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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dance Festivals of the Alaskan Eskimo, by 
+Ernest William Hawkes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Dance Festivals of the Alaskan Eskimo
+
+Author: Ernest William Hawkes
+
+Release Date: September 6, 2008 [EBook #26544]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DANCE FESTIVALS--ALASKAN ESKIMO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Anne Storer and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Transcriber's Notes:
+ 1) There are a number of words in the native language that appear to mean
+    the same thing, but have different accents. It is unknown if this is
+    intentional or a printing error - these have been left as printed. eg:
+    Nule�ga / n�leaga ... Takin�ka / tak�naka / Takinaka ... W�hok / wahok
+ 2) Characters with diacritical marks are noted as follows:
+    Acute ['x]  macron [=x]  combined  ['=x]
+    Macron (below) [x=]
+    Dot above [.x]
+    Breve [)x]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
+ THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM
+ ANTHROPOLOGICAL PUBLICATIONS
+ VOL. VI                No. 2
+ ____________________________
+
+
+ THE DANCE FESTIVALS OF THE
+ ALASKAN ESKIMO
+
+ BY
+ E. W. HAWKES
+
+
+ PHILADELPHIA
+ PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM
+ 1914
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                     PAGE
+ INTRODUCTION                           5
+ PHONETIC KEY                           7
+ THE DANCE IN GENERAL                   9
+     THE CHORUS                        10
+     PARTICIPATION OF THE SEXES        11
+ THE K�SGI OR DANCE HOUSE              13
+     PARAPHERNALIA                     15
+ THE DANCE FESTIVALS                   19
+     THE ASKING FESTIVAL               22
+     THE BLADDER FEAST                 26
+     THE FEASTS TO THE DEAD            29
+ THE ANNUAL FEAST, AIL['=I]GI          31
+ THE GREAT FEAST, A�THUK['=A]TUKHTUK   33
+     THE FEAST GIVERS                  34
+     THE RITUAL                        35
+     THE CLOTHING OF THE NAMESAKES     38
+ THE INVITING-IN FESTIVAL              40
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+This account of the Dance Festivals of the Alaskan Eskimo was written
+from material gathered in the Bering Strait District during three
+years' residence: two on the Diomede Islands, and one at St. Michael
+at the mouth of the Yukon River. This paper is based on my
+observations of the ceremonial dances of the Eskimo of these two
+localities.
+
+
+
+
+PHONETIC KEY
+
+
+ [=a], [=e], [=i], [=o], [=u], long vowels.
+
+ a, e, i, o, u, short vowels.
+
+ �, as in hat.
+
+ �, as in law.
+
+ ai, as in aisle.
+
+ au, as ow in how.
+
+ h, w, y, semivowels.
+
+ c, as sh in should.
+
+ f, a bilabial surd.
+
+ g, as in get.
+
+ ['g], a post-palatal sonant.
+
+ k, as in pick.
+
+ l, as in lull.
+
+ m, as in mum.
+
+ n, as in nun.
+
+ ng, as ng in sing.
+
+ p, as in pipe.
+
+ q, a post-palatal surd.
+
+ [.r], a uvular sonant spirant.
+
+ s, as in sauce.
+
+ t, an alveolar stop.
+
+ tc, as ch in chapter.
+
+ v, a bilabial sonant.
+
+ z, as in zone.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE DANCE FESTIVALS OF THE ALASKAN ESKIMO
+
+THE DANCE IN GENERAL
+
+
+The ceremonial dance of the Alaskan Eskimo is a rhythmic
+pantomime--the story in gesture and song of the lives of the various
+Arctic animals on which they subsist and from whom they believe their
+ancient clans are sprung. The dances vary in complexity from the
+ordinary social dance, in which all share promiscuously and in which
+individual action is subordinated to rhythm, to the pantomime totem
+dances performed by especially trained actors who hold their positions
+from year to year according to artistic merit.[1] Yet even in the
+totem dances the pantomime is subordinate to the rhythm, or rather
+superimposed upon it, so that never a gesture or step of the
+characteristic native time is lost.
+
+This is a primitive 2-4 beat based on the double roll of the chorus of
+drums. Time is kept, in the men's dances, by stamping the foot and
+jerking the arm in unison, twice on the right, then twice on the left
+side, and so on, alternately. Vigorous dancers vary the program by
+leaping and jumping at intervals, and the shamans are noted for the
+dizzy circles which they run round the p�gyarok, the entrance hole of
+the dance hall. The women's dance has the same measure and can be
+performed separately or in conjunction with the men's dance, but has a
+different and distinctly feminine movement. The feet are kept on the
+ground, while the body sways back and forth in graceful undulations to
+the music and the hands with outspread palms part the air with the
+graceful stroke of a flying gull. Some of their dances are performed
+seated. Then they strip to the waist and form one long line of waving
+arms and swaying shoulders, all moving in perfect unison.
+
+  [1] This characterization applies to the Alaskan Eskimo only; so far
+  as is now known the other Eskimo branches do not have totemic dances.
+
+
+THE CHORUS
+
+The chorus which furnishes the music, is composed of from six to ten
+men. They sit on the in['g]lak, a raised shelf extending around the
+dance hall about five feet from the floor, and sing their dance songs
+keeping time on their drums. They usually sit in the rear of the room,
+which is the post of honor. Among the island tribes of Bering Strait
+this position is reversed and they occupy the front of the room. Some
+old man, the keeper of tribal tradition and song, acts as the leader,
+calling out the words of the dance songs a line ahead. He begins the
+proceedings by striking up a low chant, an invitation to the people
+assembled to dance. The chorus accompany him lightly on their drums.
+Then at the proper place, he strikes a crashing double beat; the drums
+boom out in answer; the song arises high and shrill; the dancers leap
+into their places, and the dance begins.
+
+The first dances are usually simple exercises calculated to warm the
+blood and stretch stiffened muscles. They begin with leaping around
+the p�['g]yarok, jumping into the air with both feet in the Eskimo
+high kick, settling down into the conventional movements of the men's
+dance.[2]
+
+  [2] While the northern and southern tribes have the same general
+  movements for their ordinary dances, they give a very different
+  presentation of the festival dance-songs. The northerners leap and
+  stamp about the k�sgi until overcome with exhaustion; while in the
+  south the performers sit or kneel on the floor, adorned with an
+  abundance of streaming furs and feathers, sweep their hands through
+  the air in graceful unison. It is a difference between rude vigor
+  and dramatic art.
+
+Quite often a woman steps into the center of the circle, and goes
+through her own dance, while the men leap and dance around her. This
+act has been specialized in the Reindeer and Wolf Pack Dance of the
+Aith�kaguk, the Inviting-In Festival, where the woman wearing a
+reindeer crest and belt is surrounded by the men dancers, girt in
+armlets and fillets of wolf skin. They imitate the pack pulling down a
+deer, and the din caused by their jumping and howling around her
+shrinking form is terrific.
+
+
+PARTICIPATION OF THE SEXES
+
+There appears to be no restriction against the women taking part in
+the men's dances. They also act as assistants to the chief actors in
+the Totem Dances, three particularly expert and richly dressed women
+dancers ranging themselves behind the mask dancer as a pleasing
+background of streaming furs and glistening feathers. The only time
+they are forbidden to enter the k�sgi is when the shaman is performing
+certain secret rites. They also have secret meetings of their own when
+all men are banished.[3] I happened to stumble on to one of these one
+time when they were performing certain rites over a pregnant woman,
+but being a white man, and therefore unaccountable, I was greeted with
+a good-natured laugh and sent about my business.
+
+  [3] This custom appears to be widespread. Low writes of the Hudson Bay
+  Eskimo: "During the absence of the men on hunting expeditions, the
+  women sometimes amuse themselves by a sort of female "angekoking."
+  This amusement is accompanied by a number of very obscene rites...."
+  Low, The Cruise of the Neptune, p. 177.
+
+On the other hand, men are never allowed to take part in the strictly
+women's dances, although nothing pleases an Eskimo crowd more than an
+exaggerated imitation by one of their clowns of the movements of the
+women's dance. The women's dances are practiced during the early
+winter and given at the Aiy�guk, or Asking Festival, when the men are
+invited to attend as spectators. They result in offers of temporary
+marriage to the unmarried women, which is obviously the reason for
+this rite. Such dances, confined to the women, have not been observed
+in Alaska outside the islands of Bering Sea, and I have reason to
+believe are peculiar to this district, which, on account of its
+isolation, retains the old forms which have died out or been modified
+on the mainland. But throughout Alaska the women are allowed the
+utmost freedom in participating in the festivals, either as naskuks[4]
+or feast givers, as participants or as spectators.
+
+  [4] Literally "Heads" or directors of the feasts.
+
+In fact, the social position of the Eskimo woman has been
+misrepresented and misunderstood. At first sight she appears to be the
+slave of her husband, but a better acquaintance will reveal the fact
+that she is the manager of the household and the children, the
+business partner in all his trades, and often the "oom�alik," or
+captain of the concern as well. Her husband is forbidden by tribal
+custom to maltreat her, and if she owns the house, she can order him
+out at any time. I have never known a woman being head of a tribe, but
+sometimes a woman is the most influential member of a tribe.
+
+
+
+
+THE K�SGI OR DANCE HOUSE
+
+
+With few exceptions, all dances take place in the village k�sgi or
+dance hall. This is the public meeting place where the old men gather
+to sit and smoke while they discuss the village welfare, where the
+married men bring their work and take their sweat baths, and where
+the bachelors and young men, termed k�sgimiut, have their sleeping
+quarters. The k�sgi is built and maintained at public expense, each
+villager considering it an honor to contribute something. Any tools or
+furnishings brought into the k�sgi are considered public property, and
+used as such.
+
+When a k�sgi is to be built, announcement is made through messengers
+to neighboring villages, and all gather to assist in the building and
+to help celebrate the event. First a trench several feet deep is dug
+in which to plant the timbers forming the sides. These are usually of
+driftwood, which is brought by the ocean currents from the Yukon. The
+ice breaks up first at the head of that great stream, and the d�bris
+dams up the river, which overflows its banks, tearing down trees,
+buildings and whatever borders its course as it breaks its way out to
+the sea. The wreckage is scattered along the coast for over a hundred
+miles, and the islands of Bering Sea get a small share. The islanders
+are constantly on the lookout for the drifting timber, and put out to
+sea in the stormiest weather for a distant piece, be it large or
+small. They also patrol the coast after a high tide for stray bits of
+wood. When one considers the toil and pain with which material is
+gathered, the building of a k�sgi becomes an important matter.
+
+After the timbers have been rough hewn with the adze (�limon) they are
+set upright in the trench to a height of seven to eight feet and
+firmly bedded with rock. This is to prevent the fierce Polar winds
+which prevail in midwinter from tearing the houses to pieces. In the
+older buildings a protecting stone wall was built on the sides. Most
+of the houses are set in a side hill, or partly underground, for
+additional security, as well as for warmth. The roof is laid on top of
+the uprights, the logs being drawn in gradually in pyramid shape to a
+flat top. In the middle of the top is the [.r]�lok or smoke hole, an
+opening about two feet square. In a k�sgi thirty feet square the r�lok
+is twenty feet above the floor. It is covered with a translucent
+curtain of walrus gut. The dead are always taken out through this
+opening, and never by the entrance. The most important feature of the
+room is the in['g]lak, a wide shelf supported by posts at intervals.
+It stands about five feet high extending around the room. This serves
+the double purpose of a seat and bed for the inmates of the k�sgi. The
+rear, the k�an, is the most desirable position, being the warmest, and
+is given to headmen and honored guests.[5] The side portions, k�aklim,
+are given to the lesser lights and the women and children; and the
+front, the �aklim, being nearest the entrance and therefore cold and
+uncomfortable is left for the orphans and worthless men.
+
+  [5] The order of the seating on the in['g]lak of invited guests is a
+  matter of great concern to the Eskimo, as it is an indication of
+  worth.
+
+  Children purchase their right to a seat in the k�sgi by making
+  presents, through their parents, to all the inmates, k�sgimiut.
+
+  Until they do so they have no right to enter. For the same reason
+  strangers on entering the k�sgi offer a small present to the headman,
+  who divides it among the people.
+
+The floor of the k�sgi is made of rough planking, and the boards in
+the center are left loose so that they may be easily removed. These
+cover the k[=e]n�thluk or fireplace, an excavation four feet square,
+and four feet deep, used in the sweat baths. It is thought to be
+the place where the spirits sit, when they visit the k�sgi, during
+festivals held in their honor. Offerings are poured to them through
+the cracks in the planks. In the center of the floor is a round hole
+about two feet in diameter, called the entrance hole or p�gyarok. This
+connects with a long tunnel, the a['g]veak, which leads outside. The
+tunnel is usually so low that it is necessary to enter in a stooping
+position, which the Eskimo does by placing both hands on the sides of
+the p�gyarok, and drawing himself through. Some dance-houses have
+another entrance directly into the room on a level with the ground,
+the underground passage being used only in winter. The diagram (Plate
+XI) gives an idea of this arrangement.
+
+
+PARAPHERNALIA
+
+The drum (sa�yit)[6] is the only instrument employed in the dances. It
+is made of a circular hoop about eighteen inches in width over which
+is stretched a resonant covering made from the bladder of the walrus
+or seal. It is held in place by a cord of rawhide (o['k]linok)[7]
+which fits into a groove on the outer rim. The cover can therefore be
+tightened at will. It is customary during the intermissions between
+the dances for the drummers to rub a handful of snow over the skins to
+prevent them from cracking under the heavy blows. The drum is held
+aloft and struck with a thin stick (m�mwa).[8] It gives a deep boom in
+answer. The shaman uses a smaller baton with which he beats a
+continuous tattoo as an accompaniment to his songs. The northerners
+strike the back of the rim with their sticks, while the Yukon people
+belabor the face of the drum.
+
+  [6] Tc�uyak, Yukon dialect.
+
+  [7] L�ftak, Yukon dialect.
+
+  [8] M�mra, Yukon dialect.
+
+The leader of the chorus frequently flourishes a baton, made from a
+fox tail or the skin of the ermine which is mounted on a stick. With
+this he marks the time of the dance. In Plate XIV, the white blur is
+the ermine at the end of his stick. It is very difficult to obtain a
+good picture in the ill lighted k�sgi, and not often that the natives
+will allow one taken there.
+
+One indispensable part of a male dancer's outfit is his gloves. I have
+never seen a man dancing without them. These are usually of wolverine,
+or of reindeer with elaborate trimmings, but on ordinary occasions any
+kind will do. The women do not share this peculiarity. In place of
+gloves they wear handlets of grass decorated with feathers of duck or
+of ptarmigan. The men in the Totem Dances also wear handlets which are
+carved and painted to represent the particular totem they seek to
+honor. These too are fantastically decorated with feathers, usually of
+the loon. The central feather is stripped, and crowned with a tuft of
+white down. Both men and women wear armlets and fillets of skin or
+feathers according to the animal character they represent. When in the
+full swing of the dance with fur and feathers streaming they present a
+pleasing spectacle, a picture full of the same wild grace and poetic
+motion which characterizes the animal forbears from which they claim
+descent.
+
+The chief characters in the Totem and Comic Dances wear masks and
+carry staves decorated with feathers. Occasionally the women
+assistants carry feathered wands (Kel�zruk).
+
+Of the masks there is a great variety ranging from the plain wooden
+masks to those of such great size that they are suspended from the
+ceiling of the k�sgi by a cord while the dancer performs behind them.
+
+The Cape Prince of Wales (Kin�gumiut) Eskimo construct complete
+figures of their totems. These are worked by means of concealed
+strings by the performers, a climax of art which is supposed to be
+particularly pleasing to the spirits addressed. Then the shaman
+(T�ngalik)[9] has his own set of masks, hideous enough to strike
+terror to even the initiated. Each one of these represents a familiar
+spirit (t�nghat)[10] which assists him in his operations.
+
+  [9] Tungr�lik, Yukon dialect.
+
+  [10] Tungr�niyak, Yukon dialect.
+
+Ordinary dance masks may be made by anyone, but the masks for the
+ceremonial dances are made by some renowned shaman, engaged for the
+occasion. These masks are burned at the close of the festival, but may
+be sold by the actors if they supply an equal amount of wood for the
+sacrificial fire.
+
+Many of the masks are very complicated, having appendages of wood, fur
+and feathers. They are all fashioned with an idea of representing some
+feature in the mythology of the spirit (Inua) or animal shade
+(Tunghat) which they represent. In the latter case they are nearly
+always made double, the mythical beings who inhabited the early world
+being regarded as able to change from animal to human shape, by merely
+pushing up or pulling down the upper part of the face as a mask. Such
+masks are often hinged to complete the illusion, the actor changing
+the face at will.
+
+It might be mentioned here that when the actor puts on the mask he is
+supposed to become imbued with the spirit of the being represented.
+This accounts, to the native mind, for the very lifelike imitation
+which he gives.
+
+The masks are painted along conventional lines; the favorite colors
+for the inua masks are red (Kar�kteoak),[11] black (Auktoak), green
+(C�ngokyoak), white (Kat�ktoak), and blue (Ta�krektoak), in the order
+named. These colors[12] may hold a sacred or symbolic significance.
+The inua masks are decorated with some regard to the natural colors of
+the human face, but in the masks of the t�nghat the imagination of the
+artist runs riot. The same is true of the comic masks, which are
+rendered as grotesque and horrible as possible. A mask with distorted
+features, a pale green complexion, surrounded by a bristling mass of
+hair, amuses them greatly. The Eskimo also caricature their neighbors,
+the D�n�, in this same manner, representing them by masks with very
+large noses and sullen features.
+
+  [11] These are the northern names. In the southern or Yukon dialect
+  black is T�nguli; white Katugh�li; red, Kauig�li; green, Tcunung�li.
+
+  The endings and pronunciation of similar Eskimo words are somewhat
+  different in Arctic Alaska and on the Yukon River; sufficiently so as
+  to produce two distinct dialects. For this reason I have given the
+  forms from both sections.
+
+  [12] Red is obtained from red ochre; white from white clay; black from
+  soot or ashes; green from oxide of copper.
+
+
+
+
+THE DANCE FESTIVALS
+
+
+The Dance Festivals of the Alaskan Eskimo are held during that cold,
+stormy period of the winter when the work of the year is over and
+hunting is temporarily at an end. At this season the people gather in
+the k�sgi to celebrate the local rites, and at certain intervals
+invite neighboring tribes to join in the great inter-tribal festivals.
+This season of mirth and song is termed "Tcauy�vik" the drum dance
+season, from "Tca�yak" meaning drum. It lasts from November to March,
+and is a continuous succession of feasts and dances, which makes glad
+the heart of the Eskimo and serves to lighten the natural depression
+caused by day after day of interminable wind and darkness. A brisk
+exchange of presents at the local festivals promotes good feeling, and
+an interchange of commodities between the tribes at the great feasts
+stimulates trade and results in each being supplied with the
+necessities of life. For instance, northern tribes visiting the south
+bring presents of reindeer skins or m�kluk to eke out the scanty
+supply of the south, while the latter in return give their visitors
+loads of dried salmon which the northerners feed to their dogs.
+
+The festivals also serve to keep alive the religious feeling of the
+people, as evidenced in the Dance to the Dead, which allows free play
+to the nobler sentiments of filial faith and paternal love. The
+recital of the deeds of ancient heroes preserves the best traditions
+of the race and inspires the younger generation. To my mind, there is
+nothing which civilization can supply which can take the place of the
+healthy exercise, social enjoyment, commercial advantages, and
+spiritual uplift of these dances. Where missionary sentiment is
+overwhelming they are gradually being abandoned; where there is a
+mistaken opinion in regard to their use, they have been given up
+altogether; but the tenacity with which the Eskimo clings to these
+ancient observances, even in places where they have been nominal
+christians for years, is an evidence of the vitality of these ancient
+rites and their adaptation to the native mind.
+
+The festivals vary considerably according to locality, but their
+essential features are the same. Taken in order of celebration they
+are as follows
+
+Local Festivals.
+
+    1. The Aiy�guk or Asking Festival.
+    2. The Tca�iyuk or Bladder Feast.
+    3. The Ail['=i]gi or Annual Feast to the Dead.
+
+Inter-tribal Festivals.
+
+    4. The A�thuk['=a]tukhtuk or Great Feast to the Dead.
+    5. The Aith�kaguk or Inviting-In Feast.
+
+The Asking Festival, which begins the round of feasting and dancing,
+takes place during the November moon. It is a local ceremony in which
+gifts are exchanged between the men and women of the village, which
+result in offers of temporary marriage. It takes its name from the
+Aiy�guk or Asking Stick,[13] which is the wand of office of the
+messenger or go-between. The Annual Feast to the Dead is held during
+the December moon, and may be repeated again in spring after the
+Bladder Feast, if a large number of Eskimos have died in the interim.
+It consists of songs and dances accompanied by offerings of food and
+drink to the dead. It is a temporary arrangement for keeping the dead
+supplied with sustenance (they are thought to imbibe the spiritual
+essence of the offerings) until the great Feast to the Dead takes
+place.
+
+  [13] The Asking Stick is also used in the Inviting-In Feast
+  (Aith�kaguk).
+
+This is held whenever the relatives of the deceased have accumulated
+sufficient food, skins and other goods to entertain the countryside
+and are able to properly honor the deceased. At the same time the
+namesakes of the dead are richly clothed from head to foot and
+showered with presents. As this prodigal generosity entails the
+savings of years on the part of the feast givers (n�skut), the feast
+occurs only at irregular intervals of several years. It has been
+termed the Ten Year Feast by the traders (K�gruska), but so far as I
+have been able to inquire, it has no fixed date among the Eskimo. It
+is by far the most important event in the life of the Alaskan native.
+By it he discharges all debts of honor to the dead, past, present and
+future. He is not obliged to take part in another festival of the kind
+unless another near relative dies. He pays off all old scores of
+hospitality and lays his friends under future obligations by his
+presents. He is often beggared by this prodigality, but he can be sure
+of welcome and entertainment wherever he goes, for he is a man who has
+discharged all his debts to society and is therefore deserving of
+honor for the rest of his days.
+
+In the Bladder Feast which takes place in January, the bladders of the
+animals slain during the past season, in which the spirits of the
+animals are supposed to reside, are returned to the sea, after
+appropriate ceremonies in the k�sgi. There they are thought to attract
+others of their kind and bring an increase to the village. This is
+essentially a coast festival. Among the tribes of the islands of
+Bering Sea and the Siberian Coast this festival is repeated in March,
+in conjunction with a whaling ceremony performed at the taking down
+of the [=u]miaks.
+
+The dance contests in the Inviting-In Feast resemble the nith songs
+of Greenland. They are Comic and Totem Dances in which the best
+performers of several tribes contest singly or in groups for
+supremacy. The costumes worn are remarkably fine and the acting very
+realistic. This is essentially a southern festival for it gives an
+opportunity to the Eskimo living near the rivers to display their
+ingenious talent for mimicry and for the arrangement of feathers.
+
+There are a few purely local ceremonies, the outgrowth of practices of
+local shamans. An example of this is the Aitek�tah or Doll Festival of
+the Igomiut, which has also spread to the neighboring D�n�. Such local
+outgrowths, however, do not appear to spread among the conservative
+Eskimo, who resent the least infringement of the ancient practices
+handed down from dim ancestors of the race.
+
+It is not often that they will allow a white man to witness the
+festival dances, but, owing to the friendliness of the chief of the
+Diomede tribes, who always reserved a seat for me next to him in the
+k�sgi, I had the opportunity of seeing the local rites and the Great
+Dance to the Dead. The same favor continuing with the chief of the
+Unalit, during my residence on the Yukon, I witnessed the Inviting-In
+Feast as celebrated by the southern tribes. Having described the
+dances in general, I will proceed to a detailed account of each.
+
+
+THE ASKING FESTIVAL
+
+The Aiy�guk or Asking Festival is the first of the local feasts. It
+occurs about the middle of November when the Eskimo have all returned
+from their summer travels and made their iglus secure against the
+storms of the coming winter. So, with caches full of fish, and houses
+packed with trade goods after a successful season at the southern
+camps, they must wait until the shifting ice pack settles and the
+winter hunting begins. Such enforced inaction is irksome to the
+Eskimo, who does not partake of the stolidity of the Indian, but like
+a nervous child must be continually employed or amused. So this
+festival, which is of a purely social character, has grown up.
+
+My first intimation that there was a celebration taking place was
+being attracted by a tremendous uproar in the native village just as
+darkness had fallen. Suspecting that the Eskimo were making merry over
+a native brew, called "hoosch,"[14] I slipped down to the village to
+see what was the matter. I was met by the queerest procession I have
+ever seen. A long line of men and boys, entirely naked and daubed over
+with dots and figures of mingled oil and charcoal,[15] were proceeding
+from house to house with bowls in their hands. At each entrance they
+filed in, howling, stamping and grunting, holding out their dishes
+until they were filled by the women of the house.
+
+All this time they were careful to keep their faces averted so that
+they would not be recognized. This is termed the "Tut�uk" or "going
+around." Returning to the k�sgi they washed off their marks with
+urine, and sat down to feast on their plunder.
+
+  [14] This is a liquor distilled from flour and molasses. In the
+  operation an old cask and a gun barrel are used. The liquid is
+  fermented with sour dough and allowed to distill through the barrel.
+  The Eskimo had no liquor prior to the advent of the whalers, who
+  supplied them with the materials and probably taught them the art of
+  distilling. The U. S. Revenue Cutter "Bear" has been active in
+  breaking up the practice. In 1909, six illicit stills were seized on
+  the Diomede Islands.
+
+  [15] The first night of the feast the men and older boys meet in the
+  k�sgi, and two boys named the Raven (Tuluka�guk) and the Hawk
+  (Teib�riak) mix the paint and assist the men in ornamenting
+  themselves.
+
+The next day the men gathered again in the k�sgi and the Aiy�guk or
+Asking Stick was constructed. It was made by a man especially chosen
+for the purpose. It was a slender wand about three feet long with
+three globes made of thin strips of wood hanging by a strip of
+o['k]linok from the smaller end. It was carried by the messenger
+between the men and women during the feast, and was the visible sign
+of his authority. It was treated with scrupulous respect by the Eskimo
+and to disregard the wishes conveyed by means of it during the feast
+would have been considered a lasting disgrace. When not in use it was
+hung over the entrance to the k�sgi.
+
+The wand maker, having finished the Asking Stick, took his stand in
+the center of the room, and swaying the globes, to and fro, asked the
+men to state their wishes. Then any man present had the privilege of
+telling him of an article he wished and the name of the woman from
+whom he wished it. (Among the southern tribes the men made small
+wooden models of the objects they wished which were hung on the end of
+the Asking Stick.) The messenger then proceeded to the house of the
+woman in question, swinging the globes in front of her, repeated the
+wish and stood waiting for her answer. She in turn recollected
+something that she desired and told it to the messenger. Thereupon he
+returned to the k�sgi, and standing in front of the first party, swung
+the globes, and told him what was desired in return. In this way he
+made the round of the village. The men then returned to their homes
+for the article desired, while the messenger blackened his face with
+charcoal and donned a costume betoking humility. This was considered
+the only proper attitude in presenting gifts. The costume consisted of
+wornout clothing, of which a disreputable raincoat (Kamle�ka) and a
+dogskin belt with the tail behind were indispensable parts.
+
+Then the men and women gathered in the k�sgi where the exchanges were
+made through the messenger. If anyone did not have the gift requested
+he was in honor bound to secure it as soon as possible and present it
+to his partner. Those exchanging gifts entered a relationship termed
+o[=i]l�['g]uk, and among the northern tribes where the ancient forms
+persevere, they continued to exchange presents throughout succeeding
+festivals.
+
+After this exchange, a dance was performed by the women. They stripped
+to the waist, and taking their places on the i['n]glak, went through a
+series of motions in unison. These varied considerably in time and
+movement from the conventional women's dance.
+
+According to custom at the conclusion of the dance any man has the
+privilege of asking any unmarried woman through the messenger, if he
+might share her bed that night. If favorably inclined, she replies
+that he must bring a deerskin for bedding. He procures the deerskin,
+and presents it to her, and after the feast is over remains with her
+for the night.
+
+Whether these temporary unions lead to permanent marriage I was unable
+to find out. The gift of reindeer skin is very like the suit of
+clothing given in betrothal and would furnish material for the parka
+which the husband presents to his bride. The fact that the privilege
+is limited to unmarried women might be also urged in turn. As the
+system of exchanging wives was formerly common among the Alaskan
+Eskimo, and as they distribute their favors at will, it is rather
+remarkable that the married women are not included, as in the
+licentious feasts recorded of the Greenlanders.[16] From talks with
+some of the older Eskimo I am led to regard this as a relic of an
+ancient custom similar to those which have been observed among many
+nations of antiquity, in which a woman is open to violation at certain
+feasts. This privilege is taken advantage of, and may become a
+preliminary to marriage.
+
+  [16] See Hans Egede, Det Gamle Gr�nlands Nye Perlustration, p. 78.
+
+
+THE BLADDER FEAST
+
+The Bladder Feast (Tca�iyuk) is held in December at the full of the
+moon. The object of this feast is the propitiation of the inua of the
+animals slain during the season past. These are believed to reside in
+the bladders, which the Eskimo carefully preserve. The ceremony
+consists in the purification of the bladders by the flame of the wild
+parsnip (A�kituk). The hunters are also required to pass through the
+flame. They return the bladders then to the sea, where entering the
+bodies of their kind, they are reborn and return again, bringing
+continued success to the hunter.
+
+The first three days are spent in preparation. They thoroughly clean
+the k�sgi, particularly the ken�thluk or fireplace, the recognized
+abode of all spirits visiting the k�sgi. Then the men bring in their
+harvest of bladders.[17] They tie them by the necks in bunches of
+eight to the end of their spears. These they thrust into the walls at
+the rear of the room leaving ample room for the dancers to pass under
+the swaying bladders in the rites of purification. Offerings of food
+and water are made to the inua, and they are constantly attended. One
+old man told me that they would be offended and take their departure
+if left alone for a moment. Dogs, being unclean, are not allowed to
+enter the k�sgi. Neither is anyone permitted to do any work during the
+ceremony.
+
+  [17] The mothers also preserve with greatest care the bladders of the
+  mice, ground squirrels, and other small animals killed by the
+  children. These are purified at the same time.
+
+Meanwhile four men,[18] especially chosen for the purpose, scour the
+adjoining country for parsnip stalks. They bind these into small
+bundles, and place them on top of the l�torak, the outer vestibule to
+the entrance of the k�sgi. In the evening they take these into the
+k�sgi, open the bundles and spread out the stalks on the floor. Then
+each hunter takes a stalk, and they unite in a song to the parsnip,
+the burden of which is a request that the stalks may become dry and
+useful for purification. The heat of the seal oil lamps soon dries
+them, and they are tied into one large bundle. The third day the sheaf
+is opened, and two bundles made. The larger one is for the use of the
+dancers; the smaller is placed on a spear and stuck in front of the
+bladders.
+
+The fourth day the bladders are taken down and painted. A grayish
+mixture is used which is obtained by burning a few parsnip stalks and
+mixing the ashes with oil. The designs are the series of bands and
+dots grouped to represent the totems of the hunters. When the paint is
+dry the bladders are returned to their places.
+
+In the evening the men gather again in the k�sgi, and the dancers
+proceed to strip off every vestige of clothing. Snatching a handful of
+stalks at the common pile they light them at the lamps, and join in a
+wild dance about the room. The resinous stalks shoot into flame with a
+frightful glare, lighting up the naked bodies of the dancers, and
+dusky interior of the k�sgi. Waving the flaming torches over their
+heads, leaping, jumping, and screaming like madmen they rush around
+the room, thrusting the flame among the bladders and then into the
+faces of the hunters. When the mad scene is at its height, they seize
+one another, and struggle toward the p�gyarok (entrance hole). Here
+each is thrust down in succession until all the dancers have passed
+through. I am informed that this is a pantomime enactment, an
+indication to the inua it is time for them to depart.
+
+  [18] The number four appears to have a sacred significance among the
+  Alaskan Eskimo. The Raven Father (Tuluka�guk) waves his wings four
+  times over the objects of his creation; the heroes of ancient legends
+  take four steps and are transported great distances; and important
+  events occur on the fourth night. I understand that the four men who
+  gather the wild parsnips represent the four clans of the tribe.
+
+The next day a hole is made in the ice near the k�sgi, and each hunter
+dips his spear in the water, and, running back to the k�sgi, stirs up
+the bladders with it. The presence of the sea water reminds the inua
+of their former home, and they make ready to depart. The bladders are
+then tied into one large bundle, and the people await the full moon.
+
+At sunrise the morning after the full moon each hunter takes his load
+of bladders, and filing out of the k�sgi starts for the hole in the
+ice on a dead run. Arriving there, he tears off the bladders one by
+one, and thrusts them under the water. This signifies the return of
+the inua to the sea.
+
+As the bladders float or sink success is prophesied for the hunter by
+the shaman in attendance.
+
+In the meantime the old men build a fire of driftwood on the ice in
+front of the k�sgi. The small bundle of parsnip stalks which stood in
+front of the bladders is brought out and thrown on the fire, and as
+the stalks kindle to the flame, each hunter utters a shout, takes a
+short run, and leaps through in turn. This performance purifies the
+hunter of any matter offensive to the inua, and concludes the
+ceremony.
+
+During the Bladder Feast all intercourse between the married men and
+their wives is tabooed. They are required to sleep in the k�sgi with
+the bachelors. Neither is any girl who has attained puberty
+(Wingikt�ak) allowed near the bladders. She is unclean (W�hok).
+
+
+THE FEASTS TO THE DEAD
+
+The Eskimo idea of the life after death and the rationale for their
+most important ritual, the Feast to the Dead, is nowhere better
+illustrated than in a quaint tale current along the Yukon, in which
+the heroine, prematurely buried during a trancelike sleep, visited the
+Land of the Dead. She was rudely awakened from her deathlike slumber
+by the spirit of her grandmother shaking her and exclaiming, "Wake up.
+Do not sleep the hours away. You are dead!" Arising from her grave
+box, the maiden was conducted by her guide to the world beneath, where
+the dead had their dwellings in large villages grouped according to
+the localities from which they came. Even the animal shades were not
+forgotten, but inhabited separate communities in human shape.[19]
+After some travel the girl found the village allotted to her tribe,
+and was reclaimed by her departed relatives. She was recognized by the
+totem marks on her clothing, which in ancient times the Eskimo always
+wore. She found the inmates of this region leading a pleasant but
+somewhat monotonous life, free from hardships and from the sleet and
+cold of their earthly existence. They returned to the upper world
+during the feasts to the dead, when they received the spiritual
+essence of the food and clothing offered to their namesakes[20] by
+relatives. According to the generosity or stinginess of the feast
+givers there was a feast or a famine in spirit land, and those who
+were so unfortunate as to have no namesake, either through their own
+carelessness[21] or the neglect of the community,[22] went hungry and
+naked. This was the worst calamity that could befall an Eskimo, hence
+the necessity of providing a namesake and of regularly feeding and
+clothing the same, in the interest of the beloved dead.
+
+  [19] The shapes of animals are thought by the Alaskan Eskimo to be
+  like those of men, and in ancient times animals possessed the power of
+  changing their forms at will. This was effected by pulling the muzzle
+  up over the head to become people or of pulling it down again to
+  regain their original form.
+
+  [20] The first child born in the village after his death becomes the
+  deceased's namesake. However, if born in camp, its mother gives it the
+  name of the first natural object to catch her eye.
+
+  [21] Childless people provide for this contingency by adoption.
+
+  [22] One who has made himself odious to his fellow villagers is
+  purposely neglected in the feasts to the dead.
+
+
+
+
+THE ANNUAL FEAST, AIL['=I]GI
+
+
+The Annual Feast to the Dead is a temporary arrangement, whereby the
+shades of those recently departed are sustained until the advent of
+the Great Feast to the Dead. The essence of the offerings of food and
+drink are supposed to satisfy the wants of the dead until they can be
+properly honored in the Great Festival. In the latter event the
+relative discharges all his social obligations to the dead, and the
+ghost is furnished with such an abundance that it can never want in
+the world below.
+
+The makers of the feast (n['�]skut) are the nearest relatives of those
+who have died during the past year, together with those villagers who
+have not yet given the greater festival. The day before the festival
+the male mourners go to the village burial ground and plant a newly
+made stake before the grave of their relative. The stake is surmounted
+by a wooden model of a spear, if the deceased be a man; or a wooden
+dish, if it be a woman. The totem mark of the deceased is carved upon
+it. In the north simple models of kayak paddles suffice. The sticks
+are a notification to the spirits in the land of the dead that the
+time for the festival is at hand. Accordingly they journey to the
+grave boxes, where they wait, ready to enter the k�sgi at the song of
+invocation. To light their way from the other world lamps are brought
+into the k�sgi and set before their accustomed places. When the
+invitation song arises they leave their graves and take their places
+in the fireplace (Ken�thluk), where they enjoy the songs and dances,
+and receive the offerings of their relatives.
+
+The Annual Feast is celebrated after the Bladder Feast during the
+December moon. By the Yukon tribes it is repeated just before the
+opening of spring. During the day of the festival a taboo is placed on
+all work in the village, particularly that done with any sharp pointed
+tool which might wound some wandering ghost and bring retribution on
+the people.
+
+At midday the whole village gathers in the k�sgi, and the ceremony
+begins. Soon the mourners enter bearing great bowls of food and drink
+which they deposit in the doorway. Then the chorus leader arises and
+begins the song of invitation accompanied by the relatives of the
+dead. It is a long minor chant, a constant reiteration of a few well
+worn phrases.
+
+    "Tukomalra-[=a]-, tung l�k-a,   tis-k�-a a-a-yung-a-a-yung-a, etc.
+     Dead ones, next of kin,        come hither,
+
+     T�ntum kom�ga thet�mtatuk,     m�qkapik thet�mtatuk moqs�lthka.
+     Reindeer meat we bring you,    water we bring you for your thirst."
+
+When the song is completed the mourners arise, and going to the food
+in the doorway set it on the planks over the fireplace, after which
+they take a ladleful from each dish pouring it through the cracks in
+the floor, and the essence of this offering supplies the shades below
+with food until the next festival. The remainder of the food is
+distributed among those present. When the feast is over, the balance
+of the day is given over to songs and dances. Then the spirits are
+sent back to their homes by the simple expedient of stamping on the
+floor.
+
+
+
+
+THE GREAT FEAST, A�THUK['=A]TUKHTUK
+
+
+After making offerings to his relative at the annual feast the chief
+mourner begins saving up his skins, frozen meat, and other delicacies
+prized by the Eskimo, until, in the course of years, he has
+accumulated an enormous amount of food and clothing. Then he is
+prepared to give the great feast in honor of his kinsman. Others in
+the village, who are bereaved, have been doing the same thing. They
+meet and agree on a certain time to celebrate the feast together
+during the ensuing year. The time chosen is usually in January after
+the local feasts are over, and visitors from neighboring tribes are
+free to attend. There are no set intervals between these feasts as has
+been generally supposed. They are celebrated at irregular intervals
+according to the convenience of the givers.
+
+At the minor festival preceding the Great Feast, the usual invitation
+stakes planted before the dead are supplemented by others placed
+before the graves of those in whose honor the festival is to be given.
+On these is a painted model of the totemic animals of the deceased.
+The feast giver sings an especial song of invitation, requesting the
+dead kinsman to be present at the approaching feast.
+
+On the first day of the Great Feast the villagers welcome the guests.
+Early in the morning they begin to arrive. The messenger goes out on
+the ice and leads them into the village, showing each where to tie his
+team. During the first day the guests are fed in the k�sgi. They have
+the privilege of demanding any delicacy they wish. After this they are
+quartered on various homes in the village. Salmon or meat must also
+be provided for their dogs. This is no small item, and often taxes the
+resources of a village to the utmost. I have known of a village so
+poor after a period of prolonged hospitality that it was reduced to
+starvation rations for the rest of the winter.
+
+Immediately on tying up their dogs, the guests go to the k�sgi. On
+entering each one cries in set phraseology, "Ah-ka-k�- P�atin,
+Pikey�tum." "Oh, ho! Look here! A trifling present." He throws his
+present on a common pile in front of the headman, who distributes them
+among the villagers. It is customary to make the presents appear as
+large as possible. One fellow has a bolt of calico which he unwinds
+through the entrance hole, making a great display. It may be thirty
+yards long. Sometimes they accompany the gift with a short dance. It
+is considered bad form for one coming from a distance[23] not to make
+the usual present, as in this way he purchases the right to join in
+the festival dances.
+
+  [23] During the inter-tribal festivals, guests are given seats of
+  honor next to the headman of the village according to the distance
+  from which they have come. The back of the room (k�an), the place of
+  honor, is reserved for this purpose.
+
+As soon as all are gathered in the k�sgi, a feast is brought in for
+the tired travelers. Kantags of sealmeat, the blackskin of the
+bowhead, salmon berries swimming in oil, greens from the hillsides,
+and pot after pot of tea take off the edge of hunger. After gorging
+themselves, the guests seem incapable of further exertion, and the
+remainder of the day is spent in visiting.
+
+
+THE FEAST GIVERS
+
+The feast givers or n['�]skut assemble in the k�sgi the second day,
+and the ceremony proper begins. They range themselves around the
+p�gyarok or entrance, the chorus and guests occupying the back of the
+room and the spectators packing themselves against the walls.
+
+Each feast giver is garbed according to the sex of his dead relative,
+not his own, so that some men wear women's clothes and vice versa.
+Each bears in his right hand a wand about two feet long
+(Kel�zruk).[24] This is a small stick of wood surmounted with tufts of
+down from ptarmigan (Okozreg�wik). All are dressed to represent the
+totem to which the deceased belongs. One wears a fillet and armlet of
+wolfskin (Eg�alik); others wear armlets of ermine (T�reak); still
+others are crowned with feathers of the raven (Tul�a) or the hawk
+(Tciaka�ret).[25] After a short dance they withdraw and the day's
+ceremony is finished.
+
+  [24] The same arrangement characterizes the finger masks of the
+  Inviting-In Dance. (Kiggil�nok), meaning wand, in southern dialect.
+
+  [25] Southern dialect. Akkizhzh�gik, Ptarmigan. Teib�viak, hawk;
+  Tuluka�guk, meaning raven.
+
+The following day the n['�]skut assemble again, but they have doffed
+their fine feathers, and are dressed in their oldest clothes. The
+suits of the day before they carry in a grass sack. They wear
+raincoats of sealgut tied about the waist with a belt of dogskin, and
+enter the k�sgi with eyes cast on the floor. Even in the dances they
+keep their faces from the audience.
+
+This attitude of humility is in accord with Eskimo ethics. They say
+that if they adopt a boastful air and fail to give as many presents as
+the other n['�]skut they will be ashamed. So they safeguard themselves
+in advance.
+
+
+THE RITUAL
+
+Advancing with downcast eyes, the n['�]skut creep softly across the
+k�sgi and take their places before the funeral lamps. Then taking out
+their festival garments, they slip them on. Immediately the drummers
+start tapping lightly on their drums, and at a signal from their
+leader the song of invitation begins. Each n['�]skuk advances in turn,
+invoking the presence of his dead in a sad minor strain.
+
+    Toak�ra �lyuga tak�na
+    Dead brother, come hither
+    A-yunga-ayunga-a-yunga.
+
+Or:
+
+    Nule�ga aw�nga toak�ra
+    Sister mine, dead one,
+    Tak�na, n�leaga, tak�na,
+    Come hither, sister, come hither.
+
+Or:
+
+    Ak�ga aw�nga tak�na
+    Mother mine, come hither.
+    Nan�ktuk, tak�na,
+    We wait for you, come hither.
+
+To which the chorus answer:
+
+    Ily�ga aw�nga tak�na,
+    Our brother, come hither,
+    Takin�ka, ily�ga, tak�naka,
+    Return, dead brother, return.
+
+The women advance in line, holding their wands in the right hand, and
+singing in unison; then the men advance in their turn, then both
+n['�]skut and chorus sing together:
+
+    Takinaka, aw�nga, tungalika,
+    Return to us, our dead kinsmen,
+    Nanak�tuk, kine�ktuk tungal[�=]ka
+    We wait your home coming, our dead kinsmen.
+
+Suddenly the drummers cease and rap sharply on the in['g]lak with
+their drumsticks. The dancers stop in the midst of their movements and
+stamp on the floor, first with one foot then with the other, placing
+their hands on their shoulders, bringing them down over their bodies
+as though wiping off some unseen thing. Then they slap their thighs
+and sit down. I am informed that this is to "wipe off" any uncleanness
+(wahok) that might offend the shades of the dead.
+
+Then the namesakes of the dead troop into the k�sgi, and take their
+places in the center of the room between the two lines. To each, the
+n['�]skuk hands a bowl of water and a kantag of frozen reindeer meat
+cut into small pieces. The namesakes drop a small portion of the meat
+on the floor. The essence is evidently thought to pass below to the
+waiting inua. Then they finish the remainder. At the same time a large
+amount of frozen meat and fish is brought in and distributed among the
+guests. This is done at the end of each day.
+
+The fourth day the chorus leader mounts the top of the k�sgi and
+begins again the invitation song. The people scatter to the burying
+ground or to the ice along the shore according to the spot where they
+have lain their dead. They dance among the grave boxes so that the
+shades who have returned to them, when not in the k�sgi, may see that
+they are doing them honor.
+
+During the dancing the children of the village gather in the k�sgi,
+carrying little kantags and sealskin sacks. The women on returning
+bring great bags of frozen blueberries and reindeer fat, commonly
+called "Eskimo Ice Cream," with which they fill the bowls of the
+children, but the young rogues immediately slip their portions into
+their sacks (p�ksrut) and hold out their dishes for more, crying in a
+deafening chorus, "Wunga-T['=u]k" (Me too). This part of the festival
+is thoroughly enjoyed by the Eskimo, who idolize their children.
+
+At the conclusion of the day's feast many presents are given away by
+the n['�]skut, the husbands of the female feast givers distributing
+them for the ladies, who assume a bashful air. During the distribution
+the n['�]skut maintain their deprecatory attitude and pass disparaging
+remarks on their gifts. Sometimes the presents are attached to a long
+line of �klinok (seal thong) which the n['�]skut haul down through the
+smokehole, making the line appear as long as possible. At the same
+time they sing in a mournful key bewailing their relative:
+
+    Ah-ka- ily�ga toak�ra, t�kin,
+    Oh! oh! dead brother, return,
+    Utiktut�tuk, ily�ga aw�nga,
+    Return to us, our brother,
+    Illear�qtutuk, ily�ga,
+    We miss you, dear brother,
+    Pikey�tum, kok�tutuk,
+    A trifling present we bring you.
+
+
+THE CLOTHING OF THE NAMESAKES
+
+The following day occurs the clothing of the namesakes. This is
+symbolical of clothing the dead, who ascend into the bodies of their
+namesakes during the ceremony and take on the spiritual counterpart of
+the clothing.
+
+After a grand distribution of presents by the n['�]skut, bags of fine
+clothing are lowered to the feast givers and the namesakes take the
+center of the floor, in front of their relatives, the feast givers.
+Then each n['�]skuk calls out to the particular namesake of his dead
+kinsman: "[=I]tak�n, illorahug-n�ka," "Come hither, my beloved," and
+proceeds to remove the clothing of the namesake and put on an entirely
+new suit of mukluks, trousers, and parka, made of the finest furs.
+Then the feast giver gathers up the discarded clothing, and stamps
+vigorously on the floor, bidding the ghost begone to its resting
+place. It goes, well satisfied, and the dancers disperse until another
+great festival. Until the feast is concluded no one can leave the
+village.
+
+
+
+
+THE INVITING-IN FESTIVAL
+
+
+The Inviting-In Festival (Aith�kaguk) is a great inter-tribal feast,
+second in importance to the Great Feast to the Dead. It is a
+celebration on invitation from one tribe to her neighbors when
+sufficient provisions have been collected. It takes place late in the
+season, after the other festivals are over. Neighboring tribes act as
+hosts in rotation, each striving to outdo the other in the quality and
+quantity of entertainment offered. During this festival the dramatic
+pantomime dances for which the Alaskan Eskimo are justly famous, are
+performed by especially trained actors. For several days the dances
+continue, each side paying the forfeit as they lose in the dancing
+contests. In this respect the representations are somewhat similar to
+the nith contests of the Greenlanders. As I have noticed the dances at
+length elsewhere,[26] I shall only give a brief survey here,
+sufficient to show their place in the Eskimo festival dances.
+
+  [26] Canadian Geological Survey. Memoir 45. The "Inviting-In" Feast
+  of the Alaskan Eskimo.
+
+The main dances of the Inviting-In Festival are totemic in character,
+performed by trained actors to appease the totems of the hunters, and
+insure success for the coming season. These are danced in pantomime
+and depict the life of arctic animals, the walrus, raven, bear,
+ptarmigan, and others. Then there are group dances which illustrate
+hunting scenes, like the Reindeer and Wolf Pack dance already
+described, also dances of a purely comic character, designed for the
+entertainment of the guests. During the latter performances the side
+which laughs has to pay a forfeit.
+
+Elaborate masks are worn in all of the dances. The full paraphernalia,
+masks, handmasks, fillets, and armlets, are worn by the chief actors.
+They are supported by richly garbed assistants. An old shaman acts as
+master of ceremonies. There is an interchange of presents between the
+tribes during the intervals but not between individuals, as in the
+Asking Festival. At the close of the festival the masks are burned.
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PLATE XI
+
+    A--Outer Vestibule. (L[=a]�tor[)a]k.)
+    B--Summer Entrance. (Am[=e]k�.)
+    C--Front Platform. (['=O]aklim.) Seat of Orphans and Worthless.
+    D--Plank Floor. (N[=a]�t[=u]k.)
+    E--Rear Platform. (K[=a]�an.) Seat of Honored Guests.
+    F--Smoke Hole. ([.R]a�l[)o]k.) Entrance for Gift-lines.
+    G--Entrance Hole. (Pug�y[)a]r[)a]k.)
+    H--Fireplace. (K[=e]ne�thluk.) Seat of Spirit-Guests.
+    I--Underground Tunnel. (Ag�v[=e]ak.)
+    J--Side Platforms. (K['=a]aklim.) Seats for Spectators.
+    K--Chorus of Drummers.
+    L--Feast Givers. (N�skut.)
+    M--Namesakes of Dead.
+
+ [Illustration: ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI PLATE XI
+                Arrangement of K�sgi during the Great Feast to the Dead.
+                THE K�SGI OR DANCE HOUSE.]
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PLATE XII
+
+    A--First Movement. The Chief's Son, Okva�ok is dancing.
+
+    B--Second Movement.
+
+ [Illustration: ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI PLATE XII
+                A
+                B
+                MEN'S DANCE]
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PLATE XIII
+
+    C--Third Movement.
+
+    D--Fourth Movement.
+
+ [Illustration: ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI PLATE XIII
+                C
+                D
+                MEN'S DANCE]
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PLATE XIV
+
+    Children's Dance.
+
+    The Chorus. Leader in Center Beating Time With an Ermine Stick.
+
+ [Illustration: ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI PLATE XIV
+                CHILDREN'S DANCE
+                THE CHORUS]
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PLATE XV
+
+    Women's Dance.
+
+ [Illustration: ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI PLATE XV
+                WOMEN'S DANCE]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dance Festivals of the Alaskan
+Eskimo, by Ernest William Hawkes
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dance Festivals of the Alaskan Eskimo, by 
+Ernest William Hawkes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Dance Festivals of the Alaskan Eskimo
+
+Author: Ernest William Hawkes
+
+Release Date: September 6, 2008 [EBook #26544]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DANCE FESTIVALS--ALASKAN ESKIMO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Anne Storer and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="box">
+
+<p>Transcriber&#8217;s Notes:<br />
+1) For correct rendering of some diacritical marks please change browser default font
+to Arial.<br />
+2) There are a number of words in the native language that appear to mean the
+same thing, but have different accents. It is unknown if this is intentional
+or a printing error - these have been left as printed.<br />
+eg: Nule&aacute;ga / n&uacute;leaga ... Takin&aacute;ka / tak&iacute;naka / Takinaka ... W&aacute;hok / wahok<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h3>UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA</h3>
+<h2>THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM</h2>
+<h2>ANTHROPOLOGICAL PUBLICATIONS</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Vol. VI</span> <span style="margin-left: 21em;">No. 2</span></p>
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h1>THE DANCE FESTIVALS OF THE<br />
+ALASKAN ESKIMO</h1>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>BY<br />
+E. W. HAWKES</strong></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">PHILADELPHIA<br />
+PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM<br />
+1914</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr>  <td align='left'></td>  <td align='right'><span class="smcap">page</span></td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#INTRO">INTRODUCTION</a></td>  <td align='right'>5</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#PHONETIC">PHONETIC KEY</a></td>  <td align='right'>7</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_9">THE DANCE IN GENERAL</a></td>  <td align='right'>9</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_10"><span style="margin-left: 2em;" class="smcap">The Chorus</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>10</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_11"><span style="margin-left: 2em;" class="smcap">Participation of the Sexes</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>11</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_13">THE K&Aacute;SGI OR DANCE HOUSE</a></td>  <td align='right'>13</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_15"><span style="margin-left: 2em;" class="smcap">Paraphernalia</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>15</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_19">THE DANCE FESTIVALS</a></td>  <td align='right'>19</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_22"><span style="margin-left: 2em;" class="smcap">The Asking Festival</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>22</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_26"><span style="margin-left: 2em;" class="smcap">The Bladder Feast</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>26</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_29"><span style="margin-left: 2em;" class="smcap">The Feasts to the Dead</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>29</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_31">THE ANNUAL FEAST, <ins class="unicode" title="the middle I is a combined macron and acute">AIL&#298;&#769;GI</ins></a></td>  <td align='right'>31</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_33">THE GREAT FEAST, <ins class="unicode" title="the accented A is a combined macron and acute">A&Iacute;THUK&#256;&#769;TUKHTUK</ins></a></td>  <td align='right'>33</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_34"><span style="margin-left: 2em;" class="smcap">The Feast Givers</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>34</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_35"><span style="margin-left: 2em;" class="smcap">The Ritual</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>35</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_38"><span style="margin-left: 2em;" class="smcap">The Clothing of the Namesakes</span></a></td>  <td align='right'>38</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'><a href="#Page_40">THE INVITING-IN FESTIVAL</a></td>  <td align='right'>40</td>  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INTRO" id="INTRO"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%;">
+This account of the Dance Festivals of the Alaskan Eskimo
+was written from material gathered in the Bering Strait District
+during three years&#8217; residence: two on the Diomede Islands, and
+one at St. Michael at the mouth of the Yukon River. This
+paper is based on my observations of the ceremonial dances of
+the Eskimo of these two localities.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PHONETIC" id="PHONETIC"></a>PHONETIC KEY</h2>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">&#257;, &#275;, &#299;, &#333;, &#363;, long vowels.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">a, e, i, o, u, short vowels.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">&auml;, as in hat.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">&acirc;, as in law.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">ai, as in aisle.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">au, as ow in how.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">h, w, y, semivowels.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">c, as sh in should.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">f, a bilabial surd.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">g, as in get.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">g&#769;, a post-palatal sonant.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">k, as in pick.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">l, as in lull.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">m, as in mum.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">n, as in nun.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">ng, as ng in sing.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">p, as in pipe.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">q, a post-palatal surd.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">&#7769;, a uvular sonant spirant.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">s, as in sauce.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">t, an alveolar stop.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">tc, as ch in chapter.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">v, a bilabial sonant.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 32%;">z, as in zone.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE DANCE FESTIVALS OF THE ALASKAN ESKIMO</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>THE DANCE IN GENERAL</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>The ceremonial dance of the Alaskan Eskimo is a rhythmic
+pantomime&mdash;the story in gesture and song of the lives of the
+various Arctic animals on which they subsist and from whom they
+believe their ancient clans are sprung. The dances vary in
+complexity from the ordinary social dance, in which all share
+promiscuously and in which individual action is subordinated
+to rhythm, to the pantomime totem dances performed by
+especially trained actors who hold their positions from year to
+year according to artistic
+merit.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+Yet even in the totem dances
+the pantomime is subordinate to the rhythm, or rather superimposed
+upon it, so that never a gesture or step of the characteristic
+native time is lost.</p>
+
+<p>This is a primitive 2-4 beat based on the double roll of the
+chorus of drums. Time is kept, in the men&#8217;s dances, by stamping
+the foot and jerking the arm in unison, twice on the right, then
+twice on the left side, and so on, alternately. Vigorous dancers
+vary the program by leaping and jumping at intervals, and the
+shamans are noted for the dizzy circles which they run
+round the p&uacute;gyarok, the entrance hole of the dance hall. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+women&#8217;s dance has the same measure and can be performed
+separately or in conjunction with the men&#8217;s dance, but has a
+different and distinctly feminine movement. The feet are kept
+on the ground, while the body sways back and forth in graceful
+undulations to the music and the hands with outspread palms
+part the air with the graceful stroke of a flying gull. Some of
+their dances are performed seated. Then they strip to the waist
+and form one long line of waving arms and swaying shoulders,
+all moving in perfect unison.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Chorus</span></p>
+
+<p>The chorus which furnishes the music, is composed of from
+six to ten men. They sit on the ing&#769;lak, a raised shelf extending
+around the dance hall about five feet from the floor, and sing
+their dance songs keeping time on their drums. They usually
+sit in the rear of the room, which is the post of honor. Among
+the island tribes of Bering Strait this position is reversed and
+they occupy the front of the room. Some old man, the keeper
+of tribal tradition and song, acts as the leader, calling out
+the words of the dance songs a line ahead. He begins the
+proceedings by striking up a low chant, an invitation to the
+people assembled to dance. The chorus accompany him lightly
+on their drums. Then at the proper place, he strikes a crashing
+double beat; the drums boom out in answer; the song arises
+high and shrill; the dancers leap into their places, and the dance
+begins.</p>
+
+<p>The first dances are usually simple exercises calculated to
+warm the blood and stretch stiffened muscles. They begin with
+leaping around the p&uacute;g&#769;yarok, jumping into the air with both
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+feet in the Eskimo high kick, settling down into the conventional
+movements of the men&#8217;s
+dance.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Quite often a woman steps into the center of the circle,
+and goes through her own dance, while the men leap and dance
+around her. This act has been specialized in the Reindeer and
+Wolf Pack Dance of the Aith&uacute;kaguk, the Inviting-In Festival,
+where the woman wearing a reindeer crest and belt is surrounded
+by the men dancers, girt in armlets and fillets of wolf skin. They
+imitate the pack pulling down a deer, and the din caused by their
+jumping and howling around her shrinking form is terrific.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Participation of the Sexes</span></p>
+
+<p>There appears to be no restriction against the women
+taking part in the men&#8217;s dances. They also act as assistants to
+the chief actors in the Totem Dances, three particularly expert
+and richly dressed women dancers ranging themselves behind
+the mask dancer as a pleasing background of streaming furs and
+glistening feathers. The only time they are forbidden to enter
+the k&aacute;sgi is when the shaman is performing certain secret rites.
+They also have secret meetings of their own when all men are
+banished.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+I happened to stumble on to one of these one time
+when they were performing certain rites over a pregnant woman,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+but being a white man, and therefore unaccountable, I was
+greeted with a good-natured laugh and sent about my business.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, men are never allowed to take part in the
+strictly women&#8217;s dances, although nothing pleases an Eskimo
+crowd more than an exaggerated imitation by one of their clowns
+of the movements of the women&#8217;s dance. The women&#8217;s dances
+are practiced during the early winter and given at the Aiy&aacute;guk,
+or Asking Festival, when the men are invited to attend as spectators.
+They result in offers of temporary marriage to the
+unmarried women, which is obviously the reason for this rite.
+Such dances, confined to the women, have not been observed in
+Alaska outside the islands of Bering Sea, and I have reason to
+believe are peculiar to this district, which, on account of its
+isolation, retains the old forms which have died out or been
+modified on the mainland. But throughout Alaska the women
+are allowed the utmost freedom in participating in the festivals,
+either as naskuks<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+or feast givers, as participants or as spectators.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, the social position of the Eskimo woman has been
+misrepresented and misunderstood. At first sight she appears
+to be the slave of her husband, but a better acquaintance will
+reveal the fact that she is the manager of the household and the
+children, the business partner in all his trades, and often the
+&ldquo;oom&iacute;alik,&rdquo; or captain of the concern as well. Her husband
+is forbidden by tribal custom to maltreat her, and if she owns
+the house, she can order him out at any time. I have never
+known a woman being head of a tribe, but sometimes a woman
+is the most influential member of a tribe.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE K&Aacute;SGI OR DANCE HOUSE</h2>
+
+
+<p>With few exceptions, all dances take place in the village
+k&aacute;sgi or dance hall. This is the public meeting place where the
+old men gather to sit and smoke while they discuss the village
+welfare, where the married men bring their work and take their
+sweat baths, and where the bachelors and young men, termed k&aacute;sgimiut,
+have their sleeping quarters. The k&aacute;sgi is built and
+maintained at public expense, each villager considering it an
+honor to contribute something. Any tools or furnishings brought
+into the k&aacute;sgi are considered public property, and used as such.</p>
+
+<p>When a k&aacute;sgi is to be built, announcement is made through
+messengers to neighboring villages, and all gather to assist in
+the building and to help celebrate the event. First a trench
+several feet deep is dug in which to plant the timbers forming the
+sides. These are usually of driftwood, which is brought by the
+ocean currents from the Yukon. The ice breaks up first at the
+head of that great stream, and the d&eacute;bris dams up the river,
+which overflows its banks, tearing down trees, buildings and
+whatever borders its course as it breaks its way out to the
+sea. The wreckage is scattered along the coast for over a
+hundred miles, and the islands of Bering Sea get a small share.
+The islanders are constantly on the lookout for the drifting
+timber, and put out to sea in the stormiest weather for a distant
+piece, be it large or small. They also patrol the coast after a
+high tide for stray bits of wood. When one considers the toil
+and pain with which material is gathered, the building of a
+k&aacute;sgi becomes an important matter.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+After the timbers have been rough hewn with the adze
+(&uacute;limon) they are set upright in the trench to a height of seven
+to eight feet and firmly bedded with rock. This is to prevent
+the fierce Polar winds which prevail in midwinter from tearing
+the houses to pieces. In the older buildings a protecting stone
+wall was built on the sides. Most of the houses are set in a side
+hill, or partly underground, for additional security, as well as
+for warmth. The roof is laid on top of the uprights, the logs
+being drawn in gradually in pyramid shape to a flat top. In the
+middle of the top is the &#7769;&aacute;lok or smoke hole, an opening about
+two feet square. In a k&aacute;sgi thirty feet square the r&aacute;lok is
+twenty feet above the floor. It is covered with a translucent
+curtain of walrus gut. The dead are always taken out through
+this opening, and never by the entrance. The most important
+feature of the room is the ing&#769;lak, a wide shelf supported by posts
+at intervals. It stands about five feet high extending around the
+room. This serves the double purpose of a seat and bed for
+the inmates of the k&aacute;sgi. The rear, the k&aacute;an, is the most
+desirable position, being the warmest, and is given to headmen
+and honored guests.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+The side portions, k&aacute;aklim, are given to
+the lesser lights and the women and children; and the front,
+the &oacute;aklim, being nearest the entrance and therefore cold and
+uncomfortable is left for the orphans and worthless men.</p>
+
+<p>The floor of the k&aacute;sgi is made of rough planking, and the
+boards in the center are left loose so that they may be easily
+removed. These cover the k&#275;n&eacute;thluk or fireplace, an excavation
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+four feet square, and four feet deep, used in the sweat baths.
+It is thought to be the place where the spirits sit, when they
+visit the k&aacute;sgi, during festivals held in their honor. Offerings
+are poured to them through the cracks in the planks. In the
+center of the floor is a round hole about two feet in diameter,
+called the entrance hole or p&uacute;gyarok. This connects with a
+long tunnel, the ag&#769;veak, which leads outside. The tunnel is
+usually so low that it is necessary to enter in a stooping position,
+which the Eskimo does by placing both hands on the sides of
+the p&uacute;gyarok, and drawing himself through. Some dance-houses
+have another entrance directly into the room on a level
+with the ground, the underground passage being used only in
+winter. The diagram (<a href="#Page_42">Plate XI</a>) gives an idea of this arrangement.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Paraphernalia</span></p>
+
+<p>The drum (sa&uacute;yit)<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
+is the only instrument employed in the
+dances. It is made of a circular hoop about eighteen inches in
+width over which is stretched a resonant covering made from
+the bladder of the walrus or seal. It is held in place by a cord
+of rawhide (ok&#769;linok)<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>
+which fits into a groove on the outer rim.
+The cover can therefore be tightened at will. It is customary
+during the intermissions between the dances for the drummers
+to rub a handful of snow over the skins to prevent them from
+cracking under the heavy blows. The drum is held aloft and
+struck with a thin stick (m&uacute;mwa).<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>
+It gives a deep boom in
+answer. The shaman uses a smaller baton with which he beats
+a continuous tattoo as an accompaniment to his songs. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+northerners strike the back of the rim with their sticks, while
+the Yukon people belabor the face of the drum.</p>
+
+<p>The leader of the chorus frequently flourishes a baton, made
+from a fox tail or the skin of the ermine which is mounted on a
+stick. With this he marks the time of the dance. In <a href="#Page_52">Plate XIV</a>,
+the white blur is the ermine at the end of his stick. It is very
+difficult to obtain a good picture in the ill lighted k&aacute;sgi, and not
+often that the natives will allow one taken there.</p>
+
+<p>One indispensable part of a male dancer&#8217;s outfit is his
+gloves. I have never seen a man dancing without them.
+These are usually of wolverine, or of reindeer with elaborate
+trimmings, but on ordinary occasions any kind will do. The
+women do not share this peculiarity. In place of gloves they
+wear handlets of grass decorated with feathers of duck or of
+ptarmigan. The men in the Totem Dances also wear handlets
+which are carved and painted to represent the particular totem
+they seek to honor. These too are fantastically decorated with
+feathers, usually of the loon. The central feather is stripped,
+and crowned with a tuft of white down. Both men and women
+wear armlets and fillets of skin or feathers according to the
+animal character they represent. When in the full swing of the
+dance with fur and feathers streaming they present a pleasing
+spectacle, a picture full of the same wild grace and poetic motion
+which characterizes the animal forbears from which they claim
+descent.</p>
+
+<p>The chief characters in the Totem and Comic Dances wear
+masks and carry staves decorated with feathers. Occasionally
+the women assistants carry feathered wands (Kel&iacute;zruk).</p>
+
+<p>Of the masks there is a great variety ranging from the plain
+wooden masks to those of such great size that they are suspended
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+from the ceiling of the k&aacute;sgi by a cord while the dancer performs
+behind them.</p>
+
+<p>The Cape Prince of Wales (Kin&iacute;gumiut) Eskimo construct
+complete figures of their totems. These are worked by means of
+concealed strings by the performers, a climax of art which is
+supposed to be particularly pleasing to the spirits addressed.
+Then the shaman
+(T&uacute;ngalik)<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>
+has his own set of masks, hideous
+enough to strike terror to even the initiated. Each one of these
+represents a familiar spirit
+(t&uacute;nghat)<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>
+which assists him in his operations.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinary dance masks may be made by anyone, but the
+masks for the ceremonial dances are made by some renowned
+shaman, engaged for the occasion. These masks are burned at
+the close of the festival, but may be sold by the actors if they
+supply an equal amount of wood for the sacrificial fire.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the masks are very complicated, having appendages
+of wood, fur and feathers. They are all fashioned with an
+idea of representing some feature in the mythology of the spirit
+(Inua) or animal shade (Tunghat) which they represent. In
+the latter case they are nearly always made double, the mythical
+beings who inhabited the early world being regarded as able to
+change from animal to human shape, by merely pushing up or
+pulling down the upper part of the face as a mask. Such masks
+are often hinged to complete the illusion, the actor changing the
+face at will.</p>
+
+<p>It might be mentioned here that when the actor puts on the
+mask he is supposed to become imbued with the spirit of the
+being represented. This accounts, to the native mind, for the
+very lifelike imitation which he gives.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+The masks are painted along conventional lines; the favorite
+colors for the inua masks are red
+(Kar&eacute;kteoak),<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+black (Auktoak), green (C&uacute;ngokyoak), white (Kat&eacute;ktoak), and blue
+(Ta&uacute;krektoak), in the order named. These
+colors<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
+may hold a sacred or symbolic significance. The inua masks are decorated with
+some regard to the natural colors of the human face, but in the
+masks of the t&uacute;nghat the imagination of the artist runs riot.
+The same is true of the comic masks, which are rendered as
+grotesque and horrible as possible. A mask with distorted
+features, a pale green complexion, surrounded by a bristling mass
+of hair, amuses them greatly. The Eskimo also caricature their
+neighbors, the D&egrave;n&egrave;, in this same manner, representing them by
+masks with very large noses and sullen features.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE DANCE FESTIVALS</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Dance Festivals of the Alaskan Eskimo are held during
+that cold, stormy period of the winter when the work of the year
+is over and hunting is temporarily at an end. At this season
+the people gather in the k&aacute;sgi to celebrate the local rites, and at
+certain intervals invite neighboring tribes to join in the great
+inter-tribal festivals. This season of mirth and song is termed
+&ldquo;Tcauy&aacute;vik&rdquo; the drum dance season, from &ldquo;Tca&uacute;yak&rdquo; meaning
+drum. It lasts from November to March, and is a continuous
+succession of feasts and dances, which makes glad the heart of
+the Eskimo and serves to lighten the natural depression caused
+by day after day of interminable wind and darkness. A brisk
+exchange of presents at the local festivals promotes good feeling,
+and an interchange of commodities between the tribes at the
+great feasts stimulates trade and results in each being supplied
+with the necessities of life. For instance, northern tribes
+visiting the south bring presents of reindeer skins or m&uacute;kluk
+to eke out the scanty supply of the south, while the latter in
+return give their visitors loads of dried salmon which the
+northerners feed to their dogs.</p>
+
+<p>The festivals also serve to keep alive the religious feeling
+of the people, as evidenced in the Dance to the Dead, which
+allows free play to the nobler sentiments of filial faith and
+paternal love. The recital of the deeds of ancient heroes preserves
+the best traditions of the race and inspires the younger
+generation. To my mind, there is nothing which civilization
+can supply which can take the place of the healthy exercise,
+social enjoyment, commercial advantages, and spiritual uplift
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+of these dances. Where missionary sentiment is overwhelming
+they are gradually being abandoned; where there is a mistaken
+opinion in regard to their use, they have been given up altogether;
+but the tenacity with which the Eskimo clings to these ancient
+observances, even in places where they have been nominal
+christians for years, is an evidence of the vitality of these ancient
+rites and their adaptation to the native mind.</p>
+
+<p>The festivals vary considerably according to locality, but
+their essential features are the same. Taken in order of celebration
+they are as follows</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2em;">Local Festivals.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 4em;">
+ 1. <span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Aiy&aacute;guk or Asking Festival.</span><br />
+ 2. <span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Tca&uacute;iyuk or Bladder Feast.</span><br />
+ 3. <span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Ail&#299;&#769;gi or Annual Feast to the Dead.</span></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2em;">Inter-tribal Festivals.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 4em;">
+ 4. <span style="margin-left: 1em;">The A&iacute;thuk&#257;&#769;tukhtuk or Great Feast to the Dead.</span><br />
+ 5. <span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Aith&uacute;kaguk or Inviting-In Feast.</span></p>
+
+<p>The Asking Festival, which begins the round of feasting
+and dancing, takes place during the November moon. It is a
+local ceremony in which gifts are exchanged between the men
+and women of the village, which result in offers of temporary
+marriage. It takes its name from the Aiy&aacute;guk or Asking
+Stick,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
+which is the wand of office of the messenger or go-between.
+The Annual Feast to the Dead is held during the December moon,
+and may be repeated again in spring after the Bladder Feast,
+if a large number of Eskimos have died in the interim. It consists
+of songs and dances accompanied by offerings of food and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+drink to the dead. It is a temporary arrangement for keeping the
+dead supplied with sustenance (they are thought to imbibe the
+spiritual essence of the offerings) until the great Feast to the
+Dead takes place.</p>
+
+<p>This is held whenever the relatives of the deceased have
+accumulated sufficient food, skins and other goods to entertain
+the countryside and are able to properly honor the deceased.
+At the same time the namesakes of the dead are richly clothed
+from head to foot and showered with presents. As this prodigal
+generosity entails the savings of years on the part of the feast
+givers (n&aacute;skut), the feast occurs only at irregular intervals of
+several years. It has been termed the Ten Year Feast by the
+traders (K&aacute;gruska), but so far as I have been able to inquire,
+it has no fixed date among the Eskimo. It is by far the most
+important event in the life of the Alaskan native. By it he discharges
+all debts of honor to the dead, past, present and future.
+He is not obliged to take part in another festival of the kind unless
+another near relative dies. He pays off all old scores of hospitality
+and lays his friends under future obligations by his
+presents. He is often beggared by this prodigality, but he can
+be sure of welcome and entertainment wherever he goes, for he
+is a man who has discharged all his debts to society and is
+therefore deserving of honor for the rest of his days.</p>
+
+<p>In the Bladder Feast which takes place in January, the
+bladders of the animals slain during the past season, in which
+the spirits of the animals are supposed to reside, are returned
+to the sea, after appropriate ceremonies in the k&aacute;sgi. There
+they are thought to attract others of their kind and bring an
+increase to the village. This is essentially a coast festival.
+Among the tribes of the islands of Bering Sea and the Siberian
+Coast this festival is repeated in March, in conjunction with a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+whaling ceremony performed at the taking down of the
+&#363;miaks.</p>
+
+<p>The dance contests in the Inviting-In Feast resemble the nith
+songs of Greenland. They are Comic and Totem Dances in
+which the best performers of several tribes contest singly or in
+groups for supremacy. The costumes worn are remarkably fine
+and the acting very realistic. This is essentially a southern festival
+for it gives an opportunity to the Eskimo living near the
+rivers to display their ingenious talent for mimicry and for the
+arrangement of feathers.</p>
+
+<p>There are a few purely local ceremonies, the outgrowth of
+practices of local shamans. An example of this is the Aitek&aacute;tah
+or Doll Festival of the Igomiut, which has also spread to the
+neighboring D&egrave;n&egrave;. Such local outgrowths, however, do not
+appear to spread among the conservative Eskimo, who resent
+the least infringement of the ancient practices handed down from
+dim ancestors of the race.</p>
+
+<p>It is not often that they will allow a white man to witness
+the festival dances, but, owing to the friendliness of the chief of
+the Diomede tribes, who always reserved a seat for me next to
+him in the k&aacute;sgi, I had the opportunity of seeing the local rites
+and the Great Dance to the Dead. The same favor continuing
+with the chief of the Unalit, during my residence on the Yukon,
+I witnessed the Inviting-In Feast as celebrated by the southern
+tribes. Having described the dances in general, I will proceed
+to a detailed account of each.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Asking Festival</span></p>
+
+<p>The Aiy&aacute;guk or Asking Festival is the first of the local
+feasts. It occurs about the middle of November when the
+Eskimo have all returned from their summer travels and made
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+their iglus secure against the storms of the coming winter.
+So, with caches full of fish, and houses packed with trade goods
+after a successful season at the southern camps, they must
+wait until the shifting ice pack settles and the winter hunting
+begins. Such enforced inaction is irksome to the Eskimo, who
+does not partake of the stolidity of the Indian, but like a nervous
+child must be continually employed or amused. So this festival,
+which is of a purely social character, has grown up.</p>
+
+<p>My first intimation that there was a celebration taking place
+was being attracted by a tremendous uproar in the native village
+just as darkness had fallen. Suspecting that the Eskimo were
+making merry over a native brew, called
+&ldquo;hoosch,&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
+I slipped down
+to the village to see what was the matter. I was met by the
+queerest procession I have ever seen. A long line of men and
+boys, entirely naked and daubed over with dots and figures of
+mingled oil and
+charcoal,<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
+were proceeding from house to house
+with bowls in their hands. At each entrance they filed in,
+howling, stamping and grunting, holding out their dishes until
+they were filled by the women of the house.</p>
+
+<p>All this time they were careful to keep their faces averted
+so that they would not be recognized. This is termed the
+&ldquo;Tut&uacute;uk&rdquo; or &ldquo;going around.&rdquo; Returning to the k&aacute;sgi they
+washed off their marks with urine, and sat down to feast on their
+plunder.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+The next day the men gathered again in the k&aacute;sgi and the
+Aiy&aacute;guk or Asking Stick was constructed. It was made by a
+man especially chosen for the purpose. It was a slender wand
+about three feet long with three globes made of thin strips of
+wood hanging by a strip of ok&#769;linok from the smaller end. It
+was carried by the messenger between the men and women
+during the feast, and was the visible sign of his authority. It
+was treated with scrupulous respect by the Eskimo and to disregard
+the wishes conveyed by means of it during the feast
+would have been considered a lasting disgrace. When not in
+use it was hung over the entrance to the k&aacute;sgi.</p>
+
+<p>The wand maker, having finished the Asking Stick, took
+his stand in the center of the room, and swaying the globes, to and
+fro, asked the men to state their wishes. Then any man present
+had the privilege of telling him of an article he wished and the
+name of the woman from whom he wished it. (Among the
+southern tribes the men made small wooden models of the
+objects they wished which were hung on the end of the Asking
+Stick.) The messenger then proceeded to the house of the woman
+in question, swinging the globes in front of her, repeated the
+wish and stood waiting for her answer. She in turn recollected
+something that she desired and told it to the messenger. Thereupon
+he returned to the k&aacute;sgi, and standing in front of the
+first party, swung the globes, and told him what was desired
+in return. In this way he made the round of the village. The
+men then returned to their homes for the article desired, while
+the messenger blackened his face with charcoal and donned a
+costume betoking humility. This was considered the only
+proper attitude in presenting gifts. The costume consisted of
+wornout clothing, of which a disreputable raincoat (Kamle&iacute;ka)
+and a dogskin belt with the tail behind were indispensable parts.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+Then the men and women gathered in the k&aacute;sgi where the
+exchanges were made through the messenger. If anyone did
+not have the gift requested he was in honor bound to secure it
+as soon as possible and present it to his partner. Those exchanging
+gifts entered a relationship termed o&#299;l&oacute;g&#769;uk, and among the
+northern tribes where the ancient forms persevere, they continued
+to exchange presents throughout succeeding festivals.</p>
+
+<p>After this exchange, a dance was performed by the women.
+They stripped to the waist, and taking their places on the
+i&#324;glak, went through a series of motions in unison. These varied
+considerably in time and movement from the conventional
+women&#8217;s dance.</p>
+
+<p>According to custom at the conclusion of the dance any man
+has the privilege of asking any unmarried woman through the
+messenger, if he might share her bed that night. If favorably
+inclined, she replies that he must bring a deerskin for bedding.
+He procures the deerskin, and presents it to her, and after the
+feast is over remains with her for the night.</p>
+
+<p>Whether these temporary unions lead to permanent marriage
+I was unable to find out. The gift of reindeer skin is very like
+the suit of clothing given in betrothal and would furnish
+material for the parka which the husband presents to his bride.
+The fact that the privilege is limited to unmarried women might
+be also urged in turn. As the system of exchanging wives was
+formerly common among the Alaskan Eskimo, and as they distribute
+their favors at will, it is rather remarkable that the married
+women are not included, as in the licentious feasts recorded of
+the Greenlanders.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
+From talks with some of the older Eskimo
+I am led to regard this as a relic of an ancient custom similar
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+to those which have been observed among many nations of
+antiquity, in which a woman is open to violation at certain
+feasts. This privilege is taken advantage of, and may become
+a preliminary to marriage.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Bladder Feast</span></p>
+
+<p>The Bladder Feast (Tca&uacute;iyuk) is held in December at the
+full of the moon. The object of this feast is the propitiation of
+the inua of the animals slain during the season past. These
+are believed to reside in the bladders, which the Eskimo carefully
+preserve. The ceremony consists in the purification of the
+bladders by the flame of the wild parsnip (A&iacute;kituk). The
+hunters are also required to pass through the flame. They
+return the bladders then to the sea, where entering the bodies of
+their kind, they are reborn and return again, bringing continued
+success to the hunter.</p>
+
+<p>The first three days are spent in preparation. They
+thoroughly clean the k&aacute;sgi, particularly the ken&eacute;thluk or fireplace,
+the recognized abode of all spirits visiting the k&aacute;sgi.
+Then the men bring in their harvest of
+bladders.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
+They tie them by the necks in bunches of eight to the end of their spears.
+These they thrust into the walls at the rear of the room leaving
+ample room for the dancers to pass under the swaying bladders
+in the rites of purification. Offerings of food and water are
+made to the inua, and they are constantly attended. One old
+man told me that they would be offended and take their departure
+if left alone for a moment. Dogs, being unclean, are not
+allowed to enter the k&aacute;sgi. Neither is anyone permitted to do
+any work during the ceremony.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+Meanwhile four men,<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> especially chosen for the purpose,
+scour the adjoining country for parsnip stalks. They bind these
+into small bundles, and place them on top of the l&aacute;torak, the
+outer vestibule to the entrance of the k&aacute;sgi. In the evening
+they take these into the k&aacute;sgi, open the bundles and spread out
+the stalks on the floor. Then each hunter takes a stalk, and they
+unite in a song to the parsnip, the burden of which is a request
+that the stalks may become dry and useful for purification.
+The heat of the seal oil lamps soon dries them, and they are tied
+into one large bundle. The third day the sheaf is opened, and
+two bundles made. The larger one is for the use of the dancers;
+the smaller is placed on a spear and stuck in front of the bladders.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth day the bladders are taken down and painted.
+A grayish mixture is used which is obtained by burning a few
+parsnip stalks and mixing the ashes with oil. The designs are
+the series of bands and dots grouped to represent the totems
+of the hunters. When the paint is dry the bladders are returned
+to their places.</p>
+
+<p>In the evening the men gather again in the k&aacute;sgi, and the
+dancers proceed to strip off every vestige of clothing. Snatching
+a handful of stalks at the common pile they light them at the
+lamps, and join in a wild dance about the room. The resinous
+stalks shoot into flame with a frightful glare, lighting up the
+naked bodies of the dancers, and dusky interior of the k&aacute;sgi.
+Waving the flaming torches over their heads, leaping, jumping,
+and screaming like madmen they rush around the room, thrusting
+the flame among the bladders and then into the faces of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+hunters. When the mad scene is at its height, they seize one
+another, and struggle toward the p&uacute;gyarok (entrance hole).
+Here each is thrust down in succession until all the dancers have
+passed through. I am informed that this is a pantomime
+enactment, an indication to the inua it is time for them to
+depart.</p>
+
+<p>The next day a hole is made in the ice near the k&aacute;sgi, and
+each hunter dips his spear in the water, and, running back to the
+k&aacute;sgi, stirs up the bladders with it. The presence of the sea
+water reminds the inua of their former home, and they make
+ready to depart. The bladders are then tied into one large
+bundle, and the people await the full moon.</p>
+
+<p>At sunrise the morning after the full moon each hunter takes
+his load of bladders, and filing out of the k&aacute;sgi starts for the
+hole in the ice on a dead run. Arriving there, he tears off the
+bladders one by one, and thrusts them under the water. This
+signifies the return of the inua to the sea.</p>
+
+<p>As the bladders float or sink success is prophesied for the
+hunter by the shaman in attendance.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the old men build a fire of driftwood on the
+ice in front of the k&aacute;sgi. The small bundle of parsnip stalks
+which stood in front of the bladders is brought out and thrown
+on the fire, and as the stalks kindle to the flame, each hunter
+utters a shout, takes a short run, and leaps through in turn.
+This performance purifies the hunter of any matter offensive to
+the inua, and concludes the ceremony.</p>
+
+<p>During the Bladder Feast all intercourse between the
+married men and their wives is tabooed. They are required
+to sleep in the k&aacute;sgi with the bachelors. Neither is any girl
+who has attained puberty (Wingikt&oacute;ak) allowed near the
+bladders. She is unclean (W&aacute;hok).</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">The Feasts to the Dead</span></p>
+
+<p>The Eskimo idea of the life after death and the rationale
+for their most important ritual, the Feast to the Dead, is nowhere
+better illustrated than in a quaint tale current along the Yukon,
+in which the heroine, prematurely buried during a trancelike
+sleep, visited the Land of the Dead. She was rudely awakened
+from her deathlike slumber by the spirit of her grandmother
+shaking her and exclaiming, &ldquo;Wake up. Do not sleep the hours
+away. You are dead!&rdquo; Arising from her grave box, the maiden
+was conducted by her guide to the world beneath, where the
+dead had their dwellings in large villages grouped according
+to the localities from which they came. Even the animal
+shades were not forgotten, but inhabited separate communities
+in human shape.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
+After some travel the girl found the village
+allotted to her tribe, and was reclaimed by her departed relatives.
+She was recognized by the totem marks on her clothing, which
+in ancient times the Eskimo always wore. She found the
+inmates of this region leading a pleasant but somewhat monotonous
+life, free from hardships and from the sleet and cold of their
+earthly existence. They returned to the upper world during
+the feasts to the dead, when they received the spiritual essence
+of the food and clothing offered to their namesakes<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> by relatives.
+According to the generosity or stinginess of the feast givers
+there was a feast or a famine in spirit land, and those who were
+so unfortunate as to have no namesake, either through their
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+own carelessness<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
+or the neglect of the community,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> went hungry
+and naked. This was the worst calamity that could befall an
+Eskimo, hence the necessity of providing a namesake and of
+regularly feeding and clothing the same, in the interest of the
+beloved dead.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE ANNUAL FEAST, <ins class="unicode" title="the middle I is a combined macron and acute">AIL&#298;&#769;GI</ins></h2>
+
+
+<p>The Annual Feast to the Dead is a temporary arrangement,
+whereby the shades of those recently departed are sustained
+until the advent of the Great Feast to the Dead. The essence
+of the offerings of food and drink are supposed to satisfy the
+wants of the dead until they can be properly honored in the
+Great Festival. In the latter event the relative discharges all
+his social obligations to the dead, and the ghost is furnished with
+such an abundance that it can never want in the world below.</p>
+
+<p>The makers of the feast (n&auml;&#769;skut) are the nearest relatives
+of those who have died during the past year, together with those
+villagers who have not yet given the greater festival. The day
+before the festival the male mourners go to the village burial
+ground and plant a newly made stake before the grave of their
+relative. The stake is surmounted by a wooden model of a
+spear, if the deceased be a man; or a wooden dish, if it be a
+woman. The totem mark of the deceased is carved upon it.
+In the north simple models of kayak paddles suffice. The sticks
+are a notification to the spirits in the land of the dead that the
+time for the festival is at hand. Accordingly they journey to
+the grave boxes, where they wait, ready to enter the k&aacute;sgi at
+the song of invocation. To light their way from the other world
+lamps are brought into the k&aacute;sgi and set before their accustomed
+places. When the invitation song arises they leave their graves
+and take their places in the fireplace (Ken&eacute;thluk), where they
+enjoy the songs and dances, and receive the offerings of their
+relatives.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+The Annual Feast is celebrated after the Bladder Feast
+during the December moon. By the Yukon tribes it is repeated
+just before the opening of spring. During the day of the festival
+a taboo is placed on all work in the village, particularly that done
+with any sharp pointed tool which might wound some wandering
+ghost and bring retribution on the people.</p>
+
+<p>At midday the whole village gathers in the k&aacute;sgi, and the
+ceremony begins. Soon the mourners enter bearing great bowls
+of food and drink which they deposit in the doorway. Then
+the chorus leader arises and begins the song of invitation accompanied
+by the relatives of the dead. It is a long minor chant,
+a constant reiteration of a few well worn phrases.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2em;">
+<span style="margin-left: -.5em;">&ldquo;Tukomalra-&#257;-, tung l&iacute;k-a,</span>
+        <span style="margin-left: 4.6em;">tis-k&aacute;-a a-a-yung-a-a-yung-a, etc.</span><br />
+ Dead ones, next of kin,
+        <span style="margin-left: 4.9em;">come hither,</span><br />
+ T&uacute;ntum kom&uacute;ga thet&aacute;mtatuk,
+        <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">m&oacute;qkapik thet&aacute;mtatuk moqs&uacute;lthka.</span><br />
+ Reindeer meat we bring you,
+        <span style="margin-left: 2.6em;">water we bring you for your thirst.&rdquo;</span></p>
+
+<p>When the song is completed the mourners arise, and going
+to the food in the doorway set it on the planks over the fireplace,
+after which they take a ladleful from each dish pouring it through
+the cracks in the floor, and the essence of this offering supplies
+the shades below with food until the next festival. The remainder
+of the food is distributed among those present. When the feast
+is over, the balance of the day is given over to songs and dances.
+Then the spirits are sent back to their homes by the simple
+expedient of stamping on the floor.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE GREAT FEAST, <ins class="unicode" title="the accented A is a combined macron and acute">A&Iacute;THUK&#256;&#769;TUKHTUK</ins></h2>
+
+
+<p>After making offerings to his relative at the annual feast
+the chief mourner begins saving up his skins, frozen meat, and
+other delicacies prized by the Eskimo, until, in the course of
+years, he has accumulated an enormous amount of food and
+clothing. Then he is prepared to give the great feast in honor
+of his kinsman. Others in the village, who are bereaved, have
+been doing the same thing. They meet and agree on a certain
+time to celebrate the feast together during the ensuing year.
+The time chosen is usually in January after the local feasts are
+over, and visitors from neighboring tribes are free to attend.
+There are no set intervals between these feasts as has been
+generally supposed. They are celebrated at irregular intervals
+according to the convenience of the givers.</p>
+
+<p>At the minor festival preceding the Great Feast, the usual
+invitation stakes planted before the dead are supplemented by
+others placed before the graves of those in whose honor the
+festival is to be given. On these is a painted model of the totemic
+animals of the deceased. The feast giver sings an especial song
+of invitation, requesting the dead kinsman to be present at the
+approaching feast.</p>
+
+<p>On the first day of the Great Feast the villagers welcome
+the guests. Early in the morning they begin to arrive. The
+messenger goes out on the ice and leads them into the village,
+showing each where to tie his team. During the first day
+the guests are fed in the k&aacute;sgi. They have the privilege of
+demanding any delicacy they wish. After this they are
+quartered on various homes in the village. Salmon or meat
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+must also be provided for their dogs. This is no small item,
+and often taxes the resources of a village to the utmost. I have
+known of a village so poor after a period of prolonged hospitality
+that it was reduced to starvation rations for the rest of the
+winter.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately on tying up their dogs, the guests go to the
+k&aacute;sgi. On entering each one cries in set phraseology,
+&ldquo;Ah-ka-k&aacute;&nbsp;P&iacute;atin,
+Pikey&uacute;tum.&rdquo; &ldquo;Oh, ho! Look here! A trifling
+present.&rdquo; He throws his present on a common pile in front of
+the headman, who distributes them among the villagers. It is
+customary to make the presents appear as large as possible.
+One fellow has a bolt of calico which he unwinds through the
+entrance hole, making a great display. It may be thirty yards
+long. Sometimes they accompany the gift with a short dance.
+It is considered bad form for one coming from a
+distance<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>
+not to make the usual present, as in this way he purchases the right to
+join in the festival dances.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as all are gathered in the k&aacute;sgi, a feast is brought
+in for the tired travelers. Kantags of sealmeat, the blackskin
+of the bowhead, salmon berries swimming in oil, greens from the
+hillsides, and pot after pot of tea take off the edge of hunger.
+After gorging themselves, the guests seem incapable of further
+exertion, and the remainder of the day is spent in visiting.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Feast Givers</span></p>
+
+<p>The feast givers or n&auml;&#769;skut assemble in the k&aacute;sgi the second
+day, and the ceremony proper begins. They range themselves
+around the p&uacute;gyarok or entrance, the chorus and guests occupying
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+the back of the room and the spectators packing themselves
+against the walls.</p>
+
+<p>Each feast giver is garbed according to the sex of his dead
+relative, not his own, so that some men wear women&#8217;s clothes
+and vice versa. Each bears in his right hand a wand about two feet long
+(Kel&eacute;zruk).<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>
+This is a small stick of wood surmounted
+with tufts of down from ptarmigan (Okozreg&eacute;wik). All are
+dressed to represent the totem to which the deceased belongs.
+One wears a fillet and armlet of wolfskin (Eg&oacute;alik); others wear
+armlets of ermine (T&aacute;reak); still others are crowned with
+feathers of the raven (Tul&uacute;a) or the hawk
+(Tciaka&uacute;ret).<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
+After a short dance they withdraw and the day&#8217;s ceremony is finished.</p>
+
+<p>The following day the n&auml;&#769;skut assemble again, but they have
+doffed their fine feathers, and are dressed in their oldest clothes.
+The suits of the day before they carry in a grass sack. They wear
+raincoats of sealgut tied about the waist with a belt of dogskin,
+and enter the k&aacute;sgi with eyes cast on the floor. Even in the
+dances they keep their faces from the audience.</p>
+
+<p>This attitude of humility is in accord with Eskimo ethics.
+They say that if they adopt a boastful air and fail to give as
+many presents as the other n&auml;&#769;skut they will be ashamed. So
+they safeguard themselves in advance.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Ritual</span></p>
+
+<p>Advancing with downcast eyes, the n&auml;&#769;skut creep softly
+across the k&aacute;sgi and take their places before the funeral lamps.
+Then taking out their festival garments, they slip them on.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+Immediately the drummers start tapping lightly on their drums,
+and at a signal from their leader the song of invitation begins.
+Each n&auml;&#769;skuk advances in turn, invoking the presence of his dead
+in a sad minor strain.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 4em;">
+ Toak&oacute;ra &iacute;lyuga tak&iacute;na<br />
+ Dead brother, come hither<br />
+ A-yunga-ayunga-a-yunga.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2em;">Or:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 4em;">
+ Nule&aacute;ga aw&uacute;nga toak&oacute;ra<br />
+ Sister mine, dead one,<br />
+ Tak&iacute;na, n&uacute;leaga, tak&iacute;na,<br />
+ Come hither, sister, come hither.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2em;">Or:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 4em;">
+ Ak&aacute;ga aw&uacute;nga tak&iacute;na<br />
+ Mother mine, come hither.<br />
+ Nan&aacute;ktuk, tak&iacute;na,<br />
+ We wait for you, come hither.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2em;">To which the chorus answer:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 4em;">
+ Ily&uacute;ga aw&uacute;nga tak&iacute;na,<br />
+ Our brother, come hither,<br />
+ Takin&aacute;ka, ily&uacute;ga, tak&iacute;naka,<br />
+ Return, dead brother, return.</p>
+
+<p>The women advance in line, holding their wands in the
+right hand, and singing in unison; then the men advance in their
+turn, then both n&auml;&#769;skut and chorus sing together:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 4em;">
+ Takinaka, aw&uacute;nga, tungalika,<br />
+ Return to us, our dead kinsmen,<br />
+ Nanak&aacute;tuk, kine&aacute;ktuk <ins class="unicode" title="the &iacute; also has a macron below it">tungal&iacute;ka</ins><br />
+ We wait your home coming, our dead kinsmen.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+Suddenly the drummers cease and rap sharply on the ing&#769;lak
+with their drumsticks. The dancers stop in the midst of their
+movements and stamp on the floor, first with one foot then with
+the other, placing their hands on their shoulders, bringing them
+down over their bodies as though wiping off some unseen thing.
+Then they slap their thighs and sit down. I am informed that
+this is to &ldquo;wipe off&rdquo; any uncleanness (wahok) that might offend
+the shades of the dead.</p>
+
+<p>Then the namesakes of the dead troop into the k&aacute;sgi, and
+take their places in the center of the room between the two lines.
+To each, the n&auml;&#769;skuk hands a bowl of water and a kantag of
+frozen reindeer meat cut into small pieces. The namesakes
+drop a small portion of the meat on the floor. The essence is
+evidently thought to pass below to the waiting inua. Then
+they finish the remainder. At the same time a large amount of
+frozen meat and fish is brought in and distributed among the
+guests. This is done at the end of each day.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth day the chorus leader mounts the top of the
+k&aacute;sgi and begins again the invitation song. The people scatter
+to the burying ground or to the ice along the shore according to the
+spot where they have lain their dead. They dance among the
+grave boxes so that the shades who have returned to them, when
+not in the k&aacute;sgi, may see that they are doing them honor.</p>
+
+<p>During the dancing the children of the village gather in
+the k&aacute;sgi, carrying little kantags and sealskin sacks. The
+women on returning bring great bags of frozen blueberries and
+reindeer fat, commonly called &ldquo;Eskimo Ice Cream,&rdquo; with which
+they fill the bowls of the children, but the young rogues
+immediately slip their portions into their sacks (p&oacute;ksrut)
+and hold out their dishes for more, crying in a deafening
+chorus, &ldquo;Wunga-T&#363;&#769;k&rdquo; (Me too). This part of the festival
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+is thoroughly enjoyed by the Eskimo, who idolize their
+children.</p>
+
+<p>At the conclusion of the day&#8217;s feast many presents are given
+away by the n&auml;&#769;skut, the husbands of the female feast givers
+distributing them for the ladies, who assume a bashful air.
+During the distribution the n&auml;&#769;skut maintain their deprecatory
+attitude and pass disparaging remarks on their gifts. Sometimes
+the presents are attached to a long line of &oacute;klinok (seal
+thong) which the n&auml;&#769;skut haul down through the smokehole,
+making the line appear as long as possible. At the same time
+they sing in a mournful key bewailing their relative:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 4em;">
+ Ah-ka-&nbsp;ily&uacute;ga toak&oacute;ra, t&aacute;kin,<br />
+ Oh! oh! dead brother, return,<br />
+ Utiktut&aacute;tuk, ily&uacute;ga aw&uacute;nga,<br />
+ Return to us, our brother,<br />
+ Illear&uacute;qtutuk, ily&uacute;ga,<br />
+ We miss you, dear brother,<br />
+ Pikey&uacute;tum, kok&iacute;tutuk,<br />
+ A trifling present we bring you.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Clothing of the Namesakes</span></p>
+
+<p>The following day occurs the clothing of the namesakes.
+This is symbolical of clothing the dead, who ascend into the
+bodies of their namesakes during the ceremony and take on the
+spiritual counterpart of the clothing.</p>
+
+<p>After a grand distribution of presents by the n&auml;&#769;skut,
+bags of fine clothing are lowered to the feast givers and the
+namesakes take the center of the floor, in front of their
+relatives, the feast givers. Then each n&auml;&#769;skuk calls out to the
+particular namesake of his dead kinsman: &ldquo;&#298;tak&iacute;n, illorahug-n&aacute;ka,&rdquo;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+&ldquo;Come hither, my beloved,&rdquo; and proceeds to remove
+the clothing of the namesake and put on an entirely new suit of
+mukluks, trousers, and parka, made of the finest furs. Then the
+feast giver gathers up the discarded clothing, and stamps
+vigorously on the floor, bidding the ghost begone to its resting
+place. It goes, well satisfied, and the dancers disperse until
+another great festival. Until the feast is concluded no one can
+leave the village.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE INVITING-IN FESTIVAL</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Inviting-In Festival (Aith&uacute;kaguk) is a great inter-tribal
+feast, second in importance to the Great Feast to the Dead.
+It is a celebration on invitation from one tribe to her neighbors
+when sufficient provisions have been collected. It takes place
+late in the season, after the other festivals are over. Neighboring
+tribes act as hosts in rotation, each striving to outdo the
+other in the quality and quantity of entertainment offered.
+During this festival the dramatic pantomime dances for which
+the Alaskan Eskimo are justly famous, are performed by
+especially trained actors. For several days the dances continue,
+each side paying the forfeit as they lose in the dancing
+contests. In this respect the representations are somewhat
+similar to the nith contests of the Greenlanders. As I have
+noticed the dances at length
+elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>
+I shall only give a brief
+survey here, sufficient to show their place in the Eskimo festival
+dances.</p>
+
+<p>The main dances of the Inviting-In Festival are totemic
+in character, performed by trained actors to appease the totems
+of the hunters, and insure success for the coming season. These
+are danced in pantomime and depict the life of arctic animals,
+the walrus, raven, bear, ptarmigan, and others. Then there are
+group dances which illustrate hunting scenes, like the Reindeer
+and Wolf Pack dance already described, also dances of a purely
+comic character, designed for the entertainment of the guests.
+During the latter performances the side which laughs has to pay
+a forfeit.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+Elaborate masks are worn in all of the dances. The full
+paraphernalia, masks, handmasks, fillets, and armlets, are worn
+by the chief actors. They are supported by richly garbed
+assistants. An old shaman acts as master of ceremonies. There
+is an interchange of presents between the tribes during the
+intervals but not between individuals, as in the Asking Festival.
+At the close of the festival the masks are burned.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p>
+<h3>KEY TO PLATE XI</h3>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;">
+ A&mdash;Outer Vestibule. (L&#257;&acute;tor&#259;k.)<br />
+ B&mdash;Summer Entrance. (Am&#275;k&acute;.)<br />
+ C&mdash;Front Platform. (&#7762;aklim.) Seat of Orphans and Worthless.<br />
+ D&mdash;Plank Floor. (N&#257;&acute;t&#363;k.)<br />
+ E&mdash;Rear Platform. (K&#257;&acute;an.) Seat of Honored Guests.<br />
+ F&mdash;Smoke Hole. (&#7768;a&acute;l&#335;k.) Entrance for Gift-lines.<br />
+ G&mdash;Entrance Hole. (Pug&acute;y&#259;r&#259;k.)<br />
+ H&mdash;Fireplace. (K&#275;ne&acute;thluk.) Seat of Spirit-Guests.<br />
+ I&mdash;Underground Tunnel. (Ag&acute;v&#275;ak.)<br />
+ J&mdash;Side Platforms. (K&#257;&#769;aklim.) Seats for Spectators.<br />
+ K&mdash;Chorus of Drummers.<br />
+ L&mdash;Feast Givers. (N&auml;&acute;skut.)<br />
+ M&mdash;Namesakes of Dead.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 429px;">
+<img src="images/img043.png" width="429" height="600" alt="Arrangement of Kasgi
+during the Great Feast to the Dead" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+<h3>KEY TO PLATE XII</h3>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;">
+ A&mdash;First Movement. The Chief&#8217;s Son, Okva&iacute;ok is dancing.<br />
+ B&mdash;Second Movement.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center">ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI <span style="margin-left: 12em;">PLATE XII</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/img45a.jpg" width="600" height="404" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/img45b.jpg" width="600" height="400" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">B</span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>MEN&#8217;S DANCE</strong></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+<h3>KEY TO PLATE XIII</h3>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;">
+ C&mdash;Third Movement.<br />
+ D&mdash;Fourth Movement.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center">ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI <span style="margin-left: 12em;">PLATE XIII</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/img49a.jpg" width="600" height="393" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">C</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/img49b.jpg" width="600" height="404" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">D</span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>MEN&#8217;S DANCE</strong></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
+<h3>KEY TO PLATE XIV</h3>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;">
+ Children&#8217;s Dance.<br />
+ The Chorus. Leader in Center Beating Time With an Ermine Stick.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center">ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI <span style="margin-left: 12em;">PLATE XIV</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/img53a.jpg" width="600" height="346" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">CHILDREN&#8217;S DANCE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/img53b.jpg" width="600" height="344" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE CHORUS</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
+<h3>KEY TO PLATE XV</h3>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;">
+ Women&#8217;s Dance.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center">ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI <span style="margin-left: 12em;">PLATE XV</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;">
+<img src="images/img57.jpg" width="340" height="600" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">WOMEN&#8217;S DANCE</span>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> This characterization applies to the Alaskan Eskimo only; so far as is now known the other
+Eskimo branches do not have totemic dances.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> While the northern and southern tribes have the same general movements for their ordinary
+dances, they give a very different presentation of the festival dance-songs. The northerners leap
+and stamp about the k&aacute;sgi until overcome with exhaustion; while in the south the performers
+sit or kneel on the floor, adorned with an abundance of streaming furs and feathers, sweep their
+hands through the air in graceful unison. It is a difference between rude vigor and dramatic
+art.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> This custom appears to be widespread. Low writes of the Hudson Bay Eskimo: &ldquo;During
+the absence of the men on hunting expeditions, the women sometimes amuse themselves by a
+sort of female &ldquo;angekoking.&rdquo; This amusement is accompanied by a number of very obscene
+rites....&rdquo; Low, The Cruise of the Neptune, p. 177.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Literally &ldquo;Heads&rdquo; or directors of the feasts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The order of the seating on the ing&#769;lak of invited guests is a matter of great concern to the
+Eskimo, as it is an indication of worth.
+</p><p>
+Children purchase their right to a seat in the k&aacute;sgi by making presents, through their parents,
+to all the inmates, k&aacute;sgimiut.
+</p><p>
+Until they do so they have no right to enter. For the same reason strangers on entering the
+k&aacute;sgi offer a small present to the headman, who divides it among the people.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Tc&aacute;uyak, Yukon dialect.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> L&oacute;ftak, Yukon dialect.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> M&uacute;mra, Yukon dialect.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Tungr&aacute;lik, Yukon dialect.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Tungr&aacute;niyak, Yukon dialect.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> These are the northern names. In the southern or Yukon dialect black is T&uacute;nguli; white
+Katugh&uacute;li; red, Kauig&uacute;li; green, Tcunung&uacute;li.
+</p><p>
+The endings and pronunciation of similar Eskimo words are somewhat different in Arctic
+Alaska and on the Yukon River; sufficiently so as to produce two distinct dialects. For this
+reason I have given the forms from both sections.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Red is obtained from red ochre; white from white clay; black from soot or ashes; green
+from oxide of copper.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> The Asking Stick is also used in the Inviting-In Feast (Aith&uacute;kaguk).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> This is a liquor distilled from flour and molasses. In the operation an old cask and a gun
+barrel are used. The liquid is fermented with sour dough and allowed to distill through the
+barrel. The Eskimo had no liquor prior to the advent of the whalers, who supplied them with the
+materials and probably taught them the art of distilling. The U. S. Revenue Cutter &ldquo;Bear&rdquo;
+has been active in breaking up the practice. In 1909, six illicit stills were seized on the Diomede
+Islands.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The first night of the feast the men and older boys meet in the k&aacute;sgi, and two boys named
+the Raven (Tuluka&uacute;guk) and the Hawk (Teib&uacute;riak) mix the paint and assist the men in
+ornamenting themselves.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> See Hans Egede, Det Gamle Gr&ouml;nlands Nye Perlustration, p. 78.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The mothers also preserve with greatest care the bladders of the mice, ground squirrels,
+and other small animals killed by the children. These are purified at the same time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> The number four appears to have a sacred significance among the Alaskan Eskimo. The
+Raven Father (Tuluka&uacute;guk) waves his wings four times over the objects of his creation; the
+heroes of ancient legends take four steps and are transported great distances; and important
+events occur on the fourth night. I understand that the four men who gather the wild parsnips
+represent the four clans of the tribe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> The shapes of animals are thought by the Alaskan Eskimo to be like those of men, and in
+ancient times animals possessed the power of changing their forms at will. This was effected
+by pulling the muzzle up over the head to become people or of pulling it down again to regain
+their original form.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The first child born in the village after his death becomes the deceased&#8217;s namesake. However,
+if born in camp, its mother gives it the name of the first natural object to catch her eye.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Childless people provide for this contingency by adoption.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> One who has made himself odious to his fellow villagers is purposely neglected in the feasts
+to the dead.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> During the inter-tribal festivals, guests are given seats of honor next to the headman of
+the village according to the distance from which they have come. The back of the room (k&aacute;an),
+the place of honor, is reserved for this purpose.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The same arrangement characterizes the finger masks of the Inviting-In Dance. (Kiggil&uacute;nok),
+meaning wand, in southern dialect.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Southern dialect. Akkizhzh&iacute;gik, Ptarmigan. Teib&uacute;viak, hawk; Tuluka&uacute;guk, meaning
+raven.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Canadian Geological Survey. Memoir 45. The &ldquo;Inviting-In&rdquo; Feast of the Alaskan
+Eskimo.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dance Festivals of the Alaskan Eskimo, by
+Ernest William Hawkes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Dance Festivals of the Alaskan Eskimo
+
+Author: Ernest William Hawkes
+
+Release Date: September 6, 2008 [EBook #26544]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DANCE FESTIVALS--ALASKAN ESKIMO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Anne Storer and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Transcriber's Notes:
+ 1) There are a number of words in the native language that appear to mean
+    the same thing, but have different accents. It is unknown if this is
+    intentional or a printing error - these have been left as printed. eg:
+    Nuleaga / nuleaga ... Takinaka / takinaka / Takinaka ... Wahok / wahok
+ 2) Characters with diacritical marks are noted as follows:
+    Acute ['x]  macron [=x]  combined  ['=x]
+    Macron (below) [x=]
+    Dot above [.x]
+    Breve [)x]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
+ THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM
+ ANTHROPOLOGICAL PUBLICATIONS
+ VOL. VI                No. 2
+ ____________________________
+
+
+ THE DANCE FESTIVALS OF THE
+ ALASKAN ESKIMO
+
+ BY
+ E. W. HAWKES
+
+
+ PHILADELPHIA
+ PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM
+ 1914
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                     PAGE
+ INTRODUCTION                           5
+ PHONETIC KEY                           7
+ THE DANCE IN GENERAL                   9
+     THE CHORUS                        10
+     PARTICIPATION OF THE SEXES        11
+ THE KASGI OR DANCE HOUSE              13
+     PARAPHERNALIA                     15
+ THE DANCE FESTIVALS                   19
+     THE ASKING FESTIVAL               22
+     THE BLADDER FEAST                 26
+     THE FEASTS TO THE DEAD            29
+ THE ANNUAL FEAST, AIL['=I]GI          31
+ THE GREAT FEAST, AITHUK['=A]TUKHTUK   33
+     THE FEAST GIVERS                  34
+     THE RITUAL                        35
+     THE CLOTHING OF THE NAMESAKES     38
+ THE INVITING-IN FESTIVAL              40
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+This account of the Dance Festivals of the Alaskan Eskimo was written
+from material gathered in the Bering Strait District during three
+years' residence: two on the Diomede Islands, and one at St. Michael
+at the mouth of the Yukon River. This paper is based on my
+observations of the ceremonial dances of the Eskimo of these two
+localities.
+
+
+
+
+PHONETIC KEY
+
+
+ [=a], [=e], [=i], [=o], [=u], long vowels.
+
+ a, e, i, o, u, short vowels.
+
+ ae, as in hat.
+
+ a, as in law.
+
+ ai, as in aisle.
+
+ au, as ow in how.
+
+ h, w, y, semivowels.
+
+ c, as sh in should.
+
+ f, a bilabial surd.
+
+ g, as in get.
+
+ ['g], a post-palatal sonant.
+
+ k, as in pick.
+
+ l, as in lull.
+
+ m, as in mum.
+
+ n, as in nun.
+
+ ng, as ng in sing.
+
+ p, as in pipe.
+
+ q, a post-palatal surd.
+
+ [.r], a uvular sonant spirant.
+
+ s, as in sauce.
+
+ t, an alveolar stop.
+
+ tc, as ch in chapter.
+
+ v, a bilabial sonant.
+
+ z, as in zone.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE DANCE FESTIVALS OF THE ALASKAN ESKIMO
+
+THE DANCE IN GENERAL
+
+
+The ceremonial dance of the Alaskan Eskimo is a rhythmic
+pantomime--the story in gesture and song of the lives of the various
+Arctic animals on which they subsist and from whom they believe their
+ancient clans are sprung. The dances vary in complexity from the
+ordinary social dance, in which all share promiscuously and in which
+individual action is subordinated to rhythm, to the pantomime totem
+dances performed by especially trained actors who hold their positions
+from year to year according to artistic merit.[1] Yet even in the
+totem dances the pantomime is subordinate to the rhythm, or rather
+superimposed upon it, so that never a gesture or step of the
+characteristic native time is lost.
+
+This is a primitive 2-4 beat based on the double roll of the chorus of
+drums. Time is kept, in the men's dances, by stamping the foot and
+jerking the arm in unison, twice on the right, then twice on the left
+side, and so on, alternately. Vigorous dancers vary the program by
+leaping and jumping at intervals, and the shamans are noted for the
+dizzy circles which they run round the pugyarok, the entrance hole of
+the dance hall. The women's dance has the same measure and can be
+performed separately or in conjunction with the men's dance, but has a
+different and distinctly feminine movement. The feet are kept on the
+ground, while the body sways back and forth in graceful undulations to
+the music and the hands with outspread palms part the air with the
+graceful stroke of a flying gull. Some of their dances are performed
+seated. Then they strip to the waist and form one long line of waving
+arms and swaying shoulders, all moving in perfect unison.
+
+  [1] This characterization applies to the Alaskan Eskimo only; so far
+  as is now known the other Eskimo branches do not have totemic dances.
+
+
+THE CHORUS
+
+The chorus which furnishes the music, is composed of from six to ten
+men. They sit on the in['g]lak, a raised shelf extending around the
+dance hall about five feet from the floor, and sing their dance songs
+keeping time on their drums. They usually sit in the rear of the room,
+which is the post of honor. Among the island tribes of Bering Strait
+this position is reversed and they occupy the front of the room. Some
+old man, the keeper of tribal tradition and song, acts as the leader,
+calling out the words of the dance songs a line ahead. He begins the
+proceedings by striking up a low chant, an invitation to the people
+assembled to dance. The chorus accompany him lightly on their drums.
+Then at the proper place, he strikes a crashing double beat; the drums
+boom out in answer; the song arises high and shrill; the dancers leap
+into their places, and the dance begins.
+
+The first dances are usually simple exercises calculated to warm the
+blood and stretch stiffened muscles. They begin with leaping around
+the pu['g]yarok, jumping into the air with both feet in the Eskimo
+high kick, settling down into the conventional movements of the men's
+dance.[2]
+
+  [2] While the northern and southern tribes have the same general
+  movements for their ordinary dances, they give a very different
+  presentation of the festival dance-songs. The northerners leap and
+  stamp about the kasgi until overcome with exhaustion; while in the
+  south the performers sit or kneel on the floor, adorned with an
+  abundance of streaming furs and feathers, sweep their hands through
+  the air in graceful unison. It is a difference between rude vigor
+  and dramatic art.
+
+Quite often a woman steps into the center of the circle, and goes
+through her own dance, while the men leap and dance around her. This
+act has been specialized in the Reindeer and Wolf Pack Dance of the
+Aithukaguk, the Inviting-In Festival, where the woman wearing a
+reindeer crest and belt is surrounded by the men dancers, girt in
+armlets and fillets of wolf skin. They imitate the pack pulling down a
+deer, and the din caused by their jumping and howling around her
+shrinking form is terrific.
+
+
+PARTICIPATION OF THE SEXES
+
+There appears to be no restriction against the women taking part in
+the men's dances. They also act as assistants to the chief actors in
+the Totem Dances, three particularly expert and richly dressed women
+dancers ranging themselves behind the mask dancer as a pleasing
+background of streaming furs and glistening feathers. The only time
+they are forbidden to enter the kasgi is when the shaman is performing
+certain secret rites. They also have secret meetings of their own when
+all men are banished.[3] I happened to stumble on to one of these one
+time when they were performing certain rites over a pregnant woman,
+but being a white man, and therefore unaccountable, I was greeted with
+a good-natured laugh and sent about my business.
+
+  [3] This custom appears to be widespread. Low writes of the Hudson Bay
+  Eskimo: "During the absence of the men on hunting expeditions, the
+  women sometimes amuse themselves by a sort of female "angekoking."
+  This amusement is accompanied by a number of very obscene rites...."
+  Low, The Cruise of the Neptune, p. 177.
+
+On the other hand, men are never allowed to take part in the strictly
+women's dances, although nothing pleases an Eskimo crowd more than an
+exaggerated imitation by one of their clowns of the movements of the
+women's dance. The women's dances are practiced during the early
+winter and given at the Aiyaguk, or Asking Festival, when the men are
+invited to attend as spectators. They result in offers of temporary
+marriage to the unmarried women, which is obviously the reason for
+this rite. Such dances, confined to the women, have not been observed
+in Alaska outside the islands of Bering Sea, and I have reason to
+believe are peculiar to this district, which, on account of its
+isolation, retains the old forms which have died out or been modified
+on the mainland. But throughout Alaska the women are allowed the
+utmost freedom in participating in the festivals, either as naskuks[4]
+or feast givers, as participants or as spectators.
+
+  [4] Literally "Heads" or directors of the feasts.
+
+In fact, the social position of the Eskimo woman has been
+misrepresented and misunderstood. At first sight she appears to be the
+slave of her husband, but a better acquaintance will reveal the fact
+that she is the manager of the household and the children, the
+business partner in all his trades, and often the "oomialik," or
+captain of the concern as well. Her husband is forbidden by tribal
+custom to maltreat her, and if she owns the house, she can order him
+out at any time. I have never known a woman being head of a tribe, but
+sometimes a woman is the most influential member of a tribe.
+
+
+
+
+THE KASGI OR DANCE HOUSE
+
+
+With few exceptions, all dances take place in the village kasgi or
+dance hall. This is the public meeting place where the old men gather
+to sit and smoke while they discuss the village welfare, where the
+married men bring their work and take their sweat baths, and where
+the bachelors and young men, termed kasgimiut, have their sleeping
+quarters. The kasgi is built and maintained at public expense, each
+villager considering it an honor to contribute something. Any tools or
+furnishings brought into the kasgi are considered public property, and
+used as such.
+
+When a kasgi is to be built, announcement is made through messengers
+to neighboring villages, and all gather to assist in the building and
+to help celebrate the event. First a trench several feet deep is dug
+in which to plant the timbers forming the sides. These are usually of
+driftwood, which is brought by the ocean currents from the Yukon. The
+ice breaks up first at the head of that great stream, and the debris
+dams up the river, which overflows its banks, tearing down trees,
+buildings and whatever borders its course as it breaks its way out to
+the sea. The wreckage is scattered along the coast for over a hundred
+miles, and the islands of Bering Sea get a small share. The islanders
+are constantly on the lookout for the drifting timber, and put out to
+sea in the stormiest weather for a distant piece, be it large or
+small. They also patrol the coast after a high tide for stray bits of
+wood. When one considers the toil and pain with which material is
+gathered, the building of a kasgi becomes an important matter.
+
+After the timbers have been rough hewn with the adze (ulimon) they are
+set upright in the trench to a height of seven to eight feet and
+firmly bedded with rock. This is to prevent the fierce Polar winds
+which prevail in midwinter from tearing the houses to pieces. In the
+older buildings a protecting stone wall was built on the sides. Most
+of the houses are set in a side hill, or partly underground, for
+additional security, as well as for warmth. The roof is laid on top of
+the uprights, the logs being drawn in gradually in pyramid shape to a
+flat top. In the middle of the top is the [.r]alok or smoke hole, an
+opening about two feet square. In a kasgi thirty feet square the ralok
+is twenty feet above the floor. It is covered with a translucent
+curtain of walrus gut. The dead are always taken out through this
+opening, and never by the entrance. The most important feature of the
+room is the in['g]lak, a wide shelf supported by posts at intervals.
+It stands about five feet high extending around the room. This serves
+the double purpose of a seat and bed for the inmates of the kasgi. The
+rear, the kaan, is the most desirable position, being the warmest, and
+is given to headmen and honored guests.[5] The side portions, kaaklim,
+are given to the lesser lights and the women and children; and the
+front, the oaklim, being nearest the entrance and therefore cold and
+uncomfortable is left for the orphans and worthless men.
+
+  [5] The order of the seating on the in['g]lak of invited guests is a
+  matter of great concern to the Eskimo, as it is an indication of
+  worth.
+
+  Children purchase their right to a seat in the kasgi by making
+  presents, through their parents, to all the inmates, kasgimiut.
+
+  Until they do so they have no right to enter. For the same reason
+  strangers on entering the kasgi offer a small present to the headman,
+  who divides it among the people.
+
+The floor of the kasgi is made of rough planking, and the boards in
+the center are left loose so that they may be easily removed. These
+cover the k[=e]nethluk or fireplace, an excavation four feet square,
+and four feet deep, used in the sweat baths. It is thought to be
+the place where the spirits sit, when they visit the kasgi, during
+festivals held in their honor. Offerings are poured to them through
+the cracks in the planks. In the center of the floor is a round hole
+about two feet in diameter, called the entrance hole or pugyarok. This
+connects with a long tunnel, the a['g]veak, which leads outside. The
+tunnel is usually so low that it is necessary to enter in a stooping
+position, which the Eskimo does by placing both hands on the sides of
+the pugyarok, and drawing himself through. Some dance-houses have
+another entrance directly into the room on a level with the ground,
+the underground passage being used only in winter. The diagram (Plate
+XI) gives an idea of this arrangement.
+
+
+PARAPHERNALIA
+
+The drum (sauyit)[6] is the only instrument employed in the dances. It
+is made of a circular hoop about eighteen inches in width over which
+is stretched a resonant covering made from the bladder of the walrus
+or seal. It is held in place by a cord of rawhide (o['k]linok)[7]
+which fits into a groove on the outer rim. The cover can therefore be
+tightened at will. It is customary during the intermissions between
+the dances for the drummers to rub a handful of snow over the skins to
+prevent them from cracking under the heavy blows. The drum is held
+aloft and struck with a thin stick (mumwa).[8] It gives a deep boom in
+answer. The shaman uses a smaller baton with which he beats a
+continuous tattoo as an accompaniment to his songs. The northerners
+strike the back of the rim with their sticks, while the Yukon people
+belabor the face of the drum.
+
+  [6] Tcauyak, Yukon dialect.
+
+  [7] Loftak, Yukon dialect.
+
+  [8] Mumra, Yukon dialect.
+
+The leader of the chorus frequently flourishes a baton, made from a
+fox tail or the skin of the ermine which is mounted on a stick. With
+this he marks the time of the dance. In Plate XIV, the white blur is
+the ermine at the end of his stick. It is very difficult to obtain a
+good picture in the ill lighted kasgi, and not often that the natives
+will allow one taken there.
+
+One indispensable part of a male dancer's outfit is his gloves. I have
+never seen a man dancing without them. These are usually of wolverine,
+or of reindeer with elaborate trimmings, but on ordinary occasions any
+kind will do. The women do not share this peculiarity. In place of
+gloves they wear handlets of grass decorated with feathers of duck or
+of ptarmigan. The men in the Totem Dances also wear handlets which are
+carved and painted to represent the particular totem they seek to
+honor. These too are fantastically decorated with feathers, usually of
+the loon. The central feather is stripped, and crowned with a tuft of
+white down. Both men and women wear armlets and fillets of skin or
+feathers according to the animal character they represent. When in the
+full swing of the dance with fur and feathers streaming they present a
+pleasing spectacle, a picture full of the same wild grace and poetic
+motion which characterizes the animal forbears from which they claim
+descent.
+
+The chief characters in the Totem and Comic Dances wear masks and
+carry staves decorated with feathers. Occasionally the women
+assistants carry feathered wands (Kelizruk).
+
+Of the masks there is a great variety ranging from the plain wooden
+masks to those of such great size that they are suspended from the
+ceiling of the kasgi by a cord while the dancer performs behind them.
+
+The Cape Prince of Wales (Kinigumiut) Eskimo construct complete
+figures of their totems. These are worked by means of concealed
+strings by the performers, a climax of art which is supposed to be
+particularly pleasing to the spirits addressed. Then the shaman
+(Tungalik)[9] has his own set of masks, hideous enough to strike
+terror to even the initiated. Each one of these represents a familiar
+spirit (tunghat)[10] which assists him in his operations.
+
+  [9] Tungralik, Yukon dialect.
+
+  [10] Tungraniyak, Yukon dialect.
+
+Ordinary dance masks may be made by anyone, but the masks for the
+ceremonial dances are made by some renowned shaman, engaged for the
+occasion. These masks are burned at the close of the festival, but may
+be sold by the actors if they supply an equal amount of wood for the
+sacrificial fire.
+
+Many of the masks are very complicated, having appendages of wood, fur
+and feathers. They are all fashioned with an idea of representing some
+feature in the mythology of the spirit (Inua) or animal shade
+(Tunghat) which they represent. In the latter case they are nearly
+always made double, the mythical beings who inhabited the early world
+being regarded as able to change from animal to human shape, by merely
+pushing up or pulling down the upper part of the face as a mask. Such
+masks are often hinged to complete the illusion, the actor changing
+the face at will.
+
+It might be mentioned here that when the actor puts on the mask he is
+supposed to become imbued with the spirit of the being represented.
+This accounts, to the native mind, for the very lifelike imitation
+which he gives.
+
+The masks are painted along conventional lines; the favorite colors
+for the inua masks are red (Karekteoak),[11] black (Auktoak), green
+(Cungokyoak), white (Katektoak), and blue (Taukrektoak), in the order
+named. These colors[12] may hold a sacred or symbolic significance.
+The inua masks are decorated with some regard to the natural colors of
+the human face, but in the masks of the tunghat the imagination of the
+artist runs riot. The same is true of the comic masks, which are
+rendered as grotesque and horrible as possible. A mask with distorted
+features, a pale green complexion, surrounded by a bristling mass of
+hair, amuses them greatly. The Eskimo also caricature their neighbors,
+the Dene, in this same manner, representing them by masks with very
+large noses and sullen features.
+
+  [11] These are the northern names. In the southern or Yukon dialect
+  black is Tunguli; white Katughuli; red, Kauiguli; green, Tcununguli.
+
+  The endings and pronunciation of similar Eskimo words are somewhat
+  different in Arctic Alaska and on the Yukon River; sufficiently so as
+  to produce two distinct dialects. For this reason I have given the
+  forms from both sections.
+
+  [12] Red is obtained from red ochre; white from white clay; black from
+  soot or ashes; green from oxide of copper.
+
+
+
+
+THE DANCE FESTIVALS
+
+
+The Dance Festivals of the Alaskan Eskimo are held during that cold,
+stormy period of the winter when the work of the year is over and
+hunting is temporarily at an end. At this season the people gather in
+the kasgi to celebrate the local rites, and at certain intervals
+invite neighboring tribes to join in the great inter-tribal festivals.
+This season of mirth and song is termed "Tcauyavik" the drum dance
+season, from "Tcauyak" meaning drum. It lasts from November to March,
+and is a continuous succession of feasts and dances, which makes glad
+the heart of the Eskimo and serves to lighten the natural depression
+caused by day after day of interminable wind and darkness. A brisk
+exchange of presents at the local festivals promotes good feeling, and
+an interchange of commodities between the tribes at the great feasts
+stimulates trade and results in each being supplied with the
+necessities of life. For instance, northern tribes visiting the south
+bring presents of reindeer skins or mukluk to eke out the scanty
+supply of the south, while the latter in return give their visitors
+loads of dried salmon which the northerners feed to their dogs.
+
+The festivals also serve to keep alive the religious feeling of the
+people, as evidenced in the Dance to the Dead, which allows free play
+to the nobler sentiments of filial faith and paternal love. The
+recital of the deeds of ancient heroes preserves the best traditions
+of the race and inspires the younger generation. To my mind, there is
+nothing which civilization can supply which can take the place of the
+healthy exercise, social enjoyment, commercial advantages, and
+spiritual uplift of these dances. Where missionary sentiment is
+overwhelming they are gradually being abandoned; where there is a
+mistaken opinion in regard to their use, they have been given up
+altogether; but the tenacity with which the Eskimo clings to these
+ancient observances, even in places where they have been nominal
+christians for years, is an evidence of the vitality of these ancient
+rites and their adaptation to the native mind.
+
+The festivals vary considerably according to locality, but their
+essential features are the same. Taken in order of celebration they
+are as follows
+
+Local Festivals.
+
+    1. The Aiyaguk or Asking Festival.
+    2. The Tcauiyuk or Bladder Feast.
+    3. The Ail['=i]gi or Annual Feast to the Dead.
+
+Inter-tribal Festivals.
+
+    4. The Aithuk['=a]tukhtuk or Great Feast to the Dead.
+    5. The Aithukaguk or Inviting-In Feast.
+
+The Asking Festival, which begins the round of feasting and dancing,
+takes place during the November moon. It is a local ceremony in which
+gifts are exchanged between the men and women of the village, which
+result in offers of temporary marriage. It takes its name from the
+Aiyaguk or Asking Stick,[13] which is the wand of office of the
+messenger or go-between. The Annual Feast to the Dead is held during
+the December moon, and may be repeated again in spring after the
+Bladder Feast, if a large number of Eskimos have died in the interim.
+It consists of songs and dances accompanied by offerings of food and
+drink to the dead. It is a temporary arrangement for keeping the dead
+supplied with sustenance (they are thought to imbibe the spiritual
+essence of the offerings) until the great Feast to the Dead takes
+place.
+
+  [13] The Asking Stick is also used in the Inviting-In Feast
+  (Aithukaguk).
+
+This is held whenever the relatives of the deceased have accumulated
+sufficient food, skins and other goods to entertain the countryside
+and are able to properly honor the deceased. At the same time the
+namesakes of the dead are richly clothed from head to foot and
+showered with presents. As this prodigal generosity entails the
+savings of years on the part of the feast givers (naskut), the feast
+occurs only at irregular intervals of several years. It has been
+termed the Ten Year Feast by the traders (Kagruska), but so far as I
+have been able to inquire, it has no fixed date among the Eskimo. It
+is by far the most important event in the life of the Alaskan native.
+By it he discharges all debts of honor to the dead, past, present and
+future. He is not obliged to take part in another festival of the kind
+unless another near relative dies. He pays off all old scores of
+hospitality and lays his friends under future obligations by his
+presents. He is often beggared by this prodigality, but he can be sure
+of welcome and entertainment wherever he goes, for he is a man who has
+discharged all his debts to society and is therefore deserving of
+honor for the rest of his days.
+
+In the Bladder Feast which takes place in January, the bladders of the
+animals slain during the past season, in which the spirits of the
+animals are supposed to reside, are returned to the sea, after
+appropriate ceremonies in the kasgi. There they are thought to attract
+others of their kind and bring an increase to the village. This is
+essentially a coast festival. Among the tribes of the islands of
+Bering Sea and the Siberian Coast this festival is repeated in March,
+in conjunction with a whaling ceremony performed at the taking down
+of the [=u]miaks.
+
+The dance contests in the Inviting-In Feast resemble the nith songs
+of Greenland. They are Comic and Totem Dances in which the best
+performers of several tribes contest singly or in groups for
+supremacy. The costumes worn are remarkably fine and the acting very
+realistic. This is essentially a southern festival for it gives an
+opportunity to the Eskimo living near the rivers to display their
+ingenious talent for mimicry and for the arrangement of feathers.
+
+There are a few purely local ceremonies, the outgrowth of practices of
+local shamans. An example of this is the Aitekatah or Doll Festival of
+the Igomiut, which has also spread to the neighboring Dene. Such local
+outgrowths, however, do not appear to spread among the conservative
+Eskimo, who resent the least infringement of the ancient practices
+handed down from dim ancestors of the race.
+
+It is not often that they will allow a white man to witness the
+festival dances, but, owing to the friendliness of the chief of the
+Diomede tribes, who always reserved a seat for me next to him in the
+kasgi, I had the opportunity of seeing the local rites and the Great
+Dance to the Dead. The same favor continuing with the chief of the
+Unalit, during my residence on the Yukon, I witnessed the Inviting-In
+Feast as celebrated by the southern tribes. Having described the
+dances in general, I will proceed to a detailed account of each.
+
+
+THE ASKING FESTIVAL
+
+The Aiyaguk or Asking Festival is the first of the local feasts. It
+occurs about the middle of November when the Eskimo have all returned
+from their summer travels and made their iglus secure against the
+storms of the coming winter. So, with caches full of fish, and houses
+packed with trade goods after a successful season at the southern
+camps, they must wait until the shifting ice pack settles and the
+winter hunting begins. Such enforced inaction is irksome to the
+Eskimo, who does not partake of the stolidity of the Indian, but like
+a nervous child must be continually employed or amused. So this
+festival, which is of a purely social character, has grown up.
+
+My first intimation that there was a celebration taking place was
+being attracted by a tremendous uproar in the native village just as
+darkness had fallen. Suspecting that the Eskimo were making merry over
+a native brew, called "hoosch,"[14] I slipped down to the village to
+see what was the matter. I was met by the queerest procession I have
+ever seen. A long line of men and boys, entirely naked and daubed over
+with dots and figures of mingled oil and charcoal,[15] were proceeding
+from house to house with bowls in their hands. At each entrance they
+filed in, howling, stamping and grunting, holding out their dishes
+until they were filled by the women of the house.
+
+All this time they were careful to keep their faces averted so that
+they would not be recognized. This is termed the "Tutuuk" or "going
+around." Returning to the kasgi they washed off their marks with
+urine, and sat down to feast on their plunder.
+
+  [14] This is a liquor distilled from flour and molasses. In the
+  operation an old cask and a gun barrel are used. The liquid is
+  fermented with sour dough and allowed to distill through the barrel.
+  The Eskimo had no liquor prior to the advent of the whalers, who
+  supplied them with the materials and probably taught them the art of
+  distilling. The U. S. Revenue Cutter "Bear" has been active in
+  breaking up the practice. In 1909, six illicit stills were seized on
+  the Diomede Islands.
+
+  [15] The first night of the feast the men and older boys meet in the
+  kasgi, and two boys named the Raven (Tulukauguk) and the Hawk
+  (Teiburiak) mix the paint and assist the men in ornamenting
+  themselves.
+
+The next day the men gathered again in the kasgi and the Aiyaguk or
+Asking Stick was constructed. It was made by a man especially chosen
+for the purpose. It was a slender wand about three feet long with
+three globes made of thin strips of wood hanging by a strip of
+o['k]linok from the smaller end. It was carried by the messenger
+between the men and women during the feast, and was the visible sign
+of his authority. It was treated with scrupulous respect by the Eskimo
+and to disregard the wishes conveyed by means of it during the feast
+would have been considered a lasting disgrace. When not in use it was
+hung over the entrance to the kasgi.
+
+The wand maker, having finished the Asking Stick, took his stand in
+the center of the room, and swaying the globes, to and fro, asked the
+men to state their wishes. Then any man present had the privilege of
+telling him of an article he wished and the name of the woman from
+whom he wished it. (Among the southern tribes the men made small
+wooden models of the objects they wished which were hung on the end of
+the Asking Stick.) The messenger then proceeded to the house of the
+woman in question, swinging the globes in front of her, repeated the
+wish and stood waiting for her answer. She in turn recollected
+something that she desired and told it to the messenger. Thereupon he
+returned to the kasgi, and standing in front of the first party, swung
+the globes, and told him what was desired in return. In this way he
+made the round of the village. The men then returned to their homes
+for the article desired, while the messenger blackened his face with
+charcoal and donned a costume betoking humility. This was considered
+the only proper attitude in presenting gifts. The costume consisted of
+wornout clothing, of which a disreputable raincoat (Kamleika) and a
+dogskin belt with the tail behind were indispensable parts.
+
+Then the men and women gathered in the kasgi where the exchanges were
+made through the messenger. If anyone did not have the gift requested
+he was in honor bound to secure it as soon as possible and present it
+to his partner. Those exchanging gifts entered a relationship termed
+o[=i]lo['g]uk, and among the northern tribes where the ancient forms
+persevere, they continued to exchange presents throughout succeeding
+festivals.
+
+After this exchange, a dance was performed by the women. They stripped
+to the waist, and taking their places on the i['n]glak, went through a
+series of motions in unison. These varied considerably in time and
+movement from the conventional women's dance.
+
+According to custom at the conclusion of the dance any man has the
+privilege of asking any unmarried woman through the messenger, if he
+might share her bed that night. If favorably inclined, she replies
+that he must bring a deerskin for bedding. He procures the deerskin,
+and presents it to her, and after the feast is over remains with her
+for the night.
+
+Whether these temporary unions lead to permanent marriage I was unable
+to find out. The gift of reindeer skin is very like the suit of
+clothing given in betrothal and would furnish material for the parka
+which the husband presents to his bride. The fact that the privilege
+is limited to unmarried women might be also urged in turn. As the
+system of exchanging wives was formerly common among the Alaskan
+Eskimo, and as they distribute their favors at will, it is rather
+remarkable that the married women are not included, as in the
+licentious feasts recorded of the Greenlanders.[16] From talks with
+some of the older Eskimo I am led to regard this as a relic of an
+ancient custom similar to those which have been observed among many
+nations of antiquity, in which a woman is open to violation at certain
+feasts. This privilege is taken advantage of, and may become a
+preliminary to marriage.
+
+  [16] See Hans Egede, Det Gamle Groenlands Nye Perlustration, p. 78.
+
+
+THE BLADDER FEAST
+
+The Bladder Feast (Tcauiyuk) is held in December at the full of the
+moon. The object of this feast is the propitiation of the inua of the
+animals slain during the season past. These are believed to reside in
+the bladders, which the Eskimo carefully preserve. The ceremony
+consists in the purification of the bladders by the flame of the wild
+parsnip (Aikituk). The hunters are also required to pass through the
+flame. They return the bladders then to the sea, where entering the
+bodies of their kind, they are reborn and return again, bringing
+continued success to the hunter.
+
+The first three days are spent in preparation. They thoroughly clean
+the kasgi, particularly the kenethluk or fireplace, the recognized
+abode of all spirits visiting the kasgi. Then the men bring in their
+harvest of bladders.[17] They tie them by the necks in bunches of
+eight to the end of their spears. These they thrust into the walls at
+the rear of the room leaving ample room for the dancers to pass under
+the swaying bladders in the rites of purification. Offerings of food
+and water are made to the inua, and they are constantly attended. One
+old man told me that they would be offended and take their departure
+if left alone for a moment. Dogs, being unclean, are not allowed to
+enter the kasgi. Neither is anyone permitted to do any work during the
+ceremony.
+
+  [17] The mothers also preserve with greatest care the bladders of the
+  mice, ground squirrels, and other small animals killed by the
+  children. These are purified at the same time.
+
+Meanwhile four men,[18] especially chosen for the purpose, scour the
+adjoining country for parsnip stalks. They bind these into small
+bundles, and place them on top of the latorak, the outer vestibule to
+the entrance of the kasgi. In the evening they take these into the
+kasgi, open the bundles and spread out the stalks on the floor. Then
+each hunter takes a stalk, and they unite in a song to the parsnip,
+the burden of which is a request that the stalks may become dry and
+useful for purification. The heat of the seal oil lamps soon dries
+them, and they are tied into one large bundle. The third day the sheaf
+is opened, and two bundles made. The larger one is for the use of the
+dancers; the smaller is placed on a spear and stuck in front of the
+bladders.
+
+The fourth day the bladders are taken down and painted. A grayish
+mixture is used which is obtained by burning a few parsnip stalks and
+mixing the ashes with oil. The designs are the series of bands and
+dots grouped to represent the totems of the hunters. When the paint is
+dry the bladders are returned to their places.
+
+In the evening the men gather again in the kasgi, and the dancers
+proceed to strip off every vestige of clothing. Snatching a handful of
+stalks at the common pile they light them at the lamps, and join in a
+wild dance about the room. The resinous stalks shoot into flame with a
+frightful glare, lighting up the naked bodies of the dancers, and
+dusky interior of the kasgi. Waving the flaming torches over their
+heads, leaping, jumping, and screaming like madmen they rush around
+the room, thrusting the flame among the bladders and then into the
+faces of the hunters. When the mad scene is at its height, they seize
+one another, and struggle toward the pugyarok (entrance hole). Here
+each is thrust down in succession until all the dancers have passed
+through. I am informed that this is a pantomime enactment, an
+indication to the inua it is time for them to depart.
+
+  [18] The number four appears to have a sacred significance among the
+  Alaskan Eskimo. The Raven Father (Tulukauguk) waves his wings four
+  times over the objects of his creation; the heroes of ancient legends
+  take four steps and are transported great distances; and important
+  events occur on the fourth night. I understand that the four men who
+  gather the wild parsnips represent the four clans of the tribe.
+
+The next day a hole is made in the ice near the kasgi, and each hunter
+dips his spear in the water, and, running back to the kasgi, stirs up
+the bladders with it. The presence of the sea water reminds the inua
+of their former home, and they make ready to depart. The bladders are
+then tied into one large bundle, and the people await the full moon.
+
+At sunrise the morning after the full moon each hunter takes his load
+of bladders, and filing out of the kasgi starts for the hole in the
+ice on a dead run. Arriving there, he tears off the bladders one by
+one, and thrusts them under the water. This signifies the return of
+the inua to the sea.
+
+As the bladders float or sink success is prophesied for the hunter by
+the shaman in attendance.
+
+In the meantime the old men build a fire of driftwood on the ice in
+front of the kasgi. The small bundle of parsnip stalks which stood in
+front of the bladders is brought out and thrown on the fire, and as
+the stalks kindle to the flame, each hunter utters a shout, takes a
+short run, and leaps through in turn. This performance purifies the
+hunter of any matter offensive to the inua, and concludes the
+ceremony.
+
+During the Bladder Feast all intercourse between the married men and
+their wives is tabooed. They are required to sleep in the kasgi with
+the bachelors. Neither is any girl who has attained puberty
+(Wingiktoak) allowed near the bladders. She is unclean (Wahok).
+
+
+THE FEASTS TO THE DEAD
+
+The Eskimo idea of the life after death and the rationale for their
+most important ritual, the Feast to the Dead, is nowhere better
+illustrated than in a quaint tale current along the Yukon, in which
+the heroine, prematurely buried during a trancelike sleep, visited the
+Land of the Dead. She was rudely awakened from her deathlike slumber
+by the spirit of her grandmother shaking her and exclaiming, "Wake up.
+Do not sleep the hours away. You are dead!" Arising from her grave
+box, the maiden was conducted by her guide to the world beneath, where
+the dead had their dwellings in large villages grouped according to
+the localities from which they came. Even the animal shades were not
+forgotten, but inhabited separate communities in human shape.[19]
+After some travel the girl found the village allotted to her tribe,
+and was reclaimed by her departed relatives. She was recognized by the
+totem marks on her clothing, which in ancient times the Eskimo always
+wore. She found the inmates of this region leading a pleasant but
+somewhat monotonous life, free from hardships and from the sleet and
+cold of their earthly existence. They returned to the upper world
+during the feasts to the dead, when they received the spiritual
+essence of the food and clothing offered to their namesakes[20] by
+relatives. According to the generosity or stinginess of the feast
+givers there was a feast or a famine in spirit land, and those who
+were so unfortunate as to have no namesake, either through their own
+carelessness[21] or the neglect of the community,[22] went hungry and
+naked. This was the worst calamity that could befall an Eskimo, hence
+the necessity of providing a namesake and of regularly feeding and
+clothing the same, in the interest of the beloved dead.
+
+  [19] The shapes of animals are thought by the Alaskan Eskimo to be
+  like those of men, and in ancient times animals possessed the power of
+  changing their forms at will. This was effected by pulling the muzzle
+  up over the head to become people or of pulling it down again to
+  regain their original form.
+
+  [20] The first child born in the village after his death becomes the
+  deceased's namesake. However, if born in camp, its mother gives it the
+  name of the first natural object to catch her eye.
+
+  [21] Childless people provide for this contingency by adoption.
+
+  [22] One who has made himself odious to his fellow villagers is
+  purposely neglected in the feasts to the dead.
+
+
+
+
+THE ANNUAL FEAST, AIL['=I]GI
+
+
+The Annual Feast to the Dead is a temporary arrangement, whereby the
+shades of those recently departed are sustained until the advent of
+the Great Feast to the Dead. The essence of the offerings of food and
+drink are supposed to satisfy the wants of the dead until they can be
+properly honored in the Great Festival. In the latter event the
+relative discharges all his social obligations to the dead, and the
+ghost is furnished with such an abundance that it can never want in
+the world below.
+
+The makers of the feast (n['ae]skut) are the nearest relatives of those
+who have died during the past year, together with those villagers who
+have not yet given the greater festival. The day before the festival
+the male mourners go to the village burial ground and plant a newly
+made stake before the grave of their relative. The stake is surmounted
+by a wooden model of a spear, if the deceased be a man; or a wooden
+dish, if it be a woman. The totem mark of the deceased is carved upon
+it. In the north simple models of kayak paddles suffice. The sticks
+are a notification to the spirits in the land of the dead that the
+time for the festival is at hand. Accordingly they journey to the
+grave boxes, where they wait, ready to enter the kasgi at the song of
+invocation. To light their way from the other world lamps are brought
+into the kasgi and set before their accustomed places. When the
+invitation song arises they leave their graves and take their places
+in the fireplace (Kenethluk), where they enjoy the songs and dances,
+and receive the offerings of their relatives.
+
+The Annual Feast is celebrated after the Bladder Feast during the
+December moon. By the Yukon tribes it is repeated just before the
+opening of spring. During the day of the festival a taboo is placed on
+all work in the village, particularly that done with any sharp pointed
+tool which might wound some wandering ghost and bring retribution on
+the people.
+
+At midday the whole village gathers in the kasgi, and the ceremony
+begins. Soon the mourners enter bearing great bowls of food and drink
+which they deposit in the doorway. Then the chorus leader arises and
+begins the song of invitation accompanied by the relatives of the
+dead. It is a long minor chant, a constant reiteration of a few well
+worn phrases.
+
+    "Tukomalra-[=a]-, tung lik-a,   tis-ka-a a-a-yung-a-a-yung-a, etc.
+     Dead ones, next of kin,        come hither,
+
+     Tuntum komuga thetamtatuk,     moqkapik thetamtatuk moqsulthka.
+     Reindeer meat we bring you,    water we bring you for your thirst."
+
+When the song is completed the mourners arise, and going to the food
+in the doorway set it on the planks over the fireplace, after which
+they take a ladleful from each dish pouring it through the cracks in
+the floor, and the essence of this offering supplies the shades below
+with food until the next festival. The remainder of the food is
+distributed among those present. When the feast is over, the balance
+of the day is given over to songs and dances. Then the spirits are
+sent back to their homes by the simple expedient of stamping on the
+floor.
+
+
+
+
+THE GREAT FEAST, AITHUK['=A]TUKHTUK
+
+
+After making offerings to his relative at the annual feast the chief
+mourner begins saving up his skins, frozen meat, and other delicacies
+prized by the Eskimo, until, in the course of years, he has
+accumulated an enormous amount of food and clothing. Then he is
+prepared to give the great feast in honor of his kinsman. Others in
+the village, who are bereaved, have been doing the same thing. They
+meet and agree on a certain time to celebrate the feast together
+during the ensuing year. The time chosen is usually in January after
+the local feasts are over, and visitors from neighboring tribes are
+free to attend. There are no set intervals between these feasts as has
+been generally supposed. They are celebrated at irregular intervals
+according to the convenience of the givers.
+
+At the minor festival preceding the Great Feast, the usual invitation
+stakes planted before the dead are supplemented by others placed
+before the graves of those in whose honor the festival is to be given.
+On these is a painted model of the totemic animals of the deceased.
+The feast giver sings an especial song of invitation, requesting the
+dead kinsman to be present at the approaching feast.
+
+On the first day of the Great Feast the villagers welcome the guests.
+Early in the morning they begin to arrive. The messenger goes out on
+the ice and leads them into the village, showing each where to tie his
+team. During the first day the guests are fed in the kasgi. They have
+the privilege of demanding any delicacy they wish. After this they are
+quartered on various homes in the village. Salmon or meat must also
+be provided for their dogs. This is no small item, and often taxes the
+resources of a village to the utmost. I have known of a village so
+poor after a period of prolonged hospitality that it was reduced to
+starvation rations for the rest of the winter.
+
+Immediately on tying up their dogs, the guests go to the kasgi. On
+entering each one cries in set phraseology, "Ah-ka-ka- Piatin,
+Pikeyutum." "Oh, ho! Look here! A trifling present." He throws his
+present on a common pile in front of the headman, who distributes them
+among the villagers. It is customary to make the presents appear as
+large as possible. One fellow has a bolt of calico which he unwinds
+through the entrance hole, making a great display. It may be thirty
+yards long. Sometimes they accompany the gift with a short dance. It
+is considered bad form for one coming from a distance[23] not to make
+the usual present, as in this way he purchases the right to join in
+the festival dances.
+
+  [23] During the inter-tribal festivals, guests are given seats of
+  honor next to the headman of the village according to the distance
+  from which they have come. The back of the room (kaan), the place of
+  honor, is reserved for this purpose.
+
+As soon as all are gathered in the kasgi, a feast is brought in for
+the tired travelers. Kantags of sealmeat, the blackskin of the
+bowhead, salmon berries swimming in oil, greens from the hillsides,
+and pot after pot of tea take off the edge of hunger. After gorging
+themselves, the guests seem incapable of further exertion, and the
+remainder of the day is spent in visiting.
+
+
+THE FEAST GIVERS
+
+The feast givers or n['ae]skut assemble in the kasgi the second day,
+and the ceremony proper begins. They range themselves around the
+pugyarok or entrance, the chorus and guests occupying the back of the
+room and the spectators packing themselves against the walls.
+
+Each feast giver is garbed according to the sex of his dead relative,
+not his own, so that some men wear women's clothes and vice versa.
+Each bears in his right hand a wand about two feet long
+(Kelezruk).[24] This is a small stick of wood surmounted with tufts of
+down from ptarmigan (Okozregewik). All are dressed to represent the
+totem to which the deceased belongs. One wears a fillet and armlet of
+wolfskin (Egoalik); others wear armlets of ermine (Tareak); still
+others are crowned with feathers of the raven (Tulua) or the hawk
+(Tciakauret).[25] After a short dance they withdraw and the day's
+ceremony is finished.
+
+  [24] The same arrangement characterizes the finger masks of the
+  Inviting-In Dance. (Kiggilunok), meaning wand, in southern dialect.
+
+  [25] Southern dialect. Akkizhzhigik, Ptarmigan. Teibuviak, hawk;
+  Tulukauguk, meaning raven.
+
+The following day the n['ae]skut assemble again, but they have doffed
+their fine feathers, and are dressed in their oldest clothes. The
+suits of the day before they carry in a grass sack. They wear
+raincoats of sealgut tied about the waist with a belt of dogskin, and
+enter the kasgi with eyes cast on the floor. Even in the dances they
+keep their faces from the audience.
+
+This attitude of humility is in accord with Eskimo ethics. They say
+that if they adopt a boastful air and fail to give as many presents as
+the other n['ae]skut they will be ashamed. So they safeguard themselves
+in advance.
+
+
+THE RITUAL
+
+Advancing with downcast eyes, the n['ae]skut creep softly across the
+kasgi and take their places before the funeral lamps. Then taking out
+their festival garments, they slip them on. Immediately the drummers
+start tapping lightly on their drums, and at a signal from their
+leader the song of invitation begins. Each n['ae]skuk advances in turn,
+invoking the presence of his dead in a sad minor strain.
+
+    Toakora ilyuga takina
+    Dead brother, come hither
+    A-yunga-ayunga-a-yunga.
+
+Or:
+
+    Nuleaga awunga toakora
+    Sister mine, dead one,
+    Takina, nuleaga, takina,
+    Come hither, sister, come hither.
+
+Or:
+
+    Akaga awunga takina
+    Mother mine, come hither.
+    Nanaktuk, takina,
+    We wait for you, come hither.
+
+To which the chorus answer:
+
+    Ilyuga awunga takina,
+    Our brother, come hither,
+    Takinaka, ilyuga, takinaka,
+    Return, dead brother, return.
+
+The women advance in line, holding their wands in the right hand, and
+singing in unison; then the men advance in their turn, then both
+n['ae]skut and chorus sing together:
+
+    Takinaka, awunga, tungalika,
+    Return to us, our dead kinsmen,
+    Nanakatuk, kineaktuk tungal[i=]ka
+    We wait your home coming, our dead kinsmen.
+
+Suddenly the drummers cease and rap sharply on the in['g]lak with
+their drumsticks. The dancers stop in the midst of their movements and
+stamp on the floor, first with one foot then with the other, placing
+their hands on their shoulders, bringing them down over their bodies
+as though wiping off some unseen thing. Then they slap their thighs
+and sit down. I am informed that this is to "wipe off" any uncleanness
+(wahok) that might offend the shades of the dead.
+
+Then the namesakes of the dead troop into the kasgi, and take their
+places in the center of the room between the two lines. To each, the
+n['ae]skuk hands a bowl of water and a kantag of frozen reindeer meat
+cut into small pieces. The namesakes drop a small portion of the meat
+on the floor. The essence is evidently thought to pass below to the
+waiting inua. Then they finish the remainder. At the same time a large
+amount of frozen meat and fish is brought in and distributed among the
+guests. This is done at the end of each day.
+
+The fourth day the chorus leader mounts the top of the kasgi and
+begins again the invitation song. The people scatter to the burying
+ground or to the ice along the shore according to the spot where they
+have lain their dead. They dance among the grave boxes so that the
+shades who have returned to them, when not in the kasgi, may see that
+they are doing them honor.
+
+During the dancing the children of the village gather in the kasgi,
+carrying little kantags and sealskin sacks. The women on returning
+bring great bags of frozen blueberries and reindeer fat, commonly
+called "Eskimo Ice Cream," with which they fill the bowls of the
+children, but the young rogues immediately slip their portions into
+their sacks (poksrut) and hold out their dishes for more, crying in a
+deafening chorus, "Wunga-T['=u]k" (Me too). This part of the festival
+is thoroughly enjoyed by the Eskimo, who idolize their children.
+
+At the conclusion of the day's feast many presents are given away by
+the n['ae]skut, the husbands of the female feast givers distributing
+them for the ladies, who assume a bashful air. During the distribution
+the n['ae]skut maintain their deprecatory attitude and pass disparaging
+remarks on their gifts. Sometimes the presents are attached to a long
+line of oklinok (seal thong) which the n['ae]skut haul down through the
+smokehole, making the line appear as long as possible. At the same
+time they sing in a mournful key bewailing their relative:
+
+    Ah-ka- ilyuga toakora, takin,
+    Oh! oh! dead brother, return,
+    Utiktutatuk, ilyuga awunga,
+    Return to us, our brother,
+    Illearuqtutuk, ilyuga,
+    We miss you, dear brother,
+    Pikeyutum, kokitutuk,
+    A trifling present we bring you.
+
+
+THE CLOTHING OF THE NAMESAKES
+
+The following day occurs the clothing of the namesakes. This is
+symbolical of clothing the dead, who ascend into the bodies of their
+namesakes during the ceremony and take on the spiritual counterpart of
+the clothing.
+
+After a grand distribution of presents by the n['ae]skut, bags of fine
+clothing are lowered to the feast givers and the namesakes take the
+center of the floor, in front of their relatives, the feast givers.
+Then each n['ae]skuk calls out to the particular namesake of his dead
+kinsman: "[=I]takin, illorahug-naka," "Come hither, my beloved," and
+proceeds to remove the clothing of the namesake and put on an entirely
+new suit of mukluks, trousers, and parka, made of the finest furs.
+Then the feast giver gathers up the discarded clothing, and stamps
+vigorously on the floor, bidding the ghost begone to its resting
+place. It goes, well satisfied, and the dancers disperse until another
+great festival. Until the feast is concluded no one can leave the
+village.
+
+
+
+
+THE INVITING-IN FESTIVAL
+
+
+The Inviting-In Festival (Aithukaguk) is a great inter-tribal feast,
+second in importance to the Great Feast to the Dead. It is a
+celebration on invitation from one tribe to her neighbors when
+sufficient provisions have been collected. It takes place late in the
+season, after the other festivals are over. Neighboring tribes act as
+hosts in rotation, each striving to outdo the other in the quality and
+quantity of entertainment offered. During this festival the dramatic
+pantomime dances for which the Alaskan Eskimo are justly famous, are
+performed by especially trained actors. For several days the dances
+continue, each side paying the forfeit as they lose in the dancing
+contests. In this respect the representations are somewhat similar to
+the nith contests of the Greenlanders. As I have noticed the dances at
+length elsewhere,[26] I shall only give a brief survey here,
+sufficient to show their place in the Eskimo festival dances.
+
+  [26] Canadian Geological Survey. Memoir 45. The "Inviting-In" Feast
+  of the Alaskan Eskimo.
+
+The main dances of the Inviting-In Festival are totemic in character,
+performed by trained actors to appease the totems of the hunters, and
+insure success for the coming season. These are danced in pantomime
+and depict the life of arctic animals, the walrus, raven, bear,
+ptarmigan, and others. Then there are group dances which illustrate
+hunting scenes, like the Reindeer and Wolf Pack dance already
+described, also dances of a purely comic character, designed for the
+entertainment of the guests. During the latter performances the side
+which laughs has to pay a forfeit.
+
+Elaborate masks are worn in all of the dances. The full paraphernalia,
+masks, handmasks, fillets, and armlets, are worn by the chief actors.
+They are supported by richly garbed assistants. An old shaman acts as
+master of ceremonies. There is an interchange of presents between the
+tribes during the intervals but not between individuals, as in the
+Asking Festival. At the close of the festival the masks are burned.
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PLATE XI
+
+    A--Outer Vestibule. (L[=a]'tor[)a]k.)
+    B--Summer Entrance. (Am[=e]k'.)
+    C--Front Platform. (['=O]aklim.) Seat of Orphans and Worthless.
+    D--Plank Floor. (N[=a]'t[=u]k.)
+    E--Rear Platform. (K[=a]'an.) Seat of Honored Guests.
+    F--Smoke Hole. ([.R]a'l[)o]k.) Entrance for Gift-lines.
+    G--Entrance Hole. (Pug'y[)a]r[)a]k.)
+    H--Fireplace. (K[=e]ne'thluk.) Seat of Spirit-Guests.
+    I--Underground Tunnel. (Ag'v[=e]ak.)
+    J--Side Platforms. (K['=a]aklim.) Seats for Spectators.
+    K--Chorus of Drummers.
+    L--Feast Givers. (Nae'skut.)
+    M--Namesakes of Dead.
+
+ [Illustration: ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI PLATE XI
+                Arrangement of Kasgi during the Great Feast to the Dead.
+                THE KASGI OR DANCE HOUSE.]
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PLATE XII
+
+    A--First Movement. The Chief's Son, Okvaiok is dancing.
+
+    B--Second Movement.
+
+ [Illustration: ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI PLATE XII
+                A
+                B
+                MEN'S DANCE]
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PLATE XIII
+
+    C--Third Movement.
+
+    D--Fourth Movement.
+
+ [Illustration: ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI PLATE XIII
+                C
+                D
+                MEN'S DANCE]
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PLATE XIV
+
+    Children's Dance.
+
+    The Chorus. Leader in Center Beating Time With an Ermine Stick.
+
+ [Illustration: ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI PLATE XIV
+                CHILDREN'S DANCE
+                THE CHORUS]
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PLATE XV
+
+    Women's Dance.
+
+ [Illustration: ANTHR. PUB. UNIV. MUSEUM VOL. VI PLATE XV
+                WOMEN'S DANCE]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dance Festivals of the Alaskan
+Eskimo, by Ernest William Hawkes
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