governing power is in some cases vested
+in the municipality, frequently in the State, and again in private
+enterprise.
+
+While those who go out from these schools may, some of them at least,
+follow the trades as regular laborers, others again are qualified as
+master-workmen and leaders in their craft. Construction in wood, stone,
+iron and metals; laws of building; modes of heat, light and ventilation;
+plumbing; interior fittings; these and other occupations are taken up.
+The sessions of most schools extend over the winter months only, the
+students being actively engaged in their several trades during the
+summer season. These schools holding continuous sessions, are sparsely
+attended during the summer. When theoretical work is given, such
+subjects are included as bookkeeping, descriptive geometry, physics and
+mechanics, German, free-hand and mechanical drawing, design, principles
+of architecture. The practical programme comprehends a study of building
+materials and the procuring and working of the same; relative strengths
+and adaptability to purpose; models of construction; ornamentation;
+architecture and design; estimates; chemical properties of materials;
+supports, trusses, arches and the like. In the more advanced
+institutions, algebra, surveying, mechanics, study of machines and
+chemistry may be added to the theoretical list given, while the
+practical studies are more intensive, and of a somewhat higher order.
+Special departments for engineering, (Tiefbauabteilungen) preparing men
+to occupy positions as superintendents, managers of public works,
+construction directors, etc., are sustained in some instances.
+
+Such schools are of an inferior engineering type, and deal with problems
+of advanced work as related to the construction of roads, water works
+and railroads; municipal engineering; bridge construction;
+electro-technics. The theoretical lines are similar to those pursued in
+other courses.
+
+The schools to which we have just referred illustrate well the statement
+made in a previous connection, that the grade of instruction rather than
+the character of the subjects taught, determines the classification of
+schools into groups. Three classes of trade instruction have just been
+mentioned, and might well be styled lower, middle and upper schools for
+trade teaching. Another point of interest lies in the fact, that while
+we have been speaking of theoretical and practical subjects as forming
+the curricula of the schools for the building trades, the distinction
+should rather be drawn on the line of traditional book subjects and
+applied or laboratory practice. Practical work, per se, is not carried
+on in the school. Thus we have a close connection between theory and
+practice; more closely perhaps than is found to exist in other trades.
+
+The following table shows the distribution of building trade schools
+throughout the Empire, the cities in which such schools are located
+being given.
+
+  Anhalt                      Zerbst
+
+  Baden                       Carlsruhe
+
+                              Kaiserslautern
+                              Munich
+  Bavaria                     Nuremburg
+                              Ratisbon
+                              Würzburg
+
+  Brunswick                   Holzminden
+  Hamburg
+  Hesse
+  Lübeck
+
+                              Neustadt
+  Mecklenburg-Schwerin
+                              Sternberg
+
+  Mecklenburg-Strelitz        Strelitz
+
+  Oldenburg                   Varel
+                              Aix-la-Chappelle
+                              Berlin
+                              Breslau
+                              Buxtehude
+                              Cassel
+                              Cologne
+                              Deutsch-Krone
+                              Eckernförde
+                              Erfurt
+                              Frankfort-on-the-Oder
+  Prussia                     Görlitz
+                              Hildesheim
+                              Höxter
+                              Idstein
+                              Kattowitz
+                              Königsberg
+                              Magdeburg
+                              Münster
+                              Nienburg
+                              Posen
+                              Stettin
+
+  Reuss-Schleitz              Gera
+
+  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha           Coburg
+
+                              Weimar
+  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
+                              Stadt-Sulza
+
+                              Chemnitz
+                              Dresden
+                              Grossenhain
+  Saxony                      Leipzig
+                              Oschatz
+                              Plauen
+                              Rosswein
+                              Zittau
+
+  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen   Arnstadt
+
+  Wurttemberg                 Stuttgart
+
+
+                          SCHOOLS FOR FOREMEN
+
+                         (Werkmeisterschulen)
+
+The Werkmeisterschulen or schools for foremen, are quite prominent in
+the scheme of secondary instruction. The courses given in these schools
+are of a general character, for the most part practical, and the
+institution, as the name implies, fits men to occupy positions as
+foremen and overseers. Machine construction is the chief industry for
+which these schools train. The first school of this character was opened
+in 1855 at Chemnitz, Saxony. There are at present twenty-one schools of
+this class in the Empire. Sixteen is the regular age of admission.
+Candidates must have an elementary education on presenting themselves.
+Two years is the average length of course, including both winter and
+summer terms. A requisite for admission also is practical experience in
+the trade, hence little other than theoretical instruction is given.
+
+To the objection made by some, to extending the course over two years of
+residence and of including the elementary branches in the curriculum
+(such opposition favoring a reduction in time given to preparation) the
+answer comes that the school should give a well grounded education, such
+as will fit the participant for all the functions of his social and
+industrial life. Fifty to sixty marks is charged yearly for tuition
+fees. Certain of these schools have both evening and Sunday classes, the
+tuition being twenty marks yearly for week day evenings, eight to nine
+forty-five, and Sundays, eight to ten in the forenoon.
+
+Table showing location of schools for foremen:
+
+  Anhalt              Dessau
+  Baden               Mannheim
+  Bavaria             Four Mechanische Fachschulen
+
+  Hamburg
+                      Altona
+                      Cologne
+                      Dortmund
+                      Duisburg
+                      Elberfeld-Barmen
+
+  Prussia             Gleiwitz
+                      Gorlitz
+                      Hanover
+                      Magdeburg
+                      Iserlohn
+                      Reimscheid
+
+                      Chemnitz
+  Saxony              Mittweida
+                      Leipzig
+
+The following data were compiled from tables appearing in the Report of
+the Commissioner of Labor of the United States, for 1902. The hours per
+week allowed each subject taught in the schools of machinery
+construction, at Duisburg and Dortmund, Prussia, are given.
+
+                             |         DUISBURG        ||         DORTMUND
+                             +------------+------------++------------+------------
+                             | FIRST YEAR | SECOND YEAR|| FIRST YEAR |SECOND YEAR
+                             +-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------
+                             |First|Second|First|Second||First|Second|First|Second
+                             |Half |Half  |Half |Half  ||Half |Half  |Half |Half
+-----------------------------+-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------
+German language and law      |   4 |   4  |   2 |   2  ||   5 |   3  |   2 |  --
+Arithmetic                   |   4 |   1  |  -- |  --  ||   5 |   2  |  -- |  --
+Bookkeeping                  |  -- |  --  |  -- |   2  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |   3
+Descriptive Geometry         |  -- |   3  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |  --
+Mathematics                  |   8 |   6  |   4 |   2  ||   7 |   6  |   5 |   2
+Experimental Physics         |  -- |  --  |  -- |  --  ||   4 |   2  |  -- |  --
+Physics and Electricity      |   4 |   3  |   2 |   2  ||  -- |   4  |   3 |   3
+Experimental Chemistry       |   2 |  --  |  -- |  --  ||   2 |  --  |  -- |  --
+Penmanship                   |   2 |  --  |  -- |  --  ||   1 |  --  |  -- |  --
+Drawing                      |  12 |  --  |  -- |  --  ||  17 |  --  |  -- |  --
+Machine Drawing              |  -- |   6  |   8 |   8  ||  -- |  10  |   8 |  14
+Projection                   |  -- |  --  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |   2  |  -- |  --
+Mechanics                    |  -- |   4  |   4 |   4  ||  -- |   5  |   5 |   2
+Technology of mechanics,     |     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    smelting and refining    |  -- |  --  |   6 |   4  ||  -- |   2  |   6 |   4
+Theory of machines           |  -- |   6  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |   6  |  -- |  --
+Steam boilers and hoist      |     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    machines                 |  -- |  --  |   6 |  --  ||  -- |  --  |   7 |  --
+Steam engines and hydraulics |     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    and small motors         |  -- |  --  |  -- |   6  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |   8
+Heating                      |  -- |   3  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |  --
+Theory of building           |     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    construction             |  -- |  --  |   4 |  --  ||  -- |  --  |   2 |   2
+Practice in the work shop for|     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    machinery construction   |  -- |  --  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |  --  |   4 |   4
+Estimated wages              |  -- |  --  |  -- |   6  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |  --
+First aid to the injured     |  -- |  --  |   1 |  --  ||  -- |   1  |  -- |  --
+                             +-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------
+        Total                |  36 |  36  |  37 |  36  ||  41 |  43  |  42 |  42
+
+The following table showing the occupations of one time students at
+three of the Prussian schools was compiled in April, 1898. This table
+may be found on page 883 of the Seventeenth Annual Report of the
+Commissioner of Labor of the United States.
+
+Columns:
+
+A Duisburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1883 to April 10, 1898
+B Dortmund: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1892 to April 10, 1898
+C Magdeburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1893 to April 10, 1898
+
+-------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+
+           OCCUPATION                      |  A  |  B  |  C  |
+-------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+
+Heads of establishments                    |  54 |   1 |   1 |
+Other officers of establishments           | 237 | 107 |  11 |
+Machine builders and foremen               |  39 |  18 |   1 |
+Wage-workers                               |  34 |   9 |     |
+Owners of establishments or shops          |  10 |   3 |     |
+Draftsmen and technical experts in offices |  86 |  55 |  83 |
+Assistant Chemists                         |   3 |     |     |
+Students at other schools                  |  11 |   1 |   2 |
+Other than technical work                  |   4 |   1 |     |
+Military service                           |  16 |  23 |     |
+Deceased                                   |  11 |     |     |
+Unknown                                    |  26 |  21 |   5 |
+                                           | --- | --- | --- |
+    Total                                  | 531 | 239 | 103 |
+-------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+
+
+
+                    SCHOOLS FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES
+
+One of the most interesting groups of trade schools are those for the
+promotion of the textile industry in its various aspects, there existing
+at the present time no less than seventy-nine such institutions. The
+fourfold classification of these schools which follow, seems to be in
+accordance with the spirit of the work attempted.
+
+First; the superior weaving school (Höhere Webschulen).
+
+Second; the secondary weaving schools (Webschulen).
+
+Third; the apprentice shops for weaving and knitting
+(Webereilehrwerkstätten).
+
+Fourth; instruction by traveling or itinerant masters. (Wanderlehrer)
+
+Not only does Germany rank high in the character of her textile schools,
+but instruction is exceedingly wide spread. Then again all lines of the
+industry are taken up, from the most elementary to the most technical
+processes known. It will thus be seen that men are trained for the lower
+as well as for the higher branches of the art. In the highest classes of
+institutions weaving is almost exclusively carried on. The general
+Government assumes the control of these schools notwithstanding that in
+the beginning, many such institutions were put on foot through the
+initiative of associations and guilds. In each of the several classes
+the work is both theoretical and practical. The age of admission is
+usually fourteen years and the course of two years duration.
+
+The Webschulen train, not for specialists as do the schools just
+mentioned, but rather aim to turn out foremen and bosses. The
+apprenticeship shops come more closely in touch with the workmen of
+small means and those using hand machinery, while the Wanderlehrer
+schools are moveable. In the latter instance, the home becomes the
+school when the teacher is present; that is a competent instructor is
+employed to travel from place to place, visiting the small factories or
+home manufacturers, and giving such instruction as he deems wise and
+necessary. Much good work is still done in the rural homes of Germany,
+and through the means mentioned the standards are kept up.
+
+The work of these textile schools is largely specialized, depending upon
+the the location of the school. In some localities wool, in others linen
+or cotton, or again in others silk will be given the chief attention.
+Both theory and practice have a place in the school instruction. Work in
+the various courses includes a study at first hand of the materials
+used, cost of production, relative values, various processes of
+manipulation, chemistry, drawing, designing, painting, lectures on
+fabrics, elements of weaving and machinery used, and original design
+and practical work.
+
+The distribution of textile schools is shown in the following table.
+
+----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----------------------
+                      | Superior Textile
+                      |
+                      |   | Secondary Weaving
+                      |   |
+                      |   |   | Primary Weaving
+                      |   |   |
+                      |   |   |    | Weaving, Knitting and Trimming
+                      |   |   |    |
+                      |   |   |    |    | Spinning, Weaving and Knitting
+      STATE           |   |   |    |    |
+                      |   |   |    |    |   | Spinning and Weaving
+                      |   |   |    |    |   |
+                      |   |   |    |    |   |   | Primary Knitting
+                      |   |   |    |    |   |   |
+----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----------------------
+Alsace-Lorraine       |   |   |    |    |   | 1 |
+Bavaria               |   | 3 |    |    |   |   |
+Hesse                 |   | 1 |    |    |   |   |
+Prussia               | 8 | 8 | 22 |    |   |   |
+Reuss-Greitz          |   | 1 |    |    |   |   |
+Reuss-Schleitz        |   | 1 |    |    |   |   |
+Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach  |   |   |    |    |   |   | 1
+Saxony                |   |   |    | 27 |   |   |
+Wurttemberg           |   |   |    |    | 1 |   |
+----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----------------------
+
+The Prussian superior textile schools are located as follows:
+
+  Aix-la-Chappelle
+  Bremen
+  Berlin
+  Crefeld
+  Cottbus
+  Mülheim-on-Rhine
+  München-Gladbach
+  Sorau
+
+The Berlin textile schools may be taken as fairly representing the
+higher and more completely equipped institutions of this class. The age
+of admission is sixteen years, a secondary education being necessary to
+entrance. Several courses are offered as follows:
+
+  knitting, one year;
+  weaving, one and one-half years;
+  designing, two years;
+  passementerie making, one year;
+  dyeing, one year;
+  embroidery, one-fourth year.
+
+There are day, evening and Sunday classes. The accompanying table shows
+the subjects taught in each course and the number of hours given to each
+subject, reckoned on the basis of the entire length of course.
+
+---------------------------+--------------------------------------------
+                           | For manufacturers and
+                           |   superintendents, 1½ yrs.
+                           |
+                           |    | Designing, 2 yrs.
+                           |    |
+                           |    |    | Knitting, 1 yr.
+                           |    |    |
+       SUBJECTS            |    |    |    | Passementerie making, 1 yr.
+                           |    |    |    |
+                           |    |    |    |    |  Dyeing, 1 yr.
+---------------------------+----+----+----+----+-----------------------
+Theory of weaving          |  4 |  3 |  6 |  6 |  2
+Design transfer            | 13 |  9 |  3 |  8 |
+Materials                  |  1 |  ½ |  1 |  1 |
+Hand and power looms       |  3 |  2 |    |    |
+Motors                     |  1 |    |    |    |
+Preparing apparatus        |  1 |    |    |    |
+Finishing apparatus        |  1 |    |    |    |
+Practical exercises        |  8 |  6 | 18 | 12 | 33
+Dyeing                     |  2 |    |  2 |  2 |
+Analysis and production of |    |    |    |    |
+  knitting goods           |    |    |  4 |    |
+Chemistry of fibers        |    |    |    |    |  2
+Chemistry and physics      |    |    |    |    |  4
+Drawing                    |  8 | 23 |  2 |  5 |
+Arithmetic and bookkeeping |  2 |    |  3 |  3 |
+Jurisprudence              |  2 |    |  1 |  1 |
+Lecture                    |    |    |  2 |    |
+---------------------------+----+----+----+----+-----------------------
+
+In many instances the weaving schools have in connection with them
+departments for dyeing and finishing. In such cases much attention is
+given to color blending and harmony and to chemistry as well.
+
+
+                            GEWERBESCHULEN
+
+Extended mention will not be made of the Gewerbeschulen, as the point of
+distinction between such schools and the Fachschulen was set forth under
+the last section. They partake of the character of trade schools, but
+are more general in their tendencies. While both theoretical and
+practical work are given, the former is not always applied theory, the
+Gewerbeschulen being based upon, what we in America speak of, as the
+educational side of trade instruction. These schools are attended by
+boys and men fourteen to twenty-four years of age,--individuals
+representing the various trades. The courses cover a period of three
+years. Both State and local moneys go to the support of these schools.
+
+The Gewerbliche Fachschule of Cologne is somewhat distinctive. It
+instructs chiefly the sons of tradesmen and superior artisans. There
+are three departments in the school:
+
+First--that of engineering and architectural drawing.
+
+Second--modeling department.
+
+Third--the department of decoration, housepainting, etc.
+
+The session covers both winter and summer months, the winter term, as in
+other cases, being the better attended. Other typical Gewerbeschulen are
+located at Grenzhausen and at Reimscheid. Applicants for admission must
+have prepared in the Volksschule or elementary school. The programme
+comprises the German language, French, English, literature, plane and
+descriptive geometry, physics, chemistry, drawing, mechanics, machine
+construction. The preparation here obtained fits the participants to
+enter the higher schools, or to act as foremen and masters. These
+schools also lead up to the industrial schools of Bavaria, of which we
+shall now speak.
+
+
+                     INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS OF BAVARIA
+
+                          (Industrieschulen)
+
+The industrial schools of the Bavarian Kingdom stand out as a distinct
+class of educational institutions. Here, since 1872, there has been a
+clean cut system, presided over by a Minister of Education. While the
+quality and character of the work done are quite similar to that taken
+up in the secondary schools elsewhere, the institutions are in some
+respects more exactly defined and supervision and instruction in the
+schools of weaving, woodcarving, basketmaking, pottery, violin making,
+etc., is frequently superior to that in some other locality.
+
+The age of admission is sixteen years, two years being the usual length
+of course; the education of the Real-Schule is a requisite, or failing
+this, an examination must be taken. In 1901-1902 the Munich schools had
+an enrollment of 241 students, distributed as follows: mechanical
+engineering 124; chemical engineering 27; architecture 62; commercial
+28. The graduates are fitted to occupy positions of trust and prominence
+in the various industrial pursuits of the country and to enter the
+technical colleges.
+
+The Industrieschulen of Bavaria are four in number, located at
+
+  Augsburg
+  Kaiserslautern
+  Munich
+  Nuremberg
+
+they having been established in 1868. Advanced courses are offered in
+mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, building construction, and
+commercial education. The school at Würzburg is of a somewhat superior
+order, although secondary in its tendencies, machinery construction and
+electro-technics being given attention.
+
+In the mechanical engineering course the following subjects are studied:
+
+  elementary mathematics
+  descriptive geometry
+  calculus
+  surveying
+  physics
+  German
+  French
+  English
+  mechanics
+  machine work
+  machine construction
+  mechanical drawing
+  practical work.
+
+In the chemistry course the curriculum is made up of
+
+  mathematics
+  physics
+  chemistry
+  mineralogy
+  German
+  French
+  English
+  machine construction
+  laboratory work.
+
+The building construction course offers language, mechanical drawing
+and architecture.
+
+
+
+
+                                   V
+
+                       HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOLS
+
+                        Technische Hochschulen
+
+
+We have at this point in our study reached the schools of highest rank
+offering training of a technical character, called variously technical
+high schools, technical colleges, or polytechnics, the Technische
+Hochschulen. These schools are not high schools in the sense that the
+term would be applied to our American institutions, but are rather
+schools of collegiate grade, ranking in fact, as the title indicates in
+the university class. While not exactly comparable to our engineering
+schools, they approach more nearly these than they do any other of our
+American educational institutions.
+
+Before the beginning of the century just closed it was apparent to some
+German minds more far seeing than the rest, that schools of a higher
+than secondary rank must be inaugurated to offer training in the
+sciences; give opportunity to show the application of science to the
+arts; and prepare young men to grapple with scientific industrial
+problems such as were constantly springing up. Should the university
+attempt such work? An effort was made looking toward this end. It was at
+once evident that here was not the place to begin. The university was an
+institution in and of itself. Its methods, curriculum and aim were
+fixed, owing to long established customs. It had a certain work to
+perform, its own peculiar function to fulfill, and traditional and
+classical tendency were too strong to be checked in their movement, or
+to allow a branch stream to flow in and thus add to or modify the
+existing content.
+
+The war for industrial supremacy, between England and Germany
+particularly, was a prominent factor leading up to the establishment of
+technical schools in the latter country. Germany saw the necessity for
+heroic action, and her people, anxious to improve from the standpoint of
+her industries at home not only, but that they might rival and surpass
+their neighbors across the “Silver Streak” readily took up the cry for
+advanced scientific training. This then was the object of the Technische
+Hochschulen:[2]
+
+“They were intended to secure for science a foothold in the workshop, to
+assist with the light of reasoned theory the progress of arts and
+industry, till then fettered by many a prejudice and hindered through
+lack of knowledge; on the other hand, they sought to raise that part of
+the nation engaged in industry to such a love of culture as would secure
+to it its due measure of public respect.”
+
+[Footnote 2: Note on the earlier History of the Technical High School in
+Germany by A. E. Twentyman in Special Reports on Educational Subjects,
+London, Vol 9, page 468.]
+
+The dates of the founding of the now existing Technische Hochschulen
+vary somewhat, certain of the schools growing out of a foundation which
+at the beginning was of a low or intermediate grade. Several of the
+schools have passed through a period of transition or reorganization
+state during the course of their existence. The institution, and time of
+establishment of each are as follows.
+
+  Berlin,        1799
+  Carlsruhe,     1825
+  Munich,        1827
+  Dresden,       1828
+  Stuttgart,     1829
+  Brunswick,     1835
+  Darmstadt,     1868
+  Aachen,        1870
+  Hannover,      1879
+
+In 1799 was instituted in Berlin the Bauakademie, a State institution
+whose purpose was set forth in the royal decree thus:
+
+“To train in theoretical and practical knowledge capable surveyors,
+architects, civil engineers, and masons, principally for the King’s
+dominions, but foreigners may find admittance if no disadvantage accrue
+thereby to the King’s subjects.”
+
+Later, in 1821, Gewerbeschule came into existence, and in 1879 the union
+of these two formed the Berlin Technische Hochschule which is located in
+Charlottenburg, a suburb of the city. Owing to the high standards of
+this institution, it is styled the Königliche Technische Hochschule.
+Since its reorganization the plans of the other schools of like
+character have been modified in accordance with the Berlin scheme.
+
+The preparation necessary for admission to the Hochschulen is equivalent
+to that demanded by the university proper. The age of admission probably
+never drops below seventeen, the average age being considerably greater.
+Men of mature years and of wide experience and training avail themselves
+to the privileges offered. The courses are from three to four years in
+length.
+
+[3] “The new universities thus developed have the purpose of affording
+higher instruction for the technical positions in state and community
+service, as well as in industrial life, and of cultivating sciences and
+arts which are intimately connected with the field of technology (Berlin
+provisory statute, 1879). They prove themselves equal to universities in
+the following points: they claim for their matriculated students the
+same preparatory education required by the old universities, namely,
+nine years at a classical high school; they grant and insist upon
+perfect freedom in teaching and learning; and are under the direction of
+rectors elected for one year, instead of having principals chosen for
+life as in secondary schools.”
+
+[Footnote 3: Report of the United States Commissioner of Education,
+1897-1898, page 70.]
+
+It may be said here that an exception to the rule of the annual election
+of the administrative officers, is furnished in the example of the
+Munich school, which retains a permanent Director as the custom
+prevailed in times past.
+
+Unless otherwise qualified, students must have prepared in the
+Industrieschule, the Gymnasium, the Real-Gymnasium or in the trade or
+building schools. In lieu of this an examination is demanded.
+Twenty-four is the minimum age of graduation.
+
+In tracing the development of these schools from unpretentious
+beginnings to their present high standards of excellence, we see that
+more and more they have become unified in purpose and similar in
+curricula. In the early days too, the qualifications for admission,
+their dynamic government, and educational standards were lower and more
+diversified than we find them to-day. Sustained by the State and each
+administered by its board or council, they are doing a work which cannot
+be excelled by the universities themselves.
+
+The organization of departments of work offered is approximately the
+same in all schools. In Berlin there are six departments:
+
+  first, general school of applied science;
+  second, general construction engineering;
+  third, machine construction;
+  fourth, naval engineering;
+  fifth, chemistry and mining engineering;
+  sixth, architecture.
+
+Special attention is given certain subjects in one or another of these
+schools; civil or mechanical engineering, building construction,
+industrial chemistry, etc. An agricultural department is maintained at
+Munich, and a forestry department at Carlsruhe. That a knowledge of the
+application of electricity is considered essential in our modern methods
+is shown in the fact that all students in departments of machine
+construction engage in the study of electro-technics.
+
+The courses of study are to-day upon more of an elective basis than
+formerly although even now the results of the work of Nebenius are
+clearly seen. The success of the Hochschulen is due to the efforts of
+Nebenius more than to any other one man. His ideas were worked out at
+Carlsruhe and in greater or lesser degree incorporated into all the
+schools. It was insisted by him that a proper foundation must be laid
+before any successful special technical training can be had. Preliminary
+work must be mastered and a natural sequence of studies followed. To
+this end a fixed graduated course is recommended, the student to be
+promoted as ability may determine. The one course plan however has been
+substituted for the several.[4]
+
+[Footnote 4: “Programm der Königl. Technischen Hochschule zu Hannover,
+1901-1902, page 90. Den Hörern bleibt die Wahl der Lehrfächer frei
+überlassen, für ein geordnetes Studium empfiehlt sich aber die Beachtung
+der folgenden Studien und Stundenpläne.”]
+
+The following table compiled from various sources will give some idea of
+the extent of the work as carried on in Berlin. The school has a library
+of 54,000 volumes; a student body of upwards of 4,500 and a modern
+equipment throughout.
+
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Departments  | No.     | SUBJECTS                              |No. of
+             | of      |                                       |Professors
+             | courses |                                       |and
+             |         |                                       |Instructors
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+General      | 58      | Mechanics, Physics and general        | 33
+Science      |         | science studies; literature,          |
+             |         | French, English, Italian, law,        |
+             |         | political science.                    |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Civil        | 34      | Mechanics, railway construction,      | 13
+Engineering  |         | bridges, canals, harbors, hydraulics, |
+             |         | drainage, land surveying.             |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Mechanical   | 54      | Kinematics, machine construction,     | 23
+Engineering  |         | mechanical technology,                |
+             |         | machine design, water, steam          |
+             |         | and electrical machines,              |
+             |         | electro-technics, electro-mechanics,  |
+             |         | electrical and railway                |
+             |         | works.                                |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Naval        |  19     | Theory of ship building,              |  6
+Engineering  |         | classification of ships, designing of |
+             |         | warships, boilers, machine            |
+             |         | construction, practical               |
+             |         | ship building.                        |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Chemistry    |  51     | Organic and inorganic chemistry       | 27
+and          |         | including physical, electro and       |
+Metallurgy   |         | technological chemistry,              |
+             |         | crystallography, metallurgy, foundry  |
+             |         | work, cements, botany,                |
+             |         | chemistry of plants and foods.        |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Architecture | 65      | History of art, architecture and      | 36
+             |         | ornament; building construction,      |
+             |         | designing of buildings                |
+             |         | in different materials and for        |
+             |         | various purposes, preparation         |
+             |         | of estimates, etc.                    |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+
+The rivalry existing among the various schools is in some respects a
+point to be commended. Then, too, the idea taking form in the
+Hochschulen and being more fully appreciated by the educationalists of
+our own country, that each school should specialize along some
+particular line, is worthy of attention. Energy is saved thereby, and
+students may have the advantage of increased facilities in equipment and
+instruction. Many Americans are studying in these schools, possibly more
+in Munich than elsewhere. While thorough in their treatment of subjects,
+the practical side of the work is too much lost sight of in the
+theoretical treatment. Testing and applied work are certainly given
+considerable attention however. To quote Dean Victor C. Alderson of the
+Armour Institute, Chicago, who says in reference to testing:
+
+    “Professors regard this work as professional practice, just as
+    doctors, who are professors in medical schools, have an outside
+    practice. The technical school allows the professors free use of
+    the laboratories, but assumes no responsibility for the accuracy
+    of the results or opinions expressed.”
+
+The degree of Doctor of Engineering is conferred by these institutions,
+and that their work has been highly instrumental in developing the
+country cannot be doubted, especially in the line of applied chemistry
+in which branch of engineering Germany leads the nations. How closely
+the development of the industries of Germany are related to the work of
+the Technische Hochschulen it is difficult to say, but that these
+schools have shown through the accomplishments of their graduates that
+high standards of moral and intellectual training can be had in other
+than the traditional universities, and that as efficient social service
+can be rendered through the application of science to the arts and
+industries as by means of the languages, cannot be doubted.
+
+
+
+
+                                  VI
+
+            SCHOOLS OF INDUSTRIAL ART OR ART TRADE SCHOOLS
+
+
+The Kunstgewerbeschulen are schools of art. The causes leading to their
+inception are clearly set forth in a paragraph contained in the 1902
+Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor. It reads:
+
+“The international museums of 1851, 1855 and 1862, in England, Austria
+and Germany, respectively called attention to the fact that with all
+their technical excellence the industrial products of Germany possessed
+few qualities of artistic finish and design. France showed what could be
+done in this direction. Her products easily held first rank in this
+respect, her eminence being the result of centuries of training in this
+field. Since Colbert’s time industrial art education has been emphasized
+in the training of French workmen, and the accumulated skill and taste
+due to this training, has left its impress on French products. The
+German states at once set about to remedy this weakness in this respect,
+and since that time have so persistently established museums and schools
+for industrial art training that now there is no important city in the
+Empire which does not possess one or more of these institutions”.
+
+Considerable variety exists among the various types of art schools and
+even among those belonging in the same class and separated as to
+location we find differences. In Leipzig, Saxony, for example the
+Kunstgewerbeschule aims at the graphic arts mainly. In Berlin, Dresden,
+Carlsruhe, and certain other cities these schools train for sculptors
+and painters, and the term “Akademie” is frequently applied to these
+institutions. They are in fact, art trade schools whose main purpose,
+while yet industrial, is also the instilling of an artistic feeling into
+industrial work. They reach on and out from the trade school and up to
+the institutions for the teaching of the fine arts. They are then a
+middle grade of applied art schools.
+
+The genesis of the industrial art schools really lies in the
+establishment of museums of industrial art. The museums were an
+inspiring and energizing force, for here the best work could be
+exhibited and studied. The municipality and general government financed
+the movement for the museums. Schools sprang up in connection with the
+museums and later, independent art schools were established.
+
+A moderate fee is charged those who pursue work here, twenty to forty
+marks yearly. Candidates must have had practical experience in the line
+of work they propose to take up, and both these schools and the
+so-called industrial drawing courses assume a certain proficiency on the
+part of the candidates; a proficiency in general subjects and in
+drawing particularly. An examination is given those who cannot present
+the desired credentials. The length of the courses in these schools is
+usually three years. The classes are both day and evening, 8 A. M. to 4
+P. M. and from 5 to 10 P. M. In some instances Sunday sessions are held
+also.
+
+The courses consist of architectural designing in wood and metal, metal
+engraving and chasing, modeling, steel engraving and etching, design for
+fabrics, pattern designing, artistic embroidery, decorative painting,
+enamel painting, designing and painting figures and plants. The work
+throughout is both theoretical and practical in its nature, the
+instruction gained in the class being applied in the shop. The subjects
+of instruction and time devoted to each differ according to the course
+pursued. As an example of the programme offered, the following, taken
+from the architectural draftsman’s course in the Munich school is given;
+the figures show the number of hours per week devoted to each subject.
+
+  First year,
+    linear drawing                                 7
+    ornament drawing                               9
+    modelling of ornament and of the human
+      figure                                      21
+    history of art                                 1
+    style                                          1
+    geometry and projections                       3
+
+  Second year,
+    architectural drawing                          7
+    drawing and modeling of the human
+      figure and modeling of ornaments            20
+    history of art                                 1
+    style                                          1
+    perspective and shadows                        2
+    anatomy, xylography, architecture,
+      sculpture, or chasing                       10
+
+  Third year,
+    architectural drawing                          7
+    drawing and modeling of the human figure
+      and modeling of ornaments                   10
+    anatomy                                        1
+    xylography, architecture, sculpture or
+      chasing                                     24
+
+The Bauschule are only for those who wish proficiency in architectural
+studies.
+
+What the Industrial Hall at Carlsruhe, the Industrial Art Museum at
+Berlin, and the National Museum at Munich are to the art schools proper,
+the open drawing halls are to the industrial drawing courses. Here, as
+in the museums, are kept models and designs of rare merit and students
+may pursue work under competent instruction. Such halls are established
+in Bavaria, Hesse, Prussia, Saxony and Wurttemberg.
+
+In these art courses skill and originality are aimed at equally. The
+relation existing between the art work and the trade or industry with
+which it is connected is such as to make more valuable the latter.
+
+It is needless to speak further of the museums. The art products there
+exhibited give much incentive to students, as well as a feeling for the
+best from the standpoint of the beautiful and artistic, and all who
+visit them are consciously or unconsciously influenced for the better.
+
+The following table shows the distribution of industrial art schools
+throughout the various States.
+
+  _Alsace-Lorraine_, Mülhausen, Strasburg.
+  _Anhalt_, Dessau.
+  _Baden_, Carlsruhe, Pforzheim.
+  _Bremen_,
+  _Bavaria_, Kaiserslautern, Munich, Nuremberg.
+  _Hamburg_,
+  _Hesse_, Mentz, Offenbach.
+  _Prussia_, Aix-la-Chappelle, Barmen, Berlin, Breslau, Cassel,
+    Cologne, Düsseldorf, Elberfeld, Frankfort-on the-Main, Hanau,
+    Hanover, Iserlohn, Königsberg, Magdeburg.
+  _Saxony_, Dresden, Leipzig, Plauen.
+  _Wurttemberg_, Stuttgart.
+
+
+
+
+                                  VII
+
+                             BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+Beobachtungen und Vergleiche über Einrichtungen für Gewerbliche
+Erziehung, 1901.--Dr. G. Kerschensteiner.
+
+Das Gewerbeschulwesen.--Carl Melchior.
+
+Denkschriften über die Entwickelung der Gewerblichen Fachschulen und der
+Fortbildungsschulen in Preussen.--Lüders.
+
+Encyklopädisches Handbuch der Pädagogik.--W. Rein.
+
+English Technical Instruction Commission, 1896. Report on the Recent
+Progress of Technical Education in Germany.
+
+Fortbildungsschule in unserer Zeit.--J. B. Meyer.
+
+German Higher Schools.--James E. Russell.
+
+German Technical Schools, 1901.--Victor C. Alderson.
+
+Gewerbliche Fortbildungsschulen Deutschlands.--R. Nagel.
+
+Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 1900.--Conrad.
+
+Höherer Polytechnischer Unterricht in Deutschland, etc.--Carl Koristka.
+
+Industrial Education.--Philip Magnus.
+
+Jahresbericht der Königlichen Industrieschule und Baugewerkschule zu
+München, 1898-1899.
+
+Jahresbericht der Technischen Staatslehranstalten zu Chemnitz, 1890.
+
+Jahresbericht über die Berliner Fortbildungsschule, 1890-1891.
+
+Kunstgewerbe als Beruf, 1901.
+
+Note on the Earlier History of the Technical High Schools in
+Germany.--A. E. Twentyman.
+
+Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, 1902, Vol. 9, page 465.
+
+Paches’ Handbook, 1899.
+
+Problems in Prussian Secondary Education for Boys.--Michael E. Sadler.
+
+Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, 1898, Vol. 3.
+
+Programm der Königlichen Fachschule zu Iserlohn Metal Industrie.
+
+Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1889-1890, page
+1209-1212.
+
+Same, 1894-1895, Vol. 1, page 345-380.
+
+Supplementary and Industrial Schools in Germany.
+
+Same, 1895-1896, Vol. 1, page 138.
+
+Same, 1897-1898, Vol. 1, page 69. German Technical Colleges.
+
+Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor, 1892, Eighth Annual.
+
+Industrial Education in Germany.
+
+Same, 1902, Seventeenth Annual.
+
+Trade and Technical Education in Germany, page 871.
+
+Second Report of the Royal Commission on Technical Education, London,
+1884, Vol. 1.
+
+The Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry, 1902.--Fabian Ware.
+
+The Continuation Schools in Berlin.--Dr. H. Bertram.
+
+Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, 1902, Vol. 9, page 451.
+
+United States Consular Reports. Description of the School of Carpentry
+and Cabinetmaking in Magdeburg, Prussia, No. 238, July, 1900.--Wm.
+Diederich.
+
+Same. School of Marine Machinists, Flensburg, Prussia. No. 174, March,
+1895.
+
+Same. Technical and Merchant Schools 56:208, page 78.--J. C. Monoghan.
+
+Same. Technical Education in Germany. 54:202, page 447.--J. C. Monoghan.
+
+
+
+
+                           PUBLISHER’S NOTE
+
+
+This book was published under some disadvantages, as it was delayed by
+the removal of our office to a larger place of business, and by a
+printers’ strike, which resulted in four changes in foremen. This,
+together with the fact that the author was upon the Pacific coast and
+proof was delayed and sometimes lost has led to errors for which he is
+not responsible. Besides typographical blunders easily recognized the
+following are noted:
+
+Page 13, next line to last for _Air_ read _Art_.
+
+     19, 5th line, for _enable_ read _ennoble_.
+
+     23, 4th line from below, for _committee_ read _communities_.
+
+     25, 5th line, for _development_ read _deportment_.
+
+     63, 7th line, for _models_ read _modes_.
+
+     72, next to last line, the 1 should be in _second_ half of first
+         year, making the totals 41 and 43 instead of 42 and 42.
+
+     79, in table, Knitting should have _1 yr._ instead of _2 yrs._, and
+         the line beginning _Machinery_ is to be omitted.
+
+     81, 4th line from below, insert _to_ before _enter_.
+
+     93, last part of paragraph, read “The one course plan however has
+         been substituted for the several.”
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Note: The table below lists all corrections applied to the
+original text.
+
+p. viii: for _development_ read _department_ -> _deportment_
+p. 007: make any one clasification -> classification
+p. 010: Conrad’s Handworterbuch -> Handwörterbuch
+p. 011: Wurtemburg industrial -> Wurttemburg
+p. 012: other conditions (examinations) or these schools -> of
+p. 012: Ages ranges from fourteen to thirty -> range
+p. 012: the only instition -> institution
+p. 013: [errata] Pure Air -> Art
+p. 014: Technischeschulen -> Technische Schulen
+p. 016: Continuation Schools or Fortbilbungsschulen -> Fortbildungsschulen
+p. 016: Fortbildtngsshulen -> Fortbildungsschulen
+p. 017: [extra comma] at this age, forced to -> age forced
+p. 017: a statsment made by Mr. Michael N. Sadler-> statement
+p. 018: [quote added] “Among the great number
+p. 019: [errata] in the arts which enable -> ennoble
+p. 019: born under a luckler star -> luckier
+p. 020: continuation of Fortbildungsschulen -> or
+p. 023: adapt their instrnction -> instruction
+p. 023: [errata] Here the committee must meet -> communities
+p. 025: [errata] character and development of the boys -> deportment
+p. 027: higher mathemematics, mechanics, physics -> mathematics
+p. 028: is carried suffciently far -> sufficiently
+p. 028: classes are arranged acording to -> according
+p. 029: smaller towns or in the conntry -> country
+p. 029: university extention courses -> extension
+p. 031: similar to Fortbildungsschulen in Leipsig -> Leipzig
+p. 031: schools have seen a marvelous developement -> development
+p. 032: attended by journeyman and apprentices -> journeymen
+p. 032: good manners (gute sitten) -> Sitten
+p. 033: [normalized] throughout various parts of the empire -> Empire
+p. 033: [extra comma] under eighteen years of age, might -> age might
+p. 033: [extra comma] the employer, must -> employer must
+p. 033: Baden. compulsory school laws -> Baden, compulsory
+p. 034: to be determined eventually be -> by
+p. 035: worthy of note that she delares -> declares
+p. 039: that the Forthildungsschule -> Fortbildungsschule
+p. 039: foundation of most of the Faceschulen -> Fachschulen
+p. 046: Wagonmakers and Wheelrights -> Wheelwrights
+p. 047: Free hand drawing -> Free-hand
+p. 056: becomes the property ot the father -> of
+p. 057: The Lehrwerkstatten or apprentice shops -> Lehrwerkstätten
+p. 059: fulfil certain teohnical qualifications -> technical
+p. 059: practical iu the highest degree -> in
+p. 062: [missing letter] The governing power is in ome cases -> some
+p. 063: [errata] laws of building; models of heat -> modes
+p. 067: Buxtehede -> Buxtehude
+p. 067: Magdeberg -> Magdeburg
+p. 068: Orchatz -> Oschatz
+p. 068: Zitteau -> Zittau
+p. 069: [normalized] schools of this class in the empire -> Empire
+p. 070: the elementary ranches in the curriculm -> curriculum
+p. 071: Inserlohn -> Iserlohn
+p. 071: Mlttweida -> Mittweida
+p. 071: compiled from tables appearing the Report -> appearing in the
+p. 074: [missing letters] Webereilehrwerkstä en -> Webereilehrwerkstätten
+p. 074: itinerant masters. (Wenderlehrer) -> Wanderlehrer
+p. 074: lines of the indnstry -> industry
+p. 075: In each of the several classses -> classes
+p. 077: Grefeld -> Crefeld
+p. 079: [errata] Knitting, 2 yrs. -> Knitting, 1yr.
+p. 079: [errata, removed line] Machinery  |   |   | 3 | 6 | 2
+p. 081: superior artizans -> artisans
+p. 081: prepared in the Volkschule -> Volksschule
+p. 081: [errata] the participants enter -> participants to enter
+p. 085: [added chapter number] V
+p. 086: show the aplication of science -> application
+p. 087: in the atter country -> latter
+p. 087: the necessity or heroic action -> for heroic
+p. 087: due measure of public respsct -> respect
+p. 087: by A. E. Twentymen -> by A. E. Twentyman
+p. 088: Dresden, 1826 -> 1828
+p. 088: principally for the Kiugs dominions -> King’s
+p. 089: styled the Koeniglische Technische Hochschule -> Königliche
+p. 090: Berlin provisory statue -> statute
+p. 091: State and and each administered -> State and each
+p. 092: The organization of deparments of work -> departments
+p. 093: [errata] For the one course plan however -> The one
+p. 093: [errata] have been substituted -> has
+p. 093: [errata] substituted the several -> substituted for the
+p. 093: Program der Königl. Technischen Hochschule -> Programm
+p. 093: Den Horern bleibt die Wahl -> Hörern
+p. 093: frei überlassen, Für ein geordnetes -> überlassen, für
+p. 098: Kunstgewerbsechulen are schools of art -> Kunstgewerbeschulen
+p. 104: Alcace-Lorraine, Mülhausen, Strasburg -> Alsace
+p. 104: Prussia, Aix-la Chapelle -> Aix-la-Chappelle
+p. 105: Enrichtungen für -> Einrichtungen
+p. 105: Gewerbliche Erzichnung -> Erziehung
+p. 105: Dr. G. Kerschenteuer -> Kerschensteiner
+p. 105: Denkschriften über die Entiwickelung -> Entwickelung
+p. 105: Fortbildungschulen in Prussen -> Fortbildungsschulen in Preussen
+p. 105: Encyklopädischer Handbuch -> Encyklopädisches
+p. 105: Handbuch der Pädogik -> Pädagogik
+p. 105: in unserer zeit -> Zeit
+p. 105: [removed in] Fortbildungsschulen in Deutschlands
+p. 106: [removed comma] Jahresbericht der Königlichen, Industrieschule
+p. 106: Technischen Stattslehranstalten -> Staatslehranstalten
+p. 107: Program der Königlichen Fachschule -> Programm
+p. 108: School of Marine Machinists, Fleusburg, Prussia -> Flensburg
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Condition and Tendencies of
+Technical Education in Germany, by Arthur Henry Chamberlain
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Condition and Tendencies of Technical
+Education in Germany, by Arthur Henry Chamberlain
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Condition and Tendencies of Technical Education in Germany
+
+Author: Arthur Henry Chamberlain
+
+Release Date: September 11, 2008 [EBook #26595]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Irma �pehar, Markus Brenner and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                     THE CONDITION AND TENDENCIES
+
+                                  OF
+
+                    Technical Education in Germany
+
+                                  BY
+
+                       ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN
+
+       Professor of Education and Principal of the Normal School
+            of Manual Training, Art, and Domestic Economy,
+          Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, California:
+                Author of "Educative Hand-Work Manuals"
+                  and "A Bibliography of Manual Arts"
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+                            SYRACUSE, N.�Y.
+                       C.�W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER
+                                 1908
+
+                   Copyright, 1908, by C.�W. BARDEEN
+
+
+
+
+                             INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The question of the technical phases of education is, with any nation, a
+vital one. Perhaps this is true of Germany as it is of no other European
+country. This may be mainly due to one of several causes. First, as to
+the length of time technical education has had a place in the German
+schools. In some form or another, and in a greater or lesser degree,
+such instruction has been in vogue for many years, and has in no small
+measure become part and parcel of the educational fabric of the nation.
+Again, throughout the various German States, the work is rather widely
+differentiated, this owing in part to the fact that the varying lines of
+industry in adjacent localities even, give color and bent to the
+technical education of any particular locality. An extensive field is
+thus comprehended under the term "technical education". Then, too,
+Germany as a nation must needs better her condition in order that she
+may prove self-sustaining. The country is not a wealthy one, and if in
+trade, in manufacture, and in commerce, she is to compete, and that
+successfully, with the world powers, strength must be gained along such
+lines as those opening through technical education.
+
+The hope is entertained that the following pages may prove of value, not
+alone to the student of technical education as it exists in Germany, but
+particularly to those who are endeavoring to institute and develop
+industrial and technical training in this country. The possibility along
+these lines is exceedingly great and the interest and attention of
+thinking people is focused here. They look to this form of education as
+a partial solution of some of the most obstinate problems now
+confronting us.
+
+
+
+
+                               CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+    INTRODUCTION                                                     v
+
+    CONTENTS                                                       vii
+
+    PUBLISHER'S NOTE                                              viii
+
+    SECTION I. Classification of Schools                             5
+
+    SECTION II. Continuation Schools (Fortbildungsschulen)          16
+
+    SECTION III. Trade Schools (Fachschulen)                        41
+
+    SECTION IV. Secondary Technical Schools
+                  (Gewerbliche Mittelschulen)                       61
+
+                Schools for the Building Trades
+                  (Baugewerkschulen)                                61
+
+                Schools for Foremen (Werkmeisterschulen)            69
+
+                Schools for the Textile Trades (Gewerbeschulen)     74
+
+                Industrial Schools of Bavaria (Industrie Schulen)   82
+
+    SECTION V.  Higher Technical Schools (Technische Hochschulen)   85
+
+    SECTION VI. Schools of Industrial Arts or Art Trade Schools
+                  (Kunstgewerbeschulen)                             98
+
+    SECTION VII. Bibliography                                      105
+
+
+
+
+                    Technical Education in Germany
+
+                   BY PROF. ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN
+
+
+
+
+                                   I
+
+
+If one were to point out the most distinctive feature of the educational
+system in the Fatherland to-day, it would perhaps be the highly
+specialized condition of the technical schools.
+
+In approaching our problem we naturally ask ourselves the question as to
+how far the industrial progress of a country is influenced by technical
+education. In no time as in our own has so much stress been laid upon
+the commercial side of our existence. New trades, new industries are
+springing up; specialization is becoming more far-reaching and more
+firmly established than ever before; competition is becoming keener;
+the application of science to the arts is more varied.
+
+In this latter field we find Germany in the very fore front, she having
+developed along these lines to a greater extent than have many of our
+nations. Illustrations of this application lie all about us,--in the
+bettered transportation facilities by railroad and by ocean vessel; in
+the more improved bridge and building construction; in the methods of
+water supply and drainage; in modes of heat, light, and ventilation; in
+electric vehicles, sound transmitters, labor-saving machinery; in finely
+adjusted instruments that bring far away worlds almost within reaching
+distance; in these and a thousand other ways is made manifest the result
+of the application of science to the arts. Germany is taking a prominent
+part in this warfare for industrial supremacy, and that she expects her
+technical schools to be largely instrumental in answering many of the
+problems of the present and the future cannot be doubted, especially
+when one is made aware of the diversity and extent of the schools of a
+technical character scattered over the Empire.
+
+It will be readily understood from the foregoing how difficult a matter
+it is to make any one classification that will cover in an adequate
+manner the various types of existing institutions. Frequently a school
+is found which in some respects is distinctive. To place such a school
+in this or that category would of course do violence to the
+classification, while to form a new class only serves to further
+complicate and bewilder. Again, various of the institutions mentioned
+may offer such a differentiated schedule or be made up of so many
+parallel departments as to entitle them to admission into two or more of
+the classes given.
+
+Another point of difficulty lies in the fact that the term "technical"
+would in Germany be somewhat more sweeping than with us in America. We
+do not class technical training with so-called manual training or
+handwork of the elementary schools. In our present study however, we
+shall find that while in the main we are dealing with the technical
+training of boys from fourteen to eighteen years of age,--comparable in
+a measure to our high or secondary school courses, we shall also include
+the industrial, vocational, or trade training of men and boys alike, as
+well as work in the more simplified forms of handicraft, as carried on
+in the lower or elementary school. Reference will also be made to the
+instruction of a higher order,--such for example as makes for engineers.
+These facts will be illuminated as the study proceeds.
+
+In reading into these schools their real significance, several points
+must be kept constantly in mind. At an early age the German youth is
+supposed to have solved the problem of his likes and dislikes, his
+abilities and shortcomings; to have gained such a perspective of his
+probable chances for future success, as to choose the line of work or
+occupation he shall follow. It is only fair to state, however, that
+circumstances have much to do with such decision, viz,--the occupation
+of the father, the financial outlook of the family, the industrial
+demands of the locality, the particular educational opportunities
+offered,--these and like problems entering in as vital elements.
+
+Then too, the founding and sustaining of a technical school is a matter
+to be noted. This may be in the hands of the general government, of the
+state, of the municipality, or may be looked after by private
+enterprise. The Guilds, Vereins or Associations may organize, equip and
+foster schools of such character as train directly for their particular
+lines of work. It must be stated however in this connection, that there
+seems to be a strong tendency at the present time toward the
+centralizing of control in the states. This has been brought about in
+large measure through the ever-increasing willingness on the part of the
+state to give financial backing to the schools, and thus has quite
+naturally arisen the desire and necessity on the part of the state, that
+it have a controlling voice in the school administration. Herein lies
+one of the main differences between such education in Germany and that
+of our own country.
+
+Conrad's Handw�rterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 1900, in an article
+entitled "Gewerblicher Unterricht", gives the following table on state
+expenditure for trade and technical instruction in recent years:
+
+Prussia:
+
+  Marks 142,000 ($33,796) in 1874;
+  Marks 475,000 ($114,050) in 1885;
+  Marks 4,672,000 ($1,111,936) in 1899.
+
+Saxony:
+
+  Marks 235,000 ($60,214) in 1873;
+  Marks 570,000 ($135,660) in 1885;
+  Marks 1,138,000 ($270,844) in 1898.
+
+Wurttemburg industrial continuation school:
+
+  Marks, 58,000 ($13,804) in 1869;
+  Marks 129,000 ($30,702) in 1879;
+  Marks 164,000 ($39,032) in 1889;
+  Marks 208,000 ($49,504) in 1897.
+
+The cost of the state per capita of the population of the expenditures
+was as follows:
+
+  Prussia, Pfennigs 15 (3� cts.) in 1899;
+  Saxony, Pfennigs 29 (7 cts.) in 1898;
+  Hesse, Pfennigs 22 (5 cts.) in 1898.
+
+The cost per Marks 1,000 ($236) of the entire state expenditures was
+Marks 2.27 (54 cts.) in Prussia in 1899, and Marks 5.88 ($1.40) in
+Saxony in 1898.
+
+In general the German schools are classified upon a basis of the grade
+of instruction given rather than upon the character of the subjects
+taught. Primary education is compulsory, that is to say, all children
+are compelled by law to attend school from their sixth to their
+fourteenth year. It is at this point that we find our difficulty. To
+quote Dr. Alwin Pabst of Leipzig (who speaks of conditions governing
+technical schools):
+
+"The age of admission, length of course, fees and other conditions
+(examinations) of these schools differ widely. Ages range from fourteen
+to thirty years or over; length of course, one to four or five years;
+fees perhaps twenty to thirty marks per year. The Fortbildungsschule is
+the only institution in which no fee is charged." (Taken from a personal
+letter.)
+
+Several classifications commend themselves for use. Each has its
+weaknesses and breaks down at some point, owing to the conditions
+previously mentioned. In order the better to illustrate this difficulty
+I shall give these various possible classifications.
+
+The first refers chiefly to the scheme of secondary education and was
+the one first chosen and later discarded. It was suggested mainly by Sir
+Philip Magnus's work on "Industrial Education" and the "Report of the
+Industrial Commission", Vol. 1.
+
+  1. Industrieschulen
+      Gewerbeschulen
+
+  2. Trade Schools
+      Fachschulen
+
+  3. Building Trade Schools
+
+  4. Secondary Technical Schools
+      Higher Technical
+      Foremen
+      Building
+      Weaving
+      Drawing
+
+  5. Industrial Art Schools (Kunstgewerbe)
+      Pure Art
+      Applied Art
+
+  6. Polytechnics or Technische Hochschulen
+
+  7. Continuation Schools--Fortbildungsschulen
+
+Another classification, suggested in most part by a German authority is
+as follows:
+
+  1. Fortbildungsschulen--Continuation schools
+  2. Industrie--or Fachschulen--Special Trade Schools
+  3. Gewerbeschulen
+  4. Technische Schulen
+  5. Technische Hochschulen
+  6. Baugewerkschulen--School for Architects
+  7. Kunstgewerbeschulen--Schools of Art
+
+In the Seventeenth Annual Report of the U.�S. Commissioner of Labor for
+1902 we find the following:
+
+  1. Technical Colleges
+  2. Secondary or Intermediate Technical Schools
+  3. Schools and Museums of Industrial Art
+  4. Schools for Foremen
+  5. Schools for the Textile Trades
+  6. Trade and Industrial Continuation Schools
+  7. Industrial Drawing Courses
+  8. Other Institutions for Industrial Education.
+
+The order followed in the present study is finally given below. It is
+one not to be found elsewhere, but more closely resembles that of Dr.
+Pabst (the second classification) and that found in the Seventeenth
+Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor. It has undoubtedly its weak
+points, but I feel it is the best that can be made however, as it is
+based upon data recently published, and the results of correspondence
+with German school authorities, in addition to a not very extended
+knowledge gained through personal contact with the German schools. It
+may be taken therefore, as bringing the work down to the present time:
+
+  1. Continuation Schools or Fortbildungsschulen
+  2. Trade Schools or Fachschulen
+  3. Secondary or Intermediate Technical Schools or Gewerbliche
+     Mittelschulen
+  4. Technical Colleges or Technische Hochschulen
+  5. School and Museums of Industrial Art, or Kunstgewerbeschulen
+
+
+
+
+                                  II
+
+                         CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
+
+                          FORTBILDUNGSSCHULEN
+
+
+Since at the age of fourteen years the German youth is no longer under
+the control of the compulsory school law, the value of the system of
+continuation schools is realized. Of necessity the great mass of boys
+are at this age, forced to enter some gainful pursuit. It was clearly
+evident to the German people that boys should not be cut off from school
+education at this early age. Dr. James H. Russell in his German Higher
+Schools says:
+
+"The elementary and secondary schools are quite independent of each
+other--not one boy in ten thousand finds his way from the highest class
+of the elementary school into the Gymnasium."
+
+It is evident that year by year an increasingly large number of boys
+discontinue their education at the close of the elementary school, for a
+statement made by Mr. Michael N. Sadler, (Vol. III of Special Reports on
+Educational Subjects, London), some years prior to the above writing,
+would seem to indicate a lesser percentage of dropping out than that
+proposed by Dr. Russell.
+
+The desire then for more extended educational advantages must have been
+early felt, and there sprang into existence what has since developed
+into one of the most significant features and far-reaching factors in
+the German scheme,--the continuation school. I quote from Mr. H. Bertram
+who writes of the continuation schools in Berlin, December, 1899:
+
+"Amid the development of civilization among the nations the idea of the
+continuation school is making its way with increasing strength. Urgently
+required by the conditions of social organization, and in its turn
+acting on them, the new institution appears in many forms. It claims its
+place side by side with the Church and the School.
+
+"Among the great number of those who enter early upon the practical
+business of life, to whom the primary school has offered a start there
+awakens, sooner or later, the desire to share in the stores of
+knowledge which human intelligence has won, in the insight into the
+working of the forces of nature, which it has acquired and applied to
+industry, in the arts which ennoble and support human action; in short
+to participate in the spiritual treasures which are, as it were, the
+birthright of those born under a luckier star. This desire, which opens
+to the diligent the way to material prosperity and inner contentment,
+seems for society as a whole an important incentive to industrial
+progress, and turns the discontent of the slaves of machinery into
+happiness of men conscious of their own success. The more the old order
+changes which held the work people in the narrow bonds of tradition, the
+more is customary prescription replaced by education and independent
+judgment, by insight into existing conditions, by special excellence
+within a particular sphere. For this reason, the elementary school,
+however efficient and methodically correct its action may be, cannot
+suffice for the happiness of the masses, nor for the preservation of
+society. The instruction must come into close contact with the life of
+the future citizen, and must be at the command of everyone desirous to
+learn, as long as he seeks it. But the seeker, born amid such conditions
+as these, needs guidance. Public libraries, newspapers, magazines help
+him the more he pushes forward, but without expert assistance he hardly
+finds the beginning of the path.
+
+"This is the object of the Continuation School."
+
+It is somewhat difficult to define the limits and scope of the
+continuation or Fortbildungsschulen. Conditions vary in the different
+German states and especially do they vary in the various kinds of
+continuation schools. Definition is made even more doubtful when we find
+that the limits of certain schools overlap. It may be said that
+students are regularly admitted from fourteen to sixteen years of age.
+Not infrequently however, boys and men of more mature years take
+advantage of the courses offered. Instruction is carried on during the
+week-day evenings from six to eight o'clock and on Sunday mornings.
+
+Prussia leads the other states in the number and character of her
+supplementary schools, the system having its fullest expression in
+Berlin. The fact became early apparent that preparation, whatever line
+the boy was to follow, was necessary, and this thought is confirmed in
+the many skilled laborers in Germany to-day. In Prussia, as elsewhere,
+it was found that boys many times left the common school before they
+became proficient in any line of book work. The causes were various;
+poverty, indifference, sickness, overcrowding, poor enforcement of the
+compulsory attendance laws,--all these conspired to make supplementary
+schools necessary. In the older provinces very little attention was
+given the continuation school prior to 1875, and almost as much could be
+said of those provinces which were acquired in 1866. In 1844 a report
+issued by the Department of Public Instruction makes mention of the
+usefulness of such schools, while two years later a second report has
+only slightly more to say on the subject. This lack of interest may be
+attributed in large measure to the non-financial support of these
+schools by the government.
+
+Several problems had to be faced in working out the scheme. Certain
+definite relations between the primary and continuation schools must be
+observed; those coming into the latter with an inadequate underschool
+knowledge must be looked after; provision must be made for students of
+lesser as well as of more mature years; all classes of occupation must
+be given attention; these and many other difficult questions were to be
+met and overcome.
+
+"Three principles," says Mr. Bertram, "have contributed to the solution
+of this problem--free choices between the courses provided, free
+enjoyment of the preparatory courses without fee, and the selection of
+the teachers according to their attainments in a particular branch and
+their ability to adapt their instruction to the needs of the pupils or
+participants in the course."
+
+In certain sections, Nassau and Hanover for example, state aid came
+early to the continuation school. In 1874 an increased appropriation
+resulted in the betterment of the schools then existing and in the
+further establishment of like institutions. Here the communities must
+meet the cost of building, heating, lighting etc., and one-half of all
+the expenses not covered by the actual tuition. Since 1878 there is a
+fairly general acceptance throughout the Empire of the statute
+providing that all employes under eighteen years of age must be allowed
+to attend a continuation school, the period of attendance to be
+determined by "competent authority". This naturally leads the Public
+Instruction Department to be free in its financial support.
+
+It will be understood that in most cases six hours per week is the
+attendance required and that only those who have left the Volksschule or
+lower school and are not attending any higher institution are admitted.
+In Saxony a somewhat different condition exists. Children who have not
+made satisfactory progress in the Volksschule must, perforce, attend the
+continuation school for two years.
+
+The writer of this paper was thoroughly impressed with the work of the
+Sunday classes as seen in Leipzig, Saxony, during the summer of 1899.
+His first introduction to such work was made, when on joining a group
+of boys, several of them carrying draughting-boards, he was conducted by
+them to their school. The general character and deportment of the boys,
+the spirit and enthusiasm manifested by them, and the thoughtful and
+intelligent quality of the work produced, fully justified in his own
+mind, the validity and worth of the Sunday class instruction.
+
+As between the schools located in the cities and those in the smaller
+towns and country places, there is some slight difference. They may be
+classified as (_a_) rural or (_b_) city schools, on account of their
+location. The distinction lies rather in the arrangement of their
+curricula, the needs of the students in the particular locality being
+kept in mind. In the rural schools the programme of studies is somewhat
+general, comprising the German language, arithmetic, mensuration, nature
+study; and in some instances may be added to these, geography, German
+history, drawing, gymnastics and music. This programme is elective to
+the extent that the capacity and previous education of the pupil are
+considered, and too, the ability of the teacher, local conditions and
+the time spent by the individual student. Such schools are admonished
+not to take on the character of technical institutions, but rather to
+continue the general education begun in the Volksschulen. Only under
+certain conditions is less than four hours per week of instruction
+permissible.
+
+In Prussia the city continuation schools are of two grades, each grade
+made up of a number of classes. In the lower grade schools, instruction
+is given in accordance with the particular trade or calling the pupil is
+to follow. In the upper grade, work is much the same, proficiency being
+the chief additional feature. When six hours of work is the minimum,
+language, arithmetic, elementary geometry and drawing, form the body of
+the course; while penmanship, geography, history, grammar and nature
+study all are taken up in connection with the reading work. Business
+forms are not overlooked. In the more fully equipped schools where the
+teachers are prepared for such branches, higher mathematics, mechanics,
+physics and advanced drawing are taken up.
+
+If, as before stated, the various types of continuation schools overlap,
+the same is true regarding the trade and industrial continuation
+schools. While in many instances the work in the latter schools is of a
+general character, aiming to supplement or round out the education of
+the pupil, we find that many of the original schools of this class have
+developed into a form of special or trade school. This is brought about
+through pressure from without, as it were. When a certain industry
+predominates in a locality supporting a continuation school, it is only
+fair to suppose that the work done, general though it may be, will be
+colored to some extent at least, by the demands of such industry. If
+this process of merging is carried sufficiently far, as is in many cases
+done, the school may lose almost or entirely its original trend, and
+from a Fortbildungsschule, fall into the class of trade or Fachschulen.
+
+In the main then, the instruction given in a continuation school proper,
+is either of a theoretical nature or involves some form of drawing
+perhaps, thus rendering any other than an ordinary school room
+unnecessary for class use. In the city of Leipzig the situation is
+dissimilar to that in some north German cities. Here the classes are
+arranged according to the various trades followed, as bookbinders,
+printers, lithographers, bakers, metal workers, workers in wood and
+stone, etc. There are again in Southern Germany simply schools of
+drawing with special reference to the various trades and industries. In
+addition to these are classes of a general nature for boys not following
+special trades. Such schools however, cannot be found in the smaller
+towns or in the country. Certain other Saxon cities have schools of
+somewhat similar character.
+
+In the Consular Report, Vol. 54, No. 202, page 447, 1898, Mr. J.�C.
+Monoghan says, writing under the title Technical Education in Germany:
+
+"The supplementary schools are for the people who have to work, what
+Chautauquas, summer schools, and university extension courses are for
+others.--Parties in politico-economic circles have found that the system
+of common school education under which boys and girls were given an
+ordinary education in reading, writing, arithmetic etc., up to their
+fourteenth year, was inadequate, partially if not wholly, to the ends
+aimed at in such a system. To supply this defect it was urged, and
+finally proposed and favorably acted upon, that graduates of the common
+schools, boys especially, in some few cases girls too, should continue
+to get instruction a certain number of hours a week. This was made
+compulsory. Manufacturers, shopkeepers, and mechanics in whose employ
+such boys were found, and not the parents, were made responsible for the
+boys' attendance. In these schools, as indicated in the foregoing, the
+boys get as good an idea as possible of the trade or branch of business
+in which they are employed. As a rule, the hours of attendance are early
+in the morning or a certain number of afternoons in the week. Sunday
+mornings are not thought too sacred for such work. It seems to be an
+acknowledgement that the years hitherto given to a boy in which to get
+an education, viz., from his sixth to his fourteenth year, are not
+enough to prepare him for the struggle for life that he has to enter
+upon. Men have told me, successful merchants and agents here, that they
+owe more to the hours spent in the developing or supplementary schools
+from the practical character of the instruction given and the
+information imparted, than to the many years spent in the common
+schools. While one is hardly willing to believe this, there can be no
+doubt of the good work done, and being done, by the schools referred
+to."
+
+The Handwerkschulen in Berlin are very similar to Fortbildungsschulen in
+Leipzig for example. These schools have seen a marvelous development
+during the past few years. They have a technical quality, giving much
+attention to drawing. The sessions are in the evening, eight hours per
+week, the fee being six marks the half year. They are attended by
+journeymen and apprentices who come recommended by their employers. In
+connection with these schools various Sunday classes are conducted
+throughout the city, each center specializing along certain trade lines.
+
+The Berlin Handwerker Verein is a type of continuation school, sustained
+not by the state but by an association. The Verein, founded in 1859, has
+for its object the promotion of general culture, a partial knowledge at
+least of the several callings represented, and good manners (gute
+Sitten). The moral and ethical elements are not lacking. Here public
+lectures of real merit are given, together with music, gymnastics, and
+instruction in general and technical subjects. Boys of good character,
+over seventeen years of age, are admitted. The families of the boys in
+attendance are also allowed to avail themselves of such general
+exercises, lectures, music, etc., as the school offers.
+
+What may also be styled as belonging in a sense in the continuation
+school category is the German Association for the Diffusion of Popular
+Education, with headquarters in Berlin. Branches of this association are
+scattered throughout various parts of the Empire.
+
+In the year 1869, the industrial code provided that all boys under
+eighteen years of age might, at the discretion of the local authorities,
+be compelled to attend school. It is thus evident that the local or
+State authority was here consulted, rather than the General Government.
+At the present time however, when the adjustment of this matter is not
+in the hands of local authority, the employer must, if those engaged
+with him desire so to do, allow such boys to attend school at their
+option. In some States however, Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse and Baden,
+compulsory school laws are in force among all boys fourteen to eighteen
+years of age. At present the law of 1891 is active and the portion
+touching our problem is here given:
+
+"Employers are required to give the necessary time, to be determined
+eventually by the competent authorities, to their workingmen under
+eighteen years of age who attend an educational establishment recognized
+by the communal administration or by the State as an adult's school.
+Instruction shall not be given on Sunday except where the hours are so
+fixed that the pupils are not prevented from attending the principal
+religious exercise or a religious exercise of their faith especially
+conducted for them with the consent of the ecclesiastical authorities.
+The central administration may, until October 1, 1894, accord exemptions
+from the last provision to adult schools already in existence,
+attendance upon which is not obligatory.
+
+"For purposes of this law schools giving instruction in manual work and
+domestic duties to women shall be considered as adult schools."
+
+This citation points out that the Sunday class work must not conflict
+with the religious services. There is a strong sentiment in many places
+in favor of a repeal of such laws as prohibit Sunday classes at such
+times as church services are held. Many of the clergy are opposed to the
+extending of Sunday continuation schools, while for the most part the
+government authorities are favorable to such extension.
+
+As regards the compulsory age limit, Prussia of all the German states is
+following out the option given the individual States. It is worthy of
+note that she declares (while declining to accept the law) that where
+freedom is allowed, boys are more likely to continue in school after
+their eighteenth year. It is insisted also that with the restrictions
+removed, a deeper interest is excited in the school studies. The
+statement is made however that in Prussia two thirds of the industrial
+continuation schools have compulsory attendance laws in force as the
+local authorities may determine. Certain it is that much stress is laid
+upon the ethical side of instruction in the continuation schools and it
+is agreed that the compulsory school should not transplant the regular
+continuation school, except where it seems absolutely necessary to do
+so. In Bavaria for example, where the age limit by law is thirteen, the
+compulsory school has a place for the time being at least.
+
+In Berlin, a century ago, Sunday afternoon classes were inaugurated,
+with a programme no more varied than that furnished by the three R's.
+Apprentices not equipped with sufficient school training were forced to
+attend the schools. In 1869 the power was wrested from the trade guilds
+and the elective system resulted, later producing the Elementary
+Continuation School. The local city government founded at a later date
+three such schools, and in these a more diversified curriculum was
+operated, adding to the three R's, German composition and literature,
+modern languages, natural science, political science, law, bookkeeping
+and drawing. For various reasons these schools were not attended by a
+full measure of success and the city authorities formulated the plan of
+placing the continuation schools in some of the higher institutions of
+learning, courses to be operative in winter only. Later, from the
+preparatory school, which fitted for the continuation school proper,
+grew up the technical continuation school.
+
+There are at the present twelve schools of the continuation type in
+Berlin. A large attendance is desired, for with large classes groups of
+various intellectual standards may be formed. The student is free to
+elect subjects--as between certain languages, mathematics or art
+studies. The Director of the school, by keeping in touch with the
+employers in the various trades and shops, can thus control the
+attendance and shape the course of the lines of work offered.
+
+Some ten years since, two special lines of instruction were withdrawn
+from the continuation school proper--the carpenters' school and the
+Gewerbesaal, comprising work in drawing and theory involved in machine
+construction and the like. Courses for turners are offered in the
+carpenters' schools. In Berlin there are in excess of nine centers for
+the last named school and ten centers for the Gewerbesaal, the winter
+classes running up to 2000 and 850 pupils respectively.
+
+This example serves to illustrate the fact mentioned in a previous
+connection, viz., that the Fortbildungsschule was in some cases merged
+into a special school, for here in reality a Fach or trade institution
+has developed from the original continuation school. This practice has
+been going on more or less extensively among the various schools; and in
+Berlin especially, the continuation school has been the foundation of
+most of the Fachschulen. Something more will be said in this connection
+in the section under trade schools.
+
+Regarding the continuation schools for girls and women a word may be
+added. As with the boys' schools, so these designed for girls were put
+on foot, partly at least, from an ethical standpoint. Girls spending
+their days in the factory and shop were in need of a refining influence,
+and this the continuation school afforded. Courses were offered in the
+German language, arithmetic, sewing and dressmaking. The efforts made to
+give girls this training were not entirely successful. So many
+objections to Sunday work were brought forward that it was discontinued.
+The burdens of the day fell so heavily upon the girls that they were not
+ambitious to attend evening classes. At the present time the schools are
+more largely attended by girls who, during the day, remain in the
+family, and in the school take up the household arts, sewing, cutting
+out, and the like, and also languages, mathematics, geography, etc.,
+gymnastics and music, shorthand and typewriting. It is hoped soon to
+introduce cookery in all girls' schools. Drawing is given much
+attention.
+
+There are in Berlin, nine municipal continuation schools for girls,
+which are, as the name indicates, maintained by the city.
+
+
+
+
+                                  III
+
+                           TRADE SCHOOLS[1]
+
+
+As has been indicated in another connection, the classification of trade
+schools as such, is somewhat uncertain. It has been shown that many of
+the present schools for special trades have evolved from the
+continuation schools of the past. In the transition state it is
+sometimes quite difficult to definitely place a certain school, whether
+in the trade continuation, or trade group proper, or to class it with
+the Industrieschulen. The trade continuation schools have largely
+superseded the regular trade schools, in many localities at least, and
+where this condition exists, trade instruction seems to be losing
+ground, here the Fortbildungsschulen on the one hand, and regular
+apprenticeships on the other, coming in to supplant trade teaching.
+
+[Footnote 1: The two previous articles were published in the School
+Bulletin for July and August, 1906.]
+
+The seeming contradictory statements made here must be interpreted in
+the spirit rather than in the letter, if the full meaning and
+significance of the trade school is to be grasped. Trades are taught as
+formerly. The point made is that while the trade school, per se, is
+doing its work, boys are, more and more, being trained for their trades
+in the so-called trades continuation schools and as apprentices in the
+shops. The latter form of training will be spoken of elsewhere in this
+section of the paper.
+
+We have noted in following the work of the continuation school, that the
+attempt has been mainly toward the teaching of theoretical subjects, the
+practical lines being carried forward in the regular daily occupations
+of the individuals. Hence the trade is not held specifically in mind,
+although the desired end is always kept in view. In the trade schools
+on the other hand, the work is largely of a practical nature, dealing
+with some particular occupation. The foregoing statement may be taken as
+fairly representing the Fachschule point of view, but it should be
+observed that while these schools are special trade schools, training
+for example iron workers, or joiners, or tailors, there is a
+differentiation within the general class. I refer to the Gewerbeschulen,
+where theoretical lessons are sometimes taught. These schools will be
+given mention in the secondary group.
+
+Admission to the trade schools is gained usually at fourteen years of
+age, the length of each course covering a period of three years. The
+schools are in receipt of financial aid from both state and local
+governments.
+
+To simplify our study, we shall consider only such institutions as deal
+with a single trade each, leaving the schools for the building trades
+and the like, and those dealing with industrial art and drawing to be
+treated elsewhere. Specialization has been carried so far that the
+following lists of schools, each training for its own particular trade
+or calling, may be given. The list is arranged alphabetically and
+without reference to the relative importance of the various vocations,
+or to the number of schools. Such schools are now found pretty generally
+in the larger cities throughout the Empire. Some of these are day
+schools; some evening schools, and others again offer both day and
+evening courses and Sunday instruction.
+
+
+  SINGLE TRADE SCHOOLS
+
+  Schools for Bakers
+     "     "  Barbers and Hairdressers
+     "     "  Basketmakers, Wickerworkers, and Strawplaiters
+     "     "  Blacksmiths
+     "     "  Bookbinders
+     "     "  Carpenters and Cabinetmakers
+     "     "  Chimney Sweeps
+     "     "  Confectioners
+     "     "  Coopers
+     "     "  Gardeners
+     "     "  Glaziers
+     "     "  Joiners
+     "     "  Marine Machinists
+     "     "  Masons
+     "     "  Painters
+     "     "  Paperhangers and Decorators
+     "     "  Plumbers
+     "     "  Photographers
+     "     "  Potters
+     "     "  Printers
+     "     "  Saddlers, Trimmers and Trunkmakers
+     "     "  Shoemakers
+     "     "  Tailors
+     "     "  Tinsmiths
+     "     "  Toymakers
+     "     "  Upholsterers
+     "     "  Wagonmakers and Wheelwrights
+     "     "  Watch and Clockmakers
+     "     "  Woodcarvers
+
+Some of the above named institutions are in certain localities styled
+apprenticeship schools. These train workmen and foremen of a minor
+degree. Shop work is offered, and in some cases pure and applied art as
+well.
+
+The evening work of the so-called Artisans' Schools of Berlin, are
+deserving of special mention. There are two such institutions, called
+respectively school number one and school number two. The first was
+established in 1880; the second in 1892. The aim of these schools is to
+give to tradesmen and apprentices in their leisure hours such a
+knowledge of drawing, the arts and sciences, as will find an application
+in their own lines of work.
+
+The grade of instruction varies from quite elementary work to that for
+advanced students, the latter being obliged to present evidence of
+fitness before entering.
+
+The following courses are offered, the figures indicating the number of
+hours per week devoted to each.
+
+  Arithmetic                                                 2
+  Algebra                                                    2
+  Geometry                                                   2
+  Trigonometry                                               2
+  Analytical geometry and calculus                           1
+  Mathematical problems involving physics and mechanics      2
+  Descriptive geometry                                       4
+  Bookkeeping                                                2
+  Physics                                                    4
+  Mechanics                                                  2
+  Electro-technics                                           4
+  Chemistry                                                  4
+  Chemistry and pharmacy                                     4
+  Free-hand drawing                                        2-4
+  Aquarelle                                                  4
+  Projection                                                 4
+  Ornament                                                   4
+  Trade drawing according to occupation                      4
+  Modeling in wax and clay                                   4
+  Decorative painting                                        4
+
+In addition to the foregoing, school number two offers:
+
+  Chasing                                                    4
+  Practical wrought-iron work                                4
+  Sketching and calculating the elements of machinery        2
+
+The courses continue for two years.
+
+It is interesting to note that whereas certain enactments are in force
+regarding the Sunday sessions of the Fortbildungsschulen, there are no
+such restrictions placed upon the Fachschulen, Sunday morning classes
+being held at the discretion of the school authorities.
+
+Let us refer to our table of single trade schools as given above. The
+statements which follow have in most cases been taken from data relating
+to the schools of Berlin, and may be said to fairly represent the
+general existing conditions throughout the Empire.
+
+In the school for bakers, instruction is given one day weekly for two
+and one half hours. The theoretical work (which in common with all such
+work in the regular trade schools, is related directly to the particular
+trade under discussion) is made up of chemistry and bookkeeping.
+
+In the barbers' and hairdressers' schools, instruction is carried on six
+days each week, four hours daily, the school continuing six months of
+the year, covering the winter period. Each class receives fourteen hours
+instruction per week. While the bakers' school is supported by the
+guild, the barbers' school is jointly maintained by state, city and
+guild. The curriculum includes shaving, hair cutting, and hair dressing,
+wig making, and ladies' hair dressing. A tuition of three marks is
+charged for the term, in the case of apprentices, and six marks for
+journeymen; a charge five times as great is made for ladies' hair
+dressing, and for the surgical lectures, ten marks.
+
+The guild, state and municipality maintain the school for basketmakers
+and wickerworkers. Apprentices receive instruction free, four marks each
+semester being charged the journeymen and adults. Attendance is
+compulsory on the part of apprentices of guild members. Four hours work
+per week are given, on Saturdays. The annual expenses of the school, are
+about five hundred and fifty dollars. Four courses are offered, as
+follows: first, general basket making and wicker furniture; second,
+making of small wicker furniture; third, large wicker furniture; fourth,
+fine and artistic wicker working.
+
+In the blacksmiths' school the instruction is for two hours, one day
+each week. Theoretical work in horseshoeing, and drawing related to the
+course are taught.
+
+The city and guild support the school for bookbinders. The students are
+both apprentices and journeymen. They work week day evenings and Sunday
+mornings. The purpose is not to produce tradesmen, but rather to make
+more proficient those engaged in some form of bookbinding, and to this
+end applicants must have had experience amounting to two years work
+before entering the school. All students must be grounded in the general
+elements underlying the trade before they are allowed to take up any
+phase as a specialty. No fee is charged the apprentices of guild
+members; others pay five marks per term; journeymen pay nine marks per
+term.
+
+In the cabinetmakers' school, all lines of work pertaining to the trade
+are taken up, drawing and designing for trade purposes; free-hand
+drawing; modeling, carving; properties of woods, etc. Instruction is
+given week day evenings and Sunday forenoons. Four marks are charged
+for the first term in the drawing course and for each subsequent term,
+two marks. The subjects taken up are: chemistry, free-hand drawing,
+projection, trade drawing, perspective and shadows, drawing from cast,
+modeling and wood carving, joinery. The school is under public control.
+
+In most of the remaining trade schools, instruction is pretty generally
+given on week day evenings and Sunday mornings, the apprentices of guild
+members paying no fee, a small charge being made for outsiders. The
+support comes from city, state and guild in most cases. In the school
+for masons however, there is a preparatory course and also a carpenters'
+course, the whole covering a three years term. In this school the
+instruction is thorough, covering plans, drawings and specifications;
+stone, brick, and wood construction; foundations, arches, staircases,
+roofs, and the like. Almost without exception in all these schools the
+winter attendance is greater than that in the summer.
+
+Certain individual schools throughout the Empire deserve special
+mention, the Royal Fachschule of Iserlohn, the first in Prussia, being a
+notable example. Here handwork is combined with industrial art adapted
+to metal work. Boys who entered the trade were, in the early days of the
+school, found to be in need of both theoretical and practical work, so
+each has a place in the curriculum. The length of the course is three
+years, covering the trades of designers, wood carvers, moulders,
+founders, turners, chasers, engravers, gilders, and etchers. Here are
+taught drawing in all its branches; modeling in wax and clay; history of
+art and metal work; elements of chemistry and physics; mathematics;
+German. Practical work in the department in which the student is
+engaged, is given, the student stating on entrance what subject he
+desires to take up. The time of instruction is from eight to twelve, in
+the winter season, and from seven to eleven in the summer. The afternoon
+session is from two to six. In the engineering trade school, three hours
+per day are devoted to ornamental drawing, German, physics and
+arithmetic. As the instruction is planned for working people it is
+largely theoretical.
+
+The Reimscheid school is of the apprenticeship order. Attention is given
+the making of edge tools and such other implements as are manufactured
+in the district. All students take drawing and design as applied to iron
+work. They are made acquainted with the different kinds of iron work
+that can be carried on in the home; are schooled in the use of the tools
+made; learn regarding the markets at which they are sold, and the
+various methods of their manufacture. Thus a general understanding of
+the principles underlying his trade is given the boy and he becomes
+acquainted with the commercial side of his calling while undergoing the
+necessary preparation in manipulation. The theoretical work is given in
+the morning and what shop practice is offered is in the afternoon from
+two to seven. The tuition is twenty dollars per year.
+
+The Pottery Trade School at Hohr Grenzhausen, Prussia, is under State
+control. There are day and evening classes, the former attended for the
+most part by the sons of manufacturers; the evening classes by men and
+women who are employed otherwise during the day. There are Sunday
+classes also. Decorated stoneware is given much attention. The day class
+boys enter with a fairly good knowledge of drawing and have perhaps
+attended the Fortbildungsschule. Drawing, descriptive geometry,
+modeling in clay and wax, new forms of vessels and original
+ornamentation, painting, designing and decorative art, manufacture of
+earthenware, lectures and study of collections, make up the curriculum.
+Any original model made becomes the property of the father of the boy,
+or of the person financially supporting such boy during his attendance
+at school. Two duplicates of the model must be left at the school. The
+courses are three years, daily sessions, Saturdays excepted. The fees
+are nominal, being only five dollars per year for the day classes,
+thirty hours weekly, and one dollar for evening work, two hours weekly.
+Pupils living outside the municipality pay six dollars per year for day
+instruction.
+
+The Furtwangen, or Black Forest schools are made up of several
+divisions, giving rather a high class of instruction. Clock making, wood
+carving, and straw plaiting, are largely carried on.
+
+This paper would not be complete without some mention of the system of
+apprenticeship in vogue in Germany. The Lehrwerkst�tten or apprentice
+shops play a considerable part in the industrial life of the Empire. In
+some instances they are maintained in connection with the trade schools,
+or again, are semi-private or separate shops. The apprenticeship shops
+on the one hand, and the continuation schools upon the other, are doing
+much of the work formerly undertaken by the trade schools proper. While
+manufacturing upon a larger scale is recognized as possessing advantages
+over the smaller productive plants, it has seemed wise to hold to the
+handicrafts, in a measure at least. The apprentice system helps to
+preserve the traditions and sentiments of the German people, by handing
+down these handicrafts. The associations, vereins, and guilds of past
+time, are to-day, through the aid of legislation, coming to the fore,
+and bringing with them many boys trained in the shops under the masters.
+To show the power and scope of the guild, and in some cases it is
+incumbent upon a community to form a guild whether or no, let me give
+the following quotation:
+
+"Persons carrying on trades on their own account can form guilds for the
+advancement of their common trade interests. The object of the guild
+shall be:
+
+1. the cultivation of an esprit de corps and professional pride among
+the members of a trade;
+
+2. the maintenance of amicable relations between employers and their
+employes, and the securing of work for unemployed journeymen and their
+shelter during the period of their nonemployment;
+
+3. the detailed regulations of the conditions of apprenticeship and the
+care for the technical and moral education of apprentices;
+
+4. the adjustment of disputes between guild members and their
+apprentices, as contemplated by the law of July 20, 1890, concerning
+industrial arbitration."
+
+The shops offer about the same lines of work as do the private concerns,
+aiming however to be more systematic and to cover a wider scope. It is
+asserted by some that the instruction gained in the shop is superficial,
+and not to be compared with that obtained from the traveling
+master-workmen. When the shop is connected with some enterprise or
+manufacturing interest, a master-workman has one apprentice only under
+his charge, for which he receives from the state some thirty-five
+dollars yearly, the boy being given board, lodging and proper training.
+The master must have attained the age of twenty-four years, and must
+fulfil certain technical qualifications. The instruction is practical in
+the highest degree and thus follows the lead of the trade schools in
+letter and spirit. The fees are mainly paid in by guild members, and
+those not members even, provided such reside in the district and are
+connected with the trade for which the school stands. Local and state
+aid is furnished. While the period of apprenticeship may extend over
+four years, three years is the usual term.
+
+
+
+
+                                  IV
+
+                           ART TRADE SCHOOLS
+
+
+The various types of institutions taken up under this head are of an
+intermediate grade, standing half way between the trade school on the
+one hand and the higher technical institutions upon the other. Indeed,
+they contain many elements in common with the lower group, their scope
+however being broader and more general or indirect, theoretical work
+finding a place in their curricula. Owing to a similarity in the
+instruction given, several classes of schools seem to demand a hearing
+under this section. We shall begin with the more general trade schools
+omitted from our previous study.
+
+
+                    SCHOOLS FOR THE BUILDING TRADES
+
+                          (Baugewerkschulen)
+
+The schools for the building trades, of which there are a half hundred
+in the Empire, are very similar in character throughout. The Munich
+school, established in 1823, was the first of its kind. Their aim, as
+indicated in the title, is the giving of training in the trades
+connected with the various building operations. The majority of these
+schools offer a course two years in length. The age of admission is
+fourteen to sixteen years. It is a requisite under some boards, that
+applicants have had practical experience in the line to be followed, at
+least two half-years and in some cases two full years, before entrance
+to the school. They must have also a fair general knowledge of their own
+language, and of reading and writing as well. The candidate must be a
+graduate of the Volksschule or must subject himself to an examination.
+The fees in these schools vary from fifty to two hundred marks per year.
+These are day sessions only. The governing power is in some cases vested
+in the municipality, frequently in the State, and again in private
+enterprise.
+
+While those who go out from these schools may, some of them at least,
+follow the trades as regular laborers, others again are qualified as
+master-workmen and leaders in their craft. Construction in wood, stone,
+iron and metals; laws of building; modes of heat, light and ventilation;
+plumbing; interior fittings; these and other occupations are taken up.
+The sessions of most schools extend over the winter months only, the
+students being actively engaged in their several trades during the
+summer season. These schools holding continuous sessions, are sparsely
+attended during the summer. When theoretical work is given, such
+subjects are included as bookkeeping, descriptive geometry, physics and
+mechanics, German, free-hand and mechanical drawing, design, principles
+of architecture. The practical programme comprehends a study of building
+materials and the procuring and working of the same; relative strengths
+and adaptability to purpose; models of construction; ornamentation;
+architecture and design; estimates; chemical properties of materials;
+supports, trusses, arches and the like. In the more advanced
+institutions, algebra, surveying, mechanics, study of machines and
+chemistry may be added to the theoretical list given, while the
+practical studies are more intensive, and of a somewhat higher order.
+Special departments for engineering, (Tiefbauabteilungen) preparing men
+to occupy positions as superintendents, managers of public works,
+construction directors, etc., are sustained in some instances.
+
+Such schools are of an inferior engineering type, and deal with problems
+of advanced work as related to the construction of roads, water works
+and railroads; municipal engineering; bridge construction;
+electro-technics. The theoretical lines are similar to those pursued in
+other courses.
+
+The schools to which we have just referred illustrate well the statement
+made in a previous connection, that the grade of instruction rather than
+the character of the subjects taught, determines the classification of
+schools into groups. Three classes of trade instruction have just been
+mentioned, and might well be styled lower, middle and upper schools for
+trade teaching. Another point of interest lies in the fact, that while
+we have been speaking of theoretical and practical subjects as forming
+the curricula of the schools for the building trades, the distinction
+should rather be drawn on the line of traditional book subjects and
+applied or laboratory practice. Practical work, per se, is not carried
+on in the school. Thus we have a close connection between theory and
+practice; more closely perhaps than is found to exist in other trades.
+
+The following table shows the distribution of building trade schools
+throughout the Empire, the cities in which such schools are located
+being given.
+
+  Anhalt                      Zerbst
+
+  Baden                       Carlsruhe
+
+                              Kaiserslautern
+                              Munich
+  Bavaria                     Nuremburg
+                              Ratisbon
+                              W�rzburg
+
+  Brunswick                   Holzminden
+  Hamburg
+  Hesse
+  L�beck
+
+                              Neustadt
+  Mecklenburg-Schwerin
+                              Sternberg
+
+  Mecklenburg-Strelitz        Strelitz
+
+  Oldenburg                   Varel
+                              Aix-la-Chappelle
+                              Berlin
+                              Breslau
+                              Buxtehude
+                              Cassel
+                              Cologne
+                              Deutsch-Krone
+                              Eckernf�rde
+                              Erfurt
+                              Frankfort-on-the-Oder
+  Prussia                     G�rlitz
+                              Hildesheim
+                              H�xter
+                              Idstein
+                              Kattowitz
+                              K�nigsberg
+                              Magdeburg
+                              M�nster
+                              Nienburg
+                              Posen
+                              Stettin
+
+  Reuss-Schleitz              Gera
+
+  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha           Coburg
+
+                              Weimar
+  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
+                              Stadt-Sulza
+
+                              Chemnitz
+                              Dresden
+                              Grossenhain
+  Saxony                      Leipzig
+                              Oschatz
+                              Plauen
+                              Rosswein
+                              Zittau
+
+  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen   Arnstadt
+
+  Wurttemberg                 Stuttgart
+
+
+                          SCHOOLS FOR FOREMEN
+
+                         (Werkmeisterschulen)
+
+The Werkmeisterschulen or schools for foremen, are quite prominent in
+the scheme of secondary instruction. The courses given in these schools
+are of a general character, for the most part practical, and the
+institution, as the name implies, fits men to occupy positions as
+foremen and overseers. Machine construction is the chief industry for
+which these schools train. The first school of this character was opened
+in 1855 at Chemnitz, Saxony. There are at present twenty-one schools of
+this class in the Empire. Sixteen is the regular age of admission.
+Candidates must have an elementary education on presenting themselves.
+Two years is the average length of course, including both winter and
+summer terms. A requisite for admission also is practical experience in
+the trade, hence little other than theoretical instruction is given.
+
+To the objection made by some, to extending the course over two years of
+residence and of including the elementary branches in the curriculum
+(such opposition favoring a reduction in time given to preparation) the
+answer comes that the school should give a well grounded education, such
+as will fit the participant for all the functions of his social and
+industrial life. Fifty to sixty marks is charged yearly for tuition
+fees. Certain of these schools have both evening and Sunday classes, the
+tuition being twenty marks yearly for week day evenings, eight to nine
+forty-five, and Sundays, eight to ten in the forenoon.
+
+Table showing location of schools for foremen:
+
+  Anhalt              Dessau
+  Baden               Mannheim
+  Bavaria             Four Mechanische Fachschulen
+
+  Hamburg
+                      Altona
+                      Cologne
+                      Dortmund
+                      Duisburg
+                      Elberfeld-Barmen
+
+  Prussia             Gleiwitz
+                      Gorlitz
+                      Hanover
+                      Magdeburg
+                      Iserlohn
+                      Reimscheid
+
+                      Chemnitz
+  Saxony              Mittweida
+                      Leipzig
+
+The following data were compiled from tables appearing in the Report of
+the Commissioner of Labor of the United States, for 1902. The hours per
+week allowed each subject taught in the schools of machinery
+construction, at Duisburg and Dortmund, Prussia, are given.
+
+                             |         DUISBURG        ||         DORTMUND
+                             +------------+------------++------------+------------
+                             | FIRST YEAR | SECOND YEAR|| FIRST YEAR |SECOND YEAR
+                             +-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------
+                             |First|Second|First|Second||First|Second|First|Second
+                             |Half |Half  |Half |Half  ||Half |Half  |Half |Half
+-----------------------------+-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------
+German language and law      |   4 |   4  |   2 |   2  ||   5 |   3  |   2 |  --
+Arithmetic                   |   4 |   1  |  -- |  --  ||   5 |   2  |  -- |  --
+Bookkeeping                  |  -- |  --  |  -- |   2  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |   3
+Descriptive Geometry         |  -- |   3  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |  --
+Mathematics                  |   8 |   6  |   4 |   2  ||   7 |   6  |   5 |   2
+Experimental Physics         |  -- |  --  |  -- |  --  ||   4 |   2  |  -- |  --
+Physics and Electricity      |   4 |   3  |   2 |   2  ||  -- |   4  |   3 |   3
+Experimental Chemistry       |   2 |  --  |  -- |  --  ||   2 |  --  |  -- |  --
+Penmanship                   |   2 |  --  |  -- |  --  ||   1 |  --  |  -- |  --
+Drawing                      |  12 |  --  |  -- |  --  ||  17 |  --  |  -- |  --
+Machine Drawing              |  -- |   6  |   8 |   8  ||  -- |  10  |   8 |  14
+Projection                   |  -- |  --  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |   2  |  -- |  --
+Mechanics                    |  -- |   4  |   4 |   4  ||  -- |   5  |   5 |   2
+Technology of mechanics,     |     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    smelting and refining    |  -- |  --  |   6 |   4  ||  -- |   2  |   6 |   4
+Theory of machines           |  -- |   6  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |   6  |  -- |  --
+Steam boilers and hoist      |     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    machines                 |  -- |  --  |   6 |  --  ||  -- |  --  |   7 |  --
+Steam engines and hydraulics |     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    and small motors         |  -- |  --  |  -- |   6  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |   8
+Heating                      |  -- |   3  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |  --
+Theory of building           |     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    construction             |  -- |  --  |   4 |  --  ||  -- |  --  |   2 |   2
+Practice in the work shop for|     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    machinery construction   |  -- |  --  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |  --  |   4 |   4
+Estimated wages              |  -- |  --  |  -- |   6  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |  --
+First aid to the injured     |  -- |  --  |   1 |  --  ||  -- |   1  |  -- |  --
+                             +-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------
+        Total                |  36 |  36  |  37 |  36  ||  41 |  43  |  42 |  42
+
+The following table showing the occupations of one time students at
+three of the Prussian schools was compiled in April, 1898. This table
+may be found on page 883 of the Seventeenth Annual Report of the
+Commissioner of Labor of the United States.
+
+Columns:
+
+A Duisburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1883 to April 10, 1898
+B Dortmund: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1892 to April 10, 1898
+C Magdeburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1893 to April 10, 1898
+
+-------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+
+           OCCUPATION                      |  A  |  B  |  C  |
+-------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+
+Heads of establishments                    |  54 |   1 |   1 |
+Other officers of establishments           | 237 | 107 |  11 |
+Machine builders and foremen               |  39 |  18 |   1 |
+Wage-workers                               |  34 |   9 |     |
+Owners of establishments or shops          |  10 |   3 |     |
+Draftsmen and technical experts in offices |  86 |  55 |  83 |
+Assistant Chemists                         |   3 |     |     |
+Students at other schools                  |  11 |   1 |   2 |
+Other than technical work                  |   4 |   1 |     |
+Military service                           |  16 |  23 |     |
+Deceased                                   |  11 |     |     |
+Unknown                                    |  26 |  21 |   5 |
+                                           | --- | --- | --- |
+    Total                                  | 531 | 239 | 103 |
+-------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+
+
+
+                    SCHOOLS FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES
+
+One of the most interesting groups of trade schools are those for the
+promotion of the textile industry in its various aspects, there existing
+at the present time no less than seventy-nine such institutions. The
+fourfold classification of these schools which follow, seems to be in
+accordance with the spirit of the work attempted.
+
+First; the superior weaving school (H�here Webschulen).
+
+Second; the secondary weaving schools (Webschulen).
+
+Third; the apprentice shops for weaving and knitting
+(Webereilehrwerkst�tten).
+
+Fourth; instruction by traveling or itinerant masters. (Wanderlehrer)
+
+Not only does Germany rank high in the character of her textile schools,
+but instruction is exceedingly wide spread. Then again all lines of the
+industry are taken up, from the most elementary to the most technical
+processes known. It will thus be seen that men are trained for the lower
+as well as for the higher branches of the art. In the highest classes of
+institutions weaving is almost exclusively carried on. The general
+Government assumes the control of these schools notwithstanding that in
+the beginning, many such institutions were put on foot through the
+initiative of associations and guilds. In each of the several classes
+the work is both theoretical and practical. The age of admission is
+usually fourteen years and the course of two years duration.
+
+The Webschulen train, not for specialists as do the schools just
+mentioned, but rather aim to turn out foremen and bosses. The
+apprenticeship shops come more closely in touch with the workmen of
+small means and those using hand machinery, while the Wanderlehrer
+schools are moveable. In the latter instance, the home becomes the
+school when the teacher is present; that is a competent instructor is
+employed to travel from place to place, visiting the small factories or
+home manufacturers, and giving such instruction as he deems wise and
+necessary. Much good work is still done in the rural homes of Germany,
+and through the means mentioned the standards are kept up.
+
+The work of these textile schools is largely specialized, depending upon
+the the location of the school. In some localities wool, in others linen
+or cotton, or again in others silk will be given the chief attention.
+Both theory and practice have a place in the school instruction. Work in
+the various courses includes a study at first hand of the materials
+used, cost of production, relative values, various processes of
+manipulation, chemistry, drawing, designing, painting, lectures on
+fabrics, elements of weaving and machinery used, and original design
+and practical work.
+
+The distribution of textile schools is shown in the following table.
+
+----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----------------------
+                      | Superior Textile
+                      |
+                      |   | Secondary Weaving
+                      |   |
+                      |   |   | Primary Weaving
+                      |   |   |
+                      |   |   |    | Weaving, Knitting and Trimming
+                      |   |   |    |
+                      |   |   |    |    | Spinning, Weaving and Knitting
+      STATE           |   |   |    |    |
+                      |   |   |    |    |   | Spinning and Weaving
+                      |   |   |    |    |   |
+                      |   |   |    |    |   |   | Primary Knitting
+                      |   |   |    |    |   |   |
+----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----------------------
+Alsace-Lorraine       |   |   |    |    |   | 1 |
+Bavaria               |   | 3 |    |    |   |   |
+Hesse                 |   | 1 |    |    |   |   |
+Prussia               | 8 | 8 | 22 |    |   |   |
+Reuss-Greitz          |   | 1 |    |    |   |   |
+Reuss-Schleitz        |   | 1 |    |    |   |   |
+Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach  |   |   |    |    |   |   | 1
+Saxony                |   |   |    | 27 |   |   |
+Wurttemberg           |   |   |    |    | 1 |   |
+----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----------------------
+
+The Prussian superior textile schools are located as follows:
+
+  Aix-la-Chappelle
+  Bremen
+  Berlin
+  Crefeld
+  Cottbus
+  M�lheim-on-Rhine
+  M�nchen-Gladbach
+  Sorau
+
+The Berlin textile schools may be taken as fairly representing the
+higher and more completely equipped institutions of this class. The age
+of admission is sixteen years, a secondary education being necessary to
+entrance. Several courses are offered as follows:
+
+  knitting, one year;
+  weaving, one and one-half years;
+  designing, two years;
+  passementerie making, one year;
+  dyeing, one year;
+  embroidery, one-fourth year.
+
+There are day, evening and Sunday classes. The accompanying table shows
+the subjects taught in each course and the number of hours given to each
+subject, reckoned on the basis of the entire length of course.
+
+---------------------------+--------------------------------------------
+                           | For manufacturers and
+                           |   superintendents, 1� yrs.
+                           |
+                           |    | Designing, 2 yrs.
+                           |    |
+                           |    |    | Knitting, 1 yr.
+                           |    |    |
+       SUBJECTS            |    |    |    | Passementerie making, 1 yr.
+                           |    |    |    |
+                           |    |    |    |    |  Dyeing, 1 yr.
+---------------------------+----+----+----+----+-----------------------
+Theory of weaving          |  4 |  3 |  6 |  6 |  2
+Design transfer            | 13 |  9 |  3 |  8 |
+Materials                  |  1 |  � |  1 |  1 |
+Hand and power looms       |  3 |  2 |    |    |
+Motors                     |  1 |    |    |    |
+Preparing apparatus        |  1 |    |    |    |
+Finishing apparatus        |  1 |    |    |    |
+Practical exercises        |  8 |  6 | 18 | 12 | 33
+Dyeing                     |  2 |    |  2 |  2 |
+Analysis and production of |    |    |    |    |
+  knitting goods           |    |    |  4 |    |
+Chemistry of fibers        |    |    |    |    |  2
+Chemistry and physics      |    |    |    |    |  4
+Drawing                    |  8 | 23 |  2 |  5 |
+Arithmetic and bookkeeping |  2 |    |  3 |  3 |
+Jurisprudence              |  2 |    |  1 |  1 |
+Lecture                    |    |    |  2 |    |
+---------------------------+----+----+----+----+-----------------------
+
+In many instances the weaving schools have in connection with them
+departments for dyeing and finishing. In such cases much attention is
+given to color blending and harmony and to chemistry as well.
+
+
+                            GEWERBESCHULEN
+
+Extended mention will not be made of the Gewerbeschulen, as the point of
+distinction between such schools and the Fachschulen was set forth under
+the last section. They partake of the character of trade schools, but
+are more general in their tendencies. While both theoretical and
+practical work are given, the former is not always applied theory, the
+Gewerbeschulen being based upon, what we in America speak of, as the
+educational side of trade instruction. These schools are attended by
+boys and men fourteen to twenty-four years of age,--individuals
+representing the various trades. The courses cover a period of three
+years. Both State and local moneys go to the support of these schools.
+
+The Gewerbliche Fachschule of Cologne is somewhat distinctive. It
+instructs chiefly the sons of tradesmen and superior artisans. There
+are three departments in the school:
+
+First--that of engineering and architectural drawing.
+
+Second--modeling department.
+
+Third--the department of decoration, housepainting, etc.
+
+The session covers both winter and summer months, the winter term, as in
+other cases, being the better attended. Other typical Gewerbeschulen are
+located at Grenzhausen and at Reimscheid. Applicants for admission must
+have prepared in the Volksschule or elementary school. The programme
+comprises the German language, French, English, literature, plane and
+descriptive geometry, physics, chemistry, drawing, mechanics, machine
+construction. The preparation here obtained fits the participants to
+enter the higher schools, or to act as foremen and masters. These
+schools also lead up to the industrial schools of Bavaria, of which we
+shall now speak.
+
+
+                     INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS OF BAVARIA
+
+                          (Industrieschulen)
+
+The industrial schools of the Bavarian Kingdom stand out as a distinct
+class of educational institutions. Here, since 1872, there has been a
+clean cut system, presided over by a Minister of Education. While the
+quality and character of the work done are quite similar to that taken
+up in the secondary schools elsewhere, the institutions are in some
+respects more exactly defined and supervision and instruction in the
+schools of weaving, woodcarving, basketmaking, pottery, violin making,
+etc., is frequently superior to that in some other locality.
+
+The age of admission is sixteen years, two years being the usual length
+of course; the education of the Real-Schule is a requisite, or failing
+this, an examination must be taken. In 1901-1902 the Munich schools had
+an enrollment of 241 students, distributed as follows: mechanical
+engineering 124; chemical engineering 27; architecture 62; commercial
+28. The graduates are fitted to occupy positions of trust and prominence
+in the various industrial pursuits of the country and to enter the
+technical colleges.
+
+The Industrieschulen of Bavaria are four in number, located at
+
+  Augsburg
+  Kaiserslautern
+  Munich
+  Nuremberg
+
+they having been established in 1868. Advanced courses are offered in
+mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, building construction, and
+commercial education. The school at W�rzburg is of a somewhat superior
+order, although secondary in its tendencies, machinery construction and
+electro-technics being given attention.
+
+In the mechanical engineering course the following subjects are studied:
+
+  elementary mathematics
+  descriptive geometry
+  calculus
+  surveying
+  physics
+  German
+  French
+  English
+  mechanics
+  machine work
+  machine construction
+  mechanical drawing
+  practical work.
+
+In the chemistry course the curriculum is made up of
+
+  mathematics
+  physics
+  chemistry
+  mineralogy
+  German
+  French
+  English
+  machine construction
+  laboratory work.
+
+The building construction course offers language, mechanical drawing
+and architecture.
+
+
+
+
+                                   V
+
+                       HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOLS
+
+                        Technische Hochschulen
+
+
+We have at this point in our study reached the schools of highest rank
+offering training of a technical character, called variously technical
+high schools, technical colleges, or polytechnics, the Technische
+Hochschulen. These schools are not high schools in the sense that the
+term would be applied to our American institutions, but are rather
+schools of collegiate grade, ranking in fact, as the title indicates in
+the university class. While not exactly comparable to our engineering
+schools, they approach more nearly these than they do any other of our
+American educational institutions.
+
+Before the beginning of the century just closed it was apparent to some
+German minds more far seeing than the rest, that schools of a higher
+than secondary rank must be inaugurated to offer training in the
+sciences; give opportunity to show the application of science to the
+arts; and prepare young men to grapple with scientific industrial
+problems such as were constantly springing up. Should the university
+attempt such work? An effort was made looking toward this end. It was at
+once evident that here was not the place to begin. The university was an
+institution in and of itself. Its methods, curriculum and aim were
+fixed, owing to long established customs. It had a certain work to
+perform, its own peculiar function to fulfill, and traditional and
+classical tendency were too strong to be checked in their movement, or
+to allow a branch stream to flow in and thus add to or modify the
+existing content.
+
+The war for industrial supremacy, between England and Germany
+particularly, was a prominent factor leading up to the establishment of
+technical schools in the latter country. Germany saw the necessity for
+heroic action, and her people, anxious to improve from the standpoint of
+her industries at home not only, but that they might rival and surpass
+their neighbors across the "Silver Streak" readily took up the cry for
+advanced scientific training. This then was the object of the Technische
+Hochschulen:[2]
+
+"They were intended to secure for science a foothold in the workshop, to
+assist with the light of reasoned theory the progress of arts and
+industry, till then fettered by many a prejudice and hindered through
+lack of knowledge; on the other hand, they sought to raise that part of
+the nation engaged in industry to such a love of culture as would secure
+to it its due measure of public respect."
+
+[Footnote 2: Note on the earlier History of the Technical High School in
+Germany by A.�E. Twentyman in Special Reports on Educational Subjects,
+London, Vol 9, page 468.]
+
+The dates of the founding of the now existing Technische Hochschulen
+vary somewhat, certain of the schools growing out of a foundation which
+at the beginning was of a low or intermediate grade. Several of the
+schools have passed through a period of transition or reorganization
+state during the course of their existence. The institution, and time of
+establishment of each are as follows.
+
+  Berlin,        1799
+  Carlsruhe,     1825
+  Munich,        1827
+  Dresden,       1828
+  Stuttgart,     1829
+  Brunswick,     1835
+  Darmstadt,     1868
+  Aachen,        1870
+  Hannover,      1879
+
+In 1799 was instituted in Berlin the Bauakademie, a State institution
+whose purpose was set forth in the royal decree thus:
+
+"To train in theoretical and practical knowledge capable surveyors,
+architects, civil engineers, and masons, principally for the King's
+dominions, but foreigners may find admittance if no disadvantage accrue
+thereby to the King's subjects."
+
+Later, in 1821, Gewerbeschule came into existence, and in 1879 the union
+of these two formed the Berlin Technische Hochschule which is located in
+Charlottenburg, a suburb of the city. Owing to the high standards of
+this institution, it is styled the K�nigliche Technische Hochschule.
+Since its reorganization the plans of the other schools of like
+character have been modified in accordance with the Berlin scheme.
+
+The preparation necessary for admission to the Hochschulen is equivalent
+to that demanded by the university proper. The age of admission probably
+never drops below seventeen, the average age being considerably greater.
+Men of mature years and of wide experience and training avail themselves
+to the privileges offered. The courses are from three to four years in
+length.
+
+[3] "The new universities thus developed have the purpose of affording
+higher instruction for the technical positions in state and community
+service, as well as in industrial life, and of cultivating sciences and
+arts which are intimately connected with the field of technology (Berlin
+provisory statute, 1879). They prove themselves equal to universities in
+the following points: they claim for their matriculated students the
+same preparatory education required by the old universities, namely,
+nine years at a classical high school; they grant and insist upon
+perfect freedom in teaching and learning; and are under the direction of
+rectors elected for one year, instead of having principals chosen for
+life as in secondary schools."
+
+[Footnote 3: Report of the United States Commissioner of Education,
+1897-1898, page 70.]
+
+It may be said here that an exception to the rule of the annual election
+of the administrative officers, is furnished in the example of the
+Munich school, which retains a permanent Director as the custom
+prevailed in times past.
+
+Unless otherwise qualified, students must have prepared in the
+Industrieschule, the Gymnasium, the Real-Gymnasium or in the trade or
+building schools. In lieu of this an examination is demanded.
+Twenty-four is the minimum age of graduation.
+
+In tracing the development of these schools from unpretentious
+beginnings to their present high standards of excellence, we see that
+more and more they have become unified in purpose and similar in
+curricula. In the early days too, the qualifications for admission,
+their dynamic government, and educational standards were lower and more
+diversified than we find them to-day. Sustained by the State and each
+administered by its board or council, they are doing a work which cannot
+be excelled by the universities themselves.
+
+The organization of departments of work offered is approximately the
+same in all schools. In Berlin there are six departments:
+
+  first, general school of applied science;
+  second, general construction engineering;
+  third, machine construction;
+  fourth, naval engineering;
+  fifth, chemistry and mining engineering;
+  sixth, architecture.
+
+Special attention is given certain subjects in one or another of these
+schools; civil or mechanical engineering, building construction,
+industrial chemistry, etc. An agricultural department is maintained at
+Munich, and a forestry department at Carlsruhe. That a knowledge of the
+application of electricity is considered essential in our modern methods
+is shown in the fact that all students in departments of machine
+construction engage in the study of electro-technics.
+
+The courses of study are to-day upon more of an elective basis than
+formerly although even now the results of the work of Nebenius are
+clearly seen. The success of the Hochschulen is due to the efforts of
+Nebenius more than to any other one man. His ideas were worked out at
+Carlsruhe and in greater or lesser degree incorporated into all the
+schools. It was insisted by him that a proper foundation must be laid
+before any successful special technical training can be had. Preliminary
+work must be mastered and a natural sequence of studies followed. To
+this end a fixed graduated course is recommended, the student to be
+promoted as ability may determine. The one course plan however has been
+substituted for the several.[4]
+
+[Footnote 4: "Programm der K�nigl. Technischen Hochschule zu Hannover,
+1901-1902, page 90. Den H�rern bleibt die Wahl der Lehrf�cher frei
+�berlassen, f�r ein geordnetes Studium empfiehlt sich aber die Beachtung
+der folgenden Studien und Stundenpl�ne."]
+
+The following table compiled from various sources will give some idea of
+the extent of the work as carried on in Berlin. The school has a library
+of 54,000 volumes; a student body of upwards of 4,500 and a modern
+equipment throughout.
+
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Departments  | No.     | SUBJECTS                              |No. of
+             | of      |                                       |Professors
+             | courses |                                       |and
+             |         |                                       |Instructors
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+General      | 58      | Mechanics, Physics and general        | 33
+Science      |         | science studies; literature,          |
+             |         | French, English, Italian, law,        |
+             |         | political science.                    |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Civil        | 34      | Mechanics, railway construction,      | 13
+Engineering  |         | bridges, canals, harbors, hydraulics, |
+             |         | drainage, land surveying.             |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Mechanical   | 54      | Kinematics, machine construction,     | 23
+Engineering  |         | mechanical technology,                |
+             |         | machine design, water, steam          |
+             |         | and electrical machines,              |
+             |         | electro-technics, electro-mechanics,  |
+             |         | electrical and railway                |
+             |         | works.                                |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Naval        |  19     | Theory of ship building,              |  6
+Engineering  |         | classification of ships, designing of |
+             |         | warships, boilers, machine            |
+             |         | construction, practical               |
+             |         | ship building.                        |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Chemistry    |  51     | Organic and inorganic chemistry       | 27
+and          |         | including physical, electro and       |
+Metallurgy   |         | technological chemistry,              |
+             |         | crystallography, metallurgy, foundry  |
+             |         | work, cements, botany,                |
+             |         | chemistry of plants and foods.        |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Architecture | 65      | History of art, architecture and      | 36
+             |         | ornament; building construction,      |
+             |         | designing of buildings                |
+             |         | in different materials and for        |
+             |         | various purposes, preparation         |
+             |         | of estimates, etc.                    |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+
+The rivalry existing among the various schools is in some respects a
+point to be commended. Then, too, the idea taking form in the
+Hochschulen and being more fully appreciated by the educationalists of
+our own country, that each school should specialize along some
+particular line, is worthy of attention. Energy is saved thereby, and
+students may have the advantage of increased facilities in equipment and
+instruction. Many Americans are studying in these schools, possibly more
+in Munich than elsewhere. While thorough in their treatment of subjects,
+the practical side of the work is too much lost sight of in the
+theoretical treatment. Testing and applied work are certainly given
+considerable attention however. To quote Dean Victor C. Alderson of the
+Armour Institute, Chicago, who says in reference to testing:
+
+    "Professors regard this work as professional practice, just as
+    doctors, who are professors in medical schools, have an outside
+    practice. The technical school allows the professors free use of
+    the laboratories, but assumes no responsibility for the accuracy
+    of the results or opinions expressed."
+
+The degree of Doctor of Engineering is conferred by these institutions,
+and that their work has been highly instrumental in developing the
+country cannot be doubted, especially in the line of applied chemistry
+in which branch of engineering Germany leads the nations. How closely
+the development of the industries of Germany are related to the work of
+the Technische Hochschulen it is difficult to say, but that these
+schools have shown through the accomplishments of their graduates that
+high standards of moral and intellectual training can be had in other
+than the traditional universities, and that as efficient social service
+can be rendered through the application of science to the arts and
+industries as by means of the languages, cannot be doubted.
+
+
+
+
+                                  VI
+
+            SCHOOLS OF INDUSTRIAL ART OR ART TRADE SCHOOLS
+
+
+The Kunstgewerbeschulen are schools of art. The causes leading to their
+inception are clearly set forth in a paragraph contained in the 1902
+Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor. It reads:
+
+"The international museums of 1851, 1855 and 1862, in England, Austria
+and Germany, respectively called attention to the fact that with all
+their technical excellence the industrial products of Germany possessed
+few qualities of artistic finish and design. France showed what could be
+done in this direction. Her products easily held first rank in this
+respect, her eminence being the result of centuries of training in this
+field. Since Colbert's time industrial art education has been emphasized
+in the training of French workmen, and the accumulated skill and taste
+due to this training, has left its impress on French products. The
+German states at once set about to remedy this weakness in this respect,
+and since that time have so persistently established museums and schools
+for industrial art training that now there is no important city in the
+Empire which does not possess one or more of these institutions".
+
+Considerable variety exists among the various types of art schools and
+even among those belonging in the same class and separated as to
+location we find differences. In Leipzig, Saxony, for example the
+Kunstgewerbeschule aims at the graphic arts mainly. In Berlin, Dresden,
+Carlsruhe, and certain other cities these schools train for sculptors
+and painters, and the term "Akademie" is frequently applied to these
+institutions. They are in fact, art trade schools whose main purpose,
+while yet industrial, is also the instilling of an artistic feeling into
+industrial work. They reach on and out from the trade school and up to
+the institutions for the teaching of the fine arts. They are then a
+middle grade of applied art schools.
+
+The genesis of the industrial art schools really lies in the
+establishment of museums of industrial art. The museums were an
+inspiring and energizing force, for here the best work could be
+exhibited and studied. The municipality and general government financed
+the movement for the museums. Schools sprang up in connection with the
+museums and later, independent art schools were established.
+
+A moderate fee is charged those who pursue work here, twenty to forty
+marks yearly. Candidates must have had practical experience in the line
+of work they propose to take up, and both these schools and the
+so-called industrial drawing courses assume a certain proficiency on the
+part of the candidates; a proficiency in general subjects and in
+drawing particularly. An examination is given those who cannot present
+the desired credentials. The length of the courses in these schools is
+usually three years. The classes are both day and evening, 8 A.�M. to 4
+P.�M. and from 5 to 10 P.�M. In some instances Sunday sessions are held
+also.
+
+The courses consist of architectural designing in wood and metal, metal
+engraving and chasing, modeling, steel engraving and etching, design for
+fabrics, pattern designing, artistic embroidery, decorative painting,
+enamel painting, designing and painting figures and plants. The work
+throughout is both theoretical and practical in its nature, the
+instruction gained in the class being applied in the shop. The subjects
+of instruction and time devoted to each differ according to the course
+pursued. As an example of the programme offered, the following, taken
+from the architectural draftsman's course in the Munich school is given;
+the figures show the number of hours per week devoted to each subject.
+
+  First year,
+    linear drawing                                 7
+    ornament drawing                               9
+    modelling of ornament and of the human
+      figure                                      21
+    history of art                                 1
+    style                                          1
+    geometry and projections                       3
+
+  Second year,
+    architectural drawing                          7
+    drawing and modeling of the human
+      figure and modeling of ornaments            20
+    history of art                                 1
+    style                                          1
+    perspective and shadows                        2
+    anatomy, xylography, architecture,
+      sculpture, or chasing                       10
+
+  Third year,
+    architectural drawing                          7
+    drawing and modeling of the human figure
+      and modeling of ornaments                   10
+    anatomy                                        1
+    xylography, architecture, sculpture or
+      chasing                                     24
+
+The Bauschule are only for those who wish proficiency in architectural
+studies.
+
+What the Industrial Hall at Carlsruhe, the Industrial Art Museum at
+Berlin, and the National Museum at Munich are to the art schools proper,
+the open drawing halls are to the industrial drawing courses. Here, as
+in the museums, are kept models and designs of rare merit and students
+may pursue work under competent instruction. Such halls are established
+in Bavaria, Hesse, Prussia, Saxony and Wurttemberg.
+
+In these art courses skill and originality are aimed at equally. The
+relation existing between the art work and the trade or industry with
+which it is connected is such as to make more valuable the latter.
+
+It is needless to speak further of the museums. The art products there
+exhibited give much incentive to students, as well as a feeling for the
+best from the standpoint of the beautiful and artistic, and all who
+visit them are consciously or unconsciously influenced for the better.
+
+The following table shows the distribution of industrial art schools
+throughout the various States.
+
+  _Alsace-Lorraine_, M�lhausen, Strasburg.
+  _Anhalt_, Dessau.
+  _Baden_, Carlsruhe, Pforzheim.
+  _Bremen_,
+  _Bavaria_, Kaiserslautern, Munich, Nuremberg.
+  _Hamburg_,
+  _Hesse_, Mentz, Offenbach.
+  _Prussia_, Aix-la-Chappelle, Barmen, Berlin, Breslau, Cassel,
+    Cologne, D�sseldorf, Elberfeld, Frankfort-on the-Main, Hanau,
+    Hanover, Iserlohn, K�nigsberg, Magdeburg.
+  _Saxony_, Dresden, Leipzig, Plauen.
+  _Wurttemberg_, Stuttgart.
+
+
+
+
+                                  VII
+
+                             BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+Beobachtungen und Vergleiche �ber Einrichtungen f�r Gewerbliche
+Erziehung, 1901.--Dr. G. Kerschensteiner.
+
+Das Gewerbeschulwesen.--Carl Melchior.
+
+Denkschriften �ber die Entwickelung der Gewerblichen Fachschulen und der
+Fortbildungsschulen in Preussen.--L�ders.
+
+Encyklop�disches Handbuch der P�dagogik.--W. Rein.
+
+English Technical Instruction Commission, 1896. Report on the Recent
+Progress of Technical Education in Germany.
+
+Fortbildungsschule in unserer Zeit.--J.�B. Meyer.
+
+German Higher Schools.--James E. Russell.
+
+German Technical Schools, 1901.--Victor C. Alderson.
+
+Gewerbliche Fortbildungsschulen Deutschlands.--R. Nagel.
+
+Handw�rterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 1900.--Conrad.
+
+H�herer Polytechnischer Unterricht in Deutschland, etc.--Carl Koristka.
+
+Industrial Education.--Philip Magnus.
+
+Jahresbericht der K�niglichen Industrieschule und Baugewerkschule zu
+M�nchen, 1898-1899.
+
+Jahresbericht der Technischen Staatslehranstalten zu Chemnitz, 1890.
+
+Jahresbericht �ber die Berliner Fortbildungsschule, 1890-1891.
+
+Kunstgewerbe als Beruf, 1901.
+
+Note on the Earlier History of the Technical High Schools in
+Germany.--A.�E. Twentyman.
+
+Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, 1902, Vol. 9, page 465.
+
+Paches' Handbook, 1899.
+
+Problems in Prussian Secondary Education for Boys.--Michael E. Sadler.
+
+Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, 1898, Vol. 3.
+
+Programm der K�niglichen Fachschule zu Iserlohn Metal Industrie.
+
+Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1889-1890, page
+1209-1212.
+
+Same, 1894-1895, Vol. 1, page 345-380.
+
+Supplementary and Industrial Schools in Germany.
+
+Same, 1895-1896, Vol. 1, page 138.
+
+Same, 1897-1898, Vol. 1, page 69. German Technical Colleges.
+
+Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor, 1892, Eighth Annual.
+
+Industrial Education in Germany.
+
+Same, 1902, Seventeenth Annual.
+
+Trade and Technical Education in Germany, page 871.
+
+Second Report of the Royal Commission on Technical Education, London,
+1884, Vol. 1.
+
+The Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry, 1902.--Fabian Ware.
+
+The Continuation Schools in Berlin.--Dr. H. Bertram.
+
+Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, 1902, Vol. 9, page 451.
+
+United States Consular Reports. Description of the School of Carpentry
+and Cabinetmaking in Magdeburg, Prussia, No. 238, July, 1900.--Wm.
+Diederich.
+
+Same. School of Marine Machinists, Flensburg, Prussia. No. 174, March,
+1895.
+
+Same. Technical and Merchant Schools 56:208, page 78.--J.�C. Monoghan.
+
+Same. Technical Education in Germany. 54:202, page 447.--J.�C. Monoghan.
+
+
+
+
+                           PUBLISHER'S NOTE
+
+
+This book was published under some disadvantages, as it was delayed by
+the removal of our office to a larger place of business, and by a
+printers' strike, which resulted in four changes in foremen. This,
+together with the fact that the author was upon the Pacific coast and
+proof was delayed and sometimes lost has led to errors for which he is
+not responsible. Besides typographical blunders easily recognized the
+following are noted:
+
+Page 13, next line to last for _Air_ read _Art_.
+
+     19, 5th line, for _enable_ read _ennoble_.
+
+     23, 4th line from below, for _committee_ read _communities_.
+
+     25, 5th line, for _development_ read _deportment_.
+
+     63, 7th line, for _models_ read _modes_.
+
+     72, next to last line, the 1 should be in _second_ half of first
+         year, making the totals 41 and 43 instead of 42 and 42.
+
+     79, in table, Knitting should have _1�yr._ instead of _2�yrs._, and
+         the line beginning _Machinery_ is to be omitted.
+
+     81, 4th line from below, insert _to_ before _enter_.
+
+     93, last part of paragraph, read "The one course plan however has
+         been substituted for the several."
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note: The table below lists all corrections applied to the
+original text.
+
+p. viii: for _development_ read _department_ -> _deportment_
+p. 007: make any one clasification -> classification
+p. 010: Conrad's Handworterbuch -> Handw�rterbuch
+p. 011: Wurtemburg industrial -> Wurttemburg
+p. 012: other conditions (examinations) or these schools -> of
+p. 012: Ages ranges from fourteen to thirty -> range
+p. 012: the only instition -> institution
+p. 013: [errata] Pure Air -> Art
+p. 014: Technischeschulen -> Technische Schulen
+p. 016: Continuation Schools or Fortbilbungsschulen -> Fortbildungsschulen
+p. 016: Fortbildtngsshulen -> Fortbildungsschulen
+p. 017: [extra comma] at this age, forced to -> age forced
+p. 017: a statsment made by Mr. Michael N. Sadler-> statement
+p. 018: [quote added] "Among the great number
+p. 019: [errata] in the arts which enable -> ennoble
+p. 019: born under a luckler star -> luckier
+p. 020: continuation of Fortbildungsschulen -> or
+p. 023: adapt their instrnction -> instruction
+p. 023: [errata] Here the committee must meet -> communities
+p. 025: [errata] character and development of the boys -> deportment
+p. 027: higher mathemematics, mechanics, physics -> mathematics
+p. 028: is carried suffciently far -> sufficiently
+p. 028: classes are arranged acording to -> according
+p. 029: smaller towns or in the conntry -> country
+p. 029: university extention courses -> extension
+p. 031: similar to Fortbildungsschulen in Leipsig -> Leipzig
+p. 031: schools have seen a marvelous developement -> development
+p. 032: attended by journeyman and apprentices -> journeymen
+p. 032: good manners (gute sitten) -> Sitten
+p. 033: [normalized] throughout various parts of the empire -> Empire
+p. 033: [extra comma] under eighteen years of age, might -> age might
+p. 033: [extra comma] the employer, must -> employer must
+p. 033: Baden. compulsory school laws -> Baden, compulsory
+p. 034: to be determined eventually be -> by
+p. 035: worthy of note that she delares -> declares
+p. 039: that the Forthildungsschule -> Fortbildungsschule
+p. 039: foundation of most of the Faceschulen -> Fachschulen
+p. 046: Wagonmakers and Wheelrights -> Wheelwrights
+p. 047: Free hand drawing -> Free-hand
+p. 056: becomes the property ot the father -> of
+p. 057: The Lehrwerkstatten or apprentice shops -> Lehrwerkst�tten
+p. 059: fulfil certain teohnical qualifications -> technical
+p. 059: practical iu the highest degree -> in
+p. 062: [missing letter] The governing power is in ome cases -> some
+p. 063: [errata] laws of building; models of heat -> modes
+p. 067: Buxtehede -> Buxtehude
+p. 067: Magdeberg -> Magdeburg
+p. 068: Orchatz -> Oschatz
+p. 068: Zitteau -> Zittau
+p. 069: [normalized] schools of this class in the empire -> Empire
+p. 070: the elementary ranches in the curriculm -> curriculum
+p. 071: Inserlohn -> Iserlohn
+p. 071: Mlttweida -> Mittweida
+p. 071: compiled from tables appearing the Report -> appearing in the
+p. 074: [missing letters] Webereilehrwerkst� en -> Webereilehrwerkst�tten
+p. 074: itinerant masters. (Wenderlehrer) -> Wanderlehrer
+p. 074: lines of the indnstry -> industry
+p. 075: In each of the several classses -> classes
+p. 077: Grefeld -> Crefeld
+p. 079: [errata] Knitting, 2 yrs. -> Knitting, 1yr.
+p. 079: [errata, removed line] Machinery  |   |   | 3 | 6 | 2
+p. 081: superior artizans -> artisans
+p. 081: prepared in the Volkschule -> Volksschule
+p. 081: [errata] the participants enter -> participants to enter
+p. 085: [added chapter number] V
+p. 086: show the aplication of science -> application
+p. 087: in the atter country -> latter
+p. 087: the necessity or heroic action -> for heroic
+p. 087: due measure of public respsct -> respect
+p. 087: by A.�E. Twentymen -> by A.�E. Twentyman
+p. 088: Dresden, 1826 -> 1828
+p. 088: principally for the Kiugs dominions -> King's
+p. 089: styled the Koeniglische Technische Hochschule -> K�nigliche
+p. 090: Berlin provisory statue -> statute
+p. 091: State and and each administered -> State and each
+p. 092: The organization of deparments of work -> departments
+p. 093: [errata] For the one course plan however -> The one
+p. 093: [errata] have been substituted -> has
+p. 093: [errata] substituted the several -> substituted for the
+p. 093: Program der K�nigl. Technischen Hochschule -> Programm
+p. 093: Den Horern bleibt die Wahl -> H�rern
+p. 093: frei �berlassen, F�r ein geordnetes -> �berlassen, f�r
+p. 098: Kunstgewerbsechulen are schools of art -> Kunstgewerbeschulen
+p. 104: Alcace-Lorraine, M�lhausen, Strasburg -> Alsace
+p. 104: Prussia, Aix-la Chapelle -> Aix-la-Chappelle
+p. 105: Enrichtungen f�r -> Einrichtungen
+p. 105: Gewerbliche Erzichnung -> Erziehung
+p. 105: Dr. G. Kerschenteuer -> Kerschensteiner
+p. 105: Denkschriften �ber die Entiwickelung -> Entwickelung
+p. 105: Fortbildungschulen in Prussen -> Fortbildungsschulen in Preussen
+p. 105: Encyklop�discher Handbuch -> Encyklop�disches
+p. 105: Handbuch der P�dogik -> P�dagogik
+p. 105: in unserer zeit -> Zeit
+p. 105: [removed in] Fortbildungsschulen in Deutschlands
+p. 106: [removed comma] Jahresbericht der K�niglichen, Industrieschule
+p. 106: Technischen Stattslehranstalten -> Staatslehranstalten
+p. 107: Program der K�niglichen Fachschule -> Programm
+p. 108: School of Marine Machinists, Fleusburg, Prussia -> Flensburg
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Condition and Tendencies of
+Technical Education in Germany, by Arthur Henry Chamberlain
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Condition and Tendencies of Technical
+Education in Germany, by Arthur Henry Chamberlain
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Condition and Tendencies of Technical Education in Germany
+
+Author: Arthur Henry Chamberlain
+
+Release Date: September 12, 2008 [EBook #26595]
+
+Language: English
+
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY ***
+
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+</pre>
+
+
+<h1><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span>
+<small>THE CONDITION AND TENDENCIES</small><br />
+
+<span style="font-size: small">OF</span><br />
+
+Technical Education in Germany</h1>
+
+<p class="by">BY</p>
+
+<p class="author">ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN</p>
+
+<p class="titles">Professor of Education and Principal of the Normal School<br />
+of Manual Training, Art, and Domestic Economy,<br />
+Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, California:<br />
+Author of &#8220;Educative Hand-Work Manuals&#8221;<br />
+and &#8220;A Bibliography of Manual Arts&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;">
+<img src="images/logo.jpg" width="100" height="99" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="publisher"><small>SYRACUSE, N.&nbsp;Y.</small><br />
+C.&nbsp;W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER<br />
+<small>1908</small></p>
+
+<p class="copyright">Copyright, 1908, by <span class="smcap">C.&nbsp;W. Bardeen</span></p>
+
+<!-- <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span>[Blank Page]</p> -->
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+
+<p>The question of the technical phases of
+education is, with any nation, a vital one.
+Perhaps this is true of Germany as it is of
+no other European country. This may be
+mainly due to one of several causes. First,
+as to the length of time technical education
+has had a place in the German schools. In
+some form or another, and in a greater or
+lesser degree, such instruction has been in
+vogue for many years, and has in no small
+measure become part and parcel of the
+educational fabric of the nation. Again,
+throughout the various German States, the
+work is rather widely differentiated, this
+owing in part to the fact that the varying
+lines of industry in adjacent localities even,
+give color and bent to the technical education
+of any particular locality. An extensive
+field is thus comprehended under the
+term &#8220;technical education&#8221;. Then, too,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>Germany as a nation must needs better her
+condition in order that she may prove self-sustaining.
+The country is not a wealthy
+one, and if in trade, in manufacture, and in
+commerce, she is to compete, and that successfully,
+with the world powers, strength
+must be gained along such lines as those
+opening through technical education.</p>
+
+<p>The hope is entertained that the following
+pages may prove of value, not alone to the
+student of technical education as it exists in
+Germany, but particularly to those who are
+endeavoring to institute and develop industrial
+and technical training in this country.
+The possibility along these lines is exceedingly
+great and the interest and attention of
+thinking people is focused here. They look
+to this form of education as a partial solution
+of some of the most obstinate problems
+now confronting us.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table class="toc" summary="contents">
+<tr><th></th><th></th><th class="onpage"><span class="smcap">Page</span></th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a></span></td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CONTENTS">Contents</a></span></td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#PUBLISHERS_NOTE">Publisher&#8217;s Note</a></span></td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_viii">viii</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#I">Section&nbsp;I.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Classification of Schools</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#II">Section&nbsp;II.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Continuation Schools (Fortbildungsschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#III">Section&nbsp;III.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Trade Schools (Fachschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#IV">Section&nbsp;IV.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Secondary Technical Schools
+(Gewerbliche Mittelschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="ccol">Schools for the Building Trades (Baugewerkschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="ccol">Schools for Foremen (Werkmeisterschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="ccol">Schools for the Textile Trades (Gewerbeschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="ccol">Industrial Schools of Bavaria (Industrie Schulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#V">Section&nbsp;V.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Higher Technical Schools (Technische Hochschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#VI">Section&nbsp;VI.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Schools of Industrial Arts or Art Trade Schools (Kunstgewerbeschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#VII">Section&nbsp;VII.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Bibliography</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
+<a name="PUBLISHERS_NOTE" id="PUBLISHERS_NOTE"></a>PUBLISHER&#8217;S NOTE</h2>
+
+
+<p>This book was published under some disadvantages,
+as it was delayed by the removal of our office
+to a larger place of business, and by a printers&#8217;
+strike, which resulted in four changes in foremen.
+This, together with the fact that the author was
+upon the Pacific coast and proof was delayed and
+sometimes lost has led to errors for which he is not
+responsible. Besides typographical blunders easily
+recognized the following are noted:</p>
+
+
+<table class="errata" summary="errata">
+<tr><td class="lcol">Page&nbsp;<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, </td><td class="rcol">next line to last for <i>Air</i> read <i>Art</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_19">19</a>, </td><td class="rcol">5th line, for <i>enable</i> read <i>ennoble</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_23">23</a>, </td><td class="rcol">4th line from below, for <i>committee</i> read
+<i>communities</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_25">25</a>, </td><td class="rcol">5th line, for <i>development</i> read <i>deportment</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_63">63</a>, </td><td class="rcol">7th line, for <i>models</i> read <i>modes</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_72">72</a>, </td><td class="rcol">next to last line, the 1 should be in <i>second</i>
+half of first year, making the totals 41
+and 43 instead of 42 and 42.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_79">79</a>, </td><td class="rcol">in table, Knitting should have <i>1&nbsp;yr.</i> instead
+of <i>2&nbsp;yrs.</i>, and the line beginning
+<i>Machinery</i> is to be omitted.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_81">81</a>, </td><td class="rcol">4th line from below, insert <i>to</i> before <i>enter</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_93">93</a>, </td><td class="rcol">last part of paragraph, read &#8220;The one
+course plan however has been substituted
+for the several.&#8221;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="maintitle"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+Technical Education<br />
+in Germany</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By Prof. Arthur Henry Chamberlain</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I</h2>
+
+
+<p>If one were to point out the most distinctive
+feature of the educational system in the
+Fatherland to-day, it would perhaps be the
+highly specialized condition of the technical
+schools.</p>
+
+<p>In approaching our problem we naturally
+ask ourselves the question as to how far the
+industrial progress of a country is influenced
+by technical education. In no time as in
+our own has so much stress been laid upon
+the commercial side of our existence. New
+trades, new industries are springing up;
+specialization is becoming more far-reaching
+and more firmly established than ever before;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>competition is becoming keener; the
+application of science to the arts is more
+varied.</p>
+
+<p>In this latter field we find Germany in the
+very fore front, she having developed along
+these lines to a greater extent than have
+many of our nations. Illustrations of this
+application lie all about us,&mdash;in the bettered
+transportation facilities by railroad and by
+ocean vessel; in the more improved bridge
+and building construction; in the methods
+of water supply and drainage; in modes of
+heat, light, and ventilation; in electric vehicles,
+sound transmitters, labor-saving
+machinery; in finely adjusted instruments
+that bring far away worlds almost within
+reaching distance; in these and a thousand
+other ways is made manifest the result of
+the application of science to the arts. Germany
+is taking a prominent part in this
+warfare for industrial supremacy, and that
+she expects her technical schools to be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>largely instrumental in answering many of
+the problems of the present and the future
+cannot be doubted, especially when one is
+made aware of the diversity and extent of
+the schools of a technical character scattered
+over the Empire.</p>
+
+<p>It will be readily understood from the
+foregoing how difficult a matter it is to
+make any one classification that will cover
+in an adequate manner the various types of
+existing institutions. Frequently a school
+is found which in some respects is distinctive.
+To place such a school in this or that
+category would of course do violence to the
+classification, while to form a new class
+only serves to further complicate and bewilder.
+Again, various of the institutions
+mentioned may offer such a differentiated
+schedule or be made up of so many parallel
+departments as to entitle them to admission
+into two or more of the classes given.</p>
+
+<p>Another point of difficulty lies in the fact
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>that the term &#8220;technical&#8221; would in Germany
+be somewhat more sweeping than with
+us in America. We do not class technical
+training with so-called manual training or
+handwork of the elementary schools. In
+our present study however, we shall find
+that while in the main we are dealing with
+the technical training of boys from fourteen
+to eighteen years of age,&mdash;comparable in a
+measure to our high or secondary school
+courses, we shall also include the industrial,
+vocational, or trade training of men and
+boys alike, as well as work in the more simplified
+forms of handicraft, as carried on in
+the lower or elementary school. Reference
+will also be made to the instruction of a
+higher order,&mdash;such for example as makes
+for engineers. These facts will be illuminated
+as the study proceeds.</p>
+
+<p>In reading into these schools their real
+significance, several points must be kept
+constantly in mind. At an early age the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>German youth is supposed to have solved
+the problem of his likes and dislikes, his
+abilities and shortcomings; to have gained
+such a perspective of his probable chances
+for future success, as to choose the line of
+work or occupation he shall follow. It is
+only fair to state, however, that circumstances
+have much to do with such decision,
+viz,&mdash;the occupation of the father, the financial
+outlook of the family, the industrial
+demands of the locality, the particular educational
+opportunities offered,&mdash;these and
+like problems entering in as vital elements.</p>
+
+<p>Then too, the founding and sustaining
+of a technical school is a matter to be noted.
+This may be in the hands of the general
+government, of the state, of the municipality,
+or may be looked after by private enterprise.
+The Guilds, Vereins or Associations
+may organize, equip and foster schools of
+such character as train directly for their
+particular lines of work. It must be stated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>however in this connection, that there
+seems to be a strong tendency at the present
+time toward the centralizing of control in
+the states. This has been brought about in
+large measure through the ever-increasing
+willingness on the part of the state to give
+financial backing to the schools, and thus
+has quite naturally arisen the desire and
+necessity on the part of the state, that it
+have a controlling voice in the school administration.
+Herein lies one of the main
+differences between such education in Germany
+and that of our own country.</p>
+
+<p>Conrad&#8217;s Handw&ouml;rterbuch der Staatswissenschaften,
+1900, in an article entitled
+&#8220;Gewerblicher Unterricht&#8221;, gives the following
+table on state expenditure for trade
+and technical instruction in recent years:</p>
+
+<p class="center">Prussia:</p>
+
+<ul class="indented">
+<li>Marks 142,000 ($33,796) in 1874;</li>
+
+<li>Marks 475,000 ($114,050) in 1885;</li>
+
+<li>Marks 4,672,000 ($1,111,936) in 1899.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>Saxony:</p>
+
+<ul class="indented">
+<li>Marks 235,000 ($60,214) in 1873;</li>
+
+<li>Marks 570,000 ($135,660) in 1885;</li>
+
+<li>Marks 1,138,000 ($270,844) in 1898.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center">Wurttemburg industrial continuation school:</p>
+
+<ul class="indented">
+<li>Marks, 58,000 ($13,804) in 1869;</li>
+
+<li>Marks 129,000 ($30,702) in 1879;</li>
+
+<li>Marks 164,000 ($39,032) in 1889;</li>
+
+<li>Marks 208,000 ($49,504) in 1897.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>The cost of the state per capita of the
+population of the expenditures was as follows:</p>
+
+<ul class="indented">
+<li>Prussia, Pfennigs 15 (3&frac12; cts.) in 1899;</li>
+
+<li>Saxony, Pfennigs 29 (7 cts.) in 1898;</li>
+
+<li>Hesse, Pfennigs 22 (5 cts.) in 1898.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p>The cost per Marks 1,000 ($236) of the
+entire state expenditures was Marks 2.27
+(54 cts.) in Prussia in 1899, and Marks
+5.88 ($1.40) in Saxony in 1898.</p>
+
+<p>In general the German schools are classified
+upon a basis of the grade of instruction
+given rather than upon the character
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>of the subjects taught. Primary education
+is compulsory, that is to say, all children
+are compelled by law to attend school from
+their sixth to their fourteenth year. It is
+at this point that we find our difficulty. To
+quote Dr. Alwin Pabst of Leipzig (who
+speaks of conditions governing technical
+schools):</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The age of admission, length of course,
+fees and other conditions (examinations)
+of these schools differ widely. Ages range
+from fourteen to thirty years or over; length
+of course, one to four or five years; fees
+perhaps twenty to thirty marks per year.
+The Fortbildungsschule is the only institution
+in which no fee is charged.&#8221; (Taken
+from a personal letter.)</p>
+
+<p>Several classifications commend themselves
+for use. Each has its weaknesses and
+breaks down at some point, owing to the
+conditions previously mentioned. In order
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>the better to illustrate this difficulty I shall
+give these various possible classifications.</p>
+
+<p>The first refers chiefly to the scheme of
+secondary education and was the one first
+chosen and later discarded. It was suggested
+mainly by Sir Philip Magnus&#8217;s work
+on &#8220;Industrial Education&#8221; and the &#8220;Report
+of the Industrial Commission&#8221;, Vol. 1.</p>
+
+<ul class="indented">
+<li>1. Industrieschulen
+<ul>
+<li>Gewerbeschulen</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>2. Trade Schools
+<ul>
+<li>Fachschulen</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>3. Building Trade Schools</li>
+
+<li>4. Secondary Technical Schools
+<ul>
+<li>Higher Technical</li>
+<li>Foremen</li>
+<li>Building</li>
+<li>Weaving</li>
+<li>Drawing</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>5. Industrial Art Schools (Kunstgewerbe)
+<ul>
+<li>Pure Art</li>
+<li>Applied Art</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>6. Polytechnics or Technische Hochschulen</li>
+
+<li>7. Continuation Schools&mdash;Fortbildungsschulen</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Another classification, suggested in most
+part by a German authority is as follows:</p>
+
+<ul class="indented">
+<li>1. Fortbildungsschulen&mdash;Continuation
+schools</li>
+
+<li>2. Industrie&mdash;or Fachschulen&mdash;Special
+Trade Schools</li>
+
+<li>3. Gewerbeschulen</li>
+
+<li>4. Technische Schulen</li>
+
+<li>5. Technische Hochschulen</li>
+
+<li>6. Baugewerkschulen&mdash;School for Architects</li>
+
+<li>7. Kunstgewerbeschulen&mdash;Schools of Art</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p>In the Seventeenth Annual Report of the
+U.&nbsp;S. Commissioner of Labor for 1902 we
+find the following:</p>
+
+<ul class="indented">
+<li>1. Technical Colleges</li>
+
+<li>2. Secondary or Intermediate Technical
+Schools</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>3. Schools and Museums of Industrial
+Art</li>
+
+<li>4. Schools for Foremen</li>
+
+<li>5. Schools for the Textile Trades</li>
+
+<li>6. Trade and Industrial Continuation
+Schools</li>
+
+<li>7. Industrial Drawing Courses</li>
+
+<li>8. Other Institutions for Industrial Education.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p>The order followed in the present study
+is finally given below. It is one not to be
+found elsewhere, but more closely resembles
+that of Dr. Pabst (the second classification)
+and that found in the Seventeenth Annual
+Report of the Commissioner of Labor. It
+has undoubtedly its weak points, but I
+feel it is the best that can be made however,
+as it is based upon data recently published,
+and the results of correspondence with
+German school authorities, in addition to
+a not very extended knowledge gained
+through personal contact with the German
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>schools. It may be taken therefore, as
+bringing the work down to the present
+time:</p>
+
+<ul class="indented">
+<li>1. Continuation Schools or Fortbildungsschulen</li>
+
+<li>2. Trade Schools or Fachschulen</li>
+
+<li>3. Secondary or Intermediate Technical
+Schools or Gewerbliche Mittelschulen</li>
+
+<li>4. Technical Colleges or Technische
+Hochschulen</li>
+
+<li>5. School and Museums of Industrial Art,
+or Kunstgewerbeschulen</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II</h2>
+
+<p class="subheader"><span class="smcap">Continuation Schools</span><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Fortbildungsschulen</span></p>
+
+
+<p>Since at the age of fourteen years the
+German youth is no longer under the control
+of the compulsory school law, the value
+of the system of continuation schools is realized.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>Of necessity the great mass of boys
+are at this age, forced to enter some gainful
+pursuit. It was clearly evident to the German
+people that boys should not be cut off
+from school education at this early age.
+Dr. James H. Russell in his German Higher
+Schools says:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The elementary and secondary schools
+are quite independent of each other&mdash;not
+one boy in ten thousand finds his way from
+the highest class of the elementary school
+into the Gymnasium.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that year by year an increasingly
+large number of boys discontinue
+their education at the close of the elementary
+school, for a statement made by Mr.
+Michael N. Sadler, (Vol. III of Special Reports
+on Educational Subjects, London),
+some years prior to the above writing,
+would seem to indicate a lesser percentage
+of dropping out than that proposed by Dr.
+Russell.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>The desire then for more extended educational
+advantages must have been early
+felt, and there sprang into existence what
+has since developed into one of the most
+significant features and far-reaching factors
+in the German scheme,&mdash;the continuation
+school. I quote from Mr. H. Bertram who
+writes of the continuation schools in Berlin,
+December, 1899:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Amid the development of civilization
+among the nations the idea of the continuation
+school is making its way with increasing
+strength. Urgently required by the
+conditions of social organization, and in its
+turn acting on them, the new institution
+appears in many forms. It claims its place
+side by side with the Church and the
+School.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Among the great number of those who enter
+early upon the practical business of life, to
+whom the primary school has offered a start
+there awakens, sooner or later, the desire to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>share in the stores of knowledge which human
+intelligence has won, in the insight
+into the working of the forces of nature,
+which it has acquired and applied to industry,
+in the arts which ennoble and support
+human action; in short to participate in the
+spiritual treasures which are, as it were, the
+birthright of those born under a luckier
+star. This desire, which opens to the diligent
+the way to material prosperity and
+inner contentment, seems for society as a
+whole an important incentive to industrial
+progress, and turns the discontent of the
+slaves of machinery into happiness of men
+conscious of their own success. The more
+the old order changes which held the work
+people in the narrow bonds of tradition, the
+more is customary prescription replaced by
+education and independent judgment, by
+insight into existing conditions, by special
+excellence within a particular sphere. For
+this reason, the elementary school, however
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>efficient and methodically correct its action
+may be, cannot suffice for the happiness of
+the masses, nor for the preservation of society.
+The instruction must come into close
+contact with the life of the future citizen,
+and must be at the command of everyone
+desirous to learn, as long as he seeks it.
+But the seeker, born amid such conditions
+as these, needs guidance. Public libraries,
+newspapers, magazines help him the more
+he pushes forward, but without expert assistance
+he hardly finds the beginning of the
+path.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This is the object of the Continuation
+School.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It is somewhat difficult to define the
+limits and scope of the continuation or Fortbildungsschulen.
+Conditions vary in the
+different German states and especially do
+they vary in the various kinds of continuation
+schools. Definition is made even
+more doubtful when we find that the limits
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>of certain schools overlap. It may be said
+that students are regularly admitted from
+fourteen to sixteen years of age. Not infrequently
+however, boys and men of more
+mature years take advantage of the courses
+offered. Instruction is carried on during
+the week-day evenings from six to eight
+o&#8217;clock and on Sunday mornings.</p>
+
+<p>Prussia leads the other states in the number
+and character of her supplementary
+schools, the system having its fullest expression
+in Berlin. The fact became early
+apparent that preparation, whatever line
+the boy was to follow, was necessary, and
+this thought is confirmed in the many
+skilled laborers in Germany to-day. In
+Prussia, as elsewhere, it was found that
+boys many times left the common school before
+they became proficient in any line of
+book work. The causes were various; poverty,
+indifference, sickness, overcrowding,
+poor enforcement of the compulsory attendance
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>laws,&mdash;all these conspired to make
+supplementary schools necessary. In the
+older provinces very little attention was
+given the continuation school prior to 1875,
+and almost as much could be said of those
+provinces which were acquired in 1866. In
+1844 a report issued by the Department of
+Public Instruction makes mention of the
+usefulness of such schools, while two years
+later a second report has only slightly more
+to say on the subject. This lack of interest
+may be attributed in large measure to the
+non-financial support of these schools by the
+government.</p>
+
+<p>Several problems had to be faced in working
+out the scheme. Certain definite relations
+between the primary and continuation
+schools must be observed; those coming into
+the latter with an inadequate underschool
+knowledge must be looked after;
+provision must be made for students of
+lesser as well as of more mature years; all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>classes of occupation must be given attention;
+these and many other difficult questions
+were to be met and overcome.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Three principles,&#8221; says Mr. Bertram,
+&#8220;have contributed to the solution of this
+problem&mdash;free choices between the courses
+provided, free enjoyment of the preparatory
+courses without fee, and the selection of the
+teachers according to their attainments in
+a particular branch and their ability to adapt
+their instruction to the needs of the pupils
+or participants in the course.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In certain sections, Nassau and Hanover
+for example, state aid came early to the
+continuation school. In 1874 an increased
+appropriation resulted in the betterment of
+the schools then existing and in the further
+establishment of like institutions. Here
+the communities must meet the cost of building,
+heating, lighting etc., and one-half of
+all the expenses not covered by the actual
+tuition. Since 1878 there is a fairly general
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>acceptance throughout the Empire of the
+statute providing that all employes under
+eighteen years of age must be allowed to attend
+a continuation school, the period of
+attendance to be determined by &#8220;competent
+authority&#8221;. This naturally leads the
+Public Instruction Department to be free
+in its financial support.</p>
+
+<p>It will be understood that in most cases
+six hours per week is the attendance required
+and that only those who have left
+the Volksschule or lower school and are not
+attending any higher institution are admitted.
+In Saxony a somewhat different
+condition exists. Children who have not
+made satisfactory progress in the Volksschule
+must, perforce, attend the continuation
+school for two years.</p>
+
+<p>The writer of this paper was thoroughly
+impressed with the work of the Sunday
+classes as seen in Leipzig, Saxony, during
+the summer of 1899. His first introduction
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>to such work was made, when on joining
+a group of boys, several of them carrying
+draughting-boards, he was conducted
+by them to their school. The general
+character and deportment of the boys, the
+spirit and enthusiasm manifested by them,
+and the thoughtful and intelligent quality
+of the work produced, fully justified in his
+own mind, the validity and worth of the
+Sunday class instruction.</p>
+
+<p>As between the schools located in the
+cities and those in the smaller towns and
+country places, there is some slight difference.
+They may be classified as (<i>a</i>) rural
+or (<i>b</i>) city schools, on account of their location.
+The distinction lies rather in the
+arrangement of their curricula, the needs
+of the students in the particular locality
+being kept in mind. In the rural schools the
+programme of studies is somewhat general,
+comprising the German language, arithmetic,
+mensuration, nature study; and in some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>instances may be added to these, geography,
+German history, drawing, gymnastics
+and music. This programme is elective to
+the extent that the capacity and previous
+education of the pupil are considered, and
+too, the ability of the teacher, local conditions
+and the time spent by the individual
+student. Such schools are admonished not
+to take on the character of technical institutions,
+but rather to continue the general
+education begun in the Volksschulen.
+Only under certain conditions is less than
+four hours per week of instruction permissible.</p>
+
+<p>In Prussia the city continuation schools
+are of two grades, each grade made up of a
+number of classes. In the lower grade
+schools, instruction is given in accordance
+with the particular trade or calling the pupil
+is to follow. In the upper grade, work
+is much the same, proficiency being the
+chief additional feature. When six hours
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>of work is the minimum, language, arithmetic,
+elementary geometry and drawing,
+form the body of the course; while penmanship,
+geography, history, grammar and
+nature study all are taken up in connection
+with the reading work. Business forms are
+not overlooked. In the more fully
+equipped schools where the teachers are prepared
+for such branches, higher mathematics,
+mechanics, physics and advanced
+drawing are taken up.</p>
+
+<p>If, as before stated, the various types of
+continuation schools overlap, the same is
+true regarding the trade and industrial
+continuation schools. While in many instances
+the work in the latter schools is of
+a general character, aiming to supplement
+or round out the education of the pupil, we
+find that many of the original schools of this
+class have developed into a form of special
+or trade school. This is brought about
+through pressure from without, as it were.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>When a certain industry predominates in a
+locality supporting a continuation school, it
+is only fair to suppose that the work done,
+general though it may be, will be colored
+to some extent at least, by the demands of
+such industry. If this process of merging
+is carried sufficiently far, as is in many cases
+done, the school may lose almost or entirely
+its original trend, and from a Fortbildungsschule,
+fall into the class of trade or Fachschulen.</p>
+
+<p>In the main then, the instruction given
+in a continuation school proper, is either of
+a theoretical nature or involves some form
+of drawing perhaps, thus rendering any
+other than an ordinary school room unnecessary
+for class use. In the city of
+Leipzig the situation is dissimilar to that
+in some north German cities. Here
+the classes are arranged according to the
+various trades followed, as bookbinders,
+printers, lithographers, bakers, metal workers,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>workers in wood and stone, etc. There
+are again in Southern Germany simply
+schools of drawing with special reference
+to the various trades and industries. In
+addition to these are classes of a general
+nature for boys not following special trades.
+Such schools however, cannot be found in
+the smaller towns or in the country. Certain
+other Saxon cities have schools of
+somewhat similar character.</p>
+
+<p>In the Consular Report, Vol. 54, No. 202,
+page 447, 1898, Mr. J.&nbsp;C. Monoghan says,
+writing under the title Technical Education
+in Germany:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The supplementary schools are for the
+people who have to work, what Chautauquas,
+summer schools, and university extension
+courses are for others.&mdash;Parties in politico-economic
+circles have found that the system
+of common school education under which
+boys and girls were given an ordinary education
+in reading, writing, arithmetic etc.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>up to their fourteenth year, was inadequate,
+partially if not wholly, to the ends aimed at
+in such a system. To supply this defect it
+was urged, and finally proposed and favorably
+acted upon, that graduates of the common
+schools, boys especially, in some few
+cases girls too, should continue to get instruction
+a certain number of hours a week.
+This was made compulsory. Manufacturers,
+shopkeepers, and mechanics in whose
+employ such boys were found, and not the
+parents, were made responsible for the boys&#8217;
+attendance. In these schools, as indicated
+in the foregoing, the boys get as good an
+idea as possible of the trade or branch of
+business in which they are employed. As
+a rule, the hours of attendance are early in
+the morning or a certain number of afternoons
+in the week. Sunday mornings are
+not thought too sacred for such work. It
+seems to be an acknowledgement that the
+years hitherto given to a boy in which to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>get an education, viz., from his sixth to
+his fourteenth year, are not enough to
+prepare him for the struggle for life that he
+has to enter upon. Men have told me, successful
+merchants and agents here, that
+they owe more to the hours spent in the
+developing or supplementary schools from
+the practical character of the instruction
+given and the information imparted, than
+to the many years spent in the common
+schools. While one is hardly willing to believe
+this, there can be no doubt of the good
+work done, and being done, by the schools
+referred to.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The Handwerkschulen in Berlin are very
+similar to Fortbildungsschulen in Leipzig
+for example. These schools have seen a
+marvelous development during the past
+few years. They have a technical quality,
+giving much attention to drawing. The
+sessions are in the evening, eight hours per
+week, the fee being six marks the half year.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>They are attended by journeymen and apprentices
+who come recommended by their
+employers. In connection with these
+schools various Sunday classes are conducted
+throughout the city, each center specializing
+along certain trade lines.</p>
+
+<p>The Berlin Handwerker Verein is a type
+of continuation school, sustained not by the
+state but by an association. The Verein,
+founded in 1859, has for its object the promotion
+of general culture, a partial knowledge
+at least of the several callings represented,
+and good manners (gute Sitten).
+The moral and ethical elements are not
+lacking. Here public lectures of real merit
+are given, together with music, gymnastics,
+and instruction in general and technical
+subjects. Boys of good character, over
+seventeen years of age, are admitted. The
+families of the boys in attendance are also
+allowed to avail themselves of such general
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>exercises, lectures, music, etc., as the school
+offers.</p>
+
+<p>What may also be styled as belonging in
+a sense in the continuation school category
+is the German Association for the Diffusion
+of Popular Education, with headquarters
+in Berlin. Branches of this association are
+scattered throughout various parts of the
+Empire.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1869, the industrial code provided
+that all boys under eighteen years of
+age might, at the discretion of the local
+authorities, be compelled to attend school.
+It is thus evident that the local or State
+authority was here consulted, rather than
+the General Government. At the present
+time however, when the adjustment of this
+matter is not in the hands of local authority,
+the employer must, if those engaged with
+him desire so to do, allow such boys to attend
+school at their option. In some States
+however, Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse and Baden,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>compulsory school laws are in force among
+all boys fourteen to eighteen years of age.
+At present the law of 1891 is active and the
+portion touching our problem is here given:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Employers are required to give the
+necessary time, to be determined eventually
+by the competent authorities, to their workingmen
+under eighteen years of age who
+attend an educational establishment recognized
+by the communal administration or
+by the State as an adult&#8217;s school. Instruction
+shall not be given on Sunday except
+where the hours are so fixed that the pupils
+are not prevented from attending the principal
+religious exercise or a religious exercise
+of their faith especially conducted for
+them with the consent of the ecclesiastical
+authorities. The central administration
+may, until October 1, 1894, accord exemptions
+from the last provision to adult
+schools already in existence, attendance upon
+which is not obligatory.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>&#8220;For purposes of this law schools giving
+instruction in manual work and domestic
+duties to women shall be considered as
+adult schools.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This citation points out that the Sunday
+class work must not conflict with the religious
+services. There is a strong sentiment
+in many places in favor of a repeal of
+such laws as prohibit Sunday classes at
+such times as church services are held.
+Many of the clergy are opposed to the extending
+of Sunday continuation schools,
+while for the most part the government
+authorities are favorable to such extension.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the compulsory age limit,
+Prussia of all the German states is following
+out the option given the individual
+States. It is worthy of note that she declares
+(while declining to accept the law)
+that where freedom is allowed, boys are
+more likely to continue in school after their
+eighteenth year. It is insisted also that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>with the restrictions removed, a deeper interest
+is excited in the school studies. The
+statement is made however that in Prussia
+two thirds of the industrial continuation
+schools have compulsory attendance laws in
+force as the local authorities may determine.
+Certain it is that much stress is
+laid upon the ethical side of instruction in
+the continuation schools and it is agreed
+that the compulsory school should not
+transplant the regular continuation school,
+except where it seems absolutely necessary to
+do so. In Bavaria for example, where the
+age limit by law is thirteen, the compulsory
+school has a place for the time being
+at least.</p>
+
+<p>In Berlin, a century ago, Sunday afternoon
+classes were inaugurated, with a programme
+no more varied than that furnished
+by the three R&#8217;s. Apprentices not equipped
+with sufficient school training were forced
+to attend the schools. In 1869 the power
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>was wrested from the trade guilds and the
+elective system resulted, later producing
+the Elementary Continuation School. The
+local city government founded at a later
+date three such schools, and in these a
+more diversified curriculum was operated,
+adding to the three R&#8217;s, German composition
+and literature, modern languages, natural
+science, political science, law, bookkeeping
+and drawing. For various reasons
+these schools were not attended by a full
+measure of success and the city authorities
+formulated the plan of placing the continuation
+schools in some of the higher institutions
+of learning, courses to be operative in
+winter only. Later, from the preparatory
+school, which fitted for the continuation
+school proper, grew up the technical continuation
+school.</p>
+
+<p>There are at the present twelve schools
+of the continuation type in Berlin. A large
+attendance is desired, for with large classes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>groups of various intellectual standards may
+be formed. The student is free to elect
+subjects&mdash;as between certain languages,
+mathematics or art studies. The Director
+of the school, by keeping in touch with the
+employers in the various trades and shops,
+can thus control the attendance and shape
+the course of the lines of work offered.</p>
+
+<p>Some ten years since, two special lines of
+instruction were withdrawn from the continuation
+school proper&mdash;the carpenters&#8217;
+school and the Gewerbesaal, comprising
+work in drawing and theory involved in
+machine construction and the like. Courses
+for turners are offered in the carpenters&#8217;
+schools. In Berlin there are in excess of
+nine centers for the last named school and
+ten centers for the Gewerbesaal, the winter
+classes running up to 2000 and 850 pupils
+respectively.</p>
+
+<p>This example serves to illustrate the fact
+mentioned in a previous connection, viz.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>that the Fortbildungsschule was in some
+cases merged into a special school, for here
+in reality a Fach or trade institution has developed
+from the original continuation
+school. This practice has been going on
+more or less extensively among the various
+schools; and in Berlin especially, the continuation
+school has been the foundation of
+most of the Fachschulen. Something more
+will be said in this connection in the section
+under trade schools.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the continuation schools for
+girls and women a word may be added. As
+with the boys&#8217; schools, so these designed
+for girls were put on foot, partly at least,
+from an ethical standpoint. Girls spending
+their days in the factory and shop were in
+need of a refining influence, and this the
+continuation school afforded. Courses were
+offered in the German language, arithmetic,
+sewing and dressmaking. The efforts made
+to give girls this training were not entirely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>successful. So many objections to Sunday
+work were brought forward that it was discontinued.
+The burdens of the day fell so
+heavily upon the girls that they were not
+ambitious to attend evening classes. At the
+present time the schools are more largely
+attended by girls who, during the day, remain
+in the family, and in the school take
+up the household arts, sewing, cutting out,
+and the like, and also languages, mathematics,
+geography, etc., gymnastics and music,
+shorthand and typewriting. It is hoped
+soon to introduce cookery in all girls&#8217;
+schools. Drawing is given much attention.</p>
+
+<p>There are in Berlin, nine municipal continuation
+schools for girls, which are, as the
+name indicates, maintained by the city.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span><a name="III" id="III"></a>III</h2>
+
+<p class="subheader"><span class="smcap">Trade Schools</span><a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>As has been indicated in another connection,
+the classification of trade schools as
+such, is somewhat uncertain. It has been
+shown that many of the present schools for
+special trades have evolved from the continuation
+schools of the past. In the transition
+state it is sometimes quite difficult to
+definitely place a certain school, whether in
+the trade continuation, or trade group proper,
+or to class it with the Industrieschulen.
+The trade continuation schools have largely
+superseded the regular trade schools, in
+many localities at least, and where this condition
+exists, trade instruction seems to be
+losing ground, here the Fortbildungsschulen
+on the one hand, and regular ap<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>prenticeships
+on the other, coming in to supplant
+trade teaching.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The two previous articles were published in the School
+Bulletin for July and August, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<p>The seeming contradictory statements
+made here must be interpreted in the spirit
+rather than in the letter, if the full meaning
+and significance of the trade school is to be
+grasped. Trades are taught as formerly.
+The point made is that while the trade
+school, per se, is doing its work, boys are,
+more and more, being trained for their
+trades in the so-called trades continuation
+schools and as apprentices in the shops. The
+latter form of training will be spoken of elsewhere
+in this section of the paper.</p>
+
+<p>We have noted in following the work of
+the continuation school, that the attempt
+has been mainly toward the teaching of theoretical
+subjects, the practical lines being
+carried forward in the regular daily occupations
+of the individuals. Hence the trade is
+not held specifically in mind, although the
+desired end is always kept in view. In the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>trade schools on the other hand, the work is
+largely of a practical nature, dealing with
+some particular occupation. The foregoing
+statement may be taken as fairly representing
+the Fachschule point of view, but it
+should be observed that while these schools
+are special trade schools, training for example
+iron workers, or joiners, or tailors, there
+is a differentiation within the general class.
+I refer to the Gewerbeschulen, where theoretical
+lessons are sometimes taught. These
+schools will be given mention in the secondary
+group.</p>
+
+<p>Admission to the trade schools is gained
+usually at fourteen years of age, the length
+of each course covering a period of three
+years. The schools are in receipt of financial
+aid from both state and local governments.</p>
+
+<p>To simplify our study, we shall consider
+only such institutions as deal with a single
+trade each, leaving the schools for the building
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>trades and the like, and those dealing
+with industrial art and drawing to be treated
+elsewhere. Specialization has been carried
+so far that the following lists of schools, each
+training for its own particular trade or calling,
+may be given. The list is arranged alphabetically
+and without reference to the
+relative importance of the various vocations,
+or to the number of schools. Such schools
+are now found pretty generally in the larger
+cities throughout the Empire. Some of
+these are day schools; some evening schools,
+and others again offer both day and evening
+courses and Sunday instruction.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Single Trade Schools</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Schools for Bakers</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Barbers and Hairdressers</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Basketmakers, Wickerworkers, and Strawplaiters</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Blacksmiths</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Bookbinders</li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Carpenters and Cabinetmakers</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Chimney Sweeps</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Confectioners</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Coopers</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Gardeners</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Glaziers</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Joiners</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Marine Machinists</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Masons</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Painters</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Paperhangers and Decorators</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Plumbers</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Photographers</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Potters</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Printers</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Saddlers, Trimmers and Trunkmakers</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Shoemakers</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Tailors</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Tinsmiths</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Toymakers</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Upholsterers</li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Wagonmakers and Wheelwrights</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Watch and Clockmakers</li>
+<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Woodcarvers</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p>Some of the above named institutions are
+in certain localities styled apprenticeship
+schools. These train workmen and foremen
+of a minor degree. Shop work is offered,
+and in some cases pure and applied art as
+well.</p>
+
+<p>The evening work of the so-called Artisans&#8217;
+Schools of Berlin, are deserving of special
+mention. There are two such institutions,
+called respectively school number one and
+school number two. The first was established
+in 1880; the second in 1892. The
+aim of these schools is to give to tradesmen
+and apprentices in their leisure hours such
+a knowledge of drawing, the arts and
+sciences, as will find an application in their
+own lines of work.</p>
+
+<p>The grade of instruction varies from quite
+elementary work to that for advanced students,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>the latter being obliged to present
+evidence of fitness before entering.</p>
+
+<p>The following courses are offered, the figures
+indicating the number of hours per
+week devoted to each.</p>
+
+<table class="courses" summary="courses">
+<tr><td>Arithmetic</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Algebra</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Geometry</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Trigonometry</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Analytical geometry and calculus</td><td class="hours">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mathematical problems involving physics and mechanics</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Descriptive geometry</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bookkeeping</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Physics</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mechanics</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Electro-technics</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chemistry</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chemistry and pharmacy</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Free-hand drawing</td><td class="hours">2-4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Aquarelle</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Projection</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>Ornament</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Trade drawing according to occupation</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Modeling in wax and clay</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Decorative painting</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In addition to the foregoing, school number
+two offers:</p>
+
+<table style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: 0em" class="courses" summary="courses">
+<tr><td>Chasing</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Practical wrought-iron work</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sketching and calculating the elements of machinery</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The courses continue for two years.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note that whereas certain
+enactments are in force regarding the
+Sunday sessions of the Fortbildungsschulen,
+there are no such restrictions placed upon
+the Fachschulen, Sunday morning classes
+being held at the discretion of the school
+authorities.</p>
+
+<p>Let us refer to our table of single trade
+schools as given above. The statements
+which follow have in most cases been taken
+from data relating to the schools of Berlin,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>and may be said to fairly represent the general
+existing conditions throughout the
+Empire.</p>
+
+<p>In the school for bakers, instruction is
+given one day weekly for two and one half
+hours. The theoretical work (which in common
+with all such work in the regular trade
+schools, is related directly to the particular
+trade under discussion) is made up of chemistry
+and bookkeeping.</p>
+
+<p>In the barbers&#8217; and hairdressers&#8217; schools,
+instruction is carried on six days each week,
+four hours daily, the school continuing six
+months of the year, covering the winter
+period. Each class receives fourteen hours
+instruction per week. While the bakers&#8217;
+school is supported by the guild, the barbers&#8217;
+school is jointly maintained by state,
+city and guild. The curriculum includes
+shaving, hair cutting, and hair dressing,
+wig making, and ladies&#8217; hair dressing. A
+tuition of three marks is charged for the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>term, in the case of apprentices, and six
+marks for journeymen; a charge five times
+as great is made for ladies&#8217; hair dressing,
+and for the surgical lectures, ten marks.</p>
+
+<p>The guild, state and municipality maintain
+the school for basketmakers and wickerworkers.
+Apprentices receive instruction
+free, four marks each semester being charged
+the journeymen and adults. Attendance is
+compulsory on the part of apprentices of
+guild members. Four hours work per week
+are given, on Saturdays. The annual expenses
+of the school, are about five hundred
+and fifty dollars. Four courses are offered,
+as follows: first, general basket making and
+wicker furniture; second, making of small
+wicker furniture; third, large wicker furniture;
+fourth, fine and artistic wicker
+working.</p>
+
+<p>In the blacksmiths&#8217; school the instruction
+is for two hours, one day each week. Theoretical
+work in horseshoeing, and drawing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>related to the course are taught.</p>
+
+<p>The city and guild support the school for
+bookbinders. The students are both apprentices
+and journeymen. They work
+week day evenings and Sunday mornings.
+The purpose is not to produce tradesmen,
+but rather to make more proficient those engaged
+in some form of bookbinding, and to
+this end applicants must have had experience
+amounting to two years work before entering
+the school. All students must be
+grounded in the general elements underlying
+the trade before they are allowed to
+take up any phase as a specialty. No fee is
+charged the apprentices of guild members;
+others pay five marks per term; journeymen
+pay nine marks per term.</p>
+
+<p>In the cabinetmakers&#8217; school, all lines of
+work pertaining to the trade are taken up,
+drawing and designing for trade purposes;
+free-hand drawing; modeling, carving; properties
+of woods, etc. Instruction is given
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>week day evenings and Sunday forenoons.
+Four marks are charged for the first term in
+the drawing course and for each subsequent
+term, two marks. The subjects taken up
+are: chemistry, free-hand drawing, projection,
+trade drawing, perspective and
+shadows, drawing from cast, modeling and
+wood carving, joinery. The school is under
+public control.</p>
+
+<p>In most of the remaining trade schools,
+instruction is pretty generally given on week
+day evenings and Sunday mornings, the
+apprentices of guild members paying no fee,
+a small charge being made for outsiders.
+The support comes from city, state and guild
+in most cases. In the school for masons however,
+there is a preparatory course and also
+a carpenters&#8217; course, the whole covering a
+three years term. In this school the instruction
+is thorough, covering plans, drawings
+and specifications; stone, brick, and
+wood construction; foundations, arches,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>staircases, roofs, and the like. Almost
+without exception in all these schools the
+winter attendance is greater than that in the
+summer.</p>
+
+<p>Certain individual schools throughout the
+Empire deserve special mention, the Royal
+Fachschule of Iserlohn, the first in Prussia,
+being a notable example. Here handwork
+is combined with industrial art adapted to
+metal work. Boys who entered the trade
+were, in the early days of the school, found
+to be in need of both theoretical and practical
+work, so each has a place in the curriculum.
+The length of the course is three
+years, covering the trades of designers, wood
+carvers, moulders, founders, turners, chasers,
+engravers, gilders, and etchers. Here
+are taught drawing in all its branches;
+modeling in wax and clay; history of art and
+metal work; elements of chemistry and physics;
+mathematics; German. Practical
+work in the department in which the student
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>is engaged, is given, the student
+stating on entrance what subject he desires
+to take up. The time of instruction is
+from eight to twelve, in the winter season,
+and from seven to eleven in the summer.
+The afternoon session is from two to six.
+In the engineering trade school, three hours
+per day are devoted to ornamental drawing,
+German, physics and arithmetic. As the
+instruction is planned for working people it
+is largely theoretical.</p>
+
+<p>The Reimscheid school is of the apprenticeship
+order. Attention is given the
+making of edge tools and such other implements
+as are manufactured in the district.
+All students take drawing and design as
+applied to iron work. They are made
+acquainted with the different kinds of iron
+work that can be carried on in the home;
+are schooled in the use of the tools made;
+learn regarding the markets at which they
+are sold, and the various methods of their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>manufacture. Thus a general understanding
+of the principles underlying his trade is
+given the boy and he becomes acquainted
+with the commercial side of his calling while
+undergoing the necessary preparation in
+manipulation. The theoretical work is given
+in the morning and what shop practice is
+offered is in the afternoon from two to
+seven. The tuition is twenty dollars per
+year.</p>
+
+<p>The Pottery Trade School at Hohr Grenzhausen,
+Prussia, is under State control.
+There are day and evening classes, the
+former attended for the most part by the
+sons of manufacturers; the evening classes
+by men and women who are employed
+otherwise during the day. There are Sunday
+classes also. Decorated stoneware is
+given much attention. The day class boys
+enter with a fairly good knowledge of drawing
+and have perhaps attended the Fortbildungsschule.
+Drawing, descriptive geometry,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>modeling in clay and wax, new forms
+of vessels and original ornamentation, painting,
+designing and decorative art, manufacture
+of earthenware, lectures and study
+of collections, make up the curriculum.
+Any original model made becomes the
+property of the father of the boy, or of the
+person financially supporting such boy during
+his attendance at school. Two duplicates
+of the model must be left at the school.
+The courses are three years, daily sessions,
+Saturdays excepted. The fees are nominal,
+being only five dollars per year for the day
+classes, thirty hours weekly, and one dollar
+for evening work, two hours weekly. Pupils
+living outside the municipality pay six
+dollars per year for day instruction.</p>
+
+<p>The Furtwangen, or Black Forest schools
+are made up of several divisions, giving
+rather a high class of instruction. Clock
+making, wood carving, and straw plaiting,
+are largely carried on.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>This paper would not be complete without
+some mention of the system of apprenticeship
+in vogue in Germany. The Lehrwerkst&auml;tten
+or apprentice shops play a
+considerable part in the industrial life of
+the Empire. In some instances they are
+maintained in connection with the trade
+schools, or again, are semi-private or separate
+shops. The apprenticeship shops on
+the one hand, and the continuation schools
+upon the other, are doing much of the work
+formerly undertaken by the trade schools
+proper. While manufacturing upon a
+larger scale is recognized as possessing advantages
+over the smaller productive plants,
+it has seemed wise to hold to the handicrafts,
+in a measure at least. The apprentice
+system helps to preserve the traditions
+and sentiments of the German people, by
+handing down these handicrafts. The
+associations, vereins, and guilds of past
+time, are to-day, through the aid of legislation,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>coming to the fore, and bringing with
+them many boys trained in the shops under
+the masters. To show the power and scope of
+the guild, and in some cases it is incumbent
+upon a community to form a guild whether
+or no, let me give the following quotation:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Persons carrying on trades on their own
+account can form guilds for the advancement
+of their common trade interests. The
+object of the guild shall be:</p>
+
+<p>1. the cultivation of an esprit de corps
+and professional pride among the members
+of a trade;</p>
+
+<p>2. the maintenance of amicable relations
+between employers and their employes, and
+the securing of work for unemployed journeymen
+and their shelter during the period
+of their nonemployment;</p>
+
+<p>3. the detailed regulations of the conditions
+of apprenticeship and the care for
+the technical and moral education of apprentices;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>4. the adjustment of disputes between
+guild members and their apprentices, as
+contemplated by the law of July 20, 1890,
+concerning industrial arbitration.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The shops offer about the same lines of
+work as do the private concerns, aiming
+however to be more systematic and to cover
+a wider scope. It is asserted by some that
+the instruction gained in the shop is superficial,
+and not to be compared with that obtained
+from the traveling master-workmen.
+When the shop is connected with some enterprise
+or manufacturing interest, a master-workman
+has one apprentice only under his
+charge, for which he receives from the state
+some thirty-five dollars yearly, the boy being
+given board, lodging and proper training.
+The master must have attained the age of
+twenty-four years, and must fulfil certain
+technical qualifications. The instruction is
+practical in the highest degree and thus
+follows the lead of the trade schools in letter
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>and spirit. The fees are mainly paid in by
+guild members, and those not members
+even, provided such reside in the district
+and are connected with the trade for which
+the school stands. Local and state aid is
+furnished. While the period of apprenticeship
+may extend over four years, three years
+is the usual term.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV</h2>
+
+<p class="subheader"><span class="smcap">Art Trade Schools</span></p>
+
+
+<p>The various types of institutions taken up
+under this head are of an intermediate grade,
+standing half way between the trade school
+on the one hand and the higher technical
+institutions upon the other. Indeed, they
+contain many elements in common with the
+lower group, their scope however being
+broader and more general or indirect, theoretical
+work finding a place in their curricula.
+Owing to a similarity in the instruction
+given, several classes of schools seem to
+demand a hearing under this section. We
+shall begin with the more general trade
+schools omitted from our previous study.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Schools for the Building Trades</span><br />
+
+(Baugewerkschulen)</h3>
+
+<p>The schools for the building trades, of
+which there are a half hundred in the Empire,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>are very similar in character throughout.
+The Munich school, established in
+1823, was the first of its kind. Their aim,
+as indicated in the title, is the giving of
+training in the trades connected with the
+various building operations. The majority
+of these schools offer a course two years in
+length. The age of admission is fourteen to
+sixteen years. It is a requisite under some
+boards, that applicants have had practical
+experience in the line to be followed, at
+least two half-years and in some cases two
+full years, before entrance to the school.
+They must have also a fair general knowledge
+of their own language, and of reading
+and writing as well. The candidate must
+be a graduate of the Volksschule or must
+subject himself to an examination. The
+fees in these schools vary from fifty to two
+hundred marks per year. These are day
+sessions only. The governing power is in
+some cases vested in the municipality, frequently
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>in the State, and again in private
+enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>While those who go out from these schools
+may, some of them at least, follow the
+trades as regular laborers, others again are
+qualified as master-workmen and leaders in
+their craft. Construction in wood, stone,
+iron and metals; laws of building; modes
+of heat, light and ventilation; plumbing;
+interior fittings; these and other occupations
+are taken up. The sessions of most schools
+extend over the winter months only, the
+students being actively engaged in their several
+trades during the summer season.
+These schools holding continuous sessions,
+are sparsely attended during the summer.
+When theoretical work is given, such subjects
+are included as bookkeeping, descriptive
+geometry, physics and mechanics, German,
+free-hand and mechanical drawing, design,
+principles of architecture. The practical programme
+comprehends a study of building materials
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>and the procuring and working of the
+same; relative strengths and adaptability to
+purpose; models of construction; ornamentation;
+architecture and design; estimates;
+chemical properties of materials; supports,
+trusses, arches and the like. In the more
+advanced institutions, algebra, surveying,
+mechanics, study of machines and chemistry
+may be added to the theoretical list
+given, while the practical studies are more
+intensive, and of a somewhat higher order.
+Special departments for engineering, (Tiefbauabteilungen)
+preparing men to occupy
+positions as superintendents, managers of
+public works, construction directors, etc.,
+are sustained in some instances.</p>
+
+<p>Such schools are of an inferior engineering
+type, and deal with problems of advanced
+work as related to the construction of roads,
+water works and railroads; municipal engineering;
+bridge construction; electro-technics.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>The theoretical lines are similar to
+those pursued in other courses.</p>
+
+<p>The schools to which we have just referred
+illustrate well the statement made in
+a previous connection, that the grade of instruction
+rather than the character of the
+subjects taught, determines the classification
+of schools into groups. Three classes of
+trade instruction have just been mentioned,
+and might well be styled lower,
+middle and upper schools for trade teaching.
+Another point of interest lies in the fact,
+that while we have been speaking of theoretical
+and practical subjects as forming the
+curricula of the schools for the building
+trades, the distinction should rather be
+drawn on the line of traditional book subjects
+and applied or laboratory practice.
+Practical work, per se, is not carried on in
+the school. Thus we have a close connection
+between theory and practice; more
+closely perhaps than is found to exist in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>other trades.</p>
+
+<p>The following table shows the distribution
+of building trade schools throughout the
+Empire, the cities in which such schools are
+located being given.</p>
+
+
+<table class="distribution1" summary="distribution">
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Anhalt</td><td>Zerbst</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Baden</td><td>Carlsruhe</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="5">Bavaria</td><td>Kaiserslautern</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Munich</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Nuremburg</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Ratisbon</td></tr>
+<tr><td>W&uuml;rzburg</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Brunswick</td><td>Holzminden</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Hamburg</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Hesse</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">L&uuml;beck</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="2">Mecklenburg-Schwerin</td><td>Neustadt</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sternberg</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>Mecklenburg-Strelitz</td><td>Strelitz</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Oldenburg</td><td>Varel</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="21">Prussia</td><td>Aix-la-Chappelle</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Berlin</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Breslau</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Buxtehude</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cassel</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cologne</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Deutsch-Krone</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Eckernf&ouml;rde</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Erfurt</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Frankfort-on-the-Oder</td></tr>
+<tr><td>G&ouml;rlitz</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hildesheim</td></tr>
+<tr><td>H&ouml;xter</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Idstein</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Kattowitz</td></tr>
+<tr><td>K&ouml;nigsberg</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Magdeburg</td></tr>
+<tr><td>M&uuml;nster</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>Nienburg</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Posen</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Stettin</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Reuss-Schleitz</td><td>Gera</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Saxe-Coburg-Gotha</td><td>Coburg</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="2">Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach</td><td>Weimar</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Stadt-Sulza</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="8">Saxony</td><td>Chemnitz</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Dresden</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Grossenhain</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Leipzig</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Oschatz</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Plauen</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Rosswein</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Zittau</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Schwarzburg-Sondershausen</td><td>Arnstadt</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>Wurttemberg</td><td>Stuttgart</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Schools for Foremen</span><br />
+
+(Werkmeisterschulen)</h3>
+
+<p>The Werkmeisterschulen or schools for
+foremen, are quite prominent in the scheme
+of secondary instruction. The courses
+given in these schools are of a general character,
+for the most part practical, and the
+institution, as the name implies, fits men to
+occupy positions as foremen and overseers.
+Machine construction is the chief industry
+for which these schools train. The first
+school of this character was opened in 1855
+at Chemnitz, Saxony. There are at present
+twenty-one schools of this class in the Empire.
+Sixteen is the regular age of admission.
+Candidates must have an elementary
+education on presenting themselves. Two
+years is the average length of course, including
+both winter and summer terms. A requisite
+for admission also is practical experience
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>in the trade, hence little other than
+theoretical instruction is given.</p>
+
+<p>To the objection made by some, to extending
+the course over two years of residence
+and of including the elementary
+branches in the curriculum (such opposition
+favoring a reduction in time given to preparation)
+the answer comes that the school
+should give a well grounded education, such
+as will fit the participant for all the functions
+of his social and industrial life. Fifty to
+sixty marks is charged yearly for tuition
+fees. Certain of these schools have both
+evening and Sunday classes, the tuition being
+twenty marks yearly for week day evenings,
+eight to nine forty-five, and Sundays,
+eight to ten in the forenoon.</p>
+
+<p>Table showing location of schools for
+foremen:</p>
+
+
+<table class="distribution2" summary="distribution">
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Anhalt</td><td>Dessau</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Baden</td><td>Mannheim</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Bavaria</td><td>Four Mechanische Fachschulen</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>Hamburg</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="11">Prussia</td><td>Altona</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cologne</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Dortmund</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Duisburg</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Elberfeld-Barmen</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gleiwitz</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gorlitz</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hanover</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Magdeburg</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Iserlohn</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Reimscheid</td></tr>
+<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="3">Saxony</td><td>Chemnitz</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mittweida</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Leipzig</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The following data were compiled from
+tables appearing in the Report of the Commissioner
+of Labor of the United States, for
+1902. The hours per week allowed each
+subject taught in the schools of machinery
+construction, at Duisburg and Dortmund,
+Prussia, are given.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<table class="foremen" summary="hours per week">
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="4" class="blc dl">DUISBURG</td><td colspan="4" class="blc">DORTMUND</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2" class="blc"><span class="smcap">First Year</span></td><td colspan="2" class="blc dl"><span class="smcap">Second Year</span></td><td colspan="2" class="blc"><span class="smcap">First Year</span></td><td colspan="2" class="blc"><span class="smcap">Second Year</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blc"></td><td class="blc small">First<br />Half</td><td class="blc small">Second<br />Half</td><td class="blc small">First<br />Half</td><td class="blc dl small">Second<br />Half</td><td class="blc small">First<br />Half</td><td class="blc small">Second<br />Half</td><td class="blc small">First<br />Half</td><td class="blc small">Second<br />Half</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">German language and law</td><td>4</td><td>4</td><td>2</td><td class="dl">2</td><td>5</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Arithmetic</td><td>4</td><td>1</td><td>&mdash;</td><td class="dl">&mdash;</td><td>5</td><td>2</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Bookkeeping</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td class="dl">2</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Descriptive Geometry</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>3</td><td>&mdash;</td><td class="dl">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Mathematics</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>4</td><td class="dl">2</td><td>7</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Experimental Physics</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td class="dl">&mdash;</td><td>4</td><td>2</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Physics and Electricity</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td class="dl">2</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Experimental Chemistry</td><td>2</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td class="dl">&mdash;</td><td>2</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Penmanship</td><td>2</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td class="dl">&mdash;</td><td>1</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Drawing</td><td>12</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td class="dl">&mdash;</td><td>17</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Machine Drawing</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td class="dl">8</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>10</td><td>8</td><td>14</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Projection</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td class="dl">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>2</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Mechanics</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>4</td><td>4</td><td class="dl">4</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Technology of mechanics, smelting and refining </td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>6</td><td class="dl">4</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>2</td><td>6</td><td>4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Theory of machines</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>6</td><td>&mdash;</td><td class="dl">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>6</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Steam boilers and hoist machines</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>6</td><td class="dl">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>7</td><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Steam engines and hydraulics and small motors</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td class="dl">6</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Heating</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>3</td><td>&mdash;</td><td class="dl">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Theory of building construction</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>4</td><td class="dl">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Practice in the work shop for machinery construction</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td class="dl">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>4</td><td>4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Estimated wages</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td class="dl">6</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">First aid to the injured</td><td class="bl">&mdash;</td><td class="bl">&mdash;</td><td class="bl">1</td><td class="bl dl">&mdash;</td><td class="bl">&mdash;</td><td class="bl">1</td><td class="bl">&mdash;</td><td class="bl">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc"><span style="margin-left: 3em">Total</span></td><td>36</td><td>36</td><td>37</td><td class="dl">36</td><td>41</td><td>43</td><td>42</td><td>42</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>The following table showing the occupations
+of one time students at three of the
+Prussian schools was compiled in April,
+1898. This table may be found on page
+883 of the Seventeenth Annual Report of
+the Commissioner of Labor of the United
+States.</p>
+
+
+<ul class="columns">
+<li style="line-height: 200%"><strong>Columns:</strong></li>
+<li><i>A</i>&mdash;Duisburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1883 to April 10, 1898</li>
+<li><i>B</i>&mdash;Dortmund: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1892 to April 10, 1898</li>
+<li><i>C</i>&mdash;Magdeburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1893 to April 10, 1898</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<table class="standard" summary="occupations">
+<tr><td class="cl btl">OCCUPATION</td><td class="btl"><i>A</i></td><td class="btl"><i>B</i></td><td class="btl"><i>C</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Heads of establishments</td><td>54</td><td>1</td><td>1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Other officers of establishments</td><td>237</td><td>107</td><td>11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Machine builders and foremen</td><td>39</td><td>18</td><td>1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Wage-workers</td><td>34</td><td>9</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Owners of establishments or shops</td><td>10</td><td>3</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Draftsmen and technical experts in offices</td><td>86</td><td>55</td><td>83</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Assistant Chemists</td><td>3</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Students at other schools</td><td>11</td><td>1</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Other than technical work</td><td>4</td><td>1</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Military service</td><td>16</td><td>23</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Deceased</td><td>11</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Unknown</td><td>26</td><td>21</td><td>5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc"></td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="cl bl" style="line-height: 150%">Total</td><td class="bl">531</td><td class="bl">239</td><td class="bl">103</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span><span class="smcap">Schools for the Textile Trades</span></h3>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting groups of
+trade schools are those for the promotion of
+the textile industry in its various aspects,
+there existing at the present time no less
+than seventy-nine such institutions. The
+fourfold classification of these schools which
+follow, seems to be in accordance with the
+spirit of the work attempted.</p>
+
+<p>First; the superior weaving school (H&ouml;here
+Webschulen).</p>
+
+<p>Second; the secondary weaving schools
+(Webschulen).</p>
+
+<p>Third; the apprentice shops for weaving
+and knitting (Webereilehrwerkst&auml;tten).</p>
+
+<p>Fourth; instruction by traveling or itinerant
+masters. (Wanderlehrer)</p>
+
+<p>Not only does Germany rank high in the
+character of her textile schools, but instruction
+is exceedingly wide spread. Then
+again all lines of the industry are taken up,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>from the most elementary to the most technical
+processes known. It will thus be
+seen that men are trained for the lower as
+well as for the higher branches of the art.
+In the highest classes of institutions weaving
+is almost exclusively carried on. The
+general Government assumes the control of
+these schools notwithstanding that in the
+beginning, many such institutions were put
+on foot through the initiative of associations
+and guilds. In each of the several
+classes the work is both theoretical and
+practical. The age of admission is usually
+fourteen years and the course of two years
+duration.</p>
+
+<p>The Webschulen train, not for specialists
+as do the schools just mentioned, but rather
+aim to turn out foremen and bosses. The
+apprenticeship shops come more closely in
+touch with the workmen of small means and
+those using hand machinery, while the
+Wanderlehrer schools are moveable. In the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>latter instance, the home becomes the school
+when the teacher is present; that is a competent
+instructor is employed to travel from
+place to place, visiting the small factories or
+home manufacturers, and giving such instruction
+as he deems wise and necessary.
+Much good work is still done in the rural
+homes of Germany, and through the means
+mentioned the standards are kept up.</p>
+
+<p>The work of these textile schools is
+largely specialized, depending upon the
+the location of the school. In some localities
+wool, in others linen or cotton, or again
+in others silk will be given the chief attention.
+Both theory and practice have a
+place in the school instruction. Work in
+the various courses includes a study at first
+hand of the materials used, cost of production,
+relative values, various processes of
+manipulation, chemistry, drawing, designing,
+painting, lectures on fabrics, elements
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>of weaving and machinery used, and original
+design and practical work.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of textile schools is
+shown in the following table.</p>
+
+<ul class="columns">
+<li style="line-height: 200%"><strong>Columns:</strong></li>
+<li><i>A</i>&mdash;Superior Textile</li>
+<li><i>B</i>&mdash;Secondary Weaving</li>
+<li><i>C</i>&mdash;Primary Weaving</li>
+<li><i>D</i>&mdash;Weaving, Knitting and Trimming</li>
+<li><i>E</i>&mdash;Spinning, Weaving and Knitting</li>
+<li><i>F</i>&mdash;Spinning and Weaving</li>
+<li><i>G</i>&mdash;Primary Knitting</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<table class="standard" summary="distribution of schools">
+<tr><td class="cl btl">STATE</td><td class="btl"><i>A</i></td><td class="btl"><i>B</i></td><td class="btl"><i>C</i></td><td class="btl"><i>D</i></td><td class="btl"><i>E</i></td><td class="btl"><i>F</i></td><td class="btl"><i>G</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Alsace-Lorraine</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Bavaria</td><td></td><td>3</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Hesse</td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Prussia</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>22</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Reuss-Greitz</td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Reuss-Schleitz</td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Saxony</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>27</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc bl">Wurttemberg</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl">1</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The Prussian superior textile schools are
+located as follows:</p>
+
+<ul class="indented">
+<li>Aix-la-Chappelle</li>
+<li>Bremen</li>
+<li>Berlin</li>
+<li>Crefeld</li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>Cottbus</li>
+<li>M&uuml;lheim-on-Rhine</li>
+<li>M&uuml;nchen-Gladbach</li>
+<li>Sorau</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p>The Berlin textile schools may be taken
+as fairly representing the higher and more
+completely equipped institutions of this
+class. The age of admission is sixteen
+years, a secondary education being necessary
+to entrance. Several courses are offered
+as follows:</p>
+
+<ul class="indented">
+<li>knitting, one year;</li>
+<li>weaving, one and one-half years;</li>
+<li>designing, two years;</li>
+<li>passementerie making, one year;</li>
+<li>dyeing, one year;</li>
+<li>embroidery, one-fourth year.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>There are day, evening and Sunday
+classes. The accompanying table shows the
+subjects taught in each course and the
+number of hours given to each subject,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>reckoned on the basis of the entire length
+of course.</p>
+
+
+<ul class="columns">
+<li style="line-height: 200%"><strong>Columns:</strong></li>
+<li><i>A</i>&mdash;For manufacturers and superintendents, 1&frac12; yrs.</li>
+<li><i>B</i>&mdash;Designing, 2 yrs.</li>
+<li><i>C</i>&mdash;Knitting, 1 yr.</li>
+<li><i>D</i>&mdash;Passementerie making, 1 yr.</li>
+<li><i>E</i>&mdash;Dyeing, 1 yr.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<table class="standard" summary="extend of work">
+<tr><td class="cl btl">SUBJECTS</td><td class="btl"><i>A</i></td><td class="btl"><i>B</i></td><td class="btl"><i>C</i></td><td class="btl"><i>D</i></td><td class="btl"><i>E</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Theory of weaving</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>6</td><td>6</td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Design transfer</td><td>13</td><td>9</td><td>3</td><td>8</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Materials</td><td>1</td><td> &frac12;</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Hand and power looms</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Motors</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Preparing apparatus</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Finishing apparatus</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Practical exercises</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>18</td><td>12</td><td>33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Dyeing</td><td>2</td><td></td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Analysis and production of knitting goods</td><td></td><td></td><td>4</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Chemistry of fibers</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Chemistry and physics</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Drawing</td><td>8</td><td>23</td><td>2</td><td>5</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Arithmetic and bookkeeping</td><td>2</td><td></td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc">Jurisprudence</td><td>2</td><td></td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="fc bl">Lecture</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl">2</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>In many instances the weaving schools
+have in connection with them departments
+for dyeing and finishing. In such cases
+much attention is given to color blending
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>and harmony and to chemistry as well.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Gewerbeschulen</span></h3>
+
+<p>Extended mention will not be made of
+the Gewerbeschulen, as the point of distinction
+between such schools and the Fachschulen
+was set forth under the last section.
+They partake of the character of trade
+schools, but are more general in their tendencies.
+While both theoretical and practical
+work are given, the former is not
+always applied theory, the Gewerbeschulen
+being based upon, what we in America speak
+of, as the educational side of trade instruction.
+These schools are attended by boys
+and men fourteen to twenty-four years of
+age,&mdash;individuals representing the various
+trades. The courses cover a period of three
+years. Both State and local moneys go to
+the support of these schools.</p>
+
+<p>The Gewerbliche Fachschule of Cologne
+is somewhat distinctive. It instructs chiefly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>the sons of tradesmen and superior artisans.
+There are three departments in the school:</p>
+
+<p>First&mdash;that of engineering and architectural
+drawing.</p>
+
+<p>Second&mdash;modeling department.</p>
+
+<p>Third&mdash;the department of decoration,
+housepainting, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The session covers both winter and summer
+months, the winter term, as in other
+cases, being the better attended. Other
+typical Gewerbeschulen are located at Grenzhausen
+and at Reimscheid. Applicants for
+admission must have prepared in the Volksschule
+or elementary school. The programme
+comprises the German language, French,
+English, literature, plane and descriptive
+geometry, physics, chemistry, drawing,
+mechanics, machine construction. The
+preparation here obtained fits the participants
+to enter the higher schools, or to act as
+foremen and masters. These schools also
+lead up to the industrial schools of Bavaria,
+of which we shall now speak.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span><span class="smcap">Industrial Schools of Bavaria</span><br />
+
+(Industrieschulen)</h3>
+
+<p>The industrial schools of the Bavarian
+Kingdom stand out as a distinct class of
+educational institutions. Here, since 1872,
+there has been a clean cut system, presided
+over by a Minister of Education. While
+the quality and character of the work done
+are quite similar to that taken up in the secondary
+schools elsewhere, the institutions
+are in some respects more exactly defined
+and supervision and instruction in the schools
+of weaving, woodcarving, basketmaking,
+pottery, violin making, etc., is frequently
+superior to that in some other locality.</p>
+
+<p>The age of admission is sixteen years, two
+years being the usual length of course; the
+education of the Real-Schule is a requisite,
+or failing this, an examination must be
+taken. In 1901-1902 the Munich schools
+had an enrollment of 241 students, distributed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>as follows: mechanical engineering 124;
+chemical engineering 27; architecture 62;
+commercial 28. The graduates are fitted to
+occupy positions of trust and prominence in
+the various industrial pursuits of the country
+and to enter the technical colleges.</p>
+
+<p>The Industrieschulen of Bavaria are four
+in number, located at</p>
+
+<ul class="indented">
+<li>Augsburg</li>
+<li>Kaiserslautern</li>
+<li>Munich</li>
+<li>Nuremberg</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="continued">they having been established in 1868. Advanced
+courses are offered in mechanical
+engineering, chemical engineering, building
+construction, and commercial education.
+The school at W&uuml;rzburg is of a somewhat
+superior order, although secondary in its
+tendencies, machinery construction and
+electro-technics being given attention.</p>
+
+<p>In the mechanical engineering course the
+following subjects are studied:</p>
+
+<ul class="indented">
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>elementary mathematics</li>
+<li>descriptive geometry</li>
+<li>calculus</li>
+<li>surveying</li>
+<li>physics</li>
+<li>German</li>
+<li>French</li>
+<li>English</li>
+<li>mechanics</li>
+<li>machine work</li>
+<li>machine construction</li>
+<li>mechanical drawing</li>
+<li>practical work.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>In the chemistry course the curriculum
+is made up of</p>
+
+<ul class="indented">
+<li>mathematics</li>
+<li>physics</li>
+<li>chemistry</li>
+<li>mineralogy</li>
+<li>German</li>
+<li>French</li>
+<li>English</li>
+<li>machine construction</li>
+<li>laboratory work.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>The building construction course offers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>language, mechanical drawing and architecture.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V</h2>
+
+<p class="subheader"><span class="smcap">Higher Technical Schools</span><br />
+
+Technische Hochschulen</p>
+
+
+<p>We have at this point in our study reached
+the schools of highest rank offering training
+of a technical character, called variously
+technical high schools, technical colleges,
+or polytechnics, the Technische Hochschulen.
+These schools are not high schools in
+the sense that the term would be applied to
+our American institutions, but are rather
+schools of collegiate grade, ranking in fact,
+as the title indicates in the university class.
+While not exactly comparable to our engineering
+schools, they approach more nearly
+these than they do any other of our American
+educational institutions.</p>
+
+<p>Before the beginning of the century just
+closed it was apparent to some German
+minds more far seeing than the rest, that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>schools of a higher than secondary rank
+must be inaugurated to offer training in the
+sciences; give opportunity to show the application
+of science to the arts; and prepare
+young men to grapple with scientific industrial
+problems such as were constantly
+springing up. Should the university attempt
+such work? An effort was made looking
+toward this end. It was at once evident
+that here was not the place to begin. The
+university was an institution in and of itself.
+Its methods, curriculum and aim were fixed,
+owing to long established customs. It had
+a certain work to perform, its own peculiar
+function to fulfill, and traditional and classical
+tendency were too strong to be checked
+in their movement, or to allow a branch
+stream to flow in and thus add to or modify
+the existing content.</p>
+
+<p>The war for industrial supremacy, between
+England and Germany particularly,
+was a prominent factor leading up to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>establishment of technical schools in the
+latter country. Germany saw the necessity
+for heroic action, and her people, anxious to
+improve from the standpoint of her industries
+at home not only, but that they might
+rival and surpass their neighbors across the
+&#8220;Silver Streak&#8221; readily took up the cry
+for advanced scientific training. This then
+was the object of the Technische Hochschulen:<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;They were intended to secure for science
+a foothold in the workshop, to assist
+with the light of reasoned theory the progress
+of arts and industry, till then fettered
+by many a prejudice and hindered through
+lack of knowledge; on the other hand, they
+sought to raise that part of the nation engaged
+in industry to such a love of culture
+as would secure to it its due measure of
+public respect.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Note on the earlier History of the Technical High
+School in Germany by A.&nbsp;E. Twentyman in Special Reports
+on Educational Subjects, London, Vol 9, page 468.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>The dates of the founding of the now existing
+Technische Hochschulen vary somewhat,
+certain of the schools growing out of
+a foundation which at the beginning was of
+a low or intermediate grade. Several of the
+schools have passed through a period of
+transition or reorganization state during the
+course of their existence. The institution,
+and time of establishment of each are as follows.</p>
+
+
+<table class="foundation" summary="foundation">
+<tr><td>Berlin,</td><td class="year">1799</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Carlsruhe,</td><td class="year">1825</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Munich,</td><td class="year">1827</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Dresden,</td><td class="year">1828</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Stuttgart,</td><td class="year">1829</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Brunswick,</td><td class="year">1835</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Darmstadt,</td><td class="year">1868</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Aachen,</td><td class="year">1870</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hannover,</td><td class="year">1879</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>In 1799 was instituted in Berlin the Bauakademie,
+a State institution whose purpose
+was set forth in the royal decree thus:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;To train in theoretical and practical
+knowledge capable surveyors, architects,
+civil engineers, and masons, principally for
+the King&#8217;s dominions, but foreigners may
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>find admittance if no disadvantage accrue
+thereby to the King&#8217;s subjects.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Later, in 1821, Gewerbeschule came into
+existence, and in 1879 the union of these
+two formed the Berlin Technische Hochschule
+which is located in Charlottenburg,
+a suburb of the city. Owing to the high
+standards of this institution, it is styled
+the K&ouml;nigliche Technische Hochschule.
+Since its reorganization the plans of the
+other schools of like character have been
+modified in accordance with the Berlin
+scheme.</p>
+
+<p>The preparation necessary for admission
+to the Hochschulen is equivalent to that
+demanded by the university proper. The
+age of admission probably never drops below
+seventeen, the average age being considerably
+greater. Men of mature years and of
+wide experience and training avail themselves
+to the privileges offered. The courses
+are from three to four years in length.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> &#8220;The new universities thus developed
+have the purpose of affording higher instruction
+for the technical positions in state and
+community service, as well as in industrial
+life, and of cultivating sciences and arts
+which are intimately connected with the
+field of technology (Berlin provisory statute,
+1879). They prove themselves equal to
+universities in the following points: they
+claim for their matriculated students the
+same preparatory education required by the
+old universities, namely, nine years at a classical
+high school; they grant and insist upon
+perfect freedom in teaching and learning;
+and are under the direction of rectors elected
+for one year, instead of having principals
+chosen for life as in secondary schools.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Report of the United States Commissioner of Education,
+1897-1898, page 70.</p></div>
+
+<p>It may be said here that an exception to
+the rule of the annual election of the administrative
+officers, is furnished in the example<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+of the Munich school, which retains a
+permanent Director as the custom prevailed
+in times past.</p>
+
+<p>Unless otherwise qualified, students must
+have prepared in the Industrieschule, the
+Gymnasium, the Real-Gymnasium or in the
+trade or building schools. In lieu of this
+an examination is demanded. Twenty-four
+is the minimum age of graduation.</p>
+
+<p>In tracing the development of these
+schools from unpretentious beginnings to
+their present high standards of excellence,
+we see that more and more they have become
+unified in purpose and similar in curricula.
+In the early days too, the qualifications
+for admission, their dynamic government,
+and educational standards were
+lower and more diversified than we find
+them to-day. Sustained by the State and
+each administered by its board or council,
+they are doing a work which cannot be
+excelled by the universities themselves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>The organization of departments of work
+offered is approximately the same in all
+schools. In Berlin there are six departments:</p>
+
+<ul class="normalindent">
+<li>first, general school of applied science;</li>
+<li>second, general construction engineering;</li>
+<li>third, machine construction;</li>
+<li>fourth, naval engineering;</li>
+<li>fifth, chemistry and mining engineering;</li>
+<li>sixth, architecture.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Special attention is given certain subjects
+in one or another of these schools; civil or
+mechanical engineering, building construction,
+industrial chemistry, etc. An agricultural
+department is maintained at Munich,
+and a forestry department at Carlsruhe.
+That a knowledge of the application of electricity
+is considered essential in our modern
+methods is shown in the fact that all students
+in departments of machine construction
+engage in the study of electro-technics.</p>
+
+<p>The courses of study are to-day upon more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>of an elective basis than formerly although
+even now the results of the work of Nebenius
+are clearly seen. The success of the
+Hochschulen is due to the efforts of Nebenius
+more than to any other one man. His
+ideas were worked out at Carlsruhe and in
+greater or lesser degree incorporated into all
+the schools. It was insisted by him that a
+proper foundation must be laid before any
+successful special technical training can be
+had. Preliminary work must be mastered
+and a natural sequence of studies followed.
+To this end a fixed graduated course is recommended,
+the student to be promoted as
+ability may determine. The one course
+plan however has been substituted for the
+several.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> &#8220;Programm der K&ouml;nigl. Technischen Hochschule
+zu Hannover, 1901-1902, page 90. Den H&ouml;rern
+bleibt die Wahl der Lehrf&auml;cher frei &uuml;berlassen, f&uuml;r
+ein geordnetes Studium empfiehlt sich aber die
+Beachtung der folgenden Studien und Stundenpl&auml;ne.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>The following table compiled from various
+sources will give some idea of the extent of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>the work as carried on in Berlin. The
+school has a library of 54,000 volumes; a
+student body of upwards of 4,500 and a
+modern equipment throughout.</p>
+
+
+<table class="subjects" style="width: 35em" summary="extend of work">
+<tr><th class="tl">Departments</th><th>No. of courses</th><th>SUBJECTS</th><th>No. of Professors and Instructors</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="tl">General Science</td><td>58</td><td class="sub">Mechanics, Physics and general science studies; literature, French, English, Italian, law, political science.</td><td>33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tl">Civil Engineering</td><td>34</td><td class="sub">Mechanics, railway construction, bridges, canals, harbors, hydraulics, drainage, land surveying.</td><td>13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tl">Mechanical Engineering</td><td>54</td><td class="sub">Kinematics, machine construction, mechanical technology, machine design, water, steam and electrical machines,
+electro-technics, electro-mechanics, electrical and railway works.</td><td>23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tl">Naval Engineering</td><td>19</td><td class="sub">Theory of ship building, classification of ships, designing of warships, boilers, machine construction, practical ship building.</td><td>6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tl">Chemistry and Metallurgy</td><td>51</td><td class="sub">Organic and inorganic chemistry including physical, electro and technological chemistry, crystallography, metallurgy, foundry
+work, cements, botany, chemistry of plants and foods.</td><td>27</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tl">Architecture</td><td>56</td><td class="sub">History of art, architecture and ornament; building construction, designing of buildings in different materials and for
+various purposes, preparation of estimates, etc.</td><td>36</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p>
+<p>The rivalry existing among the various
+schools is in some respects a point to be
+commended. Then, too, the idea taking
+form in the Hochschulen and being more
+fully appreciated by the educationalists of
+our own country, that each school should
+specialize along some particular line, is
+worthy of attention. Energy is saved thereby,
+and students may have the advantage of
+increased facilities in equipment and instruction.
+Many Americans are studying
+in these schools, possibly more in Munich
+than elsewhere. While thorough in their
+treatment of subjects, the practical side of
+the work is too much lost sight of in the
+theoretical treatment. Testing and applied
+work are certainly given considerable attention
+however. To quote Dean Victor C.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>Alderson of the Armour Institute, Chicago,
+who says in reference to testing:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>&#8220;Professors regard this work as professional practice,
+just as doctors, who are professors in medical
+schools, have an outside practice. The technical
+school allows the professors free use of the laboratories,
+but assumes no responsibility for the accuracy
+of the results or opinions expressed.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>The degree of Doctor of Engineering is
+conferred by these institutions, and that
+their work has been highly instrumental in
+developing the country cannot be doubted,
+especially in the line of applied chemistry
+in which branch of engineering Germany
+leads the nations. How closely the development
+of the industries of Germany are
+related to the work of the Technische Hochschulen
+it is difficult to say, but that these
+schools have shown through the accomplishments
+of their graduates that high
+standards of moral and intellectual training
+can be had in other than the traditional
+universities, and that as efficient social
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>service can be rendered through the application
+of science to the arts and industries
+as by means of the languages, cannot be
+doubted.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI</h2>
+
+<p class="subheader"><span class="smcap">Schools of Industrial Art or Art
+Trade Schools</span></p>
+
+
+<p>The Kunstgewerbeschulen are schools of
+art. The causes leading to their inception
+are clearly set forth in a paragraph contained
+in the 1902 Report of the United States
+Commissioner of Labor. It reads:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The international museums of 1851,
+1855 and 1862, in England, Austria and
+Germany, respectively called attention to
+the fact that with all their technical excellence
+the industrial products of Germany
+possessed few qualities of artistic finish and
+design. France showed what could be done
+in this direction. Her products easily held
+first rank in this respect, her eminence being
+the result of centuries of training in this
+field. Since Colbert&#8217;s time industrial art education
+has been emphasized in the training
+of French workmen, and the accumulated
+skill and taste due to this training, has left
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>its impress on French products. The German
+states at once set about to remedy this
+weakness in this respect, and since that time
+have so persistently established museums
+and schools for industrial art training that
+now there is no important city in the Empire
+which does not possess one or more of
+these institutions&#8221;.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable variety exists among the various
+types of art schools and even among
+those belonging in the same class and separated
+as to location we find differences. In
+Leipzig, Saxony, for example the Kunstgewerbeschule
+aims at the graphic arts
+mainly. In Berlin, Dresden, Carlsruhe, and
+certain other cities these schools train for
+sculptors and painters, and the term &#8220;Akademie&#8221;
+is frequently applied to these institutions.
+They are in fact, art trade schools
+whose main purpose, while yet industrial,
+is also the instilling of an artistic feeling
+into industrial work. They reach on and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>out from the trade school and up to the institutions
+for the teaching of the fine arts.
+They are then a middle grade of applied art
+schools.</p>
+
+<p>The genesis of the industrial art schools
+really lies in the establishment of museums
+of industrial art. The museums were an inspiring
+and energizing force, for here the
+best work could be exhibited and studied.
+The municipality and general government
+financed the movement for the museums.
+Schools sprang up in connection with the
+museums and later, independent art schools
+were established.</p>
+
+<p>A moderate fee is charged those who pursue
+work here, twenty to forty marks yearly.
+Candidates must have had practical experience
+in the line of work they propose to take
+up, and both these schools and the so-called
+industrial drawing courses assume a certain
+proficiency on the part of the candidates;
+a proficiency in general subjects and in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>drawing particularly. An examination is
+given those who cannot present the desired
+credentials. The length of the courses in
+these schools is usually three years. The
+classes are both day and evening, 8 <small>A.&nbsp;M.</small> to
+4 <small>P.&nbsp;M.</small> and from 5 to 10 <small>P.&nbsp;M.</small> In some instances
+Sunday sessions are held also.</p>
+
+<p>The courses consist of architectural designing
+in wood and metal, metal engraving and
+chasing, modeling, steel engraving and etching,
+design for fabrics, pattern designing,
+artistic embroidery, decorative painting,
+enamel painting, designing and painting figures
+and plants. The work throughout is
+both theoretical and practical in its nature,
+the instruction gained in the class being applied
+in the shop. The subjects of instruction
+and time devoted to each differ according
+to the course pursued. As an example
+of the programme offered, the following,
+taken from the architectural draftsman&#8217;s
+course in the Munich school is given; the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>figures show the number of hours per week
+devoted to each subject.</p>
+
+
+<table class="draftsman" summary="draftsman courses">
+<tr><td>First year,</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">linear drawing</td><td class="hours">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">ornament drawing</td><td class="hours">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">ornament drawing</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">modelling of</td><td class="hours">21</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">modelling of ornament and of the human figure</td><td class="hours">21</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="subject">history of art</td><td class="hours">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">style</td><td class="hours">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">geometry and projections</td><td class="hours">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Second year,</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">architectural drawing</td><td class="hours">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">drawing and modeling of the human figure and modeling of ornaments</td><td class="hours">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">history of art</td><td class="hours">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">style</td><td class="hours">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">perspective and shadows</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">anatomy, xylography, architecture, sculpture, or chasing</td><td class="hours">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Third year,</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">architectural drawing</td><td class="hours">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">drawing and modeling of the human figure and modeling of ornaments</td><td class="hours">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject">anatomy</td><td class="hours">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="subject"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>xylography, architecture, sculpture or chasing</td><td class="hours">24</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Bauschule are only for those who
+wish proficiency in architectural studies.</p>
+
+<p>What the Industrial Hall at Carlsruhe,
+the Industrial Art Museum at Berlin, and
+the National Museum at Munich are to the
+art schools proper, the open drawing halls
+are to the industrial drawing courses. Here,
+as in the museums, are kept models and designs
+of rare merit and students may pursue
+work under competent instruction. Such
+halls are established in Bavaria, Hesse,
+Prussia, Saxony and Wurttemberg.</p>
+
+<p>In these art courses skill and originality
+are aimed at equally. The relation existing
+between the art work and the trade or industry
+with which it is connected is such as
+to make more valuable the latter.</p>
+
+<p>It is needless to speak further of the museums.
+The art products there exhibited
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>give much incentive to students, as well as
+a feeling for the best from the standpoint
+of the beautiful and artistic, and all who
+visit them are consciously or unconsciously
+influenced for the better.</p>
+
+<p>The following table shows the distribution
+of industrial art schools throughout the
+various States.</p>
+
+
+<ul class="normalindent">
+<li><i>Alsace-Lorraine</i>, M&uuml;lhausen, Strasburg.</li>
+<li><i>Anhalt</i>, Dessau.</li>
+<li><i>Baden</i>, Carlsruhe, Pforzheim.</li>
+<li><i>Bremen</i>,</li>
+<li><i>Bavaria</i>, Kaiserslautern, Munich, Nuremberg.</li>
+<li><i>Hamburg</i>,</li>
+<li><i>Hesse</i>, Mentz, Offenbach.</li>
+<li><i>Prussia</i>, Aix-la-Chappelle, Barmen, Berlin,
+Breslau, Cassel, Cologne, D&uuml;sseldorf, Elberfeld,
+Frankfort-on the-Main, Hanau, Hanover,
+Iserlohn, K&ouml;nigsberg, Magdeburg.</li>
+<li><i>Saxony</i>, Dresden, Leipzig, Plauen.</li>
+<li><i>Wurttemberg</i>, Stuttgart.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII</h2>
+
+<p class="subheader"><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span></p>
+
+
+<p>Beobachtungen und Vergleiche &uuml;ber Einrichtungen
+f&uuml;r Gewerbliche Erziehung,
+1901.&mdash;Dr. G. Kerschensteiner.</p>
+
+<p>Das Gewerbeschulwesen.&mdash;Carl Melchior.</p>
+
+<p>Denkschriften &uuml;ber die Entwickelung
+der Gewerblichen Fachschulen und der
+Fortbildungsschulen in Preussen.&mdash;L&uuml;ders.</p>
+
+<p>Encyklop&auml;disches Handbuch der P&auml;dagogik.&mdash;W. Rein.</p>
+
+<p>English Technical Instruction Commission,
+1896. Report on the Recent Progress
+of Technical Education in Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Fortbildungsschule in unserer Zeit.&mdash;J.&nbsp;B. Meyer.</p>
+
+<p>German Higher Schools.&mdash;James E. Russell.</p>
+
+<p>German Technical Schools, 1901.&mdash;Victor
+C. Alderson.</p>
+
+<p>Gewerbliche Fortbildungsschulen
+Deutschlands.&mdash;R. Nagel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>Handw&ouml;rterbuch der Staatswissenschaften,
+1900.&mdash;Conrad.</p>
+
+<p>H&ouml;herer Polytechnischer Unterricht in
+Deutschland, etc.&mdash;Carl Koristka.</p>
+
+<p>Industrial Education.&mdash;Philip Magnus.</p>
+
+<p>Jahresbericht der K&ouml;niglichen Industrieschule
+und Baugewerkschule zu M&uuml;nchen,
+1898-1899.</p>
+
+<p>Jahresbericht der Technischen Staatslehranstalten
+zu Chemnitz, 1890.</p>
+
+<p>Jahresbericht &uuml;ber die Berliner Fortbildungsschule,
+1890-1891.</p>
+
+<p>Kunstgewerbe als Beruf, 1901.</p>
+
+<p>Note on the Earlier History of the Technical
+High Schools in Germany.&mdash;A.&nbsp;E. Twentyman.</p>
+
+<p>Special Reports on Educational Subjects,
+London, 1902, Vol. 9, page 465.</p>
+
+<p>Paches&#8217; Handbook, 1899.</p>
+
+<p>Problems in Prussian Secondary Education
+for Boys.&mdash;Michael E. Sadler.</p>
+
+<p>Special Reports on Educational Subjects,
+London, 1898, Vol. 3.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>Programm der K&ouml;niglichen Fachschule zu
+Iserlohn Metal Industrie.</p>
+
+<p>Report of the United States Commissioner
+of Education, 1889-1890, page 1209-1212.</p>
+
+<p>Same, 1894-1895, Vol. 1, page 345-380.</p>
+
+<p>Supplementary and Industrial Schools in
+Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Same, 1895-1896, Vol. 1, page 138.</p>
+
+<p>Same, 1897-1898, Vol. 1, page 69. German
+Technical Colleges.</p>
+
+<p>Report of the United States Commissioner
+of Labor, 1892, Eighth Annual.</p>
+
+<p>Industrial Education in Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Same, 1902, Seventeenth Annual.</p>
+
+<p>Trade and Technical Education in Germany,
+page 871.</p>
+
+<p>Second Report of the Royal Commission
+on Technical Education, London, 1884,
+Vol. 1.</p>
+
+<p>The Educational Foundations of Trade
+and Industry, 1902.&mdash;Fabian Ware.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>The Continuation Schools in Berlin.&mdash;Dr.
+H. Bertram.</p>
+
+<p>Special Reports on Educational Subjects,
+London, 1902, Vol. 9, page 451.</p>
+
+<p>United States Consular Reports. Description
+of the School of Carpentry and
+Cabinetmaking in Magdeburg, Prussia, No.
+238, July, 1900.&mdash;Wm. Diederich.</p>
+
+<p>Same. School of Marine Machinists,
+Flensburg, Prussia. No. 174, March, 1895.</p>
+
+<p>Same. Technical and Merchant Schools
+56:208, page 78.&mdash;J.&nbsp;C. Monoghan.</p>
+
+<p>Same. Technical Education in Germany.
+54:202, page 447.&mdash;J.&nbsp;C. Monoghan.</p>
+
+
+<div class="note">
+<p><strong>Transcriber&#8217;s Note:</strong> The table below lists all corrections applied to
+the original text.</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><a href="#Page_viii">p. viii</a>: for <i>development</i> read <i>department</i> &rarr; <i>deportment</i></li>
+<li><a href="#Page_7">p. 007</a>: make any one clasification &rarr; classification</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_10">p. 010</a>: Conrad&#8217;s Handworterbuch &rarr; Handw&ouml;rterbuch</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_11">p. 011</a>: Wurtemburg industrial &rarr; Wurttemburg</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_12">p. 012</a>: other conditions (examinations) or these schools &rarr; of</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_12">p. 012</a>: Ages ranges from fourteen to thirty &rarr; range</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_12">p. 012</a>: the only instition &rarr; institution</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_13">p. 013</a>: [errata] Pure Air &rarr; Art</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_14">p. 014</a>: Technischeschulen &rarr; Technische Schulen</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_16">p. 016</a>: Continuation Schools or Fortbilbungsschulen &rarr; Fortbildungsschulen</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_16">p. 016</a>: Fortbildtngsshulen &rarr; Fortbildungsschulen</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_17">p. 017</a>: [extra comma] at this age, forced to &rarr; age forced</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_17">p. 017</a>: a statsment made by Mr. Michael N. Sadler&rarr; statement</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_18">p. 018</a>: [quote added] &#8220;Among the great number</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_19">p. 019</a>: [errata] in the arts which enable &rarr; ennoble</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_19">p. 019</a>: born under a luckler star &rarr; luckier</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_20">p. 020</a>: continuation of Fortbildungsschulen &rarr; or</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_23">p. 023</a>: adapt their instrnction &rarr; instruction</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_23">p. 023</a>: [errata] Here the committee must meet &rarr; communities</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_25">p. 025</a>: [errata] character and development of the boys &rarr; deportment</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_27">p. 027</a>: higher mathemematics, mechanics, physics &rarr; mathematics</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_28">p. 028</a>: is carried suffciently far &rarr; sufficiently</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_28">p. 028</a>: classes are arranged acording to &rarr; according</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_29">p. 029</a>: smaller towns or in the conntry &rarr; country</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_29">p. 029</a>: university extention courses &rarr; extension</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_31">p. 031</a>: similar to Fortbildungsschulen in Leipsig &rarr; Leipzig</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_31">p. 031</a>: schools have seen a marvelous developement &rarr; development</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_32">p. 032</a>: attended by journeyman and apprentices &rarr; journeymen</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_32">p. 032</a>: good manners (gute sitten) &rarr; Sitten</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_33">p. 033</a>: [normalized] throughout various parts of the empire &rarr; Empire</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_33">p. 033</a>: [extra comma] under eighteen years of age, might &rarr; age might</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_33">p. 033</a>: [extra comma] the employer, must &rarr; employer must</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_33">p. 033</a>: Baden. compulsory school laws &rarr; Baden, compulsory</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_34">p. 034</a>: to be determined eventually be &rarr; by</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_35">p. 035</a>: worthy of note that she delares &rarr; declares</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_39">p. 039</a>: that the Forthildungsschule &rarr; Fortbildungsschule</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_39">p. 039</a>: foundation of most of the Faceschulen &rarr; Fachschulen</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_46">p. 046</a>: Wagonmakers and Wheelrights &rarr; Wheelwrights</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_47">p. 047</a>: Free hand drawing &rarr; Free-hand</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_56">p. 056</a>: becomes the property ot the father &rarr; of</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_57">p. 057</a>: The Lehrwerkstatten or apprentice shops &rarr; Lehrwerkst&auml;tten</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_59">p. 059</a>: fulfil certain teohnical qualifications &rarr; technical</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_59">p. 059</a>: practical iu the highest degree &rarr; in</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_62">p. 062</a>: [missing letter] The governing power is in ome cases &rarr; some</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_63">p. 063</a>: [errata] laws of building; models of heat &rarr; modes</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_67">p. 067</a>: Buxtehede &rarr; Buxtehude</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_67">p. 067</a>: Magdeberg &rarr; Magdeburg</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_68">p. 068</a>: Orchatz &rarr; Oschatz</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_68">p. 068</a>: Zitteau &rarr; Zittau</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_69">p. 069</a>: [normalized] schools of this class in the empire &rarr; Empire</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_70">p. 070</a>: the elementary ranches in the curriculm &rarr; curriculum</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_71">p. 071</a>: Inserlohn &rarr; Iserlohn</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_71">p. 071</a>: Mlttweida &rarr; Mittweida</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_71">p. 071</a>: compiled from tables appearing the Report &rarr; appearing in the</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_74">p. 074</a>: [missing letters] Webereilehrwerkst&auml; en &rarr; Webereilehrwerkst&auml;tten</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_74">p. 074</a>: itinerant masters. (Wenderlehrer) &rarr; Wanderlehrer</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_74">p. 074</a>: lines of the indnstry &rarr; industry</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_75">p. 075</a>: In each of the several classses &rarr; classes</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_77">p. 077</a>: Grefeld &rarr; Crefeld</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_79">p. 079</a>: [errata] Knitting, 2 yrs. &rarr; Knitting, 1yr.</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_79">p. 079</a>: [errata, removed line] Machinery  |   |   | 3 | 6 | 2</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_81">p. 081</a>: superior artizans &rarr; artisans</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_81">p. 081</a>: prepared in the Volkschule &rarr; Volksschule</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_81">p. 081</a>: [errata] the participants enter &rarr; participants to enter</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_85">p. 085</a>: [added chapter number] V</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_86">p. 086</a>: show the aplication of science &rarr; application</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_87">p. 087</a>: in the atter country &rarr; latter</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_87">p. 087</a>: the necessity or heroic action &rarr; for heroic</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_87">p. 087</a>: due measure of public respsct &rarr; respect</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_87">p. 087</a>: by A.&nbsp;E. Twentymen &rarr; by A.&nbsp;E. Twentyman</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_88">p. 088</a>: Dresden, 1826 &rarr; 1828</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_88">p. 088</a>: principally for the Kiugs dominions &rarr; King&#8217;s</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_89">p. 089</a>: styled the Koeniglische Technische Hochschule &rarr; K&ouml;nigliche</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_90">p. 090</a>: Berlin provisory statue &rarr; statute</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_91">p. 091</a>: State and and each administered &rarr; State and each</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_92">p. 092</a>: The organization of deparments of work &rarr; departments</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_93">p. 093</a>: [errata] For the one course plan however &rarr; The one</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_93">p. 093</a>: [errata] have been substituted &rarr; has</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_93">p. 093</a>: [errata] substituted the several &rarr; substituted for the</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_93">p. 093</a>: Program der K&ouml;nigl. Technischen Hochschule &rarr; Programm</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_93">p. 093</a>: Den Horern bleibt die Wahl &rarr; H&ouml;rern</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_93">p. 093</a>: frei &uuml;berlassen, F&uuml;r ein geordnetes &rarr; &uuml;berlassen, f&uuml;r</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_98">p. 098</a>: Kunstgewerbsechulen are schools of art &rarr; Kunstgewerbeschulen</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_104">p. 104</a>: Alcace-Lorraine, M&uuml;lhausen, Strasburg &rarr; Alsace</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_104">p. 104</a>: Prussia, Aix-la Chapelle &rarr; Aix-la-Chappelle</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Enrichtungen f&uuml;r &rarr; Einrichtungen</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Gewerbliche Erzichnung &rarr; Erziehung</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Dr. G. Kerschenteuer &rarr; Kerschensteiner</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Denkschriften &uuml;ber die Entiwickelung &rarr; Entwickelung</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Fortbildungschulen in Prussen &rarr; Fortbildungsschulen in Preussen</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Encyklop&auml;discher Handbuch &rarr; Encyklop&auml;disches</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Handbuch der P&auml;dogik &rarr; P&auml;dagogik</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: in unserer zeit &rarr; Zeit</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: [removed in] Fortbildungsschulen in Deutschlands</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_106">p. 106</a>: [removed comma] Jahresbericht der K&ouml;niglichen, Industrieschule</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_106">p. 106</a>: Technischen Stattslehranstalten &rarr; Staatslehranstalten</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_107">p. 107</a>: Program der K&ouml;niglichen Fachschule &rarr; Programm</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_108">p. 108</a>: School of Marine Machinists, Fleusburg, Prussia &rarr; Flensburg</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Condition and Tendencies of
+Technical Education in Germany, by Arthur Henry Chamberlain
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Condition and Tendencies of Technical
+Education in Germany, by Arthur Henry Chamberlain
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Condition and Tendencies of Technical Education in Germany
+
+Author: Arthur Henry Chamberlain
+
+Release Date: September 11, 2008 [EBook #26595]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Irma Spehar, Markus Brenner and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                     THE CONDITION AND TENDENCIES
+
+                                  OF
+
+                    Technical Education in Germany
+
+                                  BY
+
+                       ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN
+
+       Professor of Education and Principal of the Normal School
+            of Manual Training, Art, and Domestic Economy,
+          Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, California:
+                Author of "Educative Hand-Work Manuals"
+                  and "A Bibliography of Manual Arts"
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+                            SYRACUSE, N. Y.
+                       C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER
+                                 1908
+
+                   Copyright, 1908, by C. W. BARDEEN
+
+
+
+
+                             INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The question of the technical phases of education is, with any nation, a
+vital one. Perhaps this is true of Germany as it is of no other European
+country. This may be mainly due to one of several causes. First, as to
+the length of time technical education has had a place in the German
+schools. In some form or another, and in a greater or lesser degree,
+such instruction has been in vogue for many years, and has in no small
+measure become part and parcel of the educational fabric of the nation.
+Again, throughout the various German States, the work is rather widely
+differentiated, this owing in part to the fact that the varying lines of
+industry in adjacent localities even, give color and bent to the
+technical education of any particular locality. An extensive field is
+thus comprehended under the term "technical education". Then, too,
+Germany as a nation must needs better her condition in order that she
+may prove self-sustaining. The country is not a wealthy one, and if in
+trade, in manufacture, and in commerce, she is to compete, and that
+successfully, with the world powers, strength must be gained along such
+lines as those opening through technical education.
+
+The hope is entertained that the following pages may prove of value, not
+alone to the student of technical education as it exists in Germany, but
+particularly to those who are endeavoring to institute and develop
+industrial and technical training in this country. The possibility along
+these lines is exceedingly great and the interest and attention of
+thinking people is focused here. They look to this form of education as
+a partial solution of some of the most obstinate problems now
+confronting us.
+
+
+
+
+                               CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+    INTRODUCTION                                                     v
+
+    CONTENTS                                                       vii
+
+    PUBLISHER'S NOTE                                              viii
+
+    SECTION I. Classification of Schools                             5
+
+    SECTION II. Continuation Schools (Fortbildungsschulen)          16
+
+    SECTION III. Trade Schools (Fachschulen)                        41
+
+    SECTION IV. Secondary Technical Schools
+                  (Gewerbliche Mittelschulen)                       61
+
+                Schools for the Building Trades
+                  (Baugewerkschulen)                                61
+
+                Schools for Foremen (Werkmeisterschulen)            69
+
+                Schools for the Textile Trades (Gewerbeschulen)     74
+
+                Industrial Schools of Bavaria (Industrie Schulen)   82
+
+    SECTION V.  Higher Technical Schools (Technische Hochschulen)   85
+
+    SECTION VI. Schools of Industrial Arts or Art Trade Schools
+                  (Kunstgewerbeschulen)                             98
+
+    SECTION VII. Bibliography                                      105
+
+
+
+
+                    Technical Education in Germany
+
+                   BY PROF. ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN
+
+
+
+
+                                   I
+
+
+If one were to point out the most distinctive feature of the educational
+system in the Fatherland to-day, it would perhaps be the highly
+specialized condition of the technical schools.
+
+In approaching our problem we naturally ask ourselves the question as to
+how far the industrial progress of a country is influenced by technical
+education. In no time as in our own has so much stress been laid upon
+the commercial side of our existence. New trades, new industries are
+springing up; specialization is becoming more far-reaching and more
+firmly established than ever before; competition is becoming keener;
+the application of science to the arts is more varied.
+
+In this latter field we find Germany in the very fore front, she having
+developed along these lines to a greater extent than have many of our
+nations. Illustrations of this application lie all about us,--in the
+bettered transportation facilities by railroad and by ocean vessel; in
+the more improved bridge and building construction; in the methods of
+water supply and drainage; in modes of heat, light, and ventilation; in
+electric vehicles, sound transmitters, labor-saving machinery; in finely
+adjusted instruments that bring far away worlds almost within reaching
+distance; in these and a thousand other ways is made manifest the result
+of the application of science to the arts. Germany is taking a prominent
+part in this warfare for industrial supremacy, and that she expects her
+technical schools to be largely instrumental in answering many of the
+problems of the present and the future cannot be doubted, especially
+when one is made aware of the diversity and extent of the schools of a
+technical character scattered over the Empire.
+
+It will be readily understood from the foregoing how difficult a matter
+it is to make any one classification that will cover in an adequate
+manner the various types of existing institutions. Frequently a school
+is found which in some respects is distinctive. To place such a school
+in this or that category would of course do violence to the
+classification, while to form a new class only serves to further
+complicate and bewilder. Again, various of the institutions mentioned
+may offer such a differentiated schedule or be made up of so many
+parallel departments as to entitle them to admission into two or more of
+the classes given.
+
+Another point of difficulty lies in the fact that the term "technical"
+would in Germany be somewhat more sweeping than with us in America. We
+do not class technical training with so-called manual training or
+handwork of the elementary schools. In our present study however, we
+shall find that while in the main we are dealing with the technical
+training of boys from fourteen to eighteen years of age,--comparable in
+a measure to our high or secondary school courses, we shall also include
+the industrial, vocational, or trade training of men and boys alike, as
+well as work in the more simplified forms of handicraft, as carried on
+in the lower or elementary school. Reference will also be made to the
+instruction of a higher order,--such for example as makes for engineers.
+These facts will be illuminated as the study proceeds.
+
+In reading into these schools their real significance, several points
+must be kept constantly in mind. At an early age the German youth is
+supposed to have solved the problem of his likes and dislikes, his
+abilities and shortcomings; to have gained such a perspective of his
+probable chances for future success, as to choose the line of work or
+occupation he shall follow. It is only fair to state, however, that
+circumstances have much to do with such decision, viz,--the occupation
+of the father, the financial outlook of the family, the industrial
+demands of the locality, the particular educational opportunities
+offered,--these and like problems entering in as vital elements.
+
+Then too, the founding and sustaining of a technical school is a matter
+to be noted. This may be in the hands of the general government, of the
+state, of the municipality, or may be looked after by private
+enterprise. The Guilds, Vereins or Associations may organize, equip and
+foster schools of such character as train directly for their particular
+lines of work. It must be stated however in this connection, that there
+seems to be a strong tendency at the present time toward the
+centralizing of control in the states. This has been brought about in
+large measure through the ever-increasing willingness on the part of the
+state to give financial backing to the schools, and thus has quite
+naturally arisen the desire and necessity on the part of the state, that
+it have a controlling voice in the school administration. Herein lies
+one of the main differences between such education in Germany and that
+of our own country.
+
+Conrad's Handwoerterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 1900, in an article
+entitled "Gewerblicher Unterricht", gives the following table on state
+expenditure for trade and technical instruction in recent years:
+
+Prussia:
+
+  Marks 142,000 ($33,796) in 1874;
+  Marks 475,000 ($114,050) in 1885;
+  Marks 4,672,000 ($1,111,936) in 1899.
+
+Saxony:
+
+  Marks 235,000 ($60,214) in 1873;
+  Marks 570,000 ($135,660) in 1885;
+  Marks 1,138,000 ($270,844) in 1898.
+
+Wurttemburg industrial continuation school:
+
+  Marks, 58,000 ($13,804) in 1869;
+  Marks 129,000 ($30,702) in 1879;
+  Marks 164,000 ($39,032) in 1889;
+  Marks 208,000 ($49,504) in 1897.
+
+The cost of the state per capita of the population of the expenditures
+was as follows:
+
+  Prussia, Pfennigs 15 (3 1/2 cts.) in 1899;
+  Saxony, Pfennigs 29 (7 cts.) in 1898;
+  Hesse, Pfennigs 22 (5 cts.) in 1898.
+
+The cost per Marks 1,000 ($236) of the entire state expenditures was
+Marks 2.27 (54 cts.) in Prussia in 1899, and Marks 5.88 ($1.40) in
+Saxony in 1898.
+
+In general the German schools are classified upon a basis of the grade
+of instruction given rather than upon the character of the subjects
+taught. Primary education is compulsory, that is to say, all children
+are compelled by law to attend school from their sixth to their
+fourteenth year. It is at this point that we find our difficulty. To
+quote Dr. Alwin Pabst of Leipzig (who speaks of conditions governing
+technical schools):
+
+"The age of admission, length of course, fees and other conditions
+(examinations) of these schools differ widely. Ages range from fourteen
+to thirty years or over; length of course, one to four or five years;
+fees perhaps twenty to thirty marks per year. The Fortbildungsschule is
+the only institution in which no fee is charged." (Taken from a personal
+letter.)
+
+Several classifications commend themselves for use. Each has its
+weaknesses and breaks down at some point, owing to the conditions
+previously mentioned. In order the better to illustrate this difficulty
+I shall give these various possible classifications.
+
+The first refers chiefly to the scheme of secondary education and was
+the one first chosen and later discarded. It was suggested mainly by Sir
+Philip Magnus's work on "Industrial Education" and the "Report of the
+Industrial Commission", Vol. 1.
+
+  1. Industrieschulen
+      Gewerbeschulen
+
+  2. Trade Schools
+      Fachschulen
+
+  3. Building Trade Schools
+
+  4. Secondary Technical Schools
+      Higher Technical
+      Foremen
+      Building
+      Weaving
+      Drawing
+
+  5. Industrial Art Schools (Kunstgewerbe)
+      Pure Art
+      Applied Art
+
+  6. Polytechnics or Technische Hochschulen
+
+  7. Continuation Schools--Fortbildungsschulen
+
+Another classification, suggested in most part by a German authority is
+as follows:
+
+  1. Fortbildungsschulen--Continuation schools
+  2. Industrie--or Fachschulen--Special Trade Schools
+  3. Gewerbeschulen
+  4. Technische Schulen
+  5. Technische Hochschulen
+  6. Baugewerkschulen--School for Architects
+  7. Kunstgewerbeschulen--Schools of Art
+
+In the Seventeenth Annual Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Labor for
+1902 we find the following:
+
+  1. Technical Colleges
+  2. Secondary or Intermediate Technical Schools
+  3. Schools and Museums of Industrial Art
+  4. Schools for Foremen
+  5. Schools for the Textile Trades
+  6. Trade and Industrial Continuation Schools
+  7. Industrial Drawing Courses
+  8. Other Institutions for Industrial Education.
+
+The order followed in the present study is finally given below. It is
+one not to be found elsewhere, but more closely resembles that of Dr.
+Pabst (the second classification) and that found in the Seventeenth
+Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor. It has undoubtedly its weak
+points, but I feel it is the best that can be made however, as it is
+based upon data recently published, and the results of correspondence
+with German school authorities, in addition to a not very extended
+knowledge gained through personal contact with the German schools. It
+may be taken therefore, as bringing the work down to the present time:
+
+  1. Continuation Schools or Fortbildungsschulen
+  2. Trade Schools or Fachschulen
+  3. Secondary or Intermediate Technical Schools or Gewerbliche
+     Mittelschulen
+  4. Technical Colleges or Technische Hochschulen
+  5. School and Museums of Industrial Art, or Kunstgewerbeschulen
+
+
+
+
+                                  II
+
+                         CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
+
+                          FORTBILDUNGSSCHULEN
+
+
+Since at the age of fourteen years the German youth is no longer under
+the control of the compulsory school law, the value of the system of
+continuation schools is realized. Of necessity the great mass of boys
+are at this age, forced to enter some gainful pursuit. It was clearly
+evident to the German people that boys should not be cut off from school
+education at this early age. Dr. James H. Russell in his German Higher
+Schools says:
+
+"The elementary and secondary schools are quite independent of each
+other--not one boy in ten thousand finds his way from the highest class
+of the elementary school into the Gymnasium."
+
+It is evident that year by year an increasingly large number of boys
+discontinue their education at the close of the elementary school, for a
+statement made by Mr. Michael N. Sadler, (Vol. III of Special Reports on
+Educational Subjects, London), some years prior to the above writing,
+would seem to indicate a lesser percentage of dropping out than that
+proposed by Dr. Russell.
+
+The desire then for more extended educational advantages must have been
+early felt, and there sprang into existence what has since developed
+into one of the most significant features and far-reaching factors in
+the German scheme,--the continuation school. I quote from Mr. H. Bertram
+who writes of the continuation schools in Berlin, December, 1899:
+
+"Amid the development of civilization among the nations the idea of the
+continuation school is making its way with increasing strength. Urgently
+required by the conditions of social organization, and in its turn
+acting on them, the new institution appears in many forms. It claims its
+place side by side with the Church and the School.
+
+"Among the great number of those who enter early upon the practical
+business of life, to whom the primary school has offered a start there
+awakens, sooner or later, the desire to share in the stores of
+knowledge which human intelligence has won, in the insight into the
+working of the forces of nature, which it has acquired and applied to
+industry, in the arts which ennoble and support human action; in short
+to participate in the spiritual treasures which are, as it were, the
+birthright of those born under a luckier star. This desire, which opens
+to the diligent the way to material prosperity and inner contentment,
+seems for society as a whole an important incentive to industrial
+progress, and turns the discontent of the slaves of machinery into
+happiness of men conscious of their own success. The more the old order
+changes which held the work people in the narrow bonds of tradition, the
+more is customary prescription replaced by education and independent
+judgment, by insight into existing conditions, by special excellence
+within a particular sphere. For this reason, the elementary school,
+however efficient and methodically correct its action may be, cannot
+suffice for the happiness of the masses, nor for the preservation of
+society. The instruction must come into close contact with the life of
+the future citizen, and must be at the command of everyone desirous to
+learn, as long as he seeks it. But the seeker, born amid such conditions
+as these, needs guidance. Public libraries, newspapers, magazines help
+him the more he pushes forward, but without expert assistance he hardly
+finds the beginning of the path.
+
+"This is the object of the Continuation School."
+
+It is somewhat difficult to define the limits and scope of the
+continuation or Fortbildungsschulen. Conditions vary in the different
+German states and especially do they vary in the various kinds of
+continuation schools. Definition is made even more doubtful when we find
+that the limits of certain schools overlap. It may be said that
+students are regularly admitted from fourteen to sixteen years of age.
+Not infrequently however, boys and men of more mature years take
+advantage of the courses offered. Instruction is carried on during the
+week-day evenings from six to eight o'clock and on Sunday mornings.
+
+Prussia leads the other states in the number and character of her
+supplementary schools, the system having its fullest expression in
+Berlin. The fact became early apparent that preparation, whatever line
+the boy was to follow, was necessary, and this thought is confirmed in
+the many skilled laborers in Germany to-day. In Prussia, as elsewhere,
+it was found that boys many times left the common school before they
+became proficient in any line of book work. The causes were various;
+poverty, indifference, sickness, overcrowding, poor enforcement of the
+compulsory attendance laws,--all these conspired to make supplementary
+schools necessary. In the older provinces very little attention was
+given the continuation school prior to 1875, and almost as much could be
+said of those provinces which were acquired in 1866. In 1844 a report
+issued by the Department of Public Instruction makes mention of the
+usefulness of such schools, while two years later a second report has
+only slightly more to say on the subject. This lack of interest may be
+attributed in large measure to the non-financial support of these
+schools by the government.
+
+Several problems had to be faced in working out the scheme. Certain
+definite relations between the primary and continuation schools must be
+observed; those coming into the latter with an inadequate underschool
+knowledge must be looked after; provision must be made for students of
+lesser as well as of more mature years; all classes of occupation must
+be given attention; these and many other difficult questions were to be
+met and overcome.
+
+"Three principles," says Mr. Bertram, "have contributed to the solution
+of this problem--free choices between the courses provided, free
+enjoyment of the preparatory courses without fee, and the selection of
+the teachers according to their attainments in a particular branch and
+their ability to adapt their instruction to the needs of the pupils or
+participants in the course."
+
+In certain sections, Nassau and Hanover for example, state aid came
+early to the continuation school. In 1874 an increased appropriation
+resulted in the betterment of the schools then existing and in the
+further establishment of like institutions. Here the communities must
+meet the cost of building, heating, lighting etc., and one-half of all
+the expenses not covered by the actual tuition. Since 1878 there is a
+fairly general acceptance throughout the Empire of the statute
+providing that all employes under eighteen years of age must be allowed
+to attend a continuation school, the period of attendance to be
+determined by "competent authority". This naturally leads the Public
+Instruction Department to be free in its financial support.
+
+It will be understood that in most cases six hours per week is the
+attendance required and that only those who have left the Volksschule or
+lower school and are not attending any higher institution are admitted.
+In Saxony a somewhat different condition exists. Children who have not
+made satisfactory progress in the Volksschule must, perforce, attend the
+continuation school for two years.
+
+The writer of this paper was thoroughly impressed with the work of the
+Sunday classes as seen in Leipzig, Saxony, during the summer of 1899.
+His first introduction to such work was made, when on joining a group
+of boys, several of them carrying draughting-boards, he was conducted by
+them to their school. The general character and deportment of the boys,
+the spirit and enthusiasm manifested by them, and the thoughtful and
+intelligent quality of the work produced, fully justified in his own
+mind, the validity and worth of the Sunday class instruction.
+
+As between the schools located in the cities and those in the smaller
+towns and country places, there is some slight difference. They may be
+classified as (_a_) rural or (_b_) city schools, on account of their
+location. The distinction lies rather in the arrangement of their
+curricula, the needs of the students in the particular locality being
+kept in mind. In the rural schools the programme of studies is somewhat
+general, comprising the German language, arithmetic, mensuration, nature
+study; and in some instances may be added to these, geography, German
+history, drawing, gymnastics and music. This programme is elective to
+the extent that the capacity and previous education of the pupil are
+considered, and too, the ability of the teacher, local conditions and
+the time spent by the individual student. Such schools are admonished
+not to take on the character of technical institutions, but rather to
+continue the general education begun in the Volksschulen. Only under
+certain conditions is less than four hours per week of instruction
+permissible.
+
+In Prussia the city continuation schools are of two grades, each grade
+made up of a number of classes. In the lower grade schools, instruction
+is given in accordance with the particular trade or calling the pupil is
+to follow. In the upper grade, work is much the same, proficiency being
+the chief additional feature. When six hours of work is the minimum,
+language, arithmetic, elementary geometry and drawing, form the body of
+the course; while penmanship, geography, history, grammar and nature
+study all are taken up in connection with the reading work. Business
+forms are not overlooked. In the more fully equipped schools where the
+teachers are prepared for such branches, higher mathematics, mechanics,
+physics and advanced drawing are taken up.
+
+If, as before stated, the various types of continuation schools overlap,
+the same is true regarding the trade and industrial continuation
+schools. While in many instances the work in the latter schools is of a
+general character, aiming to supplement or round out the education of
+the pupil, we find that many of the original schools of this class have
+developed into a form of special or trade school. This is brought about
+through pressure from without, as it were. When a certain industry
+predominates in a locality supporting a continuation school, it is only
+fair to suppose that the work done, general though it may be, will be
+colored to some extent at least, by the demands of such industry. If
+this process of merging is carried sufficiently far, as is in many cases
+done, the school may lose almost or entirely its original trend, and
+from a Fortbildungsschule, fall into the class of trade or Fachschulen.
+
+In the main then, the instruction given in a continuation school proper,
+is either of a theoretical nature or involves some form of drawing
+perhaps, thus rendering any other than an ordinary school room
+unnecessary for class use. In the city of Leipzig the situation is
+dissimilar to that in some north German cities. Here the classes are
+arranged according to the various trades followed, as bookbinders,
+printers, lithographers, bakers, metal workers, workers in wood and
+stone, etc. There are again in Southern Germany simply schools of
+drawing with special reference to the various trades and industries. In
+addition to these are classes of a general nature for boys not following
+special trades. Such schools however, cannot be found in the smaller
+towns or in the country. Certain other Saxon cities have schools of
+somewhat similar character.
+
+In the Consular Report, Vol. 54, No. 202, page 447, 1898, Mr. J. C.
+Monoghan says, writing under the title Technical Education in Germany:
+
+"The supplementary schools are for the people who have to work, what
+Chautauquas, summer schools, and university extension courses are for
+others.--Parties in politico-economic circles have found that the system
+of common school education under which boys and girls were given an
+ordinary education in reading, writing, arithmetic etc., up to their
+fourteenth year, was inadequate, partially if not wholly, to the ends
+aimed at in such a system. To supply this defect it was urged, and
+finally proposed and favorably acted upon, that graduates of the common
+schools, boys especially, in some few cases girls too, should continue
+to get instruction a certain number of hours a week. This was made
+compulsory. Manufacturers, shopkeepers, and mechanics in whose employ
+such boys were found, and not the parents, were made responsible for the
+boys' attendance. In these schools, as indicated in the foregoing, the
+boys get as good an idea as possible of the trade or branch of business
+in which they are employed. As a rule, the hours of attendance are early
+in the morning or a certain number of afternoons in the week. Sunday
+mornings are not thought too sacred for such work. It seems to be an
+acknowledgement that the years hitherto given to a boy in which to get
+an education, viz., from his sixth to his fourteenth year, are not
+enough to prepare him for the struggle for life that he has to enter
+upon. Men have told me, successful merchants and agents here, that they
+owe more to the hours spent in the developing or supplementary schools
+from the practical character of the instruction given and the
+information imparted, than to the many years spent in the common
+schools. While one is hardly willing to believe this, there can be no
+doubt of the good work done, and being done, by the schools referred
+to."
+
+The Handwerkschulen in Berlin are very similar to Fortbildungsschulen in
+Leipzig for example. These schools have seen a marvelous development
+during the past few years. They have a technical quality, giving much
+attention to drawing. The sessions are in the evening, eight hours per
+week, the fee being six marks the half year. They are attended by
+journeymen and apprentices who come recommended by their employers. In
+connection with these schools various Sunday classes are conducted
+throughout the city, each center specializing along certain trade lines.
+
+The Berlin Handwerker Verein is a type of continuation school, sustained
+not by the state but by an association. The Verein, founded in 1859, has
+for its object the promotion of general culture, a partial knowledge at
+least of the several callings represented, and good manners (gute
+Sitten). The moral and ethical elements are not lacking. Here public
+lectures of real merit are given, together with music, gymnastics, and
+instruction in general and technical subjects. Boys of good character,
+over seventeen years of age, are admitted. The families of the boys in
+attendance are also allowed to avail themselves of such general
+exercises, lectures, music, etc., as the school offers.
+
+What may also be styled as belonging in a sense in the continuation
+school category is the German Association for the Diffusion of Popular
+Education, with headquarters in Berlin. Branches of this association are
+scattered throughout various parts of the Empire.
+
+In the year 1869, the industrial code provided that all boys under
+eighteen years of age might, at the discretion of the local authorities,
+be compelled to attend school. It is thus evident that the local or
+State authority was here consulted, rather than the General Government.
+At the present time however, when the adjustment of this matter is not
+in the hands of local authority, the employer must, if those engaged
+with him desire so to do, allow such boys to attend school at their
+option. In some States however, Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse and Baden,
+compulsory school laws are in force among all boys fourteen to eighteen
+years of age. At present the law of 1891 is active and the portion
+touching our problem is here given:
+
+"Employers are required to give the necessary time, to be determined
+eventually by the competent authorities, to their workingmen under
+eighteen years of age who attend an educational establishment recognized
+by the communal administration or by the State as an adult's school.
+Instruction shall not be given on Sunday except where the hours are so
+fixed that the pupils are not prevented from attending the principal
+religious exercise or a religious exercise of their faith especially
+conducted for them with the consent of the ecclesiastical authorities.
+The central administration may, until October 1, 1894, accord exemptions
+from the last provision to adult schools already in existence,
+attendance upon which is not obligatory.
+
+"For purposes of this law schools giving instruction in manual work and
+domestic duties to women shall be considered as adult schools."
+
+This citation points out that the Sunday class work must not conflict
+with the religious services. There is a strong sentiment in many places
+in favor of a repeal of such laws as prohibit Sunday classes at such
+times as church services are held. Many of the clergy are opposed to the
+extending of Sunday continuation schools, while for the most part the
+government authorities are favorable to such extension.
+
+As regards the compulsory age limit, Prussia of all the German states is
+following out the option given the individual States. It is worthy of
+note that she declares (while declining to accept the law) that where
+freedom is allowed, boys are more likely to continue in school after
+their eighteenth year. It is insisted also that with the restrictions
+removed, a deeper interest is excited in the school studies. The
+statement is made however that in Prussia two thirds of the industrial
+continuation schools have compulsory attendance laws in force as the
+local authorities may determine. Certain it is that much stress is laid
+upon the ethical side of instruction in the continuation schools and it
+is agreed that the compulsory school should not transplant the regular
+continuation school, except where it seems absolutely necessary to do
+so. In Bavaria for example, where the age limit by law is thirteen, the
+compulsory school has a place for the time being at least.
+
+In Berlin, a century ago, Sunday afternoon classes were inaugurated,
+with a programme no more varied than that furnished by the three R's.
+Apprentices not equipped with sufficient school training were forced to
+attend the schools. In 1869 the power was wrested from the trade guilds
+and the elective system resulted, later producing the Elementary
+Continuation School. The local city government founded at a later date
+three such schools, and in these a more diversified curriculum was
+operated, adding to the three R's, German composition and literature,
+modern languages, natural science, political science, law, bookkeeping
+and drawing. For various reasons these schools were not attended by a
+full measure of success and the city authorities formulated the plan of
+placing the continuation schools in some of the higher institutions of
+learning, courses to be operative in winter only. Later, from the
+preparatory school, which fitted for the continuation school proper,
+grew up the technical continuation school.
+
+There are at the present twelve schools of the continuation type in
+Berlin. A large attendance is desired, for with large classes groups of
+various intellectual standards may be formed. The student is free to
+elect subjects--as between certain languages, mathematics or art
+studies. The Director of the school, by keeping in touch with the
+employers in the various trades and shops, can thus control the
+attendance and shape the course of the lines of work offered.
+
+Some ten years since, two special lines of instruction were withdrawn
+from the continuation school proper--the carpenters' school and the
+Gewerbesaal, comprising work in drawing and theory involved in machine
+construction and the like. Courses for turners are offered in the
+carpenters' schools. In Berlin there are in excess of nine centers for
+the last named school and ten centers for the Gewerbesaal, the winter
+classes running up to 2000 and 850 pupils respectively.
+
+This example serves to illustrate the fact mentioned in a previous
+connection, viz., that the Fortbildungsschule was in some cases merged
+into a special school, for here in reality a Fach or trade institution
+has developed from the original continuation school. This practice has
+been going on more or less extensively among the various schools; and in
+Berlin especially, the continuation school has been the foundation of
+most of the Fachschulen. Something more will be said in this connection
+in the section under trade schools.
+
+Regarding the continuation schools for girls and women a word may be
+added. As with the boys' schools, so these designed for girls were put
+on foot, partly at least, from an ethical standpoint. Girls spending
+their days in the factory and shop were in need of a refining influence,
+and this the continuation school afforded. Courses were offered in the
+German language, arithmetic, sewing and dressmaking. The efforts made to
+give girls this training were not entirely successful. So many
+objections to Sunday work were brought forward that it was discontinued.
+The burdens of the day fell so heavily upon the girls that they were not
+ambitious to attend evening classes. At the present time the schools are
+more largely attended by girls who, during the day, remain in the
+family, and in the school take up the household arts, sewing, cutting
+out, and the like, and also languages, mathematics, geography, etc.,
+gymnastics and music, shorthand and typewriting. It is hoped soon to
+introduce cookery in all girls' schools. Drawing is given much
+attention.
+
+There are in Berlin, nine municipal continuation schools for girls,
+which are, as the name indicates, maintained by the city.
+
+
+
+
+                                  III
+
+                           TRADE SCHOOLS[1]
+
+
+As has been indicated in another connection, the classification of trade
+schools as such, is somewhat uncertain. It has been shown that many of
+the present schools for special trades have evolved from the
+continuation schools of the past. In the transition state it is
+sometimes quite difficult to definitely place a certain school, whether
+in the trade continuation, or trade group proper, or to class it with
+the Industrieschulen. The trade continuation schools have largely
+superseded the regular trade schools, in many localities at least, and
+where this condition exists, trade instruction seems to be losing
+ground, here the Fortbildungsschulen on the one hand, and regular
+apprenticeships on the other, coming in to supplant trade teaching.
+
+[Footnote 1: The two previous articles were published in the School
+Bulletin for July and August, 1906.]
+
+The seeming contradictory statements made here must be interpreted in
+the spirit rather than in the letter, if the full meaning and
+significance of the trade school is to be grasped. Trades are taught as
+formerly. The point made is that while the trade school, per se, is
+doing its work, boys are, more and more, being trained for their trades
+in the so-called trades continuation schools and as apprentices in the
+shops. The latter form of training will be spoken of elsewhere in this
+section of the paper.
+
+We have noted in following the work of the continuation school, that the
+attempt has been mainly toward the teaching of theoretical subjects, the
+practical lines being carried forward in the regular daily occupations
+of the individuals. Hence the trade is not held specifically in mind,
+although the desired end is always kept in view. In the trade schools
+on the other hand, the work is largely of a practical nature, dealing
+with some particular occupation. The foregoing statement may be taken as
+fairly representing the Fachschule point of view, but it should be
+observed that while these schools are special trade schools, training
+for example iron workers, or joiners, or tailors, there is a
+differentiation within the general class. I refer to the Gewerbeschulen,
+where theoretical lessons are sometimes taught. These schools will be
+given mention in the secondary group.
+
+Admission to the trade schools is gained usually at fourteen years of
+age, the length of each course covering a period of three years. The
+schools are in receipt of financial aid from both state and local
+governments.
+
+To simplify our study, we shall consider only such institutions as deal
+with a single trade each, leaving the schools for the building trades
+and the like, and those dealing with industrial art and drawing to be
+treated elsewhere. Specialization has been carried so far that the
+following lists of schools, each training for its own particular trade
+or calling, may be given. The list is arranged alphabetically and
+without reference to the relative importance of the various vocations,
+or to the number of schools. Such schools are now found pretty generally
+in the larger cities throughout the Empire. Some of these are day
+schools; some evening schools, and others again offer both day and
+evening courses and Sunday instruction.
+
+
+  SINGLE TRADE SCHOOLS
+
+  Schools for Bakers
+     "     "  Barbers and Hairdressers
+     "     "  Basketmakers, Wickerworkers, and Strawplaiters
+     "     "  Blacksmiths
+     "     "  Bookbinders
+     "     "  Carpenters and Cabinetmakers
+     "     "  Chimney Sweeps
+     "     "  Confectioners
+     "     "  Coopers
+     "     "  Gardeners
+     "     "  Glaziers
+     "     "  Joiners
+     "     "  Marine Machinists
+     "     "  Masons
+     "     "  Painters
+     "     "  Paperhangers and Decorators
+     "     "  Plumbers
+     "     "  Photographers
+     "     "  Potters
+     "     "  Printers
+     "     "  Saddlers, Trimmers and Trunkmakers
+     "     "  Shoemakers
+     "     "  Tailors
+     "     "  Tinsmiths
+     "     "  Toymakers
+     "     "  Upholsterers
+     "     "  Wagonmakers and Wheelwrights
+     "     "  Watch and Clockmakers
+     "     "  Woodcarvers
+
+Some of the above named institutions are in certain localities styled
+apprenticeship schools. These train workmen and foremen of a minor
+degree. Shop work is offered, and in some cases pure and applied art as
+well.
+
+The evening work of the so-called Artisans' Schools of Berlin, are
+deserving of special mention. There are two such institutions, called
+respectively school number one and school number two. The first was
+established in 1880; the second in 1892. The aim of these schools is to
+give to tradesmen and apprentices in their leisure hours such a
+knowledge of drawing, the arts and sciences, as will find an application
+in their own lines of work.
+
+The grade of instruction varies from quite elementary work to that for
+advanced students, the latter being obliged to present evidence of
+fitness before entering.
+
+The following courses are offered, the figures indicating the number of
+hours per week devoted to each.
+
+  Arithmetic                                                 2
+  Algebra                                                    2
+  Geometry                                                   2
+  Trigonometry                                               2
+  Analytical geometry and calculus                           1
+  Mathematical problems involving physics and mechanics      2
+  Descriptive geometry                                       4
+  Bookkeeping                                                2
+  Physics                                                    4
+  Mechanics                                                  2
+  Electro-technics                                           4
+  Chemistry                                                  4
+  Chemistry and pharmacy                                     4
+  Free-hand drawing                                        2-4
+  Aquarelle                                                  4
+  Projection                                                 4
+  Ornament                                                   4
+  Trade drawing according to occupation                      4
+  Modeling in wax and clay                                   4
+  Decorative painting                                        4
+
+In addition to the foregoing, school number two offers:
+
+  Chasing                                                    4
+  Practical wrought-iron work                                4
+  Sketching and calculating the elements of machinery        2
+
+The courses continue for two years.
+
+It is interesting to note that whereas certain enactments are in force
+regarding the Sunday sessions of the Fortbildungsschulen, there are no
+such restrictions placed upon the Fachschulen, Sunday morning classes
+being held at the discretion of the school authorities.
+
+Let us refer to our table of single trade schools as given above. The
+statements which follow have in most cases been taken from data relating
+to the schools of Berlin, and may be said to fairly represent the
+general existing conditions throughout the Empire.
+
+In the school for bakers, instruction is given one day weekly for two
+and one half hours. The theoretical work (which in common with all such
+work in the regular trade schools, is related directly to the particular
+trade under discussion) is made up of chemistry and bookkeeping.
+
+In the barbers' and hairdressers' schools, instruction is carried on six
+days each week, four hours daily, the school continuing six months of
+the year, covering the winter period. Each class receives fourteen hours
+instruction per week. While the bakers' school is supported by the
+guild, the barbers' school is jointly maintained by state, city and
+guild. The curriculum includes shaving, hair cutting, and hair dressing,
+wig making, and ladies' hair dressing. A tuition of three marks is
+charged for the term, in the case of apprentices, and six marks for
+journeymen; a charge five times as great is made for ladies' hair
+dressing, and for the surgical lectures, ten marks.
+
+The guild, state and municipality maintain the school for basketmakers
+and wickerworkers. Apprentices receive instruction free, four marks each
+semester being charged the journeymen and adults. Attendance is
+compulsory on the part of apprentices of guild members. Four hours work
+per week are given, on Saturdays. The annual expenses of the school, are
+about five hundred and fifty dollars. Four courses are offered, as
+follows: first, general basket making and wicker furniture; second,
+making of small wicker furniture; third, large wicker furniture; fourth,
+fine and artistic wicker working.
+
+In the blacksmiths' school the instruction is for two hours, one day
+each week. Theoretical work in horseshoeing, and drawing related to the
+course are taught.
+
+The city and guild support the school for bookbinders. The students are
+both apprentices and journeymen. They work week day evenings and Sunday
+mornings. The purpose is not to produce tradesmen, but rather to make
+more proficient those engaged in some form of bookbinding, and to this
+end applicants must have had experience amounting to two years work
+before entering the school. All students must be grounded in the general
+elements underlying the trade before they are allowed to take up any
+phase as a specialty. No fee is charged the apprentices of guild
+members; others pay five marks per term; journeymen pay nine marks per
+term.
+
+In the cabinetmakers' school, all lines of work pertaining to the trade
+are taken up, drawing and designing for trade purposes; free-hand
+drawing; modeling, carving; properties of woods, etc. Instruction is
+given week day evenings and Sunday forenoons. Four marks are charged
+for the first term in the drawing course and for each subsequent term,
+two marks. The subjects taken up are: chemistry, free-hand drawing,
+projection, trade drawing, perspective and shadows, drawing from cast,
+modeling and wood carving, joinery. The school is under public control.
+
+In most of the remaining trade schools, instruction is pretty generally
+given on week day evenings and Sunday mornings, the apprentices of guild
+members paying no fee, a small charge being made for outsiders. The
+support comes from city, state and guild in most cases. In the school
+for masons however, there is a preparatory course and also a carpenters'
+course, the whole covering a three years term. In this school the
+instruction is thorough, covering plans, drawings and specifications;
+stone, brick, and wood construction; foundations, arches, staircases,
+roofs, and the like. Almost without exception in all these schools the
+winter attendance is greater than that in the summer.
+
+Certain individual schools throughout the Empire deserve special
+mention, the Royal Fachschule of Iserlohn, the first in Prussia, being a
+notable example. Here handwork is combined with industrial art adapted
+to metal work. Boys who entered the trade were, in the early days of the
+school, found to be in need of both theoretical and practical work, so
+each has a place in the curriculum. The length of the course is three
+years, covering the trades of designers, wood carvers, moulders,
+founders, turners, chasers, engravers, gilders, and etchers. Here are
+taught drawing in all its branches; modeling in wax and clay; history of
+art and metal work; elements of chemistry and physics; mathematics;
+German. Practical work in the department in which the student is
+engaged, is given, the student stating on entrance what subject he
+desires to take up. The time of instruction is from eight to twelve, in
+the winter season, and from seven to eleven in the summer. The afternoon
+session is from two to six. In the engineering trade school, three hours
+per day are devoted to ornamental drawing, German, physics and
+arithmetic. As the instruction is planned for working people it is
+largely theoretical.
+
+The Reimscheid school is of the apprenticeship order. Attention is given
+the making of edge tools and such other implements as are manufactured
+in the district. All students take drawing and design as applied to iron
+work. They are made acquainted with the different kinds of iron work
+that can be carried on in the home; are schooled in the use of the tools
+made; learn regarding the markets at which they are sold, and the
+various methods of their manufacture. Thus a general understanding of
+the principles underlying his trade is given the boy and he becomes
+acquainted with the commercial side of his calling while undergoing the
+necessary preparation in manipulation. The theoretical work is given in
+the morning and what shop practice is offered is in the afternoon from
+two to seven. The tuition is twenty dollars per year.
+
+The Pottery Trade School at Hohr Grenzhausen, Prussia, is under State
+control. There are day and evening classes, the former attended for the
+most part by the sons of manufacturers; the evening classes by men and
+women who are employed otherwise during the day. There are Sunday
+classes also. Decorated stoneware is given much attention. The day class
+boys enter with a fairly good knowledge of drawing and have perhaps
+attended the Fortbildungsschule. Drawing, descriptive geometry,
+modeling in clay and wax, new forms of vessels and original
+ornamentation, painting, designing and decorative art, manufacture of
+earthenware, lectures and study of collections, make up the curriculum.
+Any original model made becomes the property of the father of the boy,
+or of the person financially supporting such boy during his attendance
+at school. Two duplicates of the model must be left at the school. The
+courses are three years, daily sessions, Saturdays excepted. The fees
+are nominal, being only five dollars per year for the day classes,
+thirty hours weekly, and one dollar for evening work, two hours weekly.
+Pupils living outside the municipality pay six dollars per year for day
+instruction.
+
+The Furtwangen, or Black Forest schools are made up of several
+divisions, giving rather a high class of instruction. Clock making, wood
+carving, and straw plaiting, are largely carried on.
+
+This paper would not be complete without some mention of the system of
+apprenticeship in vogue in Germany. The Lehrwerkstaetten or apprentice
+shops play a considerable part in the industrial life of the Empire. In
+some instances they are maintained in connection with the trade schools,
+or again, are semi-private or separate shops. The apprenticeship shops
+on the one hand, and the continuation schools upon the other, are doing
+much of the work formerly undertaken by the trade schools proper. While
+manufacturing upon a larger scale is recognized as possessing advantages
+over the smaller productive plants, it has seemed wise to hold to the
+handicrafts, in a measure at least. The apprentice system helps to
+preserve the traditions and sentiments of the German people, by handing
+down these handicrafts. The associations, vereins, and guilds of past
+time, are to-day, through the aid of legislation, coming to the fore,
+and bringing with them many boys trained in the shops under the masters.
+To show the power and scope of the guild, and in some cases it is
+incumbent upon a community to form a guild whether or no, let me give
+the following quotation:
+
+"Persons carrying on trades on their own account can form guilds for the
+advancement of their common trade interests. The object of the guild
+shall be:
+
+1. the cultivation of an esprit de corps and professional pride among
+the members of a trade;
+
+2. the maintenance of amicable relations between employers and their
+employes, and the securing of work for unemployed journeymen and their
+shelter during the period of their nonemployment;
+
+3. the detailed regulations of the conditions of apprenticeship and the
+care for the technical and moral education of apprentices;
+
+4. the adjustment of disputes between guild members and their
+apprentices, as contemplated by the law of July 20, 1890, concerning
+industrial arbitration."
+
+The shops offer about the same lines of work as do the private concerns,
+aiming however to be more systematic and to cover a wider scope. It is
+asserted by some that the instruction gained in the shop is superficial,
+and not to be compared with that obtained from the traveling
+master-workmen. When the shop is connected with some enterprise or
+manufacturing interest, a master-workman has one apprentice only under
+his charge, for which he receives from the state some thirty-five
+dollars yearly, the boy being given board, lodging and proper training.
+The master must have attained the age of twenty-four years, and must
+fulfil certain technical qualifications. The instruction is practical in
+the highest degree and thus follows the lead of the trade schools in
+letter and spirit. The fees are mainly paid in by guild members, and
+those not members even, provided such reside in the district and are
+connected with the trade for which the school stands. Local and state
+aid is furnished. While the period of apprenticeship may extend over
+four years, three years is the usual term.
+
+
+
+
+                                  IV
+
+                           ART TRADE SCHOOLS
+
+
+The various types of institutions taken up under this head are of an
+intermediate grade, standing half way between the trade school on the
+one hand and the higher technical institutions upon the other. Indeed,
+they contain many elements in common with the lower group, their scope
+however being broader and more general or indirect, theoretical work
+finding a place in their curricula. Owing to a similarity in the
+instruction given, several classes of schools seem to demand a hearing
+under this section. We shall begin with the more general trade schools
+omitted from our previous study.
+
+
+                    SCHOOLS FOR THE BUILDING TRADES
+
+                          (Baugewerkschulen)
+
+The schools for the building trades, of which there are a half hundred
+in the Empire, are very similar in character throughout. The Munich
+school, established in 1823, was the first of its kind. Their aim, as
+indicated in the title, is the giving of training in the trades
+connected with the various building operations. The majority of these
+schools offer a course two years in length. The age of admission is
+fourteen to sixteen years. It is a requisite under some boards, that
+applicants have had practical experience in the line to be followed, at
+least two half-years and in some cases two full years, before entrance
+to the school. They must have also a fair general knowledge of their own
+language, and of reading and writing as well. The candidate must be a
+graduate of the Volksschule or must subject himself to an examination.
+The fees in these schools vary from fifty to two hundred marks per year.
+These are day sessions only. The governing power is in some cases vested
+in the municipality, frequently in the State, and again in private
+enterprise.
+
+While those who go out from these schools may, some of them at least,
+follow the trades as regular laborers, others again are qualified as
+master-workmen and leaders in their craft. Construction in wood, stone,
+iron and metals; laws of building; modes of heat, light and ventilation;
+plumbing; interior fittings; these and other occupations are taken up.
+The sessions of most schools extend over the winter months only, the
+students being actively engaged in their several trades during the
+summer season. These schools holding continuous sessions, are sparsely
+attended during the summer. When theoretical work is given, such
+subjects are included as bookkeeping, descriptive geometry, physics and
+mechanics, German, free-hand and mechanical drawing, design, principles
+of architecture. The practical programme comprehends a study of building
+materials and the procuring and working of the same; relative strengths
+and adaptability to purpose; models of construction; ornamentation;
+architecture and design; estimates; chemical properties of materials;
+supports, trusses, arches and the like. In the more advanced
+institutions, algebra, surveying, mechanics, study of machines and
+chemistry may be added to the theoretical list given, while the
+practical studies are more intensive, and of a somewhat higher order.
+Special departments for engineering, (Tiefbauabteilungen) preparing men
+to occupy positions as superintendents, managers of public works,
+construction directors, etc., are sustained in some instances.
+
+Such schools are of an inferior engineering type, and deal with problems
+of advanced work as related to the construction of roads, water works
+and railroads; municipal engineering; bridge construction;
+electro-technics. The theoretical lines are similar to those pursued in
+other courses.
+
+The schools to which we have just referred illustrate well the statement
+made in a previous connection, that the grade of instruction rather than
+the character of the subjects taught, determines the classification of
+schools into groups. Three classes of trade instruction have just been
+mentioned, and might well be styled lower, middle and upper schools for
+trade teaching. Another point of interest lies in the fact, that while
+we have been speaking of theoretical and practical subjects as forming
+the curricula of the schools for the building trades, the distinction
+should rather be drawn on the line of traditional book subjects and
+applied or laboratory practice. Practical work, per se, is not carried
+on in the school. Thus we have a close connection between theory and
+practice; more closely perhaps than is found to exist in other trades.
+
+The following table shows the distribution of building trade schools
+throughout the Empire, the cities in which such schools are located
+being given.
+
+  Anhalt                      Zerbst
+
+  Baden                       Carlsruhe
+
+                              Kaiserslautern
+                              Munich
+  Bavaria                     Nuremburg
+                              Ratisbon
+                              Wuerzburg
+
+  Brunswick                   Holzminden
+  Hamburg
+  Hesse
+  Luebeck
+
+                              Neustadt
+  Mecklenburg-Schwerin
+                              Sternberg
+
+  Mecklenburg-Strelitz        Strelitz
+
+  Oldenburg                   Varel
+                              Aix-la-Chappelle
+                              Berlin
+                              Breslau
+                              Buxtehude
+                              Cassel
+                              Cologne
+                              Deutsch-Krone
+                              Eckernfoerde
+                              Erfurt
+                              Frankfort-on-the-Oder
+  Prussia                     Goerlitz
+                              Hildesheim
+                              Hoexter
+                              Idstein
+                              Kattowitz
+                              Koenigsberg
+                              Magdeburg
+                              Muenster
+                              Nienburg
+                              Posen
+                              Stettin
+
+  Reuss-Schleitz              Gera
+
+  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha           Coburg
+
+                              Weimar
+  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
+                              Stadt-Sulza
+
+                              Chemnitz
+                              Dresden
+                              Grossenhain
+  Saxony                      Leipzig
+                              Oschatz
+                              Plauen
+                              Rosswein
+                              Zittau
+
+  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen   Arnstadt
+
+  Wurttemberg                 Stuttgart
+
+
+                          SCHOOLS FOR FOREMEN
+
+                         (Werkmeisterschulen)
+
+The Werkmeisterschulen or schools for foremen, are quite prominent in
+the scheme of secondary instruction. The courses given in these schools
+are of a general character, for the most part practical, and the
+institution, as the name implies, fits men to occupy positions as
+foremen and overseers. Machine construction is the chief industry for
+which these schools train. The first school of this character was opened
+in 1855 at Chemnitz, Saxony. There are at present twenty-one schools of
+this class in the Empire. Sixteen is the regular age of admission.
+Candidates must have an elementary education on presenting themselves.
+Two years is the average length of course, including both winter and
+summer terms. A requisite for admission also is practical experience in
+the trade, hence little other than theoretical instruction is given.
+
+To the objection made by some, to extending the course over two years of
+residence and of including the elementary branches in the curriculum
+(such opposition favoring a reduction in time given to preparation) the
+answer comes that the school should give a well grounded education, such
+as will fit the participant for all the functions of his social and
+industrial life. Fifty to sixty marks is charged yearly for tuition
+fees. Certain of these schools have both evening and Sunday classes, the
+tuition being twenty marks yearly for week day evenings, eight to nine
+forty-five, and Sundays, eight to ten in the forenoon.
+
+Table showing location of schools for foremen:
+
+  Anhalt              Dessau
+  Baden               Mannheim
+  Bavaria             Four Mechanische Fachschulen
+
+  Hamburg
+                      Altona
+                      Cologne
+                      Dortmund
+                      Duisburg
+                      Elberfeld-Barmen
+
+  Prussia             Gleiwitz
+                      Gorlitz
+                      Hanover
+                      Magdeburg
+                      Iserlohn
+                      Reimscheid
+
+                      Chemnitz
+  Saxony              Mittweida
+                      Leipzig
+
+The following data were compiled from tables appearing in the Report of
+the Commissioner of Labor of the United States, for 1902. The hours per
+week allowed each subject taught in the schools of machinery
+construction, at Duisburg and Dortmund, Prussia, are given.
+
+                             |         DUISBURG        ||         DORTMUND
+                             +------------+------------++------------+------------
+                             | FIRST YEAR | SECOND YEAR|| FIRST YEAR |SECOND YEAR
+                             +-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------
+                             |First|Second|First|Second||First|Second|First|Second
+                             |Half |Half  |Half |Half  ||Half |Half  |Half |Half
+-----------------------------+-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------
+German language and law      |   4 |   4  |   2 |   2  ||   5 |   3  |   2 |  --
+Arithmetic                   |   4 |   1  |  -- |  --  ||   5 |   2  |  -- |  --
+Bookkeeping                  |  -- |  --  |  -- |   2  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |   3
+Descriptive Geometry         |  -- |   3  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |  --
+Mathematics                  |   8 |   6  |   4 |   2  ||   7 |   6  |   5 |   2
+Experimental Physics         |  -- |  --  |  -- |  --  ||   4 |   2  |  -- |  --
+Physics and Electricity      |   4 |   3  |   2 |   2  ||  -- |   4  |   3 |   3
+Experimental Chemistry       |   2 |  --  |  -- |  --  ||   2 |  --  |  -- |  --
+Penmanship                   |   2 |  --  |  -- |  --  ||   1 |  --  |  -- |  --
+Drawing                      |  12 |  --  |  -- |  --  ||  17 |  --  |  -- |  --
+Machine Drawing              |  -- |   6  |   8 |   8  ||  -- |  10  |   8 |  14
+Projection                   |  -- |  --  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |   2  |  -- |  --
+Mechanics                    |  -- |   4  |   4 |   4  ||  -- |   5  |   5 |   2
+Technology of mechanics,     |     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    smelting and refining    |  -- |  --  |   6 |   4  ||  -- |   2  |   6 |   4
+Theory of machines           |  -- |   6  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |   6  |  -- |  --
+Steam boilers and hoist      |     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    machines                 |  -- |  --  |   6 |  --  ||  -- |  --  |   7 |  --
+Steam engines and hydraulics |     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    and small motors         |  -- |  --  |  -- |   6  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |   8
+Heating                      |  -- |   3  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |  --
+Theory of building           |     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    construction             |  -- |  --  |   4 |  --  ||  -- |  --  |   2 |   2
+Practice in the work shop for|     |      |     |      ||     |      |     |
+    machinery construction   |  -- |  --  |  -- |  --  ||  -- |  --  |   4 |   4
+Estimated wages              |  -- |  --  |  -- |   6  ||  -- |  --  |  -- |  --
+First aid to the injured     |  -- |  --  |   1 |  --  ||  -- |   1  |  -- |  --
+                             +-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------
+        Total                |  36 |  36  |  37 |  36  ||  41 |  43  |  42 |  42
+
+The following table showing the occupations of one time students at
+three of the Prussian schools was compiled in April, 1898. This table
+may be found on page 883 of the Seventeenth Annual Report of the
+Commissioner of Labor of the United States.
+
+Columns:
+
+A Duisburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1883 to April 10, 1898
+B Dortmund: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1892 to April 10, 1898
+C Magdeburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1893 to April 10, 1898
+
+-------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+
+           OCCUPATION                      |  A  |  B  |  C  |
+-------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+
+Heads of establishments                    |  54 |   1 |   1 |
+Other officers of establishments           | 237 | 107 |  11 |
+Machine builders and foremen               |  39 |  18 |   1 |
+Wage-workers                               |  34 |   9 |     |
+Owners of establishments or shops          |  10 |   3 |     |
+Draftsmen and technical experts in offices |  86 |  55 |  83 |
+Assistant Chemists                         |   3 |     |     |
+Students at other schools                  |  11 |   1 |   2 |
+Other than technical work                  |   4 |   1 |     |
+Military service                           |  16 |  23 |     |
+Deceased                                   |  11 |     |     |
+Unknown                                    |  26 |  21 |   5 |
+                                           | --- | --- | --- |
+    Total                                  | 531 | 239 | 103 |
+-------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+
+
+
+                    SCHOOLS FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES
+
+One of the most interesting groups of trade schools are those for the
+promotion of the textile industry in its various aspects, there existing
+at the present time no less than seventy-nine such institutions. The
+fourfold classification of these schools which follow, seems to be in
+accordance with the spirit of the work attempted.
+
+First; the superior weaving school (Hoehere Webschulen).
+
+Second; the secondary weaving schools (Webschulen).
+
+Third; the apprentice shops for weaving and knitting
+(Webereilehrwerkstaetten).
+
+Fourth; instruction by traveling or itinerant masters. (Wanderlehrer)
+
+Not only does Germany rank high in the character of her textile schools,
+but instruction is exceedingly wide spread. Then again all lines of the
+industry are taken up, from the most elementary to the most technical
+processes known. It will thus be seen that men are trained for the lower
+as well as for the higher branches of the art. In the highest classes of
+institutions weaving is almost exclusively carried on. The general
+Government assumes the control of these schools notwithstanding that in
+the beginning, many such institutions were put on foot through the
+initiative of associations and guilds. In each of the several classes
+the work is both theoretical and practical. The age of admission is
+usually fourteen years and the course of two years duration.
+
+The Webschulen train, not for specialists as do the schools just
+mentioned, but rather aim to turn out foremen and bosses. The
+apprenticeship shops come more closely in touch with the workmen of
+small means and those using hand machinery, while the Wanderlehrer
+schools are moveable. In the latter instance, the home becomes the
+school when the teacher is present; that is a competent instructor is
+employed to travel from place to place, visiting the small factories or
+home manufacturers, and giving such instruction as he deems wise and
+necessary. Much good work is still done in the rural homes of Germany,
+and through the means mentioned the standards are kept up.
+
+The work of these textile schools is largely specialized, depending upon
+the the location of the school. In some localities wool, in others linen
+or cotton, or again in others silk will be given the chief attention.
+Both theory and practice have a place in the school instruction. Work in
+the various courses includes a study at first hand of the materials
+used, cost of production, relative values, various processes of
+manipulation, chemistry, drawing, designing, painting, lectures on
+fabrics, elements of weaving and machinery used, and original design
+and practical work.
+
+The distribution of textile schools is shown in the following table.
+
+----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----------------------
+                      | Superior Textile
+                      |
+                      |   | Secondary Weaving
+                      |   |
+                      |   |   | Primary Weaving
+                      |   |   |
+                      |   |   |    | Weaving, Knitting and Trimming
+                      |   |   |    |
+                      |   |   |    |    | Spinning, Weaving and Knitting
+      STATE           |   |   |    |    |
+                      |   |   |    |    |   | Spinning and Weaving
+                      |   |   |    |    |   |
+                      |   |   |    |    |   |   | Primary Knitting
+                      |   |   |    |    |   |   |
+----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----------------------
+Alsace-Lorraine       |   |   |    |    |   | 1 |
+Bavaria               |   | 3 |    |    |   |   |
+Hesse                 |   | 1 |    |    |   |   |
+Prussia               | 8 | 8 | 22 |    |   |   |
+Reuss-Greitz          |   | 1 |    |    |   |   |
+Reuss-Schleitz        |   | 1 |    |    |   |   |
+Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach  |   |   |    |    |   |   | 1
+Saxony                |   |   |    | 27 |   |   |
+Wurttemberg           |   |   |    |    | 1 |   |
+----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----------------------
+
+The Prussian superior textile schools are located as follows:
+
+  Aix-la-Chappelle
+  Bremen
+  Berlin
+  Crefeld
+  Cottbus
+  Muelheim-on-Rhine
+  Muenchen-Gladbach
+  Sorau
+
+The Berlin textile schools may be taken as fairly representing the
+higher and more completely equipped institutions of this class. The age
+of admission is sixteen years, a secondary education being necessary to
+entrance. Several courses are offered as follows:
+
+  knitting, one year;
+  weaving, one and one-half years;
+  designing, two years;
+  passementerie making, one year;
+  dyeing, one year;
+  embroidery, one-fourth year.
+
+There are day, evening and Sunday classes. The accompanying table shows
+the subjects taught in each course and the number of hours given to each
+subject, reckoned on the basis of the entire length of course.
+
+---------------------------+--------------------------------------------
+                           | For manufacturers and
+                           |   superintendents, 1 1/2 yrs.
+                           |
+                           |    | Designing, 2 yrs.
+                           |    |
+                           |    |    | Knitting, 1 yr.
+                           |    |    |
+       SUBJECTS            |    |    |    | Passementerie making, 1 yr.
+                           |    |    |    |
+                           |    |    |    |    |  Dyeing, 1 yr.
+---------------------------+----+----+----+----+-----------------------
+Theory of weaving          |  4 |  3 |  6 |  6 |  2
+Design transfer            | 13 |  9 |  3 |  8 |
+Materials                  |  1 |1/2 |  1 |  1 |
+Hand and power looms       |  3 |  2 |    |    |
+Motors                     |  1 |    |    |    |
+Preparing apparatus        |  1 |    |    |    |
+Finishing apparatus        |  1 |    |    |    |
+Practical exercises        |  8 |  6 | 18 | 12 | 33
+Dyeing                     |  2 |    |  2 |  2 |
+Analysis and production of |    |    |    |    |
+  knitting goods           |    |    |  4 |    |
+Chemistry of fibers        |    |    |    |    |  2
+Chemistry and physics      |    |    |    |    |  4
+Drawing                    |  8 | 23 |  2 |  5 |
+Arithmetic and bookkeeping |  2 |    |  3 |  3 |
+Jurisprudence              |  2 |    |  1 |  1 |
+Lecture                    |    |    |  2 |    |
+---------------------------+----+----+----+----+-----------------------
+
+In many instances the weaving schools have in connection with them
+departments for dyeing and finishing. In such cases much attention is
+given to color blending and harmony and to chemistry as well.
+
+
+                            GEWERBESCHULEN
+
+Extended mention will not be made of the Gewerbeschulen, as the point of
+distinction between such schools and the Fachschulen was set forth under
+the last section. They partake of the character of trade schools, but
+are more general in their tendencies. While both theoretical and
+practical work are given, the former is not always applied theory, the
+Gewerbeschulen being based upon, what we in America speak of, as the
+educational side of trade instruction. These schools are attended by
+boys and men fourteen to twenty-four years of age,--individuals
+representing the various trades. The courses cover a period of three
+years. Both State and local moneys go to the support of these schools.
+
+The Gewerbliche Fachschule of Cologne is somewhat distinctive. It
+instructs chiefly the sons of tradesmen and superior artisans. There
+are three departments in the school:
+
+First--that of engineering and architectural drawing.
+
+Second--modeling department.
+
+Third--the department of decoration, housepainting, etc.
+
+The session covers both winter and summer months, the winter term, as in
+other cases, being the better attended. Other typical Gewerbeschulen are
+located at Grenzhausen and at Reimscheid. Applicants for admission must
+have prepared in the Volksschule or elementary school. The programme
+comprises the German language, French, English, literature, plane and
+descriptive geometry, physics, chemistry, drawing, mechanics, machine
+construction. The preparation here obtained fits the participants to
+enter the higher schools, or to act as foremen and masters. These
+schools also lead up to the industrial schools of Bavaria, of which we
+shall now speak.
+
+
+                     INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS OF BAVARIA
+
+                          (Industrieschulen)
+
+The industrial schools of the Bavarian Kingdom stand out as a distinct
+class of educational institutions. Here, since 1872, there has been a
+clean cut system, presided over by a Minister of Education. While the
+quality and character of the work done are quite similar to that taken
+up in the secondary schools elsewhere, the institutions are in some
+respects more exactly defined and supervision and instruction in the
+schools of weaving, woodcarving, basketmaking, pottery, violin making,
+etc., is frequently superior to that in some other locality.
+
+The age of admission is sixteen years, two years being the usual length
+of course; the education of the Real-Schule is a requisite, or failing
+this, an examination must be taken. In 1901-1902 the Munich schools had
+an enrollment of 241 students, distributed as follows: mechanical
+engineering 124; chemical engineering 27; architecture 62; commercial
+28. The graduates are fitted to occupy positions of trust and prominence
+in the various industrial pursuits of the country and to enter the
+technical colleges.
+
+The Industrieschulen of Bavaria are four in number, located at
+
+  Augsburg
+  Kaiserslautern
+  Munich
+  Nuremberg
+
+they having been established in 1868. Advanced courses are offered in
+mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, building construction, and
+commercial education. The school at Wuerzburg is of a somewhat superior
+order, although secondary in its tendencies, machinery construction and
+electro-technics being given attention.
+
+In the mechanical engineering course the following subjects are studied:
+
+  elementary mathematics
+  descriptive geometry
+  calculus
+  surveying
+  physics
+  German
+  French
+  English
+  mechanics
+  machine work
+  machine construction
+  mechanical drawing
+  practical work.
+
+In the chemistry course the curriculum is made up of
+
+  mathematics
+  physics
+  chemistry
+  mineralogy
+  German
+  French
+  English
+  machine construction
+  laboratory work.
+
+The building construction course offers language, mechanical drawing
+and architecture.
+
+
+
+
+                                   V
+
+                       HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOLS
+
+                        Technische Hochschulen
+
+
+We have at this point in our study reached the schools of highest rank
+offering training of a technical character, called variously technical
+high schools, technical colleges, or polytechnics, the Technische
+Hochschulen. These schools are not high schools in the sense that the
+term would be applied to our American institutions, but are rather
+schools of collegiate grade, ranking in fact, as the title indicates in
+the university class. While not exactly comparable to our engineering
+schools, they approach more nearly these than they do any other of our
+American educational institutions.
+
+Before the beginning of the century just closed it was apparent to some
+German minds more far seeing than the rest, that schools of a higher
+than secondary rank must be inaugurated to offer training in the
+sciences; give opportunity to show the application of science to the
+arts; and prepare young men to grapple with scientific industrial
+problems such as were constantly springing up. Should the university
+attempt such work? An effort was made looking toward this end. It was at
+once evident that here was not the place to begin. The university was an
+institution in and of itself. Its methods, curriculum and aim were
+fixed, owing to long established customs. It had a certain work to
+perform, its own peculiar function to fulfill, and traditional and
+classical tendency were too strong to be checked in their movement, or
+to allow a branch stream to flow in and thus add to or modify the
+existing content.
+
+The war for industrial supremacy, between England and Germany
+particularly, was a prominent factor leading up to the establishment of
+technical schools in the latter country. Germany saw the necessity for
+heroic action, and her people, anxious to improve from the standpoint of
+her industries at home not only, but that they might rival and surpass
+their neighbors across the "Silver Streak" readily took up the cry for
+advanced scientific training. This then was the object of the Technische
+Hochschulen:[2]
+
+"They were intended to secure for science a foothold in the workshop, to
+assist with the light of reasoned theory the progress of arts and
+industry, till then fettered by many a prejudice and hindered through
+lack of knowledge; on the other hand, they sought to raise that part of
+the nation engaged in industry to such a love of culture as would secure
+to it its due measure of public respect."
+
+[Footnote 2: Note on the earlier History of the Technical High School in
+Germany by A. E. Twentyman in Special Reports on Educational Subjects,
+London, Vol 9, page 468.]
+
+The dates of the founding of the now existing Technische Hochschulen
+vary somewhat, certain of the schools growing out of a foundation which
+at the beginning was of a low or intermediate grade. Several of the
+schools have passed through a period of transition or reorganization
+state during the course of their existence. The institution, and time of
+establishment of each are as follows.
+
+  Berlin,        1799
+  Carlsruhe,     1825
+  Munich,        1827
+  Dresden,       1828
+  Stuttgart,     1829
+  Brunswick,     1835
+  Darmstadt,     1868
+  Aachen,        1870
+  Hannover,      1879
+
+In 1799 was instituted in Berlin the Bauakademie, a State institution
+whose purpose was set forth in the royal decree thus:
+
+"To train in theoretical and practical knowledge capable surveyors,
+architects, civil engineers, and masons, principally for the King's
+dominions, but foreigners may find admittance if no disadvantage accrue
+thereby to the King's subjects."
+
+Later, in 1821, Gewerbeschule came into existence, and in 1879 the union
+of these two formed the Berlin Technische Hochschule which is located in
+Charlottenburg, a suburb of the city. Owing to the high standards of
+this institution, it is styled the Koenigliche Technische Hochschule.
+Since its reorganization the plans of the other schools of like
+character have been modified in accordance with the Berlin scheme.
+
+The preparation necessary for admission to the Hochschulen is equivalent
+to that demanded by the university proper. The age of admission probably
+never drops below seventeen, the average age being considerably greater.
+Men of mature years and of wide experience and training avail themselves
+to the privileges offered. The courses are from three to four years in
+length.
+
+[3] "The new universities thus developed have the purpose of affording
+higher instruction for the technical positions in state and community
+service, as well as in industrial life, and of cultivating sciences and
+arts which are intimately connected with the field of technology (Berlin
+provisory statute, 1879). They prove themselves equal to universities in
+the following points: they claim for their matriculated students the
+same preparatory education required by the old universities, namely,
+nine years at a classical high school; they grant and insist upon
+perfect freedom in teaching and learning; and are under the direction of
+rectors elected for one year, instead of having principals chosen for
+life as in secondary schools."
+
+[Footnote 3: Report of the United States Commissioner of Education,
+1897-1898, page 70.]
+
+It may be said here that an exception to the rule of the annual election
+of the administrative officers, is furnished in the example of the
+Munich school, which retains a permanent Director as the custom
+prevailed in times past.
+
+Unless otherwise qualified, students must have prepared in the
+Industrieschule, the Gymnasium, the Real-Gymnasium or in the trade or
+building schools. In lieu of this an examination is demanded.
+Twenty-four is the minimum age of graduation.
+
+In tracing the development of these schools from unpretentious
+beginnings to their present high standards of excellence, we see that
+more and more they have become unified in purpose and similar in
+curricula. In the early days too, the qualifications for admission,
+their dynamic government, and educational standards were lower and more
+diversified than we find them to-day. Sustained by the State and each
+administered by its board or council, they are doing a work which cannot
+be excelled by the universities themselves.
+
+The organization of departments of work offered is approximately the
+same in all schools. In Berlin there are six departments:
+
+  first, general school of applied science;
+  second, general construction engineering;
+  third, machine construction;
+  fourth, naval engineering;
+  fifth, chemistry and mining engineering;
+  sixth, architecture.
+
+Special attention is given certain subjects in one or another of these
+schools; civil or mechanical engineering, building construction,
+industrial chemistry, etc. An agricultural department is maintained at
+Munich, and a forestry department at Carlsruhe. That a knowledge of the
+application of electricity is considered essential in our modern methods
+is shown in the fact that all students in departments of machine
+construction engage in the study of electro-technics.
+
+The courses of study are to-day upon more of an elective basis than
+formerly although even now the results of the work of Nebenius are
+clearly seen. The success of the Hochschulen is due to the efforts of
+Nebenius more than to any other one man. His ideas were worked out at
+Carlsruhe and in greater or lesser degree incorporated into all the
+schools. It was insisted by him that a proper foundation must be laid
+before any successful special technical training can be had. Preliminary
+work must be mastered and a natural sequence of studies followed. To
+this end a fixed graduated course is recommended, the student to be
+promoted as ability may determine. The one course plan however has been
+substituted for the several.[4]
+
+[Footnote 4: "Programm der Koenigl. Technischen Hochschule zu Hannover,
+1901-1902, page 90. Den Hoerern bleibt die Wahl der Lehrfaecher frei
+ueberlassen, fuer ein geordnetes Studium empfiehlt sich aber die Beachtung
+der folgenden Studien und Stundenplaene."]
+
+The following table compiled from various sources will give some idea of
+the extent of the work as carried on in Berlin. The school has a library
+of 54,000 volumes; a student body of upwards of 4,500 and a modern
+equipment throughout.
+
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Departments  | No.     | SUBJECTS                              |No. of
+             | of      |                                       |Professors
+             | courses |                                       |and
+             |         |                                       |Instructors
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+General      | 58      | Mechanics, Physics and general        | 33
+Science      |         | science studies; literature,          |
+             |         | French, English, Italian, law,        |
+             |         | political science.                    |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Civil        | 34      | Mechanics, railway construction,      | 13
+Engineering  |         | bridges, canals, harbors, hydraulics, |
+             |         | drainage, land surveying.             |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Mechanical   | 54      | Kinematics, machine construction,     | 23
+Engineering  |         | mechanical technology,                |
+             |         | machine design, water, steam          |
+             |         | and electrical machines,              |
+             |         | electro-technics, electro-mechanics,  |
+             |         | electrical and railway                |
+             |         | works.                                |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Naval        |  19     | Theory of ship building,              |  6
+Engineering  |         | classification of ships, designing of |
+             |         | warships, boilers, machine            |
+             |         | construction, practical               |
+             |         | ship building.                        |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Chemistry    |  51     | Organic and inorganic chemistry       | 27
+and          |         | including physical, electro and       |
+Metallurgy   |         | technological chemistry,              |
+             |         | crystallography, metallurgy, foundry  |
+             |         | work, cements, botany,                |
+             |         | chemistry of plants and foods.        |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+Architecture | 65      | History of art, architecture and      | 36
+             |         | ornament; building construction,      |
+             |         | designing of buildings                |
+             |         | in different materials and for        |
+             |         | various purposes, preparation         |
+             |         | of estimates, etc.                    |
+-------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------
+
+The rivalry existing among the various schools is in some respects a
+point to be commended. Then, too, the idea taking form in the
+Hochschulen and being more fully appreciated by the educationalists of
+our own country, that each school should specialize along some
+particular line, is worthy of attention. Energy is saved thereby, and
+students may have the advantage of increased facilities in equipment and
+instruction. Many Americans are studying in these schools, possibly more
+in Munich than elsewhere. While thorough in their treatment of subjects,
+the practical side of the work is too much lost sight of in the
+theoretical treatment. Testing and applied work are certainly given
+considerable attention however. To quote Dean Victor C. Alderson of the
+Armour Institute, Chicago, who says in reference to testing:
+
+    "Professors regard this work as professional practice, just as
+    doctors, who are professors in medical schools, have an outside
+    practice. The technical school allows the professors free use of
+    the laboratories, but assumes no responsibility for the accuracy
+    of the results or opinions expressed."
+
+The degree of Doctor of Engineering is conferred by these institutions,
+and that their work has been highly instrumental in developing the
+country cannot be doubted, especially in the line of applied chemistry
+in which branch of engineering Germany leads the nations. How closely
+the development of the industries of Germany are related to the work of
+the Technische Hochschulen it is difficult to say, but that these
+schools have shown through the accomplishments of their graduates that
+high standards of moral and intellectual training can be had in other
+than the traditional universities, and that as efficient social service
+can be rendered through the application of science to the arts and
+industries as by means of the languages, cannot be doubted.
+
+
+
+
+                                  VI
+
+            SCHOOLS OF INDUSTRIAL ART OR ART TRADE SCHOOLS
+
+
+The Kunstgewerbeschulen are schools of art. The causes leading to their
+inception are clearly set forth in a paragraph contained in the 1902
+Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor. It reads:
+
+"The international museums of 1851, 1855 and 1862, in England, Austria
+and Germany, respectively called attention to the fact that with all
+their technical excellence the industrial products of Germany possessed
+few qualities of artistic finish and design. France showed what could be
+done in this direction. Her products easily held first rank in this
+respect, her eminence being the result of centuries of training in this
+field. Since Colbert's time industrial art education has been emphasized
+in the training of French workmen, and the accumulated skill and taste
+due to this training, has left its impress on French products. The
+German states at once set about to remedy this weakness in this respect,
+and since that time have so persistently established museums and schools
+for industrial art training that now there is no important city in the
+Empire which does not possess one or more of these institutions".
+
+Considerable variety exists among the various types of art schools and
+even among those belonging in the same class and separated as to
+location we find differences. In Leipzig, Saxony, for example the
+Kunstgewerbeschule aims at the graphic arts mainly. In Berlin, Dresden,
+Carlsruhe, and certain other cities these schools train for sculptors
+and painters, and the term "Akademie" is frequently applied to these
+institutions. They are in fact, art trade schools whose main purpose,
+while yet industrial, is also the instilling of an artistic feeling into
+industrial work. They reach on and out from the trade school and up to
+the institutions for the teaching of the fine arts. They are then a
+middle grade of applied art schools.
+
+The genesis of the industrial art schools really lies in the
+establishment of museums of industrial art. The museums were an
+inspiring and energizing force, for here the best work could be
+exhibited and studied. The municipality and general government financed
+the movement for the museums. Schools sprang up in connection with the
+museums and later, independent art schools were established.
+
+A moderate fee is charged those who pursue work here, twenty to forty
+marks yearly. Candidates must have had practical experience in the line
+of work they propose to take up, and both these schools and the
+so-called industrial drawing courses assume a certain proficiency on the
+part of the candidates; a proficiency in general subjects and in
+drawing particularly. An examination is given those who cannot present
+the desired credentials. The length of the courses in these schools is
+usually three years. The classes are both day and evening, 8 A. M. to 4
+P. M. and from 5 to 10 P. M. In some instances Sunday sessions are held
+also.
+
+The courses consist of architectural designing in wood and metal, metal
+engraving and chasing, modeling, steel engraving and etching, design for
+fabrics, pattern designing, artistic embroidery, decorative painting,
+enamel painting, designing and painting figures and plants. The work
+throughout is both theoretical and practical in its nature, the
+instruction gained in the class being applied in the shop. The subjects
+of instruction and time devoted to each differ according to the course
+pursued. As an example of the programme offered, the following, taken
+from the architectural draftsman's course in the Munich school is given;
+the figures show the number of hours per week devoted to each subject.
+
+  First year,
+    linear drawing                                 7
+    ornament drawing                               9
+    modelling of ornament and of the human
+      figure                                      21
+    history of art                                 1
+    style                                          1
+    geometry and projections                       3
+
+  Second year,
+    architectural drawing                          7
+    drawing and modeling of the human
+      figure and modeling of ornaments            20
+    history of art                                 1
+    style                                          1
+    perspective and shadows                        2
+    anatomy, xylography, architecture,
+      sculpture, or chasing                       10
+
+  Third year,
+    architectural drawing                          7
+    drawing and modeling of the human figure
+      and modeling of ornaments                   10
+    anatomy                                        1
+    xylography, architecture, sculpture or
+      chasing                                     24
+
+The Bauschule are only for those who wish proficiency in architectural
+studies.
+
+What the Industrial Hall at Carlsruhe, the Industrial Art Museum at
+Berlin, and the National Museum at Munich are to the art schools proper,
+the open drawing halls are to the industrial drawing courses. Here, as
+in the museums, are kept models and designs of rare merit and students
+may pursue work under competent instruction. Such halls are established
+in Bavaria, Hesse, Prussia, Saxony and Wurttemberg.
+
+In these art courses skill and originality are aimed at equally. The
+relation existing between the art work and the trade or industry with
+which it is connected is such as to make more valuable the latter.
+
+It is needless to speak further of the museums. The art products there
+exhibited give much incentive to students, as well as a feeling for the
+best from the standpoint of the beautiful and artistic, and all who
+visit them are consciously or unconsciously influenced for the better.
+
+The following table shows the distribution of industrial art schools
+throughout the various States.
+
+  _Alsace-Lorraine_, Muelhausen, Strasburg.
+  _Anhalt_, Dessau.
+  _Baden_, Carlsruhe, Pforzheim.
+  _Bremen_,
+  _Bavaria_, Kaiserslautern, Munich, Nuremberg.
+  _Hamburg_,
+  _Hesse_, Mentz, Offenbach.
+  _Prussia_, Aix-la-Chappelle, Barmen, Berlin, Breslau, Cassel,
+    Cologne, Duesseldorf, Elberfeld, Frankfort-on the-Main, Hanau,
+    Hanover, Iserlohn, Koenigsberg, Magdeburg.
+  _Saxony_, Dresden, Leipzig, Plauen.
+  _Wurttemberg_, Stuttgart.
+
+
+
+
+                                  VII
+
+                             BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+Beobachtungen und Vergleiche ueber Einrichtungen fuer Gewerbliche
+Erziehung, 1901.--Dr. G. Kerschensteiner.
+
+Das Gewerbeschulwesen.--Carl Melchior.
+
+Denkschriften ueber die Entwickelung der Gewerblichen Fachschulen und der
+Fortbildungsschulen in Preussen.--Lueders.
+
+Encyklopaedisches Handbuch der Paedagogik.--W. Rein.
+
+English Technical Instruction Commission, 1896. Report on the Recent
+Progress of Technical Education in Germany.
+
+Fortbildungsschule in unserer Zeit.--J. B. Meyer.
+
+German Higher Schools.--James E. Russell.
+
+German Technical Schools, 1901.--Victor C. Alderson.
+
+Gewerbliche Fortbildungsschulen Deutschlands.--R. Nagel.
+
+Handwoerterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 1900.--Conrad.
+
+Hoeherer Polytechnischer Unterricht in Deutschland, etc.--Carl Koristka.
+
+Industrial Education.--Philip Magnus.
+
+Jahresbericht der Koeniglichen Industrieschule und Baugewerkschule zu
+Muenchen, 1898-1899.
+
+Jahresbericht der Technischen Staatslehranstalten zu Chemnitz, 1890.
+
+Jahresbericht ueber die Berliner Fortbildungsschule, 1890-1891.
+
+Kunstgewerbe als Beruf, 1901.
+
+Note on the Earlier History of the Technical High Schools in
+Germany.--A. E. Twentyman.
+
+Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, 1902, Vol. 9, page 465.
+
+Paches' Handbook, 1899.
+
+Problems in Prussian Secondary Education for Boys.--Michael E. Sadler.
+
+Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, 1898, Vol. 3.
+
+Programm der Koeniglichen Fachschule zu Iserlohn Metal Industrie.
+
+Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1889-1890, page
+1209-1212.
+
+Same, 1894-1895, Vol. 1, page 345-380.
+
+Supplementary and Industrial Schools in Germany.
+
+Same, 1895-1896, Vol. 1, page 138.
+
+Same, 1897-1898, Vol. 1, page 69. German Technical Colleges.
+
+Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor, 1892, Eighth Annual.
+
+Industrial Education in Germany.
+
+Same, 1902, Seventeenth Annual.
+
+Trade and Technical Education in Germany, page 871.
+
+Second Report of the Royal Commission on Technical Education, London,
+1884, Vol. 1.
+
+The Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry, 1902.--Fabian Ware.
+
+The Continuation Schools in Berlin.--Dr. H. Bertram.
+
+Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London, 1902, Vol. 9, page 451.
+
+United States Consular Reports. Description of the School of Carpentry
+and Cabinetmaking in Magdeburg, Prussia, No. 238, July, 1900.--Wm.
+Diederich.
+
+Same. School of Marine Machinists, Flensburg, Prussia. No. 174, March,
+1895.
+
+Same. Technical and Merchant Schools 56:208, page 78.--J. C. Monoghan.
+
+Same. Technical Education in Germany. 54:202, page 447.--J. C. Monoghan.
+
+
+
+
+                           PUBLISHER'S NOTE
+
+
+This book was published under some disadvantages, as it was delayed by
+the removal of our office to a larger place of business, and by a
+printers' strike, which resulted in four changes in foremen. This,
+together with the fact that the author was upon the Pacific coast and
+proof was delayed and sometimes lost has led to errors for which he is
+not responsible. Besides typographical blunders easily recognized the
+following are noted:
+
+Page 13, next line to last for _Air_ read _Art_.
+
+     19, 5th line, for _enable_ read _ennoble_.
+
+     23, 4th line from below, for _committee_ read _communities_.
+
+     25, 5th line, for _development_ read _deportment_.
+
+     63, 7th line, for _models_ read _modes_.
+
+     72, next to last line, the 1 should be in _second_ half of first
+         year, making the totals 41 and 43 instead of 42 and 42.
+
+     79, in table, Knitting should have _1 yr._ instead of _2 yrs._, and
+         the line beginning _Machinery_ is to be omitted.
+
+     81, 4th line from below, insert _to_ before _enter_.
+
+     93, last part of paragraph, read "The one course plan however has
+         been substituted for the several."
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note: The table below lists all corrections applied to the
+original text.
+
+p. viii: for _development_ read _department_ -> _deportment_
+p. 007: make any one clasification -> classification
+p. 010: Conrad's Handworterbuch -> Handwoerterbuch
+p. 011: Wurtemburg industrial -> Wurttemburg
+p. 012: other conditions (examinations) or these schools -> of
+p. 012: Ages ranges from fourteen to thirty -> range
+p. 012: the only instition -> institution
+p. 013: [errata] Pure Air -> Art
+p. 014: Technischeschulen -> Technische Schulen
+p. 016: Continuation Schools or Fortbilbungsschulen -> Fortbildungsschulen
+p. 016: Fortbildtngsshulen -> Fortbildungsschulen
+p. 017: [extra comma] at this age, forced to -> age forced
+p. 017: a statsment made by Mr. Michael N. Sadler-> statement
+p. 018: [quote added] "Among the great number
+p. 019: [errata] in the arts which enable -> ennoble
+p. 019: born under a luckler star -> luckier
+p. 020: continuation of Fortbildungsschulen -> or
+p. 023: adapt their instrnction -> instruction
+p. 023: [errata] Here the committee must meet -> communities
+p. 025: [errata] character and development of the boys -> deportment
+p. 027: higher mathemematics, mechanics, physics -> mathematics
+p. 028: is carried suffciently far -> sufficiently
+p. 028: classes are arranged acording to -> according
+p. 029: smaller towns or in the conntry -> country
+p. 029: university extention courses -> extension
+p. 031: similar to Fortbildungsschulen in Leipsig -> Leipzig
+p. 031: schools have seen a marvelous developement -> development
+p. 032: attended by journeyman and apprentices -> journeymen
+p. 032: good manners (gute sitten) -> Sitten
+p. 033: [normalized] throughout various parts of the empire -> Empire
+p. 033: [extra comma] under eighteen years of age, might -> age might
+p. 033: [extra comma] the employer, must -> employer must
+p. 033: Baden. compulsory school laws -> Baden, compulsory
+p. 034: to be determined eventually be -> by
+p. 035: worthy of note that she delares -> declares
+p. 039: that the Forthildungsschule -> Fortbildungsschule
+p. 039: foundation of most of the Faceschulen -> Fachschulen
+p. 046: Wagonmakers and Wheelrights -> Wheelwrights
+p. 047: Free hand drawing -> Free-hand
+p. 056: becomes the property ot the father -> of
+p. 057: The Lehrwerkstatten or apprentice shops -> Lehrwerkstaetten
+p. 059: fulfil certain teohnical qualifications -> technical
+p. 059: practical iu the highest degree -> in
+p. 062: [missing letter] The governing power is in ome cases -> some
+p. 063: [errata] laws of building; models of heat -> modes
+p. 067: Buxtehede -> Buxtehude
+p. 067: Magdeberg -> Magdeburg
+p. 068: Orchatz -> Oschatz
+p. 068: Zitteau -> Zittau
+p. 069: [normalized] schools of this class in the empire -> Empire
+p. 070: the elementary ranches in the curriculm -> curriculum
+p. 071: Inserlohn -> Iserlohn
+p. 071: Mlttweida -> Mittweida
+p. 071: compiled from tables appearing the Report -> appearing in the
+p. 074: [missing letters] Webereilehrwerkstae en -> Webereilehrwerkstaetten
+p. 074: itinerant masters. (Wenderlehrer) -> Wanderlehrer
+p. 074: lines of the indnstry -> industry
+p. 075: In each of the several classses -> classes
+p. 077: Grefeld -> Crefeld
+p. 079: [errata] Knitting, 2 yrs. -> Knitting, 1yr.
+p. 079: [errata, removed line] Machinery  |   |   | 3 | 6 | 2
+p. 081: superior artizans -> artisans
+p. 081: prepared in the Volkschule -> Volksschule
+p. 081: [errata] the participants enter -> participants to enter
+p. 085: [added chapter number] V
+p. 086: show the aplication of science -> application
+p. 087: in the atter country -> latter
+p. 087: the necessity or heroic action -> for heroic
+p. 087: due measure of public respsct -> respect
+p. 087: by A. E. Twentymen -> by A. E. Twentyman
+p. 088: Dresden, 1826 -> 1828
+p. 088: principally for the Kiugs dominions -> King's
+p. 089: styled the Koeniglische Technische Hochschule -> Koenigliche
+p. 090: Berlin provisory statue -> statute
+p. 091: State and and each administered -> State and each
+p. 092: The organization of deparments of work -> departments
+p. 093: [errata] For the one course plan however -> The one
+p. 093: [errata] have been substituted -> has
+p. 093: [errata] substituted the several -> substituted for the
+p. 093: Program der Koenigl. Technischen Hochschule -> Programm
+p. 093: Den Horern bleibt die Wahl -> Hoerern
+p. 093: frei ueberlassen, Fuer ein geordnetes -> ueberlassen, fuer
+p. 098: Kunstgewerbsechulen are schools of art -> Kunstgewerbeschulen
+p. 104: Alcace-Lorraine, Muelhausen, Strasburg -> Alsace
+p. 104: Prussia, Aix-la Chapelle -> Aix-la-Chappelle
+p. 105: Enrichtungen fuer -> Einrichtungen
+p. 105: Gewerbliche Erzichnung -> Erziehung
+p. 105: Dr. G. Kerschenteuer -> Kerschensteiner
+p. 105: Denkschriften ueber die Entiwickelung -> Entwickelung
+p. 105: Fortbildungschulen in Prussen -> Fortbildungsschulen in Preussen
+p. 105: Encyklopaedischer Handbuch -> Encyklopaedisches
+p. 105: Handbuch der Paedogik -> Paedagogik
+p. 105: in unserer zeit -> Zeit
+p. 105: [removed in] Fortbildungsschulen in Deutschlands
+p. 106: [removed comma] Jahresbericht der Koeniglichen, Industrieschule
+p. 106: Technischen Stattslehranstalten -> Staatslehranstalten
+p. 107: Program der Koeniglichen Fachschule -> Programm
+p. 108: School of Marine Machinists, Fleusburg, Prussia -> Flensburg
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Condition and Tendencies of
+Technical Education in Germany, by Arthur Henry Chamberlain
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