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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dakotan Languages, and Their Relations
+to Other Languages, by Andrew Woods Williamson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Dakotan Languages, and Their Relations to Other Languages
+
+Author: Andrew Woods Williamson
+
+Release Date: September 4, 2008 [EBook #26529]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DAKOTAN LANGUAGES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Tamise Totterdell and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by the
+Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions
+(www.canadiana.org))
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE DAKOTAN LANGUAGES
+
+BY
+
+A. W. WILLIAMSON.
+
+AUGUSTANA COLLEGE, ROCK ISLAND, ILLINOIS.
+
+FROM
+
+AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, JANUARY, 1882.
+
+
+
+
+THE DAKOTAN LANGUAGES, AND THEIR RELATIONS
+TO OTHER LANGUAGES.
+
+BY A. W. WILLIAMSON.
+
+
+To the ethnologist and to the philologist the Dakotas and those speaking
+kindred languages are a very interesting people. There are four
+principal Dakota dialects, the Santee, Yankton, Assinniboin and Titon.
+The allied languages may be divided into three groups:
+
+I. a, Winnebago; b, Osage, Kaw, and 2 Quapaw; c, Iowa, Otoe and
+Missouri; d, Omaha and Ponka.
+
+II. Mandan.
+
+III. a, Minnetaree (Minitari) or Hidatsa; b, Absauraka, or Crow.
+
+Pawnee and Aricaree seem also to be somewhat related.
+
+In my father's opinion the Dakota dialects differ about as much as the
+Greek dialects did in the time of Homer, and the Assinniboin is much
+nearer to the Yankton dialect of which it is an offshoot than is the
+Titon. Judging by the vocabularies to which I have access chiefly in
+Hayden's "Indian tribes of the Missouri," I would suppose the first
+group to differ from the Dakota about as much as the German from the
+English, and to differ among themselves somewhat as Hollandish,
+Friesian, and English. The Mandan appears to be separated much more
+widely from them than they are from each other. The Minnetaree and Crow
+constitute a distinct group diverging from each other more than the
+Santee and Titon, the extreme dialects of the Dakota. They show more
+resemblance to the Mandan than to any other one of the class, but
+diverge very widely from it. But very few words approximate identity.
+About one half of the words in Matthew's Hidatsa dictionary appear to me
+to be in part at least composed of material related to the Dakota, and
+about five per cent to fairly represent Dakota words. Many of these show
+little similarity except as compared in the light of sound
+representation.
+
+When first discovered the Dakotas and Assinniboins were nomads, living
+almost entirely by hunting and fishing. The Dakotas, then probably less
+than ten thousand, are now more than thirty thousand in number. There
+are probably about three thousand Assinniboins. The allied tribes,
+except the Crows, when first found lived chiefly by agriculture. They
+have during the last hundred years rapidly diminished in numbers, and do
+not number over twelve thousand including the Crows.
+
+All of the Dakotan tribes and some others formerly made and baked
+pottery similar to that found in the mounds of the Ohio valley. The
+Osages and some others lived in earth houses, whose ruins are similar to
+those of the houses of the mound builders. The Minnetarees, Mandans and
+Aricarees still live in houses of the same kind, and make and bake
+pottery. Measurements indicate that the crania of the Dakotas in size of
+brain and angle decidedly approach the European form. The cheek bones of
+the Dakotas are much less prominent than those of the Chippewas, and
+those one-fourth Chippewa and three-fourths white have on an average
+darker complexions than those half white and half Dakota. Among the
+Minnetarees and Mandans are many persons of light hair, blue eyes, and
+tolerably fair complexion, not attributable to an infusion of Caucasian
+blood since the time of Columbus.
+
+No people take more pains to speak their language accurately than the
+Dakotas. Their social condition is similar to that of the Arabs, whose
+language has within historic observation changed more slowly than any
+other. The Assinniboins have been separated from the Dakotas about three
+centuries, perhaps a little less, possibly much more. During all this
+time they have been entirely separated, associating wholly with tribes
+speaking languages entirely different, and yet their dialect remains
+almost identical with the Yankton. We are then encouraged to believe
+that their language has not changed so rapidly as to obliterate traces
+of its origin.
+
+So far as I have been able to ascertain them the most important features
+characteristic of the Dakotan languages generally are the following:
+
+I. Three pronominal prefixes to verbs, i, o and wa. I, this, forms nouns
+of instrument. O forms nomen actionis, etc. Some Crow and Minnetaree
+words seem to indicate that its original form was a. Wa, meaning some or
+something, prefixed to transitive verbs makes them intransitive or
+general in their application. Wa is in Min. ma (ba, wa), in Crow, ba.
+Scantiness of material prevents me from more than inferring the
+existence of these and other prefixes in the other allied languages,
+from a few words apparently containing them.
+
+II. A system of verbal prefixes used to form verbs from certain stems,
+regularly varied in signification, according to the prefix used. The
+Dakota has seven of these prefixes. The Min. has three of these almost
+identical in force. I should suppose that I would, with as much
+material, find greater similarity in the other languages, but the only
+one I have been able to trace at all generally is Dak yu. This merely
+converts the stem into a verb without changing its meaning. Dak y is
+nearly always represented in the allied languages so far as I have
+observed by r, d, l or n; so that I find it in Min. du (ru, lu, nu),
+Iowa, Mandan, and Crow ru, Omaha ra.
+
+III. A reflexive pronoun tawa, Min. tama (tawa, taba), Iowa tawe, Osage
+tabe, forming from possessive pronouns double possessives, related to
+their primitives somewhat as mine to my. In some features of structure
+the Dakotan languages present an amazing diversity.
+
+According to Powell (Int. to stud. Am. Lang.) a Ponka in order to say "a
+man killed a rabbit," would have to say "the man, he, one, animate,
+standing, in the nominative case, purposely, killed, by shooting an
+arrow, he, the one animate, sitting, in the objective case." "For the
+form of the verb to kill would have to be selected, and the verb changes
+its form by inflection, and by incorporated particles, to denote person,
+number and gender, as animate or inanimate, as standing, sitting or
+lying."
+
+On the other hand the Dakota could not vary the form of the verb to
+denote any of these things except number, with reference to either
+subject or object. He would probably say: "Wichasta-wan mastincha-wan
+kte,"--"man-a, rabbit-a, kill,"--in which each word is about synonymous
+with its English equivalent, and case as in English denoted by position.
+If he wished to show that the action was done by shooting, he would
+probably not vary the form of the verb kill, but would use the verb
+kute, meaning shoot whether with arrow or bullet. Except that the Dak.
+order corresponds to the Icelandic the only difference in structure
+between the Dak. and English expression is that the Dakota word kte may
+mean any time, the particular time being indicated whenever desirable in
+all cases in Dak. as mostly in English by auxiliary verbs and adverbs.
+If the word man were represented by a pronoun the Dak. would be still
+more analytic, since its pronoun would indicate any actor, male or
+female, or inanimate, unless it were desirable to distinguish, in which
+case the distinction would be made by compounding the pronoun with a
+suitable auxiliary word. In this feature, often given as characteristic
+of American languages, is a variation the greatest possible between two
+languages closely related. It is also worthy of remark that the
+Minnetaree, which I should suppose the most analytic of the group next
+to the Dakota, is one of those that least resembles the Dakota in
+vocabulary. Some of the features often assigned as peculiarities of
+American languages were according to Bopp and Schleicher features of the
+I. E. languages in their earlier stages. Of most other features said to
+characterize American languages I find in Dak. but faint traces. The
+Dak. _does have_ verbs nearly synonymous with _go_, _walk_, _eat_,
+_drink_, _strike_, _etc._ _It is well supplied with purely copulative
+verbs. It has differentiated_ the various parts of speech even to the
+_definite_ and _indefinite article_. It is sufficiently supplied with
+nouns denoting genera and classes. This is not a feature of recent
+development. A much smaller proportion of general than of special names
+have lost trace of origin.
+
+The Dak _does not_ have inclusive and exclusive plurals, etc. It _does
+not_ have a multiplicity of verb forms to denote mode and tense, but
+when necessary does denote them with elegance and precision, by
+auxiliary verbs and adverbs, very much as we do in English. The Dakota
+is not made up chiefly of very long words. On the other hand it uses a
+great many little particles and connectives to express fine shades of
+meaning, wonderfully reminding one of the Greek. It fully agrees with
+other American languages in its wonderful facility for forming
+derivatives. The I. E. languages in their earlier stages possessed equal
+facility.
+
+As a matter of fact we know scarcely anything concerning the structure
+of American languages aside from the Algonquin and Iroquois groups, and
+a very few isolated languages. They have been classified, in fact,
+almost entirely by examination of scanty and not very accurate
+vocabularies. In investigating the relations of the Dakotan to other
+American languages we are therefore compelled to base our conclusions
+chiefly on vocabulary. I once resided a year among the Chippewas, and in
+various ways have had much better opportunities of comparing the Dakota
+with the Chippewa than with any other American language. I have not been
+able to find a word alike in the two; and but very few words even
+slightly similar in sound and sense. In pronouns few languages in any
+part of the world are so strikingly contrasted. If I were to attempt an
+argument for original affinity between Dakota and Chippewa my argument
+would be that so great dissimilarity could not be the result of
+accident. Aside from the Cheyenne, an Algonkin language which has
+incorporated some Dakotan words, and the Pawnee group, the similarities
+east of the Rocky mountains are surprisingly few, though the Huron,
+Iroquois and Mobilian languages do not seem quite so strongly contrasted
+as the Algonkin. Among the Eskimo, the tribes of the Pacific Slope,
+Mexico, Central and South America, we occasionally find identical and
+not infrequently similar words. In some the resemblances seem remarkable
+considering the size of the vocabulary. Closer examination shows however
+that they are not of a kind to indicate a special relationship. They are
+almost exclusively confined to a few pronominal bases of very wide
+diffusion, and the following: 1. ata, tata. 2. papa, each meaning
+father; 1. ana, nana; 2. ma, mama, each meaning mother. As an example I
+take the base ata, tata. Dakota, ate (dialect ata); Minnetaree, ate,
+tata, tatish; Mandan, tata; Omaha, adi, dadi; Ponka, tade-ha; Aricaree,
+ate-ah; Pawnee, ate-ish.
+
+Tuscarora ata; Cherokee e-dauda; Eskimo--Greenland ahtata, Aleutian ata,
+California, San Miguel tata; Mexico Aztec teta; Otomi, ta, te; Yucatan,
+Cakchequil tata; Central Am. Tarasca tata; Darien tauta; Eastern Peru,
+Mossa tata; Western Paraguay, Villela tata.
+
+Congo Western Africa, tat, tata.
+
+Japan dialect tete; Chinese dialect tia.
+
+Turko Tartar, Turkish ata; Tatar ata, atha; Kunan atta; Kasanish,
+Orenburg, Kirgis ata; Samoyedic dialects, Eastern Russia and Western
+Siberia ata, atai, atja, tatai; Finno Hungarian, Lap attje; Hungarian
+atja.
+
+Caucasus, Kisti dada. Basque (Pyrenees Mountains) aita.
+
+Indo European: Sanskrit ata, tata; Hindustanee dada; Latin, atta, tatta;
+Greek atta, tatta; Albanian, Albania, at, atti; Calabria and Sicily
+tata; Celtic, Welsh tad; Cornish and Bret tat; Irish, daid; Gaelic
+daidein; English (according to Skeats of Welsh) dad, daddy; Old Slav,
+tata otici; Moldavian tata; Wallachian tate; Polish tatus; Bohemian,
+Servian Croatian otsche; Lithuanian teta; Preuss thetis; Gothic ata; Old
+Fries tate; O. H. G. tato; Old Swed atin; Swed island Runoe dadda.
+
+In fifty-nine of the one hundred and forty-six versions of the Lord's
+prayer given by Adelung in the Sclavonic, Lithuanian and Teutonic
+families, the word for father is from this base. Atta is the form used
+in Ulfillas Gothic version of the fourth century, the oldest Teutonic
+relic.
+
+Papa and mama in Dak., as in I. E. languages, occupy a subordinate
+position, having about the same scope as in Latin and Greek. Words
+apparently related to these are rare in N. A. languages, but frequent in
+S. A., African, Malay Polynesian and Turanian languages. The Semitic
+aba, etc., is perhaps related. The base ana, nana (Dak. ina), though not
+very much used in I E languages appears to be more widely distributed
+than any of the others.
+
+All the Dakota pronouns which show much similarity to other American
+forms are representative of Fick's I E bases, and appear to be widely
+disseminated. Adelung and Latham do not however give pronominal forms in
+as many languages as they give words for father and mother, and I cannot
+so well determine their distribution.
+
+Professor Roehrig, in his able paper on the Dakota, points out some very
+interesting analogies to Turanian languages. Others might be added.
+These similarities are chiefly in features common to I. E. and
+Turanian. On the other hand the Dakota shows on the surface striking
+contrasts to Turanian languages. The numerals are eminently dissimilar.
+The Dakota, like I. E. languages, varies both root and suffix in forming
+words, and uses both prefixes and suffixes. In Turanian languages the
+suffix only is varied, and prefixes are scarcely at all used.
+
+It seems to me therefor that it is not unscientific to inquire whether
+the similarities of the various Dakotan languages to various European
+languages, modern and ancient, so often remarked are or are not
+accidental. It is very easy to see that the Dakota resembles the English
+in vocabulary much more than it resembles the Chippewa. The similarities
+of the Dakota suffixes, pronouns and prepositions to those given by
+Bopp, and the general resemblance of Dakotan languages to Sanskrit,
+Gothic, etc., in vocabulary, made me certain of relationship before I
+ever saw Fick's dictionary. Yet as I turned over his pages I was amazed
+at the similarity of the I. E. roots to the Dak roots. The Slav Teut
+bases of Fick seem to me most similar to the Dak. I am certain that
+neither the Teutonic or Graeco-Italic dictionaries resemble the Dakota
+as much as do the European, Indo. European and Aryan dictionaries. The
+I. E. consonants are represented in Dakota, Santee and Titon dialects,
+and in Minnetaree in accordance with the following table. I omit
+representatives concerning which I am doubtful. I have too little
+material on the other languages to justify me in including them.
+
+---+----------------+---------+------------+----+---------+---------+------
+I E|     k          |    g    |     gh     | p  |   bh    |   m     |  w
+   |                |         |            |    |         |         |
+S  | k, h, kh, sh[A]| k, h[B] | gh, kh, zh | p  | m, b, w |   m     | w, p
+   |                |         |            |    |         |         |
+T  |k, h, g[B], khsh| k, g[B] | gh, kh, zh | p  |   b, w  | m, b[C] | w, p
+   |                |         |            |    |---------+---------+------
+M  |k, h, gh[D], sh |  k      |     gh[D]  | p  |       m[F] (b, w) p
+   +------+---------+---------+---+--------+----+--------------------------
+I E|  t   |    d    | dh      | n | r, l[E]|y[E]|      s
+   |      |         |         |   |        |    |
+S  | t, n | t, d, n | d       | n |  n, d  |y, z|   s, sh, z, zh, t
+   |      |         |         |   |        |    |
+T  | t, n | t, l, n | l       | n |  n, l  |y, z|   s, sh, z, zh, t
+   |      +---------+---------+---+--------+----+--------------------------
+M  | t, d |  t     d[F] (l, n, r)         ts    |    ts, sh,     t
+---+------+-------------------------------------+--------------------------
+
+
+     FOOTNOTES:
+
+     [Footnote A: Chiefly, probably not always, for Fick's second
+     k, Lith sz (pron sh), Slav s. The k's and g's liable to
+     labialization in Eu. languages appear to be occasionally
+     labialized in Dakotan languages.]
+
+     [Footnote B: In S. hd, Yankton kd, T. gl; S. hn, Y. kn, T. gn
+     or gl; S. hm, Y. km, T. gm.]
+
+     [Footnote C: In S. md, Y. bd, T. bl.]
+
+     [Footnote D: In a previous paper I represented this by kh; and
+     do not know whether it is nearest Dak kh German ch, or Dak gh;
+     I E gh.]
+
+     [Footnote E: Santee d always becomes l in Titon.]
+
+     [Footnote E: Dak y becomes r, d, l or n in the allied
+     languages, except perhaps the Osage, and perhaps in part
+     represents I E r.]
+
+     [Footnote F: In Minnetaree m, interchanges so freely with b
+     and w, and d with l, n, and r, that Matthews represents each
+     group by one letter. The same irregularity occurs largely in
+     Crow, and somewhat also in Mandan.]
+
+
+Ch as in chin very often occurs in Dak as a euphonic modification of k.
+Otherwise it stands chiefly for d, r, l, n of the allied languages. On
+the other hand Win and Iowa ch usually represents Dak, and I E t. R is
+found in all the allied languages, and in Winnebago is more frequent
+than even in Icelandic. Iowa aspirate th, represents Dak s, and other
+sibilants. Hayden does not distinguish the subvocal and aspirate th in
+Omaha. From a small list gathered by my father I judge that the aspirate
+is probably similar to the Iowa, and that the subvocal represents Dak
+and I E dentals. F in Iowa represents some Dak p's.
+
+There is wonderful regularity in the sound changes in passing from
+Santee to Titon Dak, and so far as I can yet discover great irregularity
+in passing to the allied languages. Possibly fuller materials and closer
+study may reduce the changes to system.
+
+Dak proper has but five vowels; a and e represent I E a; i, i; u, u; and
+o, either u or a. They are weakened as in I E languages, and suffixes
+which raise I E vowels raise i and u to a. The allied languages have a
+larger number of vowels, the Minnetaree ten.
+
+
+VERB STEMS.
+
+The reduplication of roots in Dak as in I E is extremely frequent, in
+both, as in other languages, developing iteratives which occasionally
+become intensives. The reduplication of Dak words is like Skt of but one
+syllable, usually but not always the root.
+
+The suffix a, aya, which formed verb stems of I E roots usually becomes
+a, e, i in Dak as in old Eu. languages.
+
+Ya seems to be rarely preserved: I E pak cook, Skt papakaya parch; Dak
+papakhya parch; I E agh say, Lat ajo for aghya say; Dak eya say. The Dak
+has many relics of the n of suffix na, which worked its way before the
+final consonant; I E tag touch whence I E tang, Lat tango; Dak tan
+touch. There seem to be relics of the other methods, which were however
+so closely akin to methods of forming nominal stems that they need not
+be discussed here.
+
+Schleicher gives two methods of forming secondary verb stems: by suffix
+sa forming frequentatives; by suffix ya cause to be, forming transitive
+verbs from verbs, adjectives and nouns. Both are living suffixes
+extremely frequent and having the same force in Dak.
+
+
+NOMINAL STEMS.
+
+As in I E a few Dak roots either single or reduplicated form nomen
+actionis, etc. This similarity is too widely spread to be of value. It
+is far otherwise with suffixes, which are in a majority of cases usually
+representative of one or more of Schleicher's twenty suffixes, and if
+otherwise at least derived from I E roots, excepting a few of obscure
+origin.
+
+1. I E -a formed from roots, adjectives, also appellatives, and
+abstracts, of which the Dak. has many relics: I E stag, Teut stak strike
+beat; Dak staka beaten, broken; Slav. Teut kak sound; Dak kaka rattling;
+I E pu stink, rot; Min pua stinking, rotten; Eu sap understand; Lat sapa
+wise; Dak k-sapa wise.
+
+Slav Teut kak cackle, kaka the crow; Pawnee kaka; Man keka the crow; Eu
+sara stream flow, sara butter; Min tsara; Tit Dak sla grease; I E ar
+join whence our arm; Win and Min ara, the arm; Slav Teut lap, lamp
+shine; Dak ampa light; Slav Teut krup fear; Dak kopa noun fear, a
+fearful place; adj insecure; a Scandinavian base naf, nap, our nab, Icel
+nefi; Swed nefwa (perhaps i was the original suffix) the hand; Dak nape
+the hand; I E kak spring; Lith szaka (pronounced shaka) twig shoot, etc;
+Dak shake nails claws; Om shage finger; Min shaki hand paw.
+
+In Dak as in I E -a usually raises the stem vowel; I E kid burn; Teut
+haita hot; Dak kata hot; I E sik dry; Dak saka also shecha dried; I E
+lip adhere; Tit Dak lapa sticky adhesive; I E migh pour out water, Skt
+megha cloud; Om magha, mangha cloud sky; Crow makha sky; Dak in makhpiya
+(maghapiya) cloud sky, maghazhu rain. The zhu is Dak-zhu, Min-ghu, I E
+ghu pour.
+
+2. I E -i formed abstracts and nouns of agency; I E ar go; Min ari, way,
+track, trail.
+
+3. I E -u formed adjectives; I E ragh spring, raghu light, whence lungs;
+Min dagho, agho; Dak chaghu lungs;[G] Eu park whence parka wrinkle; Dak
+pako crooked, wrinkled.
+
+4. I E -ya formed nouns, adjectives and participles. The Dak still
+retains some adjectives thus formed, and hundreds of participles
+rendered by English participles, but used only adverbially, and it has
+become an adverbial suffix.
+
+5. I E -wa formed passive participles, adjectives and nouns. It is in
+Dak a living passive participial suffix combined with the like suffix
+-an, forming wa(h)an. When added directly to the root it raises the stem
+vowel as in; Eu ku contain to be hollow; Lat cava; Dak -ko be hollow,
+noun ko a hole; kawa open. After consonants the w becomes p; I E akwa
+water of ak; Gothic ahva river; Dak wakpa river.
+
+6. I E -ma, -mana, -man formed adjectives, present participles and
+nouns; I E akman stone of ak, A S iman; Dak imni stone.
+
+7. I E -ra, -la formed adjectives and nouns; Eu kira yellow; Old Slav
+seru; Crow shira, Min tsidi, tsiri, Man psida, Iowa thi, Om thi, zi; Win
+and Dak zi yellow; I E ghu pour; Min ghu pour; Dak zhu pour, ozhu pour
+in, in ozhudan, Tit ozhu la full; Eu wasra spring of was; Icel vara, Lat
+ver; Win wera spring; Eu tag cover whence; Welsh and Irish ti house, our
+thatch; Win chira house; Man, Min, Om, Dak ti house; Aryan nira water of
+ni; Tit Dak nila water; Om and Win ni water.
+
+Ra, la is also a diminutive suffix in I E languages. It is the regular
+diminutive suffix in Win, -ra, in Tit Dak, -la, in Yank -na, in Santee
+Dak -dan also -na.
+
+8. I E -an formed past passive participles whence our en in fallen, etc.
+It is still the regular passive participial suffix in Dak either alone
+or combined with wa. As Dak verb stems end in a vowel it is preceded by
+a euphonic h. When added directly to the root it raises the stem vowel,
+as in Eu wik whence Gothic veiha holy; Dak wakan sacred.
+
+9. I have not found infinitive suffix -na in Dak.
+
+10. I E -na was a passive participial suffix, developing also
+denominatives. The Dak has perhaps a few relics; I E ku bring low, kauna
+low; Dak ku- in kuchedan, also kun low. I E mi, diminish (mince); Yank
+and Tit Dak mina knife.
+
+11. I E -ni formed abstracts and nouns of agency. Possibly it is found
+in; I E migh pour out water; Dak mini water; and a few others.
+
+12. Two words containing -nu, are recognized by Schleicher as I E; I E
+and Dak su bear; I E sunu son; Dak sun younger brother. I E and Dak tan
+extend; I E tanu adj thin, noun body; Dak tan body.
+
+13. I E -ta (our -d) formed the past passive participle, and nouns of
+similar signification, in which uses it is tolerably frequent in Dak; I
+E ski collect, arrange; Dak shki plait gather, skita bound together,
+tied on; I E pu destroy rot; Min pu rot; Dak po in pon (=po an) rotten,
+po -ta used up, worn out; I E sta stand, stata standing, stopped,
+brought to a stand; Dak -sdata standing, stopped, hence also sdata
+feeble; I E su sew, sut sewed; Dak suta strong, compare Min ashu a
+string cord; I E and Dak wi wind, wrap around, encircle; Dak wita
+island; wita bound together, in witaya together.
+
+14. I E -ta formed nouns of agency and future participles. It is derived
+by Bopp from I E tar pass-over, whence also Eu tar, tur pass-over,
+possess, accomplish, fulfil. The root is extremely frequent in these
+uses in the Dakotan languages, and in Dak at least is much used as a
+suffix. The last half of the word Mini-tari is tari, cross over. In Dak,
+Eu tur is re; represented as accurately as possible by ton possess,
+accomplish, fulfil, have, give birth, and the preposition tan in
+composition from equally represents Skt tar, from.[H]
+
+As forming nouns of agency it has in Dak lost the r; Eu pa, whence Eu
+pana fire; Dak peta fire; I E ak Skt iksh see, whence our eye; Min aka,
+ika see; Crow am-aka, Iowa at-aka see; ishta eye, in all Dakotan
+languages.
+
+We perhaps have a few relics of tar as a comparative suffix; I E uk
+increase whence Old Sax agen our again; Mand age, Dak ake again, Dak
+akton more than.
+
+15. I have not recognized -ti in Dak.
+
+16. Dak wetu, etu time, season, may be I E and Dak, -wi encircle, with
+-tu, but is more probably related to I E vatas year, adj. old.
+
+17. I have not recognized -dhi in Dak.
+
+18. I E -ant (our ing) forming active participles necessarily drops t
+and prefixes h in Dak, and in this form, han, is used as active
+participial suffix with some verbs.
+
+19. As a plural suffix I E -as seems to be presented by the Mandan
+plural suffix osh.
+
+20. I E -ka as a primary suffix forms a few nouns and adjectives; I E ku
+contain be hollow; Dak root ko the same, koka a cask, barrel, box, etc;
+I E and Dak tan extend, stretch; Dak tanka large (cf Iowa tanra large).
+I E da bind; Dak daka bound by obligation, relationship or league,
+whence their name Dakota, those bound by league, those making a league,
+friend, comrade (-ta for I E tar). As a secondary suffix it is extremely
+frequent in Dak as well as I E, forming in both words of multifarious
+relations to their primitives. I E kuan, kwan, kwanka dog; Lith szun
+(pronounced shun); Dak shunka dog; Old Slav suka a bitch; Min shuka a
+dog. Ka is used both in I E and Dak as a negative suffix. In Sanskrit
+and several other I E languages it is used as a diminutive suffix, and
+forms one syllable of the various Min diminutive suffixes.
+
+
+     FOOTNOTES:
+
+     [Footnote G: For I E r--Dak ch compare Eu wira Dak wicha-man;
+     Eu wera; Dak wicaka true. Teut legya thigh whence leg of lak;
+     Win lega and legra; Iowa reke; Mandan doka; Min diki, liki the
+     leg, the thigh; Dak checha the thighs. The r probably first
+     became d.]
+
+     [Footnote H: Dak n--I E r is supported by about fifty
+     examples.]
+
+
+PREPOSITIONS.
+
+The Dak is like the I E languages remarkable for its copiousness in
+prepositions. In their use or omission the Dak differs from the English
+less than does the Anglo Saxon. As in some of the old I E languages they
+are either verbal prefixes or follow their nouns. Nearly all of them
+seem to be of I E prepositions mostly compounded. I give examples of the
+more obvious similarities.
+
+Sam. together with, in skt. A. S. and Dak.
+
+En in, Greek, Teutonic and Dak.
+
+On, A. S. with dat, for, on account of, of, Dak the same.
+
+A verbal prefix on, Icel, A. S., Dak.
+
+I E ana A. S. an on, Dak an in composition on.
+
+A. S. at our at; Dak ta at necessarily transposed.
+
+Eu da Old Ir du, our to, Germ zu; Min du, during, at that time; Dak tu
+to, till etc.
+
+Eu ek over, of I E ak; Min ak over, Dak in ak -an upon, ak -am beyond
+over upon, ek -ta at, etc.
+
+Eu api about, around; Min api with.
+
+Eu ambhi about, around, over; Dak am in akam over upon; A S and Ger um.
+Swed om same meaning; Dak om with, used with plural object only.
+
+A S ni negative; Dak ni prefix in nicha none and base of negative words
+in shni not combined with reflexive sa.
+
+
+PRONOUNS.
+
+The Dak and Algonkin pronouns are amazingly dissimilar; the Dak and I E
+are remarkably alike.
+
+1st person sing. inflection, ma, mi, m, in I E and Dakota. The Dakotan
+forms are however oftener prefixed than suffixed eg; Dak root ha have
+(Teut aih own) yu formative prefix, 3 yuha he has; 2 duha thou hast; 1
+mduha I have; Titon 3 yuha, 2 luha, 1 bluha.
+
+1st p stem. The ga of Lat ego A S, ic etc. appears in Iowa, ka, ke, etc.
+The chief base of nearly all the Dak languages is however, ma, mi,
+corresponding to I E ma, mi; Lat me, mi; Eng me, etc.
+
+1st dual and Plural stem. I E na, Lat no, Mandan nu; Teut dual onki,
+Goth ugki, A S unc, Dak unki and un. The base wa whence we, has become
+in Dak wa I, in Omaha wi me, in Iowa inflection plural wa, us, etc.
+
+2d. I E twa has become in Dak ni (cf Swed ni thou). It is however in
+Omaha thi identical in sound with our thee, and da, di in most allied
+languages similar to German du. Dak ya pl yapi you, and our you are
+probably also of this base. The Iowa forms the possessive of personal
+pronouns like the Icelandic by -i; Icel min my; Iowa min my.
+
+3d person, I, he, she, it, extremely frequent in I E languages, is the
+base used in all the Dakotan languages as least partaking of a
+demonstrative nature. In Dak it is omitted except when emphatic.
+
+I E sa reflexive and emphatic; Min she, the same. Contracted to s it
+forms I E nominative; in Dak, as sh nominatives of i (ish), mi, ni and
+unki, and occurs in composition; in Min it forms proper names.
+
+I E sa, ta; Teut tha, this, that; Om the, this; Dak ta, to in many
+compounds.
+
+I E sawa genitive of sa, ta reflexive possessive for all persons; Dak
+tawa the same, also ta. It is in the third person used alone in Dak, but
+suffixed to i in Minnetaree. All its forms in Min, and those of the
+first and second persons in Dak are double possessives analogous to
+mine, thine.
+
+Eu ki, kina, that, this, he, she, it; Dak ki, his, her, its, etc. In Nom
+kana those, etc.; sing ka that, the vowel is raised as in the Greek
+keinos. For abridgement of stem in singular compare our ox, pl. oxen,
+Nortumbrian oxena, and other relics of stems in na; Teut hina this; Crow
+hina this.
+
+From kina, hina, originated the Icelandic and Swedish pastpositive def.
+article the; likewise Dak kin postpositive def. article the; ke emphatic
+pronoun kuns, clf, etc. Of this base A S stem he, he, she, it; Dak he
+(pl hena) he, she, it, that.
+
+Slav Teut da this; Dak de (pl dena) this.
+
+I E antara other; Mandan ant that.
+
+I E i demon, pref, this; Dak i.
+
+I E a dem. pref; Min a, o; Dak o.
+
+I E wa pronominal base used in compounds; Dak wa pronominal prefix some,
+something. Prefix wo (wa-|-o) forms abstract nouns and nouns of agency.
+
+I E ka int. and rel. pronoun; Pawnee ka interrogative; Dak ka
+interrogative suffix and in compounds; Ger wer; Dak tu-we who int. and
+rel; Gk po; Min tape who, tapa or tako what. I E neuter base ku what;
+Dak ta-ku what rel. and int.
+
+I E wika all the whole; Dak wicha them, incorporated objective. Iowa wi;
+Dak pi plural suffix seems to be a contraction of this base.
+
+Analogous to A S, accusative mik of ma-|-ga we have; Dak accusative
+michi, in which the k has become ch through the influence of i; also the
+accusatives unki-chi, ni-chi, i-chi.
+
+
+NUMERALS.
+
+I have compared the Dakotan numerals with all others accessible to me,
+including some of the forms of more than five hundred dialects. I can
+find less than half a dozen American or Turanian sets that resemble any
+Dakotan set as much as the English numerals resemble the Hebrew. The
+similarity of the Dak to the I E numerals can therefore be accounted for
+only as the result of special relationship or of accident. Except as
+noted below all changes are in accordance with well sustained laws.
+
+1, A S an, Lith (w)ena; Dak (w)-an, ind. article wanzhi one, wancha one,
+once.
+
+2, I E dwa; Min d(o)pa; Iowa n(o)wa; Dak n(o)m pa cf A S ta two; Dak ta
+a pair.
+
+3, I E traya; Iowa tanye; Dak ya -mni [or ya (m) ni?]
+
+4, I E k-atwar; Iowa towa; Dak S topa; Y tom; T tol.
+
+5, I E kankan, kwankwan; Mand kikhun; Dak zaptan?
+
+6, I E kswakswa; Win hakwa; Iowa shagwa; Dak shakpe.
+
+7, A S seowon; Dak shakowin.
+
+8, I E aktu, Gk hokto; Dak Y sh-akdo-ghan; Sant sh-ahdo-ghan.
+
+9, I E nawan; Dak na (pchi) wan-ka.
+
+10, I E dwakan; Lat decem; Dak wikchem-na.
+
+5, I E k = Dak z otherwise sustained but not proved. Kw = kp = tp = pt,
+t and k being interchangeable before labials in Dak.
+
+7, Neither A S seowon nor Dak shakowin are legitimately deducible from
+saptan. Perhaps sakan, sakwan was the true base.
+
+8, Either Gk h or Dak sh may equal I E s. Dak d for I E t is rare but S.
+hd, Y. kd is a favorite combination.
+
+9, I cannot explain inserted pchi.
+
+10, In Dak m and n are interchangeable before labials, but m for I E n
+is here unsupported.[I] D cannot stand before w in Dak.
+
+
+     FOOTNOTES:
+
+     [Footnote I: Whitney Skt Gr 487 appears to regard m, as in
+     Latin decem, the original nasal.]
+
+
+VOCABULARY.
+
+The table of sound representation heretofore given serves to compare the
+materials of the main body of the Dak with Fick's I E bases. The results
+are, however, in many cases ambiguous. Besides the number of accidental
+resemblances of the Dakotan to the I E languages seems, to be much
+greater than the whole number of similarities between Dakotan and
+Algonkin languages. Dak anapta is identical with I E anapta in sound,
+closely similar in meaning. Dak a-na-pta is prep. a = Icel a on, na
+prefix converting root to verb, and pta separate; cf I E pat fall, also
+open (Lat pateo). I E an-apta is an negative prefix, and apta participle
+of ap attain. My father compared Dak chepa fat with Lat adeps. I have
+since found Min idip fat almost identical with Lat stem adipi. I E and
+Lat d and p are nearly always d and p in Min; but it is extremely
+doubtful whether the words are related. On the other hand there is
+little apparent similarity between Eu karpya shoe, and Dak hanpa shoe;
+but the Dak word represents the Eu as accurately as possible; similar
+forms are found in every Dakotan language, and it seems scarcely
+possible to me that the similarity can be accidental.
+
+In giving a few additional examples of similar roots I select those that
+are the most obvious, rather than the most certain. I exclude those not
+in accordance with sound representation, and the analogies of such
+allied Dakotan and I E forms as are known to me.
+
+Where the Dakotan forms are not used as separate words it is indicated
+by a hyphen, before, if used alone as a verb stem, after if it requires
+suffixes. Where the root is found primarily combined with only one
+suffix or prefix the derivative form is given. In some cases the Dak
+root has one of the meanings given in one combination, another in
+another.
+
+Eu i go; Dak i go.
+
+Aryan u mangle; Min u wound; Dak o.
+
+Eu ak tell, relate; Dak o(y)-aka.
+
+Eu aka mother; Min ika mother.
+
+Eu ap attain; Dak ape wait for, expect.
+
+Eu ad; Icel eta eat; Dak ta eat.
+
+Eu as be; Ital, Alb, Pers e is; Dak e is, -esh be it so.
+
+Eu as mouth, asta lips; Dak i mouth, ishti the under lip.
+
+Eu unk dwell; Dak un dwell, be; unkan be, unkan and, (act part for
+unkant continuing.)
+
+Eu ka bend, curl, kak (for kaka) laugh; Min ka laugh; Dak kha bend,
+curl, i-khakha laugh.
+
+Eu kak be injurious, Gk kakos bad; Mand khekosh bad; Crow kawi bad; Dak
+shicha bad?
+
+Eu ka and; Dak ka and.
+
+I E ka, kan, kar desire; Dak kon desire.
+
+I E ka, kar, gar honor; Dak kan honor.
+
+I E ka, ga know; Min eke know; Dak ka mean, signify.
+
+Eu ka pierce, cut in; Dak ka dig.
+
+Eu kat cover; Dak o-kati, o in, kati cover.
+
+Eu kap take hold of; Dak yu-kapa catch as a ball, kapa surpass.
+
+Eu kam; Teut him bend, curve, arch; Dak S-hmi, Y-kmi curve; S hmi-hma, Y
+kmikma round.
+
+Eu kas rub against, scratch; Dak kashe rub against, kaza pick to pieces.
+
+Eu skar, kar shave off; Dak ka strip off, as the feather part of a
+quill.
+
+Eu ki, gi possess by force; Dak ki take by force.
+
+Eu ki, kit seek; Dak a-kita seek.
+
+Teut han waver, hang; Dak -han hang, totter, waver.
+
+Teut haf lift, heave; Dak -ha lift, heave.
+
+Teut hata hate; Dak -hiti hate.
+
+Teut hama the hull; Dak ha the hull.
+
+Teut hiwan related of the same family. Icel hjun household; O. H. G. hun
+both husband and wife; Dak hun- of the same family, also hun mother.
+
+Teut kan, kin beget, germinate; Goth kuni related; Dak ku suffix kin,
+root ku-, kin-, chin- in many derivatives. Goth kwino woman; Dak wino.
+
+Eu gha open out, whence gate, gape; Dak -gha, ghapa, ghata open out.
+
+Eu ghagh move convulsively; Dak gheghe swing the arms like a drunken
+man.
+
+Eu ghans goose; Win wighanna, Mandan mihan, Dak magha goose.
+
+Eu ghans be rough; Min -gha, Dak kha be rough.
+
+Eu tap press; Min tapi press; Dak -tpa.
+
+Eu tarp satisfy; Dak tpa satisfying, etc.
+
+Eu tan thunder; Dak o-tin thunder.
+
+Icel taka take, touch, fasten; Dak yu-taka take, touch, na-taka fasten.
+
+Eu da know, dak show, suppose; Dak da, daka think, regard, have an
+opinion.
+
+Eu da give; Dak da ask.
+
+Eu di go, hasten; Min di go, travel.
+
+Eu du go forth; Dak du-za run.
+
+Eu dup sink in, our dive; Dak dopa mire; Min dipi bathe.
+
+Eu nu now; Dak i-nu suddenly, na-ka now, wan-na now.
+
+Eu nar man; Om no, nu man.
+
+Eu pak, Gk pakto- bind; Dak pakhta bind.
+
+Eu pat press; Min pati press.
+
+Eu pat fill up, crowd; Dak in pta-ya together.
+
+Eu pa swallow nourish; Dak -pa- nourish papa the nourishment, Min pe
+swallow, take nourishment.
+
+Eu pap swell up, puff out; Dak popa swell burst.
+
+Eu par divide (our part); Dak a-pa a part.
+
+Eu pi hate; Crow -pi hate.
+
+Eu pik pierce; Min pi tatoo, -pi pierce.
+
+Eu pu dry; Dak pu- dry.
+
+Icel fok our fog; Dak po fog, mist, steam, etc.
+
+Icel finn, Swed, Nor, M. H. G. fin, Dan, Sax finn, O. Du fijn M Eng
+fine; Win pin, Dak -pi, Iowa pi good, perfected.[J]
+
+Eu bub (of bu) make a noise; Dak -bu make a noise, bubu noisy.
+
+Teut and Ir bata boat; Min mati, bati, Cr bashe, Dak wata boat.
+
+Teut blas flame, our blaze; T Dak bleza clear, transparent.
+
+Lat and Gr bison from Teut; Crow bishe the bison; Dak pte.
+
+Lat and Gr mamma the mother breast; Dak mama the mother breast.
+
+Eu man remain; Dak man remain, stay.
+
+Sclav Teut man go, step; Dak mani walk.
+
+Eu magh grow; Ir magh field; Dak magha field.
+
+Teut marka limit, boundary, territory of a tribe; Dak maka the ground,
+the earth, makoche country.
+
+Eu ya go; Dak ya go.
+
+Eu rup break; Min dupi, rupi break.
+
+A S throte the throat; T Dak lote, S dote throat.
+
+Eu wak say, speak, wad speak, sing; Gk wepos word; Dak wo-wa-pi that
+related by pictures and writing, root wa in various compounds, relate,
+count, write, sing, etc. (Gk p is root, Dak p suffix.)
+
+Eu wagh carry, our way; Dak o-we way, trail.
+
+Eu wad flow forth, our wet; Dak wi-wi a marsh, a springy place.
+
+Eu wasu good; Dak wash-te good.
+
+Teut wantra winter; Dak wani- winter.
+
+Icel wakta watch, guard; Dak wakta watch, guard.
+
+Teut widu wood; Min mida, bida wood.
+
+Eu sa refrain from; Crow suffix sa the same.
+
+Teut swa, Old Fris sa like as; Dak se like as.
+
+Eu sak divide, cut; Min tsaki divide cut.
+
+Eu sama summer; Min tsame hot, very warm.
+
+Eu si bind; Min -shi bind; Dak -shi command.
+
+Swed si! lo! behold! Dak. shi! hark!
+
+Eu su good; Dak -su good.
+
+Eu suk suck; Min tsuki, Dak zoka suck.
+
+I E ska shine; Lat candidus white; Dak ska white shining.
+
+I E ska separate; Dak ksa separate.
+
+I E ska kill, Gk kten- kill; Dak kte kill.
+
+I E ska tarry, Gk kta possess; Dak kta defer, tarry, used also as sign
+of future tense. The Mandan future inflection -kit -kt -t appears to be
+an abridgement of this.
+
+Eu skat spring, leap; Dak skata play.
+
+Eu ska, skad burn; Dak shku roast.
+
+Eu skap annihilate; Dak skepa evaporate, remove entirely, cause to
+disappear.
+
+Eu skap strike; Dak -skapa strike.
+
+Eu skad, Gk keda spill, scatter; Dak kada spill, scatter, applied only
+to solids.
+
+Eu skap scratch, shave; Min kape scratch.
+
+Eu kopa concave; Dak skopa concave.
+
+Eu skid press; Dak -ski- press.
+
+Eu sku shave off, flay; Dak -sku shave off, flay.
+
+Eu skru rough hew; Dak sku broken in gaps.
+
+Eu snigh cold; Dak sni cold.
+
+Eu swan sonare; Dak sna ring, rattle.
+
+Eu skud, Teut skut shoot; Dak kate shoot.
+
+Teut sota soot; Dak shota smoke, shotkazi soot.
+
+Eu sad sit; Dak si, siha the foot.
+
+The Dakota words that most resemble I E forms are those in daily use,
+those roots entering into the largest number of compounds, those most
+widely distributed in languages more nearly related.
+
+Excluding words repeated in compounds and those contained in phrases I
+have not satisfactorily analyzed, and including words derivative rather
+than compound, I find in Hayden, Morgan and Schoolcraft 262 different
+Iowa words. Of these thirty-five as words represent words discussed in
+this paper; thirty-nine others appear to be derived from roots herein
+discussed, a number of them varying from the Dak. word only by using a
+different suffix also herein compared. Out of 159 that I have been able
+plainly to trace to Dakota words and roots 121 are to Dakotan roots and
+words which seem to be related to I E forms. If I had sufficient Iowa
+material to enable me to find Iowa roots independently, I doubt not the
+resemblance to the Dakota would be much increased, and the resemblance
+to the I E in a still greater degree.
+
+The parable of the prodigal son as printed in Dr. Rigg's dictionary,
+page 61, contains as there printed 417 words, 199 different[K] words. Of
+these 36 words, occurring 186 times, are in the exact form[L] given in
+this paper; 8 other words, occurring 11 times, as given in my preceding
+paper; 75 other words, occurring 106 times, are composed wholly of the
+words, roots and pronominal elements compared with I E forms in the two
+papers. There remain 114 words, 80 different words. If I have correctly
+analyzed them they contain the following elements compared in this
+paper: words and verb roots, 9 times, pronouns 19 times, prepositional
+and pronominal prefixes 35 times. Much of the remainder, in all about
+nine-tenths of the whole, seems to me represent I E materials with which
+I have compared it. I do not doubt that some of the similarities will
+prove in the end fallacious. On the other hand I have no doubt that many
+new similarities will be found. My father made a list of 1,243 Dakota
+verb stems, radical words and words which he could not satisfactorily to
+himself derive from simpler elements. Of these about 500 seem to be
+similar to I E forms with which I have compared them, and from them are
+derived more than three-fourths of the 16,000 words in Dr. Rigg's
+dictionary.
+
+The pronouns, prepositions and suffixes herein given seem to indicate
+that the Dakotas did not separate from the Teutonic family till long
+after the latter separated from the South European family. The fact that
+the Dak resembles the Icelandic and Gothic in vocabulary and in
+structure much more than it resembles the older Latin, points in the
+same direction. The laws of consonantal change in many cases produce the
+same result as Grimm's law, but the laws themselves are entirely
+different. It _is certain_, therefore, that the Dakota has not been
+connected with the Teutonic since the development of Grimm's law made
+any considerable progress. I have studied the question less, yet I think
+I have enough evidence in the system of consonantal change _to prove_
+that the Dakota has not been connected with the Slavonic or Lithuanian
+since they separated from each other, or for some time previously. It is
+possible so far as I can now say that the Dak may have borrowed material
+from some language not I E, but I have found no evidence of it.
+Undoubtedly the adoption of prisoners has introduced a considerable
+percentage of Algonkin blood. It is also certain that they have adopted
+some Chippewa religious observances, but even in these they do not
+appear to have adopted any Chippewa words.
+
+
+     FOOTNOTES:
+
+     [Footnote J: A word of this kind used every day by the masses
+     of all Teutonic people, and corresponding to the principal
+     languages in such a variety of meanings, could not possibly be
+     derived from the Latin finitum. Our fine may be in part from
+     finitum, but fin--I E pin is certainly a Teut word.]
+
+     [Footnote K: Words varied by inflection are classed as
+     different words.]
+
+     [Footnote L: Except that in accordance with euphonic laws
+     initial k becomes ch sixteen times, and final a e seven
+     times.]
+
+
+
+
+     +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+     | Transcriber's Note: Inconsistencies in the punctuation around|
+     | abbreviations have been retained.                            |
+     +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dakotan Languages, and Their
+Relations to Other Languages, by Andrew Woods Williamson
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