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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:31:00 -0700 |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Condition and Tendencies of Technical Education in Germany + +Author: Arthur Henry Chamberlain + +Release Date: September 12, 2008 [EBook #26595] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY *** + + + + +Produced by Irma Spehar, Markus Brenner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span> +<small>THE CONDITION AND TENDENCIES</small><br /> + +<span style="font-size: small">OF</span><br /> + +Technical Education in Germany</h1> + +<p class="by">BY</p> + +<p class="author">ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN</p> + +<p class="titles">Professor of Education and Principal of the Normal School<br /> +of Manual Training, Art, and Domestic Economy,<br /> +Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, California:<br /> +Author of “Educative Hand-Work Manuals”<br /> +and “A Bibliography of Manual Arts”</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/logo.jpg" width="100" height="99" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="publisher"><small>SYRACUSE, N. Y.</small><br /> +C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER<br /> +<small>1908</small></p> + +<p class="copyright">Copyright, 1908, by <span class="smcap">C. W. Bardeen</span></p> + +<!-- <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span>[Blank Page]</p> --> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> + + +<p>The question of the technical phases of +education is, with any nation, a vital one. +Perhaps this is true of Germany as it is of +no other European country. This may be +mainly due to one of several causes. First, +as to the length of time technical education +has had a place in the German schools. In +some form or another, and in a greater or +lesser degree, such instruction has been in +vogue for many years, and has in no small +measure become part and parcel of the +educational fabric of the nation. Again, +throughout the various German States, the +work is rather widely differentiated, this +owing in part to the fact that the varying +lines of industry in adjacent localities even, +give color and bent to the technical education +of any particular locality. An extensive +field is thus comprehended under the +term “technical education”. Then, too, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>Germany as a nation must needs better her +condition in order that she may prove self-sustaining. +The country is not a wealthy +one, and if in trade, in manufacture, and in +commerce, she is to compete, and that successfully, +with the world powers, strength +must be gained along such lines as those +opening through technical education.</p> + +<p>The hope is entertained that the following +pages may prove of value, not alone to the +student of technical education as it exists in +Germany, but particularly to those who are +endeavoring to institute and develop industrial +and technical training in this country. +The possibility along these lines is exceedingly +great and the interest and attention of +thinking people is focused here. They look +to this form of education as a partial solution +of some of the most obstinate problems +now confronting us.</p> + + + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + +<table class="toc" summary="contents"> +<tr><th></th><th></th><th class="onpage"><span class="smcap">Page</span></th></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a></span></td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CONTENTS">Contents</a></span></td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#PUBLISHERS_NOTE">Publisher’s Note</a></span></td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_viii">viii</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#I">Section I.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Classification of Schools</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#II">Section II.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Continuation Schools (Fortbildungsschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#III">Section III.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Trade Schools (Fachschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#IV">Section IV.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Secondary Technical Schools +(Gewerbliche Mittelschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="ccol">Schools for the Building Trades (Baugewerkschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="ccol">Schools for Foremen (Werkmeisterschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="ccol">Schools for the Textile Trades (Gewerbeschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="ccol">Industrial Schools of Bavaria (Industrie Schulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#V">Section V.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Higher Technical Schools (Technische Hochschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#VI">Section VI.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Schools of Industrial Arts or Art Trade Schools (Kunstgewerbeschulen)</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#VII">Section VII.</a></span></td><td class="ccol">Bibliography</td><td class="onpage"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr> +</table> + + + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span> +<a name="PUBLISHERS_NOTE" id="PUBLISHERS_NOTE"></a>PUBLISHER’S NOTE</h2> + + +<p>This book was published under some disadvantages, +as it was delayed by the removal of our office +to a larger place of business, and by a printers’ +strike, which resulted in four changes in foremen. +This, together with the fact that the author was +upon the Pacific coast and proof was delayed and +sometimes lost has led to errors for which he is not +responsible. Besides typographical blunders easily +recognized the following are noted:</p> + + +<table class="errata" summary="errata"> +<tr><td class="lcol">Page <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, </td><td class="rcol">next line to last for <i>Air</i> read <i>Art</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_19">19</a>, </td><td class="rcol">5th line, for <i>enable</i> read <i>ennoble</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_23">23</a>, </td><td class="rcol">4th line from below, for <i>committee</i> read +<i>communities</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_25">25</a>, </td><td class="rcol">5th line, for <i>development</i> read <i>deportment</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_63">63</a>, </td><td class="rcol">7th line, for <i>models</i> read <i>modes</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_72">72</a>, </td><td class="rcol">next to last line, the 1 should be in <i>second</i> +half of first year, making the totals 41 +and 43 instead of 42 and 42.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_79">79</a>, </td><td class="rcol">in table, Knitting should have <i>1 yr.</i> instead +of <i>2 yrs.</i>, and the line beginning +<i>Machinery</i> is to be omitted.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_81">81</a>, </td><td class="rcol">4th line from below, insert <i>to</i> before <i>enter</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lcol"><a href="#Page_93">93</a>, </td><td class="rcol">last part of paragraph, read “The one +course plan however has been substituted +for the several.”</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p class="maintitle"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +Technical Education<br /> +in Germany</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By Prof. Arthur Henry Chamberlain</span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I</h2> + + +<p>If one were to point out the most distinctive +feature of the educational system in the +Fatherland to-day, it would perhaps be the +highly specialized condition of the technical +schools.</p> + +<p>In approaching our problem we naturally +ask ourselves the question as to how far the +industrial progress of a country is influenced +by technical education. In no time as in +our own has so much stress been laid upon +the commercial side of our existence. New +trades, new industries are springing up; +specialization is becoming more far-reaching +and more firmly established than ever before; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>competition is becoming keener; the +application of science to the arts is more +varied.</p> + +<p>In this latter field we find Germany in the +very fore front, she having developed along +these lines to a greater extent than have +many of our nations. Illustrations of this +application lie all about us,—in the bettered +transportation facilities by railroad and by +ocean vessel; in the more improved bridge +and building construction; in the methods +of water supply and drainage; in modes of +heat, light, and ventilation; in electric vehicles, +sound transmitters, labor-saving +machinery; in finely adjusted instruments +that bring far away worlds almost within +reaching distance; in these and a thousand +other ways is made manifest the result of +the application of science to the arts. Germany +is taking a prominent part in this +warfare for industrial supremacy, and that +she expects her technical schools to be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>largely instrumental in answering many of +the problems of the present and the future +cannot be doubted, especially when one is +made aware of the diversity and extent of +the schools of a technical character scattered +over the Empire.</p> + +<p>It will be readily understood from the +foregoing how difficult a matter it is to +make any one classification that will cover +in an adequate manner the various types of +existing institutions. Frequently a school +is found which in some respects is distinctive. +To place such a school in this or that +category would of course do violence to the +classification, while to form a new class +only serves to further complicate and bewilder. +Again, various of the institutions +mentioned may offer such a differentiated +schedule or be made up of so many parallel +departments as to entitle them to admission +into two or more of the classes given.</p> + +<p>Another point of difficulty lies in the fact +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>that the term “technical” would in Germany +be somewhat more sweeping than with +us in America. We do not class technical +training with so-called manual training or +handwork of the elementary schools. In +our present study however, we shall find +that while in the main we are dealing with +the technical training of boys from fourteen +to eighteen years of age,—comparable in a +measure to our high or secondary school +courses, we shall also include the industrial, +vocational, or trade training of men and +boys alike, as well as work in the more simplified +forms of handicraft, as carried on in +the lower or elementary school. Reference +will also be made to the instruction of a +higher order,—such for example as makes +for engineers. These facts will be illuminated +as the study proceeds.</p> + +<p>In reading into these schools their real +significance, several points must be kept +constantly in mind. At an early age the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>German youth is supposed to have solved +the problem of his likes and dislikes, his +abilities and shortcomings; to have gained +such a perspective of his probable chances +for future success, as to choose the line of +work or occupation he shall follow. It is +only fair to state, however, that circumstances +have much to do with such decision, +viz,—the occupation of the father, the financial +outlook of the family, the industrial +demands of the locality, the particular educational +opportunities offered,—these and +like problems entering in as vital elements.</p> + +<p>Then too, the founding and sustaining +of a technical school is a matter to be noted. +This may be in the hands of the general +government, of the state, of the municipality, +or may be looked after by private enterprise. +The Guilds, Vereins or Associations +may organize, equip and foster schools of +such character as train directly for their +particular lines of work. It must be stated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>however in this connection, that there +seems to be a strong tendency at the present +time toward the centralizing of control in +the states. This has been brought about in +large measure through the ever-increasing +willingness on the part of the state to give +financial backing to the schools, and thus +has quite naturally arisen the desire and +necessity on the part of the state, that it +have a controlling voice in the school administration. +Herein lies one of the main +differences between such education in Germany +and that of our own country.</p> + +<p>Conrad’s Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, +1900, in an article entitled +“Gewerblicher Unterricht”, gives the following +table on state expenditure for trade +and technical instruction in recent years:</p> + +<p class="center">Prussia:</p> + +<ul class="indented"> +<li>Marks 142,000 ($33,796) in 1874;</li> + +<li>Marks 475,000 ($114,050) in 1885;</li> + +<li>Marks 4,672,000 ($1,111,936) in 1899.</li> +</ul> + +<p class="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>Saxony:</p> + +<ul class="indented"> +<li>Marks 235,000 ($60,214) in 1873;</li> + +<li>Marks 570,000 ($135,660) in 1885;</li> + +<li>Marks 1,138,000 ($270,844) in 1898.</li> +</ul> + +<p class="center">Wurttemburg industrial continuation school:</p> + +<ul class="indented"> +<li>Marks, 58,000 ($13,804) in 1869;</li> + +<li>Marks 129,000 ($30,702) in 1879;</li> + +<li>Marks 164,000 ($39,032) in 1889;</li> + +<li>Marks 208,000 ($49,504) in 1897.</li> +</ul> + +<p>The cost of the state per capita of the +population of the expenditures was as follows:</p> + +<ul class="indented"> +<li>Prussia, Pfennigs 15 (3½ cts.) in 1899;</li> + +<li>Saxony, Pfennigs 29 (7 cts.) in 1898;</li> + +<li>Hesse, Pfennigs 22 (5 cts.) in 1898.</li> +</ul> + + +<p>The cost per Marks 1,000 ($236) of the +entire state expenditures was Marks 2.27 +(54 cts.) in Prussia in 1899, and Marks +5.88 ($1.40) in Saxony in 1898.</p> + +<p>In general the German schools are classified +upon a basis of the grade of instruction +given rather than upon the character +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>of the subjects taught. Primary education +is compulsory, that is to say, all children +are compelled by law to attend school from +their sixth to their fourteenth year. It is +at this point that we find our difficulty. To +quote Dr. Alwin Pabst of Leipzig (who +speaks of conditions governing technical +schools):</p> + +<p>“The age of admission, length of course, +fees and other conditions (examinations) +of these schools differ widely. Ages range +from fourteen to thirty years or over; length +of course, one to four or five years; fees +perhaps twenty to thirty marks per year. +The Fortbildungsschule is the only institution +in which no fee is charged.” (Taken +from a personal letter.)</p> + +<p>Several classifications commend themselves +for use. Each has its weaknesses and +breaks down at some point, owing to the +conditions previously mentioned. In order +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>the better to illustrate this difficulty I shall +give these various possible classifications.</p> + +<p>The first refers chiefly to the scheme of +secondary education and was the one first +chosen and later discarded. It was suggested +mainly by Sir Philip Magnus’s work +on “Industrial Education” and the “Report +of the Industrial Commission”, Vol. 1.</p> + +<ul class="indented"> +<li>1. Industrieschulen +<ul> +<li>Gewerbeschulen</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>2. Trade Schools +<ul> +<li>Fachschulen</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>3. Building Trade Schools</li> + +<li>4. Secondary Technical Schools +<ul> +<li>Higher Technical</li> +<li>Foremen</li> +<li>Building</li> +<li>Weaving</li> +<li>Drawing</li> +</ul></li> + +<li>5. Industrial Art Schools (Kunstgewerbe) +<ul> +<li>Pure Art</li> +<li>Applied Art</li> +</ul></li> + +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>6. Polytechnics or Technische Hochschulen</li> + +<li>7. Continuation Schools—Fortbildungsschulen</li> +</ul> + +<p>Another classification, suggested in most +part by a German authority is as follows:</p> + +<ul class="indented"> +<li>1. Fortbildungsschulen—Continuation +schools</li> + +<li>2. Industrie—or Fachschulen—Special +Trade Schools</li> + +<li>3. Gewerbeschulen</li> + +<li>4. Technische Schulen</li> + +<li>5. Technische Hochschulen</li> + +<li>6. Baugewerkschulen—School for Architects</li> + +<li>7. Kunstgewerbeschulen—Schools of Art</li> +</ul> + + +<p>In the Seventeenth Annual Report of the +U. S. Commissioner of Labor for 1902 we +find the following:</p> + +<ul class="indented"> +<li>1. Technical Colleges</li> + +<li>2. Secondary or Intermediate Technical +Schools</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>3. Schools and Museums of Industrial +Art</li> + +<li>4. Schools for Foremen</li> + +<li>5. Schools for the Textile Trades</li> + +<li>6. Trade and Industrial Continuation +Schools</li> + +<li>7. Industrial Drawing Courses</li> + +<li>8. Other Institutions for Industrial Education.</li> +</ul> + + +<p>The order followed in the present study +is finally given below. It is one not to be +found elsewhere, but more closely resembles +that of Dr. Pabst (the second classification) +and that found in the Seventeenth Annual +Report of the Commissioner of Labor. It +has undoubtedly its weak points, but I +feel it is the best that can be made however, +as it is based upon data recently published, +and the results of correspondence with +German school authorities, in addition to +a not very extended knowledge gained +through personal contact with the German +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>schools. It may be taken therefore, as +bringing the work down to the present +time:</p> + +<ul class="indented"> +<li>1. Continuation Schools or Fortbildungsschulen</li> + +<li>2. Trade Schools or Fachschulen</li> + +<li>3. Secondary or Intermediate Technical +Schools or Gewerbliche Mittelschulen</li> + +<li>4. Technical Colleges or Technische +Hochschulen</li> + +<li>5. School and Museums of Industrial Art, +or Kunstgewerbeschulen</li> +</ul> + + + + +<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II</h2> + +<p class="subheader"><span class="smcap">Continuation Schools</span><br /> + +<span class="smcap">Fortbildungsschulen</span></p> + + +<p>Since at the age of fourteen years the +German youth is no longer under the control +of the compulsory school law, the value +of the system of continuation schools is realized. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>Of necessity the great mass of boys +are at this age, forced to enter some gainful +pursuit. It was clearly evident to the German +people that boys should not be cut off +from school education at this early age. +Dr. James H. Russell in his German Higher +Schools says:</p> + +<p>“The elementary and secondary schools +are quite independent of each other—not +one boy in ten thousand finds his way from +the highest class of the elementary school +into the Gymnasium.”</p> + +<p>It is evident that year by year an increasingly +large number of boys discontinue +their education at the close of the elementary +school, for a statement made by Mr. +Michael N. Sadler, (Vol. III of Special Reports +on Educational Subjects, London), +some years prior to the above writing, +would seem to indicate a lesser percentage +of dropping out than that proposed by Dr. +Russell.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>The desire then for more extended educational +advantages must have been early +felt, and there sprang into existence what +has since developed into one of the most +significant features and far-reaching factors +in the German scheme,—the continuation +school. I quote from Mr. H. Bertram who +writes of the continuation schools in Berlin, +December, 1899:</p> + +<p>“Amid the development of civilization +among the nations the idea of the continuation +school is making its way with increasing +strength. Urgently required by the +conditions of social organization, and in its +turn acting on them, the new institution +appears in many forms. It claims its place +side by side with the Church and the +School.</p> + +<p>“Among the great number of those who enter +early upon the practical business of life, to +whom the primary school has offered a start +there awakens, sooner or later, the desire to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>share in the stores of knowledge which human +intelligence has won, in the insight +into the working of the forces of nature, +which it has acquired and applied to industry, +in the arts which ennoble and support +human action; in short to participate in the +spiritual treasures which are, as it were, the +birthright of those born under a luckier +star. This desire, which opens to the diligent +the way to material prosperity and +inner contentment, seems for society as a +whole an important incentive to industrial +progress, and turns the discontent of the +slaves of machinery into happiness of men +conscious of their own success. The more +the old order changes which held the work +people in the narrow bonds of tradition, the +more is customary prescription replaced by +education and independent judgment, by +insight into existing conditions, by special +excellence within a particular sphere. For +this reason, the elementary school, however +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>efficient and methodically correct its action +may be, cannot suffice for the happiness of +the masses, nor for the preservation of society. +The instruction must come into close +contact with the life of the future citizen, +and must be at the command of everyone +desirous to learn, as long as he seeks it. +But the seeker, born amid such conditions +as these, needs guidance. Public libraries, +newspapers, magazines help him the more +he pushes forward, but without expert assistance +he hardly finds the beginning of the +path.</p> + +<p>“This is the object of the Continuation +School.”</p> + +<p>It is somewhat difficult to define the +limits and scope of the continuation or Fortbildungsschulen. +Conditions vary in the +different German states and especially do +they vary in the various kinds of continuation +schools. Definition is made even +more doubtful when we find that the limits +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>of certain schools overlap. It may be said +that students are regularly admitted from +fourteen to sixteen years of age. Not infrequently +however, boys and men of more +mature years take advantage of the courses +offered. Instruction is carried on during +the week-day evenings from six to eight +o’clock and on Sunday mornings.</p> + +<p>Prussia leads the other states in the number +and character of her supplementary +schools, the system having its fullest expression +in Berlin. The fact became early +apparent that preparation, whatever line +the boy was to follow, was necessary, and +this thought is confirmed in the many +skilled laborers in Germany to-day. In +Prussia, as elsewhere, it was found that +boys many times left the common school before +they became proficient in any line of +book work. The causes were various; poverty, +indifference, sickness, overcrowding, +poor enforcement of the compulsory attendance +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>laws,—all these conspired to make +supplementary schools necessary. In the +older provinces very little attention was +given the continuation school prior to 1875, +and almost as much could be said of those +provinces which were acquired in 1866. In +1844 a report issued by the Department of +Public Instruction makes mention of the +usefulness of such schools, while two years +later a second report has only slightly more +to say on the subject. This lack of interest +may be attributed in large measure to the +non-financial support of these schools by the +government.</p> + +<p>Several problems had to be faced in working +out the scheme. Certain definite relations +between the primary and continuation +schools must be observed; those coming into +the latter with an inadequate underschool +knowledge must be looked after; +provision must be made for students of +lesser as well as of more mature years; all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>classes of occupation must be given attention; +these and many other difficult questions +were to be met and overcome.</p> + +<p>“Three principles,” says Mr. Bertram, +“have contributed to the solution of this +problem—free choices between the courses +provided, free enjoyment of the preparatory +courses without fee, and the selection of the +teachers according to their attainments in +a particular branch and their ability to adapt +their instruction to the needs of the pupils +or participants in the course.”</p> + +<p>In certain sections, Nassau and Hanover +for example, state aid came early to the +continuation school. In 1874 an increased +appropriation resulted in the betterment of +the schools then existing and in the further +establishment of like institutions. Here +the communities must meet the cost of building, +heating, lighting etc., and one-half of +all the expenses not covered by the actual +tuition. Since 1878 there is a fairly general +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>acceptance throughout the Empire of the +statute providing that all employes under +eighteen years of age must be allowed to attend +a continuation school, the period of +attendance to be determined by “competent +authority”. This naturally leads the +Public Instruction Department to be free +in its financial support.</p> + +<p>It will be understood that in most cases +six hours per week is the attendance required +and that only those who have left +the Volksschule or lower school and are not +attending any higher institution are admitted. +In Saxony a somewhat different +condition exists. Children who have not +made satisfactory progress in the Volksschule +must, perforce, attend the continuation +school for two years.</p> + +<p>The writer of this paper was thoroughly +impressed with the work of the Sunday +classes as seen in Leipzig, Saxony, during +the summer of 1899. His first introduction +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>to such work was made, when on joining +a group of boys, several of them carrying +draughting-boards, he was conducted +by them to their school. The general +character and deportment of the boys, the +spirit and enthusiasm manifested by them, +and the thoughtful and intelligent quality +of the work produced, fully justified in his +own mind, the validity and worth of the +Sunday class instruction.</p> + +<p>As between the schools located in the +cities and those in the smaller towns and +country places, there is some slight difference. +They may be classified as (<i>a</i>) rural +or (<i>b</i>) city schools, on account of their location. +The distinction lies rather in the +arrangement of their curricula, the needs +of the students in the particular locality +being kept in mind. In the rural schools the +programme of studies is somewhat general, +comprising the German language, arithmetic, +mensuration, nature study; and in some +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>instances may be added to these, geography, +German history, drawing, gymnastics +and music. This programme is elective to +the extent that the capacity and previous +education of the pupil are considered, and +too, the ability of the teacher, local conditions +and the time spent by the individual +student. Such schools are admonished not +to take on the character of technical institutions, +but rather to continue the general +education begun in the Volksschulen. +Only under certain conditions is less than +four hours per week of instruction permissible.</p> + +<p>In Prussia the city continuation schools +are of two grades, each grade made up of a +number of classes. In the lower grade +schools, instruction is given in accordance +with the particular trade or calling the pupil +is to follow. In the upper grade, work +is much the same, proficiency being the +chief additional feature. When six hours +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>of work is the minimum, language, arithmetic, +elementary geometry and drawing, +form the body of the course; while penmanship, +geography, history, grammar and +nature study all are taken up in connection +with the reading work. Business forms are +not overlooked. In the more fully +equipped schools where the teachers are prepared +for such branches, higher mathematics, +mechanics, physics and advanced +drawing are taken up.</p> + +<p>If, as before stated, the various types of +continuation schools overlap, the same is +true regarding the trade and industrial +continuation schools. While in many instances +the work in the latter schools is of +a general character, aiming to supplement +or round out the education of the pupil, we +find that many of the original schools of this +class have developed into a form of special +or trade school. This is brought about +through pressure from without, as it were. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>When a certain industry predominates in a +locality supporting a continuation school, it +is only fair to suppose that the work done, +general though it may be, will be colored +to some extent at least, by the demands of +such industry. If this process of merging +is carried sufficiently far, as is in many cases +done, the school may lose almost or entirely +its original trend, and from a Fortbildungsschule, +fall into the class of trade or Fachschulen.</p> + +<p>In the main then, the instruction given +in a continuation school proper, is either of +a theoretical nature or involves some form +of drawing perhaps, thus rendering any +other than an ordinary school room unnecessary +for class use. In the city of +Leipzig the situation is dissimilar to that +in some north German cities. Here +the classes are arranged according to the +various trades followed, as bookbinders, +printers, lithographers, bakers, metal workers, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>workers in wood and stone, etc. There +are again in Southern Germany simply +schools of drawing with special reference +to the various trades and industries. In +addition to these are classes of a general +nature for boys not following special trades. +Such schools however, cannot be found in +the smaller towns or in the country. Certain +other Saxon cities have schools of +somewhat similar character.</p> + +<p>In the Consular Report, Vol. 54, No. 202, +page 447, 1898, Mr. J. C. Monoghan says, +writing under the title Technical Education +in Germany:</p> + +<p>“The supplementary schools are for the +people who have to work, what Chautauquas, +summer schools, and university extension +courses are for others.—Parties in politico-economic +circles have found that the system +of common school education under which +boys and girls were given an ordinary education +in reading, writing, arithmetic etc., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>up to their fourteenth year, was inadequate, +partially if not wholly, to the ends aimed at +in such a system. To supply this defect it +was urged, and finally proposed and favorably +acted upon, that graduates of the common +schools, boys especially, in some few +cases girls too, should continue to get instruction +a certain number of hours a week. +This was made compulsory. Manufacturers, +shopkeepers, and mechanics in whose +employ such boys were found, and not the +parents, were made responsible for the boys’ +attendance. In these schools, as indicated +in the foregoing, the boys get as good an +idea as possible of the trade or branch of +business in which they are employed. As +a rule, the hours of attendance are early in +the morning or a certain number of afternoons +in the week. Sunday mornings are +not thought too sacred for such work. It +seems to be an acknowledgement that the +years hitherto given to a boy in which to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>get an education, viz., from his sixth to +his fourteenth year, are not enough to +prepare him for the struggle for life that he +has to enter upon. Men have told me, successful +merchants and agents here, that +they owe more to the hours spent in the +developing or supplementary schools from +the practical character of the instruction +given and the information imparted, than +to the many years spent in the common +schools. While one is hardly willing to believe +this, there can be no doubt of the good +work done, and being done, by the schools +referred to.”</p> + +<p>The Handwerkschulen in Berlin are very +similar to Fortbildungsschulen in Leipzig +for example. These schools have seen a +marvelous development during the past +few years. They have a technical quality, +giving much attention to drawing. The +sessions are in the evening, eight hours per +week, the fee being six marks the half year. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>They are attended by journeymen and apprentices +who come recommended by their +employers. In connection with these +schools various Sunday classes are conducted +throughout the city, each center specializing +along certain trade lines.</p> + +<p>The Berlin Handwerker Verein is a type +of continuation school, sustained not by the +state but by an association. The Verein, +founded in 1859, has for its object the promotion +of general culture, a partial knowledge +at least of the several callings represented, +and good manners (gute Sitten). +The moral and ethical elements are not +lacking. Here public lectures of real merit +are given, together with music, gymnastics, +and instruction in general and technical +subjects. Boys of good character, over +seventeen years of age, are admitted. The +families of the boys in attendance are also +allowed to avail themselves of such general +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>exercises, lectures, music, etc., as the school +offers.</p> + +<p>What may also be styled as belonging in +a sense in the continuation school category +is the German Association for the Diffusion +of Popular Education, with headquarters +in Berlin. Branches of this association are +scattered throughout various parts of the +Empire.</p> + +<p>In the year 1869, the industrial code provided +that all boys under eighteen years of +age might, at the discretion of the local +authorities, be compelled to attend school. +It is thus evident that the local or State +authority was here consulted, rather than +the General Government. At the present +time however, when the adjustment of this +matter is not in the hands of local authority, +the employer must, if those engaged with +him desire so to do, allow such boys to attend +school at their option. In some States +however, Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse and Baden, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>compulsory school laws are in force among +all boys fourteen to eighteen years of age. +At present the law of 1891 is active and the +portion touching our problem is here given:</p> + +<p>“Employers are required to give the +necessary time, to be determined eventually +by the competent authorities, to their workingmen +under eighteen years of age who +attend an educational establishment recognized +by the communal administration or +by the State as an adult’s school. Instruction +shall not be given on Sunday except +where the hours are so fixed that the pupils +are not prevented from attending the principal +religious exercise or a religious exercise +of their faith especially conducted for +them with the consent of the ecclesiastical +authorities. The central administration +may, until October 1, 1894, accord exemptions +from the last provision to adult +schools already in existence, attendance upon +which is not obligatory.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>“For purposes of this law schools giving +instruction in manual work and domestic +duties to women shall be considered as +adult schools.”</p> + +<p>This citation points out that the Sunday +class work must not conflict with the religious +services. There is a strong sentiment +in many places in favor of a repeal of +such laws as prohibit Sunday classes at +such times as church services are held. +Many of the clergy are opposed to the extending +of Sunday continuation schools, +while for the most part the government +authorities are favorable to such extension.</p> + +<p>As regards the compulsory age limit, +Prussia of all the German states is following +out the option given the individual +States. It is worthy of note that she declares +(while declining to accept the law) +that where freedom is allowed, boys are +more likely to continue in school after their +eighteenth year. It is insisted also that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>with the restrictions removed, a deeper interest +is excited in the school studies. The +statement is made however that in Prussia +two thirds of the industrial continuation +schools have compulsory attendance laws in +force as the local authorities may determine. +Certain it is that much stress is +laid upon the ethical side of instruction in +the continuation schools and it is agreed +that the compulsory school should not +transplant the regular continuation school, +except where it seems absolutely necessary to +do so. In Bavaria for example, where the +age limit by law is thirteen, the compulsory +school has a place for the time being +at least.</p> + +<p>In Berlin, a century ago, Sunday afternoon +classes were inaugurated, with a programme +no more varied than that furnished +by the three R’s. Apprentices not equipped +with sufficient school training were forced +to attend the schools. In 1869 the power +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>was wrested from the trade guilds and the +elective system resulted, later producing +the Elementary Continuation School. The +local city government founded at a later +date three such schools, and in these a +more diversified curriculum was operated, +adding to the three R’s, German composition +and literature, modern languages, natural +science, political science, law, bookkeeping +and drawing. For various reasons +these schools were not attended by a full +measure of success and the city authorities +formulated the plan of placing the continuation +schools in some of the higher institutions +of learning, courses to be operative in +winter only. Later, from the preparatory +school, which fitted for the continuation +school proper, grew up the technical continuation +school.</p> + +<p>There are at the present twelve schools +of the continuation type in Berlin. A large +attendance is desired, for with large classes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>groups of various intellectual standards may +be formed. The student is free to elect +subjects—as between certain languages, +mathematics or art studies. The Director +of the school, by keeping in touch with the +employers in the various trades and shops, +can thus control the attendance and shape +the course of the lines of work offered.</p> + +<p>Some ten years since, two special lines of +instruction were withdrawn from the continuation +school proper—the carpenters’ +school and the Gewerbesaal, comprising +work in drawing and theory involved in +machine construction and the like. Courses +for turners are offered in the carpenters’ +schools. In Berlin there are in excess of +nine centers for the last named school and +ten centers for the Gewerbesaal, the winter +classes running up to 2000 and 850 pupils +respectively.</p> + +<p>This example serves to illustrate the fact +mentioned in a previous connection, viz., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>that the Fortbildungsschule was in some +cases merged into a special school, for here +in reality a Fach or trade institution has developed +from the original continuation +school. This practice has been going on +more or less extensively among the various +schools; and in Berlin especially, the continuation +school has been the foundation of +most of the Fachschulen. Something more +will be said in this connection in the section +under trade schools.</p> + +<p>Regarding the continuation schools for +girls and women a word may be added. As +with the boys’ schools, so these designed +for girls were put on foot, partly at least, +from an ethical standpoint. Girls spending +their days in the factory and shop were in +need of a refining influence, and this the +continuation school afforded. Courses were +offered in the German language, arithmetic, +sewing and dressmaking. The efforts made +to give girls this training were not entirely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>successful. So many objections to Sunday +work were brought forward that it was discontinued. +The burdens of the day fell so +heavily upon the girls that they were not +ambitious to attend evening classes. At the +present time the schools are more largely +attended by girls who, during the day, remain +in the family, and in the school take +up the household arts, sewing, cutting out, +and the like, and also languages, mathematics, +geography, etc., gymnastics and music, +shorthand and typewriting. It is hoped +soon to introduce cookery in all girls’ +schools. Drawing is given much attention.</p> + +<p>There are in Berlin, nine municipal continuation +schools for girls, which are, as the +name indicates, maintained by the city.</p> + + + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span><a name="III" id="III"></a>III</h2> + +<p class="subheader"><span class="smcap">Trade Schools</span><a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + + +<p>As has been indicated in another connection, +the classification of trade schools as +such, is somewhat uncertain. It has been +shown that many of the present schools for +special trades have evolved from the continuation +schools of the past. In the transition +state it is sometimes quite difficult to +definitely place a certain school, whether in +the trade continuation, or trade group proper, +or to class it with the Industrieschulen. +The trade continuation schools have largely +superseded the regular trade schools, in +many localities at least, and where this condition +exists, trade instruction seems to be +losing ground, here the Fortbildungsschulen +on the one hand, and regular ap<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>prenticeships +on the other, coming in to supplant +trade teaching.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The two previous articles were published in the School +Bulletin for July and August, 1906.</p></div> + +<p>The seeming contradictory statements +made here must be interpreted in the spirit +rather than in the letter, if the full meaning +and significance of the trade school is to be +grasped. Trades are taught as formerly. +The point made is that while the trade +school, per se, is doing its work, boys are, +more and more, being trained for their +trades in the so-called trades continuation +schools and as apprentices in the shops. The +latter form of training will be spoken of elsewhere +in this section of the paper.</p> + +<p>We have noted in following the work of +the continuation school, that the attempt +has been mainly toward the teaching of theoretical +subjects, the practical lines being +carried forward in the regular daily occupations +of the individuals. Hence the trade is +not held specifically in mind, although the +desired end is always kept in view. In the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>trade schools on the other hand, the work is +largely of a practical nature, dealing with +some particular occupation. The foregoing +statement may be taken as fairly representing +the Fachschule point of view, but it +should be observed that while these schools +are special trade schools, training for example +iron workers, or joiners, or tailors, there +is a differentiation within the general class. +I refer to the Gewerbeschulen, where theoretical +lessons are sometimes taught. These +schools will be given mention in the secondary +group.</p> + +<p>Admission to the trade schools is gained +usually at fourteen years of age, the length +of each course covering a period of three +years. The schools are in receipt of financial +aid from both state and local governments.</p> + +<p>To simplify our study, we shall consider +only such institutions as deal with a single +trade each, leaving the schools for the building +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>trades and the like, and those dealing +with industrial art and drawing to be treated +elsewhere. Specialization has been carried +so far that the following lists of schools, each +training for its own particular trade or calling, +may be given. The list is arranged alphabetically +and without reference to the +relative importance of the various vocations, +or to the number of schools. Such schools +are now found pretty generally in the larger +cities throughout the Empire. Some of +these are day schools; some evening schools, +and others again offer both day and evening +courses and Sunday instruction.</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Single Trade Schools</span></p> + +<ul> +<li>Schools for Bakers</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Barbers and Hairdressers</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Basketmakers, Wickerworkers, and Strawplaiters</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Blacksmiths</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Bookbinders</li> +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Carpenters and Cabinetmakers</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Chimney Sweeps</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Confectioners</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Coopers</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Gardeners</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Glaziers</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Joiners</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Marine Machinists</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Masons</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Painters</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Paperhangers and Decorators</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Plumbers</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Photographers</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Potters</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Printers</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Saddlers, Trimmers and Trunkmakers</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Shoemakers</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Tailors</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Tinsmiths</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Toymakers</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Upholsterers</li> +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Wagonmakers and Wheelwrights</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Watch and Clockmakers</li> +<li><span class="sc1">"</span><span class="sc2">"</span>Woodcarvers</li> +</ul> + + +<p>Some of the above named institutions are +in certain localities styled apprenticeship +schools. These train workmen and foremen +of a minor degree. Shop work is offered, +and in some cases pure and applied art as +well.</p> + +<p>The evening work of the so-called Artisans’ +Schools of Berlin, are deserving of special +mention. There are two such institutions, +called respectively school number one and +school number two. The first was established +in 1880; the second in 1892. The +aim of these schools is to give to tradesmen +and apprentices in their leisure hours such +a knowledge of drawing, the arts and +sciences, as will find an application in their +own lines of work.</p> + +<p>The grade of instruction varies from quite +elementary work to that for advanced students, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>the latter being obliged to present +evidence of fitness before entering.</p> + +<p>The following courses are offered, the figures +indicating the number of hours per +week devoted to each.</p> + +<table class="courses" summary="courses"> +<tr><td>Arithmetic</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr> +<tr><td>Algebra</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr> +<tr><td>Geometry</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr> +<tr><td>Trigonometry</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr> +<tr><td>Analytical geometry and calculus</td><td class="hours">1</td></tr> +<tr><td>Mathematical problems involving physics and mechanics</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr> +<tr><td>Descriptive geometry</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bookkeeping</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr> +<tr><td>Physics</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Mechanics</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr> +<tr><td>Electro-technics</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Chemistry</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Chemistry and pharmacy</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Free-hand drawing</td><td class="hours">2-4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Aquarelle</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Projection</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>Ornament</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Trade drawing according to occupation</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Modeling in wax and clay</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Decorative painting</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In addition to the foregoing, school number +two offers:</p> + +<table style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: 0em" class="courses" summary="courses"> +<tr><td>Chasing</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Practical wrought-iron work</td><td class="hours">4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sketching and calculating the elements of machinery</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The courses continue for two years.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to note that whereas certain +enactments are in force regarding the +Sunday sessions of the Fortbildungsschulen, +there are no such restrictions placed upon +the Fachschulen, Sunday morning classes +being held at the discretion of the school +authorities.</p> + +<p>Let us refer to our table of single trade +schools as given above. The statements +which follow have in most cases been taken +from data relating to the schools of Berlin, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>and may be said to fairly represent the general +existing conditions throughout the +Empire.</p> + +<p>In the school for bakers, instruction is +given one day weekly for two and one half +hours. The theoretical work (which in common +with all such work in the regular trade +schools, is related directly to the particular +trade under discussion) is made up of chemistry +and bookkeeping.</p> + +<p>In the barbers’ and hairdressers’ schools, +instruction is carried on six days each week, +four hours daily, the school continuing six +months of the year, covering the winter +period. Each class receives fourteen hours +instruction per week. While the bakers’ +school is supported by the guild, the barbers’ +school is jointly maintained by state, +city and guild. The curriculum includes +shaving, hair cutting, and hair dressing, +wig making, and ladies’ hair dressing. A +tuition of three marks is charged for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>term, in the case of apprentices, and six +marks for journeymen; a charge five times +as great is made for ladies’ hair dressing, +and for the surgical lectures, ten marks.</p> + +<p>The guild, state and municipality maintain +the school for basketmakers and wickerworkers. +Apprentices receive instruction +free, four marks each semester being charged +the journeymen and adults. Attendance is +compulsory on the part of apprentices of +guild members. Four hours work per week +are given, on Saturdays. The annual expenses +of the school, are about five hundred +and fifty dollars. Four courses are offered, +as follows: first, general basket making and +wicker furniture; second, making of small +wicker furniture; third, large wicker furniture; +fourth, fine and artistic wicker +working.</p> + +<p>In the blacksmiths’ school the instruction +is for two hours, one day each week. Theoretical +work in horseshoeing, and drawing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>related to the course are taught.</p> + +<p>The city and guild support the school for +bookbinders. The students are both apprentices +and journeymen. They work +week day evenings and Sunday mornings. +The purpose is not to produce tradesmen, +but rather to make more proficient those engaged +in some form of bookbinding, and to +this end applicants must have had experience +amounting to two years work before entering +the school. All students must be +grounded in the general elements underlying +the trade before they are allowed to +take up any phase as a specialty. No fee is +charged the apprentices of guild members; +others pay five marks per term; journeymen +pay nine marks per term.</p> + +<p>In the cabinetmakers’ school, all lines of +work pertaining to the trade are taken up, +drawing and designing for trade purposes; +free-hand drawing; modeling, carving; properties +of woods, etc. Instruction is given +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>week day evenings and Sunday forenoons. +Four marks are charged for the first term in +the drawing course and for each subsequent +term, two marks. The subjects taken up +are: chemistry, free-hand drawing, projection, +trade drawing, perspective and +shadows, drawing from cast, modeling and +wood carving, joinery. The school is under +public control.</p> + +<p>In most of the remaining trade schools, +instruction is pretty generally given on week +day evenings and Sunday mornings, the +apprentices of guild members paying no fee, +a small charge being made for outsiders. +The support comes from city, state and guild +in most cases. In the school for masons however, +there is a preparatory course and also +a carpenters’ course, the whole covering a +three years term. In this school the instruction +is thorough, covering plans, drawings +and specifications; stone, brick, and +wood construction; foundations, arches, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>staircases, roofs, and the like. Almost +without exception in all these schools the +winter attendance is greater than that in the +summer.</p> + +<p>Certain individual schools throughout the +Empire deserve special mention, the Royal +Fachschule of Iserlohn, the first in Prussia, +being a notable example. Here handwork +is combined with industrial art adapted to +metal work. Boys who entered the trade +were, in the early days of the school, found +to be in need of both theoretical and practical +work, so each has a place in the curriculum. +The length of the course is three +years, covering the trades of designers, wood +carvers, moulders, founders, turners, chasers, +engravers, gilders, and etchers. Here +are taught drawing in all its branches; +modeling in wax and clay; history of art and +metal work; elements of chemistry and physics; +mathematics; German. Practical +work in the department in which the student +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>is engaged, is given, the student +stating on entrance what subject he desires +to take up. The time of instruction is +from eight to twelve, in the winter season, +and from seven to eleven in the summer. +The afternoon session is from two to six. +In the engineering trade school, three hours +per day are devoted to ornamental drawing, +German, physics and arithmetic. As the +instruction is planned for working people it +is largely theoretical.</p> + +<p>The Reimscheid school is of the apprenticeship +order. Attention is given the +making of edge tools and such other implements +as are manufactured in the district. +All students take drawing and design as +applied to iron work. They are made +acquainted with the different kinds of iron +work that can be carried on in the home; +are schooled in the use of the tools made; +learn regarding the markets at which they +are sold, and the various methods of their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>manufacture. Thus a general understanding +of the principles underlying his trade is +given the boy and he becomes acquainted +with the commercial side of his calling while +undergoing the necessary preparation in +manipulation. The theoretical work is given +in the morning and what shop practice is +offered is in the afternoon from two to +seven. The tuition is twenty dollars per +year.</p> + +<p>The Pottery Trade School at Hohr Grenzhausen, +Prussia, is under State control. +There are day and evening classes, the +former attended for the most part by the +sons of manufacturers; the evening classes +by men and women who are employed +otherwise during the day. There are Sunday +classes also. Decorated stoneware is +given much attention. The day class boys +enter with a fairly good knowledge of drawing +and have perhaps attended the Fortbildungsschule. +Drawing, descriptive geometry, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>modeling in clay and wax, new forms +of vessels and original ornamentation, painting, +designing and decorative art, manufacture +of earthenware, lectures and study +of collections, make up the curriculum. +Any original model made becomes the +property of the father of the boy, or of the +person financially supporting such boy during +his attendance at school. Two duplicates +of the model must be left at the school. +The courses are three years, daily sessions, +Saturdays excepted. The fees are nominal, +being only five dollars per year for the day +classes, thirty hours weekly, and one dollar +for evening work, two hours weekly. Pupils +living outside the municipality pay six +dollars per year for day instruction.</p> + +<p>The Furtwangen, or Black Forest schools +are made up of several divisions, giving +rather a high class of instruction. Clock +making, wood carving, and straw plaiting, +are largely carried on.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>This paper would not be complete without +some mention of the system of apprenticeship +in vogue in Germany. The Lehrwerkstätten +or apprentice shops play a +considerable part in the industrial life of +the Empire. In some instances they are +maintained in connection with the trade +schools, or again, are semi-private or separate +shops. The apprenticeship shops on +the one hand, and the continuation schools +upon the other, are doing much of the work +formerly undertaken by the trade schools +proper. While manufacturing upon a +larger scale is recognized as possessing advantages +over the smaller productive plants, +it has seemed wise to hold to the handicrafts, +in a measure at least. The apprentice +system helps to preserve the traditions +and sentiments of the German people, by +handing down these handicrafts. The +associations, vereins, and guilds of past +time, are to-day, through the aid of legislation, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>coming to the fore, and bringing with +them many boys trained in the shops under +the masters. To show the power and scope of +the guild, and in some cases it is incumbent +upon a community to form a guild whether +or no, let me give the following quotation:</p> + +<p>“Persons carrying on trades on their own +account can form guilds for the advancement +of their common trade interests. The +object of the guild shall be:</p> + +<p>1. the cultivation of an esprit de corps +and professional pride among the members +of a trade;</p> + +<p>2. the maintenance of amicable relations +between employers and their employes, and +the securing of work for unemployed journeymen +and their shelter during the period +of their nonemployment;</p> + +<p>3. the detailed regulations of the conditions +of apprenticeship and the care for +the technical and moral education of apprentices;</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>4. the adjustment of disputes between +guild members and their apprentices, as +contemplated by the law of July 20, 1890, +concerning industrial arbitration.”</p> + +<p>The shops offer about the same lines of +work as do the private concerns, aiming +however to be more systematic and to cover +a wider scope. It is asserted by some that +the instruction gained in the shop is superficial, +and not to be compared with that obtained +from the traveling master-workmen. +When the shop is connected with some enterprise +or manufacturing interest, a master-workman +has one apprentice only under his +charge, for which he receives from the state +some thirty-five dollars yearly, the boy being +given board, lodging and proper training. +The master must have attained the age of +twenty-four years, and must fulfil certain +technical qualifications. The instruction is +practical in the highest degree and thus +follows the lead of the trade schools in letter +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>and spirit. The fees are mainly paid in by +guild members, and those not members +even, provided such reside in the district +and are connected with the trade for which +the school stands. Local and state aid is +furnished. While the period of apprenticeship +may extend over four years, three years +is the usual term.</p> + + + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV</h2> + +<p class="subheader"><span class="smcap">Art Trade Schools</span></p> + + +<p>The various types of institutions taken up +under this head are of an intermediate grade, +standing half way between the trade school +on the one hand and the higher technical +institutions upon the other. Indeed, they +contain many elements in common with the +lower group, their scope however being +broader and more general or indirect, theoretical +work finding a place in their curricula. +Owing to a similarity in the instruction +given, several classes of schools seem to +demand a hearing under this section. We +shall begin with the more general trade +schools omitted from our previous study.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Schools for the Building Trades</span><br /> + +(Baugewerkschulen)</h3> + +<p>The schools for the building trades, of +which there are a half hundred in the Empire, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>are very similar in character throughout. +The Munich school, established in +1823, was the first of its kind. Their aim, +as indicated in the title, is the giving of +training in the trades connected with the +various building operations. The majority +of these schools offer a course two years in +length. The age of admission is fourteen to +sixteen years. It is a requisite under some +boards, that applicants have had practical +experience in the line to be followed, at +least two half-years and in some cases two +full years, before entrance to the school. +They must have also a fair general knowledge +of their own language, and of reading +and writing as well. The candidate must +be a graduate of the Volksschule or must +subject himself to an examination. The +fees in these schools vary from fifty to two +hundred marks per year. These are day +sessions only. The governing power is in +some cases vested in the municipality, frequently +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>in the State, and again in private +enterprise.</p> + +<p>While those who go out from these schools +may, some of them at least, follow the +trades as regular laborers, others again are +qualified as master-workmen and leaders in +their craft. Construction in wood, stone, +iron and metals; laws of building; modes +of heat, light and ventilation; plumbing; +interior fittings; these and other occupations +are taken up. The sessions of most schools +extend over the winter months only, the +students being actively engaged in their several +trades during the summer season. +These schools holding continuous sessions, +are sparsely attended during the summer. +When theoretical work is given, such subjects +are included as bookkeeping, descriptive +geometry, physics and mechanics, German, +free-hand and mechanical drawing, design, +principles of architecture. The practical programme +comprehends a study of building materials +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>and the procuring and working of the +same; relative strengths and adaptability to +purpose; models of construction; ornamentation; +architecture and design; estimates; +chemical properties of materials; supports, +trusses, arches and the like. In the more +advanced institutions, algebra, surveying, +mechanics, study of machines and chemistry +may be added to the theoretical list +given, while the practical studies are more +intensive, and of a somewhat higher order. +Special departments for engineering, (Tiefbauabteilungen) +preparing men to occupy +positions as superintendents, managers of +public works, construction directors, etc., +are sustained in some instances.</p> + +<p>Such schools are of an inferior engineering +type, and deal with problems of advanced +work as related to the construction of roads, +water works and railroads; municipal engineering; +bridge construction; electro-technics. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>The theoretical lines are similar to +those pursued in other courses.</p> + +<p>The schools to which we have just referred +illustrate well the statement made in +a previous connection, that the grade of instruction +rather than the character of the +subjects taught, determines the classification +of schools into groups. Three classes of +trade instruction have just been mentioned, +and might well be styled lower, +middle and upper schools for trade teaching. +Another point of interest lies in the fact, +that while we have been speaking of theoretical +and practical subjects as forming the +curricula of the schools for the building +trades, the distinction should rather be +drawn on the line of traditional book subjects +and applied or laboratory practice. +Practical work, per se, is not carried on in +the school. Thus we have a close connection +between theory and practice; more +closely perhaps than is found to exist in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>other trades.</p> + +<p>The following table shows the distribution +of building trade schools throughout the +Empire, the cities in which such schools are +located being given.</p> + + +<table class="distribution1" summary="distribution"> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Anhalt</td><td>Zerbst</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Baden</td><td>Carlsruhe</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="5">Bavaria</td><td>Kaiserslautern</td></tr> +<tr><td>Munich</td></tr> +<tr><td>Nuremburg</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ratisbon</td></tr> +<tr><td>Würzburg</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Brunswick</td><td>Holzminden</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Hamburg</td><td></td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Hesse</td><td></td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Lübeck</td><td></td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="2">Mecklenburg-Schwerin</td><td>Neustadt</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sternberg</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>Mecklenburg-Strelitz</td><td>Strelitz</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Oldenburg</td><td>Varel</td></tr> + +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="21">Prussia</td><td>Aix-la-Chappelle</td></tr> +<tr><td>Berlin</td></tr> +<tr><td>Breslau</td></tr> +<tr><td>Buxtehude</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cassel</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cologne</td></tr> +<tr><td>Deutsch-Krone</td></tr> +<tr><td>Eckernförde</td></tr> +<tr><td>Erfurt</td></tr> +<tr><td>Frankfort-on-the-Oder</td></tr> +<tr><td>Görlitz</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hildesheim</td></tr> +<tr><td>Höxter</td></tr> +<tr><td>Idstein</td></tr> +<tr><td>Kattowitz</td></tr> +<tr><td>Königsberg</td></tr> +<tr><td>Magdeburg</td></tr> +<tr><td>Münster</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>Nienburg</td></tr> +<tr><td>Posen</td></tr> +<tr><td>Stettin</td></tr> + +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Reuss-Schleitz</td><td>Gera</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Saxe-Coburg-Gotha</td><td>Coburg</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="2">Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach</td><td>Weimar</td></tr> +<tr><td>Stadt-Sulza</td></tr> + +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="8">Saxony</td><td>Chemnitz</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dresden</td></tr> +<tr><td>Grossenhain</td></tr> +<tr><td>Leipzig</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oschatz</td></tr> +<tr><td>Plauen</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rosswein</td></tr> +<tr><td>Zittau</td></tr> + +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Schwarzburg-Sondershausen</td><td>Arnstadt</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>Wurttemberg</td><td>Stuttgart</td></tr> +</table> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Schools for Foremen</span><br /> + +(Werkmeisterschulen)</h3> + +<p>The Werkmeisterschulen or schools for +foremen, are quite prominent in the scheme +of secondary instruction. The courses +given in these schools are of a general character, +for the most part practical, and the +institution, as the name implies, fits men to +occupy positions as foremen and overseers. +Machine construction is the chief industry +for which these schools train. The first +school of this character was opened in 1855 +at Chemnitz, Saxony. There are at present +twenty-one schools of this class in the Empire. +Sixteen is the regular age of admission. +Candidates must have an elementary +education on presenting themselves. Two +years is the average length of course, including +both winter and summer terms. A requisite +for admission also is practical experience +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>in the trade, hence little other than +theoretical instruction is given.</p> + +<p>To the objection made by some, to extending +the course over two years of residence +and of including the elementary +branches in the curriculum (such opposition +favoring a reduction in time given to preparation) +the answer comes that the school +should give a well grounded education, such +as will fit the participant for all the functions +of his social and industrial life. Fifty to +sixty marks is charged yearly for tuition +fees. Certain of these schools have both +evening and Sunday classes, the tuition being +twenty marks yearly for week day evenings, +eight to nine forty-five, and Sundays, +eight to ten in the forenoon.</p> + +<p>Table showing location of schools for +foremen:</p> + + +<table class="distribution2" summary="distribution"> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Anhalt</td><td>Dessau</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Baden</td><td>Mannheim</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol">Bavaria</td><td>Four Mechanische Fachschulen</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>Hamburg</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="11">Prussia</td><td>Altona</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cologne</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dortmund</td></tr> +<tr><td>Duisburg</td></tr> +<tr><td>Elberfeld-Barmen</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gleiwitz</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gorlitz</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hanover</td></tr> +<tr><td>Magdeburg</td></tr> +<tr><td>Iserlohn</td></tr> +<tr><td>Reimscheid</td></tr> +<tr class="newstate"><td class="lcol" rowspan="3">Saxony</td><td>Chemnitz</td></tr> +<tr><td>Mittweida</td></tr> +<tr><td>Leipzig</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The following data were compiled from +tables appearing in the Report of the Commissioner +of Labor of the United States, for +1902. The hours per week allowed each +subject taught in the schools of machinery +construction, at Duisburg and Dortmund, +Prussia, are given.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p> + + +<table class="foremen" summary="hours per week"> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="4" class="blc dl">DUISBURG</td><td colspan="4" class="blc">DORTMUND</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2" class="blc"><span class="smcap">First Year</span></td><td colspan="2" class="blc dl"><span class="smcap">Second Year</span></td><td colspan="2" class="blc"><span class="smcap">First Year</span></td><td colspan="2" class="blc"><span class="smcap">Second Year</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="blc"></td><td class="blc small">First<br />Half</td><td class="blc small">Second<br />Half</td><td class="blc small">First<br />Half</td><td class="blc dl small">Second<br />Half</td><td class="blc small">First<br />Half</td><td class="blc small">Second<br />Half</td><td class="blc small">First<br />Half</td><td class="blc small">Second<br />Half</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">German language and law</td><td>4</td><td>4</td><td>2</td><td class="dl">2</td><td>5</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Arithmetic</td><td>4</td><td>1</td><td>—</td><td class="dl">—</td><td>5</td><td>2</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Bookkeeping</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td class="dl">2</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Descriptive Geometry</td><td>—</td><td>3</td><td>—</td><td class="dl">—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Mathematics</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>4</td><td class="dl">2</td><td>7</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Experimental Physics</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td class="dl">—</td><td>4</td><td>2</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Physics and Electricity</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td class="dl">2</td><td>—</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Experimental Chemistry</td><td>2</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td class="dl">—</td><td>2</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Penmanship</td><td>2</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td class="dl">—</td><td>1</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Drawing</td><td>12</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td class="dl">—</td><td>17</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Machine Drawing</td><td>—</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td class="dl">8</td><td>—</td><td>10</td><td>8</td><td>14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Projection</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td class="dl">—</td><td>—</td><td>2</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Mechanics</td><td>—</td><td>4</td><td>4</td><td class="dl">4</td><td>—</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Technology of mechanics, smelting and refining </td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>6</td><td class="dl">4</td><td>—</td><td>2</td><td>6</td><td>4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Theory of machines</td><td>—</td><td>6</td><td>—</td><td class="dl">—</td><td>—</td><td>6</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Steam boilers and hoist machines</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>6</td><td class="dl">—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>7</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Steam engines and hydraulics and small motors</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td class="dl">6</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Heating</td><td>—</td><td>3</td><td>—</td><td class="dl">—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Theory of building construction</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>4</td><td class="dl">—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Practice in the work shop for machinery construction</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td class="dl">—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>4</td><td>4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Estimated wages</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td class="dl">6</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">First aid to the injured</td><td class="bl">—</td><td class="bl">—</td><td class="bl">1</td><td class="bl dl">—</td><td class="bl">—</td><td class="bl">1</td><td class="bl">—</td><td class="bl">—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc"><span style="margin-left: 3em">Total</span></td><td>36</td><td>36</td><td>37</td><td class="dl">36</td><td>41</td><td>43</td><td>42</td><td>42</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>The following table showing the occupations +of one time students at three of the +Prussian schools was compiled in April, +1898. This table may be found on page +883 of the Seventeenth Annual Report of +the Commissioner of Labor of the United +States.</p> + + +<ul class="columns"> +<li style="line-height: 200%"><strong>Columns:</strong></li> +<li><i>A</i>—Duisburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1883 to April 10, 1898</li> +<li><i>B</i>—Dortmund: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1892 to April 10, 1898</li> +<li><i>C</i>—Magdeburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1893 to April 10, 1898</li> +</ul> + + +<table class="standard" summary="occupations"> +<tr><td class="cl btl">OCCUPATION</td><td class="btl"><i>A</i></td><td class="btl"><i>B</i></td><td class="btl"><i>C</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Heads of establishments</td><td>54</td><td>1</td><td>1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Other officers of establishments</td><td>237</td><td>107</td><td>11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Machine builders and foremen</td><td>39</td><td>18</td><td>1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Wage-workers</td><td>34</td><td>9</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Owners of establishments or shops</td><td>10</td><td>3</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Draftsmen and technical experts in offices</td><td>86</td><td>55</td><td>83</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Assistant Chemists</td><td>3</td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Students at other schools</td><td>11</td><td>1</td><td>2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Other than technical work</td><td>4</td><td>1</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Military service</td><td>16</td><td>23</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Deceased</td><td>11</td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Unknown</td><td>26</td><td>21</td><td>5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc"></td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="cl bl" style="line-height: 150%">Total</td><td class="bl">531</td><td class="bl">239</td><td class="bl">103</td></tr> +</table> + +<h3><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span><span class="smcap">Schools for the Textile Trades</span></h3> + +<p>One of the most interesting groups of +trade schools are those for the promotion of +the textile industry in its various aspects, +there existing at the present time no less +than seventy-nine such institutions. The +fourfold classification of these schools which +follow, seems to be in accordance with the +spirit of the work attempted.</p> + +<p>First; the superior weaving school (Höhere +Webschulen).</p> + +<p>Second; the secondary weaving schools +(Webschulen).</p> + +<p>Third; the apprentice shops for weaving +and knitting (Webereilehrwerkstätten).</p> + +<p>Fourth; instruction by traveling or itinerant +masters. (Wanderlehrer)</p> + +<p>Not only does Germany rank high in the +character of her textile schools, but instruction +is exceedingly wide spread. Then +again all lines of the industry are taken up, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>from the most elementary to the most technical +processes known. It will thus be +seen that men are trained for the lower as +well as for the higher branches of the art. +In the highest classes of institutions weaving +is almost exclusively carried on. The +general Government assumes the control of +these schools notwithstanding that in the +beginning, many such institutions were put +on foot through the initiative of associations +and guilds. In each of the several +classes the work is both theoretical and +practical. The age of admission is usually +fourteen years and the course of two years +duration.</p> + +<p>The Webschulen train, not for specialists +as do the schools just mentioned, but rather +aim to turn out foremen and bosses. The +apprenticeship shops come more closely in +touch with the workmen of small means and +those using hand machinery, while the +Wanderlehrer schools are moveable. In the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>latter instance, the home becomes the school +when the teacher is present; that is a competent +instructor is employed to travel from +place to place, visiting the small factories or +home manufacturers, and giving such instruction +as he deems wise and necessary. +Much good work is still done in the rural +homes of Germany, and through the means +mentioned the standards are kept up.</p> + +<p>The work of these textile schools is +largely specialized, depending upon the +the location of the school. In some localities +wool, in others linen or cotton, or again +in others silk will be given the chief attention. +Both theory and practice have a +place in the school instruction. Work in +the various courses includes a study at first +hand of the materials used, cost of production, +relative values, various processes of +manipulation, chemistry, drawing, designing, +painting, lectures on fabrics, elements +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>of weaving and machinery used, and original +design and practical work.</p> + +<p>The distribution of textile schools is +shown in the following table.</p> + +<ul class="columns"> +<li style="line-height: 200%"><strong>Columns:</strong></li> +<li><i>A</i>—Superior Textile</li> +<li><i>B</i>—Secondary Weaving</li> +<li><i>C</i>—Primary Weaving</li> +<li><i>D</i>—Weaving, Knitting and Trimming</li> +<li><i>E</i>—Spinning, Weaving and Knitting</li> +<li><i>F</i>—Spinning and Weaving</li> +<li><i>G</i>—Primary Knitting</li> +</ul> + + +<table class="standard" summary="distribution of schools"> +<tr><td class="cl btl">STATE</td><td class="btl"><i>A</i></td><td class="btl"><i>B</i></td><td class="btl"><i>C</i></td><td class="btl"><i>D</i></td><td class="btl"><i>E</i></td><td class="btl"><i>F</i></td><td class="btl"><i>G</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Alsace-Lorraine</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Bavaria</td><td></td><td>3</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Hesse</td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Prussia</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>22</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Reuss-Greitz</td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Reuss-Schleitz</td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Saxony</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>27</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc bl">Wurttemberg</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl">1</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr> +</table> + + +<p>The Prussian superior textile schools are +located as follows:</p> + +<ul class="indented"> +<li>Aix-la-Chappelle</li> +<li>Bremen</li> +<li>Berlin</li> +<li>Crefeld</li> +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>Cottbus</li> +<li>Mülheim-on-Rhine</li> +<li>München-Gladbach</li> +<li>Sorau</li> +</ul> + + +<p>The Berlin textile schools may be taken +as fairly representing the higher and more +completely equipped institutions of this +class. The age of admission is sixteen +years, a secondary education being necessary +to entrance. Several courses are offered +as follows:</p> + +<ul class="indented"> +<li>knitting, one year;</li> +<li>weaving, one and one-half years;</li> +<li>designing, two years;</li> +<li>passementerie making, one year;</li> +<li>dyeing, one year;</li> +<li>embroidery, one-fourth year.</li> +</ul> + +<p>There are day, evening and Sunday +classes. The accompanying table shows the +subjects taught in each course and the +number of hours given to each subject, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>reckoned on the basis of the entire length +of course.</p> + + +<ul class="columns"> +<li style="line-height: 200%"><strong>Columns:</strong></li> +<li><i>A</i>—For manufacturers and superintendents, 1½ yrs.</li> +<li><i>B</i>—Designing, 2 yrs.</li> +<li><i>C</i>—Knitting, 1 yr.</li> +<li><i>D</i>—Passementerie making, 1 yr.</li> +<li><i>E</i>—Dyeing, 1 yr.</li> +</ul> + + +<table class="standard" summary="extend of work"> +<tr><td class="cl btl">SUBJECTS</td><td class="btl"><i>A</i></td><td class="btl"><i>B</i></td><td class="btl"><i>C</i></td><td class="btl"><i>D</i></td><td class="btl"><i>E</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Theory of weaving</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>6</td><td>6</td><td>2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Design transfer</td><td>13</td><td>9</td><td>3</td><td>8</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Materials</td><td>1</td><td> ½</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Hand and power looms</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Motors</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Preparing apparatus</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Finishing apparatus</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Practical exercises</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>18</td><td>12</td><td>33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Dyeing</td><td>2</td><td></td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Analysis and production of knitting goods</td><td></td><td></td><td>4</td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Chemistry of fibers</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Chemistry and physics</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Drawing</td><td>8</td><td>23</td><td>2</td><td>5</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Arithmetic and bookkeeping</td><td>2</td><td></td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc">Jurisprudence</td><td>2</td><td></td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="fc bl">Lecture</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl">2</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="bl"></td></tr> +</table> + + +<p>In many instances the weaving schools +have in connection with them departments +for dyeing and finishing. In such cases +much attention is given to color blending +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>and harmony and to chemistry as well.</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Gewerbeschulen</span></h3> + +<p>Extended mention will not be made of +the Gewerbeschulen, as the point of distinction +between such schools and the Fachschulen +was set forth under the last section. +They partake of the character of trade +schools, but are more general in their tendencies. +While both theoretical and practical +work are given, the former is not +always applied theory, the Gewerbeschulen +being based upon, what we in America speak +of, as the educational side of trade instruction. +These schools are attended by boys +and men fourteen to twenty-four years of +age,—individuals representing the various +trades. The courses cover a period of three +years. Both State and local moneys go to +the support of these schools.</p> + +<p>The Gewerbliche Fachschule of Cologne +is somewhat distinctive. It instructs chiefly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>the sons of tradesmen and superior artisans. +There are three departments in the school:</p> + +<p>First—that of engineering and architectural +drawing.</p> + +<p>Second—modeling department.</p> + +<p>Third—the department of decoration, +housepainting, etc.</p> + +<p>The session covers both winter and summer +months, the winter term, as in other +cases, being the better attended. Other +typical Gewerbeschulen are located at Grenzhausen +and at Reimscheid. Applicants for +admission must have prepared in the Volksschule +or elementary school. The programme +comprises the German language, French, +English, literature, plane and descriptive +geometry, physics, chemistry, drawing, +mechanics, machine construction. The +preparation here obtained fits the participants +to enter the higher schools, or to act as +foremen and masters. These schools also +lead up to the industrial schools of Bavaria, +of which we shall now speak.</p> + + +<h3><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span><span class="smcap">Industrial Schools of Bavaria</span><br /> + +(Industrieschulen)</h3> + +<p>The industrial schools of the Bavarian +Kingdom stand out as a distinct class of +educational institutions. Here, since 1872, +there has been a clean cut system, presided +over by a Minister of Education. While +the quality and character of the work done +are quite similar to that taken up in the secondary +schools elsewhere, the institutions +are in some respects more exactly defined +and supervision and instruction in the schools +of weaving, woodcarving, basketmaking, +pottery, violin making, etc., is frequently +superior to that in some other locality.</p> + +<p>The age of admission is sixteen years, two +years being the usual length of course; the +education of the Real-Schule is a requisite, +or failing this, an examination must be +taken. In 1901-1902 the Munich schools +had an enrollment of 241 students, distributed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>as follows: mechanical engineering 124; +chemical engineering 27; architecture 62; +commercial 28. The graduates are fitted to +occupy positions of trust and prominence in +the various industrial pursuits of the country +and to enter the technical colleges.</p> + +<p>The Industrieschulen of Bavaria are four +in number, located at</p> + +<ul class="indented"> +<li>Augsburg</li> +<li>Kaiserslautern</li> +<li>Munich</li> +<li>Nuremberg</li> +</ul> + +<p class="continued">they having been established in 1868. Advanced +courses are offered in mechanical +engineering, chemical engineering, building +construction, and commercial education. +The school at Würzburg is of a somewhat +superior order, although secondary in its +tendencies, machinery construction and +electro-technics being given attention.</p> + +<p>In the mechanical engineering course the +following subjects are studied:</p> + +<ul class="indented"> +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>elementary mathematics</li> +<li>descriptive geometry</li> +<li>calculus</li> +<li>surveying</li> +<li>physics</li> +<li>German</li> +<li>French</li> +<li>English</li> +<li>mechanics</li> +<li>machine work</li> +<li>machine construction</li> +<li>mechanical drawing</li> +<li>practical work.</li> +</ul> + +<p>In the chemistry course the curriculum +is made up of</p> + +<ul class="indented"> +<li>mathematics</li> +<li>physics</li> +<li>chemistry</li> +<li>mineralogy</li> +<li>German</li> +<li>French</li> +<li>English</li> +<li>machine construction</li> +<li>laboratory work.</li> +</ul> + +<p>The building construction course offers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>language, mechanical drawing and architecture.</p> + + + + +<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V</h2> + +<p class="subheader"><span class="smcap">Higher Technical Schools</span><br /> + +Technische Hochschulen</p> + + +<p>We have at this point in our study reached +the schools of highest rank offering training +of a technical character, called variously +technical high schools, technical colleges, +or polytechnics, the Technische Hochschulen. +These schools are not high schools in +the sense that the term would be applied to +our American institutions, but are rather +schools of collegiate grade, ranking in fact, +as the title indicates in the university class. +While not exactly comparable to our engineering +schools, they approach more nearly +these than they do any other of our American +educational institutions.</p> + +<p>Before the beginning of the century just +closed it was apparent to some German +minds more far seeing than the rest, that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>schools of a higher than secondary rank +must be inaugurated to offer training in the +sciences; give opportunity to show the application +of science to the arts; and prepare +young men to grapple with scientific industrial +problems such as were constantly +springing up. Should the university attempt +such work? An effort was made looking +toward this end. It was at once evident +that here was not the place to begin. The +university was an institution in and of itself. +Its methods, curriculum and aim were fixed, +owing to long established customs. It had +a certain work to perform, its own peculiar +function to fulfill, and traditional and classical +tendency were too strong to be checked +in their movement, or to allow a branch +stream to flow in and thus add to or modify +the existing content.</p> + +<p>The war for industrial supremacy, between +England and Germany particularly, +was a prominent factor leading up to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>establishment of technical schools in the +latter country. Germany saw the necessity +for heroic action, and her people, anxious to +improve from the standpoint of her industries +at home not only, but that they might +rival and surpass their neighbors across the +“Silver Streak” readily took up the cry +for advanced scientific training. This then +was the object of the Technische Hochschulen:<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<p>“They were intended to secure for science +a foothold in the workshop, to assist +with the light of reasoned theory the progress +of arts and industry, till then fettered +by many a prejudice and hindered through +lack of knowledge; on the other hand, they +sought to raise that part of the nation engaged +in industry to such a love of culture +as would secure to it its due measure of +public respect.”</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Note on the earlier History of the Technical High +School in Germany by A. E. Twentyman in Special Reports +on Educational Subjects, London, Vol 9, page 468.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>The dates of the founding of the now existing +Technische Hochschulen vary somewhat, +certain of the schools growing out of +a foundation which at the beginning was of +a low or intermediate grade. Several of the +schools have passed through a period of +transition or reorganization state during the +course of their existence. The institution, +and time of establishment of each are as follows.</p> + + +<table class="foundation" summary="foundation"> +<tr><td>Berlin,</td><td class="year">1799</td></tr> +<tr><td>Carlsruhe,</td><td class="year">1825</td></tr> +<tr><td>Munich,</td><td class="year">1827</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dresden,</td><td class="year">1828</td></tr> +<tr><td>Stuttgart,</td><td class="year">1829</td></tr> +<tr><td>Brunswick,</td><td class="year">1835</td></tr> +<tr><td>Darmstadt,</td><td class="year">1868</td></tr> +<tr><td>Aachen,</td><td class="year">1870</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hannover,</td><td class="year">1879</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p>In 1799 was instituted in Berlin the Bauakademie, +a State institution whose purpose +was set forth in the royal decree thus:</p> + +<p>“To train in theoretical and practical +knowledge capable surveyors, architects, +civil engineers, and masons, principally for +the King’s dominions, but foreigners may +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>find admittance if no disadvantage accrue +thereby to the King’s subjects.”</p> + +<p>Later, in 1821, Gewerbeschule came into +existence, and in 1879 the union of these +two formed the Berlin Technische Hochschule +which is located in Charlottenburg, +a suburb of the city. Owing to the high +standards of this institution, it is styled +the Königliche Technische Hochschule. +Since its reorganization the plans of the +other schools of like character have been +modified in accordance with the Berlin +scheme.</p> + +<p>The preparation necessary for admission +to the Hochschulen is equivalent to that +demanded by the university proper. The +age of admission probably never drops below +seventeen, the average age being considerably +greater. Men of mature years and of +wide experience and training avail themselves +to the privileges offered. The courses +are from three to four years in length.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> “The new universities thus developed +have the purpose of affording higher instruction +for the technical positions in state and +community service, as well as in industrial +life, and of cultivating sciences and arts +which are intimately connected with the +field of technology (Berlin provisory statute, +1879). They prove themselves equal to +universities in the following points: they +claim for their matriculated students the +same preparatory education required by the +old universities, namely, nine years at a classical +high school; they grant and insist upon +perfect freedom in teaching and learning; +and are under the direction of rectors elected +for one year, instead of having principals +chosen for life as in secondary schools.”</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, +1897-1898, page 70.</p></div> + +<p>It may be said here that an exception to +the rule of the annual election of the administrative +officers, is furnished in the example<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +of the Munich school, which retains a +permanent Director as the custom prevailed +in times past.</p> + +<p>Unless otherwise qualified, students must +have prepared in the Industrieschule, the +Gymnasium, the Real-Gymnasium or in the +trade or building schools. In lieu of this +an examination is demanded. Twenty-four +is the minimum age of graduation.</p> + +<p>In tracing the development of these +schools from unpretentious beginnings to +their present high standards of excellence, +we see that more and more they have become +unified in purpose and similar in curricula. +In the early days too, the qualifications +for admission, their dynamic government, +and educational standards were +lower and more diversified than we find +them to-day. Sustained by the State and +each administered by its board or council, +they are doing a work which cannot be +excelled by the universities themselves.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>The organization of departments of work +offered is approximately the same in all +schools. In Berlin there are six departments:</p> + +<ul class="normalindent"> +<li>first, general school of applied science;</li> +<li>second, general construction engineering;</li> +<li>third, machine construction;</li> +<li>fourth, naval engineering;</li> +<li>fifth, chemistry and mining engineering;</li> +<li>sixth, architecture.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Special attention is given certain subjects +in one or another of these schools; civil or +mechanical engineering, building construction, +industrial chemistry, etc. An agricultural +department is maintained at Munich, +and a forestry department at Carlsruhe. +That a knowledge of the application of electricity +is considered essential in our modern +methods is shown in the fact that all students +in departments of machine construction +engage in the study of electro-technics.</p> + +<p>The courses of study are to-day upon more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>of an elective basis than formerly although +even now the results of the work of Nebenius +are clearly seen. The success of the +Hochschulen is due to the efforts of Nebenius +more than to any other one man. His +ideas were worked out at Carlsruhe and in +greater or lesser degree incorporated into all +the schools. It was insisted by him that a +proper foundation must be laid before any +successful special technical training can be +had. Preliminary work must be mastered +and a natural sequence of studies followed. +To this end a fixed graduated course is recommended, +the student to be promoted as +ability may determine. The one course +plan however has been substituted for the +several.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> “Programm der Königl. Technischen Hochschule +zu Hannover, 1901-1902, page 90. Den Hörern +bleibt die Wahl der Lehrfächer frei überlassen, für +ein geordnetes Studium empfiehlt sich aber die +Beachtung der folgenden Studien und Stundenpläne.”</p></div> + +<p>The following table compiled from various +sources will give some idea of the extent of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>the work as carried on in Berlin. The +school has a library of 54,000 volumes; a +student body of upwards of 4,500 and a +modern equipment throughout.</p> + + +<table class="subjects" style="width: 35em" summary="extend of work"> +<tr><th class="tl">Departments</th><th>No. of courses</th><th>SUBJECTS</th><th>No. of Professors and Instructors</th></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">General Science</td><td>58</td><td class="sub">Mechanics, Physics and general science studies; literature, French, English, Italian, law, political science.</td><td>33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Civil Engineering</td><td>34</td><td class="sub">Mechanics, railway construction, bridges, canals, harbors, hydraulics, drainage, land surveying.</td><td>13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Mechanical Engineering</td><td>54</td><td class="sub">Kinematics, machine construction, mechanical technology, machine design, water, steam and electrical machines, +electro-technics, electro-mechanics, electrical and railway works.</td><td>23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Naval Engineering</td><td>19</td><td class="sub">Theory of ship building, classification of ships, designing of warships, boilers, machine construction, practical ship building.</td><td>6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Chemistry and Metallurgy</td><td>51</td><td class="sub">Organic and inorganic chemistry including physical, electro and technological chemistry, crystallography, metallurgy, foundry +work, cements, botany, chemistry of plants and foods.</td><td>27</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Architecture</td><td>56</td><td class="sub">History of art, architecture and ornament; building construction, designing of buildings in different materials and for +various purposes, preparation of estimates, etc.</td><td>36</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p> +<p>The rivalry existing among the various +schools is in some respects a point to be +commended. Then, too, the idea taking +form in the Hochschulen and being more +fully appreciated by the educationalists of +our own country, that each school should +specialize along some particular line, is +worthy of attention. Energy is saved thereby, +and students may have the advantage of +increased facilities in equipment and instruction. +Many Americans are studying +in these schools, possibly more in Munich +than elsewhere. While thorough in their +treatment of subjects, the practical side of +the work is too much lost sight of in the +theoretical treatment. Testing and applied +work are certainly given considerable attention +however. To quote Dean Victor C. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>Alderson of the Armour Institute, Chicago, +who says in reference to testing:</p> + +<div class="blockquote"><p>“Professors regard this work as professional practice, +just as doctors, who are professors in medical +schools, have an outside practice. The technical +school allows the professors free use of the laboratories, +but assumes no responsibility for the accuracy +of the results or opinions expressed.”</p></div> + +<p>The degree of Doctor of Engineering is +conferred by these institutions, and that +their work has been highly instrumental in +developing the country cannot be doubted, +especially in the line of applied chemistry +in which branch of engineering Germany +leads the nations. How closely the development +of the industries of Germany are +related to the work of the Technische Hochschulen +it is difficult to say, but that these +schools have shown through the accomplishments +of their graduates that high +standards of moral and intellectual training +can be had in other than the traditional +universities, and that as efficient social +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>service can be rendered through the application +of science to the arts and industries +as by means of the languages, cannot be +doubted.</p> + + + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI</h2> + +<p class="subheader"><span class="smcap">Schools of Industrial Art or Art +Trade Schools</span></p> + + +<p>The Kunstgewerbeschulen are schools of +art. The causes leading to their inception +are clearly set forth in a paragraph contained +in the 1902 Report of the United States +Commissioner of Labor. It reads:</p> + +<p>“The international museums of 1851, +1855 and 1862, in England, Austria and +Germany, respectively called attention to +the fact that with all their technical excellence +the industrial products of Germany +possessed few qualities of artistic finish and +design. France showed what could be done +in this direction. Her products easily held +first rank in this respect, her eminence being +the result of centuries of training in this +field. Since Colbert’s time industrial art education +has been emphasized in the training +of French workmen, and the accumulated +skill and taste due to this training, has left +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>its impress on French products. The German +states at once set about to remedy this +weakness in this respect, and since that time +have so persistently established museums +and schools for industrial art training that +now there is no important city in the Empire +which does not possess one or more of +these institutions”.</p> + +<p>Considerable variety exists among the various +types of art schools and even among +those belonging in the same class and separated +as to location we find differences. In +Leipzig, Saxony, for example the Kunstgewerbeschule +aims at the graphic arts +mainly. In Berlin, Dresden, Carlsruhe, and +certain other cities these schools train for +sculptors and painters, and the term “Akademie” +is frequently applied to these institutions. +They are in fact, art trade schools +whose main purpose, while yet industrial, +is also the instilling of an artistic feeling +into industrial work. They reach on and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>out from the trade school and up to the institutions +for the teaching of the fine arts. +They are then a middle grade of applied art +schools.</p> + +<p>The genesis of the industrial art schools +really lies in the establishment of museums +of industrial art. The museums were an inspiring +and energizing force, for here the +best work could be exhibited and studied. +The municipality and general government +financed the movement for the museums. +Schools sprang up in connection with the +museums and later, independent art schools +were established.</p> + +<p>A moderate fee is charged those who pursue +work here, twenty to forty marks yearly. +Candidates must have had practical experience +in the line of work they propose to take +up, and both these schools and the so-called +industrial drawing courses assume a certain +proficiency on the part of the candidates; +a proficiency in general subjects and in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>drawing particularly. An examination is +given those who cannot present the desired +credentials. The length of the courses in +these schools is usually three years. The +classes are both day and evening, 8 <small>A. M.</small> to +4 <small>P. M.</small> and from 5 to 10 <small>P. M.</small> In some instances +Sunday sessions are held also.</p> + +<p>The courses consist of architectural designing +in wood and metal, metal engraving and +chasing, modeling, steel engraving and etching, +design for fabrics, pattern designing, +artistic embroidery, decorative painting, +enamel painting, designing and painting figures +and plants. The work throughout is +both theoretical and practical in its nature, +the instruction gained in the class being applied +in the shop. The subjects of instruction +and time devoted to each differ according +to the course pursued. As an example +of the programme offered, the following, +taken from the architectural draftsman’s +course in the Munich school is given; the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>figures show the number of hours per week +devoted to each subject.</p> + + +<table class="draftsman" summary="draftsman courses"> +<tr><td>First year,</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">linear drawing</td><td class="hours">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">ornament drawing</td><td class="hours">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">ornament drawing</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">modelling of</td><td class="hours">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">modelling of ornament and of the human figure</td><td class="hours">21</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="subject">history of art</td><td class="hours">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">style</td><td class="hours">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">geometry and projections</td><td class="hours">3</td></tr> +<tr><td>Second year,</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">architectural drawing</td><td class="hours">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">drawing and modeling of the human figure and modeling of ornaments</td><td class="hours">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">history of art</td><td class="hours">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">style</td><td class="hours">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">perspective and shadows</td><td class="hours">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">anatomy, xylography, architecture, sculpture, or chasing</td><td class="hours">10</td></tr> +<tr><td>Third year,</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">architectural drawing</td><td class="hours">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">drawing and modeling of the human figure and modeling of ornaments</td><td class="hours">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject">anatomy</td><td class="hours">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="subject"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>xylography, architecture, sculpture or chasing</td><td class="hours">24</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The Bauschule are only for those who +wish proficiency in architectural studies.</p> + +<p>What the Industrial Hall at Carlsruhe, +the Industrial Art Museum at Berlin, and +the National Museum at Munich are to the +art schools proper, the open drawing halls +are to the industrial drawing courses. Here, +as in the museums, are kept models and designs +of rare merit and students may pursue +work under competent instruction. Such +halls are established in Bavaria, Hesse, +Prussia, Saxony and Wurttemberg.</p> + +<p>In these art courses skill and originality +are aimed at equally. The relation existing +between the art work and the trade or industry +with which it is connected is such as +to make more valuable the latter.</p> + +<p>It is needless to speak further of the museums. +The art products there exhibited +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>give much incentive to students, as well as +a feeling for the best from the standpoint +of the beautiful and artistic, and all who +visit them are consciously or unconsciously +influenced for the better.</p> + +<p>The following table shows the distribution +of industrial art schools throughout the +various States.</p> + + +<ul class="normalindent"> +<li><i>Alsace-Lorraine</i>, Mülhausen, Strasburg.</li> +<li><i>Anhalt</i>, Dessau.</li> +<li><i>Baden</i>, Carlsruhe, Pforzheim.</li> +<li><i>Bremen</i>,</li> +<li><i>Bavaria</i>, Kaiserslautern, Munich, Nuremberg.</li> +<li><i>Hamburg</i>,</li> +<li><i>Hesse</i>, Mentz, Offenbach.</li> +<li><i>Prussia</i>, Aix-la-Chappelle, Barmen, Berlin, +Breslau, Cassel, Cologne, Düsseldorf, Elberfeld, +Frankfort-on the-Main, Hanau, Hanover, +Iserlohn, Königsberg, Magdeburg.</li> +<li><i>Saxony</i>, Dresden, Leipzig, Plauen.</li> +<li><i>Wurttemberg</i>, Stuttgart.</li> +</ul> + + + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII</h2> + +<p class="subheader"><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span></p> + + +<p>Beobachtungen und Vergleiche über Einrichtungen +für Gewerbliche Erziehung, +1901.—Dr. G. Kerschensteiner.</p> + +<p>Das Gewerbeschulwesen.—Carl Melchior.</p> + +<p>Denkschriften über die Entwickelung +der Gewerblichen Fachschulen und der +Fortbildungsschulen in Preussen.—Lüders.</p> + +<p>Encyklopädisches Handbuch der Pädagogik.—W. Rein.</p> + +<p>English Technical Instruction Commission, +1896. Report on the Recent Progress +of Technical Education in Germany.</p> + +<p>Fortbildungsschule in unserer Zeit.—J. B. Meyer.</p> + +<p>German Higher Schools.—James E. Russell.</p> + +<p>German Technical Schools, 1901.—Victor +C. Alderson.</p> + +<p>Gewerbliche Fortbildungsschulen +Deutschlands.—R. Nagel.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, +1900.—Conrad.</p> + +<p>Höherer Polytechnischer Unterricht in +Deutschland, etc.—Carl Koristka.</p> + +<p>Industrial Education.—Philip Magnus.</p> + +<p>Jahresbericht der Königlichen Industrieschule +und Baugewerkschule zu München, +1898-1899.</p> + +<p>Jahresbericht der Technischen Staatslehranstalten +zu Chemnitz, 1890.</p> + +<p>Jahresbericht über die Berliner Fortbildungsschule, +1890-1891.</p> + +<p>Kunstgewerbe als Beruf, 1901.</p> + +<p>Note on the Earlier History of the Technical +High Schools in Germany.—A. E. Twentyman.</p> + +<p>Special Reports on Educational Subjects, +London, 1902, Vol. 9, page 465.</p> + +<p>Paches’ Handbook, 1899.</p> + +<p>Problems in Prussian Secondary Education +for Boys.—Michael E. Sadler.</p> + +<p>Special Reports on Educational Subjects, +London, 1898, Vol. 3.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>Programm der Königlichen Fachschule zu +Iserlohn Metal Industrie.</p> + +<p>Report of the United States Commissioner +of Education, 1889-1890, page 1209-1212.</p> + +<p>Same, 1894-1895, Vol. 1, page 345-380.</p> + +<p>Supplementary and Industrial Schools in +Germany.</p> + +<p>Same, 1895-1896, Vol. 1, page 138.</p> + +<p>Same, 1897-1898, Vol. 1, page 69. German +Technical Colleges.</p> + +<p>Report of the United States Commissioner +of Labor, 1892, Eighth Annual.</p> + +<p>Industrial Education in Germany.</p> + +<p>Same, 1902, Seventeenth Annual.</p> + +<p>Trade and Technical Education in Germany, +page 871.</p> + +<p>Second Report of the Royal Commission +on Technical Education, London, 1884, +Vol. 1.</p> + +<p>The Educational Foundations of Trade +and Industry, 1902.—Fabian Ware.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>The Continuation Schools in Berlin.—Dr. +H. Bertram.</p> + +<p>Special Reports on Educational Subjects, +London, 1902, Vol. 9, page 451.</p> + +<p>United States Consular Reports. Description +of the School of Carpentry and +Cabinetmaking in Magdeburg, Prussia, No. +238, July, 1900.—Wm. Diederich.</p> + +<p>Same. School of Marine Machinists, +Flensburg, Prussia. No. 174, March, 1895.</p> + +<p>Same. Technical and Merchant Schools +56:208, page 78.—J. C. Monoghan.</p> + +<p>Same. Technical Education in Germany. +54:202, page 447.—J. C. Monoghan.</p> + + +<div class="note"> +<p><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong> The table below lists all corrections applied to +the original text.</p> + +<ul> +<li><a href="#Page_viii">p. viii</a>: for <i>development</i> read <i>department</i> → <i>deportment</i></li> +<li><a href="#Page_7">p. 007</a>: make any one clasification → classification</li> +<li><a href="#Page_10">p. 010</a>: Conrad’s Handworterbuch → Handwörterbuch</li> +<li><a href="#Page_11">p. 011</a>: Wurtemburg industrial → Wurttemburg</li> +<li><a href="#Page_12">p. 012</a>: other conditions (examinations) or these schools → of</li> +<li><a href="#Page_12">p. 012</a>: Ages ranges from fourteen to thirty → range</li> +<li><a href="#Page_12">p. 012</a>: the only instition → institution</li> +<li><a href="#Page_13">p. 013</a>: [errata] Pure Air → Art</li> +<li><a href="#Page_14">p. 014</a>: Technischeschulen → Technische Schulen</li> +<li><a href="#Page_16">p. 016</a>: Continuation Schools or Fortbilbungsschulen → Fortbildungsschulen</li> +<li><a href="#Page_16">p. 016</a>: Fortbildtngsshulen → Fortbildungsschulen</li> +<li><a href="#Page_17">p. 017</a>: [extra comma] at this age, forced to → age forced</li> +<li><a href="#Page_17">p. 017</a>: a statsment made by Mr. Michael N. Sadler→ statement</li> +<li><a href="#Page_18">p. 018</a>: [quote added] “Among the great number</li> +<li><a href="#Page_19">p. 019</a>: [errata] in the arts which enable → ennoble</li> +<li><a href="#Page_19">p. 019</a>: born under a luckler star → luckier</li> +<li><a href="#Page_20">p. 020</a>: continuation of Fortbildungsschulen → or</li> +<li><a href="#Page_23">p. 023</a>: adapt their instrnction → instruction</li> +<li><a href="#Page_23">p. 023</a>: [errata] Here the committee must meet → communities</li> +<li><a href="#Page_25">p. 025</a>: [errata] character and development of the boys → deportment</li> +<li><a href="#Page_27">p. 027</a>: higher mathemematics, mechanics, physics → mathematics</li> +<li><a href="#Page_28">p. 028</a>: is carried suffciently far → sufficiently</li> +<li><a href="#Page_28">p. 028</a>: classes are arranged acording to → according</li> +<li><a href="#Page_29">p. 029</a>: smaller towns or in the conntry → country</li> +<li><a href="#Page_29">p. 029</a>: university extention courses → extension</li> +<li><a href="#Page_31">p. 031</a>: similar to Fortbildungsschulen in Leipsig → Leipzig</li> +<li><a href="#Page_31">p. 031</a>: schools have seen a marvelous developement → development</li> +<li><a href="#Page_32">p. 032</a>: attended by journeyman and apprentices → journeymen</li> +<li><a href="#Page_32">p. 032</a>: good manners (gute sitten) → Sitten</li> +<li><a href="#Page_33">p. 033</a>: [normalized] throughout various parts of the empire → Empire</li> +<li><a href="#Page_33">p. 033</a>: [extra comma] under eighteen years of age, might → age might</li> +<li><a href="#Page_33">p. 033</a>: [extra comma] the employer, must → employer must</li> +<li><a href="#Page_33">p. 033</a>: Baden. compulsory school laws → Baden, compulsory</li> +<li><a href="#Page_34">p. 034</a>: to be determined eventually be → by</li> +<li><a href="#Page_35">p. 035</a>: worthy of note that she delares → declares</li> +<li><a href="#Page_39">p. 039</a>: that the Forthildungsschule → Fortbildungsschule</li> +<li><a href="#Page_39">p. 039</a>: foundation of most of the Faceschulen → Fachschulen</li> +<li><a href="#Page_46">p. 046</a>: Wagonmakers and Wheelrights → Wheelwrights</li> +<li><a href="#Page_47">p. 047</a>: Free hand drawing → Free-hand</li> +<li><a href="#Page_56">p. 056</a>: becomes the property ot the father → of</li> +<li><a href="#Page_57">p. 057</a>: The Lehrwerkstatten or apprentice shops → Lehrwerkstätten</li> +<li><a href="#Page_59">p. 059</a>: fulfil certain teohnical qualifications → technical</li> +<li><a href="#Page_59">p. 059</a>: practical iu the highest degree → in</li> +<li><a href="#Page_62">p. 062</a>: [missing letter] The governing power is in ome cases → some</li> +<li><a href="#Page_63">p. 063</a>: [errata] laws of building; models of heat → modes</li> +<li><a href="#Page_67">p. 067</a>: Buxtehede → Buxtehude</li> +<li><a href="#Page_67">p. 067</a>: Magdeberg → Magdeburg</li> +<li><a href="#Page_68">p. 068</a>: Orchatz → Oschatz</li> +<li><a href="#Page_68">p. 068</a>: Zitteau → Zittau</li> +<li><a href="#Page_69">p. 069</a>: [normalized] schools of this class in the empire → Empire</li> +<li><a href="#Page_70">p. 070</a>: the elementary ranches in the curriculm → curriculum</li> +<li><a href="#Page_71">p. 071</a>: Inserlohn → Iserlohn</li> +<li><a href="#Page_71">p. 071</a>: Mlttweida → Mittweida</li> +<li><a href="#Page_71">p. 071</a>: compiled from tables appearing the Report → appearing in the</li> +<li><a href="#Page_74">p. 074</a>: [missing letters] Webereilehrwerkstä en → Webereilehrwerkstätten</li> +<li><a href="#Page_74">p. 074</a>: itinerant masters. (Wenderlehrer) → Wanderlehrer</li> +<li><a href="#Page_74">p. 074</a>: lines of the indnstry → industry</li> +<li><a href="#Page_75">p. 075</a>: In each of the several classses → classes</li> +<li><a href="#Page_77">p. 077</a>: Grefeld → Crefeld</li> +<li><a href="#Page_79">p. 079</a>: [errata] Knitting, 2 yrs. → Knitting, 1yr.</li> +<li><a href="#Page_79">p. 079</a>: [errata, removed line] Machinery | | | 3 | 6 | 2</li> +<li><a href="#Page_81">p. 081</a>: superior artizans → artisans</li> +<li><a href="#Page_81">p. 081</a>: prepared in the Volkschule → Volksschule</li> +<li><a href="#Page_81">p. 081</a>: [errata] the participants enter → participants to enter</li> +<li><a href="#Page_85">p. 085</a>: [added chapter number] V</li> +<li><a href="#Page_86">p. 086</a>: show the aplication of science → application</li> +<li><a href="#Page_87">p. 087</a>: in the atter country → latter</li> +<li><a href="#Page_87">p. 087</a>: the necessity or heroic action → for heroic</li> +<li><a href="#Page_87">p. 087</a>: due measure of public respsct → respect</li> +<li><a href="#Page_87">p. 087</a>: by A. E. Twentymen → by A. E. Twentyman</li> +<li><a href="#Page_88">p. 088</a>: Dresden, 1826 → 1828</li> +<li><a href="#Page_88">p. 088</a>: principally for the Kiugs dominions → King’s</li> +<li><a href="#Page_89">p. 089</a>: styled the Koeniglische Technische Hochschule → Königliche</li> +<li><a href="#Page_90">p. 090</a>: Berlin provisory statue → statute</li> +<li><a href="#Page_91">p. 091</a>: State and and each administered → State and each</li> +<li><a href="#Page_92">p. 092</a>: The organization of deparments of work → departments</li> +<li><a href="#Page_93">p. 093</a>: [errata] For the one course plan however → The one</li> +<li><a href="#Page_93">p. 093</a>: [errata] have been substituted → has</li> +<li><a href="#Page_93">p. 093</a>: [errata] substituted the several → substituted for the</li> +<li><a href="#Page_93">p. 093</a>: Program der Königl. Technischen Hochschule → Programm</li> +<li><a href="#Page_93">p. 093</a>: Den Horern bleibt die Wahl → Hörern</li> +<li><a href="#Page_93">p. 093</a>: frei überlassen, Für ein geordnetes → überlassen, für</li> +<li><a href="#Page_98">p. 098</a>: Kunstgewerbsechulen are schools of art → Kunstgewerbeschulen</li> +<li><a href="#Page_104">p. 104</a>: Alcace-Lorraine, Mülhausen, Strasburg → Alsace</li> +<li><a href="#Page_104">p. 104</a>: Prussia, Aix-la Chapelle → Aix-la-Chappelle</li> +<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Enrichtungen für → Einrichtungen</li> +<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Gewerbliche Erzichnung → Erziehung</li> +<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Dr. G. Kerschenteuer → Kerschensteiner</li> +<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Denkschriften über die Entiwickelung → Entwickelung</li> +<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Fortbildungschulen in Prussen → Fortbildungsschulen in Preussen</li> +<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Encyklopädischer Handbuch → Encyklopädisches</li> +<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: Handbuch der Pädogik → Pädagogik</li> +<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: in unserer zeit → Zeit</li> +<li><a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>: [removed in] Fortbildungsschulen in Deutschlands</li> +<li><a href="#Page_106">p. 106</a>: [removed comma] Jahresbericht der Königlichen, Industrieschule</li> +<li><a href="#Page_106">p. 106</a>: Technischen Stattslehranstalten → Staatslehranstalten</li> +<li><a href="#Page_107">p. 107</a>: Program der Königlichen Fachschule → Programm</li> +<li><a href="#Page_108">p. 108</a>: School of Marine Machinists, Fleusburg, Prussia → Flensburg</li> +</ul> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Condition and Tendencies of +Technical Education in Germany, by Arthur Henry Chamberlain + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY *** + +***** This file should be named 26595-h.htm or 26595-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/5/9/26595/ + +Produced by Irma Spehar, Markus Brenner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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